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(PDF) Electrochemical M 2+ recognition by an amidopyridyl-tetrathiafulvalene derivativew
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Electrochemical M 2+ recognition by an amidopyridyl-tetrathiafulvalene derivativew
Authors:
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe>
Chahrazed Benhaoua
Université Ibn Khaldoun Tiaret
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe>
Mohamed Miloud Mazari
University of Oran
<here is a image f2f62089ad6ff61c-d19572ff1996375a>
Nicolas Mercier
Nicolas Mercier
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe>
Franck Le Derf
Université de Rouen
Abstract
A tetrathiafulvalene-based redox-responsive receptor incorporating amide and pyridyl coordinating units exhibits an original multi-wave electrochemical recognition behaviour towards Cd(II). The tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) unit constitutes a key system for the construction of redox-responsive ligands. 1 This ability results from remarkable electronic properties, this system being easily oxidized in two successive one-electron steps into a stable cation-radical (E 1 ox) and a dication (E 2 ox). Depending on the binding site which is covalently associated to the TTF skeleton, the resulting receptors are able to electrochemically sense cations 2,3 or anions. 4 Most of these receptors involve a binding site made of a crown-ether cavity 2 or a coordinating acyclic domain. 3,4b-f On the other hand, important synthetic efforts have been recently made in attaching coordinating pyridyl unit(s) to the TTF skeleton, in order to obtain hybrid organic-inorganic materials with rich solid-state physical properties. 5 In particular, conjugation of amide and pyridyl units for tuning of the solid-state organization of TTF-based materials has been described. 5d Nevertheless, it is only very recently that metal binding studies and the exploration of solution sensing properties have been conducted with TTF-pyridine assemblies. 3a-c,h Following these considerations, we have designed the TTF-based ligand 2 incorporating pyridyl and amide binding groups, which are located in respective positions in order to operate in a cooperative way for metal cation binding. Herein, we report on the synthesis of ligand 2 and demonstrate that this receptor undergoes an original and highly effective elec-trochemical recognition process for the detection of transition metal cations (Cd 2+ , Ni 2+ , Co 2+). The X-ray structure of one of the corresponding metal complexes is also provided. Target receptor 2 was prepared from TTF diacid derivative 1a and the corresponding NHS-activated ester 1b, both synthesized according to the literature 4b (Scheme 1). Reaction of 1b with 2-(aminomethyl)pyridine at room temperature for 2 h produced 2 in 70% yield. The binding ability of receptor 2 in the presence of Cd 2+ was first evidenced by 1 H NMR spectroscopy. Titration experiments were carried out in CDCl 3-CD 3 CN (1 : 1) with cadmium perchlorate. Protons of both pyridyl groups are shifted to a lower field upon addition of Cd(ClO 4) 2 , as expected from the contribution of these fragments to the cation complexation process. Moreover, the resulting titration curve (Fig. 1, S1w) exhibits a plateau for 1 equivalent of added cation, in accordance with a 1 : 1 stoichiometry for the corresponding complex. An average K1 value of 10 4.9AE0.1 L mol À1 (CDCl 3-CD 3 CN, 20 1C) was determined from the different 1 H NMR signals by using the EQNMR program. 6 The strong binding affinity of 2 towards Cd 2+ could also be checked by UV-Vis spectroscopy in CH 2 Cl 2-CH 3 CN (1 : 1) (Fig. S2w), from which the binding constant K1 could be determined using the Benesi-Hildebrand method 7 at 264 nm (K1 = 10 4.9AE0.06 L mol À1 ; CH 2 Cl 2-CH 3 CN, 20 1C). Finally, the recognition properties of the redox-active receptor 2 were also evaluated by cyclic voltammetry (CV) in CH 2 Cl 2-CH 3 CN (1 : 1) (Bu 4 NPF 6 (0.1 M)). Compound 2 exhibits two reversible one electron redox processes upon oxidation to the radical cation (E 1 ox = 0.59 V vs. Ag/AgCl) and the dication (E 2 ox = 0.87 V) (Fig. 2). As usually observed with TTF-based redox-responsive ligands, 2 binding of a cation results in an anodic shift of the first oxidation potential (DE 1 ox = +60 mV). This experimental observation results from the decrease of the p-donating ability following the binding of a guest cation near to the TTF core. On the other hand, the second oxidation potential E 2 ox of TTF-based redox-responsive ligands usually remains constant upon addition of a metal cation, 2 which is classically attributed to metal expulsion, resulting from repulsive through-space electrostatic interactions with TTF 2+. Conversely, only recently was described Scheme 1 Reagents and conditions: (a) ref. 4b; (b) 2-(aminomethyl)-pyridine, THF, rt, 2 h, 70%.
Content uploaded by Chahrazed Benhaoua
Electrochemical M
2+
recognition by an amidopyridyl-tetrathiafulvalene
derivative w
Chahrazed Benhaoua,
ab
Miloud Mazari,
b
Nicolas Mercier,
a
Franck Le Derf*
a
and
Marc Salle
´ *
a
Received (in Montpellier, France) 19th February 2008, Accepted 18th April 2008
First published as an Advance Article on the web 7th May 2008
DOI: 10.1039/b802726a
A tetrathiafulvalene-based redox-responsive receptor incorpor-
ating amide and pyridyl coordinating units exhibits an original
multi-wave electrochemical recognition behaviour towards
Cd( II ).
The tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) unit constitutes a key system
for the construction of redox-responsive ligands.
1
This ability
results from remarkable electronic properties, this system
being easily oxidized in two successive one-electron steps into
a stable cation-radical ( E
1 ox
) and a dication ( E
2 ox
). Depending
on the binding site which is covalently associated to the TTF
skeleton, the resulting receptors are able to electrochemically
sense cations
2,3
or anions.
4
Most of these receptors involve a
binding site made of a crown-ether cavity
2
or a coordinating
acyclic domain.
3,4 b –f
On the other hand, important synthetic
efforts have been recently made in attaching coordinating
pyridyl unit(s) to the TTF skeleton, in order to obtain hybrid
organic–inorganic materials with rich solid-state physical
properties.
5
In particular, conjugation of amide and pyridyl
units for tuning of the solid-state organization of TTF-based
materials has been described.
5 d
Nevertheless, it is only very
recently that metal binding studies and the exploration of
solution sensing properties have been conducted with
TTF–pyridine assemblies.
3 a– c, h
Following these considerations, we have designed the TTF-
based ligand 2 incorporating pyridyl and amide binding
groups, which are located in respective positions in order to
operate in a cooperative way for metal cation binding. Herein,
we report on the synthesis of ligand 2 and demonstrate that
this receptor undergoes an original and highly effective elec-
trochemical recognition process for the detection of transition
metal cations (Cd
2+
,Ni
2+
,Co
2+
). The X-ray structure of one
of the corresponding metal complexes is also provided.
Target receptor 2 was prepared from TTF diacid derivative
1a and the corresponding NHS-activated ester 1b , both
synthesized according to the literature
4 b
(Scheme 1). Reaction
of 1b with 2-(aminomethyl)pyridine at room temperature for
2 h produced 2 in 70% yield.
The binding ability of receptor 2 in the presence of Cd
2+
was first evidenced by
1
H NMR spectroscopy. Titration
experiments were carried out in CDCl
3
–CD
3
CN (1 : 1) with
cadmium perchlorate. Protons of both pyridyl groups are
shifted to a lower field upon addition of Cd(ClO
4
)
2
,as
expected from the contribution of these fragments to the
cation complexation process. Moreover, the resulting titration
curve (Fig. 1, S1 w ) exhibits a plateau for 1 equivalent of added
cation, in accordance with a 1 : 1 stoichiometry for the
corresponding complex. An average K 1 value of 10
4.9 0.1
L mol
1
(CDCl
3
–CD
3
CN, 20 1 C) was determined from the
different
1
H NMR signals by using the EQNMR program.
6
The strong binding affinity of 2 towards Cd
2+
could also be
checked by UV–Vis spectroscopy in CH
2
Cl
2
–CH
3
CN (1 : 1)
(Fig. S2 w ), from which the binding constant K 1 could be
determined using the Benesi–Hildebrand method
7
at 264 nm
( K 1 =10
4.9 0.06
L mol
1
;CH
2
Cl
2
–CH
3
CN, 20 1C).
Finally, the recognition properties of the redox-active re-
ceptor 2 were also evaluated by cyclic voltammetry (CV) in
CH
2
Cl
2
–CH
3
CN (1 : 1) (Bu
4
NPF
6
(0.1 M)). Compound 2
exhibits two reversible one electron redox processes upon
oxidation to the radical cation ( E
1 ox
= 0.59 V vs.Ag/AgCl)
and the dication ( E
2 ox
= 0.87 V) (Fig. 2). As usually observed
with TTF-based redox-responsive ligands,
2
binding of a cation
results in an anodic shift of the first oxidation potential ( D E
1 ox
= +60 mV). This experimental observation results from the
decrease of the p -donating ability following the binding of a
guest cation near to the TTF core. On the other hand, the
second oxidation potential E
2 ox
of TTF-based redox-respon-
sive ligands usually remains constant upon addition of a metal
cation,
2
which is classically attributed to metal expulsion,
resulting from repulsive through-space electrostatic interac-
tions with TTF
2+
. Conversely, only recently was described
Scheme 1 Reagents and conditions: (a) ref. 4 b ; (b) 2-(aminomethyl)-
pyridine, THF, rt, 2 h, 70%.
a
Universite
´ d’Angers, CNRS UMR 6200, Laboratoire de Chimie et
Inge
´ nierie Mole
´ culaire d’Angers, CIMA, Groupe SOMaF, 2 Bd
Lavoisier, 49045 Angers Cedex, France. E-mail: franck.lederf@
univ-angers.fr; marc.salle@univ-angers.fr; Fax: +33241735405;
Tel: +33241735439
b
Laboratoire de Synthe
` se Organique Applique
´ e, Universite
´ d’Oran
Es-Senia, BP 1524 El M’Naouer, Oran, Algeria
w Electronic supplementary information (ESI) available:
1
HNMR,
UV–Vis and electrochemical titration studies for compound 2with
Cd
2+
, CV titration of 2 with Ni
2+
. Crystallographic data for the
structure reported in this paper in CIF format: CCDC 653209. See
DOI: 10.1039/b802726a
moderate positive shifts of E
2 ox
upon addition of Pb
2+
in the
case of various TTF– p –pyridine systems.
3 a , b ,h
In those cases,
the pyridyl binding site is connected through a conjugated
linker to the TTF core. We also very recently reported on a
p -extended tetrathiafulvalene ligand which presents a remark-
able positive shift of E
2 ox
,
3 c
which accounts for the stability of
the metal complex even though the redox unit is doubly
oxidized. This result illustrates the effect of a p -extension of
the TTF backbone, which induces a lowering of coulombic
repulsion between the oxidized redox unit and the metal
cation. A very similar electrochemical behaviour is actually
observed with compound 2 , for which the second redox
potential ( E
2 ox
) is surprisingly shifted by as much as
+110 mV upon addition of Cd(ClO
4
)
2
(Fig. 2). A remarkable
two-wave behaviour is even observed for the second redox
process, associated with a Cd
2+
binding which still exists at
the dication 2
2+
stage.
The shape of the voltammogram can be rationalized thanks
to the square scheme presented in Scheme 2, where K 1 , K
+
and
K
2+
correspond to the binding constants between the metal
cation and the receptor in various redox states.
From these electrochemical data and by using the DIGISIM
3.0 simulation program (BAS) (ESI w),
8
the following binding
constants could be evaluated: K 1 =10
5
, K
+
=10
4.4
, and K
2+
=10
1.6
L mol
1
(Fig. S3 w ). A similar CV behaviour (Fig. S4 w)
was observed by introducing nickel perchlorate ( D E
1 ox
=
+50 mV; D E
2 ox
= +60 mV) and, to a lower extent, with
cobalt perchlorate ( D E
1 ox
= +50 mV; D E
2 ox
= +10 mV).
Single crystals of the Cd( II ) complex could be grown by slow
diffusion of pentane vapours to a dichloromethane–acetoni-
trile solution of 2 in presence of Cd(ClO
4
)
2
. The resulting X-
ray crystal structure is shown in Fig. 3. A 1 : 1 stoichiometry
between 2 and Cd
2+
is observed, as well as a solvent molecule
( 2-Cd(ClO
4
)
2
,CH
3
CN). The metal cation presents an octahe-
dral coordination. Two coordinating nitrogen atoms belong-
ing to both pyridyl groups (Cd–N 2.288(3)–2.302(3) A
˚ ) are
completed by two oxygen atoms of the carbonyl groups (Cd–O
2.311(3)–2.315(3) A
˚ ), one nitrogen atom of an acetonitrile
molecule (Cd–N 2.330(5) A
˚ ) and one oxygen atom of a
perchlorate anion (Cd–O 2.445(3) A
˚ ) (the second perchlorate
anion does not participate in metal binding). It is worth noting
that mean planes of both coordinating pyridyl rings are nearly
coplanar and parallel to the TTF skeleton, with an interplanar
(pyridyls vs. TTF planes) distance of ca. 4.8 A
˚ , which is
therefore also the approximate distance between Cd
2+
and
the TTF mean plane (Cd–C7 = 4.800(4), Cd–C8 = 4.854(4),
Cd–S8 = 5.020(2), Cd–S7 = 5.060(2) A
˚ ). As far as we know,
such a location of the metal cation, shifted regarding the TTF
plane, has not been encountered with other TTF–pyridyl
complexes, and is presumably responsible for the peculiar
electrochemical behaviour observed for 2 in presence of
Fig. 1
1
H NMR titration curves of 2 (0.022 mol L
1
in
CDCl
3
–CD
3
CN 1 : 1) upon addition of Cd(ClO
4
)
2
.
Fig. 2 Deconvoluted cyclic voltammogram of compound2
(10
3
M) in the presence of increasing amounts of Cd(ClO
4
)
2
;
CH
2
Cl
2
–CH
3
CN (1 : 1); Bu
4
NPF
6
(0.1 M); 100 mV s
1
; Pt working
electrode, diameter 1 mm.
Scheme 2 Square scheme for the electrochemical titration of 2 in
presence of Cd
2+
.
Fig. 3 Molecular structure along two directions, and atom number-
ing scheme for 2-Cd(ClO
4
)
2
,CH
3
CN with selected bond distances (A
˚ ).
H-atoms (except N–H amide) and one ClO
4
anion are omitted for
clarity. C1–C2 1.327(7), C7–C8 1.340(6), C3–C4 1.34(1), C2–S4
1.754(6), C2–S3 1.751(6), C1–S2 1.761(5), C1–S1 1.755(5), C4–S4
1.735(9), C3–S3 1.752(9), C8–S2 1.737(5), C7–S1 1.762(5), C9–S7
1.822(5), C17–S8 1.812(5), C10–O1 1.234(5), C18–O2 1.239(5),
C10–N1 1.318(5), C18–N3 1.319(5), C11–N1 1.450(6), C19–N3
1.461(6), Cd1–N2 2.302(3), Cd1–N4 2.288(3), Cd1–N5 2.330(5),
Cd1–O1 2.311(3), Cd1–O2 2.315(3), Cd1–O3 2.445(3).
914 | New J. Chem., 2008, 32 , 913–916 This journal is c The Royal Society of Chemistry and the Centre National dela Recherche Scientifique 2008
transition metal cations. The spatial arrangement is such that
the cation is locked in a rigid environment (preventing expul-
sion, even in the TTF
2+
state), and is located directly over the
redox unit, leading to an optimized through-space interaction
with the redox-active unit.
In conclusion, we have described an amidopyridyl-TTF
redox-responsive system 2 and we have studied its solution
binding properties towards transition metal cations (CV,
1
H
NMR) as well as its solid-state characteristics through X-ray
diffraction studies on a corresponding complex. An original
electrochemical (CV) behaviour was observed, manifested by
strong positive shifts of both oxidation potentials of 2in
presence of Cd
2+
. In particular, the observation of a remark-
able two-wave behaviour for the second redox system ac-
counts for the high stability of the complex, even when
ligand 2 is oxidized to the dication, which constitutes a very
unusual behaviour among TTF-based sensors.
Experimental
Synthesis of 2 : Tetrathiafulvalene derivative 1b (0.67 g,
1 mmol) was dissolved in dry THF (30 mL), and degassed
with N
2
for 10 min. A solution of 2-(aminomethyl)pyridine
(0.119 g, 1.1 mmol) in dry THF (10 mL) was then added. The
reaction mixture was stirred during 3 h and the solvent was
removed in vacuum. The resulting solid was dissolved in
CH
2
Cl
2
, washed with water, dried over MgSO
4
and purified
by silica gel column chromatography using THF to give 2as
an orange solid in 70% yield.
Spectroscopic data for 2 : orange solid; mp = 150 1C;
1
H
NMR (CDCl
3
): 2.4 (s, SCH
3
, 6H), 3.6 (s, SCH
2
, 4H), 4.55 (d,
CH
2
NH, 4 H), 7.16 (m, Q CH, 1H), 7.22 (m, Q CH, 1H), 7.62
(m, Q CH, 1H), 7.79 (m, NH, 1H), 8.49 (m, N Q CH, 1H);
13
C
NMR (CDCl
3
): 19.1 (SCH
3
), 39.1 (SCH
2
), 45.0 (NHCH
2
),
108.9, 112.9 (C Q C centrals), 127.4, 127.9, 121.9, 122.4, 148.9,
149.1, 156.2 (C Q C
laterals and pyridine
), 167.0 (C Q O). Anal. for
C
24
H
24
N
4
O
2
S
8
: Found (Calcd.): C, 43.89 (43.88), H, 3.71
(3.68), N, 8.51 (8.53), O, 4.75 (4.87), S, 38.92 (39.04)%.
HRMS-EI(+): m / z : calcd. for C
24
H
24
N
4
O
2
S
8
: 655.9665;
found: 655.9679 [M
+
].
Crystal data for 2 -Cd(ClO
4
)
2
,CH
3
CN (C
26
H
27
CdCl
2
-
N
5
O
10
S
8
): M = 1009.31, monoclinic, P2
1
/ c , a = 20.590(6), b
= 13.4517(8), c= 14.543(1) A
˚ , b = 103.64(2) 1, V =
3914.4(12) A
˚
3
, Z =4, D
calc
1.713, T = 293 K, m = 1.18
mm
1
,2 y
max
=56 1 , 9792 measured reflns,6287 unique reflns
with I / s( I ) 4 2( R
int
= 0.017), R ( F) = 0.048 (488 parameters),
w R 2( F 2) = 0.149 (all data).
Data collection was carried out on a Bruker Kappa CCD
diffractometer, graphite-monochromated, MoK aradiation
( l = 0.71073 A
˚ ). The structure was solved by direct methods,
and refined by full-matrix least-squares routines against F
2
using the Shelxl97 package anisotropic thermal motion
parameters for all non-H atoms. The hydrogen atoms were
treated with a riding model. A statistical disorder affects two
oxygen atoms of the ClO
4
anion which is non bonded to
Cd
2+
, each atom being split over two positions with a half
occupation rate.
Acknowledgements
This work has been partly supported by the French–Algerian
Tassili programme 08MDU730. Dr E. Levillain is acknowl-
edged for his help in running the electrochemical simulation
study and M.S. thanks the Institut Universitaire de France
(IUF) for financial support.
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Downloaded by University of Chicago on 27 February 2013
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Levillain, R. Clerac, P. Batail and N. Avarvari, Dalton Trans.,
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and L. Ouahab, Chem. Commun. , 2007, 280.
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Davies, J.-M. Lehn, D. D. MacNicol and F. Vo
¨ gtle, Pergamon,
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Published on 07 May 2008 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/B802726A
Jan 1993
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M. J. Hynes, J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans., 1993, 311.
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| https://www.researchgate.net/publication/340647679_Electrochemical_M_2_recognition_by_an_amidopyridyl-tetrathiafulvalene_derivativew |
SPL Performer m1000 Mono Power Amplifier User Manual
User Manual for SPL models including: Performer m1000 Mono Power Amplifier, Performer m1000, Mono Power Amplifier, Power Amplifier, Amplifier
Használati útmutató
SPL Performer m1000 high-end mono végerősítő - Bartimex Audio - Házimozi, Hifi, High-End Bemutatóterem és Webáruház
Professional Fidelity
Document
990191
Professional Fidelity
Mastering Grade Listening
This User Manual is optimized for Acrobat Reader.
Interactive buttons may not appear in other applications.
Performer m1000
PROTECT
PWR
TEMP
VOLTAiR
120V DC Audio Rail
Mono Power Amplifier
Performer m1000 User Manual
Mono Power Amplifier
Welcome
and thank you for choosing the Performer m1000.
The Performer s1000 is the big brother of the highly acclaimed Performer s800 and delivers 1000W into 2 ohms, 750W into 4 ohms and 420 W into 8 ohms with ease.
VOLTAiR technology is what we also call the SPL 120V Rail Technology within the Professional Fidelity series. This makes the Performer m1000 an outstandig device in terms of dynamic range, signal-to-noise ratio and headroom delivering an exceptional sound experience with invincible serenity, transparency and realness.
SPEAKER OUTPUT
-. - -.
INPUT
Performer m1000
PROTECT
PWR
TEMP
VOLTAiR
120V DC Audio Rail
Mono Power Amplifier
2
~ V AC / ~ V AC, Hz / Hz, P max. VA
CAUTION
RISK OF ELECTRIC SHOCK
DO NOT OPEN
AVIS: RISQUE DE CHOC ÉLECTRIQUE · NE PAS OUVRIR
Made in Germany
XLR WIRING: Pin = GND Pin = Hot (+) Pin = Cold ()
- -. -
TRIM
-.
-.
- -. -
INPUT
THRU
INPUT
+
Minimum Load:
2
SPEAKER OUTPUT
Serial Number
Performer m1000
AMP CTL/ V TRIGGER
VOLTAGE SELECTION
FUSE
V AC:
T . A
L V
V AC:
T A
L V FUSE
. Remove Fuse Holder . Exchange Fuses . Flip Over . Reinstall
VOLTAGE SELECTION
Connect to SPL devices supporting AMP CTL for remote standby on/off. AMP CTL/ V TRIGGER
spl.audio
Content
Specifications
17
Line Input & Line Output
17
Getting started Front view Rear view
4
Speaker output
17
Output power (Sine at 1kHz)
17
5
Output voltage
18
6
Output impedance
18
VOLTAiR 120V Rail Technology
7
Damping factor
18
Comparisons
8
Frequency response
18
Ornamental inlays Input
Slave Thru Gain Trim
Speaker output
10
Signal-to-noise ratio
19
Gain
19
11
Total harmonic distortion
19
12
Internal Voltage
20
12
Power supply
20
13
Dimensions (incl. feet)
20
Protection circuits
14
Weight
20
DC Protection
14
Important Notes
21
Overheating protection circuit
15
Declaration of CE Conformity
21
AMP CTL (Standby / Amplifier Control)
16
Power LED
16
Getting started
Read thoroughly and follow the instructions as well as the security advices of the Quickstart which is enclosed in the scope of delivery! You can also download the Quickstart here.
By pressing the By pressing the By pressing the By pressing the
-Button you get to the table of contents. -Button you get to the front view of the unit. -Button you get to the rear view of the unit. -Button you get to the previous content.
4
Front view
Ornamental Inlay 4
5
Performer m1000
PROTECT
PWR
TEMP
VOLTAiR
120V DC Audio Rail
Mono Power Amplifier
Protection LED 3
2 Temperature LED
Power LED 1
Rear view
Gain Trim 9
8 Slave Thru 7 Input
Mains Voltage 5 Mains Switch 6
~ V AC / ~ V AC, Hz / Hz, P max. VA
CAUTION
RISK OF ELECTRIC SHOCK
DO NOT OPEN
AVIS: RISQUE DE CHOC ÉLECTRIQUE · NE PAS OUVRIR
Made in Germany
XLR WIRING: Pin = GND Pin = Hot (+) Pin = Cold ()
- -. -
TRIM
-.
-.
- -. -
INPUT
THRU
INPUT
+
Minimum Load:
2
SPEAKER OUTPUT
Serial Number
Performer m1000
AMP CTL/ V TRIGGER
VOLTAGE SELECTION
FUSE
V AC:
T . A
L V
V AC:
T A
L V FUSE
. Remove Fuse Holder . Exchange Fuses . Flip Over . Reinstall
VOLTAGE SELECTION
Connect to SPL devices supporting AMP CTL for remote standby on/off. AMP CTL/ V TRIGGER
spl.audio
Speaker Output 11
10 AMP CTL
SPEAKER OUTPUT
-. - -.
INPUT
6
VOLTAiR 120V Rail Technology
VOLTAiR is the synonym for our 120V Rail Technology within the Professional Fidelity series. The audio signals are processed with an unequalled +/-60V DC, which corresponds to twice that of discrete operational amplifiers and four-times that of semiconductor operational amplifiers. VOLTAiR Technology reaches outstanding technical and sonic performances. Technically especially in terms of dynamic range and headroom and sonically especially in reproducing the finest details and delivering a totally relaxed sounding audio experience. Music sounds absolutely natural.
SPL's 120V Rail Technology is the internal audio processing voltage (+/- 60V DC). It is not to be confused with the external mains voltage (e.g. 115V or 230V AC).
7
Comparisons
These diagrams show how our VOLTAiR Technology compares to other circuits.
The direct relation between operating level and maximum level is fundamental for the classification: the higher the operating level, the higher the maximum level a circuit can handle. And since virtually all essential acoustic and musical parameters depend on this relation, a higher operating voltage also has a positive impact on the dynamic range, distortion limit and signal-to-noise ratio.
Operating Voltage
Volt 120
V
100
80
60
40 V
20
0
+ / - 15 Volt
+ / - 60 Volt
Dynamic Range
dB
145
140
,
135
130
125 120
,
OPA 134@30 V
SPL-OP@120 V
8
Do bear in mind that dB scales do not represent linear but rather exponential increases. A 3 dB increase corresponds to doubling the acoustic power, +6 dB correspond to twice the sound pressure level, and +10 dB correspond to twice the perceived loudness.
When it comes to volume, the VOLTAiR Technology exhibits a performance, in regard to maximum level and dynamic range, that is twice that of common components and circuits given that its values are approximately 10 dB higher.
THD measurements show a difference of more than 8 dB compared to the TL071 at 30 V -- in terms of sound pres-
sure level, that corresponds to an improvement of more than 130%. The operating level most commonly used for
audio equipment is +/- 15 volts.
Max. Audio Level
THD&N
dBu
, 30
dBu -105
-
-107
20
,
10
0
OPA 134@30 V
SPL-OP@120 V
-109 -111 -113 -115
TL 071@30 V
-,
SPL-OP@120 V
9
Ornamental inlays
The Performer m1000 comes with three ornamental inlays: in black, red and silver. They can be combined with the chosen color of the main front panel. A neodymium magnet holds the ornamental inlay in place. This allows easy exchange and gives you the unique opportunity to style your power amplifier.
Possible inlay combinations with the basic color red
Possible inlay combinations with the basic color silver
Possible inlay combinations with the basic color black
10
Input
The Performer m1000 is equipped with an XLR input (7) for balanced connection to a preamp. Full output power (1000W RMS into 2 ohms, 750W RMS into 4 ohms or 420W into 8 ohms) is performed at +6 dBu at the input.
For unbalanced connection with e.g. RCA output connect Pin 3 to Ground in the external
INPUT
connector.
unbalanced
1 3
2
GND hot +
balanced
1 3
2
GND cold
hot +
11
Slave Thru
The input is passively fed to the Slave Thru (8) output for bi-wiring applications.
Gain Trim
The input can be lowered with the Gain TRIM switch (9) from 0 dB to -5.5 dB in 0.5 dB steps. This is helpful if you want to use multi speaker sets or speakers in a bi-wiring application. It allows to level speakers with different efficiency to equal loudness.
- -. -
THRU
TRIM
-.
-.
- -. -
-. - -.
12
Speaker output
SPEAKER OUTPUT
You can connect a 2, 4 or 8 ohms loudspeaker to the speaker out-
put (11).
+
Minimum Load:
2
You can either use the ø4 mm cable hole (screwable) or the banana
SPEAKER OUTPUT
plugs of the gold-plated loudspeaker binding posts.
Make sure that you do not mix up the polarity of the speaker connections and that the power amplifier is switched off when you connect speaker cables.
13
Protection circuits
The Performer m1000 has protection circuits against DC (direct current) voltage at the output and against overheating.
DC Protection
If DC is detected at the output, the Performer m1000 automatically switches off. DC voltage can be an indication for a defective power stage. The ProtectLED (3) on the front indicates that the protection circuit is activated and the power stage has been switched off. The Performer m1000 does not automatically switch on again. It needs to be switched off manually with the mains switch (6). Wait at least one minute before switching the Performer m1000 on again. If the Performer m1000 repetitively switches off due to a DC detection please contact your dealer.
14
Overheating protection circuit
The Performer m1000 is actively cooled with six temperature controlled fans. The noise of the fans does not exceed 19 dB therefore the fans are inaudable. In the unlikely event of overheating the Performer m1000 will switch off at about 70° C at the heat sink and the Temp LED (2) on the front indicates the overheating. After the temperature has fallen below 55° C, the amplifier automatically switches on again.
15
AMP CTL (Standby / Amplifier Control)
If you own an SPL device supporting AMP CTL output(s) you can trigger standby and operation. Therefore connect the AMP CTL output of the SPL device with a mono mini jack cable to the AMP CTL (10) of the Performer m1000. You may also use other 12V trigger controller. The Performer m1000 is in operation mode when a switching voltage of 12 Volt DC is applied to the AMP CTL input. As soon as the 12 Volt DC is removed, the Performer m1000 switches back to standby mode. Use a mono mini jack cable where the tip is plus and the sleeve is minus.
Tip Sleeve
Power LED
In standby the Power LED is dimly lit. If the Performer m1000 is in operation, the Power LED lights up brightly. If the Performer m1000 is off, e.g. the mains switch is off, the Power LED is off.
16
AMP CTL/ V TRIGGER
Connect to SPL devices supporting AMP CTL for remote standby on/off.
AMP CTL/ V TRIGGER
Specifications
Line Input & Line Output
· Neutrik XLR, balanced, Pin 2 = (+) · Input impedance: 10 kohms · Input trimming: 0 dB to -5.5 dB in 0.5 dB steps · Input sensitivity: +6 dBu · Output impedance (Slave Thru) is defined by the connected device
Speaker output
· 1 pair gold-plated binding posts with ø4 mm cable hole (screwable) and banana plug; fully encapsulated
Output power (Sine at 1kHz)
· 1000W into 2 Ohm · 750W into 4 Ohm · 420W into 8 Ohm
17
Output voltage
· 180 V Peak-to-Peak · 64,6 V RMS
Output impedance
· < 0.031, 20 Hz to 20 kHz
Damping factor
· > 280 at 1 kHz and 8 ohms
Frequency response
· 10 Hz to 80 kHz
18
Signal-to-noise ratio
· > 118 dB (wide-band, unweighted, referred to full power output) · > 123 dB (A-weighted)
Gain
· 26 dB
Total harmonic distortion
· < 0,03% at 1 kHz, at 420 W, 8 ohms · < 0,05% at 1 kHz, at 750 W, 4 ohms · < 0,08% at 1 kHz at 1000 W, 2 ohms
19
Internal Voltage
· +/- 60 V
Power supply
· Mains voltage: 230 V AC / 50 Hz; 115 V AC / 60 Hz · Fuses: 230 V: T 6.3 A; 115 V: T 12 A · Power consumption: max 1370 VA · Idle power consumption: 50W · Standby power consumption: 0.3 W
Dimensions (incl. feet)
· (WxHxD) 10.94 x 8.07 x 14.76 in (278 x 205 x 375 mm)
Weight
· 54.67 lbs (24.8 kg), unit only · 64,60 lbs (29,3 kg), shipping
20
Important Notes
Version 1.1 06 /2022 Developer: Bastian Neu This manual includes a description of the product but no guarantee as for specific characteristics or successful results. Unless stated otherwise, everything herein corresponds to the technical status at the time of delivery of the product by SPL electronics GmbH. The design and circuitry are under continuous development and improvement. Technical specifications are subject to change. © 2022 SPL electronics GmbH. This document is the property of SPL and may not be copied or reproduced in any manner, in part or fully, without prior authorization by SPL. Sound Performance Lab (SPL) continuously strives to improve its products and reserves the right to modify the product described in this manual at any time without prior notice. SPL and the SPL Logo are registered trademarks of SPL electronics GmbH. All company names and product names in this manual are the trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective companies.
Declaration of CE Conformity
The construction of this unit is in compliance with the standards and regulations of the European Community.
21
References
<here is a image 9eb60bce35dd4c16-10e8d8f1c1edab47> Performer m1000 in HIFI Sound & Music – SPL
Adobe PDF Library 16.0.7 Adobe InDesign 17.2 (Macintosh)
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(PDF) A Bottleneck Investigation at Escalator Entry at the Brisbane Central Train Station
PDF | Escalators are an essential for passenger's movements through multi-level rail station concourse environments. Despite the access benefits that... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
A Bottleneck Investigation at Escalator Entry at the Brisbane Central Train Station
Conference: Australasian Transport Research Forum 2016 Proceedings
Abstract and Figures
Escalators are an essential for passenger's movements through multi-level rail station concourse environments. Despite the access benefits that escalators provide, they can make travel time longer and pose some challenges when bottlenecks appear at entry. Studying the passenger behaviour of bottlenecks at escalator entrances is essential for planning, designing and control of engineering transportation systems. In this paper we investigate passenger route choice behaviour while approaching an escalator-stair infrastructure set at Brisbane Central train station. A model of an escalator entry bottleneck is formulated. The developed model can explain the queuing characteristics of the bottlenecks and can be readily used to predict congested state occurrence at escalator entry bottleneck. Accurate prediction of bottlenecks occurring around escalators and the estimation of escalator capacity are obtained based on real field data collected from Brisbane Central train station. Results have provided significant insights and computational tools for understanding many features of escalator bottlenecks. Remarkably, escalator capacity at bottleneck points affects the duration and severity of the congested period.
Train Station Layout …
Under Congested Case …
Congested Case …
Over Congested Case …
Typical example of the passenger rates m(t), n(t) and q(t) …
Figures - uploaded by
Australasian Transport Research Forum 201 6 Proceedings
16 – 18 November 2016 , M elbourne, Australia
Publication website: http://www.atrf.info
1
A Bottleneck Investigation at Escalator E ntry
at the Brisbane Central Train Station
Fatma Al-Widyan 1 , Nathan Kirchner 1 , Ahmed Al-Ani 2 , Michelle Zeibots 3
1 Centre for Autonomous Systems, Univers ity of Technology Sydney, Australia
2 Faculty of Engineering & IT, University of Tec hnology Sydney, Australia
3 Institute of Sustainable Futures, University of T echnology Sydney, Australia
Email for correspondence: fatma.alwid yan@student.uts.edu.au
Abstract
Escalators are an essential for passenger’s movements through multi-level rail station
concourse env ironments. Despite the access benefits that escalators provide, they can ma ke
travel time longer and pose some challen ges when bottlenecks appear at entry.
Studying the passen ger behaviour of bottlenecks at escal ator entrances is essential for
planning, designing and control o f engineering t ransportation systems. In this paper we
investigate passenger route choice behaviour while approaching an escalator-stair
infrastructure set at Brisbane Central train station. A model of an escalator entry bottleneck
is formulated. The develop ed model can explain the queuing characteristics of the
bottlenecks and can be r eadily used to predict co ngested state occurrence at escalator entry
bottleneck.
Accurate prediction of bottlenecks occurring around escalators and the estimation of
escalator capacity are ob tained based on real field data collected from Bri sbane Central train
station. Results hav e provided significant insights and computational tools for understanding
many features o f escalator bo ttlenecks. Re markably, escalator capaci ty at bottlenec k points
affects the duration and severity of the con gested period.
Keywords – Escalator Entry Bottleneck, Pedestrian Queuing , Congestion, Bottleneck Model.
1. Introduction
Predicting the passenger flow is a requirement for planning and design of th e public transport
facilities. In major cities, m ost of the efficiency loss due to congestion occurs when traffic is
congested. Despite the high usage and prevalence of escalators, little research has been
conducted on the escalator entry bottlenec k and its associated capacity.
In modern world, the f acility of using escalators at train station reduces the passengers
walking time, particularly when the area is con gested. There is a bottlenec k on the escalator
entry with a fixed capacity or service rate, and i f the arriv al rate of pedestrian at the escalator
entry exceeds the capaci ty a q ueue develops . Congestion that happen in the entry of an
escalator is termed escalator entry bottleneck (Fixed Bottleneck) w hich corresponds to
passengers jam and gridlock (Kauffmann & Ki kuchi 2013 , Voskamp 2012 ).
In a p revious research study (Al-widyan et al. 2015) , the authors report ed on pedestrian
behaviour in the congested environments, based on the principle of least effort. This paper
is an extensi on of the research work reported ther ein . The focus of this work is on pa ssenger
ATRF 2016 Proceedings
2
route selection behaviour at escalator entry bottleneck, observations in the real field have
been carried ou t for unde rstanding pa ssenger behaviour. Moreover , here we present a model
evaluated to the passenger route selection behaviour on the escalator entry from real data.
The proposed model considerers the escalator entry capacity and queue growth on the base
of the escalator.
The remainder of this paper is organised as follows: Section 2 describes the bottleneck and
queuing problem. Section 3 presents the formulation and model. In section 4, experimental
results are presented and analyzed. Final ly, Section 5 concludes the paper.
2. Bottleneck and Queuing
In designing transport facility, it is important to predict passenger selection behaviour, since
it is one of the key f actors affecting the passenger flows between entrance and exits points
(platforms, train gates etc). Typically these stations are designed with the intention o f limiting
passenger’s route choices where information systems are usually present to direct egress.
A number of simulation tools have been developed to predict passenger flows in walking
facilities, SimPed (Daamen & Hoogendoorn 2003), NOMAD (Hoogendoorn & Bovy 2004) ,
and Legion (Still 2000) . On the other hand very little re search has been de voted to escalator
entry bottleneck.
Congestion has been studied extensively by transportation researchers that occur w hen
passenger’s traffic demand exceeds the infrastructure capacity (Bandini et al. 2014 , Tajima
et al. 2001 , Tabuchi 1993). Bottleneck capacity is determined by a number of factors, such
as a width of the bottleneck, wall surface, and interaction behaviour of passengers passing
the bottleneck (Hoogendoorn & Daamen 2005). Bottlenecks impose a wide range of
problems for passengers especially at escalator entry in train stations , like delay in travel
time, rescheduling train timings, and unhappy experiences for passengers mainly because
of pushing and shoving (Palma & Lindsey 2001). Many situations exist in which influencing
passengers flow in congested train stations would be useful. The ability to influence the
movement of people could reduce collisions on blind corners, or increase the efficiency of
passenger flow through bottlenecks such as passagew ays, stairs and escalator (Kirchner et
al. 2015).
Capacity is certainly important in the design of the area around the escalator and has a
significant impact on the escalator performance. Lower passenger densitie s are desirable in
uncongested environments so that pa ssengers may manoeuv re and pass each other in order
to maintain their desired speed (Kauffmann & Kikuchi 2013) . Conv ersely, in congested
environments, it is important to provide adequate queuing space und er crush loading
conditions like train arrivals or emergency evacuations so that passenger safety is assured.
Queues are developed when the arrival rate of passengers the escalator entry exceeds its
capacity (Kauffmann & Kikuchi 2013). For tha t, we need to improve our knowledge on
escalator entry bottleneck influencing passen ger selection behaviour.
Permanent bottlenecks will occur at escalator entry, for short time periods. The capacity of
an escalator is generally thought to depend on the speed at which the bottleneck moves
(Laval & Daganzo 2006) . Some empirical studies have been carried out on bot tlenecks and
focused on the behaviour of passengers in a narrow bottleneck experiment (Shiwakoti1 et
al. 2015, Cepolina & Tyler 20 05 , Fosgerau & de Pal ma 2012 , Davis & Dutta 2002, Kinsey et
al. 2014 , Arnott et al. 19 90). However, none of these empirical studies provides any data
about the escalator entry bottleneck phenomena, which is the focus of this paper.
Most available r esearch focuses on the relation between the bottlenecks and its capacity.
This is important in any passenger environment to understand and monitor for passenger
traffic management (Seyfried et al. 2009), where there is a change in size which might g ive
rise to a change in capacity, and involve congestion with the influence on passenger route
A Bottleneck Investigation on Escalator Entry at th e Brisbane Central Train Station
3
choice, In instance tr ain stations and emergency exits (Braid 1989, Fosgerau & de Palma
2012 , Yang & Hai-Jun 1997, Still 2000, Hoogendoorn & Daamen 2005) . Such research
efforts are inherently limited in that they focus on passenger selection behaviour in case of
bottlenecks. Meanwhile (Voskamp 2012) argued that f ixed bottlenecks could be found at
escalator entry while moving bottlenec ks might occur in the overta king process on an
escalator (Voskamp 2012). Furthermore, the core of this research is to create a model of
passenger behaviour on escalator entry bottleneck.
3. Model Formulation
Generally, the passenger m ust first access the escalator, and to do that, the passengers
must walk into an escalator entry bottleneck. The rigid fenders that line the sides o f escalator
constrict the passengers flow into a narrow stream no more than one metre wide. The most
common escalator step width is 1 metre (Hoogendoorn & Daamen 2005). In our approach,
the capacity of an escalator entry is first determined based on an assumed maximum step
capacity, typically two passengers per step .
Consider a simpl ified in frastructure as the one depicted in Figure 1, which shows an escalator
entry bottlenec k. The bottleneck, whose capacity is finite, is subject to conge stion. The crowd
starts developing when the arrival rate of passengers at the escalator entry exceeds its
capacity. The explicit analytical solutions can help us understand the queuing characteristics
of the bottlenecks.
Figure 1: Train Station Layout
Let the number of passengers in the queue be denoted by q (t), the passenge r rate departing
from train at a time t be m(t), and the rate of pass engers existing from bottleneck denoted by
n (t) which can be expressed,
𝑛 ( 𝑡 ) = { 𝑚 ( 𝑡 ) , if 𝑞 ( 𝑡 ) = 0 and 𝑚 ( 𝑡 ) < 𝐶
𝐶 , if 𝑞 ( 𝑡 ) > 0 or 𝑚 ( 𝑡 ) > 𝐶
ATRF 2016 Proceedings
4
Where , C is the escalator capacity (maximum number of passenger rate that can pass the
entrance of the escalator at a time t) . This scenario is ill ustrated in Figure 1.
We can realize the following three cases:
1) U nder Congested: q (t) = 0, and m (t ) < C
This case represents no congestion; if the pas senger travels from pl atforms to station hall at
a time, he/she will pass the escalator entry bottleneck easily as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2 : Under Congested Case
a ) The flow commences (Real -time scenario) a) Overview of experiment
2) Congested: q (t) = 0, and m (t) = C
In this case the number of passengers travelling ov er an escalator equal escalator capacity ,
as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3 : Congested Case
a ) The flow increases towards the maximum b ) Overview of experiment
(Real -time scenario)
3) Over Congested : m (t) > C
This case describes the authority’s reaction when high - level congestion occurs, i f the
numbers of passengers, travelling from platforms to st ation hall, are more than escalator
capacity the queue commencing as shown in Figure 4.
Queues are known to form when a bottleneck is over congested. Queuing is the most
organized form tha t occu rs for instance in front of escalators entry, P assengers d o not alw ays
maintain a lar ge distance betwee n each other when queuing. In contrast to queue formation,
queues are typically organized in the f orm of bulk (Fruin 1971). When passengers a re
queuing, their desire to mov e grows. As a result passen gers stand closer to each othe r over
A Bottleneck Investigation on Escalator Entry at th e Brisbane Central Train Station
5
time, which can be observed by decrease in queue length and increase in density (Helbing
D., P. Molnár 2001).
Figure 4 : Over Congested Case
a) The point of maximum accumulation b ) Overview of experiment
of pedestrians.
Figure 5 illustrates a typi cal pattern of the passenge r rates m( t), and n (t) and the passenger
queue l ength q( t). Apparently the difference betw een n(t) and m(t) leads to congestion
occurrence with a queue taking pl ace at the escala tor entry, as shown in the curve from point
2 to point 3, which is the over congested case. From points 1 to 2, and points 3 to 4, the
number of passengers trav eling from platforms to station hall is less than the escalator entry
capacity, which is the case of under congestion.
Figure 5: Typical example of the passenger rates m( t), n (t) and q(t)
ATRF 2016 Proceedings
6
4. Experimental Results
Experimental evaluation was conducted at the central Brisbane train station and performed
various tests to validate the model developed in the previous section based on the Escalator
entry bottleneck and congestion oc currence. Our Sensing Hardware Plat form (SHP), shown
in the right image of Figure 6, which has demonstrated capability of robust person detection
and tr acking in situ in public train stations and used to produce a real-data or individual
passengers movements (Kirchner et al. 2014, Vi rgona et al. 2015, Collart et al. 2015) .
Data was collected to monitor t he selection beh aviour of passen ger at the escalator entry
from (9:05 am- 9:46am) on a weekday. An asus Xtion camera, 3D Sensor was mounted at
the column of the platforms at a height of 2.30 m observing an area o f approximately 3 m by
5.5 m and angle 15 o . A wide lens was used, enabling the camera to view the entire walking
area, as shown in Figure 6 (left).
Figure 6 : The Sensing Hardware Platform (SHP) located at Brisbane train station
During the peak hour period, the platforms at the central Brisbane Train Station are densely
populated. When the t rains arrive, the formation of queues at the escalators entry is a
common practice. In total , 328 passengers were recorded from (9:05 am- 9:46 am).Queuing
at the base of escalator entry varied with each batch and during the time that the patch
passed through the escalator. The bottleneck is only observed at the escalator entry for a
limited time. The severity of bottleneck is assessed from the waiting times and the number
of passengers on queue derived from our SHP Data.
Analysis of origin-destination relations shows that the bottleneck on escalator entry has a
significantly different influ ence on selection behav iour. The frequency o f escalator and stairs
users appeared to v ary with the queue of passenge r at the base of the escalator. To facilitate
a consistent method of measurin g t he bottlenecks at the ba se of the escalator, a region
observing approximately (3 m by 6 m and angel 15 o ) in the base of escalat or was defined by
our SHP, with which depth im ages for the 49-minute video (data extraction was carried out
manually by playing the video recordings on a computer screen). The numb er of passen gers
in the region of the station platform was counted manually to determine the escalator entry
bottleneck within the region.
Figure 7 shows passenger rate versus time when q ueue occurs. It is apparent that the
passenger rate exceeds t he capacity in this case, which matches case C, that in section 3.
We conclude that the escalator has a capacity C = 6.
A Bottleneck Investigation on Escalator Entry at th e Brisbane Central Train Station
7
Figure 7: Bottlenecks in a peak hour situation at a Brisban e station.
5. Conclusions
T he research work presented in this paper focuses on pedestrian behaviour a t bottleneck of
escalator entry. Experiments and observation have been carried out. T he process variables
considered are the capacity, the number of passengers in the queue, the passenger rate
departing from train, and the rate of passengers existing from bottleneck. T he actual value
of capacity is essential for understandin g pedestrian route choice behaviour and for planni ng
and desi gning of transportation systems. T hree cases of escalator entry bottleneck have
been underlined: under congested, congested, an d over congested.
To study the escalator entry bot tleneck and their effect on selectio n behaviour, an asus Xtion
camera, 3D Sensor was mounted at the column of the platforms. A wide lens was used,
enabling the camera to view the entire walkin g area, in total, 328 passen gers were recorded
from (9:05 am- 9:46 am).
The escalator entry bottleneck on route selection has a cost in real world (using real data
from a field study) and that passenger route selection models can exploit this to describe
beha viour .
6. Acknowledgement
This work is suppo rted by UTS’ C entre for Autonomous S ystems and RobotAssist. The
authors are thankful for the insightful com ments of the anonymous reviewers.
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ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Empirical study on pedestrian crowd behaviour in right angled junction
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Sep 2015
Nirajan Shiwakoti
Xiaomeng Shi
Ye Zhirui
Wei Wang
Bottleneck formed due to complex architectural configurations can create hazardous situations as have been noted from the previous documented studies of crowd disasters. There have been numerous fatalities and serious injuries in the past around the world due to stampedes at those bottleneck points. One of the critical bottlenecks that is common in major public infrastructure is the right angled junction (also called as T-Junction). Although computer simulations have been used to study the pedestrian crowd movement in T-junction, complementary empirical data required for model calibration and validation is limited in the literature. Specifically, the impact of 'flow directions' on the performance of pedestrian flows at T-junction is missing in the literature. In this paper, a series of controlled experiments were conducted to study the pedestrian flows at T-junction under faster walking conditions and with two different 'flow directions'. In one setup, two inflows of pedestrians approached each other in straight (0 degree) path before merging together at 90 degree (referred as T1). In the other setup, two inflows of pedestrians approach each other at 90 degree before merging together in straight path (referred as T2). The relevant macroscopic and microscopic crowd dynamics parameters were extracted and analysed. It was observed that 'T1' was over 51% efficient in terms of outflow of the pedestrians as compared to the 'T2'. There were less short headways and more long headways at exit segment of setup 'T2' as compared to 'T1' and were statistically significant. The results from our study demonstrate that it is very important to consider the 'flow direction' when designing any public infrastructure where large number of pedestrians can be expected or for crowd control. These results are also valuable inputs for the pedestrian crowd dynamics model development and validation.
Modelling Evacuation Using Escalators: A London Underground Dataset
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Jan 2012
Michael Kinsey
E.R. Galea
Peter Lawrence
This paper presents a brief analysis of an escalator human factors da-taset collected in a London Underground (subway) station in England. The data analysis highlights and quantifies a variety of escalator human factors. Using the buildingEXODUS evacuation software, a series of evacuation scenarios of a hypothetical underground station are then presented. The simulation results demonstrate that escalator strategies and associated human factors can have a considerably influence upon an evacuation compared to using stairs alone.
New Insights into Pedestrian Flow Through Bottlenecks
| https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309903707_A_Bottleneck_Investigation_at_Escalator_Entry_at_the_Brisbane_Central_Train_Station |
Effect of Two Oviposition Feeding Substrates on Orius insidiosus and Orius tristicolor (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae)
Florida Entomologist contains contributions on all aspects of basic and applied entomological science from all geographic regions.
Effect of Two Oviposition Feeding Substrates on
Orius insidiosus
and
Orius tristicolor
(Hemiptera: Anthocoridae)
María E. Lorenzo , Leticia Bao , Luciana Mendez , Gabriela Grille , Olivier Bonato , Cesar Basso
Author Affiliations +
Florida Entomologist, 102(2) :395-402 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1653/024.102.0216
Abstract
Western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis(Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), is one of the most significant pests of commercial vegetables, fruits, and ornamental crops worldwide, causing both direct and indirect damage. Chemical control is the most common methodology for dealing with F. occidentalis, but this pest lays its eggs inside plant tissues, and adults and larvae feed in concealed locations, which can make chemical control of this pest difficult. As an alternative to chemical control, research attention has been focused on biological control through inoculative augmentation using anthocorid flower bugs of the genus Orius(Hemiptera: Anthocoridae). Although Orius insidiosus(Say) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) is an effective predator used worldwide for suppressing populations of western flower thrips, its use on pepper crops in Uruguay (Salto) has not achieved favorable results to date. Taking into account that O. insidiosuscan supplement its diet by feeding on pollen and plant tissues, the aim of this study was to assess the effects of pepper fruits compared to bean pods, a vegetable substrate widely used for multiplying this predator, on the duration of the embryonic and nymph developmental stages, survival, fertility, and longevity of this species. Since Orius tristicolor(White) (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae) is present also in the horticultural region of Salto, this species was incorporated into the study in order to evaluate if significant differences exist between these 2 species. When biological parameters were measured, pepper fruits proved to be a more appropriate substrate than bean for the 2 Oriusspecies studied. We reject the hypothesis that an antibiosis effect would explain the difficulties for the establishment of O. insidiosusin the greenhouses of Salto. These results show the need to examine other factors contributing to low establishment of these predatory bugs in greenhouses in Uruguay.
Western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis(Pergande) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), possess a variety of biological factors that have made it one of the most significant pests affecting commercial vegetables, fruits, and ornamental crops worldwide; these factors include small size, short generation time, 6 developmental stages, strong reproductive ability, serious crop plant damage, and vectoring of significant plant viruses (Kirk & Terry 2003). Direct or cosmetic damage results from feeding and oviposition on plant leaves, flowers, and fruits of more than 200 vegetables and ornamental crops (Lewis 1997;Reitz 2009). Indirect damage is caused by virus transmission, of which the tomato spotted wilt virus is the most important from an economic point of view (De Jager et al .1995;Maris et al. 2003). In addition to feeding on pollen and plant tissues, adult F. occidentalisindividuals can supplement their diet with high-protein resources by feeding on other herbivores, such as spider mite eggs (Trichilo & Leigh 1986) and thrips larvae (van Rijn et al. 1995). These omnivorous habits may provide F. occidentaliswith a competitive advantage over other species, such as Thrips tabaciLindeman (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in greenhouses, given that a variety of food resources such as pollen and prey are available. Those ecosystem attributes (as well as a warm, protected environment) predispose F. occidentalisto permanent establishment and spread, especially in greenhouse crops (Morse & Hoddle 2006).
The most common methodology for dealing with F. occidentalisis chemical control, especially in virus-sensitive crops, where a large number of specific treatments are carried out to control thrips. However, it is difficult to control F. occidentaliswith chemicals because this species lay their eggs inside plant tissues, and the adults and larvae feed in concealed locations, such as flower buds, which protect the pest from insecticides (Jensen 2000;Brødsgaard 2004). Furthermore, in recent yr, failures in the chemical control of this species have been reported because of the emergence of different levels of resistance to various insecticides, including organochlorines, organo-phosphates, carbamates, pyrethroids, and spinosad (Jensen 2000;Bielza 2008). These resistance phenomena are facilitated by the short generation time, high fertility, and the presence of haploid males in which the resistance genes can be rapidly selected (next generation) when the parents are exposed to pesticide treatments (Espinosa et al. 2002).
As an alternative to chemical control, research attention has been focused on biological control through inoculative augmentation (i.e., deliberate introductions of mass-reared natural enemies into cropping systems with most of the control being provided later by the offspring of the released organism) (van Driesche & Bellows 1996). In this control method, the quality of the organisms released can determine, among other factors, the success of biological control (van Lenteren 1991). The artificial breeding conditions of natural enemies, compared with those of the habitat where they will be released, could influence their later effectiveness. Quality control of the released natural enemies must be carried out to avoid failures in the control of the pests because of the process of their mass production (Bigler 1989,1994).
Phytoseiid mites of the genus Amblyseius(Mesostigmata: Phytoseiidae) or anthocorid flower bugs of the genus Oriushave been used for the biological control of F. occidentalis(Ramakers 1995). In particular, O. insidiosuswas shown to be an effective predator that suppressed populations of western flower thrips in field peppers grown during a period when thrips were rapidly colonizing and developing in the flowers (van de Veire & Degheele 1992;Funderburk et al. 2000;Viglianchino 2013). This anthocorid preys on both larval and adult thrips (Ramachandran et al. 2001;Chowet al. 2010), as well as on aphids, psyllids, mite larvae, flies, and other arthropods (Funderburk et al. 2000;Junget al. 2011).
Anthocorids also may feed on the sap of vascular plants (van den Meiracker & Ramakers 1991;Coll & Ridgeway 1995;Naranjo & Gibson 1996;Corey et al. 1998). They also may consume pollen; however, they are considered omnivorous. The chemical properties of plants and prey differ greatly, and their relative nutritional values for the omnivore are likely to be a major determinant on the proportion of plant and prey consumption by O. insidiosusin the continuum between herbivorous to predaceous habits (Coll & Izralevich 1997). The interactions between plant-prey-omnivore influence the behavioral (plant selected for oviposition) and physiological (plants differ in their suitability for the insect's growth, survival, and reproduction) aspects (Coll 1996).
As a consequence, plant hosts may have a dramatic effect on several components of O. insidiosusfitness, mostly related to the preference for oviposition in adults and the performance of the offspring (Coll 1998). Physical and chemical factors, including plant volatiles, the texture and thickness of the plant tissue, or even the combination of both, influence selection of oviposition substrates (Richards & Schmidt 1996). Oriusspp. females lay their eggs inside plant tissues; therefore, the preference of females for a given substrate depends on the ease of ovipositor insertion, or even the appropriateness of different plants or specific plant tissues for development of the eggs (Coll 1996). It is known that plants have different defense mechanisms for protection from insects which can affect their fertility, longevity, growth, or oviposition (Painter 1951). The preference-performance hypothesis predicts that insects will use plants that provide higher offspring fitness (Balagawi et al. 2013;Clark et al. 2011).
Since 2011 in Uruguay, O. insidiosushas been used for pest control in Capsicum annuumL. (Solanaceae) pepper crops in greenhouses in the horticultural region of Salto. This predator is released as part of a strategy of biological control through inoculative augmentation, which also includes the predator mite Amblyseius swirskiiAnthias-Henriot (Mesostigmata: Phytoseiidae). However, the populations of O. insidiosusshowed a low rate of increase in those crops into which it was released in Salto, even though its prey, F. occidentalis, is easily available. This leads to significant damage to the crops caused by thrips, and interest in the reasons why population growth of this predator has failed under these crop conditions. After studies carried out in the Entomology Laboratory of the Faculty of Agronomy of Uruguay, poor quality of the released predators was disregarded as a cause of their low establishment in the crops. The lots of O. insidiosussupplied by Brometan Company SA (Buenos Aires, Argentina) were tested, and the criteria defined by the International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) were fulfilled, i.e., a sex-ratio ≥ 45% of females (n = 100) and a fertility ≥ 30 eggs per female in 14 d (van Lenteren 2003).
As a first step to answer this question, the effect of the host plant on the biological parameters of O. insidiosus(duration of embryonic and nymphal stages, survival, fertility, and longevity) was determined. Because O. tristicoloralso is abundant in the horticultural region of Salto (Carpintero 2002;Ribeiro & Castiglioni 2008), this species was incorporated into the study in order to evaluate if differences between these 2 Oriusspecies existed.
In the current study, fruits of the variety of pepper most widely planted in Salto (‘Bilano’ variety, ‘Lamuyo’ type) were used, and their effects were compared with those caused by bean pods Phaseolus vulgarisL. (Fabaceae), a feeding-oviposition substrate widely used for breeding Oriusspp. in laboratory (Castañé & Zalom 1994;Richards & Schmidt 1996;Mendes et al. 2005).
Materials and Methods
INSECT COLONIES AND EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS
Specimens of O. insidiosus, O. tristicolor, and Ephestia kuehniellaZeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) used in the experiments were mass-reared in the Faculty of Agronomy (Salto, Uruguay) Entomology Laboratory. Colonies of O. insidiosuswere established from individuals coming from Argentina, purchased from the Brometan Company SA (Buenos Aires, Argentina) that distributes O. insidiosusto the horticultural growers in Salto. Individuals of O. tristicolorwere collected from corn Zea maysL., sorghum Sorghumspp. (both Poaceae), and strawberry Fragariasp. (Rosaceae) in fields located in the vicinity of the city of Salto, Uruguay (31.3500°S, 57.8833°W).
Colonies were reared in the laboratory for at least 1 yr before their use in the experiments. The anthocoridae were fed with E. kuehniellaeggs, an excellent protein source for these predators (Mendeset al. 2002;Zambrano 2009;Sobhy et al. 2010). The colonies were kept under controlled conditions, i.e., 25 ± 1 °C, 65 ± 10% RH, and a 16: 8 h (L: D) photoperiod, according to the protocol described by Mendes and Bueno (2001). Rearing was carried out in glass boxes (35 cm L × 20 cm W × 14 cm H) containing corrugated paper or vermiculite, a source of water (wetted cotton) and food ( E. kuehniellaeggs) ad libitum. Females and males from each of the 2 Oriusspecies were put in each box; the substrate for oviposition was either green bean ( P. vulgaris) pods, about 15 cm long (Castanñé & Zalom 1994;Richards & Schmidt 1996;Mendes et al. 2005) or recently set pepper fruits ( Capsicum annuum) (about 1 cm long), determined from previous studies. Boxes were placed in controlled climate chambers with the following conditions: 25 ± 1 °C, 70 ± 10% RH, and a 16: 8 h (L: D) photoperiod.
DURATION OF THE EMBRYONIC AND POST-EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
In order to obtain cohorts of O. insidiosusand O. tristicolor, 117 females and 39 males were extracted from the offspring of each species. They were then distributed in arenas constituting of plastic boxes (Biriden, Montevideo, Uruguay) (20 cm in diam) covered with polyethylene extendible film (Naka SA, Montevideo, Uruguay). As oviposition substrate, 4 pods of P. vulgaris(about 15 cm long) or 7 peppers (about 1 cm long) were placed in each box. Thirteen boxes were used for each species, and 9 males and 3 females were introduced into each of them. After 24 h, adults were removed, and the eggs laid in the pods and pepper fruits were counted under a stereoscopic microscope (Nikon SMZ 1B-X35, Nikon Corporation, Montevideo, Uruguay) in each box. Pods and peppers were gathered into 7 groups of 30 eggs each. Each group was considered a replication, and the pods and peppers from each replication were put in plastic boxes (Biriden, Montevideo, Uruguay) (20 cm in diam) covered with polyethylene extendible film (Naka SA, Montevideo, Uruguay) and kept until the nymphs hatched, following the procedure reported by Avellaneda et al. (2016).
To determine the duration of embryonic development, the number of eggs and first-stage nymphs present in each replication were counted every 24 h until no new nymphs were found. In order to calculate the duration of the nymphal developmental stage, the nymphs found daily were collected from the arenas, and were separated in order to prevent cannibalism or mutual interference, as reported for Oriusspecies in the absence of food or under a high density of individuals (van den Meiracker 1999). They were placed in Petri dishes (about 5 cm in diam) containing cotton wetted with distilled water, white filter paper (0.5 cm 2), and E. kuehniellaeggs ad libitum as prey. Each box was covered with polyethylene extensive film with high transparency in order to avoid escapes.
The duration of each nymphal stage was registered daily until adult emergence; the exuviae from the ecdysis was extracted using a fine paint brush. The sex-ratio was then determined by observing the abdominal region of adults (Ferragut & González 1994) under a stereoscopic microscope (Nikon SMZ 1B-X35, Nikon Corporation, Montevideo, Uruguay).
SURVIVAL OF EGGS AND NYMPHS
The eggs (laid on bean pods and pepper fruits) were monitored and observed daily in order to determine the percentage of eggs hatched and the survival rate of embryos. Hatched eggs can be differentiated because of the opening of the operculum that remains suspended from the egg. After hatching of the eggs, nymphs were individualized and observed daily in order to record the change of stage and determine nymphal survival; the exuviae from the ecdysis was extracted. This process was carried out until the last exuviae from the imaginal molting (nymph V) was obtained. A stereoscopic microscope (Nikon SMZ 1B-X35, Nikon Corporation, Montevideo, Uruguay) was used for observing the morphological changes of the nymphs.
LONGEVITY AND FERTILITY OF FEMALES
Petri dishes (5 cm in diam) were used as experimental units. They contained white sulphite paper (0.5 cm 2), E. kuehniellaeggs as food ad libitum, and cotton that was wetted daily with distilled water in order to keep the humidity elevated. In each box, a section of pod from P. vulgaris(about 3 cm long) or a pepper fruit (about 1 cm long) was placed as an oviposition substrate. Seventeen couples of anthocoridae from each species, ≤ 24 h old, were selected and introduced into an experimental unit. Bean pod sections and pepper fruits were removed daily and replaced by fresh ones until the death of the female. In case the male died before the female, he was quickly replaced (Avellaneda et al. 2016).
For each ovipositing female, the number of eggs laid was registered daily, and the periods of pre-oviposition, oviposition, and post-oviposition were determined, as well as the total fertility (total number of eggs per female), and the daily fertility (daily number of eggs per female). Longevity was calculated including all the females, even if no longer ovipositing.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
A 2-way ANOVA with Oriusspecies and host plant as 2 different factors was used to check the effect of oviposition-feeding substrate on the duration of the pre-imaginal development stages, the total duration of the development (egg to adult), pre-oviposition, oviposition, and post-oviposition periods, fertility, and longevity of O. insidiosusand O. tristicolorfemales. Before running the ANOVA programs ( P< 0.05), the normality of experimental errors as well as the homoscedasticity were checked. When the ANOVA reflected a significant difference, means were separated using the Tukey test. For data of embryonic and post-embryonic stages survival, the interaction between species and host plant was analyzed using a GLM (binomial distribution, and species and host plant as factors). All the statistical analyses were performed using the R Core Development Team statistical program (2014).
Results
DURATION OF THE EMBRYONIC AND POST-EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
Both O. insidiosusand O. tristicolorshowed a shorter duration of the embryonic stage on bean pods than on pepper fruits ( F= 257; df = 3; P< 0.001). Comparison between the 2 species indicated that O. insidiosusneeded less time than O. tristicolorto complete the egg stage on both oviposition substrates ( P< 0.05) (Table 1). An effect of the species ( F= 104; df = 1; P< 0.001), the host plant ( F= 663; df = 1; P< 0.001), and the plant-species interaction ( F= 4.17; df = 1; P< 0.001) on the duration of embryonic development was found.
Table 1.
Duration (d) (mean ± confidence interval) of the egg stage, the stages of nymphal development, and the total for the pre-imaginal period of Orius insidiosusand Orius tristicoloron bean pods and pepper fruits under controlled conditions: 25 ± 1 °C, 65 ± 10% RH, and a 16: 8 h (L: D) photoperiod.
Despite the fact that the 2 species reached the adult stage on both substrates, the duration of the pre-imaginal development in both species was lower on bean pods than on pepper fruits. Simultaneously, O. insidiosusneeded less time to develop from egg to adult on both substrates than O. tristicolor( F= 413; df = 3; P< 0.001).
When each nymphal stage was separately analyzed, the duration of the development of O. insidiosuswas shorter on bean pods than on pepper fruits for almost all the nymphal stages ( P< 0.001), except for the third stage in which no differences were detected ( P= 0.087). Similarly, the duration of the development of O. tristicolorwas shorter on bean pods than on pepper fruits for almost all the stages ( P< 0.001), except for the second stage in which the duration did not vary depending on the oviposition-feeding substrate ( P= 0.854). When comparing both species, the duration of the development of O. insidiosusoverall was shorter than that of O. tristicolorfor both substrates ( P< 0.001), except for the first stage on pepper fruits, when the opposite happened ( P< 0.001). In this same stage on bean pods, no differences were detected ( P= 0.472). No differences between species were observed for the third nymphal stage on bean pods ( P= 0.070).
SURVIVAL OF EGGS AND NYMPHS
The oviposition substrate affected the egg survival of both species, and survival was greater on pepper fruits than on bean pods ( P= 0.001; χ 2calculated = 17.52; χ 2theoretical = 7.81; df = 3; α = 0.05). The survival rate of embryonic O. insidiosuson pepper fruits was 61.9% and 47.6% on bean pods (calculated value = 0.219 > critical value = 0.120), whereas the survival rate of embryonic O. tristicoloron pepper fruits was 63.0% and 49.0% on beans (calculated value = 0.114 > critical value = 0.105). No significant differences between species were detected when compared for embryonic survival on either bean pods (calculated value = 0.014 < critical value = 0.136) or pepper fruits (calculated value = 0.014 < critical value = 0.132) (Table 2). An effect of the plant ( P= 0.001; χ 2= 11.21) on embryonic survival was found, but there is no effect of the species ( P= 0.001; χ 2= 2.75).
The substrate also influenced nymphal survival rate of both species (χ 2calculated = 48.04; χ 2theoretical = 7.81; df = 3; α = 0.05; P< 0.001). In both cases, survival was higher on pepper fruits than on bean pods. When the 2 species were compared, nymphal survival rate on bean pods was greater for O. tristicolor(75.7%) than for O. insidiosus(60.0%) (calculated value = 0.157 > critical value = 0.126), whereas on pepper fruits, no differences between species were detected (calculated value = 0.052 < critical value = 0.098) (Table 2). An effect of the host plant on nymphal survival ( P= 0.001; χ 2= 6.99) was observed, but there was no effect of the species ( P= 0.001; χ 2=0.52).
LONGEVITY AND FERTILITY OF FEMALES
The pre-oviposition period was not altered by the substrate in any of the species studied: O. insidiosuson pepper fruits compared to bean pods ( P= 0.175) and O. tristicoloron pepper fruits compared to bean pods ( P= 0.864) (Table 3).
The oviposition period was longer on pepper fruits than on bean pods for both species. When the 2 species were compared, the oviposition period on bean pods was longer for O. tristicolorthan for O. insidiosus( F= 14.09; df = 3; P= 0.0001). Similarly, on pepper fruits, the oviposition period was longer for O. tristicolorthan for O. insidiosus( F= 14.09; df = 3; P= 0.005). The post-oviposition period was not affected by substrate in any of the species considered ( F= 0.38; df = 3; P= 0.766) (Table 3).
Longevity was significantly affected by the oviposition-feeding substrate ( F= 9.24; df = 3; P< 0.001), but only for O. tristicolorwhere this period was longer on pepper fruits than on bean pods ( P= 0.008). Orius tristicolorshowed greater longevity than O. insidiosuson both substrates ( P= 0.049) (Table 3).
Total fertility was affected only by the oviposition-feeding substrate for O. tristicolor( F= 11.67; df = 3; P< 0.001), with a higher number of eggs per female on pepper fruits than on bean pods ( P= 0.024). Orius tristicolorlaid a higher number of eggs per female than O. insidiosuson both substrates (Table 3).
Daily fertility of O. insidiosusfemales on bean pods and pepper fruits was stabilized after 19 and 15 d, respectively, without significant differences between substrates (Figs. 1&3). On the other hand, cumulated daily fertility of O. tristicolorfemales on these 2 substrates was stabilized after 12 and 16 d, respectively, being higher on bean pods (Figs. 2&4).
Table 2.
Survival rate (%) in egg and nymphal stages of Orius insidiosusand Orius tristicoloron 2 oviposition substrates (bean pods and pepper fruits) under controlled conditions: 25 ± 1 °C, 65 ± 10% RH, and a 16: 8 h (L: D) photoperiod.
Table 3.
Pre-, post-, and oviposition periods (d), longevity of females (d), and total fertility (eggs per female). (Mean ± confidence interval) of Orius insidiosusand Orius tristicoloron 2 oviposition-feeding substrates (bean pods and pepper fruits) under controlled conditions: 25 ± 1 °C, 65 ± 10% RH, and a 16: 8 h (L: D) photoperiod.
An effect of the species ( F= 107.7; df = 1; P< 0.001), and of the plant-species interaction ( F= 103; df = 1; P< 0.001) on the longevity and fecundity of the females was found, but an effect of the host plant ( P= 0.82) on these variables was not observed.
Discussion
The duration of the egg development of O. insidiosuson bean pods observed in the current study was similar to that reported by van den Meiracker (1999) (4.6 d) and Tommasini et al. (2004) (4.2 d), who studied this species on the same vegetable substrate. Our findings were similar to data reported for O. tristicolorby Askari and Stern (1972) (5 d) at 25.5 °C on petioles from bean leaves; however, the findings were different than that reported by Avellaneda et al. (2016) when they evaluated O. insidiosuson bean pods. Care must be taken when comparing results from different authors because of the influence exerted by the different experimental methods used, the variability in the populations of predators used in each study, or the previous history of the offspring from which adults used for the oviposition were extracted (Iranipour et al. 2009;Avellaneda et al. 2016).
The physical effect of the oviposition substrate may have been influenced by the fact that both Oriusspecies completed their embryonic development more rapidly on bean pods than on pepper fruits. Eggs are inserted into vegetable tissues, so the time for egg development may be affected by the ease of insertion of the ovipositor, or perhaps the appropriateness of the different plants or sections of plants for the development of the eggs (Coll 1996).
The egg survival values observed were close to those reported for O. insidiosusby Richards and Schmidt (1996) and Tommasini et al. (2004), who obtained 56% and 63% of eggs hatched in bean pods, respectively. Little information is available about the biology of O. tristicoloron the same 2 substrates. It must be taken into account that the principal role of the substrate is to provide water and the appropriate conditions to avoid egg desiccation, and to allow complete egg development (van den Meiracker 1999). According to Nolasco (2008), after 3 d at 20 to 25 °C, bean pods lose 60% of their humidity. Therefore, the lower viability of eggs laid on bean pod compared to pepper fruits may be related to the rapid dehydration of bean after being cut. Perhaps the viability of the eggs obtained in our study would be different if whole pods were used on bank plants as refuge for Oriusspecies. The humidity variations in the oviposition substrate also may be the principal factor affecting the survival of nymphs, because the E. kuehniellaeggs cannot provide the moisture needed (Schmidt et al. 1995). The lack of humidity is the principal cause of mortality in the immature stages of O. insidiosus(Schmidt et al. 1998).
Fig. 1.
Cumulative daily fertility for Orius insidiosusfemales on 2 oviposition substrates: bean pods and pepper fruits.
Tommasini et al. (2004) and Avellaneda et al. (2016) obtained a total time of immature development of O. insidiosuson bean pods similar to that we observed in the current study, when this species was fed with F. occidentalisadults (14.1 d) or with E. kuehniellaeggs (15 d). In contrast, for O. tristicolor, Pinto et al. (2004) and Hokkanen et al. (2002) reported higher values on bean pods than those found in the current study, with a duration from egg to adult of 33.3 and 32 d at 26 °C, respectively, when this species was fed with F. occidentalisand Tetranychus urticaeKoch (Acarina: Tetranychidae).
Mendes et al. (2005) pointed out that females exposed to more tender tissues (rather than stiffer tissues) showed a lower pre-oviposition time. In our case, the beginning of the oviposition of females of the 2 species was similar for both substrates, which would indicate that no effect of substrate could be detected.
Fig. 2.
Cumulative daily fertility for Orius tristicolorfemales on 2 oviposition substrates: bean pods and pepper fruits.
Fig. 3.
Survival curves (in %) of Orius insidiosusfemales on 2 oviposition substrates under controlled conditions (25 ± 1 °C, 65 ± 10% RH, and a 16: 8 h [L: D] photoperiod): bean pods and pepper fruits.
A significant influence of the substrate on the oviposition period was observed for both species. In the case of O. insidiosuson bean pods, this period was similar to that reported by Avellaneda et al. (2016) (9.21 d), whereas Mendes et al. (2005) reported more extended periods when this species was bred on the same substrate and fed with E. kuehniellaeggs (27.8 d). Our results suggest that both structures and plant sections (bean pods or pepper fruits) are accepted by O. insidiosusand O. tristicolorfemales for oviposition despite the detected differences.
Differences in fertility and longevity between both substrates and between the 2 species could be related to the physico-chemical composition of the plant, as perceived by the predator during the oviposition activity (Richards & Schmidt 1996), and to the physical structure and internal anatomy of the plants. These plant conditions not only have direct implications on the females, but also on the ability of their offspring to use the same plant as a food resource (Lundgren et al. 2008). The complex tri-trophic relationship between the predators of the genus Oriusand the plant has been evidenced, because the plant, apart from being an oviposition substrate, also is used as a source of water and nutrients by these predators, which are phytophagous to a certain extent during their immature stages (Coll 1996;Cocuzza et al. 1997;Corey et al. 1998). Although other factors may affect the biological characteristics of Oriusspecies, such as temperature, photoperiod, and the type of prey (Argolo et al. 2002;Mendes et al .2002), the nutritional quality and the temperature are the most influential factors (Iranipour et al. 2009). In our study, temperature and photoperiod conditions were common for all individuals; therefore, the only variable that would explain the observed differences is the vegetable substrate.
The fact that pepper fruits proved to be an appropriate substrate for the expression of the biological characteristics of the Oriusspecies studied in a controlled environment allows for discarding an antibiosis effect that would explain the difficulties for establishing O. insidiosusin the greenhouses in Salto, Uruguay. Furthermore, pepper fruits allowed for maximizing most of the biological characteristics studies when they were compared with the values observed on bean pods.
These results present the need to evaluate other factors that may be affecting the establishment of Oriusspecies in greenhouses. According to Urbaneja et al. (2003), the speed of installation of these predators can be determined by several factors that may affect the moment of release: the genetic species or variety, the food or prey available, environmental conditions, chemical residues, and interspecific relationships that may arise with other arthropods. Taking these factors into account, it is important to emphasize that the pepper hybrids used in Uruguay are the Lamuyo type, which are different from those planted in most of the regions of the world where Oriusspecies are successfully used for the control of thrips on pepper (the Blocky type).
Fig. 4.
Survival curves (in %) of Orius tristicolorfemales on 2 oviposition substrates under controlled conditions (25 ± 1 °C, 65 ± 10% RH, and a 16: 8 h [L: D] photoperiod): bean pods and pepper fruits.
In Uruguay, greenhouses are not closed with a physical barrier or an insect-proof net that could prevent the exit of predators before they can be established. Oriusspecies have great mobility, to which we must add the flight capacity of adults, so that they can easily move from one place to another and thus locate new prey. In addition, it is a polyphagous control agent that can be used in a wide range of crops. The horticultural system in Uruguay presents a great diversity of crops (corn, strawberry, sorghum, etc.) that may attract predators to them.
On the other hand, greenhouses do not have supplementary lighting to avoid reproductive diapause that could be affecting populations and interfering with their effectiveness as biological control agents. Oriusfemales, in conditions of short d and low temperatures, enter reproductive diapause; this behavior was verified in O. insidiosus, O. laevigatus(Tommasini & Nicoli 1995), and O. tristicolor(Gillespie & Quiring 1993;van den Meiracker 1994). Orius insidiosusin temperate regions, and with photoperiods less than 13 h and mean temperature of 25 °C, enters into reproductive diapause (van den Meiracker 1994). This factor could limit its use as a natural enemy in winter conditions.
Determining a suitable flowering banker plant system for O. insidiosuscould improve opportunities for using the predator to control thrips by providing a source of supplementary food in the form of pollen (Frank 2010;Huang et al. 2011). Setting such a system in the greenhouse would allow O. insidiosusto establish and increase its population, offering growers the option of preventative introductions. An effective banker plant should provide a location for feeding and reproduction, as well as allowing nymphs to reach the adult stage quickly, ensuring a high survival rate, and supporting population growth. The Black Pearl ornamental pepper is currently used as a banker plant by some commercial growers, because it has been shown to support O. insidiosusin the absence of prey (Wong & Frank 2012,2013). Studies by Wong and Frank (2012,2013) indicate that pollen from Black Pearl peppers may result in larger populations of O. insidiosusby increasing the longevity of the predator when prey are absent, reduce development time, and increase likelihood of survival to adult.
The failure of O. insidiosusto establish itself in some greenhouses also could be attributed to the use of several insecticides. Currently, growers still use pesticides to reduce pest numbers before natural enemies are released, or when pest numbers reach economically damaging levels. Despite the potential effectiveness of biological control, many crop protection practices are primarily based on broad spectrum chemical pesticides that are noxious to beneficial arthropods (Desneux et al. 2007). Pesticides could induce multiple lethal and sublethal effects in individuals (Desneux et al. 2007), and these effects could have an important impact on the population dynamics of natural enemies (Stark & Banks 2003). Sublethal effects could impair the physiology (e.g., neurophysiology, development, longevity, fecundity, and sex-ratio) and the behavior (e.g., mobility, orientation, feeding, host searching, oviposition, and mating) of natural enemies (Arnó & Gabarra 2011;Stara et al. 2011).
Furthermore, it would be interesting to study the compatibility of O. insidiosusand A. swirskii, which also is released in the same pepper greenhouses, as was studied on rose by Chow et al. (2010). In fact, intraguild predation, with Oriusacting as an intraguild predator and Amblyseiusas an intraguild prey, may be affected by different factors (Lucas 2005). However, A. swirskiiis used in greenhouses for pepper without problems, controlling the populations of F. occidentalis, but Oriusspp. are not established and do not colonize well in greenhouse crops; therefore, it is expected that intraguild predation should not be regarded as totally or partially responsible for this lack. Finally, it is necessary to check for the existence of antixenosis or no-preference, a phenomenon that results in the insect avoiding the plant for oviposition, feeding, or shelter (Painter 1951). This mechanism, which adversely affects the behavior of a given insect, impeding it to interact with certain genotypes of its hosts, also could be responsible for the fact that O. insidiosusindividuals mass-released on pepper crops in Salto could only scarcely be recovered over the growing cycle of those crops.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the authorities of the Estación Experimental de la Facultad de Agronomía (EEFAS), and to the colleagues from the Department of Vegetal Protection in EEFAS and the Entomology unit in Montevideo for their collaboration during the entire study period. This study was supported by a grant from the Agencia Nacional de Investigación e Innovación (ANII/INNOVAGRO) that funded a project titled: “Contribution to the biological control of pests of horticulture in the region of Salto.”
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Citation
María E. Lorenzo , Leticia Bao , Luciana Mendez , Gabriela Grille , Olivier Bonato , and Cesar Basso "Effect of Two Oviposition Feeding Substrates on Orius insidiosus and Orius tristicolor (Hemiptera: Anthocoridae)," Florida Entomologist 102(2), 395-402, (14 June 2019). https://doi.org/10.1653/024.102.0216
María E. Lorenzo, Leticia Bao, Luciana Mendez, Gabriela Grille, Olivier Bonato, Cesar Basso "Effect of Two Oviposition Feeding Substrates on
Orius insidiosus
and
Orius tristicolor
(Hemiptera: Anthocoridae)," Florida Entomologist, 102(2), 395-402, (14 June 2019)
| https://bioone.org/journals/Florida-Entomologist/volume-102/issue-2/024.102.0216/Effect-of-Two-Oviposition-Feeding-Substrates-on-Orius-insidiosus-and/10.1653/024.102.0216.full |
Remote Sensing | Free Full-Text | Snow Wetness Retrieved from L-Band Radiometry
The present study demonstrates the successful use of the high sensitivity of L-band brightness temperatures to snow liquid water in the retrieval of snow liquid water from multi-angular L-band brightness temperatures. The emission model employed was developed from parts of the “microwave emission model of layered snowpacks” (MEMLS), coupled with components adopted from the “L-band microwave emission of the biosphere” (L-MEB) model. Two types of snow liquid water retrievals were performed based on L-band brightness temperatures measured over (i) areas with a metal reflector placed on the ground (“reflector area”— T B , R ), and (ii) natural snow-covered ground (“natural area”— T B , N ). The reliable representation of temporal variations of snow liquid water is demonstrated for both types of the aforementioned quasi-simultaneous retrievals. This is verified by the fact that both types of snow liquid water retrievals indicate a dry snowpack throughout the “cold winter period” with frozen ground and air temperatures well below freezing, and synchronously respond to snowpack moisture variations during the “early spring period”. The robust and reliable performance of snow liquid water retrieved from T B , R , together with their level of detail, suggest the use of these retrievals as “references” to assess the meaningfulness of the snow liquid water retrievals based on T B , N . It is noteworthy that the latter retrievals are achieved in a two-step retrieval procedure using exclusively L-band brightness temperatures, without the need for in-situ measurements, such as ground permittivity ε G and snow mass-density ρ S . The latter two are estimated in the first retrieval-step employing the well-established two-parameter ( ρ S , ε G ) retrieval scheme designed for dry snow conditions and explored in the companion paper that is included in this special issue in terms of its sensitivity with respect to disturbative melting effects. The two-step retrieval approach proposed and investigated here, opens up the possibility of using airborne or spaceborne L-band radiometry to estimate ( ρ S , ε G ) and additionally snow liquid water as a new passive L-band data product.
Snow Wetness Retrieved from L-Band Radiometry
1
Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Birmensdorf CH-8903, Switzerland
2
Gamma Remote Sensing AG, Gümligen CH-3073, Switzerland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Remote Sens. 2018 , 10 (3), 359; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10030359
Received: 13 December 2017 / Revised: 15 February 2018 / Accepted: 21 February 2018 / Published: 26 February 2018
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Snow Remote Sensing )
Abstract
The present study demonstrates the successful use of the high sensitivity of L-band brightness temperatures to snow liquid water in the retrieval of snow liquid water from multi-angular L-band brightness temperatures. The emission model employed was developed from parts of the “microwave emission model of layered snowpacks” (MEMLS), coupled with components adopted from the “L-band microwave emission of the biosphere” (L-MEB) model. Two types of snow liquid water retrievals were performed based on L-band brightness temperatures measured over (i) areas with a metal reflector placed on the ground (“reflector area”—
T B , R
), and (ii) natural snow-covered ground (“natural area”—
T B , N
). The reliable representation of temporal variations of snow liquid water is demonstrated for both types of the aforementioned quasi-simultaneous retrievals. This is verified by the fact that both types of snow liquid water retrievals indicate a dry snowpack throughout the “cold winter period” with frozen ground and air temperatures well below freezing, and synchronously respond to snowpack moisture variations during the “early spring period”. The robust and reliable performance of snow liquid water retrieved from
T B , R
T B , N
. It is noteworthy that the latter retrievals are achieved in a two-step retrieval procedure using exclusively L-band brightness temperatures, without the need for in-situ measurements, such as ground permittivity
ε G
and snow mass-density
ρ S
. The latter two are estimated in the first retrieval-step employing the well-established two-parameter
( ρ S , ε G )
retrieval scheme designed for dry snow conditions and explored in the companion paper that is included in this special issue in terms of its sensitivity with respect to disturbative melting effects. The two-step retrieval approach proposed and investigated here, opens up the possibility of using airborne or spaceborne L-band radiometry to estimate
( ρ S , ε G )
and additionally snow liquid water as a new passive L-band data product.
Keywords:
snow liquid water content
;
L-band radiometry
;
early spring snow
;
snow wetness
;
MEMLS
;
climate change
;
LS—MEMLS
Graphical Abstract
1. Introduction
Microwave remote sensing is a key tool in the assessment of terrestrial surface state parameters, for example, of the Cryosphere, which has been successfully applied to improve climate predictions and mitigation strategies. Notably, the assessment of large scale information on column properties of seasonal snowpacks is very limited, despite technical advancements and the increasing number of dedicated microwave satellite missions launched by space agencies during the last few decades. This observational gap must be taken seriously when considering the accelerated melting rates in the Northern hemisphere, which have already led to a significant loss of seasonal snow-mass across the Northern hemisphere [ 1 , 2 , 3 ], with self-accelerating impacts on the evolution of the Earth’s climate and its consequences on the vulnerability of snow as a vital freshwater resource [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Among the snow column properties, snow liquid water column W C S = ∫ 0 h s W S ( z ) ⋅ d z , defined as snows volumetric liquid water content W S integrated over the entire snow depth h S , is specifically important in avalanche forecasting [ 7 ] and modeling and forecasting of snow melt runoff in operational hydrology [ 8 ].
Closing the observational gap of large scale remote sensing of snow column properties, such as snow liquid water column, is built on two premises. First, the sensing depth of the employed remote sensing technique must reach and exceed the depth of the observed snowpack. Second, adequate retrieval schemes are needed to extract the desired snow-column information from the remote sensing data. The first requirement is best met with low frequency microwave remote sensing, such as L-band (1–2 GHz) radiometry, which almost excludes the applicability of higher frequency sensors for the direct assessment of snow column properties. This is because the emission depth of microwaves at higher frequencies, such as C-, X-, and K-bands is very limited. For example, for moist snow with only 1% volumetric liquid water content, the emission depth at the X-band (4–8 GHz) is less than 30 cm (Section 4.15 in [
9
]), implying that moist seasonal snow is almost opaque. Consequently, not even X-band measurements can provide direct information on the snow liquid water column.
Several papers have investigated the effect of snow wetness on backscattering coefficients and the brightness temperatures measured with active [ 10 , 11 , 12 ] and passive [ 10 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ] microwave remote sensing. However, due to dominating snow volume scattering and the associated drop of microwave penetration depth for increasing microwave frequencies, there have only been few successful techniques for inferring snow wetness from active remote sensing data at X- and C-band. For example, in [ 17 ] the wetness of the top layer of the snowpack is retrieved from SIR-C/X-SAR measurements based on a model relating the surface and volume scattering of snow to its wetness. As an example in the field of passive remote sensing, artificial neural network is used in [ 18 ] to develop an empirical relationship between in-situ measured snow wetness and brightness temperatures measured at 19 and 37 GHz to devise a retrieval algorithm for snow wetness of vegetated terrain. Nevertheless, these retrieval algorithms yield limited estimates of liquid water only within the snowpack’s upper-most layer of a few centimeters ( ≲ 5 cm ) thickness, corresponding to the order of magnitude of the observation wavelength applied. Conversely, passive remote sensing at the L-band has clear advantages over higher frequency radiometry and active observations. For example, the L-band emission depth in moist snow with volumetric liquid-water of 1% is approximately 1.7 m (Section 4.15 in [ 9 ]), which is of the order of seasonal snow cover depth. Therefore, in this work, we suggest and demonstrate that L-band radiometry can be used for estimating snow liquid water column W C S over different evolutionary phases of seasonal snowpack. It is important to note that, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, there has been no successful snow liquid water column retrieval using L-band radiometry to date.
Methods for the in-situ quantification of snow liquid water are likewise limited today. Time-domain reflectometry (TDR) applied to snow wetness and density retrievals was qualitatively demonstrated by [
19
] for the first time. Subsequent work performed the necessary calibrations [
20
] and led to the development of an in-situ snow-wetness TDR sensor [
21
] enabling the recording of long-term time series of snow wetness. However, accuracy and representativeness of snowpack wetness measured with these TDRs is limited mainly because of (i) the ambiguity of measured travel-time caused by empirically set thresholds of strength assumed for the reflected signal, (ii) the uncertainty in the position of the sensor buried in the snowpack which changes over time as result of snowpack evolution, and (iii) the intrinsic impact of the sensor on snow liquid water in its proximity. Other methods for in-situ measurement of snow liquid water content, such as calorimetric methods, are prohibitively time-consuming and are very limited in terms of spatial and temporal coverage. This highlights the importance and usefulness of a reliable remote sensing method for retrieving the snow wetness extending beyond the very surface layer of the snowpack.
The high sensitivity of L-band brightness temperatures with respect to the snow liquid water column W C S is demonstrated theoretically and experimentally in [ 22 ]. The just mentioned work provides the theoretical and experimental base for the work presented here and also of the companion paper [ 23 ]. Accordingly, it is recommended to the reader to consult [ 22 ], which describes the respective remote sensing field laboratory established at Davos-Laret (Switzerland) and provides analyses of the L-band brightness temperatures T B p and in-situ observations performed during the 2016/2017 winter season. Furthermore, the processing of the ELBARA-II L-band radiometer’s raw data to achieve calibrated T B p is presented in [ 22 ], including an improved approach to mitigate and quantify distortions that are associated with non-thermal Radio Frequency Interferences (RFI). The noticeable sensitivity of L-band brightness temperatures to snow liquid water found in [ 22 ] has indeed motivated this work aiming to explore the potential use of L-band radiometry to estimate liquid water column W C S of a seasonal snowpack.
The use of L-band brightness temperatures to retrieve mass-density ρ S of dry snow and ground permittivity ε G has already been demonstrated in [ 24 ], and validated experimentally in [ 25 , 26 ]. The snow liquid water retrievals presented here are based on the same ground-snow emission model [ 27 ]. It should be noted that the present study explores the possibility to estimate snow liquid water column W C S from L-band radiometry and it is a companion paper of [ 23 ], which investigates the sensitivity of synthetic and experimental retrievals ( ρ S , ε G ) with respect to: (i) snow liquid water, and (ii) increased inhomogeneity of ground permittivity among observed footprint areas. It is worth mentioning that both of these disturbing factors are associated with meting effects, and thus the companion paper [ 23 ] complements [ 28 ], which analyzes the sensitivities of retrievals ( ρ S , ε G ) with respect to ground roughness variability and snow density layering.
Furthermore, the present work and its companion [ 23 ] are joint papers because they essentially use each other’s findings such that: (i) the experimental snow density and ground permittivity retrievals ( ρ S , ε G ) presented in [ 23 ] are used as “pseudo-measurements” necessary for snow wetness retrievals over natural ground; and, (ii) the snow wetness retrievals presented here are used as experimental evidence to explain the disturbing effects of snow liquid water content on the two-parameter retrievals ( ρ S , ε G ) presented in [ 23 ].
Section 2 of this paper presents an excerpt from [ 22 ] on the test-site, and the in-situ and radiometry data used in this work. Section 3 outlines the developed methodology to estimate snow liquid water from L-band measurements. Section 4 presents the results and a discussion on the snow liquid water retrievals derived from the experimental L-band brightness temperatures. Finally, Section 5 summarizes the key points and findings of this work and lays out possible future actions.
2. Data Sets
2.1. Test Site
The Davos-Laret Remote Sensing Field Laboratory (48°50′53″N, 9°52′19″E) in Switzerland [ 22 ] is a 50 m × 50 m area in the Alps with an approximate elevation of 1450 m above sea level. The ground is mostly flat with a smooth slope on the north-western side of the site. The valley, including the site area, is encompassed by mountains with an average height difference of ~400 m with respect to the site. The site area is surrounded by Lake Schwarz on the north-western side, coniferous forest on the south-eastern side, and local buildings on the north-eastern and south-western sides. During spring and summer, the site is covered with lawn grass and is used as grazing ground.
2.2. In-Situ Measurements
Temperatures and dielectric permittivities of the ground were measured every five minutes throughout the winter 2016/2017 campaign using an automated network of a dozen SMT-100 sensors. These sensors use a ring oscillator, in which a steep pulse, emitted by a line driver, travels along a closed transmission line buried in soil. The permittivity of the medium is computed through the travel time of the pulse. As indicated by red squares in
Figure 1
, SMT-100 sensors were located along two transects to capture in-situ permittivity and temperature of the ground at 5 cm depth with their spatial heterogeneity across the footprint areas of the radiometer. Detailed information on these in-situ measurements can be found in [
22
].
Figure 1. Schematics of the Davos-Laret Remote Sensing Field Laboratory [ 22 ] during the winter 2016/17 campaign.
During the snow covered period, starting from 3 January 2017, regular snow depth profile measurements were performed manually. Snow height
h S
and mass-density
ρ S
were measured approximately once a week using a snow cutter with depth resolution of ≤10 cm. The green crosses in
Figure 2
a,b indicate measured
h S
and
ρ S
, where the latter represents average density of the bottom ~10 cm of the snowpack. Red lines are B-splines fitted to estimate temporal variations of
h S
and
ρ S
between sequential in-situ measurements and to reflect measurement uncertainties. The reason for showing the snow bottom-layer
ρ S
is that this is the most influential snowpack parameter on L-band emission of a ground covered with dry snow via its impedance matching and refractive effects as outlined in [
24
,
27
].
Figure 2. ( a ) Measured snow height h S , and ( b ) density ρ S of the bottom ~10 cm of the snowpack. Snow melted down in the second half of March, and disappeared within ~10 days (see [ 22 ]).
2.3. Radiometry Data
An ELBARA-II radiometer [
29
] was used to measure L-band brightness temperatures
T B p
in the protected frequency band 1400 MHz–1427 MHz at both vertical and horizontal polarizations
p
= H, V. The instrument was mounted on an 8-meter tower and was equipped with tracking systems, allowing for automated observations of
T B p ( θ k )
at discrete nadir angles
θ k
and azimuth directions. The tracking systems were configured to perform sequential measurements along the azimuth direction of the “natural area” and the “reflector area”, with a metal mesh reflector placed on the ground, each with the eight nadir angles
θ k =
30°, 35°,…, 65° (
Figure 1
). This measurement cycle was performed once an hour throughout the campaign. Sky measurements at
θ sky = 140 °
were initiated manually during precipitation-free times, every two days when possible.
Calibrated L-band brightness temperatures measured over the either snow-free or snow-covered “natural area” (N) are indicated by
T B , N p ( θ k )
. Measurements dominated by emissions originating from the “reflector area” are performed quasi-simultaneously. Together with
T B , N p ( θ k ) ,
the latter are used to extract radiance
T B , R p ( θ k )
exclusively emitted by the “reflector area” (R) following the approach explained in [
22
]. The resultant
T B , R p ( θ k )
represent, almost exclusively, the volume emission of the snow because of the very high reflectivity of the reflector covering the ground. As is well known, at L-band, the volume emission of seasonal snow is negligible under dry snow conditions [
27
,
30
]. However, as shown in Section 5 in [
22
], snow volume emission becomes significant for even slight amounts of snow liquid water. Accordingly, quasi-simultaneous
T B , N p ( θ k )
and
T B , R p ( θ k )
are essential to the research presented here, because it is the experimental key to separate snow volume emission
T B , R p ( θ k )
from the overall emission
T B , N p ( θ k )
of a snow covered natural ground.
3. Retrieval Approach
The general concept of the approach that is used to retrieve volumetric snow liquid water content
W S
is to optimally fit measurements
T B p ( θ k )
to corresponding simulated (sim.) brightness temperatures
T B , sim . p ( θ k )
. The numerically minimized cost function applied reads:
C F ( W S ) ≡ ∑ θ k , p ( T B p ( θ k ) − T B , sim. p ( θ k , W S ) ) 2 ( Δ T B , RMA + Δ T B p ( θ k ) ) 2
(1)
The concrete single parameter retrievals of snow liquid water content presented here are
W S = W S , R R M
derived from measured
T B p ( θ k ) = T B , R p ( θ k )
of the “reflector area” (R), and
W S = W S , N R M
derived from
T B p ( θ k ) = T B , N p ( θ k )
of the “natural area” (N). Furthermore, each type of
W S
retrieval is performed for three different “polarization modes” (first introduced and employed in [
28
])
RM
= “H”, “V” including either observations at polarization
p
= H or V, and
RM
= “HV” using both polarizations. Furthermore,
T B p ( θ k )
measured at nadir angles
30 ° ≤ θ k ≤ 65 °
are used, implying that retrieved
W S
is an “effective” value of snow liquid water content representative of the entire area covered by the footprints observed at
30 ° ≤ θ k ≤ 65 °
. The flowchart in
Figure 3
illustrates the steps that are taken for achieving each of the two types of snow liquid water content retrievals
W S = W S , R R M
and
W S = W S , N R M
, plus the validation of the latter based on the former retrievals.
Figure 3. Flowchart representing the approaches used to achieve “reference” retrievals W S , R R M of snow liquid water content from T B , R p ( θ k ) measured over the “reflector area” ( a ), and W S , N R M of snow liquid water content retrieved from measurements T B , N p ( θ k ) measured over the “natural area” ( b ). Retrieval approaches are under-laid in light gray; specific parameter values are under-laid in white.
The denominator in Equation (1) assigns different weights to measurements
T B p ( θ k )
, according to their uncertainty understood as the sum of the radiometer assembly’s (RMA) inherent uncertainty
Δ T B , RMA
and the error
Δ T B p ( θ k )
imposed by non-thermal noise entering the antenna. The higher the value of the denominator in Equation (1), the lower the weight assigned to a measurement
T B p ( θ k )
. In the case of ELBARA-II, the radiometer assembly’s uncertainty is
Δ T B , RMA ≃ 1 K
[
29
,
31
]. The error
Δ T B p ( θ k )
caused by non-thermal radio frequency interference (RFI) is estimated from the non-Gaussianity of the probability density function (PDF) of the raw-data voltage sample that is associated with a given measurement
T B p ( θ k )
. Highly RFI-corrupted
T B p ( θ k )
(i.e., with coefficients of determination
R 2 < 0.95
between the PDF of the measured raw-data voltage sample and a perfect Gaussian PDF) are excluded from retrievals. This RFI filtering and mitigation approach is explained in detail in Section 4.2 in [
22
].
Simulated T B , sim . p ( θ k ) used in the cost function defined in Equation (1) are computed with the L-band-specific emission model “LS—MEMLS”, as outlined in Section 5.1 in [ 22 ]. “LS—MEMLS” has previously been used successfully for retrievals of ground permittivity ε G and snow bottom-layer density ρ S based on synthetic [ 24 , 28 ] and experimental [ 25 ] brightness temperatures. Additionally, the high sensitivity of simulated L-band brightness temperatures to snow liquid water content W S is demonstrated in Section 5.2 in [ 22 ], and is employed here for the retrieval of snow liquid water contents W S = W S , R R M and W S = W S , N R M using measured T B , R p ( θ k ) and T B , N p ( θ k ) , respectively.
The specific retrieval approach that is used to estimate snow liquid water content W S uses the single-layer version of “LS—MEMLS”. The corresponding equations used to express L-band T B , sim . p ( θ k ) of a rough ground covered with a homogeneous moist snowpack are found in Equations (13)–(21) in Section 5.1 in [ 22 ]. Through a global numerical minimization process based on tuning the value of the single retrieval parameter W S ( = W S , R R M or W S , N R M ), the cost function in Equation (1) is minimized and the corresponding minimizing value of W S is taken as the retrieval result. The two slightly different configurations of the single-layer version of “LS—MEMLS” are used in the respective retrieval approaches that are employed to retrieve W S = W S , R R M and W S = W S , N R M from T B p ( θ k ) = T B , R p ( θ ) and T B p ( θ k ) = T B , N p ( θ ) . This is explained in Section 3.1 and Section 3.2 . Before going any further, it is important to mention that the range of applicability for the snow liquid water retrieval method presented here is between 0 m 3 m − 3 ≤ W S ≲ 0.05 m 3 m − 3 . This is mainly because the penetration depth of L-band microwaves drops from >300 m in dry snow to ≈40 cm for wet snow with 5% snow liquid water content [ 14 , 32 ].
3.1. Approach Used to Retrieve W S = W S , R R M from T B , R p ( θ k )
As explained in Section 2.3 , the T B , R p ( θ ) exclusively respresent the volume emission of the snow. Knowing that the self-emission of dry snow at L-band is negligible [ 27 , 30 ], any increases in T B , R p ( θ ) over the sky radiance T B , sky , reflected by the metal reflector, is due to increased snow wetness. Therefore, retrievals W S = W S , R R M , derived from T B p ( θ k ) = T B , R p ( θ k ) , as measured over the “reflector area”, are considered as “reference” to validate snow liquid water content retrievals W S = W S , N R M derived from T B , N p ( θ ) measured over “natural area” ( Figure 1 ). Accordingly, as shown in the left-handside of Figure 3 , ground reflectivity s G p = 1 is assumed, leading to the Kirchhoff coefficient a G p = 0 of the ground (Equation (20) in [ 22 ]). Consequently, simulated (sim.) T B , sim . p ( θ k ) = T B , sim . , R p ( θ k ) used in Equation (1) are necessarily independent of ground temperature T G , ground permittivity ε G , and the HQN ground roughness parameters ( h G , q G , n G V , n G H ) . Uncertainties Δ T B p ( θ k ) = Δ T B , R p ( θ k ) of T B p ( θ k ) = T B , R p ( θ k ) are estimated from the non-thermal RFI-induced errors of quasi-simultaneous brightness temperatures measured along the azimuth of the “natural area” and the “reflector area”. Gaussian error propagation is thereto employed using the equations provided in Section 4.4 in [ 22 ]. Furthermore, snow temperature is assumed as T S = 0 ° C , which is physically reasomable for moist snow. On the other hand, the assumption made on T S is irrelevant for dry snow because of negligible snow emission in this case. Snow height and its mass density are represented by the corresponding in-situ measurements h S and ρ S , respectively, as shown in Figure 2 . Accordingly, W S used as input in the single-layer version of “LS—MEMLS” are related to snow liquid water columns W C S = ∫ 0 h s W S ( z ) ⋅ d z via W S = W C S / h S .
3.2. Approach Used to Retrieve W S = W S , N R M from T B , N p ( θ k )
As indicated in Figure 3 , retrievals W S = W S , N R M are derived from T B p ( θ k ) = T B , N p ( θ k ) measured over the “natural area” using a two-step approach. The first step consists of retrieving ground permittivity and snow mass density ( ρ S R M , ε G R M ) based on measurements T B p ( θ k ) = T B , N p ( θ k ) . In this multi-angular two-parameter retrieval, the snowpack is formally assumed as dry ( W S = 0 m 3 m − 3 ). The ( ρ S R M , ε G R M ) retrieval approach and its sensitivity to liquid water is outlined in detail in the companion paper [ 23 ]. The reader is further referred to [ 24 , 25 , 28 ], where a similar ( ρ S R M , ε G R M ) retrieval approach is comprehensively explained and employed for both synthetic and experimental data. However, it is once more emphasized that two-parameter retrievals ( ρ S R M , ε G R M ) that are based on measurements T B p ( θ k ) = T B , N p ( θ k ) over the “natural area” are used as “pseudo-measurements” to retrieve W S = W S , N R M from the same measurements T B p ( θ k ) = T B , N p ( θ k ) . The second step consists of retrieving W S = W S , N R M using the single-layer version of “LS—MEMLS” that includes snow liquid water to simulate T B , sim . p ( θ k ) = T B , sim . , N p ( θ k ) . In contrast to Section 3.1 , ground reflectivity is not assumed as s G p = 1 here, and thus none of the Kirchhoff coefficients a G p , a S p , a sky p (Equation (20) in [ 22 ]) used to simulate T B , sim . p ( θ k ) = T B , sim . , N p ( θ k ) is zero. Instead, the complete single layer version of “LS—MEMLS”, outlined in Section 5.1 in [ 22 ], is used. Ground temperatures T G are represented by the means of the in-situ measurements along the two transects ( Section 2.2 ). Just as in the first retrieval step (to achieve the “pseudo-measurements” ( ρ S R M , ε G R M ) ), the HQN ground roughness parameters are assumed as ( h G , q G , n G V , n G H ) = ( 0.1 , 0.05 , 0.0 , 0.0 ) . Uncertainties Δ T B p ( θ k ) = Δ T B , N p ( θ k ) caused by non-thermal RFI are estimated from the level of non-Gaussianity of PDFs associated with measurements T B p ( θ k ) = T B , N p ( θ k ) following the approach explained in Section 4.2 in [ 22 ]. Furthermore, snow temperature is assumed as T S = 0 ° C for the same reasons provided in Section 3.1 , and snow heights h S are represented by the in-situ measurements shown in Figure 2 a. The significance of the outlined two-step (first ( ρ S R M , ε G R M ) , then W S , N R M ) retrieval of the three parameters ( ρ S R M , ε G R M , W S , N R M ) lies in their independence from ancillary data such as ground permittivity and snow density.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Snow Wetness Retrieval W S , R R M Using T B , R p
This section presents the retrieval of W S , R R M based on T B , R p ( θ k ) using the methodology presented in Section 3.1 . Time series of W S , R R M retrievals are used in Section 4.2 in order to assess the meaningfulness of W S , N R M retrieved from measurements T B , N p ( θ k ) performed over natural snow-covered ground areas.
Figure 4
a,b, and c contain the time series of volumetric liquid water content retrieval results
W S , R R M
for retrieval modes
RM
= “HV”, “H”, and “V”, respectively. Throughout the “snow-free period” (15 December 2016 to 3 January 2017), the
W S , R R M
retrievals for all three retrieval modes are virtually zero, which is, of course, expected in the absence of a snow cover. Nevertheless, occasional non-zero
W S , R R M
retrievals are observed for the “snow-free period”, especially for
RM
= “H”. To understand this, it is recalled that brightness temperatures
T B , R p ( θ k )
are not directly measured, but computed using quasi-synchronous ELBARA-II measurements along the azimuth direction of the “natural area” and the “reflector area” (
Figure 1
). This results in the inclusion of small contributions from the surrounding areas with no metal reflector being placed on the ground. The
T B , R p ( θ k )
computation method is comprehensively explained in Section 4.4 in [
22
]. Accordingly, during the “snow-free period”, soil liquid water content increases during the day as a result of exposure to direct sunlight and air temperatures above the freezing point. The impact of this increased soil moisture on L-band brightness temperatures can partly leak into
T B , R p ( θ k )
through the non-idealities of its computation, causing it to slightly increase above its expected value
T B , R p ( θ k ) = T sky
, and consequently
W S , R R M > 0 m 3 m − 3
. However, with the onset of snow cover at the beginning of the “cold winter period”, diurnal thawing of the soil is inhibited by the thermal insulation of the snowpack.
Figure 4. Retrievals W S , R R M of snow liquid water content derived from T B , R p ( θ k ) for ( a ) RM = “HV”, ( b ) RM = “H”, and ( c ) RM = “V”, respectively. Light gray overlays indicate the zoomed-in view of W S , R R M shown in Figure 5 .
Figure 5. Zoomed-in views of W S , R “ HV ” shown in Figure 4 a for ( a ) 12–20 February during the “early-spring period”, and ( b ) 8–30 January during the “cold winter period”. Air temperatures T air are indicated by magenta lines; precipitation rates r are shown in the bottom panels.
During the “cold winter period” (3–30 January), when the snowpack is consistently dry,
W S , R R M
for all
RM
s is zero. At the beginning of the “early spring period” (1 February–15 March), the snowpack gradually becomes slightly moist, resulting in diurnal increases of
W S , R R M
with its maximum being reached in the afternoons but still limited to <0.01 m
3
m
−3
. The wettening of the snowpack, as a result of integral heat input over time and gradually increasing air temperature, continues over the rest of February until the end of the campaign. This results in the general increase of
W S , R R M
and also in the number of occurrences when its values are higher than the moist snow threshold, defined as
0.01 m 3 m − 3
(dashed horizontal lines).
Comparing W S , R “ H ” in Figure 4 b with W S , R “ V ” in Figure 4 c shows similar temporal patterns of water content retrievals that are almost identical among the two RM s. However, in some cases, the retrieval mode RM = “V” shows a higher sensitivity to variations in snow liquid water. This is the case, for example, during the period 7–11 February where W S , R “ V ” ( Figure 4 c) reveals a series of distinct peaks, which do not show up in the contemporaneous retrievals W S , R “ H ” ( Figure 4 b). However, higher sensitivity of retrievals W S , R R M achieved with RM = ”V” as compared to RM = “H” is consistent with the model-based sensitivity analysis of brightness temperatures with respect to snow liquid water column W C S presented in [ 22 ]. As is shown in the Figure 10 in [ 22 ], T B , R V at vertical polarization are increased more than T B , R H at horizontal polarization for any given snow liquid water column W C S . Thus, the stronger amplitudes of W S , R “ V ” (and sometimes their exclusive occurrence between 7–11 February) as compared to those of W S , R “ H ” during periods when snow becomes periodically moist during afternoon hours, corroborates the modeling result that T B , R V are more sensitive than T B , R H with respect to W C S .
Figure 5
a,b provide more details by means of zoomed-in views of
Figure 4
a showing
W S , R “ HV ”
in the periods from 12–20 February and 8–30 January, respectively. The corresponding air temperatures
T air
measured outside the ELBARA-II radiometer, as well as the recorded precipitation rates
r
, are shown. The
W S , R “ HV ”
retrieval graph in
Figure 5
a shows signs of the “early-spring snow” in that the snowpack is dry in the morning of each day, but as
T air
rises and the snowpack is periodically subject to more heat input from the Sun and atmosphere, the snowpack becomes slightly moist and gradually returns to its dry status overnight. Furthermore, the evolution of the diurnal increases in
W S , R “ HV ”
shows that the snowpack refreezing-time slightly increases over the first six days of the period shown in
Figure 5
a. While the snowpack completely refreezes a few hours before midnight on 12 and 13 February, refreezing takes all the way until midnight to occur from 15–17 February. The observed trend of gradually increasing time for snowpack refreezing to occur is the consequence of steadily increasing integral energy input over time. The peak of
W S , R “ HV ”
around noon on 18 January is coincident with the precipitation of moist snow or rain taking place at air temperatures
T air > 0 ° C
. Accordingly, the noticeably high response of
W S , R “ HV ”
demonstrates the sensitivity of the snow liquid water retrieval to moist precipitation on dry snow.
A high correlation between W S , R “ HV ” and T air can be seen in Figure 5 a showing that almost every time with T air > 0 ° C , the retrieved snow liquid water is W S , R “ HV ” > 0 m 3 m − 3 . This is true even for 17 February when T air at its peak is ≈ 9 K colder than the previous days. However, due to this temperature decrease, the snowpack becomes slightly moist and refreezes quickly. Nevertheless, it should be noted that the T air > 0 ° C condition is not sufficient for W S , R R M > 0 m 3 m − 3 . This becomes obvious, for example, in Figure 5 b, which shows that W S , R “ HV ” is constantly zero, even though after 19 January, air temperature rises above the freezing point. However, when comparing with Figure 5 a, we observe that these diurnal periods with T air > 0 ° C are significantly shorter, and that preceding T air are also lower. Consequently, the resulting “time-integrated heat-inputs” in combination with the associated “history of snow-states” is not sufficient to warm the snow to its melting temperature and to overcome ice latent-heat [ 33 ] that is required to release a phase-change from frozen ice to liquid snow water. Furthermore, W S , R “ HV ” = 0 m 3 m − 3 retrievals in Figure 5 b during the first half of January show that dry snow precipitation (for T air ≪ 0 ° C ) does not increase snow liquid water.
Generally speaking, the snow-melt is expected to have a relationship with T air and its history so much so that some snow evolution models have attempted to express snow-melt rates as a function of air-temperature measured in terms of “degree-days” above freezing [ 34 , 35 , 36 ]. However, the “degree-days” factor method “implies an assumption of a constant relative contribution of each of the components of the heat balance equations to air temperature” [ 37 ]. Such components include, but are not limited to, energy input that is required to warm dry snow to the melting temperature and rate of heat-transfer through the snowpack [ 38 ]. In this respect, measurement-based information on interdependencies between W S , R “ HV ” and time synchronous micro-meteorological history can help to improve the calibration of snow evolution model parameters that are used to parameterize snow energy inputs, fluxes, and capacities.
At this point, it is worth mentioning that a snowpack does not necessarily become moist strictly top-down as a result of an energy-input from above. A moist snow-layer can form even underneath the dry snow surface under certain conditions. Such conditions are mainly related to clear-sky situations with strong radiation from the Sun, but with cold air temperatures. Under these conditions, downwelling short-wave solar radiation can penetrate the upper few centimeters of a dry snowpack only to become absorbed below the snow-surface. This results in an energy-input that is dissipated to a snow sub-surface layer, which ultimately causes the situation of a moist snow-layer underneath the dry surface snow.
In order to estimate the total amount of snow liquid water, retrieved volumetric liquid snow water contents W S , R R M are converted into snowpack liquid water columns, defined as W C S , R R M = ∫ 0 h s W S , R R M ⋅ d z . Recalling that W S , R R M are retrieved assuming a single-layered homogeneous snowpack ( Section 3 ), W C S , R R M = W S , R R M ⋅ h S can be estimated using the in-situ-measured snow height h S shown in Figure 2 a.
Figure 6
shows
W S , R “ HV ”
for the same days during the “early spring period” as in
Figure 5
a with the blue line (left axis). The corresponding snowpack water column
W C S , R “ HV ”
is masked over with the magenta line (right axis). It can be seen that
W C S , R “ HV ”
essentially follows the same pattern as
W S , R “ HV ”
. This holds true for the entire snow-covered time of the campaign and all three
RM
s. Consequently, it can be said that the single-layer assumption made in the retrieval scheme (
Section 3
) does not cause artificial peaks in
W S , R “ HV ”
retrievals. Furthermore, estimates of the snow liquid water column
W C S , R R M
are mainly important when radiation losses in the snowpack are of interest to investigate, for instance, radiation penetration depth at L-band, ground visibility through the snowpack, snow albedo, and so on.
Figure 6. Same snow liquid water content retrievals W S , R “ HV ” during the “early-spring period” as in Figure 5 a (blue, left axes). Corresponding snow liquid water column W C S , R R M = W S , R R M ⋅ h S (green, right axes) considering snow height h S , as shown in Figure 2 a.
The snow liquid water content retrievals
W S , R R M
shown in this section, together with the provided explanations, confirm that
W S , R R M
retrievals are tightly connected to the physical snowpack evolution throughout the “cold winter period” and the “early spring period”. Accordingly, the retrievals
W S , R R M
are highly trustworthy, implying that they are not caused by any kind of cohesion hidden in the retrieval scheme. When considering this, we consider retrievals
W S , R R M
derived from
T B , R p ( θ k )
emitted from the “reflector area” as “references” for comparison with
W S , N R M
derived from
T B , N p ( θ k )
measured over the “natural area”. This is both of high relevance and high importance because, as explained in
Section 1
, in-situ methods that facilitate the reliable assessment of the amount of snow liquid water at field scales, and even more so at larger spatial scales, are lacking to date.
4.2. Snow Wetness Retrieval W S , N R M Using T B , N p
The methodology and results for snow liquid water content W S , R R M retrieval using brightness temperatures T B , R p ( θ k ) measured over the “reflector area” is covered thus far in Section 3.1 and Section 4.1 . In this section, the snow liquid water content retrievals W S , N R M , achieved from T B , N p ( θ k ) , measured over the “natural area”, is presented and discussed using the methodology explained in Section 3.2 and summarized in Figure 3 .
Figure 7 a–c show the W S , N R M retrievals for the entire campaign from 15 December 2016–15 March 2017 and for retrieval modes RM = “HV”, “H”, and “V”, respectively. Naturally, the snow liquid water retrievals W S , N R M during the “snow-free period” are irrelevant. Nevertheless, from the retrieval point of view, it is ideally expected that W S , N R M = 0 m 3 m −3 . Indeed, virtually zero snow liquid water content W S , N R M is retrieved for RM = “HV” ( Figure 7 a) and “H” ( Figure 7 b) in the absence of a snow cover. The only exception here are the considerably high W S , N “ HV ” and W S , N “ H ” retrievals around 24 December, which are the result of rainfall and the consequential increase in ground permittivity. However, in contrast to W S , N “ HV ” and W S , N “ H ” , the retrievals W S , N “ V ” at RM = “V” ( Figure 7 c) are not zero during the “snow-free period” and follow a nearly-diurnal variation pattern. The reason for these meaningless retrievals lies in the “pseudo-measurements” ρ S “ V ” retrieved in the first step that was applied before the retrieval of W S , N “ V ” (see Section 3.2 ). As shown in Figure 6 in the companion paper [ 23 ], the snow density retrievals ρ S “ V ” during the “snow-free period” are as high as 120 kg m − 3 , which, together with small daily fluctuations of ε G “ V ” , can result in non-zero and fluctuating W S , N “ V ” . This is not the case for the other retrieval modes RM = “H” and “HV” because the associated “pseudo-measurements” ρ S R M during the “snow-free period” are considerably lower ( ρ S R M ≤ 50 kg m − 3 for RM = “HV” and “H”).
Figure 7. ( a – c ) show snow liquid water W S , N R M retrievals using T B , N p ( θ k ) for RM = “HV”, “H”, and “V”, respectively. The retrievals are shown for the snow-covered period from 8 January to 15 March The horizontal dashed red lines indicate the W S = 0.01 m 3 m − 3 threshold as the rough moist-snow approximation.
Throughout the “cold winter period” (3–30 January), starting from the onset of snow cover, the
W S , N R M
retrievals for all three
RM
s indicate very low values (<0.05 m
3
m
−3
). When comparing the retrievals
W S , N R M
(
Figure 7
) and
W S , R R M
(
Figure 4
) for the same
RM
s shows that both retrieval signatures indicate the “cold winter period” similarly. However, while the “reference” retrievals
W S , R R M
for
RM
= “HV” and “H” (
Figure 4
a,b, respectively) are consistently
≈ 0 m 3 m − 3
throughout the entire “cold winter period”, the corresponding quasi-simultaneous
W S , N R M
retrievals occasionally show noisy low non-zero values. This reflects the expected higher noise-level of
W S , N R M
as compared to
W S , R R M
retrievals, and is explained as follows:
Brightness temperatures T B , R p ( θ k ) emitted exclusively from the “reflector area” are significantly more sensitive to low amounts of snow liquid water than brightness temperatures T B , N p ( θ k ) that are emitted from the “natural area”. This is demonstrated theoretically and experimentally in [ 22 ], and was the main reason for suggesting the use of W S , R R M retrievals as “references” to validate W S , N R M .
W S , R R M are achieved from T B , R p ( θ k ) using a simple single parameter retrieval approach assuming ground reflectivity s G p = 1 and using in-situ measured snow density ρ S ( Figure 2 b) as previous knowledge ( Section 3.1 ). Accordingly, W S , R R M retrievals do not require the antecedent retrievals ( ε G R M , ρ S R M ) , as is the case in the two-step approach that is used to retrieve W S , N R M from T B , N p ( θ k ) ( Section 3.2 ), implying that W S , R R M are not distorted by erroneous ( ε G R M , ρ S R M ) . The “pseudo-measurements” ( ε G R M , ρ S R M ) used in the first retrieval step are subject to errors introduced via snow liquid water content (Section 4.1 in [ 23 ]), spatially heterogeneous ground permittivity (Section 4.2 in [ 23 ]), and other types of geophysical noise [ 28 ].
Despite these imposed uncertainties, W S , N R M retrievals successfully detect the occurrence of the first moist snow during the “early spring period” as one might expect from Figure 7 . This proposition becomes more evident from the zoomed-in view in Figure 8 showing retrievals W S , N “ HV ” (orange) and W S , R “ HV ” (blue) for 12–20 February during the “early spring period” (the same period as shown in Figure 5 a and Figure 6 ). Air temperature T air is indicated by the magenta line.
Figure 8. The orange line indicates W S , N “ HV ” retrievals using T B , N p ( θ k ) from 12–20 February. The blue and magenta lines show the W S , R “ HV ” retrievals ( Figure 5 a) and the air temperature, respectively. It is evident that W S , N “ HV ” retrievals and W S , R “ HV ” “reference” retrievals are harmonized and undergo a similar diurnal variation pattern.
The shown
W S , N “ HV ”
retrievals performed for
RM
= “HV” follow almost exactly the same diurnal variation pattern as the corresponding “references”
W S , R “ HV ”
with virtually the same number of diurnal peaks and dips. Similarly, simultaneity between the
W S , N R M
and
W S , R R M
is also observed for
RM
= “H” and “V”. However, as can be expected, the
W S , N “ HV ”
shown are noisier than the “reference” retrievals
W S , R “ HV ”
, and their diurnal afternoon deflections are less pronounced, for the reasons stated in points 1 and 2 above. Despite the higher uncertainties, the
W S , N “ HV ”
still peak during afternoon hours and return to very low values (or even zero) through the night or in the early morning. This demonstrates that the sensitivity of
W S , N R M
retrieved with the two-step approach (
Section 3.2
) using measurements
T B , N p ( θ k )
performed over the “natural area” (
Figure 1
) is still greater than the retrievals’ noise level, and is large enough to detect partial snow melting during afternoon hours and refreezing overnight.
The overall significance of these results is twofold. Firstly, dating the appearance of first moist-snow could become a valuable new data product accessible through passive L-band observations over natural snow covered ground, disregarding the current qualitative nature of
W S , N R M
retrievals. Secondly, the presented “reference” retrievals
W S , R R M
derived from L-band emission of the artificially prepared “reflector area” (
Figure 1
) represent a promising method for the validation of
W S , N R M
retrievals. Both of these instances are seen as relevant findings towards the full exploitation of L-band data measured over the cryosphere, which is made available through SMOS and SMAP missions, as well as other future L-band missions.
5. Summary and Conclusions
In the companion paper [ 23 ], which is a paralleled continuation of [ 22 ], we consider snow liquid water as a disturbance for retrieving mass density ρ S of dry snow and ground permittivity ε G using the retrieval approach proposed in [ 24 ] and first validated in [ 25 ]. In the present paper, we take the reverse perspective, meaning that the high sensitivity of L-band brightness temperatures to snow liquid water, demonstrated in [ 22 ], is used for the retrieval of volumetric snow liquid water content W S from L-band radiometry. Snow moisture W S = W S , R R M and W S = W S , N R M based on multi-angular L-band T B , R p ( θ k ) and T B , N p ( θ k ) measured over the “reflector area” and the “natural area” are derived using two slightly different retrieval approaches. Retrievals W S , R R M are achieved through the inversion of the single-layer version of “LS—MEMLS”. As envisaged, retrievals W S , R R M behaved robustly and reliably, justifying the use of W S , R R M , as derived from T B , R p , as “references” to assess the meaningfulness of retrievals W S , N R M . The latter are also achieved by the inversion of “LS—MEMLS”, although this involves two retrieval steps (first ( ρ S R M , ε G R M ) are retrieved, then W S , N R M ), and thus entails higher uncertainty and lower sensitivity.
The reliable representation of temporal variations in snow moisture is demonstrated for both types of quasi-simultaneous retrievals
W S , R R M
and
W S , N R M
. This is verified by the fact that both types of retrieval indicate a dry snowpack throughout the “cold winter period”, and synchronously detect the first occurrence of moist snow at the beginning of the “early spring period”. The clarity and level of detail that is found in the “reference” retrievals
W S , R R M
are exceptionally high. Furthermore, current methods that are used for the in-situ measurement of snow liquid water content are very limited, and, more importantly, suffer from low representativeness, limited spatial coverage, and prohibitively laborious measurement procedures. Hence, it is anticipated that interdependencies between
W S , R R M
derived from near distance L-band radiometry and time synchronous micro-meteorological history can help to improve the calibration of snow evolution model parameters that are used to parameterize snow energy inputs, -fluxes, and -capacities.
The recognition that
W S , N R M retrievals
, derived from
T B , N p
measured over the “natural area”, can also successfully detect the snowpack’s wetness state, as well as the onset of “early-spring” snow, is another key finding of the presented study. The significance of successful
W S , N R M
retrievals lies in the fact that they are achieved using
T B , N p
exclusively, without the need for in-situ measurements, such as ground permittivity or snow density. This opens up the possibility of using airborne or spaceborne L-band radiometry data to estimate snow liquid water. In other words, the potential for the exploitation of passive L-band radiometry to yield information on snow wetness as a new data product is demonstrated.
Nonetheless, there exist many challenges to further development of the proposed new retrieval approach to achieve its full potential. Its quantitative validation, particularly at large spatial scales, requires the advancement in in-situ snow moisture sensors and their widespread use. Field-capable electromagnetic resonator sensors, as used in [
39
], represent a reasonable option for in-situ measurement of the complex dielectric constant of snow, which is a sensitive proxy for volumetric snow liquid water content. Additionally, the conveyance of the proposed retrieval concept to spaceborne data is challenging and requires further fundamental research, as well as technical refinements in retrieval methods. The latter is particularly the case because, as yet, the spatial resolution of spaceborne L-band radiometers is typically low. Thus, their footprint areas often include complex combinations of mixed land cover, which needs to be taken into account in the forward modeling of brightness temperatures involved in the retrieval of snow moisture.
Acknowledgments
This paper was supported in part by the Swiss National Science Foundation under Grant 200021L_156111 /1, and in part by ESA within the framework of ESA’s SMOS ‘Expert Support Laboratory’ (ESL) for Level 2. Furthermore, we acknowledge the Forschungszentrum Jülich (FZJ) for providing the ELBARA-II radiometer funded via the German Helmholtz Association TERrestrial ENvironmental Observatories (TERENO) infrastructure project. We also acknowledge Christian Mätzler who provided valuable scientific inputs to the research presented. Furthermore, we thank Matthias Jaggi from the WSL Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research SLF for conducting in-situ snow characterization measurements, and Curtis Gautschi for editing the manuscript.
Author Contributions
Reza Naderpour and Mike Schwank conceived, designed, and performed the experiments in equal shares. Likewise, they contributed equally to the data analyses and the writing of the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Figure 1. Schematics of the Davos-Laret Remote Sensing Field Laboratory [ 22 ] during the winter 2016/17 campaign.
Figure 2. ( a ) Measured snow height h S , and ( b ) density ρ S of the bottom ~10 cm of the snowpack. Snow melted down in the second half of March, and disappeared within ~10 days (see [ 22 ]).
| https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/10/3/359/htm |
EC:2.3.1.32 - FACTA Search
Query: EC:2.3.1.32 (
lysine acetyltransferase
)
180
document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)
Acetylation is a major modification that is required for gene regulation, genome maintenance and metabolism. A dysfunctional acetylation plays an important role in several diseases, including cancer . A group of enzymes-lysine acetyltransferases are responsible for this modification and act in regulation of transcription as cofactors and by acetylation of histones and other proteins. Tip60, a member of MYST family, is expressed ubiquitously and is the acetyltransferase catalytic subunit of human NuA4 complex. This HAT has a well-characterized involvement in many processes, such as cellular signaling, DNA damage repair, transcriptional and cellular cycle. Aberrant lysine acetyltransferase functions promote or suppress tumorigenesis in different cancers such as colon, breast and prostate tumors. Therefore, Tip60 might be a potential and important therapeutic target in the cancer treatment; new histone acetyl transferase inhibitors were identified and are more selective inhibitors of Tip60.
...
PMID:A bivalent role of TIP60 histone acetyl transferase in human cancer. 2663 12
Lysine acetylation has been reported to involve in the pathogenesis of multiple diseases including cancer . In our screening study to identify natural compounds with lysine acetyltransferase inhibitor (KATi) activity, oridonin was found to possess acetyltransferase-inhibitory effects on multiple acetyltransferases including P300, GCN5, Tip60, and pCAF. In gastric cancer cells, oridonin treatment inhibited cell proliferation in a concentration-dependent manner and down-regulated the expression of p53 downstream genes, whereas p53 inhibition by PFT-α reversed the antiproliferative effects of oridonin. Moreover, oridonin treatment induced cell apoptosis, increased the levels of activated caspase-3 and caspase-9, and decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential in gastric cancer cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Caspase-3 inhibition by Ac-DEVD-CHO reversed the proapoptosis effect of oridonin. In conclusion, our study identified oridonin as a novel KATi and demonstrated its tumor suppressive effects in gastric cancer cells at least partially through p53-and caspase-3-mediated mechanisms.
...
PMID:Oridonin, a novel lysine acetyltransferases inhibitor, inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis in gastric cancer cells through p53- and caspase-3-mediated mechanisms. 2698 Jul 7
Lysine acetylation is a post-translational modification that regulates gene transcription by targeting histones as well as a variety of transcription factors in the nucleus. Recently, several reports have demonstrated that numerous cytosolic proteins are also acetylated and that this modification, affecting protein activity, localization and stability has profound consequences on their cellular functions. Interestingly, most non-histone proteins targeted by acetylation are relevant for tumorigenesis. In this review, we will analyze the functional implications of lysine acetylation in different cellular compartments, and will examine our current understanding of lysine acetyltransferases family, highlighting the biological role and prognostic value of these enzymes and their substrates in cancer . The latter part of the article will address challenges and current status of molecules targeting lysine acetyltransferase enzymes in cancer therapy.
...
PMID:The multifaceted role of lysine acetylation in cancer: prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target. 2732 56
During translation elongation, decoding is based on the recognition of codons by corresponding tRNA anticodon triplets. Molecular mechanisms that regulate global protein synthesis via specific base modifications in tRNA anticodons are receiving increasing attention. The conserved eukaryotic Elongator complex specifically modifies uridines located in the wobble base position of tRNAs. Mutations in Elongator subunits are associated with certain neurodegenerative diseases and cancer . Here we present the crystal structure of D. mccartyi Elp3 (DmcElp3) at 2.15-Å resolution. Our results reveal an unexpected arrangement of Elp3 lysine acetyltransferase (KAT) and radical S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) domains, which share a large interface and form a composite active site and tRNA-binding pocket, with an iron-sulfur cluster located in the dimerization interface of two DmcElp3 molecules. Structure-guided mutagenesis studies of yeast Elp3 confirmed the relevance of our findings for eukaryotic Elp3s and should aid in understanding the cellular functions and pathophysiological roles of Elongator.
...
PMID:Structural basis for tRNA modification by Elp3 from Dehalococcoides mccartyi. 2745 59
Reduced mitochondrial DNA copy number, mitochondrial DNA mutations or disruption of electron transfer chain complexes induce mitochondria-to-nucleus retrograde signaling, which induces global change in nuclear gene expression ultimately contributing to various human pathologies including cancer . Recent studies suggest that these mitochondrial changes cause transcriptional reprogramming of nuclear genes although the mechanism of this cross talk remains unclear. Here, we provide evidence that mitochondria-to-nucleus retrograde signaling regulates chromatin acetylation and alters nuclear gene expression through the heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein A2 (hnRNAP2). These processes are reversed when mitochondrial DNA content is restored to near normal cell levels. We show that the mitochondrial stress-induced transcription coactivator hnRNAP2 acetylates Lys 8 of H4 through an intrinsic histone lysine acetyltransferase (KAT) activity with Arg 48 and Arg 50 of hnRNAP2 being essential for acetyl-CoA binding and acetyltransferase activity. H4K8 acetylation at the mitochondrial stress-responsive promoters by hnRNAP2 is essential for transcriptional activation. We found that the previously described mitochondria-to-nucleus retrograde signaling-mediated transformation of C2C12 cells caused an increased expression of genes involved in various oncogenic processes, which is retarded in hnRNAP2 silenced or hnRNAP2 KAT mutant cells. Taken together, these data show that altered gene expression by mitochondria-to-nucleus retrograde signaling involves a novel hnRNAP2-dependent epigenetic mechanism that may have a role in cancer and other pathologies.
...
PMID:HnRNPA2 is a novel histone acetyltransferase that mediates mitochondrial stress-induced nuclear gene expression. 3109 95
Eukaryotic cells form stress granules under a variety of stresses, however the signaling pathways regulating their formation remain largely unknown. We have determined that the Saccharomyces cerevisiae lysine acetyltransferase complex NuA4 is required for stress granule formation upon glucose deprivation but not heat stress. Further, the Tip60 complex, the human homolog of the NuA4 complex, is required for stress granule formation in cancer cell lines. Surprisingly, the impact of NuA4 on glucose-deprived stress granule formation is partially mediated through regulation of acetyl-CoA levels, which are elevated in NuA4 mutants. While elevated acetyl-CoA levels suppress the formation of glucose-deprived stress granules, decreased acetyl-CoA levels enhance stress granule formation upon glucose deprivation. Further our work suggests that NuA4 regulates acetyl-CoA levels through the Acetyl-CoA carboxylase Acc1. Altogether this work establishes both NuA4 and the metabolite acetyl-CoA as critical signaling pathways regulating the formation of glucose-deprived stress granules.
...
The monocytic leukemia zinc-finger protein-related factor (MORF) is a transcriptional coactivator and a catalytic subunit of the lysine acetyltransferase complex implicated in cancer and developmental diseases. We have previously shown that the double plant homeodomain finger (DPF) of MORF is capable of binding to acetylated histone H3. Here we demonstrate that the DPF of MORF recognizes many newly identified acylation marks. The mass spectrometry study provides comprehensive analysis of H3K14 acylation states in vitro and in vivo. The crystal structure of the MORF DPF-H3K14butyryl complex offers insight into the selectivity of this reader toward lipophilic acyllysine substrates. Together, our findings support the mechanism by which the acetyltransferase MORF promotes spreading of histone acylation.
...
PMID:Recognition of Histone H3K14 Acylation by MORF. 2838 Mar 36
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most aggressive human cancers, and its incidence is steadily increasing worldwide. Recent epidemiologic findings have suggested that the increased incidence of HCC is associated with obesity, type II diabetes mellitus, and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH); however, the mechanisms and the molecular pathogenesis of NASH-related HCC are not fully understood. To elucidate the underlying mechanisms of the development of NASH-related HCC, we investigated the hepatic transcriptomic and histone modification profiles in Stelic Animal Model mice, the first animal model of NASH-related HCC to resemble the disease pathogenesis in humans. The results demonstrate that the development of NASH-related HCC is characterized by progressive transcriptomic alterations, global loss of histone H4 lysine 20 trimethylation (H4K20me3), and global and gene-specific deacetylation of histone H4 lysine 16 (H4K16). Pathway analysis of the entire set of differentially expressed genes indicated that the inhibition of cell death pathway was the most prominent alteration, and this was facilitated by persistent gene-specific histone H4K16 deacetylation. Mechanistically, deacetylation of histone H4K16 was associated with downregulation of lysine acetyltransferase KAT8, which was driven by overexpression of its inhibitor nuclear protein 1 ( Nupr1 ). The results of this study identified a reduction of global and gene-specific histone H4K16 acetylation as a key pathophysiologic mechanism contributing to the development of NASH-derived HCC and emphasized the importance of epigenetic alterations as diagnostic and therapeutic targets for HCC. Implications: Histone H4K16 deacetylation induces silencing of genes related to the cell death that occurred during the development of NASH-related HCC. Mol Cancer Res; 15(9); 1163-72. ©2017 AACR .
Mol
Cancer
Res 2017 09
PMID:Inhibition of the Cell Death Pathway in Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis (NASH)-Related Hepatocarcinogenesis Is Associated with Histone H4 lysine 16 Deacetylation. 2851 51
Retinoic acid (RA) plays important roles in development, growth, and homeostasis through regulation of the nuclear receptors for RA (RARs). Herein, we identify Hypermethylated in Cancer 1 (Hic1) as an RA-inducible gene. HIC1 encodes a tumor suppressor, which is often silenced by promoter hypermethylation in cancer . Treatment of cells with an RAR agonist causes a rapid recruitment of an RAR/RXR complex consisting of TDG, the lysine acetyltransferase CBP, and TET 1/2 to the Hic1 promoter. Complex binding coincides with a transient accumulation of 5fC/5caC and concomitant upregulation of Hic1 expression, both of which are TDG dependent. Furthermore, conditional deletion of Tdg in vivo is associated with Hic1 silencing and DNA hypermethylation of the Hic1 promoter. These findings suggest that the catalytic and scaffolding activities of TDG are essential for RA-dependent gene expression and provide important insights into the mechanisms underlying targeting of TET-TDG complexes.
...
PMID:Regulation of Active DNA Demethylation through RAR-Mediated Recruitment of a TET/TDG Complex. 2853 85
MUC1 is a transmembrane mucin that can promote cancer progression, and its upregulation correlates with a worse prognosis in colon cancer. We examined the effects of overexpression of MUC1 in colon cancer cells, finding that it induced epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), including enhanced migration and invasion, and increased Akt phosphorylation. When the clones were treated with the aspirin metabolite salicylate, Akt phosphorylation was decreased and EMT inhibited. As the salicylate motif is necessary for the activity of the lysine acetyltransferase (KAT) inhibitor anacardic acid, we hypothesized these effects were associated with the inhibition of KAT activity. This was supported by anacardic acid treatment producing the same effect on EMT. In vitro KAT assays confirmed that salicylate directly inhibited PCAF/Kat2b, Tip60/Kat5 and hMOF/Kat8, and this inhibition was likely involved in the reversal of EMT in the metastatic prostate cancer cell line PC-3. Salicylate treatment also inhibited EMT induced by cytokines, illustrating the general effect it had on this process. The inhibition of both EMT and KATs by salicylate presents a little explored activity that could explain some of the anti- cancer effects of aspirin.
...
PMID:The aspirin metabolite salicylate inhibits lysine acetyltransferases and MUC1 induced epithelial to mesenchymal transition. 2871 71
| http://www.nactem.ac.uk/facta/cgi-bin/facta3.cgi?query=EC%3A2.3.1.32%7C111111%7C0%7C0%7C105652%7C10%7C20 |
UNITED STATES v. BISCEGLI | 420 U.S. 141 (1975) | 20us1411550 | Leagle.com
MR. CHIEF JUSTICE BURGER delivered the opinion of the Court. We granted certiorari to resolve the question whether the Internal...20us1411550
UNITED STATES v. BISCEGLIA
No. 73-1245.
View Case
Cited Cases
Citing Case
420 U.S. 141 (1975)
UNITED STATES ET AL.
v.
BISCEGLIA.
Supreme Court of United States. https://leagle.com/images/logo.png
Argued November 11-12, 1974.
Decided February 19, 1975.
Attorney(s) appearing for the Case
Stuart A. Smith argued the cause for the United States. With him on the brief were Solicitor General Bork, Assistant Attorney General Crampton, and Deputy Solicitor General Wallace.
William A. Watson argued the cause and filed a brief for respondent. *
Supreme Court of United States.
MR. CHIEF JUSTICE BURGER delivered the opinion of the Court.
We granted certiorari to resolve the question whether the Internal Revenue Service has statutory authority to issue a "John Doe" summons to a bank or other depository to discover the identity of a person who has had bank transactions suggesting the possibility of liability for unpaid taxes.
I
On November 6 and 16, 1970, the Commercial Bank of Middlesboro, Ky., made two separate deposits with the Cincinnati Branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, each of which included $20,000 in $100 bills. The evidence is undisputed that the $100 bills were "paper thin" and showed signs of severe disintegration which could have been caused by a long period of storage under abnormal conditions. As a result the bills were no longer suitable for circulation and they were destroyed by the Federal Reserve in accord with established procedures. Also in accord with regular Federal Reserve procedures, the Cincinnati Branch reported these facts to the Internal Revenue Service.
It is not disputed that a deposit of such a large amount of high denomination currency was out of the ordinary for the Commercial Bank of Middlesboro; for example, in the 11 months preceding the two $20,000 deposits in $100 bills, the Federal Reserve had received only 218 $100 bills from that bank. This fact, together with the
[420 U.S. 143]
uniformly unusual state of deterioration of the $40,000 in $100 bills, caused the Internal Revenue Service to suspect that the transactions relating to those deposits may not have been reported for tax purposes. An agent was therefore assigned to investigate the matter.
After interviewing some of the bank's employees, none of whom could provide him with information regarding the two $20,000 deposits, the agent issued a "John Doe" summons directed to respondent, an executive vice president of the Commercial Bank of Middlesboro. The summons called for production of "[t]hose books and records which will provide information as to the person(s) or firm(s) which deposited, redeemed or otherwise gave to the Commercial Bank $100 bills U. S. Currency which the Commercial Bank sent in two shipments of (200) two hundred each $100 bills to the Cincinnati Branch of the Federal Reserve Bank on or about November 6, 1970 and November 16, 1970." This, of course, was simply the initial step in an investigation which might lead to nothing or might have revealed that there had been a failure to report money on which federal estate, gift, or income taxes were due. 1Respondent, however, refused to comply with the summons even though he has not seriously argued that compliance would be unduly burdensome.
In due course, proceedings were commenced in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of
[420 U.S. 144]
Kentucky to enforce the summons. That court narrowed its scope to require production only of deposit slips showing cash deposits in the amount of $20,000 and deposit slips showing cash deposits of $5,000 or more which involved $100 bills, and restricted it to the period between October 16, 1970, and November 16, 1970. Respondent was ordered to comply with the summons as modified.
The Court of Appeals reversed, holding that § 7602 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954, 26 U. S. C. § 7602, pursuant to which the summons had been issued, "presupposes that the [Internal Revenue Service] has already identified the person in whom it is interested as a taxpayer before proceeding."486 F.2d 706, 710. We disagree, and reverse the judgment of the Court of Appeals.
II
The statutory framework for this case consists of §§ 7601 and 7602 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954, which provide:
Section 7601. Canvass of districts for taxable persons and objects.
(a) General rule.
The Secretary or his delegate shall, to the extent he deems it practicable, cause officers or employees of the Treasury Department to proceed, from time to time, through each internal revenue district and inquire after and concerning all persons therein who may be liable to pay any internal revenue tax, and all persons owning or having the care and management of any objects with respect to which any tax is imposed.
Section 7602. Examination of books and witnesses.
For the purpose of ascertaining the correctness of any return, making a return where none has been made, determining the liability of any person for any internal revenue tax . . . or collecting any such liability, the Secretary or his delegate is authorized—
(1) To examine any books, papers, records, or other data which may be relevant or material to such inquiry;
(2) To summon the person liable for tax or required to perform the act, or any officer or employee of such person, or any person having possession, custody, or care of books of account containing entries relating to the business of the person liable for tax or required to perform the act, or any other person the Secretary or his delegate may deem proper, to appear before the Secretary or his delegate at a time and place named in the summons and to produce such books, papers, records, or other data, and to give such testimony, under oath, as may be relevant or material to such inquiry; and
(3) To take such testimony of the person concerned, under oath, as may be relevant or material to such inquiry.
We begin examination of these sections against the familiar background that our tax structure is based on a system of self-reporting. There is legal compulsion, to be sure, but basically the Government depends upon the good faith and integrity of each potential taxpayer to disclose honestly all information relevant to tax liability. Nonetheless, it would be naive to ignore the reality that some persons attempt to outwit the system, and tax evaders are not readily identifiable. Thus, § 7601 gives the Internal Revenue Service a broad mandate to investigate and audit "persons who
may be
liable" for taxes and § 7602 provides the power to "examine any books, papers, records, or other data which may be relevant. . . [and to summon] any person having possession
[420 U.S. 146]
. . . of books of account . . . relevant or material to such inquiry." Of necessity, the investigative authority so provided is not limited to situations in which there is probable cause, in the traditional sense, to believe that a violation of the tax laws exists. United States v. Powell, 379 U.S. 48 (1964). The purpose of the statutes is not to accuse, but to inquire. Although such investigations unquestionably involve some invasion of privacy, they are essential to our self-reporting system, and the alternatives could well involve far less agreeable invasions of house, business, and records.
We recognize that the authority vested in tax collectors may be abused, as all power is subject to abuse. However, the solution is not to restrict that authority so as to undermine the efficacy of the federal tax system, which seeks to assure that taxpayers pay what Congress has mandated and to prevent dishonest persons from escaping taxation thus shifting heavier burdens to honest taxpayers. Substantial protection is afforded by the provision that an Internal Revenue Service summons can be enforced only by the courts. 26 U. S. C. § 7604 (b);
Reisman
v.
Caplin,
375 U.S. 440
(1964). Once a summons is challenged it must be scrutinized by a court to determine whether it seeks information relevant to a legitimate investigative purpose and is not meant "to harass the taxpayer or to put pressure on him to settle a collateral dispute, or for any other purpose reflecting on the good faith of the particular investigation."
United States
v.
Powell, supra,
at 58. The cases show that the federal courts have taken seriously their obligation to apply this standard to fit particular situations, either by refusing enforcement or narrowing the scope of the summons. See,
e. g., United States
v.
Matras,
487 F.2d 1271
(CA8 1973);
United States
v.
Theodore,
479 F.2d 749
, 755 (CA4 1973);
United States
v.
Pritchard,
438 F.2d 969
(CA5 1971);
United States
v.
Dauphin Deposit Trust
[420 U.S. 147]
Co., 385 F.2d 129 (CA3 1967). Indeed, the District Judge in this case viewed the demands of the summons as too broad and carefully narrowed them.
Finally, we note that the power to summon and inquire in cases such as the instant one is not unprecedented. For example, had respondent been brought before a grand jury under identical circumstances there can be little doubt that he would have been required to testify and produce records or be held in contempt. In Blairv. United States,250 U.S. 273(1919), petitioners were summoned to appear before a grand jury. They refused to testify on the ground that the investigation exceeded the authority of the court and grand jury, despite the fact that it was not directed at them. Their subsequent contempt convictions were affirmed by this Court:
[The witness] is not entitled to set limits to the investigation that the grand jury may conduct . . . It is a grand inquest, a body with powers of investigation and inquisition, the scope of whose inquiries is not to be limited narrowly by questions of propriety or forecasts of the probable result of the investigation, or by doubts whether any particular individual will be found properly subject to an accusation of crime. As has been said before, the identity of the offender, and the precise nature of the offense, if there be one, normally are developed at the conclusion of the grand jury's labors, not at the beginning. Id., at 282.
The holding of Blairis not insignificant for our resolution of this case. In United Statesv. Powell, supra,Mr. Justice Harlan reviewed this Court's cases dealing with the subpoena power of federal enforcement agencies, and observed:
[T]he Federal Trade Commission . . . `has a power of inquisition, if one chooses to call it that, which is not derived from the judicial function. It is more analogous to the Grand Jury, which does not depend on a case or controversy for power to get evidence but can investigate merely on suspicion that the law is being violated, or even just because it wants assurance that it is not.' While the power of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue derives from a different body of statutes, we do not think the analogies to other agency situations are without force when the scope of the Commissioner's power is called in question. 379 U. S., at 57, quoting United States v. Morton Salt Co., 338 U.S. 632, 642-643 (1950).
III
Against this background, we turn to the question whether the summons issued to respondent, as modified by the District Court, was authorized by the Internal Revenue Code of 1954.
2
Of course, the mere fact that the summons was styled "In the matter of the tax liability of John Doe" is not sufficient ground for denying enforcement. The use of such fictitious names is common in indictments, see,
e. g., Baker
v.
United States,
115 F.2d 533
(CA8 1940), cert. denied, 312 U.S. 692 (1941), and other types of compulsory process. Indeed, the Courts of Appeals have regularly enforced Internal Revenue Service summonses which did not name a specific taxpayer who was under investigation.
E. g., United States
v.
Carter,
489 F.2d 413
(CA5 1973);
United States
v.
Turner,
480 F.2d 272
, 279 (CA7 1973);
Tillotson
v.
[420 U.S. 149]
Boughner, 333 F.2d 515 (CA7), cert. denied, 379 U.S. 913 (1964). Respondent undertakes to distinguish these cases on the ground that they involved situations in which either a taxpayer was identified or a tax liability was known to exist as to an unidentified taxpayer. However, while they serve to suggest the almost infinite variety of factual situations in which a "John Doe" summons may be necessary, it does not follow that these cases define the limits of the Internal Revenue Service's power to inquire concerning tax liability.
The first question is whether the words of the statute require the restrictive reading given them by the Court of Appeals. Section 7601 permits the Internal Revenue Service to investigate and inquire after " allpersons . . . who may beliable to pay anyinternal revenue tax . . . ." To aid in this investigative function, § 7602 authorizes the summoning of " any. . . person" for the taking of testimony and examination of books which may be relevant for "ascertaining the correctness of anyreturn, . . . determining the liability of anyperson . . . or collecting anysuch liability . . . ." Plainly, this language is inconsistent with an interpretation that would limit the issuance of summonses to investigations which have already focused upon a particular return, a particular named person, or a particular potential tax liability.
Moreover, such a reading of the Internal Revenue Service's summons power ignores the fact that it has a legitimate interest in large or unusual financial transactions, especially those involving cash. The reasons for that interest are too numerous and too obvious to catalog. Indeed, Congress has recently determined that information regarding transactions with foreign financial institutions and transactions which involve large amounts of money is so likely to be useful to persons responsible for enforcing the tax laws that it must be reported by banks.
[420 U.S. 150]
See generally California Bankers Assn. v. Shultz, 416 U.S. 21 , 26-40 (1974).
It would seem elementary that no meaningful investigation of such events could be conducted if the identity of the persons involved must first be ascertained, and that is not always an easy task. Fiduciaries and other agents are understandably reluctant to disclose information regarding their principals, as respondent was in this case. Moreover, if criminal activity is afoot the persons involved may well have used aliases or taken other measures to cover their tracks. Thus, if the Internal Revenue Service is unable to issue a summons to determine the identity of such persons, the broad inquiry authorized by § 7601 will be frustrated in this class of cases. Settled principles of statutory interpretation require that we avoid such a result absent unambiguous directions from Congress. See NLRBv. Lion Oil Co.,352 U.S. 282, 288 (1957); United Statesv. American Trucking Assns.,310 U.S. 534, 542-544 (1940). No such congressional purpose is discernible in this case.
We hold that the Internal Revenue Service was acting within its statutory authority in issuing a summons to respondent for the purpose of identifying the person or persons who deposited 400 decrepit $100 bills with the Commercial Bank of Middlesboro within the space of a few weeks. Further investigation may well reveal that such person or persons have a perfectly innocent explanation for the transactions. It is not unknown for taxpayers to hide large amounts of currency in odd places out of a fear of banks. But on this record the deposits were extraordinary, and no meaningful inquiry can be made until respondent complies with the summons as modified by the District Court.
We do not mean to suggest by this holding that respondent's fears that the § 7602 summons power could be used to conduct "fishing expeditions" into the private affairs
[420 U.S. 151]
of bank depositors are trivial. However, as we have observed in a similar context:
`That the power may be abused, is no ground for denying its existence. It is a limited power, and should be kept within its proper bounds; and, when these are exceeded, a jurisdictional question is presented which is cognizable in the courts.' McGrain v. Daugherty, 273 U.S. 135, 166 (1927), quoting People ex rel. McDonald v. Keeler, 99 N.Y. 463, 482 (1885).
So here, Congress has provided protection from arbitrary or capricious action by placing the federal courts between the Government and the person summoned. The District Court in this case conscientiously discharged its duty to see that a legitimate investigation was being conducted and that the summons was no broader than necessary to achieve its purpose.
The judgment of the Court of Appeals is reversed and the cause is remanded to it with directions to affirm the order of the District Court.
It is so ordered.
MR. JUSTICE BLACKMUN, with whom MR. JUSTICE POWELL joins, concurring.
I join the Court's opinion and its judgment, and add this word only to emphasize the narrowness of the issue at stake here. We decide today that the Internal Revenue Service has statutory authority to issue a summons to a bank in order to ascertain the identity of a person whose transactions with that bank strongly suggest liability for unpaid taxes. Under the circumstances here, there was an overwhelming probability, if not a certitude, that one individual or entity was responsible for the deposits. The uniformly deteriorated condition of the currency and the amount, combined with other unusual
[420 U.S. 152]
aspects, gave the Service good reason, and, indeed, the duty to investigate. The Service's suspicion as to possible liability was more than plausible. * The summons was closely scrutinized and appropriately narrowed in scope by the United States District Court.
The summons, in short, was issued pursuant to a genuine investigation. The Service was not engaged in researching some general problem; its mission was not exploratory. The distinction between an investigative and a more general exploratory purpose has been stressed appropriately by federal courts, see, e. g., United Statesv. Humble Oil & Refining Co.,488 F.2d 953, 958 (CA5 1974), pet. for cert. pending, No. 73-1827; United Statesv. Armour,376 F.Supp. 318(Conn. 1974), and that distinction is important to our decision here.
We need not decide in this case whether the Service has statutory authority to issue a "John Doe" summons where neither a particular taxpayer nor an ascertainable group of taxpayers is under investigation. At most, we hold that the Service is not always required to state a taxpayer's name in order to obtain enforcement of its summons, and that under the circumstances of this case it is definitely not required to do so. We do not decide that a "John Doe" summons is always enforceable where the name of an individual is lacking and the Service's purpose is other than investigative.
Upon this understanding, I join the Court's opinion.
MR. JUSTICE STEWART, with whom MR. JUSTICE DOUGLAS joins, dissenting.
The Court today says that it "recogniz[es] that the authority vested in tax collectors may be abused,"
ante,
[420 U.S. 153]
at 146, but it is nonetheless unable to find any statutory limitation upon that authority. The only "protection" from abuse that Congress has provided, it says, is "placing the federal courts between the Government and the person summoned," ante, at 151. But that, of course, is no protection at all, unless the federal courts are provided with a measurable standard when asked to enforce a summons. I agree with the Court of Appeals that Congress has provided such a standard, and that the standard was not met in this case. Accordingly, I respectfully dissent from the opinion and judgment of the Court.
Congress has carefully restricted the summons power to certain rather precisely delineated purposes:
ascertaining the correctness of any return, making a return where none has been made, determining the liability of any person for any internal revenue tax or the liability at law or in equity of any transferee or fiduciary of any person in respect of any internal revenue tax, or collecting any such liability. 26 U. S. C. § 7602.
This provision speaks in the singular—referring to "the correctness of any return" and to "the liability of any person." The delineated purposes are jointly denominated an "inquiry" concerning "the person liable for tax or required to perform the act," and the summons is designed to facilitate the "[e]xamination of books and witnesses" which "may be relevant or material to such inquiry." 26 U. S. C. §§ 7602 (1), (2), and (3). This language indicates unmistakably that the summons power is a tool for the investigation of particular taxpayers.
By contrast, the general
duties
of the IRS are vastly broader than its summons authority. For instance, § 7601 mandates a "[c]anvass of districts for taxable persons and objects." Unlike § 7602, the canvassing provision
[420 U.S. 154]
speaks broadly and in the plural, instructing Treasury Department officials.
to proceed, from time to time, through each internal revenue district and inquire after and concerning all persons therein who may be liable to pay any internal revenue tax, and all persons owning or having the care and management of any objects with respect to which any tax is imposed. (Emphasis added.)
Virtually all "persons" or "objects" in this country "may," of course, have federal tax problems. Every day the economy generates thousands of sales, loans, gifts, purchases, leases, deposits, mergers, wills, and the like which—because of their size or complexity—suggest the possibility of tax problems for somebody. Our economy is "tax relevant" in almost every detail. Accordingly, if a summons could issue for any material conceivably relevant to "taxation"—that is, relevant to the general dutiesof the IRS—the Service could use the summons power as a broad research device. The Service could use that power methodically to force disclosure of whole categories of transactions and closely monitor the operations of myriad segments of the economy on the theory that the information thereby accumulated might facilitate the assessment and collection of some kind of a federal tax from somebody. Cf. United Statesv. Humble Oil & Refining Co.,488 F.2d 953. And the Court's opinion today seems to authorize exactly that.
But Congress has provided otherwise. The Congress
has
recognized that information concerning certain classes of transactions is of peculiar importance to the sound administration of the tax system, but the legislative solution has not been the conferral of a limitless summons power. Instead, various special-purpose statutes have been written to require the reporting or disclosure of particular kinds of transactions.
E. g.,
26 U. S. C. §§ 6049,
[420 U.S. 155]
6051-6053, 31 U. S. C. §§ 1081-1083, 1101, and 1121-1122, and 31 U. S. C. §§ 1141-1143 (1970 ed., Supp. III). Meanwhile, the scope of the summons power itself has been kept narrow. Congress has never made that power coextensive with the Service's broad and general canvassing duties set out in § 7601. Instead, the summons power has always been restricted to the particular purposes of individual investigation, delineated in § 7602. 1
Thus, a financial or economic transaction is not subject to disclosure through summons merely because it is large or unusual or generally "tax relevant"—but only when the summoned information is reasonably pertinent to an ongoing investigation of somebody's tax status. This restriction checks possible abuses of the summons power in two rather obvious ways. First, it guards against an
[420 U.S. 156]
overbroad summons by allowing the enforcing court to prune away those demands which are not relevant to the particular, ongoing investigation. See, e. g., First Nat. Bank of Mobile v. United States, 160 F.2d 532 , 533-535. Second, the restriction altogether prohibits a summons which is wholly unconnected with such an investigation.
The Court today completely obliterates the historic distinction between the general duties of the IRS, summarized in § 7601, and the limited purposes for which a summons may issue, specified in § 7602. Relying heavily on § 7601, and noting that the IRS "has a legitimate interest in large or unusual financial transactions, especially those involving cash," ante,at 149, the Court approves enforcement of a summons having no investigative predicate. The sole premise for this summons was the Service's theory that the deposit of old wornout $100 bills was a sufficiently unusual and interesting transaction to justify compulsory disclosure of the identities of all the large-amount depositors at the respondent's bank over a one-month period. 2That the summons was not incident to an ongoing, particularized investigation, but was merely a shot in the dark to see if one might be warranted, was freely conceded by the IRS agent who served the summons. 3
[420 U.S. 157]
The Court's opinion thus approves a breathtaking expansion of the summons power: There are obviously thousands of transactions occurring daily throughout the country which, on their face, suggest the possibility of tax complications for the unknown parties involved. These transactions will now be subject to forced disclosure at the whim of any IRS agent, so long only as he is acting in "good faith." Ante, at 146.
This is a sharp and dangerous detour from the settled course of precedent. The decision of the Court of Appeals in this case has been explicitly accepted as sound by the Courts of Appeals of two other Circuits. See United Statesv. Berkowitz,488 F.2d 1235, 1236 (CA3), and United Statesv. Humble Oil & Refining Co.,488 F.2d 953, 960 (CA5), cert. pending, No. 73-1827. No federal court has disagreed with it.
The federal courts have always scrutinized with particular care any IRS summons directed to a "third party," i. e.,to a party other than the taxpayer under investigation. See, e. g., United Statesv. Humble Oil & Refining Co., supra,at 963; Vennv. United States,400 F.2d 207, 211-212; United Statesv. Harrington,388 F.2d 520, 523. When, as here, the third-party summons does not identify the party under investigation, a presumption naturally arises that the summons is not genuinely investigative but merely exploratory—a device for general research or for the hit-or-miss monitoring of "unusual" transactions. Unless this presumption is rebutted by the Service, the courts have denied enforcement.
Thus, the IRS was not permitted to summon from a bank the names and addresses of all beneficiaries of certain
[420 U.S. 158]
types of trust arrangements merely on the theory that these arrangements were unusual in form or size. Mays v. Davis, 7 F.Supp. 596 . Nor could the Service force a company to disclose the identity of whole classes of its oil land lessees merely on the theory that oil lessees commonly have tax problems. United States v. Humble Oil & Refining Co., supra. See also McDonough v. Lambert, 94 F.2d 838 ; First Nat. Bank of Mobile v. United States, 160 F. 2d, at 533-535; Teamsters v. United States, 240 F.2d 387 , 390.
On the other hand, enforcement has been granted where the Service has been able to demonstrate that the John Doe summons was issued incident to an ongoing and particularized investigation. Thus, enforcement was granted of summonses seeking to identify the clients of those tax-return-preparation firms which prior investigationhad shown to be less than honest or accurate in the preparation of sample returns. United Statesv. Theodore,479 F.2d 749; United Statesv. Turner,480 F.2d 272; United Statesv. Berkowitz, supra; United Statesv. Carter,489 F.2d 413. Similarly, enforcement was granted of summonses directed to an attorney, and his bank, seeking to identify the client for whom the attorney had mailed to the IRS a large, anonymous check, purporting to satisfy an outstanding tax deficiency of the client. Tillotsonv. Boughner333 F.2d 515; Schulzev. Rayunec,350 F.2d 666. Like the prior investigative work in the tax-return-preparer cases, the receipt of the mysterious check established the predicate of a particularized investigation which was necessary, under § 7602, to the enforcement of a summons. In each case, the Service had already proceeded to the point where the unknown individual's tax liability had become a reasonable possibility, rather than a matter of sheer speculation.
Today's decision shatters this long line of precedent.
[420 U.S. 159]
For this summons, there was absolutely no investigative predicate. The sole indication of this John Doe's tax liability was the unusual character of the deposit transaction itself. Any private economic transaction is now fair game for forced disclosure, if any IRS agent happens in good faith to want it disclosed. This new rule simply disregards the language of § 7602 and the body of established case law construing it.
The Court's attempt to justify this extraordinary departure from established law is hardly persuasive. The Court first notes that a witness may not refuse testimony to a grand jury merely because the grand jury has not yet specified the "identity of the offender," ante,at 147, quoting Blairv. United States,250 U.S. 273, 282. This is true but irrelevant. The IRS is not a grand jury. It is a creature not of the Constitution but of legislation and is thus peculiarly subject to legislative constraints. See In re Groban,352 U.S. 330, 346 (Black, J., dissenting). It is true that the Court drew an analogy between an IRS summons and a grand jury subpoena in United Statesv. Powell,379 U.S. 48, 57, but this was merely to emphasize that an IRS summons does not require the support of "probable cause" to suspect tax fraud when the summons is issued incident to an ongoing, individualized investigation of an identified party.A major premise of Powellwas that an extrastatutory "probable cause" requirement was unnecessary in view of the "legitimate purpose" requirements already specified in § 7602, 379 U. S., at 56-57.
The Court next suggests that this expansion of the summons power is innocuous, at least on the facts of this case, because the Bank Secrecy Act of 1970
4
itself compels
[420 U.S. 160]
banks to disclose the identity of certain cash depositors. Ante, at 149-150. Aside from the fact that the summons at issue here forces disclosure of some deposits not covered by the Act and its attendant regulations, 5 the argument has a more basic flaw. If the summons authority of § 7602 allows preinvestigative inquiry into any large or unusual bank deposit, the 1970 Act was largely redundant. The IRS could have saved Congress months of hearings and debates by simply directing § 7602 summonses on a regular basis to the Nation's banks, demanding the identities of their large cash depositors. In California Bankers Assn. v. Shultz, 416 U.S. 21 , we gave extended consideration to the complex constitutional issues raised by the 1970 Act; some of those issues— e. g., whether and to what extent bank depositors have Fourth Amendment and Fifth Amendment rights to the secrecy of their domestic deposits—were left unresolved by the Court's opinion, 416 U. S., at 67-75. If the disclosure requirements in the 1970 Act were already encompassed within the Service's summons power, one must wonder why the Court labored so long and carefully in Shultz.
Finally, the Court suggests that respect for the plain language of § 7602 would "undermine the efficacy of the federal tax system, which seeks to assure that taxpayers pay what Congress has mandated and prevents dishonest persons from escaping taxation and thus shifting heavier burdens to honest taxpayers."
Ante,
at 146. But the federal courts have applied the strictures of § 7602, and its predecessors, for many decades without occasioning these
[420 U.S. 161]
dire effects. If such a danger exists, Congress can deal with it. But until Congress changes the provision of § 7602, it is our duty to apply the statute as it is written.
I would affirm the judgment of the Court of Appeals.
FootNotes
* The American Bankers Assn. filed a brief as amicus curiae urging affirmance.
1. The Internal Revenue Service agent testified:
"Q. What possible tax effect could this have on the taxpayer if he is determined?
"A. Well, it could be anything from nothing at all, a simple explanation, or it could be that this is money that has been secreted away for a period of time as a means of avoiding the tax.
.....
"Q. Then you really have not reached first base yet, is that correct?
"A. That's correct."
2. Respondent also argues that, even if the summons issued in this case was authorized by statute, it violates the Fourth Amendment. This contention was not passed upon by the Court of Appeals. In any event, as narrowed by the District Court the summons is at least as specific as the reporting requirements which were upheld against a Fourth Amendment challenge by banks in
California Bankers Assn.
v.
Shultz,
416 U.S. 21
, 63-70 (1974).
* The Service may not have reached "first base," see
ante,
at 143 n. 1, but it had been at bat before, and it knew both the game and the ball park well.
1. The canvassing duties and the summons power have always been found in separate and distinct statutory provisions. The spatial proximity of the two contemporary provisions is utterly without legal significance. 26 U. S. C. § 7806 (b). The general mandate to canvass and inquire, now found in § 7601, is derived from § 3172 of the Revised Statutes of 1874. See
Donaldson
v.
United States,
400 U.S. 517
, 523-524. The summons power, however, has different historical roots. Section 7602, enacted in 1954, was meant to consolidate and carry forward several prior statutes, with "no material change from existing law." H. R. Rep. No. 1337, 83d Cong., 2d Sess, A436; S. Rep. No. 1622, 83d Cong., 2d Sess., 617. The relevant prior statutes were §§ 3614 and 3615 (a)-(c) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1939. See Table II of the 1954 Code, 68A Stat. 969. Section 3614 granted the summons power to the Commissioner "for the purpose of ascertaining the correctness of any return or for the purpose of making a return where none has been made." Sections 3615 (a)-(c) granted the summons power to "collectors" and provided that a "summons may be issued" whenever "any person" refuses to make a return or makes a false or fraudulent return. Thus, like the present § 7602, these earlier provisions clearly limited use of the summons power to the investigation of particular taxpayers.
2. The summons here used a scattershot technique to learn the identity of the unknown depositor. Rather than merely asking bank officials who the depositor was, the IRS required production of all deposit slips exceeding specified amounts that had been filled out during the period when the suspect deposits were, presumably, made. Thus, enforcement of the summons, even as redrafted by the District Court, will doubtlessly apprise the IRS of the identities of many bank depositors other than the one who submitted the old and wornout $100 bills.
3. He testified at the enforcement hearing:
"Q. What possible tax effect could this have on the taxpayer if he is determined?
"A. Well, it could be anything from nothing at all, a simple explanation, or it could be that this is money that has been secreted away for a period of time as a means of avoiding the tax.
.....
"Q. Then you really have not reached first base yet, is that correct?
"A. That's correct."
4. Pub. L. 91-508, 84 Stat. 1114, 12 U. S. C. §§ 1730d, 1829b, 1951-1959, and 31 U. S. C. §§ 1051-1062, 1081-1083, 1101-1105, 1121-1122. See
California Bankers Assn.
v.
Shultz,
416 U.S. 21
.
5. As limited by the District Court, the summons calls for production of deposit slips showing cash deposits in the amount of $20,000 and deposit slips showing cash deposits of $5,000 or more involving $100 bills, for deposits made between October 16 and November 16, 1970. Current regulations under the Bank Secrecy Act require reporting only with respect to cash transactions exceeding $10,000. 31 CFR § 103.22 (1974).
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Debate: Northern Ireland Protocol Bill - 31st Oct 2022 - Baroness Ludford extracts
Mon 31st Oct 2022 - Lords - Northern Ireland Protocol Bill debate Baroness Ludford contributions to the 31st October 2022 Northern Ireland Protocol Bill debate
Baroness Ludford Excerpts Future Day: Tue 1st Nov 2022 House of Lords
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Monday 31st October 2022
(7 months, 3 weeks ago)
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Amendment Paper: HL Bill 52-III Third marshalled list for Committee - (31 Oct 2022)
Baroness Chapman of Darlington (Lab)
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I shall speak very briefly because this amendment gives rise to many of the same debates that we have already had this evening. We have tabled Amendments 12 and 15, which would prevent
“the delegated powers in Clause 9 from being used unless a draft of the instrument, a report of a relevant consultation exercise, and an appropriate economic impact assessment have been laid before Parliament.”
The Government say that Clause 9 is needed because the policy is not yet developed. We are worried about this, so these amendments would act as a safeguard by preventing the power being used unless the conditions in the amendment are met. We think Northern Ireland businesses would be better served if our amendment were to be accepted, notwithstanding all our previous comments on our approach to the Bill more generally. Businesses were telling us—I am sure other noble Lords have heard the same—that they want and need stability, predictability and security. I do not think this will be delivered by the Bill; it comes only through negotiation. We must amend the Bill; it is what we are here to do this evening. We have made this suggestion because we think it would be particularly helpful to the business community to have more of a say and to get more clarity from the Government on what they might intend to do.
Baroness Ludford (LD)
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My Lords, I support these two amendments, but they are not even contesting the making of regulations or asking for substance or content; they just require a process for making the regulations. As my noble friend Lord Purvis said in the debate on the previous group, there is nothing in the Bill on consultation. Assuming that Clause 9 remains—which we hope it does not—this amendment is trying to put some meat on the bones that should probably already exist. The Government said in the delegated powers memorandum that the regulations under this clause would
“need to reflect the results of consultation with businesses”.
The problem is that this clause provides for no such consultation. Our Delegated Powers Committee commented:
“This is the frankest admission by the Government that policy is so embryonic that it has not yet been consulted on.”
The committee’s comment on Clause 5 is also pertinent and relevant:
“Ministers are said to need flexibility, but the reality is that policy has not yet been formulated … the Government could have formulated their policy, consulted on it, refined it (if necessary) and then brought forward legislation with the details filled in. This would have facilitated meaningful parliamentary debate.”
Yet, the Delegated Powers Committee went on,
“Parliament is being presented with a major Bill on the subject. Legislation has preceded policy development rather than vice versa”.
I think I may be repeating what my noble friend has already quoted.
Amendment 15 therefore contains reasonable and sensible conditions for a draft of any proposed SI—for a report on consultations with business and an economic assessment to be laid. I suggest that the Government will, or ought to, have some difficulty in finding arguments to resist these amendments.
--- Later in debate ---
Baroness Ludford (LD)
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My Lords, I want to bring the focus back to Article 2. The noble Lord, Lord Bew, said that this Bill is modest but the problem is that the law of unintended consequences could come into play here.
My noble friend Lord Purvis of Tweed coined the phrase “Rumsfeld clauses”. I do not want to detract from his trademark on that phrase—he will kill me—but, as concerns Article 2, the Bill shows some evidence of having been written on the back of an envelope. Concerns about human rights and equality have been at the heart of the conflict in Northern Ireland, so those concerns were central to the Good Friday agreement.
Thus Article 2 of the protocol, ensuring a non-diminution of the wide range of rights set out in the Good Friday agreement, is a key clause. However, there are worrying implications of the Bill for human rights and equality protections, which are in danger of being overlooked. The Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission and the Equality Commission for Northern Ireland point out that the Explanatory Notes to the Bill make no reference to any consideration having
been given to compliance with Article 2 of the protocol. Those two commissions have previously recommended that this should be the case regarding all relevant legislation. I understand that the Leader of the House of Commons, the right honourable Penny Mordaunt, is talking about draft guidance to Bill teams on this matter. This is in response to concerns that have been raised for quite a few months now by various committees, such as the Northern Ireland Affairs Committee and Women and Equalities Committee in the other place, the Joint Committee on Human Rights, on which I have the pleasure to sit, and our own Northern Ireland Protocol Sub-Committee. They have all raised concerns about compliance with Article 2 of the protocol.
The Government gave assurances about their commitment to Article 2, and it is true that this article gets a degree of protection under the Bill; for instance, that Clause 15 does not permit Ministers to make regulations defining Article 2 among “excluded provisions”. However, even Clause 15 needs completion, as the noble Baroness, Lady Ritchie, pointed out. The logic of protection of Article 2 is far from fully reflected in other clauses of the Bill. Hence these amendments—and I support all those tabled by the noble Baroness, Lady Ritchie, not just the two I have co-signed—propose a strengthening of Clauses 9, 10, 13 to 15 and 20.
This Government do not like the European Court of Justice, but its role is essential at various points in relation to Article 2. That article includes a commitment to keep pace with EU laws, as the noble Baroness pointed out, with EU law developments falling within the scope of the six equality directives listed in Annexe 1 to the protocol. As these directives are updated or replaced under the normal process of EU legislation, the UK Government are committed to ensuring that domestic legislation in Northern Ireland reflects any substantive enhancements in relevant protections. There are also other relevant EU laws beyond the six equality directives that underpin rights in the Good Friday agreement, such as the victims’ directive, the parental leave directive, and the pregnant workers’ directive.
The Government are committed to ensuring that there will be no diminution of protections as contained in relevant EU law on 31 December 2020. The Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission and the Equality Commission for Northern Ireland have acquired additional powers to oversee the Government’s commitment under Article 2. However, it is essential that Clause 20, which removes the binding nature of judgments of the European Court of Justice, is amended to ensure that the dynamic alignments—the keeping pace—guaranteed under the protocol for citizens’ rights in Northern Ireland can be delivered. The same applies to Clause 13.
The UK-EU joint committee supervises the implementation of the withdrawal agreement, but where there is a dispute regarding the interpretation of EU law which the joint committee or the arbitration panel cannot resolve, then under Article 174 of the withdrawal agreement, the ECJ must be asked to give a binding interpretation. This needs to be recognised and incorporated in Clause 13.
I mentioned Clause 15. The remaining problem there is that it does not prevent Article 14(c) of the protocol, which provides for the UK-EU specialised committee to consider matters brought to its attention by the two commissions in Northern Ireland—human rights and equalities—from becoming excluded provision by sort of oversight. The same applies to the lack of protection of the protocol’s Article 15, which provides for a joint consultative working group on the effective operation of Article 2.
The other amendments in this group raise similar and related issues. For reasons of time, I will not dwell on them. I am sure that noble Lords get the drift. One is left to conclude that there was either a lack of thorough preparation on the Bill—hence my quip about the back of an envelope—or a disturbingly cavalier disregard for Article 2 of the protocol. I am not sure which is worse. Neither is excusable, but I hope the Minister can tell me that the Government will take away especially all those excellent, very dense and precise questions raised by the noble Baroness, Lady Ritchie. Quite honestly, what is in the Bill at the moment is not remotely satisfactory to honour and safeguard Article 2 of the protocol.
Lord Dodds of Duncairn (DUP)
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My Lords, these amendments relate to Article 2 of the protocol. However, it is clear that Articles 1 and 2 subject that protocol to the prior treaty, the Belfast agreement. That is the fundamental point that must not be overlooked. There is merit in examining in detail what, for instance, Article 2(1) says, because it lends weight to arguments that we have advanced on our side and that have been advanced very eloquently by the noble Lord, Lord Bew. Article 2(1) specifically places an act of duty on the UK Government. That duty is as follows:
“The United Kingdom shall ensure no diminution of rights, safeguards and equality of opportunity as set out in that part of the 1998 Agreement entitled Rights, Safeguards and Equality of Opportunity results from its withdrawal from the Union”.
However, the operation of the protocol, as it is currently being operated and is designed to operate, is diminishing the rights set out in
“that part of the … Agreement entitled Rights, Safeguards and Equality of Opportunity”
and in the Belfast agreement, which sets out
“the right to pursue democratically national and political aspirations”.
That applies right across the whole remit of lawmaking in the Northern Ireland Assembly. Up until 31 December 2020, the people of Northern Ireland were represented in all the lawmaking to which they were subject.
However, since then, more and more laws are being applied that have been developed by the European Union, in which Northern Ireland representatives have absolutely no representation whatever. It is helpful that we are looking at Article 2. The operation of the protocol is therefore actively diminishing the Belfast agreement’s
“right to pursue democratically national and political aspirations”.
People in Northern Ireland can currently not do that—by standing for election or electing someone to the relevant legislature, whether here at Westminster or at Stormont—because they cannot make any laws. They have no say
in any laws to which the people of Northern Ireland are subject in over 300 areas, hence the need for the Bill, which will return lawmaking powers for goods destined for Northern Ireland to a legislature within the United Kingdom.
I have listened to the outrage—as the noble Lord, Lord Bew, described it very well—that has been expressed about the powers that will be taken by Ministers. However, there seems to be little or no outrage felt at all about the absolute lack of any democracy whatever when it comes to whole swathes of laws over the economy in Northern Ireland. Never mind giving the powers to Ministers, or bringing forward regulations or statutory instruments capable not of being amended but at least of some scrutiny in a United Kingdom legislature—these are laws being brought forward on a dynamic basis, aligning Northern Ireland to EU law, different from UK law in many cases, with no scrutiny, say, vote, or anything else by anyone elected in Northern Ireland.
Where is the outrage about that? Where are the fulsome expressions of how this is a travesty of democracy, the like of which has not been seen—I cannot count any kind of precedents for it. The noble Baroness, Lady Ritchie, referred to the idea of a stool that has legs being cut off it. It reminds me of the description of the Belfast agreement as amended by the St Andrews agreement: a three-legged stool, with strands 1, 2 and 3; strand 1 being the internal affairs of Northern Ireland, the Assembly and so on; strand 2 being north-south; and strand 3 being east-west. When you interfere and cut the leg of the east-west relationship, which is what has happened as a result of the protocol, and you also interfere with the cross-community voting mechanisms of the Assembly itself in order to undermine any kind of unionist opposition to the protocol, you are cutting away at the legs of the Belfast agreement as amended by St Andrews. That is the reality, and, as the noble Lord, Lord Bew, said, we need to focus on the fundamental problem, which is that the Belfast agreement is being undermined by the protocol. Until it is sorted out, there will not be proper functioning of that agreement.
Return to start of debate
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DR. JUSTIN BAKER D.C., NPI 1558608497 - Chiropractor in Steubenville, OH
Justin Baker a provider in 3151 Johnson Rd Suite 2 Steubenville, Oh 43952. Taxonomy code 111NS0005X with license number 4347 (OH) and 12 years of experience. He graduated from Logan College Of Chiropractic in 2012. Accepted Insurance: Medicaid and Medicare
Chiropractor - Sports Physician in Steubenville, OH
NPI Profile
NPI Record
Similar Providers
Table of Contents
NPI Profile Information Primary Taxonomy Accepted Insurance Secondary Locations PECOS Enrollment and Medicare Participation Status Overall MIPS Quality Performance Clinician Utilization Hospital Affiliations Secondary Taxonomies NPI Validation Other Providers Same Location
Individual Male Years of Experience 12 Chiropractor Sports Physician Accepts Medicare Approved Payment MIPS Quality Score 79.1
About DR. JUSTIN BAKER D.C.
Justin Baker
is a provider established in
Steubenville, Ohio
and his medical specialization is Chiropractor
with a focus in sports physician with more than 12 years of experience. He graduated from Logan College Of Chiropractic in 2012. The NPI number of this provider is 1558608497
and was assigned on January 2013. The practitioner's primary taxonomy code is 111NS0005X
with license number 4347 (OH). The provider is registered as an individual and his NPI record was last updated 3 years ago.
NPI 1558608497
Provider Name DR. JUSTIN BAKER D.C.
Location Address 3151 JOHNSON RD SUITE 2 STEUBENVILLE, OH 43952
Location Phone (740) 266-3866
Mailing Address 380 SUMMIT AVE MSO PHYSICIAN BILLING STEUBENVILLE, OH 43952
Gender Male
NPI Entity Type Individual
Medical School Name LOGAN COLLEGE OF CHIROPRACTIC
Graduation Year 2012
Is Sole Proprietor? No
Enumeration Date 01-11-2013
Last Update Date 05-05-2020
A chiropractor like Justin Baker helps patients with problems of the neuromusculoskeletal system, which includes nerves, bones, muscles, ligaments, and tendons. Chiropractors use spinal adjustments and manipulation, as well as other clinical interventions, to manage health issues such as back and neck pain. Some chiropractors apply procedures like massage therapy, rehabilitative exercise, ultrasound and spinal adjustments and manipulation. A chiropractor focuses on the patients overall health and might refer patients to other healthcare professionals if necessary.
Justin Baker is registered with Medicare
and accepts claims assignment
, this means the provider accepts Medicare's approved amount for the cost of rendered services as full payment. Participating providers may not charge Medicare beneficiaries more than Medicare's approved amount for their services. Medicare beneficiaries still have to pay a coinsurance or copayment amount for a visit or service.
The provider participated in Medicare's Quality Payment Program under the Merit-based Incentive Payment System (MIPS) and has an overall final score of 79.1
, based on four performance areas: quality, improvement activities, promoting interoperability, and cost. The purpose of this information is to help people with Medicare make informed decisions and incentivize doctors and clinicians to maximize performance.
Primary Taxonomy
The primary taxonomy code defines the provider type, classification, and specialization. There could be only one primary taxonomy code per NPI record. For individual NPIs the license data is associated to the taxonomy code.
Taxonomy Code 111NS0005X
Classification Chiropractor
Type Chiropractic Providers
Specialization Sports Physician
License No. 4347
License State OH
Taxonomy Description A sports chiropractor is uniquely trained to provide care and treatment of injuries or illness resulting from sports and physical fitness activities. Doctors of Chiropractic with the Diplomate American Chiropractic Board of Sports Physicians (DACBSP) or the Certified Chiropractic Sports Physician (CCSP), sport specialty certifications from the American Chiropractic Board of Sports Physicians, have advanced training in the assessment, management and rehabilitation of sports related injuries. Extremity care, rehabilitation and soft tissue procedures are common skills utilized by these doctors. The specialty training covers a broad spectrum from the pediatric athlete to professional and Olympic athletes, and everything in between, using a variety of techniques and modalities.
Accepted Insurance
The NPI profile data indicates this provider might be enrolled and accepting health plans from the following insurance companies or healthcare programs:
Medicaid
Medicare
*Please verify directly with this provider to make sure your insurance plan is currently accepted.
Business Address
3151 JOHNSON RD
SUITE 2
STEUBENVILLE, OH
ZIP 43952
Phone: (740) 266-3866
Fax: (740) 266-3865
Get Directions
Mailing Address
380 SUMMIT AVE
MSO PHYSICIAN BILLING
STEUBENVILLE, OH
ZIP 43952
Phone: (740) 283-7597
Fax: (740) 283-7807
Secondary Locations
1 Robinson Plz Ste 230
Pittsburgh, PA 15205
(740) 266-3866
Location Map
PECOS Enrollment and Medicare Participation Status
What is PECOS?
PECOS is the Medicare Provider, Enrollment, Chain and Ownership System. PECOS is Medicare's enrollment and revalidation system and it is the primary source of information about verified Medicare professionals. A NPI number is necessary to register in PECOS. Providers must enroll in PECOS to avoid denied claims.
PECOS PAC ID 4880831239
PECOS Enrollment ID I20130502000569, I20141210001483
Accepts Medicare Assignment? Yes
"What does it mean "accepts medicare assignment"? When a provider accepts Medicare assignment, the provider agrees to be paid directly by Medicare and to accept the payment amount approved by Medicare. Additionally, the provider agrees to not bill patients for more than the Medicare deductible and coinsurance amounts. A provider who doesn't accept assignment may charge you up to 15% over the Medicare-approved amount. This is known as the limiting charge. You may have to pay this amount, or it may be covered by another insurer.
Overall MIPS Quality Performance
The Merit-based Incentive Payment System (MIPS) is a way providers could use to participate in Medicare's Quality Payment Program (QPP). The MIPS program affects clinician reimbursement for Part B covered professional services and also rewards them for improving the quality of patient care and outcomes.
MIPS Measure Score Weight Score
Quality 40% 68.01
The Quality category assesses providers performance on clinical practices and patient outcomes under the traditional MIPS program. The quality measures help identify the quality of healthcare processes, outcomes, and patient experiences. The Quality measure category compromises 40% providers final MPIS scores.
There are six collection types for MIPS quality measures: Electronic Clinical Quality Measures (eCQMs), MIPS Clinical Quality Measures (CQMs), Qualified Clinical Data Registry (QCDR) Measures, Medicare Part B claims measures, CMS Web Interface measures and The Consumer Assessment of Healthcare Providers and Systems (CAHPS) for MIPS Survey.
Promoting Interoperability (PI) 25% 89
The Interoperability category measures the providers ability to use technology to exchange and make use of healthcare information in a way that is less burdensome and improves outcomes. The Interoperability measure category compromises 25% providers final MPIS scores.
The MIPS Interoperability measure focuses on the use of certified electronic health record technology (CEHRT) to improve patient access health information, the exchange of information between clinicians and pharmacies and the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of healthcare data.
Improvement Activities 15% 40
The Improvement Activities performance category evaluates the providers participation in clinical activities that support the improvement of clinical practice, care delivery, and outcomes. Providers have the option to choose 2 to 4 activities from an inventory of over 100 improvement activities. Providers typically choose the activities that best fit their needs.
The Improvement measures aim to better patient engagement, patient safety and other areas of patient care. The Improvement Activities category compromises 15% of providers final MPIS scores.
Cost 20% N/A
The Cost performance category asses the amount and types of services provided and how clinicians coordinate care and seek improvement of health outcomes by ensuring patients receive the appropriate services.
Although providers don't determine the price of healthcare services they are important in delivering high-quality care at a reasonable cost. The Cost measures category compromises 20% of providers final MPIS scores.
MIPS Final Score - 79.1
The MIPS program evaluates providers across multiple categories with a specific weight for each category resulting a in a MIPS final score that ranges from 0 to 100 points. The MIPS Final Score determines whether providers receive a negative, neutral or positive MIPS payment adjustment.
Clinician Utilization
The following Healthcare Common Procedure Coding System (HCPCS) codes were publicly reported as the top services rendered by this provider under the Medicare program for the year 2017. The reported codes are based on the top 5 codes for each available Medicare specialty, excluding evaluation and management codes.
128 Chiropractic manipulative treatment, 3 to 4 spinal regions (HCPCS:98941)
51 Chiropractic manipulative treatment, 5 spinal regions (HCPCS:98942)
35 Chiropractic manipulative treatment, 1-2 spinal regions (HCPCS:98940)
Hospital Affiliations
Medicare hospital affiliation is identified through self-reporting data, inpatient, outpatient, physician and ancillary service claims linked by the Medicare claims NPI number and place of service code. Additionally, to further determine provider hospital affiliation the clinician must have provided services to at least three patients on three different dates in the last 12 months. Justin Baker is affiliated with the following medical facilities:
Hospital Name
Address
Phone
Hospital Type
CMS Certification Number (CCN)
Overall Rating
TRINITY MEDICAL CTR EAST &TRINITY MEDICAL CTR WEST
380 SUMMIT AVENUE
STEUBENVILLE, OH 43952
(740) 264-8000
Acute Care Hospitals
360211
Secondary Taxonomies
The secondary taxonomy codes define the provider type, classification, and specialization. For individual NPIs the license data is associated to each taxonomy code.
No. Taxonomy Code Type Classification Specialization License No. State Primary
1 111NS0005X Chiropractic Providers Chiropractor Sports Physician DC010705 PA No
Taxonomy Description: a sports chiropractor is uniquely trained to provide care and treatment of injuries or illness resulting from sports and physical fitness activities. Doctors of Chiropractic with the Diplomate American Chiropractic Board of Sports Physicians (DACBSP) or the Certified Chiropractic Sports Physician (CCSP), sport specialty certifications from the American Chiropractic Board of Sports Physicians, have advanced training in the assessment, management and rehabilitation of sports related injuries. Extremity care, rehabilitation and soft tissue procedures are common skills utilized by these doctors. The specialty training covers a broad spectrum from the pediatric athlete to professional and Olympic athletes, and everything in between, using a variety of techniques and modalities.
Additional Identifiers
Additional identifier(s) currently or formerly used as an identifier for the provider. The codes may include UPIN, NSC, OSCAR, DEA, Medicaid State or PIN identification numbers.
Identifier
Type / Code
Identifier State
0080220
MEDICAID (05)
OH
NPI Validation Check Digit Calculation
The following table explains the step by step NPI number validation process using the ISO standard Luhn algorithm.
Start with the original NPI number, the last digit is the check digit and is not used in the calculation.
1 5 5 8 6 0 8 4 9 7
Step 1: Double the value of the alternate digits, beginning with the rightmost digit.
2 5 10 8 12 0 16 4 18
Step 2: Add all the doubled and unaffected individual digits from step 1 plus the constant number 24.
2 + 5 + 1 + 0 + 8 + 1 + 2 + 0 + 1 + 6 + 4 + 1 + 8 + 24 = 63
Step 3: Subtract the total obtained in step 2 from the next higher number ending in zero, the result is the check digit.
70 - 63 = 7 7
The NPI number 1558608497 is valid because the calculated check digit 7
using the Luhn validation algorithm matches the last digit of the original NPI number.
Other Providers at the Same Location
The following 3 providers are registered at the same or nearby location.
NPI
Name / Type
Taxonomy
Address
1598710626
MARIA PANGRAZIA CRAIG PA-C
Individual
Physician Assistant
3151 JOHNSON RD SUITE 2
STEUBENVILLE, OH 43952
(740) 346-0496
1316565567
LUCIA R EROSHEVICH ATC
Individual
Specialist/Technologist (Athletic Trainer)
3151 JOHNSON RD
STEUBENVILLE, OH 43952
(740) 266-3866
1023610540
MR. LOGAN MENEAR LAT, ATC
Individual
Specialist/Technologist (Athletic Trainer)
3151 JOHNSON RD
STEUBENVILLE, OH 43952
(304) 906-9070
Frequently Asked Questions
What is Dr. Justin Baker D.C. NPI number?
The NPI number assigned to this healthcare provider is 1558608497, registered as an "individual" on January 11, 2013
Where is Dr. Justin Baker D.C. located?
The provider is located at 3151 Johnson Rd Suite 2 Steubenville, Oh 43952 and the phone number is (740) 266-3866
Which is Dr. Justin Baker D.C. specialty?
The provider's speciality is Chiropractor with a focus in Sports Physician
How many years of experience does Dr. Justin Baker D.C. have?
The provider has more than 12 years of experience. He graduated from Logan College Of Chiropractic in 2012.
What insurance does Dr. Justin Baker D.C. accept?
The provider might be accepting Medicaid and Medicare. Please consult your insurance carrier or call the provider to make sure your health plan is currently accepted.
What are Dr. Justin Baker D.C. Quality Ratings?
The provider has an overall high rating in the following quality measures: uses technology to exchange and make use of healthcare information.
What are some of the services provided by Dr. Justin Baker D.C.?
The most common procedures or services performed by this practitioner are: Chiropractic manipulative treatment, 3 to 4 spinal regions, Chiropractic manipulative treatment, 5 spinal regions and Chiropractic manipulative treatment, 1-2 spinal regions.
Is Dr. Justin Baker D.C. affiliated to any hospitals?
The practitioner is affiliated to the following hospitals:
TRINITY MEDICAL CTR EAST &TRINITY MEDICAL CTR WEST
. Hospital affiliations are identified through self-reporting data and service claims based on the place of service.
How do I update my NPI information?
The NPI record of Dr. Justin Baker D.C. was last updated on January 11, 2013. To officially update your NPI information contact the National Plan and Provider Enumeration System (NPPES) at 1-800-465-3203 (NPI Toll-Free) or by email at
customerservice@npienumerator.com.
NPI Profile data is regularly updated with the latest NPI registry information, if you would like to update or remove your NPI Profile in this website please contact us
.
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Last updated: June 11, 2023
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Sustainability | Free Full-Text | Modeling the Assessment of Intersections with Traffic Lights and the Significance Level of the Number of Pedestrians in Microsimulation Models Based on the PTV Vissim Tool
The present article contains a microsimulation analysis of the impact of the number of pedestrians on pedestrian crossings controlled by traffic lights. To analyze the level of freedom of movement using the HCM 2010 method based on the level of service (LOS) implemented in the PTV VISSIM tool, a simulation of two interconnected intersections is performed. These crossings differ in the number of inlets as well as in the intensity of vehicles at each of the inlets. The microsimulation model was based on real data on the intensity of vehicles from an intelligent traffic control system as well as real traffic light programs. Eleven different variants of the same initial conditions were tested in which the number of pedestrians at pedestrian crossings was increased every 50 and the time of the right turn and the LOS of the right turn were compared. The result shows the impact of the number of pedestrians on the assessment of LOS traffic conditions at the entire intersection. The results consider the ranges in which the number of pedestrians has a significant impact and change the assessment of the entire intersection to the next worse level of freedom of movement. The article shows how it can be a mistake to overlook adding the exact number of pedestrians at traffic light intersections with PTV Viswalk in the microsimulation model.
Modeling the Assessment of Intersections with Traffic Lights and the Significance Level of the Number of Pedestrians in Microsimulation Models Based on the PTV Vissim Tool
by Monika Ziemska-Osuch * and Dawid Osuch
Department of Transport and Logistic, Gdynia Maritime University, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022 , 14 (14), 8945; https://doi.org/10.3390/su14148945
Received: 19 June 2022 / Revised: 15 July 2022 / Accepted: 18 July 2022 / Published: 21 July 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Traffic Flow Modelling and Simulation for Safe and Sustainable Transportation )
Abstract
:
The present article contains a microsimulation analysis of the impact of the number of pedestrians on pedestrian crossings controlled by traffic lights. To analyze the level of freedom of movement using the HCM 2010 method based on the level of service (LOS) implemented in the PTV VISSIM tool, a simulation of two interconnected intersections is performed. These crossings differ in the number of inlets as well as in the intensity of vehicles at each of the inlets. The microsimulation model was based on real data on the intensity of vehicles from an intelligent traffic control system as well as real traffic light programs. Eleven different variants of the same initial conditions were tested in which the number of pedestrians at pedestrian crossings was increased every 50 and the time of the right turn and the LOS of the right turn were compared. The result shows the impact of the number of pedestrians on the assessment of LOS traffic conditions at the entire intersection. The results consider the ranges in which the number of pedestrians has a significant impact and change the assessment of the entire intersection to the next worse level of freedom of movement. The article shows how it can be a mistake to overlook adding the exact number of pedestrians at traffic light intersections with PTV Viswalk in the microsimulation model.
Keywords:
microsimulation modeling
;
signalized junction analysis
;
pedestrian influence in modeling
1. Introduction
In today’s road traffic research, it is essential to prepare a traffic simulation before introducing changes to the traffic organization [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. The appropriate modeling of the examined road network or intersection section can solve many ambiguities and show the most optimal solution to many transport problems. One possibility is to use microsimulation models to study the capacity of intersections with traffic lights. Intersections that are not equipped with any intelligent solutions to adapt the length of the green light to changing traffic conditions are referred to as fixed time [ 4 ]. Depending on the advancement of the signal controller, this intersection may support more than one fixed-time program during the day, and it depends on the time of day. For example, it can be a classic division into the morning, afternoon, and peak-to-peak signal programs. Many microsimulations analyze fail to consider the influence of pedestrians moving around the intersection. Assuming only that the pedestrian moves during the green signal intended for him/her; however, this approach does not always present a realistic picture of the situation at the intersection. Traffic light rules vary from country to country [ 5 ]. There are places where pedestrian traffic is so important that a completely non-collision phase of the green signal is distinguished for them. This solution is very advantageous from the point of view of pedestrian traffic safety [ 6 ]; however, it causes a considerable loss of time in the signal program [ 7 ]. The first reason is to distinguish a separate traffic phase and the second reason is to provide appropriate safety buffers before and after the green signal in the form of an intergreen time [ 8 ]. To optimize the loss of time with the connection of pedestrian safety in some countries, such as the Poland [ 9 ], it is permitted to set the pedestrian phase with a colliding group, but with allowed simultaneous traffic. An example is a filter arrow (conditional right-turn arrow in right-hand traffic) in a collision with the pedestrian crossing on the right and straight from the stop line for vehicles. Another permitted solution is the simultaneous phase of a general green signal and a phase for pedestrians to the right or left of the vehicle stop line. The impact of pedestrians on the traffic conditions at the intersection is significant and depends on the intensity of the inflow of pedestrians as well as the speed of their movement or, in general, the number of pedestrians using the pedestrian crossing [ 6 ]. In the above-described situations, pedestrians crossing the road prevent the maximum possible number of vehicles from passing the green light.
The present article aims to examine the significance of the model of the number of pedestrians at crossings with traffic lights in a microsimulation modeling on the example of the PTV Vissim [ 10 , 11 , 12 ] tool together with PTV Viswalk [ 13 , 14 ] in the analysis of the capacity of intersections.
2. Materials and Methods
The model was developed with the use of real traffic data obtained either from the road traffic monitoring system or observations. Depending on the measurement area, road traffic was measured manually or automatically using sensors located at the intersection inlets—induction loops [
15
]. Measurement induction loops are a component of the TRISTAR intelligent traffic control system (see [
16
]). The model was made and then calibrated using PTV Vissim software, which is a typical method to model road traffic on a micro-scale, and it uses the Wiedemann model, [
17
] with the leader’s driving model.
The following data are required to create a model in PTV Vissim [ 11 , 12 , 22 , 27 ]—the geometry of the network–data on the geometry of intersections and interstitial sections is easiest to enter into the PTV Vissim tool based on a previously loaded situational plan or with the use of a map connected to the program (Bing). The map base can be any graphic or vector file (in *dwg or *dxf format).
Road sections in the tool are built with straight lines and curves, thanks to which the user has full freedom in shaping the geometry of the road network. When drawing successive sections and connectors, the number and width of the lanes should be known, the distance of the stop line from the edge of the transverse road, the length of the separated lanes for turning, and the width of the dividing lines, and the radii of horizontal curves;
Vehicle traffic intensity—in the PTV Vissim program, the values are aggregated to the total loads of vehicles at intersections or the edges of the network. Then, the generic structure of vehicles moving on the network should be defined. This structure is expressed as a percentage share of individual types of vehicles. Traffic intensity may vary depending on the adopted hourly time intervals;
Routes: it is necessary to define the directional structure of vehicles in a place where the driver has more than one possibility to decide the route—they are intersection inlets. The definition of the route consists of defining the decision points and possible to choose from in these points of the routes, as well as giving directions a percentage share in the stream. This requires the conversion of the proportions of the share of individual relations from a given inlet. The use of routes is only valid when the static route option is used, not the dynamic assignment;
Conflict areas [ 28 ]—when building a model, you should also remember to produce priority rules or define the collision field spoke [ 29 ];
Priority rules have the same task as conflict areas. However, they present more freedom in modeling the time and distance between conflicting relationships. In the model, the application of priority rules occurs at the central island intersection. Signal programs are introduced based on programming built into the controller software. To make the model, we need real data, such as the assignment of signal groups to the streams and the traffic light program, and wintergreen time matrices. The model uses the existing fixed-time signal programs distinguishing between the time of day and the occurrence of the morning peak, afternoon peak, or peak-to-peak;
Public transport—timetables of buses and trolleybuses running on the modeled section of the network were introduced in the model. Additionally, the Edge and Waiting Area platforms for travelers were also added at each stop. The departure times of the buses from the stop are close to the real one;
Pedestrians—since the conditional right-turn signal is used in the traffic lights at intersections made in the model, it is necessary to add pedestrians at the crossings. If pedestrians do not appear in the model, the results of the crossing capacity would be too good. A conditional right turn would not be disturbed in any case. Pedestrian traffic and the necessary infrastructure to move—pavements—in the form of areas, were added to the entire modeled section of the network, reflecting the existing state. Part of the pedestrian simulation is obtained by the PTV Viswalk tool [ 30 , 31 ].
All PTV Vissim microsimulation models must be calibrated at the end (see for example [
32
]). A model made in this way was calibrated using the GEH statistic. The GEH statistic is an empirical formula that allows for a greater deviation from the measurement for low values and less for high values. The name is not an acronym but comes from the first letters of the method author’s first name and surname. The GEH statistic is the relation between the vehicle intensities that are checked to those obtained from the model. After the calibration, the model obtained a result lower than 5 for the indicator.
G
E
H
=
2
(
M
i
−
C
i
)
2
M
i
+
C
i
[
−
]
(1)
where:
M—is the hourly traffic volume from the traffic model (vehicles/hour);
C—is the real-world hourly traffic count (vehicles/hour).
In the modeled example, an important role was played by the analysis of the capacity of the intersection using the Highway Capacity Manual 2010 (HCM 2010) method [ 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ]. This method is based on the initial saturation intensity of 1900 contractual vehicles per hour of green light as a representation of the ideal lane, which has the adopted width of 3.6 m, without interferences, such as turning left vehicles, stopping vehicles, and pedestrians or parking vehicles. The output value is then corrected by factors corresponding to the following factors: lane width, the share of truck traffic, road gradient, parking vehicles, buses at stops, location, lane use in the lane group, left-turning vehicles, right-turning vehicles, pedestrians, and cyclists. Traffic conditions are defined on the scale of capacity utilization and time losses by designating the level of freedom of movement from A to F, where A is the best value [ 36 , 37 ].
In the PTV VISSIM tool, it is possible to use node evaluation; you can record data from nodes of microscopic and mesoscopic simulations in the Vissim network. Node evaluation is especially used to determine specific data from intersections without first having to define all sections manually to determine the data. One such assessment is the level of service (LOS). “ Level of service (transport quality): The levels of transport quality A to F for movements and edges, a density value (vehicle units/mile/lane). It is based on the result attribute vehicle delay (average). The current value range of vehicle delay depends on the level of service scheme type of the signalized or non-signalized nodes. The LOS in Vissim is comparable to the LOS defined in the American Highway Capacity Manual of 2010 ” [ 38 ]. According to the official source [ 38 ], levels of service are divided into 6 levels. The first, “A”, is equivalent to the most efficient vehicle flow and corresponds to a journey delay of fewer than 10 s or no delay for traffic lights. The second level, “B”, is the delay time from 10 to 20 s. The third level, “C”, is the delay time from 20 to 35 s. The fourth level, “D”, is the delay time from 35 to 55 s. The fifth level, “E”, is the delay time from 55 to 80 s. The sixth level, “F”, is the delay time longer than 80 s. To perform the analysis, as a case study of the impact of pedestrians on the signalized junctions in the city network, a model was implemented that reflected the existing state on the example of the part of the network in Gdynia, Poland. The modeled area is mainly characterized by the traffic of cars and HGVs (heavy goods vehicles); public transport vehicles, such as buses; and pedestrians. Bike users were omitted in case we could not obtain enough data about them. An example of a transport network based close to the port area is the city of Gdynia [ 15 , 39 , 40 ]. Road sections included in the model were a highway (Estakada Kwiatkowskiego) with two junctions (J1 and J2). The map below shows the scope of the modeled section of the municipal transport network of Gdynia city.
The analyzed crossings in the microsimulation are described and illustrated below:
J1—four inlets, controlled junction with filter traffic lights (see Figure 2 );
J2—T junction, controlled junction with filter traffic lights (see Figure 3 ).
The intersections were selected due to the differences in size, the number of inlets, and road traffic. However, both had the common feature of allowing the simultaneous admission of pedestrians and vehicles in the configuration described above as interfering with simultaneous traffic. In the modeled road network, the most important data at intersections subject to microsimulation analysis were:
The intensity of vehicles at the entrance to the intersection (vehicles per hour)—these data may differ depending on the modeled variant—not all vehicles are able to pass in the hourly measuring distance;
The intensity of right-turning vehicles at the inlet (vehicles per hour)—these data may differ depending on the modeled variant—not all vehicles are able to pass in the hourly measuring distance;
Duration of the entire cycle (seconds);
Duration of green light for a particular phase (seconds);
Duration of green light for right filter arrow(seconds);
Duration of green light for pedestrians (seconds).
The comparison of the data to the model has been presented collectively in Table 1 along with the division into inlets at each of the examined intersections.
For statistical reference, the graph below ( Figure 4 ) shows that vehicle traffic is not burdened by pedestrian traffic at intersections (variant 1). The graph shows the driving time needed to turn right compared to the total length of green light appearing in one cycle, which is 110 s for both intersections, and to the number of vehicles turning right in an hour.
The variable in the model is the intensity of pedestrians crossing the crossing in the range from 0 to 500 pedestrians per hour in a step ratio of 50 pedestrians per hour. In total, 11 variants of the same simulation were performed, from V1 (where the number of pedestrians was 0 per hour) to V11 (where the number of pedestrians was 500 per h). The modeled network is the morning rush (7:00–9:00 a.m.) in the following sequence: 30 min of filling the network with vehicles, then 60 min of the proper measurement period, and another 30 min to silence the network. The tested intensity of both pedestrians and vehicles is related to the parameters of the resulting LOS.
3. Results
After 11 simulations were performed, in which the pedestrian traffic intensity was increased by another 50 pedestrians per hour, starting from the value of 0 pedestrians per hour, the intensity analysis was performed at each intersection entry. At the inlet, the number of right-turning vehicles was distinguished and compared to each variant. Due to the increasing number of pedestrians at the crossing, not all vehicles were able to cross the crossing at the same time interval due to the high volume of pedestrian traffic. The graphs below for both analyzed intersections show changes in the traffic intensity of left-turning vehicles compared to the time of a left turn. This analysis allowed for the determination of the first conclusions regarding the impact of the number of pedestrians on the possibility of leaving the intersection of right-turning vehicles.
In the case of intersection No. 1 at inlet N only in variant 9, where the number of pedestrians was assigned to 400 pedestrians per hour, it exceeded the number of vehicles wanting to turn right; the number of vehicles in the measurement interval was reduced and the travel time was extended
In the case of intersection No. 1 at inlet E already in variant 5, where the number of pedestrians was 200 pedestrians per hour, the time of maneuvering to the right began to increase, and in variant 6, the number of vehicles in the measurement interval began to decrease.
In the case of intersection No. 1 at inlet W, the first changes could already be observed in variant 3; therefore, with the number of 100 pedestrians per h, both the travel time increased and the number of vehicles in the measurement period decreased. Note that this was the only inlet that did not have a right filter arrow in the signal program.
In the case of intersection No. 1 at inlet S, the number of vehicles did not change in any of the analyzed variants, and the time of driving to the right increased slightly from variant 1, where the number of pedestrians was only 50 pedestrians per hour.
In the case of intersection No. 2 at inlet N, the number of right-turning vehicles decreased only in variant 8 with 350 pedestrians per hour, and the travel time was extended in variant 7 with 300 pedestrians per hour.
In the case of intersection No. 2 at inlet W, the number of pedestrians in the following variants did not affect the number of vehicles in the measuring section and the travel time of right-turning vehicles increased with each successive variant, starting from variant 2; however, the increase was insignificant.
Summing up the measurement results, it should be noted that the fewer the vehicles that turn right, the less the number of pedestrians affects the travel time and leave the intersection. In the analyzed case, the limit number of right-turning vehicles was 350 vehicles per hour, where up to this value, the influence of pedestrians was slight or extended the travel time in the case of the 8th variant, where the number of pedestrians was 350 pedestrians per hour.
Comparing the number of right-turning vehicles to the LOS assessment of a given right-turning relationship at individual inlets by conducting 11 simulations, the following results were obtained. For the N inlet of intersection 1, despite the increasing number of pedestrians, the LOS analysis did not change and was constantly at level 2 corresponding to B in the HCM2010 scale method. At inlet E, the LOS analysis for this inlet changed from the second variant to level C, and then from the fourth variant to level D. The maximum value achieved was from variant 5, i.e., 200 pedestrians per hour, and reached the worst possible value of F. In the case of W, the base LOS value as C and increased to E for variants 2 and 3, and then from variant 4 it already reached the worst possible F level. In the case of the S inlet, the LOS analysis showed an increase to level C from the 3rd simulation variant in the place where pedestrians reached the value of 100 pedestrians per hour. The analyses of individual inlets and variants are shown in
Figure 5
.
In the case of the Junction 2 analysis, the deterioration of the LOS analysis was gradual. Both at inlets N and W, these inlets began in variant 1 with LOS at level A. Then, in the case of inlet N, the worst possible F level for a right torsion was from variant 7 where the number of pedestrians was 300 per h. In the case of the W inlet, as the number of pedestrians at the LOS inlets increased, it grew from A until it reached E at the time of variant 11, where the number of pedestrians reached the maximum analyzed value of 500 pedestrians per hour. The analyses of individual inlets and variants are shown in Figure 6 .
The final stage of the analysis was to compare the entire intersection and traffic conditions in the LOS analysis. The intensities of all vehicles at the intersection were assigned to the comparison in comparison to the LOS analysis also of the entire intersection. As the final result of the capacity study, the efficient operation of the entire intersection was not only aimed at individual inlets or torsion relationships. In the case of intersection 1, the level of freedom of movement LOS increased only from variant 5 (200 pedestrians/hour) and reached the value of D up to variant 10 (450 pedestrians/hour). In the case of a smaller intersection in terms of the number of flights and the intensity of vehicles, intersection 2, the level of freedom of movement was gradually reduced. From variants 4 to 7, the level of freedom of movement was B, from 8 to 9—C, and from 10 to 11—D. The graphical comparison is presented in
Figure 7
.
The final comparison shows that, depending on the constant factors at the intersection, such as the duration of green signals for individual signal groups, as well as the intensity of vehicles at the inlets, the impact of pedestrians walking on pedestrian crossings is significant. Ignoring the addition of the counted number of pedestrians is a big mistake in making microsimulation models.
4. Discussion
When performing microsimulation analyses commissioned by private or public clients, it is necessary not to ignore the number of pedestrians at the intersection. To obtain reliable results regarding, e.g., capacity and the assessment of traffic conditions, it is necessary to include pedestrians.
If the signaling programs allow for two signal groups that collide with each other, the number of pedestrians has a direct impact on the obtained measurement results.
From the eleven simulation variants performed on a micro-scale, the more vehicles on a given route, the more significant the impact of pedestrians. The longer the duration of the green signal for vehicles, the greater the chance of achieving better traffic conditions. The failure to use the filter arrow also contributes to the deterioration of the traffic conditions that can be obtained. Only in the case where pedestrians do not completely collide with vehicles is it possible to bypass pedestrians in microsimulation models.
The analyzed two different intersections show how different results can be obtained for different numbers of pedestrians and different initial conditions added to the microsimulation network. Even the number of 150 pedestrians per hour can significantly impact the assessment of traffic conditions at the analyzed intersection.
An important dominant factor in micro-modeling is the location of the intersection. For example, a nearby public transport stop may have a considerable impact on pedestrian traffic across pedestrian crossings. In the event of the arrival or departure of a large number of buses at a given time, pedestrian traffic may be uneven during the measurement period. Well-programmed and coordinated traffic lights are the basis for a well-functioning city and improving the lives of residents and road users.
Author Contributions
Formal analysis, methodology, resources: M.Z.-O.; software, validation, results: D.O. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This study was funded by the Gdynia Maritime University, research project WN/2022/PZ/10 and WN/2022/PZ/06.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
Not applicable.
Acknowledgments
Traffic data were obtained from the Intelligent Transportation System—TRISTAR (Gdynia Road Administration Office).
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declares no conflict of interest.
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Figure 1. PTV Vissim framework.
Figure 1. PTV Vissim framework.
Figure 2. Junction 1 (J1) and signal program—the name of the streets: Morska–Kwiatkowskiego.
Figure 3. Junction 2 (J2) and signal program—the name of the streets: Hutnicza–Kwiatkowskiego.
Figure 3. Junction 2 (J2) and signal program—the name of the streets: Hutnicza–Kwiatkowskiego.
Figure 4. Base data from variant 1.
Figure 4. Base data from variant 1.
Figure 5. LOS analysis of Junction 1 right turns—comparison.
Figure 5. LOS analysis of Junction 1 right turns—comparison.
Figure 6. LOS analysis on Junction 2 right turns—comparison.
Figure 6. LOS analysis on Junction 2 right turns—comparison.
Figure 7. LOS comparison.
Figure 7. LOS comparison.
Table 1. Comparison of the duration of the green light at the inlets where a right turn is possible.
| https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/14/8945/html |
n of his own
character, as drawn by Chesterfield. 'I am almost in a fever, whenever I
am in his company. His figure (without being deformed) seems made to
disgrace or ridicule the common structure of the human body. His legs
and arms are never in the position, which, according to the situation of
his body, they ought to be in; but constantly employed in committing
acts of hostility upon the graces. He throws any where but down his
throat, whatever he means to drink; and only mangles what he means to
carve. _Inattentive to all the regards of social life_, he mistimes, or
misplaces every thing. He disputes with heat, and indiscriminately,
mindless of the rank, character, and situation, of those with whom he
disputes; absolutely ignorant of the several gradations of familiarity
or respect, he is exactly the same to his superiors, his equals, and his
inferiors; and therefore by a necessary consequence absurd to two of the
three. Is it possible to love such a man? No. The utmost I can do for
him, is to consider him as a respectable Hottentot.' Churchill's account
of our hero comes nearly to the same. And I presume that the inimitable
Dr Smollet, has exhibited a third picture of this illustrious original
in Humphry Clinker, Vol. 1.--Dr Johnson's letter to the Earl of
Chesterfield concludes in these words: 'Whatever be the event of my
endeavours, I shall _not easily_ regret an attempt which has procured me
the honour of appearing thus publicly, my Lord, your Lordship's most
obedient, and most humble servant, Sam. Johnson.' These extracts afford
a striking contrast between the severity of the polite peer, and the
humble politeness (for _once_) of the rugged pedant.
[21] Lives of English poets, vol. iii. p. 243 and 284. 12_mo_ edit.
[22] Vide Life of Dryden.
[23] Vid. Dict. article Blood.
[24] _Excogitation_, this combination of letters is to be found in the
Doctor's works, though not in his Dictionary.
[25] Rasselas, chap. vi.
[26] He meant to say _there_.
[27] Tour, p. 16. and 18. &c.
[28] Tour, p. 186.
[29] Ibid, p. 21.
[30] Rambler, No. 79.
[31] Tour, p. 369 &c.
[32] Tour, p. 373.
[33] Ibid, p. 55.
[34] Vid. folio Dictionary.
[35] Tour, p. 242.
[36] Butler's life.
[37] Rambler, No. 59.
[38] Ibid.
[39] Vid. Plutarch.
[40] Tour, p. 283.
[41] Tour, p. 124.
[42] Ibid, p. 154.
[43] The Doctor ought to have said, 'For _these reasons_,' as he
mentions several.
[44] Pope's life.
[45] He should have said, _no poet_; for that was his meaning, if he had
any. No _writer_, includes prose as well as verse; and this sample may
give us a fair idea of the Doctor's _accuracy_ in point of style.
[46] Life of Pope.
[47] Ibid.
[48] Gray's life.
[49] Gray's life.
[50] Gentleman's Magazine, Vol. XVII.
[51] Gray's life.
[52] Ibid.
[53] Ibid.
[54] Edinburgh Review, Vol. III. P. 55. _et seq._
[55] Gray's life.
[56] Ibid.
[57] Ibid.
[58] Life of Pope.
[59] Gray's life.
[60] Ibid.
[61] Gray's life.
[62] Ibid.
[63] Pastor cum traheret per freta navibus, &c.
[64] Gray's life. Dr. Beattie of Aberdeen differs very widely from Dr.
Johnson on the merit of this poem. He says, 'I have heard the finest Ode
in the world (meaning Gray's Bard) blamed for the boldness of its
figures, and for what the critic was pleased to call obscurity.'
Beattie's Essays on poetry and musick, 3d edit. p. 269. This is,
certainly very strong; yet he seems in some danger of contradicting
himself, when he says in another place, That 'for energy of words,
vivacity of description, and _apposite_ variety of numbers, Dryden's
Feast of Alexander is superior to any ode of Horace or Pindar now
extant.' Ibid, p. 17. One would have been apt to suppose that the Lyrick
Poem which eclipsed Horace, if not the finest, is at least one of 'the
finest in the world.'--But an author has novelty to recommend him, when
he affirms that Gray is superior to Dryden, and Dryden to all Antiquity.
[65] Gray's life.
[66] Ibid.
[67] Ibid.
[68] Gray's life.
[69] Gray's life.
[70] A favourite phrase of the Rambler's.
[71] Gray's life.
[72] Ibid.
[73] Taxation no Tyranny.
[74] Taxation no Tyranny.
[75] Dryden's life.
[76] Ibid.
[77] Rambler, No. 150.
[78] Rambler, No. 9.
[79] Vide the life of Garrick by Mr Davies.
[80] Rambler, No. 160.
[81] Ibid.
[82] Churchill's Apology.
[83] Vide Life of Cowley. His impressions had been very slight, for
Crowley has nothing of the melody, or magnificence of the Fairy Queen.
Of its great author we know little but that he was praised, and
neglected, unfortunate, and poor: and, from his epitaph, that he died
young. His subject is not happy, his words are often obsolete, and his
stanza can hardly please us long. But we may presume that he wanted
leisure to study the great models of antiquity: That he wanted that
tranquillity of mind so requisite to the success of a poet: And that his
defects are owing to the bad taste of his age, and the hardships of his
life. Had he lived longer, and had he enjoyed that competence which a
prudent shoeblack seldom fails to enjoy, Spenser would have been second
in fame to Shakespeare only.
[84] Dr Johnson on Cymbeline. The same sentiment is started in his
account of Pope, 'To the particular species of excellence men are
directed, not by an ascendant planet, or predominant humour, but by the
first book which they read, some early conversation which they heard, or
some accident which excited ardour and emulation.'--The Doctor is in
this passage censuring Pope's ignorance of human nature--while his own
marvellous and extreme stupidity makes him almost beneath censure. The
reader will not realize Montesquieu's remark, That _when we attempt to
prove things so evident we are sure never to convince_.
[85] Annual Register 1779, Part II. p. 148. I abridge his words, but
give their full meaning.
[86] Life of Waller.
[87] Life of Rowe.
[88] Life of Milton.
[89] Life of Swift.
[90] Preface to Shakespeare.
[91] Ibid.
[92] Preface to Shakespeare.
[93] 'He has scenes of _undoubted_ and _perpetual_ excellence.' Ibid. Is
there not some inconsistency in these various assertions.
[94] See in the same style his observations on Prior, Akenside, and
others.
[95] _Quere._ Did ever Shakespeare, or any other man, compose a single
page, or even a single line, on any subject, without either straining
his faculties, or at least soliciting his invention. It is very possible
that the Doctor did not suspect the full extent of his expression.
[96] Vide Dictionary.
[97] Life of Pope.
[98] Ibid.
[99] Pope's life.
[100] Eloisa, Letter 83.
[101] Pope's life.
[102] Preface to Shakespeare.
[103] Pope's life.
[104] Ibid.
[105] Rambler, No. 36.
[106] Ibid.
[107] Thomson's life.
[108] The author has no intention here to disseminate political
opinions--His only meaning is to prove, that _somebody_ has neither
principle, nor consistency, nor shame.
[109] Life of Shenstone.
[110] Gentleman's Magazine.
[111] Vide life of Milton.
[112] Life of Smith.
[113] Tour, p. 8, 12mo edit.
[114] The Crucifix--Gulliver's Travels.
[115] 'And read their history in a nation's eyes.' GRAY'S ELEGY.
[116] On this subject nothing liberal could be expected from Dr Johnson,
who, in spite of his murmurs about Excise, and his actual benevolence in
private life, has always been the firm advocate of oppression. His
project of hiring the Cherokees to massacre the North Americans (vide
supra p. 32) may serve to inform us what he himself would have done, had
he been seated in the saddle of authority. But what shall be said for
some Scottish historians who have adopted the same ideas? One of them
tells us, that Beaton had prepared a list of three hundred and sixty of
the leaders of the Protestant party, whose lives and fortunes were to be
sacrificed to the rapacity and the pride of this ambitious prelate. Yet
he pronounces the killing of such a dangerous monster to be a most
execrable deed. He dwells with studied exultation on the execution of
Charles I. but if our King really deserved his fate, Was not Beaton by
many degrees more criminal? An author can hardly spend his time worse,
than in writing to flatter the prejudices, and to corrupt the common
sense of the world.
[117] Preface to Shakespeare.
[118] _Quere._ What is _unquenchable_ curiosity? and how can a play
excite curiosity which cannot be satisfied by its conclusion?
[119] Preface to Shakespeare.
[120] Ibid.
[121] Weekly Mirror, No. 12.
[122] Monthly Review, on Dr Graham's Pindaricks.
[123] Dr Johnson's life of Pope.
[124] Vide Terence and the Careless Husband.
[125] Vide Dr Johnson's life of Shenstone.
[126] Vide Preface to Dr Johnson's octavo Dictionary, 4th edition.
[127] Vide Measure for measure.
[128] Vide Dictionary.
[129] Optics, P. 349.
[130] Chem. I. P. 399. 614.
[131] Preface to Folio Dictionary.
[132] Perhaps he means, in defining _Thunder_, _Plum porridge_, the
particle _But_, &c.
[133] Letter to the Earl of Chesterfield.
[134] Preface to folio dictionary.
[135] Ibid.
[136] Ibid.
[137] Ibid.
[138] It is said that this word is not to be found in any book previous
to the reign of James II. and that it was derived from the Priests who
surrounded him.
[139] SOLIDITY. '1. Fullness of matter; _not hollowness_. 2. Firmness;
hardness; compactness; _density_;' &c. &c. Dr Johnson's dictionary.
Every page is replete with jargon of this kind.
[140] Essay, &c. Book II. Chap. iv. Sect. 6.
[141] History of Manchester, Vol. II.
[142] Preface to the octavo dictionary.
[143] Vid. Preface to folio Dictionary.
[144] Vide Life of Pope.
[145] Vide Rambler.
[146] The Booksellers, vide Life of Dryden.
[147] Vide Dictionary, article WATER.
[148] Dr Johnson's Dictionary, 4th edition, folio.
[149] Ibid.
[150] It is needless to observe, that there is no such coin in
existence.
[151] Idler, No. 94.
[152] What string does the Doctor mean? for, besides the optic nerve,
there are six muscles, four straight, and two oblique, and other small
nervous branches.
[153] It is surprising how some persons acquire the reputation of piety.
The fervour of Dr Johnson's devotion cannot be denied by those who have
seen him rise in the midst of a large company--fall down on his knees
behind his chair, repeat his Pater noster, and then resume his seat.
This is one way to get a character for holiness, and it is an absolute
fact.
Laud proved his title to the dignity of a saint, by doing all the
mischief that lay in his power. He lighted up the flames of discord
through three kingdoms. They were extinguished in the course of twenty
years, by rivers of blood.
'Knocking Jack of the North' founded his reputation, by railing at the
damnable sin of fornication, destroying great numbers of fine buildings,
and insulting the person of his Sovereign. His character was completely
detestable, which is evident from the whole tenor of his life and
writings, from his 'Blast against Women,' and above all, from his
insolence to Queen Mary, a Princess the most admired, the most
beautiful, the most injured, and the most unfortunate of her age.
[154] Preface to Shakespeare.
[155] Ibid. Dr Johnson on Shakespeare.
[156] Preface to Folio Dictionary.
[157] False Alarm.
[158] Life of Pope.
[159] Life of Pope.
[160] Ibid.
[161] Ibid.
[162]
Let Budgell charge low Grubstreet on my quill--
And write whate'er he please, _except my_ WILL!
Epistle to Arbuthnot.
[163] Life of Pope.
[164] Vide life prefixed to his works.
[165] Rambler, No. 45.
[166] Life of Addison.
[167] Dr Johnson's reputation is raised to such a height, that many
writers do not think their productions can be successful, unless they
have his liberty to acknowledge their obligations to him. This tribute
of gratitude generally occupies a splendid dedication, or the second
paragraph in the author's preface, and we are sometimes reminded in a
marginal note of his particular respect for the Doctor. By a man of
tolerable information, such eulogiums cannot be perused without intense
disgust. But one of these gentlemen has boasted of the Doctor's
approbation of a work, which, had he ever been consulted, he would have
_damned beyond all depth_. Dr Percy has published three volumes of
English ballads, and as an apology for this work, he says in his
preface, that he could refuse nothing to such judges as the late Mr
Shenstone, and--the author of the RAMBLER. Now take notice, that the
very first poem in the collection, and one of the very best in the whole
of it, is Chevy Chace! Dr Percy admires it. Dr Johnson ridicules it in
the roughest terms. What are we to think of this; and what must Dr Percy
feel when he reads the passage just now quoted from his friend? If Dr
Johnson thinks Chevy Chace so insufferably dull, how must he have
sickened in the perusal of many pieces in that collection.
[168] Fugitive pieces. Vol. II. p. 136.
[169] Ibid, p. 26.
[170] Review for August 1782.
[171] Vide False Alarm.
[172] Though Dr Johnson has on all occasions expressed the utmost
contempt and aversion for the Scots, yet they have in general been
solicitous to soothe his pride. Dr Smollet says, that 'Johnson, inferior
to none in philosophy, philology, and poetry, stands foremost as an
essayist, justly celebrated for the strength, dignity, and variety of
his stile, &c.' And Beattie affirms, that his dictionary, considered as
the work of one man, is a _most wonderful_ performance! The Doctor's
capital enemies have likewise been Caledonians. The great author of
Lexiphanes was a Scot, and the Rambler is yet smarting under the rough
but irresistible _remarks_ of a Highland reviewer.
Our ingenious advocate for the second sight (vid. Tour) has long been
duped by a succession of rascals. Lawder persuaded him to believe, that
Paradise Lost was compiled from scraps of modern Latin poetry; his
pamphlet bears strong internal evidence that part of it at least (as has
been long alledged) is the production of the Doctor's pen. Compare in
particular the preface with such attempts in prose as we know to be
Lawder's own. Vide Gentleman's Magazine.
Mr Shaw has of late renewed his _enquiries_. They are only to be
regarded as the desperate ravings of a man who believes that, in
consequence of the _new light_, his moral and his literary character
have sunk together into final perdition; that his name, like Lawder's,
will be remembered only to his infamy, and _that_ Dr Johnson himself
despises and abhors him. Do you think me too severe on the Doctor's
infirmities? Can you forgive his injustice to the memory of his
benefactors--his political duplicity--his thirst for blood--his
inveterate antipathy to the most sacred rights of mankind?
Dr Johnson says, that one of the lowest of all human beings is a
Commissioner of Excise. This can hardly be the case, unless himself or
his reverend friend Mr Shaw shall arrive at that dignity. But in the
meantime, there is a Commissioner of Excise, or Customs, (no matter
which) who in the scale of human beings is not much _lower_ than
Lexiphanes himself. This couple stand in the most striking contrast: and
to draw the character of the first is to write an oblique but most
severe censure on the character of the second. Dr Smith's language is a
luscious and pure specimen of strength, elegance, precision, and
simplicity. His _Enquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of
nations_ deserves to be studied by every member of the community, as one
of the most accurate, profound, and persuasive books that ever was
written. In _that_ performance he displays an intimate and extensive
knowledge of mankind, in every department of life, from the cabinet to
the cottage; a supreme contempt of national prejudice, and a fearless
attachment to liberty, to justice, and to truth. His work is admired as
a mass of excellence, a condensation of reasonings, the most various,
important, original, and just.
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TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
The text indicated quotes by repeating the open quote character on each
new line. This has not been followed in this transcription.
The text used the 'long s', as is common pre-1800. This has been
converted to a standard 's'.
The text used an 'oe' ligature for several words, which has been changed
to 'oe' in the text edition:
[oe]conomy
[oe]gnimatical
Gonnorh[oe]a
The following misprints have been corrected in the text:
Page iii "ignominious end". 'ignominous' in page image.
Page 14. "_False Alarm_". Initial F not italicised in page image.
Page 24. "'The design". Initial quote doubled in page image.
Page 35. "a specimen". 'speimen' in page image.
Page 36. "procure it.'" Removed extra end quote.
Page 48. "_a parte post_". 'a' not italisised in page image.
Page 49. "that ingredient". 'ingre-(newline)gredient' on page.
Page 51. "his only difficulty". 'difficuly' in page image.
Page 53. "Pissburnt". On page 'Piss-(newline)burnt'
Page 72. "(for I dare". Open bracked missing in page image.
Page 75. "for he". Printed as 'forhe'.
Page 80. "Brothelhouse". On page 'brothel-(newline)house'
Page 86. "or blood-thirsty". '-' unclear in page image.
Missing singlequote has been added at the end as indicated below:
Page 17. "these: 'They'"
Page 24. footnote. "_these reasons_,'"
Page 27. "have seen;'"
Page 36. "a poet.'"
Page 40. "fine sleeves;'"
Page 53. "animal water. _Pope._'"
Page 70. "say less'"
Page 78. "or write;'"
Page 78. "heavy ship;'"
In addition, missing period has been added as shown below:
Page 12. "too old to learn."
Page 13. "the victory. _Cibber_"
Page 22 footnote. "Ibid, p. 55."
Page 54. "divert school boys."
Page 54. "_s._ Fiddlefaddle"
Page 55. "Yet, _ad._"
Page 68. "hope and fear."
Page 74. "_Dryden._' Whoredom"
Page 74. "piece of bread."
Page 75. "consisting of three.'"
Page 75 footnote. "in existence."
The alphabetical list on pages 71-72 has several entries out of order.
The order has been kept from the text, rather than corrected.
On page 73 there is a footnote, "Vide Rambler.", with no footnote marker
on the page. This footnote has been placed where it is in the first
edition.
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CASTORINA v. BANK OF AMER | No. 2:21-cv-02004... | 20220509878| Leagle.com
MEMORANDUM AND ORDER RE DEFENDANTS MOTIONS TO DISMISS WILLIAM B. SHUBB District Judge. Plaintiff John Castorina plaintiff has...20220509878
CASTORINA v. BANK OF AMERICA, N.A.
No. 2:21-cv-02004 WBS KJN.
View Case
Cited Cases
JOHN CASTORINA, individually and on behalf of all others similarly situated, Plaintiff,
v.
BANK OF AMERICA, N.A., and INTEGON NATIONAL INSURANCE COMPANY, Defendants.
United States District Court, E.D. California. https://leagle.com/images/logo.png
May 5, 2022.
May 5, 2022.
MEMORANDUM AND ORDER RE: DEFENDANTS' MOTIONS TO DISMISS
WILLIAM B. SHUBB , District Judge .
Plaintiff John Castorina ("plaintiff") has filed this putative class action against Defendant Bank of America, N.A. ("Bank of America") and Integon National Insurance Company ("Integon") alleging various violations of federal and California state laws relating to defendants' practices surrounding the purchasing and placing of insurance, and the conducting of inspections, on borrowers' properties. (Compl. (Docket No. 1).) Bank of America and Integon now move to dismiss plaintiff's complaint pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6). (Docket Nos. 15, 20.)
I.
Factual and Procedural Background
Plaintiff purchased the property at issue at 2110 Forestlake Drive, Rancho Cordova, California 95670 ("the property") in 1995. (Compl. ¶ 7, 131.) After a series of transactions and transfers, on or about April 25, 2003, plaintiff entered into a "mortgage" agreement on the property with Countrywide Home Loans.
1
(
Id.
) In 2008, Bank of America purchased the mortgage and became the mortgage lender and servicer. (
Id.
)
The deed of trust at issue contained a provision that required plaintiff to secure and pay for adequate property insurance that protected the property against loss due to hazards. (
Id.
¶ 132;
Id.
, Ex. A., Deed of Trust ("Deed of Trust") ¶ 4 (Docket No. 1-1).) It also contained a provision allowing Bank of America to inspect and safeguard the property if it is "vacant or abandoned or the loan is in default." (Compl. ¶ 133; Deed of Trust ¶ 5.)
Plaintiff alleges that in 2019 he applied for a loan modification and received correspondence from Bank of America denying his application because of its inability to confirm plaintiff actually owned the property. (Compl. ¶ 134.) Plaintiff responded to the denial with a copy of his deed to confirm ownership. (
Id.
) At that time, Bank of America began refusing to accept monthly payments on the loan. (
Id.
)
On or about September 1, 2019, Bank of America put plaintiff's loan account into delinquency. (
Id.
¶ 135.) Plaintiff alleges he provided the requested documentation and obtained assistance of counsel to prove ownership over the property. (
Id.
¶¶ 135, 138.) Bank of America nevertheless continued to refuse to accept payments or acknowledge plaintiff's ownership of the property for twenty-two months. (
Id.
¶¶ 136, 142.)
Plaintiff alleges that on July 24, 2019, Bank of America began charging his account for property inspections. (
Id.
¶ 137.) He alleges Bank of America conducted fifteen property inspections, some of which were to check if the property was vacant, though plaintiff alleges Bank of America knew he was occupying it. (
Id.
¶ 139.) Seven of those inspections were charged to plaintiff's account on the same day, June 10, 2021, after plaintiff had made multiple payments to bring his account out of default. (
Id.
; Compl., Ex. C, June 10, 2021 Account Statement ("June 10, 2021 Account Statement") (Docket No. 1-1).)
In or around November 2019, plaintiff's voluntary hazard insurance policy lapsed, and Bank of America then purchased a hazard insurance policy through Integon, and placed it onto plaintiff's property. (
Id.
¶ 143.)
2
The lender-placed insurance remains on plaintiff's property and plaintiff has paid the amounts for the lender-placed insurance charges to Bank of America. (
Id.
) Plaintiff alleges that charges for the lender-placed insurance made to plaintiff were higher than the cost of the lender-placed insurance that Bank of America paid to Integon. (
Id.
¶ 145.) Plaintiff also alleges that the cost of the lender-placed insurance is twelve times more expensive than his prior voluntary policy due to a "kickback scheme" between the defendants. (
Id.
)
Plaintiff alleges the "kickback scheme" between defendants works as follows: Integon monitors Bank of America's loan portfolio, and once a lapse in insurance coverage is identified, a notice, purporting to come from Bank of America, is sent to the borrower regarding lender-placed insurance. (
Id.
¶ 114.) Bank of America pays Integon for the certificate for insurance, which issues from an already existing master policy that Bank of America has with Integon. (
Id.
¶ 116.) Bank of America charges the borrower the full amount it initially pays Integon for the insurance. (
Id.
¶ 120.)
However, once coverage begins, Bank of America receives a set percentage back of its initial payment to Integon "disguised as `commissions,' `reinsurance payments,' or `expense reimbursements,'" which lowers the cost of coverage that Bank of America pays to Integon. (
Id.
¶ 117.) Bank of America does not pass on these "kickbacks" to borrowers. Plaintiff alleges that Integon performs the insurance monitoring services on Bank of America's loans to maintain the exclusive right to place insurance on Bank of America's borrowers. (
Id.
¶ 122.)
On October 21, 2021, plaintiff initiated this action by filing a proposed class action complaint alleging nine claims: (1) breach of contract; (2) breach of the implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing; (3) violations of the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act ("FDCPA"), 15 U.S.C. § 1692; (4) violations of the Truth in Lending Act ("TILA"), 15 U.S.C. § 1601; (5) violations of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act ("RICO"), 18 U.S.C. § 1962(c); (6) conspiracy under RICO, 18 U.S.C. § 1962(d); (7) violations of the Rosenthal Fair Debt Collection Practices Act ("Rosenthal Act"), Cal. Civ. Code § 1788; (8) unjust enrichment; and (9) violations of California Unfair Competition Law, Cal. Bus. & Pro. Code § 17200. Plaintiff alleges all nine claims against Bank of America, and only the two RICO claims against Integon.
II.
Discussion
Federal Rule 12(b)(6) allows for dismissal when the plaintiff's complaint fails "to state a claim upon which relief can be granted." Fed. R. Civ. Pro. 12(b)(6). The inquiry before the court is whether, accepting the allegations in the complaint as true and drawing all reasonable inferences in the plaintiff's favor, the plaintiff has stated a claim to relief that is plausible on its face.
See Ashcroft v. Iqbal
,
556 U.S. 662
, 678 (2009). "The plausibility standard is not akin to a `probability requirement,' but it asks for more than a sheer possibility that a defendant has acted unlawfully."
Id.
"Threadbare recitals of the elements of a cause of action, supported by mere conclusory statements, do not suffice."
Id.
A.
Breach of Contract
To state a breach of contract claim under California law, plaintiffs must allege (1) the existence of a contract; (2) plaintiff's performance or excuse for nonperformance of the contract; (3) defendant's breach of the contract; and (4) resulting damages.
First Com. Mortg. Co. v. Reece
,
89 Cal.App.4th 731
, 745 (2d Dist. 2001). Plaintiff alleges Bank of America breached the terms of the deed of trust by charging plaintiff for "excessive and unfair property inspections," charging plaintiff for lender-placed insurance that was "unnecessary and excessive," and not passing on the kickbacks on the cost of coverage. (Compl. ¶¶ 175-79.)
Bank of America argues that plaintiff has failed to allege a breach because the deed of trust allows it to conduct property inspections and charge plaintiff related fees. (Bank of America's Mot. ("BOA Mot.") at 5.) The deed of trust states that Bank of America "may do and pay whatever is necessary to protect the value of the [p]roperty and [its] rights in the [p]roperty" if plaintiff fails to perform under the agreement or there is a legal proceeding. (Deed of Trust ¶ 7.) Specifically, Bank of America may inspect the property if it is "vacant or abandoned or the loan is in default." (
Id.
¶ 5.)
Plaintiff does not dispute that these provisions are in the deed of trust. However, plaintiff alleges that he was charged for inspections that were "drive-by or fabricated." (Compl. ¶ 174.) The deed of trust does not allow Bank of America to charge for inspections that never actually happened. Plaintiff also alleges that the inspections occurred when plaintiff was occupying the property and that Bank of America knew he was occupying it. (
Id.
¶ 175.) The parties also disagree on whether plaintiff was in default when the inspections began. At the pleading stage, the court cannot decide whether plaintiff actually was in default in order to determine if his claim may proceed. Therefore, based on these factual allegations, plaintiff states a breach of contract claim that is "plausible on its face" as Bank of America was allegedly conducting property inspections even when the property was not "vacant or abandoned or the loan [was not] in default."
See Ashcroft
, 556 U.S. at 678; (Deed of Trust ¶ 5.)
Plaintiff's allegations regarding the frequency of the property inspections also sufficiently state a claim for breach of contract. Plaintiff pleads inspections were occurring "in excess of once every 30 days." (Compl. ¶ 174.) Bank of America contends that fifteen property inspections in a 22-month period is not excessive given that courts analyzing similar claims have held inspections once a month were allowed. (BOA Mot. at 5-6 (citing
Walker v. Countrywide Home Loans, Inc.
,
98 Cal.App.4th 1158
(2d Dist. 2002) (holding that charging the borrower for 12 inspections that happened approximately every 30 days was not in violation of the California Unfair Competition Law).) However, plaintiff was charged for seven inspections on a single day, which raises an inference that the inspections were excessive or fabricated, and not done per the contract as "is necessary to protect the value of the property" or Bank of America's rights in it. (June 10, 2021 Account Statement; Deed of Trust ¶ 7.)
In regard to the lender-placed insurance, the agreement states that any amounts "disbursed by" Bank of America for the lender-placed insurance will "become an additional debt of the borrower." (Deed of Trust ¶ 7.) Here, plaintiff alleges that Bank of America did not actually pay the amount it charged plaintiff for lender-placed insurance, and therefore, the amount "disbursed by" Bank of America is less than what "becomes an additional debt" for plaintiff. (
See id.
) Therefore, plaintiff sufficiently alleges that he was charged beyond what the deed of trust permits.
Bank of America notes that it disclosed to plaintiff that lender-placed insurance "may be significantly more expensive than insurance [plaintiff] can buy [himself]." (BOA Mot. at 8; Compl., Ex. B, Lender-Placed Insurance Notice ("Insurance Notice") (Docket No. 1-1).) However, the deed of trust could be interpreted as restricting Bank of America's discretion because it states that Bank of America may pay whatever is "necessary." (Deed of Trust ¶ 7.)
"[W]here the language [of a contract] is ambiguous, such that it is capable of two or more reasonable interpretations and therefore leaves doubt as to the parties' intent, a motion to dismiss must be denied."
Maloney v. Indymac Mortg. Servs.
, No. CV-13-04781 DDP, 2014 WL 6453777, at *6 (C.D. Cal. Nov. 17, 2014);
see Consul Ltd. V. Solide Enters.
,
802 F.2d 1143
, 1149 (9th Cir. 1986) (holding that the district court erred in dismissing for failure to state a claim where the conflict in language of an agreement "leaves doubt as to the parties' intent"). Though the deed of trust allows Bank of America to institute lender-placed insurance, whether the amount it paid was "necessary" creates ambiguities regarding the authorized level of insurance.
The conduct alleged in this case, including the language in the deed of trust itself, is strikingly similar to that in
McNeary-Calloway v. JP Morgan Chase Bank, N.A.
,
863 F.Supp.2d 928
(N.D. Cal. Mar. 26, 2012). In
McNeary
, the plaintiffs' agreements included the same language about the lender's right to "do and pay whatever is necessary to protect the value of the property and Lender's rights in the property, including payment of . . . hazard insurance."
McNeary
, 863 F. Supp. 2d at 956. The court in
McNeary
, determined that the defendants could only place insurance "to the extent such insurance `is necessary,'" which did not give defendants "unlimited discretion," and therefore the court denied defendants' motion to dismiss the breach of contract claim.
Id.
;
see also Longest v. Green Tree Servicing LLC
,
74 F.Supp.3d 1289
, 1298 (C.D. Cal. Feb. 9, 2015) (finding there to be ambiguity in the mortgage agreement due to the tension between the allowance of lender-placed insurance but the discretionary function of the lender being able to do "whatever is reasonable and appropriate").
Plaintiff has sufficiently alleged a breach of contract claim against Bank of America based on the property inspections and lender-placed insurance. Accordingly, Bank of America's motion to dismiss plaintiff's breach of contract claim will be denied.
B.
Implied Covenant of Good Faith and Fair Dealing
Under California law, all contracts contain an implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing.
See San Jose Prod. Credit Ass'n v. Old Republic Life Ins. Co.
,
723 F.2d 700
, 703 (9th Cir. 1984). The covenant "requires each contracting party to refrain from doing anything to injure the right of the other to receive the benefits of the agreement."
Id.
(quotations and citation omitted).
Bank of America argues that plaintiff's implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing claim avers only a contractual violation and is therefore duplicative of plaintiff's claim for breach of the deed of trust. (BOA Mot. at 9.) "[W]here breach of an actual term is alleged, a separate implied covenant claim, based on the same breach, is superfluous."
Guz v. Bechtel Nat. Inc
,
24 Cal.4th 317
, 327 (2000);
see also Env't Furniture, Inc. v. Bina
, No. CV 09-7978 PSG, 2010 WL 5060381, *3 (C.D. Cal. Dec. 6, 2010) (quotations omitted) ("California law requires that a claim for breach of the implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing go beyond the statement of a mere contract breach and not rely on the same alleged acts or simply seek the same damages" as the breach of contract claim).
Plaintiff's implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing claim alleges the same conduct alleged in his breach of contract claim. (
Compare
compl. ¶¶ 174-79,
with id.
¶¶ 188a-h.) Notably, plaintiff alleges that Bank of America breached its duty of good faith and fair dealing "in violation of the applicable [deed of trust] provisions." (
Id.
¶¶ 188c, 188f.) As alleged, plaintiff's implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing claim is superfluous. Therefore, that claim will be dismissed.
C.
Fair Debt Collection Practices Act and Rosenthal Act
The FDCPA and the Rosenthal Act prohibit false, deceptive, or misleading representations or means in connection with the collection of any debt, and using unfair and unconscionable means to collect or attempt to collect any debt. 15 U.S.C. § 1692e-f; Cal. Civ. Code § 1788.1(b).
1.
"Debt Collector" Requirement for FDCPA
In order to be liable under both the FDCPA and the Rosenthal Act, Bank of America must qualify as a "debt collector." The definition of "debt collector" is broader under the Rosenthal Act than it is under the FDCPA, as the latter excludes creditors collecting on their own debts or a debt that was not in default when it was obtained by a creditor.
See
15 U.S.C. § 1692a(6)(F);
Herrera v. LCS Fin. Servs. Corp.
, No. C09-02843 TEH, 2009 WL 5062192, at *2 n.1 (N.D. Cal. Dec. 22, 2009) ("[t]he federal definition [of debt collectors] excludes creditors collecting on their own debts, 15 U.S.C. § 1692a(6), an exclusion that does not appear in the state statute, Cal. Civ. Code § 1788.2(c)").
Plaintiff stipulated at oral argument to dropping his FDCPA claim as the parties agree that Bank of America is not a "debt collector" under the FDCPA. Bank of America is the lender on the loan, and therefore, is "collecting on its own debt" and the loan was not in default when Bank of America obtained it. Accordingly, plaintiff's FDCPA claim will be dismissed.
2.
Rosenthal Act Claim
Plaintiff alleges that Bank of America violated the Rosenthal Act by representing to him that he "must make payments for Escrow Account Advances (which contained illegal fees for excessive and improper [lender-placed insurance]), and the fees for property inspections that were not conducted, excessive, and not permitted, when . . . [Bank of America] knew that the fees . . . were not legitimate debts." (
See
compl. ¶¶ 253-55.)
The heightened pleading standard of Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 9(b) applies to claims under the Rosenthal Act when premised on allegations of fraud, and here plaintiff's Rosenthal Act claim is premised on Bank of America allegedly making false, deceptive, and misleading statements.
See Brown v. CitiMortgage, Inc.
, SACV 16-00048-CJC, 2016 WL 7507762, at *4 (C.D. Cal. Feb. 17, 2016) (applying heightened Rule 9(b) pleading standard for Rosenthal Act claim);
Day v. Am. Home Mortg. Servicing, Inc.
, No. 2:09-CV-02676-GEB-KJM, 2010 WL 2231988, at *2 (E.D. Cal. June 2, 2010) (same).
The Ninth Circuit has held that "to avoid dismissal for inadequacy under Rule 9(b), [the] complaint would need to `state the time, place, and specific content of the false representations as well as the identities of the parties to the misrepresentation.'"
Edwards v. Marin Park, Inc.
,
356 F.3d 1058
, 1066 (9th Cir. 2004) (quoting
Alan Neuman Prods., Inc. v. Albright
,
862 F.2d 1388
, 1393 (9th Cir. 1988)). Further, Rule 9(b) requires that a plaintiff "must set forth what is false or misleading about a statement, and why it is false."
Rubke v. Capitol Bancorp Ltd.
,
551 F.3d 1156
, 1161 (9th Cir. 2009) (quotations omitted).
Here, the complaint states that Bank of America "made demands for payments after delinquency and/or default by sending letters, making telephone calls, and other attempts to collect mortgage payments." (Compl. ¶ 250.) Beyond this, the complaint does not include any other factual allegations about the "time, place, and specific content" of the "letters, telephone calls, or other attempts."
Edwards
, 356 F.3d at 1066; (
Id.
) Accordingly, plaintiff's Rosenthal Act claim will be dismissed.
D.
Truth in Lending Act
TILA is a consumer protection statute that aims to "avoid the uninformed use of credit." 15 U.S.C. § 1601(a). The statute "requires creditors to provide borrowers with clear and accurate disclosures of terms dealing with things like finance charges, annual percentage rates of interest, and the borrower's rights."
Beach v. Ocwen Fed. Bank
,
523 U.S. 410
, 412 (1998) (citing 15 U.S.C. §§ 1631, 1632, 1635 & 1638).
1.
TILA Claim for Lender-Placed Insurance
Under TILA, 12 C.F.R. § 226.18(d), a creditor must disclose a "finance charge" which includes a premium for insurance. Plaintiff cites to cases allowing TILA claims to proceed in which the original mortgage agreement did not contemplate that the borrower was required to have hazard insurance or that Bank of America was authorized to purchase it if the borrower's policy lapsed. (Pl.'s Opp'n to Bank of America Mot. at 15 (citing
Hofstetter v. Chase Home Fin., LLC
,
751 F.Supp.2d 1116
, 1125-28 (N.D. Cal. Oct. 29, 2010) (granting leave to amend to add a TILA claim where mandatory flood insurance was not required "at the loan's consummation and insufficient initial disclosures were made to the borrower that such insurance would have to be purchased in the future");
Travis v. Boulevard Bank N.A.
,
880 F.Supp. 1226
, 1229 (N.D. Ill. Mar. 31, 1995) (emphasis added) ("Defendant's purchase of the allegedly
unauthorized
insurance and the subsequent addition of the resulting premiums to plaintiff's existing indebtedness constituted a new credit transaction" requiring new disclosures under TILA). Here, the deed of trust differs from plaintiff's cited cases because it required plaintiff to have hazard insurance and authorized Bank of America to institute lender-placed insurance if plaintiff's policy lapsed.
However, the agreement did not authorize Bank of America to receive kickbacks from the lender-placed insurance or charge for inspections that were drive-by or fabricated.
See Cannon v. Wells Fargo Bank, N.A.
,
917 F.Supp.2d 1025
, 1044-46 (N.D. Cal. Jan. 9, 2013) (denying motion to dismiss TILA claim where lender-placed insurance was authorized by the mortgage agreement, but the kickbacks were not). Plaintiff sufficiently alleges that Bank of America violated TILA, 12 C.F.R. § 226.17, by failing to disclose the amount and nature of the kickback scheme. (Compl. ¶ 211.)
2.
TILA Claim for Property-Inspection Fees
Plaintiff's TILA claim also alleges in conclusory terms that Bank of America violated TILA "through the imposition of unauthorized or inflated" property inspections. (
Id.
¶ 215.) Beyond this conclusory allegation, the complaint contains no other factual allegations pertaining to property inspections in accordance with the TILA claim.
See Ashcroft
, 556 U.S. at 678 ("Threadbare recitals of the elements of a cause of action, supported by mere conclusory statements, do not suffice.") Further, plaintiff provides no argument in opposition about the TILA claim to the extent it is based on property-inspection fees. (
See
Pl.'s Opp'n to Bank of America at 14-16.) Accordingly, the court will grant Bank of America's motion to dismiss plaintiff's TILA claim to the extent it is based on property-inspection fees.
3.
TILA Statute of Limitations
Bank of America argues plaintiff's TILA claim is time-barred to the extent it is premised on conduct before October 29, 2020, as TILA has a one-year statute of limitations.
See
15 U.S.C. 1640(e). In his opposition, plaintiff does not argue that equitable tolling is appropriate, though he attempted to plead as such in the complaint. (
See
Pl.'s Opp'n to Bank of America at 16-17; Compl. ¶¶ 149-154.) Plaintiff merely argues that he has also alleged conduct that occurred within the statute of limitations, because the lender-placed insurance was renewed on April 19, 2021. (Pl.'s Opp'n to Bank of America at 16-17.) Plaintiff provides no explanation of how a claim based on conduct occurring prior to October 29, 2020 would be subject to equitable tolling. Plaintiff also insufficiently alleges how the information upon which he bases his claims was not available to him earlier, since he had been getting charged for the lender-placed insurance as early as 2019. Presumably, plaintiff was made aware of these charges as part of his monthly statements, and if he was not, he fails to allege facts to support that inference.
Therefore, to the extent plaintiff's TILA claim is based on alleged violations from prior to October 29, 2020, it is time-barred and will be dismissed. For conduct after October 29, 2020, plaintiff's TILA claim based on lender-placed insurance is sufficiently alleged and Bank of America's motion will be denied.
E.
RICO Claims
Both defendants move to dismiss plaintiff's RICO claim which is based on the alleged "kickback scheme" for lender-placed insurance between defendants. To state a claim under RICO, a plaintiff must allege the existence of a RICO enterprise, the existence of a pattern of racketeering activity, a nexus between the defendant and either the pattern of racketeering activity or the RICO enterprise, and a resulting injury to the plaintiff.
Occupational-Urgent Care Health Sys., Inc. v. Sutro & Co., Inc.
,
711 F.Supp. 1016
, 1021 (E.D. Cal. 1989).
When the alleged racketeering activity sounds in fraud — and here plaintiff bases his RICO claim upon mail and wire fraud — the complaint must "state with particularity the circumstances constituting fraud or mistake" to meet the standard under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 9(b).
In re Countrywide Fin. Corp. Mortg. Mktg. & Sales Prac. Lit.
,
601 F.Supp.2d 1201
, 1215 (S.D. Cal. 2009) (quoting Fed. R. Civ. P. 9(b)). To allege a pattern of racketeering activity, a plaintiff must allege two or more predicate acts.
Sun Sav. & Loan Ass'n v. Dierdorff
,
825 F.2d 187
, 193 (9th Cir. 1987).
Here, the complaint alleges only one predicate act of mail and wire fraud. Plaintiff alleges that he received a lender-placed insurance notice on April 19, 2021 from Bank of America, which he alleges was actually from Integon. (Compl. ¶ 144.) Even assuming that the April 19, 2021 letter is a sufficiently alleged predicate act, plaintiff's RICO claim fails because he has not alleged a second predicate act. Beyond the one letter, plaintiff does not identify any other predicate acts with the required particularity under Rule 9(b). Merely stating that Integon sent letters with approval from Bank of America, without identifying the time, place or specific content of false representations of more than one letter, is insufficient to survive a motion to dismiss under the heightened pleading standard of Rule 9(b). (
Id.
¶ 232.)
Furthermore, plaintiff's RICO claim must be dismissed for the independent reason that it is nothing more than a dressed-up attempt to assert a breach of contract claim, which plaintiff already alleges. "A plaintiff cannot state a claim under the Civil RICO statute by simply artfully pleading what is essentially a breach of contract claim."
Manos v. MTC Fin., Inc.
, No. SACV 16-01142-CJC, 2018 WL 6220051, *7 (C.D. Cal. Apr. 2, 2018) (quotations omitted);
Vega v. Ocwen Fin. Corp.
, No 2:14-cv-04408-ODW, 2015 WL 1383241, *12 (C.D. Cal. Mar. 24, 2015) (dismissing RICO claim which alleged that the defendant assessed fees in violation of the borrowers' mortgage agreement because the claim was premised on a breach of contract). The alleged conduct under plaintiff's RICO claim, of improperly charging borrowers for lender-placed insurance, is also the alleged conduct upon which plaintiff's breach of contract claim is premised. (
Compare
compl. ¶ 243,
with id.
¶ 179.)
Plaintiff's opposition to defendants' motion on this issue only argues that his RICO claim is different than his breach of contract claim for the property-inspection fees. (Pl.'s Opp'n to Bank of America at 9.) However, as pled by plaintiff, his RICO claim is only based on lender-placed insurance. (
See
compl. ¶ 240-47.) Plaintiff makes no effort to distinguish his breach of contract claim for lender-placed insurance and his RICO claim for lender-placed insurance.
Accordingly, defendants' motions to dismiss plaintiff's RICO claim will be granted.
Because the complaint fails to sufficiently allege a RICO claim under 18 U.S.C. § 1962(c), plaintiff's claim under § 1962(d) for conspiracy to commit a RICO violation also fails.
See Turner v. Cook
,
362 F.3d 1219
, 1231 n. 17 (9th Cir. 2004) (dismissing conspiracy to commit RICO claim because plaintiffs failed to sufficiently allege RICO claim).
F.
Unjust Enrichment
In the alternative to his claims for breach of contract and implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing, plaintiff brings a separate claim for unjust enrichment against Bank of America. "There is not a standalone cause of action for `unjust enrichment' which is synonymous with restitution."
Astiana v. Hain Celestial Grp., Inc.
,
783 F.3d 753
, 762 (9th Cir. 2015). Rather, it "describe[s] the theory underlying a claim that a defendant has been unjustly conferred a benefit through mistake, coercion, or request" and the "return of that benefit is typically sought in a quasi-contract cause of action."
Id.
Here, both parties agree that there is an existing contract which is at issue, the deed of trust, so there is no claim to be made in quasi-contract. Accordingly, the court will grant Bank of America's motion to dismiss plaintiff's unjust enrichment "claim."
G.
California Unfair Competition Law
California's Unfair Competition Law ("UCL") "prohibits any unfair competition, which means `any unlawful, unfair or fraudulent business act or practice.'"
In re Pomona Valley Med. Grp., Inc.
,
476 F.3d 665
et seq.
). Plaintiff has alleged that Bank of America was receiving kickbacks for placing insurance on borrowers' property, without disclosing any such kickbacks to borrowers, and Bank of America was falsifying property inspections and still charging borrowers for them. At the pleading stage, plaintiff sufficiently alleges the UCL claim given plaintiff's remaining claims in this action and the conduct by Bank of America described within the complaint.
IT IS THEREFORE ORDERED that:
(1) Bank of America's motion to dismiss plaintiff's breach of contract claim be, and the same hereby is, DENIED;
(2) Bank of America's motion to dismiss plaintiff's claim for breach of the implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing be, and the same hereby is, GRANTED;
(3) Bank of America's motion to dismiss plaintiff's claim under the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act be, and the same hereby is, GRANTED;
(4) Bank of America's motion to dismiss plaintiff's claim under the Truth in Lending Act be, and the same hereby is, GRANTED in part with respect to the imposition of property-inspection fees and all alleged violations occurring before October 29, 2020, and DENIED in all other respects;
(5) Bank of America's motion to dismiss and Integon's motion to dismiss plaintiff's claim under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, 15 U.S.C. § 1962(c) be, and the same hereby are, GRANTED;
(6) Bank of America's motion to dismiss and Integon's motion to dismiss plaintiff's conspiracy claim under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, 15 U.S.C. § 1962(d) be, and the same hereby are, GRANTED;
(7) Bank of America's motion to dismiss plaintiff's claim under the Rosenthal Fair Debt Collection Practices Act be, and the same hereby is, GRANTED;
(8) Bank of America's motion to dismiss plaintiff's unjust enrichment claim be, and the same hereby, is GRANTED; and
(9) Bank of America's motion to dismiss plaintiff's claim for violations of the California Unfair Competition Law, be and the same hereby, is DENIED.
Plaintiff has twenty days from the date of this Order to file a second amended complaint, if he can do so consistent with this Order. In deciding whether to file a second amended complaint, counsel is reminded that the purpose of a complaint is not to see how many claims can be constructed out of a single set of facts, but to plead only such claims as may improve plaintiff's prospects of prevailing at trial.
FootNotes
1. In their pleadings, the parties refer to the deed of trust and promissory note collectively as the "mortgage," "mortgage agreement" or "agreement." The contractual terms which are at issue in this case are those set forth in the deed of trust.
2. An insurance policy that is placed on borrowers' properties in this manner is referred to by the parties both as "force-placed insurance" and "lender-placed insurance." The court will refer to it as "lender-placed insurance."
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The Spectrum of NF1 Gene Variations in Southeastern Turkey. - Free Online Library
Free Online Library: The Spectrum of NF1 Gene Variations in Southeastern Turkey.(Original Article, neurofibromatosis) by " The Journal of Pediatric Research" ; Health, general Diagnostic equipment (Medical) Genes Genetic aspects Genetic variation Medical research Medicine, Experimental Neurofibromatosis Pediatric research Scientific equipment and supplies industry Scientific equipment industry
The Spectrum of NF1 Gene Variations in Southeastern Turkey.
Introduction
Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1; OMIM 162200) is one of the most common hereditary disorders. It is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. The estimated incidence at birth is 1/3,000 (1,2). Multiple cafe-au-lait spots, axillary/inguinal freckling, multiple cutaneous neurofibromas, iris Lisch nodules, and choroidal freckling are the characteristic features of NF1 (3). NF1 also manifests as multisystemic disorders with musculoskeletal, vascular, central nervous, and peripheral nervous system involvement such as scoliosis, tibial dysplasia, vasculopathy, glioma, and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (4).
Clinical diagnosis of NF1 is based on the National Institutes of Health (NIH) diagnostic criteria (5). However, without a family history, these criteria may be insufficient in early childhood as most of the clinical features manifest later in life (3).
The NF1 phenotype is caused by germline heterozygous pathogenic variants of the NF1 gene. NF1 is located at chromosome 17q11.2 and coded neurofibromin 1 protein that acts as a regulator of Ras activity. NF1, one of the largest genes in the human genome, consists of 57 coding exons and 12,362 base pairs transcript length (transcript reference, NM_000267.3).
In recent years, next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology has enabled many genes, regardless of size, to be analyzed systematically, comprehensively, more easily and more cost-effectively. Most studies demonstrated that NGS with in-solution hybridization-based enrichment provides a high mutation detection rate comparable to that of conventional direct capillary sequencing methods for the molecular diagnosis of neurofibromatosis. In this study, we aimed to present the variant spectrum of NF1 patients from the region of Southeastern Turkey and investigate if there is a clear genotype-phenotype correlation (6).
Materials and Methods
Profile of the Patients
The clinical and genetic data of the NF1 patients who were referred to the Medical Genetics Clinic, Gaziantep Ersin Arslan Training and Research Hospital between May 2016 and December 2019 were evaluated retrospectively. Peripheral blood samples were obtained after taking informed consent from all participants or the legal guardians of those children under the age of 18. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Gaziantep University Medical Faculty (approval number: 65587614-774.99-291, date: 04/10/2017).
Ninety-two Turkish patients from 86 unrelated families who were both clinically and molecularly diagnosed with NF1 were included in this study. Fifty-four (58.7%) patients were male and thirty-eight (41.3%) were female. Age at diagnosis was in the range of 1-46 years.
The clinical diagnosis was performed based on the presence of two or more of the diagnostic criteria proposed by the NIH Consensus Development Conference (5). The diagnosis of NF1 was established in patients who had two or more of the following NIH criteria: Six or more cafe-au-lait macules (one of them must be greater than 5 mm and 15 mm, prepubertal and post-pubertal respectively); two or more neurofibromas or 1 plexiform neurofibroma; freckling in the axillary or inguinal regions; optic glioma; two or more Lisch nodules; a distinctive osseous lesion (sphenoid dysplasia or tibial pseudarthrosis); and a first-degree relative with neurofibromatosis type 1.
Genetic Analysis
Genomic DNA was extracted from whole blood samples using an automated method (RSC whole blood DNA kit) in the Maxwell[R] 16 (Promega Corporation, Madison, WI). NF1 (57 coding exons, NM_000267.3) amplicons were designed using the AmpliSeq Designer software (Life Technologies, CA, USA), targeting the complete coding sequence of the NF1 gene by 120 amplicons. The design target coverage was 99.49%.
Amplicon library was prepared using the Ion AmpliSeq Library Kit Plus, Xpress Barcode Adapters 1-96 Kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific), then pooled together using Qubit 1X dsDNAhs Assay kit and Qubit 4 Fluorometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific). Emulsion PCR, and Ion Sphere Particles enrichment were carried out in the Ion Chef System, then loaded into an Ion 530 chip. NGS was performed via Ion 510 & Ion 520 & Ion 530 kit-Chef (Thermo Fisher Scientific). Data were processed using Ion Torrent Suite Software (Thermo Fisher Scientific) and Ion Reporter Software (Thermo Fisher Scientific).
The Human Gene Mutation Database (HGMD) (7) and Leiden Open Variation Database (LOVD) were used to determine whether a variant was novel or not. Several prediction algorithms, including SIFT (http://sift.jcvi. org), Polyphen2 (http://genetics.bwh.harvard.edu/pph2/), Human Splicing Finder (http://www.umd.be/HSF/) and Mutation taster (http://www.mutationtaster.org) were used to determine any damaging effects on the protein. The Genome Aggregation Database (https://gnomad.broadinstitute.org) was used to estimate the minor allele frequency score.
Nomenclature of the variants was based on the NM_000267.3 (NCBI transcript number). Variants were reviewed using dbSNP (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/SNP/). A minimum 30X coverage for all bases was accepted for a reliable variant calling. Ion Reporter version 5.0 software was used to annotate variants. Integrated Genomics Viewer (http://software.broadinstitute.org/software/igv/) was used for visual assessment of the revealed variants.
Novel variants are reported to the Human Genome Variation Society guidelines and checked by using Mutalyzer tool (https://mutalyzer.nl/about). All variants were classified by using The American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) guidelines criteria (8). Some variants were validated with direct capillary sequencing that was performed by using the BigDyeTerminator kit v3.1 (LifeTechnologies, Darmstadt, Germany) and an automated capillary sequencer (3500xl Genetic Analyzer, Life Technologies). The obtained sequence data were analyzed using the Seq-Scape (Ver. 2.1) program (Applied Biosystems).
Results
Clinical Manifestations of the Patients
We reviewed the clinical data in 73 of the 92 patients. The frequencies of clinical features are sorted by age ranges in Table I. The median age was 8 years. 42.5% of patients were familial and 57.5% were sporadic cases. Seventy-one (97.2%) patients were suffering from cafe-au-lait spots. Axillary or inguinal freckling was present in 27 patients (36.9%). The other common skin manifestation were cutaneous neurofibromas that accounted for 19.1% (14/73) of cases. Optic glioma was identified in 6.8% (5/73) of the patients. Hamartomas were detected with magnetic resonance imaging in 22 of the patients (30.1%) (Table II).
Characterization of the NF1 Variants
Seventy-six variations of which two were probably somatic were detected in 92 patients from unrelated families. The identified variants were as follows: 36 frameshift variants (41.9%) resulting from small insertions, deletions or indels; 27 non-sense variations (31.4%); 14 missense variants (16.2%); 6 splicing alterations (7%), and 3 in-frame deletions or indels (3.5%) (Figure 1).
Twenty-seven (35%) of the variants were novel and had not been previously reported in HGMD or LOVD. The c.2446C>T, c.3826C>T, c.5839C>T, c.2546dupG showed familial segregation. The c.5107C>T (15%), c.3721C>T (20%) variants were detected at lower fraction percentages; 15% and 20% respectively. The c.2033dupC, c.2446C>T, c.3525_3526delAA, c.3826C>T, c.4084C>T, c.5546G>A, c.6792C>G variations were identified in more than one unrelated family (Table III). Only one of the variations (c.7674G>A) was interpreted as a variant of unknown origin (VUS) based on ACMG criteria. The other three were likely pathogenic and 23 of them were pathogenic. 24 variants produced truncated protein as a result of premature stop codon, which is a significant indication of their pathogenicity. All novel variants were predicted to be deleterious by at least one in-silico analysis.
Discussion
As NF1 is the one of the most common inherited disorders and NF1 is one of the largest genes in the human genome, a great number of variations (over 3,000) have been reported in HGMD to date. Even though previously reported pathogenic variation types show diversity, most of them cause severe truncated gene products (9). Most of the pathogenic variants (93%) are small nucleotide alterations (including non-sense, missense, insertion or deletion) and splicing variants. Intragenic deletions/duplications (2%) and microdeletions (5%) are rarely detected (10). In this study, we identified 76 different mutations in 92 families. Most of the variant types are frameshift, non-sense and splice-site, similar to the literature (10-12). The missense variation rate was relatively high (14 variants, 16%) in accordance with similar studies (11-13). There were some conflicting pathogenicity variants such as c.7674G>A and c.2764G>A which were interpreted as VUS based on ACMG criteria. The patient with c.7674G>A had a typical NF1 phenotype, which was a strong indicator showing the variant's pathogenicity. However, the case with c.2764G>A variant did not reach the optimum clinical registry.
There is not a well-recognized hot spot region in the NF1 gene (14-16). In this study, we found only one recurrent variant (c.6792C>G) in two unrelated families. It did not show significant variant aggregation in any exon (Figure 2). Although we observed relative variant density in exon 13 according to the exon length (Figure 2), it was insufficient to speculate that exon 13 is a hotspot region. Moreover, the variant frequency was lower both in the first and last few exons which code the constitutional amino acids. This can be attributed to the variants on the distal part of the gene being less effective in causing the NF1 phenotype.
Six functional domains were determined on the NF1 protein: The cysteine and serine rich domain (CSRD; exons 1-22), the tubulin binging domain (TBD; exons 22-27), the domain responsible for interactions with RAS and GTP hydrolysis (GRD; exons 27-34), the bipartite lipid binging domain (first part) (Sec14; exons 35-36), the bipartite lipid binging domain (second part) (PH; exons 35-36), and the carboxyl-terminal domain (CTD; exons 37-52) (17). The distribution of the variants according to functional domains were CSRD (31/76-40.7%), TBD (9/76-11.8%), GRD (11/76-14.4%) Sec 14 and PH (5/76-6.5%), and CTD (20/76-26.3%). We did not find any variants outside of the functional domains.
Our results did not reveal any clear relationships between specific NF1 variants and phenotypes. Furthermore, no complete well-known genotype-phenotype correlation has been reported in the literature to date (12,18-20). Only three clear correlations of clinical significance have been identified in particular pathogenic NF1 variants. NF1 whole-gene deletions are related with early-onset presentation of cutaneous neurofibromas, cognitive abnormalities, somatic overgrowth, and dysmorphic facial features (21,22). The c.2970-2972delAAT variant does not cause cutaneous or surface plexiform neurofibromas (23). Any of the c.5425C>T or c.5425C>A or c.5425C>G variants are related with cafe-au-lait spots, learning disabilities, short stature, and pulmonic stenosis but not cutaneous neurofibromas (24,25). However, C16 (13 years of age) with the c.2970-2972del variant had neurofibromas, which is a late-onset feature of NF1.
A novel c.1637dupT variation was detected in C85 (20 years of age) who had isolated pilocytic astrocytoma without cutaneous findings. The case of C11 with the c.1721+3A>C variation only had clinical signs of neurofibromas without the accompanying cafe-au-lait spots. Ocular manifestations such as Lisch nodules and optic nerve glioma were determined in 23% and 6.8% of all cases, which are lower frequencies in comparison with the literature (26,27).
Additionally, the frequency of neurofibromas were lower than in the literature.
Mosaic NF1 variants cause mild forms of the NF1 phenotype (28). We detected two different variations with low variation fraction in C87 (c.3721C>T) and C90 (c.5107C>T). Sanger confirmations of these variants were consistent with NGS data. However, a molecular analysis of a second tissue could not be performed in these patients. Both of these patients had classical NF1 symptoms without family history and segmental involvement. We classified both of these patients as mosaic generalized NF1.
Conclusion
In conclusion, NF1 genetic analysis was a supporting tool for the atypical presentation of NF1 cases especially in the prepubertal period. Additionally, genetic analysis before pregnancy provides preimplantation and prenatal genetic diagnosis for families with NF1.
Ethics
Ethics Committee Approval: The study was approved by the Ethical Committee of the Gaziantep University Medical Faculty (approval number: 65587614-774.99-291, date: 04/10/2017).
Informed Consent: Peripheral blood samples were obtained after taking informed consents from all participants or legal guardians of children under the age of 18.
Peer-review: Externally peer-reviewed.
Authorship Contributions
Concept: E.K., Design: E.K., Data Collection or Processing: H.M.A., E.K., Analysis or Interpretation: H.M.A., E.K., Literature Search: H.M.A., E.K., Writing: H.M.A., E.K.
Conflict of Interest: No conflict of interest was declared by the authors.
Financial Disclosure: The authors declared that this study received no financial support.
References
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(5.) No authors listed. National Institutes of Health Consensus Development Conference Statement: neurofibromatosis. Bethesda, Md., USA, July 13-15, 1987. Neurofibromatosis 1988; 1:172-8.
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(17.) Sabbagh A, Pasmant E, Imbard A, et al. NF1 molecular characterization and neurofibromatosis type I genotype-phenotype correlation: the French experience. Hum Mutat 2013; 34:1510-8.
(18.) Zhang J, Tong H, Fu X, et al. Molecular Characterization of NF1 and Neurofibromatosis Type 1 Genotype-Phenotype Correlations in a Chinese Population. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11291. doi: 10.1038/srep11291.
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(21.) Pasmant E, Sabbagh A, Spurlock G, et al. NF1 microdeletions in neurofibromatosis type 1: from genotype to phenotype. Hum Mutat 2010; 31:E1506-18. doi: 10.1002/humu.21271.
(22.) Upadhyaya M, Huson SM, Davies M, et al. An absence of cutaneous neurofibromas associated with a 3-bp inframe deletion in exon 17 of the NF1 gene (c.2970-2972 delAAT): evidence of a clinically significant NF1 genotype-phenotype correlation. Am J Hum Genet 2007; 80:140-51.
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(24.) Rojnueangnit K, Xie J, Gomes A, et al. high incidence of noonan syndrome features including short stature and pulmonic stenosis in patients carrying nf1 missense mutations affecting p.arg1809: genotype-phenotype correlation. Hum Mutat 2015; 36:1052-63.
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Address for Correspondence Hatice Mutlu Albayrak, Cengiz Gökçek Maternity and Children's Hospital, Clinic of Pediatric Genetics, Gaziantep, Turkey
Received: 27.10.2020 Accepted: 12.01.2021
(iD) Emre Kirat (1), (iD) Hatice Mutlu Albayrak (2)
(1)Gaziantep Ersin Arslan Training and Research Hospital, Clinic of Medical Genetics, Gaziantep, Turkey
(2)Cengiz Gokcek Maternity and Children's Hospital, Clinic of Pediatric Genetics, Gaziantep, Turkey
DOI: 10.4274/jpr.galenos.2021.03379
Table I. Range of the clinical features according to the age groups
Age 6>CALs Freckling Neurofibroma Optic glioma
Year n n (%)
0-1 15 15 (100) 2 (13.3) 2 (13.3) 2 (13.3)
2-4 13 13 (100) 4 (30.7) 1 (7.6) 2 (15.3)
5-18 34 34 (100) 15 (100) 4 (11.7) 1 (12.9)
19-30 4 3 (75) 3 (44.1) 1 (25) 0 (0)
31-60 7 6 (85.7) 3 (75) 6 (87.5) 0 (0)
Age Lisch nodule Hamartoma
Year
0-1 5 (33.3) 4 (26.6)
2-4 4 (30.7) 5 (38.4)
5-18 6 (17.6) 12 (35.2)
19-30 0 (0) 0 (0)
31-60 2 (28.5) 1 (14.2)
n: Number; CALs: Cafe au lait spots
Table II. Clinical data of the patients
Family Case Sex Age Variation (codon Family CALs
(yr) number) history
F1 C1 M 1 c.1756 1759del - +
F2 C2 M 13 c.5546G>A + +
F3 C3 M 15 c.3525 3526delAA N/R N/R
F4 C4 F 1 c.3739delT - +
F5 C5 F 11 c.1019 1020delCT N/R N/R
F6 C6 M 2 c.1393-9T>A + +
F7 C7 F 1 c.1428 1431delATTTinsCC + +
F8 C8 M 7 c.1466A>G - N/R
F9 C9 F 13 c.1557dupA + +
F10 C10 M 45 c.1697delC - +
F11 C11 M 41 c.1721+3A>C + -
F12 C12 F 11 c.2446C>T + +
F12 C13 M 6 c.2446C>T + +
F12 C14 F 28 c.2446C>T + +
F13 C15 F 11 c.2446C>T - +
F14 C16 F 11 c.2970 2972delAAT - +
F15 C17 M 1 c.3826C>T - +
F16 C18 F 2 c.3826C>T + +
F16 C19 F 1 c.3826C>T + +
F16 C20 M 38 c.3826C>T + +
F17 C21 F 8 c.3916C>T - +
F18 C22 M 10 c.4075 4076delinsAA N/R N/R
F19 C23 F 9 c.4084C>T + +
F20 C24 M 35 c.4084C>T - +
F21 C25 F 9 c.4267A>G - +
F22 C26 M 35 c.4537C>T + +
F23 C27 M 9 c.4621delC - +
F24 C28 F 2 c.4822 4826delCTGAC + +
F25 C29 M 5 c.5522T>A - +
F26 C30 M 1 c.5722G>T - +
F27 C31 M 12 c.5839C>T + +
F27 C32 F 8 c.5839C>T + +
F28 C33 M 3 c.6334 6335delCT - +
F29 C34 M 1 c.6791dupA - +
F30 C35 M 1 c.6792C>G - +
F31 C36 F 13 c.6792C>G - +
F32 C37 F 10 c.6792C>G N/R N/R
F33 C38 F 5 c.7206 7207delCA N/R N/R
F34 C39 M 25 c.7237C>T - +
F35 C40 M 10 c.7285C>T - +
F36 C41 M 29 c.7419G>A + +
F37 C42 M 9 c.7486C>T - +
F38 C43 F 9 c.953 956delAAAG - +
F39 C44 M 10 c.1548dupC + +
F40 C45 M 13 - - +
F41 C46 M 46 c.2867 2868delCCinsA N/R N/R
F42 C47 M 3 c.2890dupA N/R N/R
F43 C48 F 1 c.3457 3460delCTCA - +
F44 C49 F 2 c.3525 3526delAA + +
F45 C50 M 8 c.5844 5845delAA - +
F46 C51 M 4 c.7674G>A - +
F47 C52 F 3 c.2033dupC + +
F48 C53 F 7 c.1381C>T - +
F49 C54 M 4 c.1261-3_1270del N/R N/R
TAGTCCGCATTGG
F50 C55 F 3 c.1318C>T - +
F51 C56 F 16 c.1721G>A N/R N/R
F52 C57 M 8 c.2546dupG + +
F52 C58 M 1 c.2546dupG + +
F53 C59 F 2 c.3058delG + +
F54 C60 F 13 c.3114-2A>G - +
F55 C61 M 6 c.3610C>G - +
F56 C62 M 8 c.5003 5004insGGTA N/R N/R
F57 C63 M 3 c.6263delT N/R N/R
F58 C64 M 8 c.4288A>G - +
F59 C65 M 36 c.6125delT + +
F60 C66 M 12 c.1496T>G + +
F61 C67 F 4 c.1737 1738delTT + +
F62 C68 M 21 c.1748A>G N/R N/R
F63 C69 F 6 c.1885G>A + +
F64 C70 F 16 c.2033dupC + +
F65 C71 M 13 c.2033dupC + +
F66 C72 F 13 c.2097dupC N/R N/R
F67 C73 M 9 c.2252-3T>G + +
F68 C74 M 1 c.2325+3A>G - +
F69 C75 F 1 c.2604delT N/R N/R
F70 C76 M 5 c.2764G>A N/R N/R
F71 C77 F 13 c.3470T>A - +
F72 C78 M 2 c.446dupA - +
F73 C79 M 10 c.484C>T N/R N/R
F74 C80 F 9 c.4817T>A + +
F75 C81 F 1 c.5719G>T - +
F76 C82 M 1 c.7229delT - +
F77 C83 M 2 c.7518 7519delGCinsCT + +
F78 C84 F 1 c.1404dupT - +
F79 C85 M 20 c.1637dupT - -
F80 C86 F 13 c.1756 1759delACTA - +
F81 C87 M 21 c.3721C>T N/R N/R
F82 C88 F 8 c.3871delG N/R N/R
F83 C89 M 7 c.4816 4817insGG N/R +
F84 C90 M 1 c.5107C>T - +
F85 C91 M 4 c.5546G>A N/R +
F86 C92 M 38 c.5827delG - +
Family Neurofibromas Freckling Optic Lisch Hamartoma
glioma nodules
F1 - - - - N/R
F2 - - - - +
F3 N/R N/R N/R N/R +
F4 - - + - +
F5 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F6 - N/R - - -
F7 - N/R - - -
F8 - - - - -
F9 - N/R - - N/R
F10 + N/R N/R N/R -
F11 + N/R N/R N/R N/R
F12 + + - - +
F12 N/R - N/R N/R -
F12 - + N/R N/R -
F13 + + - - N/R
F14 - N/R - - -
F15 + N/R + + +
F16 - - - - -
F16 - - - + -
F16 + + - + N/R
F17 - + - + +
F18 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F19 + + - + +
F20 + - - + -
F21 - + + + -
F22 - + N/R - N/R
F23 - + - + +
F24 N/R + - - -
F25 - + - + -
F26 - + N/R + N/R
F27 - + - + +
F27 - + - - N/R
F28 - - - - -
F29 - - - + +
F30 - - - - -
F31 - + - - +
F32 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F33 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F34 - + - - -
F35 - - - - -
F36 + + - - -
F37 N/R N/R - - -
F38 - N/R N/R N/R -
F39 - yok - - -
F40 - N/R - - +
F41 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F42 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F43 - - - - -
F44 - - - - -
F45 - + - - -
F46 - + - + +
F47 N/R N/R - - N/R
F48 - N/R - - +
F49 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F50 - + - - +
F51 N/R N/R + N/R -
F52 - - - + -
F52 + + - + +
F53 - + + - +
F54 - - - - -
F55 - - - - +
F56 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F57 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F58 - + - - N/R
F59 + + - - +
F60 - N/R - - -
F61 1 + - - + -
F62 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F63 - N/R - - -
F64 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F65 - + - - -
F66 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F67 N/R N/R N/R N/R +
F68 - - - - -
F69 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F70 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F71 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F72 N/R - + + +
F73 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F74 - + - - -
F75 - - - - -
F76 - - - - -
F77 - - - - -
F78 - - N/R N/R -
F79 - - - - -
F80 + 1 + - - N/R
F81 N/R N/R N/R N/R -
F82 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R
F83 - - - - +
F84 - - - - N/R
F85 - N/R - + +
F86 + - - - -
Other
Family clinical
findings
F1 -
F2 -
F3 N/R
F4 -
F5 N/R
F6 N/R
F7 -
F8 -
F9 -
F10 -
F11 -
F12 -
Short
F12 stature
F12 -
F13 -
F14 -
F15 Seizure
F16 -
F16 -
F16 -
F17 -
F18 N/R
F19 Seizure
F20 -
F21 Asthma
F22 Arrhythmia
F23 -
F24 -
F25 N/R
F26 -
F27 N/R
F27 -
F28 N/R
F29 -
F30 N/R
F31 -
F32 N/R
F33 N/R
F34 -
F35 -
F36 -
F37 N/R
F38 Scoliosis
F39 -
F40 -
F41 N/R
F42 N/R
F43 N/R
F44 N/R
F45 N/R
F46 -
F47 -
F48 -
F49 N/R
F50 -
F51 N/R
F52 -
F52 -
Skeletal
F53 deformity
F54 -
F55 Seizure
F56 N/R
F57 N/R
F58 N/R
F59 -
F60 -
F61 -
F62 N/R
F63 -
F64 N/R
F65 -
F66 N/R
F67 Seizure
F68 N/R
F69 N/R
F70 N/R
F71 N/R
Skeletal
F72 deformity
F73 N/R
F74 Scoliosis
F75 -
F76 -
F77 -
F78 -
F79 Pilositic
astrocytoma
F80 -
F81 N/R
F82 N/R
F83 N/R
F84 -
F85 Speech delay
F86 -
N/R: Not reported, CALs: Cafe au lait spots, M: Male, F: Female
C3-C5-C22-C37-C38-C46-C47-C54-C56-C57-C62-C63-C68-C72-C75-C76-C79-C87
-C88 are out of clinical table (Table 1)
Table III. Distribution of the identified NF1 variants
Variation (codon
Family number) Protein number
F1, F80 c.1756 1759del p.Thr586Valfs ( (*))18
F2, F85 p.Arg1849Gln
c.5546G>A
F3, F44 c.3525 3526delAA p.Arg1176Serfs ( (*))18
F4 c.3739delT p.Phe1247Leufs ( (*))19
F5 c.1019 1020delCT p.Ser340fs
F6 c.1393-9T>A -
F7 c.1428 1431delATTTinsCC p.Lys476Asnfs ( (*))14
F8 c.1466A>G p.Tyr489Cys
F9 c.1557dupA p.Gly520fs
F10 c.1697delC p.Pro566Leufs ( (*))2
F11 c.1721+3A>C -
F12, c.2446C>T p.Arg816 ( (*))
F13
F14 c.2970 2972delAAT p.Met991del
F15,
F16 c.3826C>T p.Arg1276 ( (*))
F17 c.3916C>T p.Arg1306 ( (*))
F18 c.4075_4076delinsAA p.Pro1359Asn
F19,
F20 c.4084C>T p.Arg1362 ( (*))
F21 c.4267A>G p.Lys1423Glu
F22 c.4537C>T p.Arg1513 ( (*))
F23 c.4621delC p.Leu1541fs
F24 c.4822 4826delCTGAC p.Leu1608fs
F25 c.5522T>A p.Leu1841 ( (*))
F26 p.Glu1908 ( (*))
c.5722G>T
F27 c.5839C>T p.Arg1947 ( (*))
F28 c.6334 6335delCT p.Leu2112Valfs
F29 c.6791dupA p.Tyr2264 ( (*))fs
F30,
F31, c.6792C>G p.Tyr2264 ( (*))
F32
F33 c.7206 7207delCA p.His2402Glnfs ( (*))4
F34 c.7237C>T p.Gln2413 ( (*))
F35 c.7285C>T p.Arg2429 ( (*))
F36 c.7419G>A p.Trp2473 ( (*))
F37 c.7486C>T p.Arg2496 ( (*))
F38 c.953 956delAAAG p.Glu318Valfs ( (*))57
F39 c.1548dupC p.Glu517Argfs ( (*))41
F40 c.2824 2833delAGCAAGTTTTinsC -
F41 c.2867 2868delCCinsA p.Thr956Lysfs
F42 c.2890dupA p.Thr964Asnfs ( (*))11
F43 c.3457 3460delCTCA p.Leu1153Metfs
F45 c.5844 5845delAA p.Arg1949Serfs ( (*))6
F46 c.7674G>A p.Met2558Ile
F47,
F64, c.2033dupC p.Ile679Aspfs ( (*))10
F65
F48 p.Arg461 ( (*))
c.1381C>T
c.1261-3_1270del
F49 TAGTCCGCATTGG -
F50 c.1318C>T p.Arg440 (*)
F51 c.1721G>A p.Ser574Asn
F52 c.2546dupG p.p.Val850Serfs (*)15
F53 c.3058delG p.Glu1020Lysfs (*)2
F54 c.3114-2A>G -
F55 c.3610C>G p.Arg1204Gly
F56 c.5003 5004insGGTA p.Tyr1668 (*)
F57 c.6263delT p.Phe2088Serfs (*)2
F58 c.4288A>G p.Asn1430Asp
F59 c.6125delT p.Leu2042Tyrfs (*)7
F60 p.Leu499Arg
c.1496T>G
F61 p.Phe579Leufs (*)8
c.1737 1738delTT
F62
c.1748A>G p.Lys583Arg
F63 c.1885G>A p.Gly629Arg
F66
c.2097dupC p.Thr700Hisfs (*)2
F67 c.2252-3T>G -
F68 c.2325+3A>G -
F69 c.2604delT p.Pro869Glnfs (*)9
F70 c.2764G>A p.Gly922Ser
F71 c.3470T>A p.Val1157Glu
F72 c.446dupA p.Asn149Lysfs (*)7
F73 c.484C>T p.Gln162 (*)
F74 p.Val1606Asp
c.4817T>A
F75 p.Glu1907 ( (*))
c.5719G>T
F76 c.7229delT p.Val2410Glyfs ( (*))9
F77 p.Gln2507 ( (*))
c.7518 7519delGCinsCT
F78 c.1404dupT p.Lys469 ( (*))
F79
c.1637dupT p.Met546Ilefs ( (*))12
F81 c.3721C>T p.Arg1241 ( (*)) (%20)
F82 c.3871delG p.Val1291Tyrfs ( (*))18
F83 c.4816 4817insGG p.Val1606Glyfs ( (*))4,
F84 c.5107C>T p.Gln1703 ( (*))(%15)
F86 c.5827delG p.Asp1943Metfs ( (*))15
HGMD Predicted ACMG
Family reference LOVD Type effect criteria
PVS1, PM1,
F1, F80 CD982825 R Deletion Frameshift PM2 PP3,
PP5
F2, F85 CM1718194 R Substitution Missense PM2, PP2,
PP3, PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F3, F44 CD000971 R Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3,
PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F4 Novel N/R Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F5 CD972347 R Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3,
PP5
F6 CS000058 R(P) Substitution Splice site PM2
PVS1, PM2,
F7 Novel N/R Deletion Frameshift PP3
PM1, PM2,
F8 CM1111787 R(P) Substitution Missense PP2, PP3,
PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F9 Novel N/R Duplicaton Frameshift PM2 PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F10 CD1815862 N/R Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3
F11 CS941514 R(P) Substitution Splice site PM2
PVS1, PM1,
F12, CM971040 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PM2, PP3,
F13 PP5
In frame PM1, PM2,
F14 CD931025 R(P) Deletion PM4, PP3,
deletion PP5
F15, PVS1, PS3,
F16 CM950847 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PM1, PM2
PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F17 CM981381 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PM2, PP3,
PP5
In-frame PM1, PM2,
F18 Novel N/R Indel indel PP3, PP5
F19, PVS1, PM1,
F20 CM971046 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PM2, PP3,
PP5
PM1, PM2,
F21 CM920506 R(P) Substitution Missense PM5, PP2,
PP3, PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F22 CM941093 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PM2, PP3,
PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F23 Novel R(P) Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3,
PP5
F24 Novel N/R Deletion Frameshift PVS1, PM1,
PM2, PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F25 Novel N/R Substitution Non-sense PM2, PP3
F26 CM143452 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PVS1, PM1,
PM2, PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F27 CM900173 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PM2, PP3,
PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F28 CD1415205 R(P) Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3,
PP5
F29 CI962317 R(P) Duplicaton Frameshift PVS1, PM1,
PM2, PP3
F30, PVS1, PM1,
F31, CM972796 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PM2, PP3,
F32 PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F33 CD031873 R(P) Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3,
PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F34 CM000817 N/R Substitution Non-sense PM2, PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F35 CM000818 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PM2, PP3,
PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F36 Novel N/R Substitution Non-sense PM2, PP3,
PP5
PVS1, PM2,
F37 CM941096 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PP3, PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F38 CD1512843 R(P) Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F39 Novel N/R Duplicaton Frameshift PM2, PP3
In-frame PM1, PM2,
F40 Novel N/R Indel indel PM4, PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F41 Novel N/R Indel Frameshift PM2, PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F42 Novel N/R Duplicaton Frameshift PM2 PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F43 CD972351 R(P) Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3,
PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F45 CD941733 R(P) Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3,
PP5
F46 Novel N/R Substitution Missense PM2, PP2
F47, PVS1, PM1,
F64, CI951961 R(P) Duplicaton Frameshift PM2, PP3,
F65 PP5
F48 CM000780 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PVS1, PM2,
PP3, PP5
PVS1, PM2,
F49 Novel N/R Deletion Splice site PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F50 CM950845 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PM2, PP3,
PP5
PM1, PM2,
F51 CM062898 R(P) Substitution Missense PM5, PP2,
PP3, PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F52 CI098059 R(P) Duplicaton Frameshift PM2, PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F53 Novel N/R Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3
PVS1, PM2,
F54 CS147208 R(P) Substitution Splice site PP3, PP5
PM1, PM2,
F55 CM973234 R(P) Substitution Missense PM5, PP2,
PP3, PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F56 Novel N/R Insertion Non-sense PM2, PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F57 CD1719515 N/R Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3,
PP5
PM1, PM2,
F58 CM113590 R(P) Substitution Missense PM5, PP2,
PP3, PP5
F59 Novel N/R Deletion Frameshift PVS1, PM2,
PP3
F60 CM1512946 R(P) Substitution Missense PM1, PM2,
PP2, PP3, PP5
F61 Novel N/R Deletion Frameshift PVS1, PM1,
PM2 PP3
F62 PM1, PM2,
CM1111788 R(P) Substitution Missense PP2, PP5, BP4
PS1, PS3,
F63 Novel R(P) Substitution Missense PM1, PM2,
PP2, PP3
F66 PVS1, PM2,
Novel N/R Duplicaton Frameshift PP3
F67 CS086414 N/R Substitution Splice site PM2, PP5
F68 CS1311513 R(P) Substitution Splice site PM2, PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F69 CD153889 R(P) Deletion Frameshift PM2
PM2, PP2,
F70 CM1719434 R(P) Substitution Missense PP3
PM1, PM2,
F71 Novel N/R Substitution Missense PP3, PP5
PVS1, PM2,
F72 Novel N/R Duplicaton Frameshift PP3
F73 CM073223 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PVS1, PM1,
PM2 PP3, PP5
F74 CM1919720 N/R Substitution Missense PM1, PM2,
PP3, PP5
F75 CM043552 N/R Substitution Non-sense PVS1, PM1,
PM2 PP3, PP5
F76 Novel N/R Deletion Frameshift PVS1, PM1,
PM2
F77 Novel N/R Indel Non-sense PVS1, PM1,
PM2 PP3
F78 Novel N/R Duplicaton Non-sense PVS1, PM1,
PM2 PP3
F79 PVS1, PM2,
Novel N/R Duplicaton Frameshift PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F81 CM000799 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PM2, PP3,
PP5
PVS1, PM1,
F82 Novel N/R Deletion Frameshift PM2, PP3
PVS1, PM1,
F83 Novel N/R Insertion Frameshift PM2, PP3
F84 CM143429 R(P) Substitution Non-sense PVS1, PM1,
PM2, PP3
F86 Novel N/R Deletion Frameshift PVS1, PM1,
PM2, PP3
ACMG
Family prediction Exon
F1, F80 P 16
F2, F85 LP 37
F3, F44 P 27
F4 P 28
F5 P 9
F6 VUS 12-13
F7 P 13
F8 P 13
F9 P 14
F10 P 15
F11 VUS 15-16
F12, P 21
F13
F14 P 22
F15,
F16 P 28
F17 P 29
F18 LP 30
F19,
F20 P 30
F21 P 31
F22 P 34
F23 P 34
F24 P 36
F25 P 37
F26 P 38
F27 P 39
F28 P 41
F29 P 45
F30,
F31, P 45
F32
F33 P 48
F34 P 48
F35 P 49
F36 P 50
F37 P 50
F38 P 9
F39 P 14
F40 LP 21
F41 P 22
F42 P
F43 P 26
F45 P 39
F46 VUS 51
F47,
F64, P 18
F65
F48 P 12
F49 P 12
F50 P 12
F51 P 15
F52 P 21
F53 P 23
F54 P 23-24
F55 P 27
F56 P 36
F57 P 41
F58 P 32
F59 P 41
F60 LP 13
F61 P 16
F62
LP 16
F63 P 17
F66
P 18
F67 VUS 18-19
F68 VUS 19-20
F69 P 21
F70 VUS 21
F71 LP 26
F72 P 4
F73 P 5
F74 LP 36
F75 P 38
F76 P 48
F77 P 50
F78 P 13
F79
P 14
F81 P 28
F82 P 29
F83 P 36
F84 P 36
F86 P 39
LP: Likely pathogenic, P: Pathogenic, VUS: Variant of uncertain
significance, R: Reported N/R: Not reported
| https://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+Spectrum+of+NF1+Gene+Variations+in+Southeastern+Turkey.-a0675524943 |
Cyclophosphamide and Oxaliplatin and Capecitabine in Ovarian Cancer - Clinical Trials Registry - ICH GCP
This is a phase 1b/2 study to evaluate the safety and efficacy of metronomic combination therapy in subjects with epithelial ovarian cancer who have progressed...
QUILT-3.051: NANT Ovarian Cancer Vaccine: Combination Immunotherapy in Subjects With Epithelial Ovarian Cancer Who Have Progressed on or After Standard-of-care (SoC) Therapy
This is a phase 1b/2 study to evaluate the safety and efficacy of metronomic combination therapy in subjects with epithelial ovarian cancer who have progressed on or after SoC therapy.
Study Overview
Status
Withdrawn
Conditions
Ovarian Cancer
Intervention / Treatment
Biological: ETBX-051
Drug: Cyclophosphamide
Drug: Oxaliplatin
Drug: Capecitabine
Drug: Leucovorin
Biological: Avelumab
Biological: Bevacizumab
Drug: 5-fluorouracil
Biological: GI-6301
Drug: Fulvestrant
Drug: Paclitaxel
Drug: omega-3 acid ethyl esters
Radiation: Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy
Biological: ALT-803
Biological: ETBX-021
Biological: GI-4000
Biological: haNK®
Detailed Description
Treatment will be administered in two phases, an induction and a maintenance phase.
Subjects will continue induction treatment for up to 1 year or until they experience progressive disease (PD) or unacceptable toxicity (not correctable with dose reduction), withdraw consent, or if the Investigator feels it is no longer in the subject's best interest to continue treatment.
Those who have a complete response (CR) in the induction phase will enter the maintenance phase of the study.
Subjects may remain in the maintenance phase of the study for up to 1 year.
Treatment will continue in the maintenance phase until the subject experiences PD or unacceptable toxicity (not correctable with dose reduction), withdraws consent, or if the Investigator feels it is no longer in the subject's best interest to continue treatment.
The maximum time on study treatment, including both the induction and maintenance phases, is 2 years.
Study Type
Interventional
Phase
Phase 2
Phase 1
Participation Criteria
Researchers look for people who fit a certain description, called eligibility criteria. Some examples of these criteria are a person's general health condition or prior treatments.
Eligibility Criteria
Ages Eligible for Study
18 years and older (Adult, Older Adult)
Accepts Healthy Volunteers
No
Genders Eligible for Study
All
Description
Inclusion Criteria:
Age ≥ 18 years.
Able to understand and provide a signed informed consent that fulfills the relevant IRB or Independent Ethics Committee (IEC) guidelines.
Histologically-confirmed epithelial ovarian cancer that has progressed on or after SoC therapy.
Germ cell, stromal, and borderline ovarian tumors are not allowed.
Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance status of 0 to 2.
Have at least 1 measurable lesion of ≥ 1.5 cm.
Must have a tumor biopsy specimen following the conclusion of the most recent anticancer treatment.
If a historic specimen is not available, the subject must be willing to undergo a biopsy during the screening period.
Must be willing to provide blood samples and, if considered safe by the Investigator, a tumor biopsy specimen at 8 weeks after the start of treatment.
Ability to attend required study visits and return for adequate follow-up, as required by this protocol.
Agreement to practice effective contraception for female subjects of child-bearing potential and non-sterile males.
Female subjects of child-bearing potential must agree to use effective contraception for up to 1 year after completion of therapy, and non-sterile male subjects must agree to use a condom for up to 4 months after treatment.
Exclusion Criteria:
History of persistent grade 2 or higher (CTCAE Version 4.03) hematologic toxicity resulting from previous therapy.
Within 5 years prior to first dose of study treatment, any evidence of other active malignancies or brain metastasis except for controlled basal cell carcinoma; prior history of in situ cancer (eg, breast, melanoma, and cervical); and bulky (≥ 1.5 cm) disease with metastasis in the central hilar area of the chest and involving the pulmonary vasculature.
Serious uncontrolled concomitant disease that would contraindicate the use of the investigational drug used in this study or that would put the subject at high risk for treatment-related complications.
Systemic autoimmune disease (eg, lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, Addison's disease, autoimmune disease associated with lymphoma).
History of organ transplant requiring immunosuppression.
History of or active inflammatory bowel disease (eg, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis).
Requires whole blood transfusion to meet eligibility criteria.
Inadequate organ function, evidenced by the following laboratory results:
White blood cell (WBC) count < 3,000 cells/mm3
Absolute neutrophil count < 1,500 cells/mm3.
Platelet count < 100,000 cells/mm3.
Hemoglobin < 9 g/dL.
Total bilirubin greater than the upper limit of normal (ULN; unless the subject has documented Gilbert's syndrome).
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST [SGOT]) or alanine aminotransferase (ALT [SGPT]) > 2.5 × ULN (> 5 × ULN in subjects with liver metastases).
Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels > 2.5 × ULN (> 5 × ULN in subjects with liver metastases, or >10 × ULN in subjects with bone metastases).
Serum creatinine > 2.0 mg/dL or 177 μmol/L.
International normalized ratio (INR), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), or partial thromboplastin time (PTT) >1.5 × ULN (unless on therapeutic anti-coagulation).
Uncontrolled hypertension (systolic > 150 mm Hg and/or diastolic > 100 mm Hg) or clinically significant (ie, active) cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular accident/stroke, or myocardial infarction within 6 months prior to first study medication; unstable angina; congestive heart failure of New York Heart Association grade 2 or higher; or serious cardiac arrhythmia requiring medication.
Dyspnea at rest due to complications of advanced malignancy or other disease requiring continuous oxygen therapy.
Positive results of screening test for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), or hepatitis C virus (HCV).
Current chronic daily treatment (continuous for > 3 months) with systemic corticosteroids (dose equivalent to or greater than 10 mg/day methylprednisolone), excluding inhaled steroids.
Short-term steroid use to prevent IV contrast allergic reaction or anaphylaxis in subjects who have known contrast allergies is allowed.
Known hypersensitivity to any component of the study medication(s).
Subjects taking any medication(s) (herbal or prescribed) known to have an adverse drug reaction with any of the study medications.
Concurrent or prior use of a strong cytochrome P450 (CYP)3A4 inhibitor (including ketoconazole, itraconazole, posaconazole, clarithromycin, indinavir, nefazodone, nelfinavir, ritonavir, saquinavir, telithromycin, voriconazole, and grapefruit products) or strong CYP3A4 inducers (including phenytoin, carbamazepine, rifampin, rifabutin, rifapentin, phenobarbital, and St John's Wort) within 14 days before study day 1.
Concurrent or prior use of a strong CYP2C8 inhibitor (gemfibrozil) or moderate CYP2C8 inducer (rifampin) within 14 days before study day 1.
Participation in an investigational drug study or history of receiving any investigational treatment within 14 days prior to screening for this study.
Assessed by the Investigator to be unable or unwilling to comply with the requirements of the protocol.
Concurrent participation in any interventional clinical trial.
Pregnant and nursing women.
Study Plan
This section provides details of the study plan, including how the study is designed and what the study is measuring.
How is the study designed?
Design Details
Primary Purpose : Treatment
Allocation : N/A
Interventional Model : Single Group Assignment
Masking : None (Open Label)
1
Arms and Interventions
Participant Group / Arm Intervention / Treatment Experimental: NANT Ovarian Cancer Vaccine avelumab, bevacizumab, capecitabine, cyclophosphamide, 5-fluorouracil, fulvestrant, leucovorin, paclitaxel, omega-3-acid ethyl esters, oxaliplatin, stereotactic body radiation therapy, ALT-803, ETBX-021, ETBX-051, ETBX-061, GI-4000, GI-6301, and hank®. Biological: ETBX-051 Ad5 [E1-, E2b-]-Brachyury vaccine Drug: Cyclophosphamide 2-[bis(2-chloroethyl)amino]tetrahydro-2H-1,3,2-oxazaphosphorine 2-oxide monohydrate Drug: Oxaliplatin cis-[(1 R,2 R)-1,2-cyclohexanediamine-N,N'] [oxalato(2-)- O,O'] platinum Drug: Capecitabine 5'-deoxy-5-fluoro-N-[(pentyloxy) carbonyl]-cytidine Drug: Leucovorin Calcium N-[p-[[[(6RS)-2-amino-5-formyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-4-hydroxy-6-pteridinyl]methyl]amino]benzoyl]-L-glutamate (1:1) Biological: Avelumab Fully human anti-PD-L1 IgG1 lambda monoclonal antibody Biological: Bevacizumab Recombinant human anti-VEGF IgG1 monoclonal antibody Drug: 5-fluorouracil 5-fluoro-2,4 (1H,3H)-pyrimidinedione Biological: GI-6301 Heat-killed S. cerevisiae yeast expressing the human Brachyury (hBrachyury) oncoprotein Drug: Fulvestrant 7-alpha-[9-(4,4,5,5,5-pentafluoropentylsulphinyl) nonyl]estra-1,3,5-(10)- triene-3,17-beta-diol Drug: Paclitaxel 5β,20-Epoxy-1,2α,4,7β,10β,13α-hexahydroxytax-11-en-9-one 4,10-diacetate 2-benzoate 13-ester with (2R,3S)-N-benzoyl-3-phenylisoserine Drug: omega-3 acid ethyl esters omega-3 acid ethyl esters Radiation: Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy (SBRT) Biological: ALT-803 Recombinant human super agonist IL-15 complex Biological: ETBX-021 Ad5 [E1-, E2b-]-HER2 vaccine Biological: ETBX-061 Ad5 [E1-, E2b-]-MUC1 vaccine Biological: GI-4000 Heat-killed S. cerevisiae yeast expressing the mutated RAS oncoproteins Biological: haNK® NK-92 [CD16.158V, ER IL-2]
What is the study measuring?
Primary Outcome Measures
Outcome Measure Measure Description Time Frame Incidence of treatment-emergent adverse events (AEs) and serious AE (SAEs), graded using the National Cancer Institute (NCI) Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events (CTCAE) Version 4.03. Time Frame: 1 year Phase 1b primary endpoint 1 year Objective response rate (ORR) by Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST) Version 1.1 Time Frame: 1 year Phase 2 primary endpoint 1 year ORR by Immune-related response criteria (irRC ) Time Frame: 1 year Phase 2 primary endpoint 1 year
Secondary Outcome Measures
Outcome Measure Measure Description Time Frame ORR by RECIST Version 1.1 Time Frame: 1 year Phase 1b secondary endpoint 1 year ORR by irRC Time Frame: 1 year Phase 1b secondary endpoint 1 year Progression-free survival (PFS) by RECIST Version 1.1 Time Frame: 2 years Phase 1b and 2 secondary endpoint 2 years PFS by irRC Time Frame: 2 years Phase 1b and 2 secondary endpoint 2 years Overall survival (OS): time from the date of first treatment to the date of death (any cause) Time Frame: 2 years Phase 1b and 2 secondary endpoint 2 years Duration of response (DR): time from the date of first response (partial response (PR) or complete response (CR)) to the date of disease progression or death (any cause) whichever occurs first Time Frame: 2 years Phase 1b and 2 secondary endpoint 2 years Disease control rate (DCR): confirmed complete response, partial response, or stable disease lasting for at least 2 months Time Frame: 2 years Phase 1b and 2 secondary endpoint 2 years Quality of life (QoL) by patient-reported outcome using the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Ovarian Cancer (FACT-O) questionnaire Time Frame: 2 years Phase 1b and 2 secondary endpoint 2 years Incidence of treatment-emergent AEs and SAEs, graded using the NCI CTCAE Version 4.03 Time Frame: 1 year Phase 2 secondary endpoint 1 year
Collaborators and Investigators
This is where you will find people and organizations involved with this study.
Sponsor
ImmunityBio, Inc.
Study record dates
These dates track the progress of study record and summary results submissions to ClinicalTrials.gov. Study records and reported results are reviewed by the National Library of Medicine (NLM) to make sure they meet specific quality control standards before being posted on the public website.
Study Major Dates
Study Start (Anticipated)
December 1, 2017
Primary Completion (Anticipated)
February 1, 2019
Study Completion (Anticipated)
April 1, 2019
Study Registration Dates
First Submitted
June 20, 2017
First Submitted That Met QC Criteria
June 20, 2017
First Posted (Actual)
June 23, 2017
Study Record Updates
Last Update Posted (Actual)
March 18, 2021
Last Update Submitted That Met QC Criteria
March 17, 2021
Last Verified
October 1, 2017
Ovarian Diseases
Angiogenesis Modulating Agents
Growth Substances
Other Study ID Numbers
QUILT-3.051
Plan for Individual participant data (IPD)
Plan to Share Individual Participant Data (IPD)?
NO
Drug and device information, study documents
Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated drug product
Yes
Studies a U.S. FDA-regulated device product
No
NCT05877911
Not yet recruiting
NCT05872204
Not yet recruiting
Abemaciclib and Letrozole in Patients With Estrogen Receptor-positive Rare Ovarian Cancer (ALEPRO)
NCT05870748
Not yet recruiting
NCT05866679
Not yet recruiting
NCT05864144
Recruiting
| https://ichgcp.net/clinical-trials-registry/NCT03197584 |
The Prince of Mars Returns
The Prince of Mars Returns, by Philip Francis Nowlan, free ebook
Title: The Prince of Mars Returns
Author: Philip Francis Nowlan
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The Prince of Mars Returns
Philip Francis Nowlan
Published in Fantastic Adventures , Feb, Mar 1940 Reprinted in Science Fiction Adventures Nov 1974 This e-book edition: Project Gutenberg Australia, 2020
Fantastic Adventures, Feb 1940, withfirst part of "The Prince of Mars Returns"
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I. TO MARS
CHAPTER II. LIL-RIN OF THE TA N'UR
CHAPTER III. THE BIRROK
CHAPTER IV. I WED LIL-RIN
CHAPTER V. HONEYMOON AND DISASTER
CHAPTER VI. INTRIGUES OF GAKKO
CHAPTER VII. I TRAIL GAKKO'S VILLAINS
CHAPTER VIII. I RESCUE LIL-RIN
CHAPTER IX. I BECOME A LEGEND
CHAPTER X. DANAN OF THE ATL ANTIN
CHAPTER XI. IN THE DESERT
CHAPTER XII. ATTACKED!
CHAPTER XIII. THE TABLES ARE TURNED
CHAPTER XIV. WE REACH GAKALU
CHAPTER XV. CONDEMNED BY GAKKO
CHAPTER XVI. THE CRASH OF DOOM
CHAPTER XVII. ALAR-LUR OF MARS
Hanley's gun roared as his leap carriedhim high over the heads of his opponents.
CHAPTER I. — TO MARS
I, CAPTAIN DANIEL J. HANLEY, chief meteorologist of the General Rocket Corporation, had no intention of going to Mars when I stepped into the new space car and pressed gently but with finality on the gravity-screen lever.
I was conscious only of a great urge to get as far away as possible from a certain young woman who had—but why go into details about that? It is enough that I didn't fully realize what I was doing.
And as a result, here I was, the first man ever to pass beyond the stratosphere of Earth, actually hovering a scant mile above a Martian landscape, trembling with suppressed excitement and giving not a thought to the girl who had driven me to my mad, premature plunge into space.
I faced infinity with reckless abandon, and found that I liked it. What did it matter if the end came in a day, week, or month? Why, there were no days, weeks, or months in interplanetary space! Only eternal, blazing noon on one side of my tiny craft and everlasting midnight on the other, while countless galaxies gleamed upon me in new glory from all sides.
That I landed on Mars, instead of some other planet, was due solely to chance. In hurling my tiny craft madly, blindly away from Earth I happened to set it on an orbit that brought it closer to Mars than to any other heavenly body. As I drew nearer, the planet grew in size and in interest, until it entirely filled the great lens of my wide-angle scope. Its mountain ranges and peculiar canals became plainly visible.
I manipulated my rocket blasts a bit and swung closer. There was no indication that the canals were man-made. Rather they seemed furrows caused by glancing blows of meteors. And there were many craters which, though small like those of the moon, appeared to be the result of head-on meteoric impact.
As the planet grew still larger, I could see that there were no oceans and continents in the sense that we know them on Earth. Nevertheless, the divisions between the ice caps, polar seas, solid vegetation belts, canal-irrigated sections, and finally the vast and eternally dry, red equatorial belt, were clear and sharp. The northern and southern hemispheres, widely divided by this belt, seemed duplicates.
"Why not inspect the planet at close range?" I asked myself.
So here I was, easing down over a countryside such as no man of Earth had ever seen.
Through the forward port I gazed upon a country of scrubby, dwarfed, cactus-like trees and shrubs, stretching away drably to where a ribbon of water—one of these much discussed "canals" sparkled. To my left, toward the equatorial belt, the vegetation became more dwarfed and sparse, until its pale, yellow-green blended into the deeper, reddish tint of the arid desert.
To my right, a rolling plain swelled into distant hills heavily covered with the yellow-green foliage. On the horizon, a range of gaunt, jagged mountains flashed and shimmered like crystal in the pale, cool sunlight.
"Quartz!" I muttered. "They must be pure quartz!"
I brought my craft gently down on the bank of the little river that meandered along the "canal" or valley. With trembling fingers I opened the valve of one of the test chambers and watched the pressure gauge.
I had feared an uncomfortably rare air, but the gauge registered a pressure no less than that of mountainous regions at home. There was more carbon dioxide and more hydrogen, but the oxygen content was about the same as on Earth! I could leave my little metal shell and walk around on a new planet!
Excited, I threw back the hatch at the top of my little hemispherical craft and leaped out joyously. I landed, not where I expected-but fifteen or twenty feet beyond. I had forgotten that I would weigh only about a third as much as on Earth.
But with a little practice, I found I could gauge my muscular effort instinctively to the desired distance. It was a delightful amusement, leaping twenty-five or thirty feet with the effort of an eight or ten foot jump. But finally I gave some consideration to my position.
"And now," I told myself, "here I am on an utterly strange planet. I have no idea what dangers I may have to face. I don't know whether intelligent beings live here or, if they do, what their attitude toward me might be. It might be just as well to have an ace in the hole. I'll hide my ship, mark the spot well, and then if by any chance things should get too hot for me, I'll have the means in reserve to do a fade-out."
I studied the banks of the stream. Obviously the little river was at high-water mark. That was good. There would be no more powerful current than this to wash my ship away then, for it was my intention to sink her in the middle of the stream.
Again I climbed aboard, closed the hatch. Letting my space car drift a few feet above the water, I maneuvered over the center of the stream and then submerged. The ship went about ten feet below the surface. I had previously unloaded the equipment I meant to use, so nothing remained but to put everything in order, enter the airlock, adjust the pressure, and dive down and out through the port.
I realized, as I donned my woolen shirt, leather breeches and puttees, that the sun did not shed as much warmth on Mars as on Earth. It seemed scarcely more than half the size to which I was accustomed. As I rolled up my blankets, I had little doubt I would need them after nightfall.
As yet I had seen no sign of animal life. But there were many spots on Earth where a visitor would find none for miles. So that proved nothing. I strapped a heavy automatic to my thigh, clasped on a cartridge belt. As an extra precaution, I slipped a smaller automatic in a shoulder holster which I put on under my shirt. For the rest, I thought, my hunting knife and short-handled axe might prove serviceable.
Marking the position of my submerged spacecraft by carefully sighting the distant mountain peaks on crossed lines, I shouldered my light pack and hiked toward the gleaming, flashing mountain range.
It was glorious to weigh no more than about sixty pounds, and yet have muscles that had been accustomed to carrying one hundred seventy. Walking did not give them the exercise they demanded after the long period cooped up in the little space ship, so I ran with exhilarating lightness, practicing long and high leaps as I went and shouting, at times, from sheer, unrestrained joy.
I had gone about five miles when I first saw her.
The scrubby undergrowth had given way to another cactus-like type of vegetation, the trees of Mars, slim and tall with stubby, blunt branches. They bore no leaves. Rather, both trunks and branches seemed to be leaves in themselves, pale yellow-green and semi-transparent. A thin syrupy sap ran freely from one, which I scored with my axe.
The sudden flash of a movement somewhere ahead of me arrested my eye. Abruptly I halted, standing motionless, alert. I saw nothing but the yellow-green trees. I shifted my axe to my left hand. Quietly my right fist rested on the butt of my automatic. I advanced, poised for instant action.
From somewhere ahead came a metallic twang. I ducked. A heavy missile thudded into the trunk of a tree directly behind me. Then a girl stepped confidently forth, about twenty feet away.
Evidently she thought she had hit me, for her first reaction was to start back at the sight of me standing there. Hastily she dropped the four-foot tube she held in her hand, and in something like a panic, tugged at a kind of quiver or a sheath slung across her shoulder until she held another tube pointed straight at me. For some moments we stood motionless, gazing at each other in amazement.
I had rather expected to find life of some sort on Mars, and was even hoping to find intelligent creatures of some sort. But to find a pretty, golden-haired Amazon, in green kilts, soft leather leggings and loose, sleeveless blouse that did not by any means conceal her slender form—well, that took my breath away!
CHAPTER II. — LIL-RIN OF THE TA N'UR
AT last the significance of that tube, pointed at my chest unhesitatingly, broke through my stunned thoughts. I dropped my axe, held out my empty hands in a gesture of friendliness.
"Can't we be friends?" I smiled, knowing full well my language would not be understood, but hoping that my tone might.
Her reply, uttered in a soft, euphonious tongue, was obviously a question. And feeling a bit foolish, I tried to indicate by gestures that I could not understand her.
For a moment she watched me. A quizzical look crept into her green-blue eyes. Then she laughed and lowered the tube a bit, but quickly covered me again as I stepped forward. She was taking no chances, it seemed, for again her eyes flashed a warning as I sought to recover my axe.
She motioned me back. As I complied, she walked over and picked up the axe herself, never taking her eyes off me. Next she motioned toward my knife. I tossed it at her feet, and she picked this up also. The automatic strapped to my leg meant nothing to her, seemingly. She did not demand it.
Feeling safer now, she stood back and surveyed me speculatively. At length she motioned me to precede her in the direction of the distant mountains. This I did willingly enough, for I felt that with my two guns I could always command the situation, even if her people did not prove as friendly in their attitude as I hoped.
I had been eyeing those tubes she carried in the quiver, and had come to the conclusion, both from their appearance and their peculiar, twanging, metallic quality, that they hurled their bullets by the force of a coiled spring.
As I marched on, occasionally turning to look at my fair captor, the vegetation became thicker, and the hills and ravines more pronounced. Coming to the top of one of these ridges she called out, and by gestures commanded me to turn sharply to the right. A bit later she paused and gave a peculiar whistling signal. This was replied to from some point ahead, and we went on.
I hardly know what I expected to see. It certainly was not the type of structure we finally came upon.
Sheer walls of a glassy, translucent, solid material rose to a height of fifty feet or more. At least I judged them to be solid. I could see no joints or crevices.
There was a triangular opening. Through this peculiarly shaped gateway I strode on a pavement of material similar to the wall, which was worn smoothly and deeply as though by centuries of countless feet.
The space inside the wall was diamond-shaped, about a thousand feet long and probably three-quarters that distance at its greatest width. The entire space was paved with a solid sheet of the glassy material, in which smooth troughs or channels had been worn.
In contrast with the solid and permanent nature of the walled space, which gave evidence of high engineering skill, there was no shelter inside except some two or three dozen tents, not unlike Indian tepees, of pale green leather over metal framework.
There were a score of men and women about, all garbed exactly like my captor: golden-haired, blue-eyed people of somewhat slighter build than the average on Earth, but otherwise remarkable only for the uniform perfection of their physique.
Men and women were of about the same height, none of them coming within several inches of my six feet. The men were only slightly sturdier than the women, and all seemed in perfect physical condition, like trained athletes. I did not see a fat nor a flabby individual among them.
Our appearance caused no great excitement, though a number gathered around us and my captor was questioned with mild curiosity. But they made way for us readily enough at her explanation.
Quite at ease now, she walked beside me, having sheathed her "gun," touching my arm occasionally to direct me toward a tent in the center, somewhat larger than the others. It was about thirty feet across, of a high, conical shape. A large translucent disc, set in the top of the metal framework, let in a soft light.
I don't know what she said to the blond-bearded man who sat at the carved, light metal table, but from her tone and the little gesture with which she called his attention to me, it must have been something like:
"Look what I found in the forest, Father!"
There ensued some rapid conversation in that peculiarly mellow tongue. Then, to my considerable embarrassment, they began to examine my apparel and myself with a critical scrutiny, finally motioning me outside where there was more light.
That they were both of them greatly puzzled was quite clear. At length, the man who seemed to be the head of the little community, endeavored to talk with me by signs. He placed a finger on my chest and looked questioningly at me. I guess I looked foolish, for I did not get him at first. So he pointed to himself.
"Ur Mornya," he said. Then he pointed at the girl and said, "Ur Lil-rin."
"Oh!" I nodded. "You mean those are your names." Then I pointed to myself and bowed.
"Dan, Dan Hanley, Captain Daniel J. Hanley, U.S. Army Reserve Corps, at your service."
"Danan-lih" said the girl softly, as though the name was somehow both familiar and amazing.
Then Ur Mornya waved his hand, generally, toward the people scattered about the enclosure.
"Ta n'Ur," he said. From which I surmised that the "Ur" part of their name was a clan or community designation. I smiled and put my finger on his chest. "Mornya," I said. "Ur Mornya."
He seemed a bit taken aback at the freedom of my gesture, but smiled his assent, if a bit wryly.
Then, I turned to the girl, and suddenly curious to see what would happen, placed my hand boldly on her shoulder as I spoke her name.
For an instant Mornya was about to lash out at me in fury. Lil-rin's eyes blazed in indignant resentment. Then suddenly she blushed and tried to act as though I had done nothing she thought unusual, while with a struggle her father strove to assume the same air.
Here was no race of barbarians, nor of slaves; but people of high spirit, independence, culture, and quick intelligence. I sensed that I had committed a grievous offense, which was forgiven me instantly in view of my "ignorance." I sensed, too, that they must regard me somewhat in the light of a guest. Some imp of perversity led me to puzzle them still further when, after a bit, they motioned me within the tent again, where a meal was laid out on the table.
I looked curiously at the unfamiliar viands of fruits and vegetables, most of which I had never seen. There was meat, and a fowl of peculiar shape. All of the tableware was of metal, a pale alloy that looked like gold, but was not. The platters were inlaid with iridescent stones, and there were spoons, but no knives. My hosts used the blades which they took from the sheaths at their belts.
I made an apologetic gesture and went to my little pack, which had been laid in a corner. From it I took my silver knife and fork, and returned to the table.
They strove to conceal their curiosity, but stared frankly. It was on the fork that their interest centered. Not only its shape seemed unfamiliar to them, but the sterling silver itself. The girl watched my use of it with a kind of fascination, then actually blushed and giggled when I handed it to her.
Her father frowned and made another serious effort to question me by gestures. At last I gathered his meaning. He wanted to know whence I had come.
I pointed upward, toward the sky. His frown increased, and he shook his head. My explanation wasn't at all satisfactory, it seemed. Nor did I wonder at this. And the thought came to me then that it would be just as well not to try to explain. I wouldn't be believed. Who on Earth, say, would be believed if he claimed to be a Martian? True, I might exhibit my little spacecraft in substantiation of my story. But, I did not know that sooner or later my life might depend on keeping its existence and its hiding place a secret. So I shrugged and let it go at that.
CHAPTER III. — THE BIRROK
NIGHT came. A new tent was erected for my use. And when at last I tired of the glory of the two Martian moons which swung low and swiftly across the scintillating heavens, and Lil-rin had given me a curiously, speculative smile of adieu. I went inside and threw myself on the pile of soft skins and silks that evidently was intended as my couch. Almost at once, I slept.
The days passed swiftly. Little by little I learned their language. It was hard pulling it off at first, but I had always had a certain facility with strange tongues—I learned something, too, of Martian life and history.
Mornya, Lil-rin's father, was Myar-Lur, supreme chief of the Ur, a clan of a race which, like the Cossacks on Earth, was somewhat nomadic in its inclinations, and jealously guarded its tribal traditions. Mornya with his seven Myars, or sub-chiefs, was at present in the service of the Northern Cities.
For five successive years the clan had contracted with the Northern Cities to guard the Desert Gap in the Quartz Mountains and the approaches to it.
The work of the clan had consisted chiefly in keeping the territory south of the Gap clear of the "dulyals," or yellow apes, beasts of almost human intelligence. These dulyals, I gathered, possessed a higher order of mentality than any of their counterparts on Earth.
They were tailless, walked erect, but had prehensile feet. They were covered with a golden brown fur, and though larger and more muscular than Martian men, were more human than apelike in build. They were omnivorous, hunted in packs, had a rudimentary language, and fashioned crude clubs and spears.
Yet, they were distinctly not human, Lil-rin informed me.
"After two or three generations of captivity," she said, "they make excellent slaves. Unless they taste blood, they can be trusted invariably to be loyal to their masters. They bring higher prices in the slave markets because they are stronger and more docile, than men that is, the domesticated ones are more docile. About two-thirds of the city populations are dulyal slaves.
"You know," Lil-rin looked up at me slyly, "the reason I tried to shoot you that day in the forest was because I thought you were a dulyal!"
We were sitting on an outcropping of rock, a great scintillating quartz boulder, gazing down a gentle slope toward the "canal". There was speculation, and it seemed to me, a bit of suspicion in Lil-rin's steady gaze.
"Why do you look at me that way, Lil-rin?" I asked. "Because I have dark hair, unlike your people?"
I thought perhaps she had not heard me, for she did not answer at once. For several moments she mused.
"Danan-lih, you are like no living man on this world!" she finally blurted out. Then, just as suddenly, she was all solicitude.
"I am sorry, I had no right to say such a thing. The ancient custom forbids anything that would make a guest feel uncomfortable. My offense is unpardonable."
That was my cue. "No it isn't, Lil-rin," I protested. "You and your people have been so kind to me that explanation is the least—"
"No, no!" she cried, jumping up and putting her hands over her ears. "I won't listen. You mustn't tell me anything. It wouldn't—"
"It's a birrok," she gasped, tugging at the quiver in which she carried her bolt-hurting tubes. "Run, Danan-lih, run! You can't fight it without bolts, and even then, you have to get it with the first shot, or—"
Then I saw the thing. It was a gigantic yellow-green spider. Its legs were fully twelve feet long. Suddenly, it straightened them and the furry body, which had been resting close to the ground, rose as though on stilts. Clearly, the thing sensed our presence and was looking for us.
Instantly, those legs began to move with amazing rapidity. The body seemed to swoop down and glide swiftly toward us with an easy, undulating swing. It would be upon us in a moment. Instinctively, I drew my automatic.
"Quick, Danan-lih! Run!" said Lil-rin, sharply, and stepped between me and the poisonous monster, her tube leveled.
There was a whir and a clang. The bolt shot true toward its mark. But, with unbelievable agility, the great spider leaped forward. Lil-rin uttered a little cry of despair, and threw herself in front of me. I squeezed the trigger of my gun. The shots blended into a roar as a succession of stabbing flashes leaped from the muzzle, for I emptied the whole magazine at the thing. As before, the beast leaped sharply to one side, but not quickly enough. The long legs crumpled up, and after one or two convulsive movements the thing lay still. At that, I believe it had dodged all but the first bullet.
CHAPTER IV. — I WED LIL-RIN
LIL-RIN recovered before I could make up my mind to leave her long enough to go down to the stream for water.
"Wh—what was it, Danan-lih—that terrible noise? And you really killed the birrok? Impossible! H—how did you do it?"
I showed her the automatic, at which she gazed, fascinated, as I refilled the magazine. Then she looked up at me with her big blue-green eyes.
"You could have killed me just like that the day I shot at you," she said. "And I didn't have sense enough to take that machine-thing away from you!"
"Why, yes," I laughed. "Of course I could have, but I wouldn't—"
I broke off, for Lil-rin did not join in my laughter. Instead there was a look of almost tragic solemnity in her eyes.
"You not only spared my life when I treated you as an enemy, but saved it as well from the terrible birrok. My life no longer belongs to me, but to you—to do with as you see fit, Danan-lih."
She stood there, straight and slim and brave, her little jaws clenched in the effort to hold back the tears that would not be denied. Then, she whirled away from me and broke into uncontrollable sobs.
I wanted to comfort her, but I was badly flustered. I knew nothing of Martian customs at all. This girl was as much of a soldier as the men of her clan. Did she mean that I had a right to command her military service, or were her words to be taken literally? Lord, was I expected to claim her as my wife!
"Lil-rin," I said at last, and she swung around toward me with a pathetic little air of submission. "Come here and sit down again. You must listen and bear with me while I tell you who I am."
She nodded acquiescence, dabbing a bit at her eyes. She would not look at me. And that made it hard to begin. But somehow I managed it.
"If I only had half a dozen extra arms or legs, or something," I concluded, "there'd be some excuse for your believing my story that I just dropped down here from another planet. But here we are, with not as much difference between us as there might be between a man and a girt of two different races on Earth or on Mars, I imagine.
"It's a wild story. But it's the truth, although I can hardly expect you to believe it."
"But I do believe it," she said gently. "I've seen your space ship. I went back and found it the day after I took you to our camp. I was curious about you. I found your footsteps coming from the edge of the water, and I swam out. I saw something under the water, and I dived. I did not know what it was, of course, but I knew it must contain the secret of where you came from and I was worried. But I didn't tell anybody."
"And I know what's worrying you now," she said, finally looking up at me with grave, serious eyes. "It's ... it's me." She blushed frankly. "But we can't help it, Danan-lih, whether we like it or not. The law is:
"To him who has saved a life, belongs that life and the service thereof," she quoted.
"But Lil-rin," I protested, "I would not dream of embarrassing you, much less of making any claim upon you for what I did. I was saving my own life as well as yours. Besides, you might have killed the birrok with one of your own bolts."
"You can't get out of it that way," she said with a wan little smile. "It's the law. You saved my life. I belong to you. 'Ifs' and 'maybes' and 'perhapses' don't count here on Mars."
"Well," I said, "I can do with my property what I want, can't I? There's no reason why I can't give you back to yourself."
"Yes, there is. Because under the law, in a case like ours, it ... means ... it means—"
"Means what?" I had to ask, knowing the answer in advance.
"Marriage."
"But ... but—" I objected. "Suppose I were already married?"
"Then I would become your wife's slave," she explained unhappily, "and if I were already married, both my husband and I would become your slaves."
I didn't think much of that law. It seemed to have too many disadvantages.
"Do you mean to say," I demanded, "that if I were to save the life of your father, for instance, that he—the chief of your clan—would become my slave?"
"Oh, yes! That is, unless it were in battle, when all lives already belong to him anyway as commander-in-chief. In that event, you could establish no claim on him. But, if you were to save my father's life as you saved mine just now, he—Myar-Lur of the Ta n'Ur—could never submit to the indignity of becoming a slave."
"But how could he help it? You say it is the law, and—"
"He would kill himself," she said simply.
"Oh."
For a long time we sat without speaking. I was trying to get a mental grasp on this strange Martian custom and the problem it involved. Lil-rin sat dejectedly, gazing down the slope toward the undergrowth, in which the dead birrok lay.
Then there came to me a thought in which it seemed there might be a gleam of hope. I put it up to Lil-rin.
"I'm no Ur. Therefore the laws of the Ta n'Ur shouldn't apply to me," I argued.
This would be true if Captain Hanley were on Earth. Travelers in a foreign country, while subject to the civil and criminal regulations in that country, are still citizens of their own state. As such, visitors cannot be forced into any kind of contract-marriage if such is to their rights in their own nation. Foreign governments having diplomatic relations with other states all subscribe to "international law" or a set of customs which guarantees equal rights in commerce and the security of visiting citizens of another state.
"Yes, they do," she insisted. "We're within the treaty boundaries of the Ta n'Ur. And even though you are not one of us, you are subject to our laws."
"Well," I said in a clumsy attempt to comfort her, "I guess you do things differently on Mars. Anyway, we'll find some way out of it, Lil-rin. So—"
"What's the matter?" she asked in sudden anxiety, for my startled expression must have revealed something of the sudden fear that assailed me.
"You wouldn't think of getting out of it by—"
"By killing myself?" She smiled sadly. "No. I don't want to kill myself. I want to live. I ... oh—"
Without warning, she burst into tears and then began to laugh hysterically. She jumped up and started to run back to the camp, then paused and returned slowly.
"You wouldn't run away, would you?" She was pleading with me. "Because if you did, they'd cast me out as a deserted wife."
Then she was gone, her slender little figure flashing in and out among the pale green stems of the forest as she ran back toward the camp.
It was a crazy situation all right. But, no crazier than the fact that I was on Mars. I pinched myself hard and winced. No, this was all real enough. I gazed around at the pale yellow-green vegetation, with its strange, unfamiliar forms. Low over the horizon hovered the sun, not half the size it should be to earthly eyes.
Overhead, the strange tiny moons of Mars, moons only a few thousand miles distant and quite visible though it was broad daylight, hurled themselves across a cloudless sky with a speed that was visibly tremendous. Scarcely a thing on which my eye rested had any aspect of familiarity to me. Yet, everything was vividly real.
As to the girl, well, I didn't see what I could do about that. I sighed, and bent my steps slowly back toward the camp of the Ta n'Ur.
By the time I got there, the entire clan was drawn up in military array. Lil-rin, pathetically courageous, stood with her father several paces in front of the line. When she saw me, she said something to Mornya and stepped forward to meet me.
"We have to go through with it, Danan-lih," she murmured. "Don't hate me too much."
"Don't worry, little one," I whispered. "They make you my slave, or wife, whichever it is. But they can't make me treat you like a menial. You shall always be as free as you are now," and I gave her a little squeeze to reassure her.
"Your kindness makes me more your slave ever," she whispered in reply. "Now come."
She led me before her father. He read some formula rapidly from an inscription on a metal plate—it looked like gold—which he took from a leather case slung over his shoulder. He spoke rapidly in some other tongue than that used normally by Ta n'Ur, so I could not follow him at all.
Then Lil-rin bowed her head, and he placed my hand on her fair hair. Were there tears in her eyes? I wasn't sure. She kept her head averted from me.
The simple ceremony was over in a few moments. The clansmen took it all very solemnly. They gathered in little groups as they walked away, and there were many curious glances thrown over shoulders at us.
Mornya held out his hand to me, and I grasped it, Earth fashion. But I could sense that there was no excess of warmth in him at the idea of Lil-rin's marriage to me, an unknown and mysterious Outlander—for Mornya, of course, did not know my full story. Lil-rin had not dared tell him, nor in all probability would he have believed it.
He looked at me searchingly with troubled eyes. I stammered some promise to him that I would always consider Lil-rin free, but I don't think his mind was on my words. He muttered a perfunctory benediction of some sort. Then he too turned and walked rapidly away, leaving us alone together in the center of the big square.
CHAPTER V. — HONEYMOON AND DISASTER
THERE were no festivities. Nobody seemed to be happy. Certainly Lil-rin and I were not. We had gone through a meaningless formula, one that was acceptable to none of us. Yet, there seemed to be nothing that could be done about it. Lil-rin timidly interrupted my musing. "I shall get our supplies, Danan-lih, if it pleases you. And—"
"Supplies?" I interrupted. "What for?"
"We must leave the clan for three days," she explained. "Our wedding trip, you know."
"But look here, Lil-rin," I objected. "That isn't going to mean a thing to us. I don't see why. We don't actually haveto go, do we?"
She nodded her head. "It is the custom. We won't need so very much. I'll be back with our supplies presently."
I stood there frowning. The clansmen avoided me. I saw too that they avoided Lil-rin. The newly wedded bride and groom were to be ignored, cast out, avoided for an arbitrary period of three days, it would I appear.
"No, no, Danan-lih!" she said. "It is I who am the slave-mate, not you. It is I who must carry the burden."
"Nonsense!" I began with some heat.
"It is the law," she said simply. "It is I who will suffer if you do not let me obey it."
I glanced quickly around. The clansmen were watching us intently. So I had to give it up. I shrugged my shoulders helplessly. Feeling meaner than I had ever felt in my life before, I followed Lil-rin as she staggered through the triangular gate, away from the gleaming walls of the fortress-like edifice, off into the yellow-green forest.
But once beyond sight, a single bound carried me to her side. Heedless of her protests, I took all of the burdens from her. To my Earth muscles, the load was trifling.
"And now," I laughed, "where do we go from here? And why didn't you bring two tents?"
"Anywhere you say," she rejoined with the nearest thing to a smile since I killed the birrok. "And I shall sleep outside, if you want me to."
"You'll do nothing of the sort," I muttered. "I will."
There were low hills a few miles beyond the canal, and we turned our steps in that direction. Lil-rin had regained a bit of her gaiety, but was clearly ill at ease. We chatted in more or less desultory fashion as we went along.
At a point somewhat higher up than that at which I had concealed my little space ship, we prepared to cross the river. I thought with a little pang of my spacecraft. Perhaps Lil-rin would like a ride in it. Why-why, I might even take her back to Earth with me!
But, no. It wouldn't be as though we were really in love with each other—had really ever been married. So I left my thoughts to myself.
We paused at the bank of the stream. All of a sudden, Lil-rin gave a shriek of alarm. I looked at her quickly. I had a fleeting impression of her startled glance at something behind me, of a twanging noise from that direction. Something hit me with a tremendous blow on the back of the head, and I knew no more.
I don't know how long it was before I revived.
The pain in my head was terrific. Only by the most desperate effort of my will did I avoid slipping off into unconsciousness again. Little by little, I struggled to my knees and looked around me, fighting the nausea in my stomach.
Lil-rin was gone. So was all our baggage. There were marks in the soil as though a struggle had taken place. I staggered to my feet. My gun was gone from my thigh holster. But I still had the little automatic inside my shirt.
It was not hard to tell what had taken place. An abduction! I had been shot down from behind. Lil-rin had struggled, but had been overcome and carried away. So hasty had been her kidnappers that they had not searched me thoroughly, which was certainly a break from my viewpoint.
It stood to reason, of course, that Lil-rin's abductors had not been members of her own clan. Who, then, were they? Members of a similar clan of nomads? Or men of another race, from north of the barrier?
Well, what to do? After a little of my strength came back, I got into action. My space ship was under the water where I had left it. But the marauders apparently had found it, for one of the hatches—and not that of the airlock—had been opened. The sphere was filled with water. It would have to be dragged ashore and rolled over to be emptied.
For a moment, I hesitated whether to return to the encampment and arouse the Ta n'Ur or not. But it would mean further loss of precious time.
So I didn't give that angle a second thought. And a moment later, my helplessness gave way to sudden excitement. For my desperately seeking eyes had caught marks on the bank of the stream—boat marks, as though a water craft of some sort had been run up there. It was easy to see that the stream did not flow much farther in that direction. The presence of those boat marks indicated flight in the opposite direction! Away I went upstream along the canal-valley in prodigious leaps of fifteen feet and more.
On Mars, Captain Hanley's weight would be one-third of normal. But the difference in gravity would not affect his muscular strength. Hence, on Mars he would be three times as strong as on Earth.
I was confident that my superiority over the Martians in speed, in strength, and in the weapon I still cuddled beneath my arm would enable me to overcome great odds. Time was the important element right now.
A faint hail reached me from the glittering rocks above, and a figure stood forth, arm upraised.
I recognized him as one of the Ta n'Ur. I was up in the face of the jagged cliff and at his side in a few moments. It was a young man named Uldor, on guard duty at the Gap.
A "wheel-boat," he told me, had gone downstream and returned. But he had seen no one in it except four Northerners, with a crew of dulyals at the wheels.
"Still," he added, "the forward deck was covered. Many people might have lain bound and gagged beneath that cover.
"It's not part of the Ta n'Ur's duty," he went on, "to interfere with the Northerners themselves in their very rare passages back and forth through the Gap. Our obligation under our treaty with them is simply to prevent migrations of the wild dulyals."
As I dropped back to the canal gap and leaped away toward the North, I saw Uldor racing madly back toward the encampment to pass on my alarm.
North of the barrier the character of the country changed somewhat. It was wild, but the vegetation was more prolific, and there were evidences here and there of ancient irrigation ditches laid out in regular rows. The canal itself was a shallow valley gouged across the face of a level plain. In its center the stream had cut a deeper and less regular course.
Several miles north of the barrier I came upon the first evidence of habitation. It was a small structure, but built of that same iridescent material of which the fortress occupied by the Ta n'Ur had been constructed. And like that mysterious edifice, it was a monolith, very old and worn.
I redoubled my efforts and was passing the spot in mid-leap when a figure rose suddenly to contest my way.
It was my first glimpse of a Northerner. In the split second that elapsed before I hit him, my eye photographically registered a figure in flexible armor of yellow, overlapping metal plates. There was a conical helmet that guarded the nose, ears, and neck as well as the head. Curved plates fitted over the shoulders; arm-pieces cleverly overlapped at the elbows. Completing the outfit were a skirt or kilt on which more overlapping plates were fastened, and what might be described as metal boots, hinged at the ankles. The fellow, in a panic of frantic haste, was trying to bring one of those long bolt-throwing tubes up at me.
Evidently, my great leaps and speed completely upset his judgment of distance. My heavily shod foot came down on the tube, and we went crashing to the ground with a great clangor of metal.
I was on my feet in an instant, but the Martian did not rise. There was a grotesque twist to his head. He had fallen, clumsily, and his neck was broken.
His armor, I thought, might be useful to me as a disguise, and for an instant I considered appropriating it. But on second thought, I decided not to do so. It would be too awkward.
I turned away and was about to leap on up the canal-valley, which was becoming wider now, when I started back in surprise and alarm. Directly in my path was a mounted Martian. But it was the character of his steed that startled me.
It was not a horse at all, but the only thing I could call it in any tongue of Earth would be a "dog." It was as large as a small horse and distinctly canine in appearance and in the intelligence of its eyes, as it stood there, softly poised, watching me as intently, as was its rider. The Martian was clad entirely in soft yellow leather, richly embroidered with sparkling beads. But his garb was not like that of the Ta n'Ur. Instead of a loose sleeveless shirt, he wore a sort of collarless fitted jacket with long sleeves and a sash of scarlet leather. In place of the kilts, he wore tight-fitting leggings which covered his limbs entirely.
He sat well forward on the back of his strange mount, with his toes hooked into peculiar stirrups just back of and under the animal's forelegs. The saddle was, in reality, a combination saddle and collar with a metal handle on the top of the latter part. There was no bridle. The rider evidently guided his mount by voiced commands, or possibly by pressure on the collar handle, though I judged the handle more to aid him in keeping his seat.
CHAPTER VI. — INTRIGUES OF GAKKO
FOR a moment we confronted each other, and in that brief spell I was conscious of a liking for the handsome young face before me. In it was nothing of fear, though this Martian knight had no weapon that I could see. But, he sat watching me with a shrewd and alert interest.
Then he raised his arms and held them wide, palms forward, in the Martian gesture of friendship. I glanced, uneasily, at the body of the dead guard. He noted it, too.
"It is nothing," he said. "An accident. I saw it all. The fellow exceeded his duty in trying to stop you without first challenging."
He paused a moment. "You are the 'mysterious guest' of the Ta n'Ur that Mornya was telling me about. I have never seen hair as dark as yours. What are you doing here?"
"Are you Mornya's friend?" I asked softly, my hand slipping inside my shirt until it closed over the butt of the little automatic. I thought his eyes narrowed a bit at that. But he showed no alarm.
"I am Mornya's friend," he declared flatly. "It was I who negotiated the treaty for the Ta n'Ur for the Council of Alarin, the Greater Lords of the Polar Cities."
I was quite sure then that this lad had had no part in the abduction of Lil-rin, and determined to take a chance on him. After all, I would need help of some sort in rescuing the girl. So I told him how I had been struck down, and of the "wheel-boat," as Uldor called it. His astonishment and indignation were obviously genuine.
"And just what were you about to do when we met?" he asked, giving me a curious look.
"Follow that wheel-boat and rescue Lil-rin."
He shook his head slowly in negative judgment. "You would not have had a chance," he said. "In the first place, you could not have overtaken it. I saw the speed at which you were leaping. I also saw the boat. In the second place, either Gakko, Alar of Gakalu, or one of his Epsin-Lesser Lords was in charge of it. Then there were the dulyals at the wheels. They can fight, you know; and when handled by clever commanders, they are terrible adversaries.
"Oh I know of the bolt-thrower inside your garment, which your hand now rests on. I heard of that also from the Ta n'Ur. But there were fifty dulyals in that boat, and I don't think you have that many bolts in your weapon."
Discouragement must have shown in my face, for he laughed.
"But it's not so hopeless as all that. A plan is taking shape in my mind. Gakko is no friend of mine, nor of Layani, the Alar-Lur, Supreme Lord of the Cities. This abduction is surely Gakko's work. It is rumored that he has stolen girls from the Southern clans before, that he has several of them among his wives."
He smiled reassuringly. "Come with me. We must talk this over. We have, I think, a great opportunity to outwit Gakko."
"But what of Lil-rin in the meantime?" I objected.
"She will be all right. Gakko would not dare harm her until he had her safe within his power at home, in Gakalu. Besides, he must hasten to attend a council of the Alarin to be held on the Island in two days."
I consented. There didn't seem to be much else for me to do. The young Martian, who informed me his name was Banur, and that he was one of the Lesser Lords of Borlan, the land adjacent to Gakalu on the Polar Sea, made me mount his dog-steed behind him. At his command the animal set off, leaping and scurrying up one of the ancient irrigation ditches away from the canal-valley.
Across a cultivated plain we scurried, between fields of melon-like plants, toward a range of low, verdure-clad hills. It took some skill to cling to the great dog's back, but so fast did he run that it was a matter of minutes only before we had plunged into the vegetation on the slope of the hills. The animal was now scrambling upward to where, in a clearing, stood one of those great iridescent monolithic fortresses such as that occupied by the Ta n'Ur.
In through a triangular gate we flashed, and as the great dog came to a slithering stop, uttering a thunderous bark, a number of dulyals ran forward to take charge of him. It was the first chance I had had of seeing these near-human apes who served the Northerners as slaves.
Very manlike they were in build and carriage, and covered from head to foot with yellow fur. But their eyes, so it seemed to me, did not shine with even as great intelligence as those of the dog-steed.
I mentioned this to Banur.
"They are not as intelligent," he replied. "But they are more dependable, when through several generations of captivity they have been trained to their tasks. But they have their limitations. These fellows, for instance, are of use only in the steed kennels. Those over there have been trained to till the fields. They are good for nothing else.
"These," pointing to several who were patrolling the walls, armed with spears "are good soldiers, although quite incapable of acting on their own initiative. They can comprehend only a single military command at a time."
"I see very few humans," I remarked.
"No," he replied. "There are only a handful here, a few Ildin—that is to say, Freemen—and a dozen or so slaves. You see, this is merely an agricultural outpost. But its supervision comprises part of my duties, and I have to make periodic visits here."
Banur insisted that I change from my Earth clothes and put on a Martian suit, which he found for me among his stores. After that we tarried at the post only long enough for refreshments. While we drank "lilquok," that invigorating beverage the Martians make from one of their varieties of giant melons, Banur explained to me something of the law which held together the Northern Cities.
Seven lands bordered on the Polar Sea, ruled by seven Alarin. One of these, Layani, Alar of Hok-lan, was by election Alar-Lur, or Supreme Lord of the Council of Alarin.
Theoretically the Alarin were as subject to the law as the Epsin, or Lesser Lords, and the Ildin, or Freemen. But as a matter of fact, they enjoyed absolute power; for accusations could be brought against a Martian of the Polar Cities only by one of equal or superior rank.
Likewise, no other Alar was anxious to give Gakko any cause for offense that could be avoided.
"But," Banur suggested thoughtfully, "I think that the man with a just complaint against this tyrant, and the courage to slay or strip him of his power, would not be regarded as an enemy. Not, at least, by the Alar-Lur, the Supreme Lord, who fears Gakko's growing influence. Nor the rulers of Borlan, Tuskidon and Ilmo.
"The Alarin of Trilu and Yonodlu, the lands beyond Gakko's on the other side of the Sea, are definitely his supporters. But I do not know that even they would necessarily feel injured by his elimination.
"Certainly it would be their best policy to cultivate the favor of the other Alarin, in the event that Gakko were deposed or slain."
Politics, it would seem, is the same on any planet with an intelligent population. It is not beyond the bounds of reason to suppose that the present crisis now facing Earth may not at some time have been duplicated in a remote planet.
Banur paused uncomfortably. "Now ... Dr ... I don't know whether you would resent being made use of in this way. You see, I am being perfectly frank with you. But you appear to be determined to fight Gakko single-handed anyhow, and—"
"Well, I thought it might not be displeasing to you to know that you can count on a certain amount of secret help since your decision has already been made. Of course, if you fall into Gakko's hands you must realize that no Alar could go very far in giving you protection. The whole situation is rather delicate. I'm sure you can understand our position," he added hastily.
I grew thoughtful at this. I did not like the idea of plunging into the midst of the political turmoil in a world with which I was virtually unfamiliar, of being made a cat's paw by certain of its rulers. I had not leaped all this distance from the encampment of the Ta n'Ur to become an assassin of Martian kings. I merely wanted to rescue Lil-rin and punish the villains who had abducted her.
"Of course, you are under no obligation to accept any aid at all," Banur put in shrewdly. "My only thought was that you want to rescue the girl and—"
"I'll do it!" I said, jumping to my feet.
"Good!" echoed Banur exuberantly. "Come."
CHAPTER VII. — I TRAIL GAKKO'S VILLAINS
A FEW moments later found me galloping with Banur at the head of a band of mounted dulyals, Banur had supplied me with a great, powerful brute of a dog to ride. The beast looked understandingly at both of us when Banur turned him over to me. Wagging his immense tail, he accepted mefrom that moment as his master.
Both the dulyals and the dogs on which they were mounted accorded methe same understanding, at a word from Banur. The young Martian then drilled me in the words and methods of command necessary for their control.
The most remarkable affection existed between the dulyals and their mounts. There seemed to be a perfect understanding of commands and coordination of action. The dogs were more intelligent than the great dulyal apes, but of course lacked much of their physical prowess. Both, Banur explained, were terrible in battle, although quite docile to the commands of their master, whoever was the leader selected by the Northerners for a particular task.
To me, it was also comforting to learn that the dulyals were trained to the use of the spear and a short, broad-bladed sword almost like a cleaver, and that they carried these weapons with them.
"We're taking an overland short-cut toward a little seaport at the boundary of Borlan and Gakalu," Banur said. "It is there, undoubtedly, that Gakko has taken Lil-rin. For once out on the Sea, she will be in Gakalun waters, and he will have a run down the coast of only some seven hundred miles to Gakko's own city."
"Will we catch them there, do you think?"
"Not we," he said frankly. "Possibly you. But if you can't overtake them before they reach their own territory, I should advise you not to try it, but to journey on leisurely along the coast of the Polar Sea until you arrive at the city of Gakalu.
"Establish yourself there as—let me see, now ... as the son of a rich merchant of Ilmo, for that is the land farthest away from Gakalu across the Pole, and you would be less likely to meet Ilmonions in Gakalu."
For the rest of our journey, as our great dogs tore along with us at amazing speed and the cavalcade of dulyals raced after us, Banur supplied me with much information as to the customs of the Martians.
At length he motioned me to give the order to halt for the dulyals and dogs now looked to me only as their master, as Banur himself had previously commanded them. He pointed toward a silvery sheen on the horizon beyond a growth of short ferns.
"On what points are you curious?" I asked, having a pretty good idea of what was on his mind from the surreptitious glances he had been casting my way.
"Well, for one thing, your coloring is like that of no man I have ever seen," he stammered, and his face grew red. "Indeed, throughout all history, even back through the legendary period of the great Rain of Fire, there is no mention of men with brown hair and deep blue eyes. You appeared suddenly—from nowhere it seemed—among the Ta n'Ur. At least, so Mornya told me.
"Among the Southern Clans, it is considered bad manners to pry into the affairs of strangers and guests." He smiled deprecatingly. "You see, our own customs are somewhat different."
"Does history or legend shed any light on the lands below the equatorial desert?" I asked him.
"None," he admitted. "It is a great subject for speculation among the wise men as to what may be on the Southern half of the globe. We know, of course, that we do live on a globe and not, as it might seem, on a great, flat circular world. But somehow I do not believe you crossed that desert. Neither do the Ta n'Ur."
I laughed. "What doyou think, then?" I asked.
"My thought is so wild that I hesitate to take it seriously." He was looking at me keenly. "Have you ever watched the skies at night, and gazed on the Green Planet?"
By Green Planet, Banur meant of course Earth, for that is how Earth would look to the Martians.
"Often," I had to admit. "I've often seen it from a distance." Well, considering the many space voyages I'd made, that was true enough.
"Have you ever wondered whether it was a habitable world?"
"No, I never had to wonder about it."
The look of disappointment on his face was eloquent. He had been shrewd, but he had been frank, too. I could but reply in kind.
After a pause I added: "I knowthat it is."
"What?" Banur shouted. "Then you really—"
"Yes. That is where I came from. Earth, we call it."
Banur acted like one suddenly bereft of his senses. He shouted and laughed, waving his arms madly. Then as quickly he turned and was gone, his great dog racing and bounding across the plain away from me, back in the direction from which we had come.
Amazed and puzzled, I could only gaze helplessly after him. And by the time I thought of calling out to him, he was beyond hearing.
Then came the thought of little Lil-rin. Well, that was my job, wasn't it? So, with considerable misgivings, I turned toward the distant Polar Sea. I shouted "Hep!" and pointed forward. In an instant, followed by the dulyals and the dogs, I was bounding along, frequently grabbing at the saddle-handle to steady myself, and muttering the while a silent prayer that at least I had had experience riding horses.
To my earthly eyes the village was indeed strange. I was astonished to find that most of the "buildings" were underground. In this they were quite unlike the only other Martian structures I had seen the ancient, iridescent monoliths.
The modern Martians, as I was to learn, dug their cities and villages deep underground, with thick-walled superstructures. Soil and rock were mixed with a red cement, made into large slabs or bricks. The superstructures were little more than entrances and anterooms to the quarters beneath.
Remembering what Banur had told me that the "gasto," or inn, would be located on the outskirts of the villager held up my hand. The great dogs behind me slithered to a sudden stop, as did my mount.
I looked around for a shaft of stone or cement bearing a picture or a carving of a dog's head. A metal rod projected from a hole in the ground beside it. This I lifted and let drop again. Somewhere down in the ground there was the sound of a gong, and the metal door in the wall before me was opened.
Fantastic Adventures, Mar 1940, withsecond part of "The Prince of Mars Returns"
Dan Hanley fired over his shoulder at theirpursuers and was rewarded by a hoarse yell of pain.
CHAPTER VIII. — I RESCUE LIL-RIN
THERE, standing before me, stretching his arms wide and bowing with some difficulty, the first fat man I had seen on Mars.
On the far side of the building I found were cage-like structures for the dogs and the dulyals. After ordering my animals to remain in them until I called, I followed the innkeeper back around the building to the metal door.
From here, a circular ramp led down to the lower levels. I stopped at the first level to pay my board and lodging with the heavy little red beads (rubies, I think they were) that the Martians use for money, since gold is far too plentiful.
I drew a puzzled glance from mine Martian host when I laughed because the little cage at which I paid was so much like a cashiers corner in innumerable little restaurants on a planet millions of miles away.
My room proved to be on the third level down.
I was shown from my room to the "moccor," which I suppose would be translated in English variously as "lobby," "bar-room" or "restaurant." It was on the first level below ground. Here, gathered about the great solid, carved blocks of quartz that served as tables were seated some score or more of Martians, all of the Ildin class, or Freemen. This, I gathered from the green sashes they wore like my own with which Banur had outfitted me.
In a far corner of the room was a little party of four, obviously strangers to the village, for like myself they seemed to be interested in their surroundings. They surveyed their neighbors with some curiosity. Two of them were Epsin-Lesser Lords. They wore the red sash distinctive of their class. The other pair were Ildin.
A couple of slaves, obviously members of the party and not inn attendants, garbed in the black that denoted their position in life, hovered in the background with big bowls and jugs.
There was a vacant table near the group, and I moved toward them, as unconcernedly as I could. They seemed to take no notice of me.
Almost immediately the name "Gakko," although uttered in a hushed tone, caught my ear. I strained to hear more, but without much success for awhile, for one of the inn's servants was placing my food before me.
Later I heard the city of Gakalu mentioned a few times, and there was something said about the seaworthiness of a certain wheel-boat, and the necessity of guarding someone well under pain of Gakko's violent displeasure.
I had no doubt it was Lil-rin to whom they referred, and that this was the party I was after. Certainly there was something furtive about their manner, something sly that argued there was no good in the business that had brought them here.
I felt for the little automatic under my shirt, and casually unfastened the garment a bit at the neck that I might reach it quickly. None of those in the room had taken particular notice of me as yet, and I was thankful for the rather dull light thrown by the crystal bowls placed in recesses along the walls, in which wicks floated.
I was thankful, too, for the Martian custom that did not require men to uncover indoors, although women were supposed to—a curious reversal of the practice on Earth.
I was trying to decide upon my next step when fate took the initiative.
There was a sudden commotion near a triangular door that gave access to one of the lower level ramps. A slender girl in the black garb of a slave dodged frantically among the tables toward the group I was watching. Her progress was marked by growls and resentful glances.
One or two Ildin half rose in their places, then sank back again quickly enough when they saw the red sashes of the Epsin, who had risen in some alarm as the slave girl fought her way toward them.
But, once she had made her breathless report, the four men, followed by the girl and the two slaves, dashed for the ramp.
In the excitement, I followed.
A turn in the ramp muffled the commotion behind us, and I heard the patter of the conspirators' running feet as they circled downward. I leaped after them, closing the gap quickly, and stopped barely in time to avoid turning another corner and crashing full into them. They paused at the fourth level down and threw aside the leather curtain that concealed a triangular door. With a rush they were through.
In addition to the two Epsin, there were four or five Ildin in the room, and several slaves of both sexes. They had spread out and were cautiously closing in on a far corner of the room where a slim girlish figure, almost denuded of clothing and bleeding from an ugly gash on the arm, stood at bay.
In one hand she had a spring-gun, with which she kept threatening her enemies, as one or another of them took a chance and tried to advance a step. In her other hand she held my large automatic.
Here then was Lil-rin of the Ta n'Ur, the golden-haired, blue-eyed Amazon of the Southern clan whom I had sworn to rescue. Lil-rin, gloriously waging the battle of her life against a band of Martian vultures, who leered evilly at her gleaming body, yet respected the deadliness of her weapons. Lil-rin—my wife! Her clear sweet voice rang out now with scorn as she taunted and defied them. And they howled back like a pack of wolves.
"Stop this folly! Throw down that weapon!" roared one of the Epsin, who seemed to be the leader, as he pushed his way forward to face the girl.
"Be careful, Uallo," cautioned the other noble at his elbow. "She means it. She'll do what she says. I know these clansmen of the South. And the Ta n'Ur are the most desperate warriors of them all." The other hesitated. "But this is ridiculous. She is only a girl, and—"
"The daughter of their leader, their Myar-Lur," interpolated the cautious one. "It is best to take matters slowly."
It was the psychological moment. I acted.
Stepping inside the door, I raised my little automatic and fired a shot into the ceiling. The reverberation in that heavily walled room was terrific. It seemed to stun the Martians. Demoralization was in their faces as they swung about and saw me there like a statue, my gun half raised and a tiny wisp of smoke curling up from it. They shrank from me.
"Come, Lil-rin," I said. "We must get out of here. You go first and clear the way. Use my gun if you have to, but I think there are none above who have an interest in stopping us. I'll hold this scum back."
Lil-rin looked at me like one who sees a happy vision and doubts its reality. I never saw her look more beautiful than at that moment, disheveled as she was and bleeding from the rather ugly gash in her arm. But there was no indecision in the girl.
With her little shoulders thrown back, her chin high and an expression of regal contempt for Uallo and all his followers, she stepped briskly to my side. For just an instant she paused and looked at me, an inscrutable something in her clear blue eyes. Then, she slipped through the curtained door and was gone.
Her disappearance seemed to break the spell.
"Stop them! At any cost!" Uallo roared, and threw himself recklessly at me.
Instinctively the rest leaped with him. Three or four times my automatic roared; four of the enemy pitched headlong. But the distance between us had not been great, and even those who had stopped my bullets plunged into me as I went under from the combined rush, pulling the leather curtain on top of me as I fell outward through the door.
As fast as I could press the muzzle of my gun against a new mark I pulled the trigger, but my head was entangled in the curtain and so many Martians had fallen on top of me that I could not at once wriggle free.
7
I fired my automatic as fast as I could pull the trigger.
It was then that I heard the heavier roar of Lil-rin's gun. Five times, at evenly spaced intervals, she fired, evidently aiming with calm deliberation. Then all was quiet, save for the groans of the Martians around me and the curtain was lifted from my head. I struggled to my feet, to meet Lil-rin's anxious and inquiring gaze.
"Are you hurt, Danan-lih?" she exclaimed. "I was afraid they had gotten you. Now what shall we do?"
In a few breathless sentences I explained to her how Banur had helped me, told her of my dulya cavalcade as we raced up the ramp. We found the moccor, the inn's public room, deserted. Nor did anyone appear to halt us before I blew a shrill call on the whistle Banur had given me. The great dogs and the yellow apes came racing to us around the corner of the building.
I made two of the dulyals ride double, and Lil-rin leaped on the back of the spare dog after I had bound her injured arm with a strip torn from her garment. And then we were racing away from the village, through the yellow-green ferns and back across the plain toward Bartur's post.
CHAPTER IX. — I BECOME A LEGEND
"YOU'VE canceled the debt of life forfeiture, Lil-rin," I said to her.
She gave an odd, quick look and laughed. "No, that didn't count. I told you, the slave is obligated to protect the master in battle. And besides, that is the second time you have saved my life. I'm doubly forfeited now, Danan-lih, whether you like it or not."
"I don't—I mean, I do like it—that is—what I mean—I'm not accustomed to enslaving girls," I stammered. "Besides—"
Lil-rin sighed. "Then you must be awfully good at things you really are accustomed to," she said, and looked abruptly away over the yellow-green prairie as our strange cavalcade thudded madly on.
For an instant my heart pounded. Did she mean ... But, no, that couldn't be. Certainly Lil-rin did not want to be a slave. She, daughter of the chieftain of a warrior clan. Slave! Why, the girl was technically and officially my wife!
There was no pursuit. Lil-rin and I between us had accounted for nearly all of Uallo's party. It was my impression that none had escaped, except perhaps a couple of the slaves.
Presently the girl's eyes caught my own. "Before three suns have passed, the Ta n'Ur and our allies among the clans will be in arms against some or all of the Polar Cities," she said simply.
Then, suddenly, Lil-rin was all emotion, "Well, let it be!" she cried fiercely, clenching her little fists. "It had to come! The legend must be fulfilled!"
"Legend? What legend do you mean, Lil-rin?"
But that was all that she would say...
In due course we neared the agricultural post from which Banur and I had set forth such a short time before. Not twelve hours had elapsed.
Captain Hanley's watch was of great convenience. He had found that the Martian day was almost the same as that on Earth.
As we drew nearer an Ildin, or Freeman, rode forth on a dog to meet us. But he paused suddenly some two or three hundred yards away, gazed intently at us, then turned and raced madly for the post, waving his arms and shouting something. But he was too far ahead of us for me to hear what it was.
I thought no further about the Ildin. But when we arrived, I was amazed to see no less than a hundred and fifty spearmen, in full armor, drawn up in military formation. And at their head, in golden armor, a vermilion cloak over one shoulder, stood Banur of the Gap. In the rear stood rank after rank of dulyals, minus armor, but armed with those terrible, short, broad-bladed swords. I halted in surprise.
As if he had been waiting for this signal, Banur tossed his spear into the air.
"Hail to the Hero of the Legend!" he shouted. "To the Alar of the Green Star!"
In amazement I turned to Lil-rin, and to my still greater astonishment found her not surprised at all.
"I knew it," she was saying softly. "From the beginning I feared it!" And there was something of both tragedy and pride in the tear-dimmed eyes she turned to mine.
"You heard him say it," she continued. "The Legend of the Green Star! And you, Danan-lih, are the Hero of the Legend. And the Legend shall be fulfilled!"
And then this little golden Amazon with the green-blue eyes did the last thing I had ever expected to see her do. She fainted and tumbled headlong from her saddle.
In an instant I had leaped from my own mount and picked her up in tender arms. Poor kid! She must have gone through a lot while in the hands of Uallo and his villains.
Banur, too, came running to us and offered to carry her into the little fortress.
But Lil-rin on Earth would have weighed no more than a hundred and fifteen or twenty pounds. To my sturdier Earth muscles, she seemed no more than thirty-five or forty pounds. I lifted her like a child and carried her into the building.
CHAPTER X. — DANAN OF THE ATL ANTIN
THAT night, while the bright little moons of Mars sped swiftly across the starry sky and Lil-rin slept, Banur told me of the Legend of the Green Star.
"It is a strange mixture," he said, "of historic fantasy and more definite tradition. It has a great hold on the popular imagination, not only among us of the Polar Cities, but among the people of the Southern clans as well.
It is said that once, untold ages ago (Banur went on), no men lived in this world of Mars, which was inhabited by great beasts and by the progenitors of the dulyals, who were supposed to have stooped a bit as they walked, and to have had tails by which they could hang from trees. A quaint idea, that. To think of an animal using its tail in that fashion!
But there was another world, where the vegetation was of a much darker green, and where there were great seas and oceans, yet too much land for this world was larger. And, another quaint conceit, there were men of many different colors living on this world: black men, brown men, red men, white men with yellow hair, and white men with black hair.
And among all these different kinds of men there was one race superior to the rest, for they were far advanced in intelligence, in the arts and sciences, and were able to make war with lightning and thunder.
Indeed, they had machines which would run themselves and accomplish in trifling time the work of many salves laboring over a long period. And over these men—the men with yellow hair and green-blue eyes—there ruled a chief whose name was Danan, Alar of the Antin, or Island Men, as these yellow-haired ones were known.
For although their land was large, it was surrounded entirely by an ocean, and thus separated from all other lands.
Now it happened in the course of time (Banur continued) that from out of the void of space, there came rushing a little world or planet that had nothing to do with the sun. Danan's wise men, after making many careful observations and calculations, told him that this planet seemed certain to hit the Green World on which they all lived.
That, in particular, this little planet would probably strike the Atl or island, on which they had their dwelling places. Danan's wise men even went so far as to say that the roving planet would most certainly destroy the Atl, probably the whole world, so that all men would be killed.
It was then that Danan put other wise men to work, constructing a great ship which would fly through the void of space, just as many of the ships of the Atl Antinat that time were able to do. Together with many thousands of his people, Danan set forth, fleeing through space from the doomed world in the hope of finding another which would be habitable.
In time they are supposed to have landed here on Mars, and after centuries of struggle, to have slain all the great beasts and domesticated the dulyals.
But in the meantime, through the great lenses which they used to magnify sight, they saw the little world hit the big one from which they had fled and then bounce off again, taking with it much of the material of the big world. This became a moon, only much farther away than our two moons, and much larger.
But only portions of the big world appeared to have been destroyed. It seemed to the wise men who watched the collision, that the big world had not been hit where they thought it would be, but on the other side.
Now (said Banur) there had been many more thousands of the Atl Antin who had refused to risk the voyage away from the Green World with Danan, their Alar. Danan wondered if these people might not have escaped annihilation, after all. So he had his great space-traveling ship repaired, and left on a visit back to the Green World, promising to return to his people here.
That, according to the legend, was the last ever seen of the Alar, Danan.
But belief or fancy, or whatever you choose to call it, has persisted through the thousands of years since then that one day, in fulfillment of his promise, Danan would return.
Great interest, too, has centered around the romantic side of the legend, of which there are many versions of widely variant nature. The oldest and simplest form of the legend has it that Danan had no wives, and that when his people were reluctant to let him venture the journey back to the Green Star, he left behind him the girl of noble blood who was betrothed to him, and whom he loved dearly, as a pledge of his return." (Banur concluded.)
To say that I listened to all this in astonishment would be putting it mildly. Banur's description of the catastrophe to the "Green World," his reference to the "Atl Antin" left me gasping. Do we not have our own legends of the lost land of Atlantis, which was supposed to have existed somewhere in the Atlantic Ocean?
Do not other legends maintain that it is from the immensity of the Pacific that the material forming the moon was thrown off? And have not many scientists in recent years receded further and further from the position that the history of man is as simple as that of an evolutionary rise from animalism and savagery?
Have these learned men not inclined more favorably to the theory that innumerable prehistoric civilizations, of which no traces are left, may have preceded our own?
"And now," Banur said solemnly, "we come to the final links in the chain of events. Your name is Dan Hanley—he pronounced it "Danan-lih"—while the hero of the Legend is Danan, Lil-rin is of the Ta n'Ur daughter of the clan's chieftain. It is one of the cherished legends of the Ta n'Ur that their entire clan is of prehistoric kingly blood, and you have joined her in marriage."
Heavens above, was I doomed by fate, to live my life as a legend old beyond time itself?
"I will confess," Banur admitted, "that when Gakko's villains abducted Lil-rin, the Legend seen to be shattered. For the Alar Danan could not be conceived of as allowing another to take from him his mate. But the promptness and daring of your rescue only adds color to the story."
"It was nothing," I protested quickly. "I had superior weapons—" "Of lightning and thunder," Banur murmured.
Me, Daniel J. Hanley, a legend!
"My strength is naturally greater, since gravity is denser on Earth than here on Mars," I almost shouted.
"As befits the Hero of the Legend," he insisted calmly.
"And besides, Lil-rin fought as well as I did, and actually saved me when I went down under the rush of Uallo and his followers—"
"Which is only to be expected in a warrior princess of the Ta n'Ur-and the espoused of Danan," Banur concluded triumphantly.
It was useless to argue with him, so I took another angle.
"Well, Banur," I said rising, "it is certainly an astounding coincidence. But, to get down to cases. My next step must be to get Lil-rin back to her own people."
"No," Banur told me, also rising and bowing low with arms wide, in the Martian gesture of respect for superiors.
"The Ta n'Ur," he announced, "will be here by morning, fully equipped for a long campaign as the bodyguard of Danan-lih and Lil-rin the Alar-Lur and Alara-Lur of Mars."
"Wha—what are you talking about?" I gasped. "Have you gone insane?"
"If I have, Danan-lih, so has my lord Almun, Alar of Borlan, who has learned of you and your fulfillment of the Legend. He personally instructed me to lay his tribute at your feet and to inform you of the irrevocable decision of all the Alarin, except Gakko and possibly his two satellites, in naming you Alar-Lur, Supreme Lord of the Council. Layani, the present Alar-Lur, is retiring, to continue only as Alar of Hoklan."
"But ... but ... if I protested—" suddenly drained of further strength and expostulation.
"They would not dare do otherwise, in view of the popular devotion to the legend. Besides, the situation is the most opportune that has ever arisen to deal with Gakko. For Gakko, with the support of Mui and Donar, Alarin of Trilu and Yonodlu, has determined to stop at nothing to make himself the Supreme Lord.
"The army of Borlan already is on the march to the Gakalun border. The forces of Hoklan follow. Around the other shore of the Polar Sea, eastern, the Tuski-donin will threaten Yonodlu and Trilu, endeavoring to hold them neutral, but attacking if they are unsuccessful.
"Alar Udaro and his Ilmonin will take to the sea, skirt both sides of the Polar Ice Cap, and attack the Gakalun coast, centering their operations on the city of Gakalu. And you, Danan-lih, will be our Leader."
CHAPTER XI. — IN THE DESERT
THE morning brought news by dog-post. There had been desperate fighting at all the passes in the mountains dividing Gakalu and Borlan, but neither side had gained advantage. The Ilmonin had set forth in their fleet.
Layani, ex-Alar-Lur, with his Hoklanin shock troops, was one-third of the way across Borland in his march to reinforce the Borlanin in the mountains. Before night he would arrive with his bodyguard to make personal obeisance to me and Lil-rin.
And the Ta n'Ur had arrived. They greeted us with a great shout and much tossing of spears as Lil-rin and I stepped forth, clad from head to foot in the blue of royalty. Every young man and woman of the clan was there, fully armed, to the number of nearly a thousand.
Lil-rin, taking direct command, spent the day explaining and demonstrating to me their battle tactics, mounted and unmounted. Before Layani and his Hoklanin arrived, I had a pretty good idea of what the Ta n'Ur could do and how to handle them.
In the late afternoon Layani and his troops arrived. I should have known better, I suppose, after all Banur had told me about the use of dulyals in warfare. But it was a shock to me to find that only the skeleton organization of Layani's force was human.
The men were known as "rintarin," and acted as leaders of dulyal squads of five. The squad normally took the formation of three abreast, two ranks deep and in the "rintar's" position was in the middle of the rear rank. Thus, as he went into battle, he was perfectly shielded by his five dulyals, and devoted himself almost entirely to directing their actions.
The rintarin were heavily armored, but the dulyals wore nothing but the belts and shoulder straps that held their gear and weapons. All were mounted on dog-steeds of enormous size, of a breed somewhat different from the animals I had seen so far. They were like giant mastiffs.
Layani came to where Lil-rin and I stood and laid his sword at our feet. For a moment he remained bending over it, arms stretched wide and palms down. Then he picked up his weapon and, straightening up, appeared to forget that there was supposed to be any difference in rank between us. Not, of course, that I minded. In fact, I should have been very much annoyed if his attitude had been servile, I never could stand "yes-men."
"Yes-men" remain the curse of modern military machines. There seems to be considerable doubt as to whether army general staffs, under the domination of dictatorial political leaders, will produce that initiative required in successful strategy against the enemy. The Martians, apparently, though well-disciplined, were democratically organized. Hence they would fight with their hearts as well as their bodies.
For some time, Layani discussed with us the problems of the coming campaign. Lil-rin, I noticed, could barely restrain evidences of scorn for Layani's forces. "Do the Ta n'Ur never use these great apes for fighting?" I asked her.
She tilted her little nose up a bit and sniffed. "May the day never come when they do! When People of Ancient Royalty can no longer do their own fighting, it will be best for them to die."
Not only that, but Lil-rin announced her intention of personally leading the clan.
"Is that fitting?" I protested, afraid for her. "How can you be Alara-Lur and at the same time perform the duties of a member of your own bodyguard?"
She laughed softly. "Alara-Lur or not, I am first of all slave-mate of the Alar-Lur. Besides—"
"Nonsense!" I protested. "Then I'll be co-leader of our bodyguard with you, or your second in command." And at that we both laughed.
But Lil-rin didn't like the idea of dulyal warfare any more than I did.
From all we could learn, there would be approximately the same number on either side. Any way we looked at it, it seemed certain as though we were in for a long-drawn-out deadlock. And this would never do.
"It comes to this, Lil-rin," I said. "Get Gakko and we end the war, avert the necessity of butchering thousands of these poor animals, and save at least many hundreds of human lives."
She nodded slowly. "Yes, but how?"
"Your people are a desert clan," I pointed out. "Why could we not lead them westward, around in a great circle below the line of habitation, until we are directly south of Gakalu, then strike straight north in a piercing raid, take Gakalu and capture Gakko himself?"
"He might not be in Gakalu," Lil-rin objected.
I disagreed. "I think he will. The Borlanin and the Hoklanin won't get far in their attacks through the mountain gaps. Gakko's real danger will lie in the attack of the fleet from Ilmo, which will be centered on Gakalu. He will be there to direct the defense of his city from the attack by sea. He won't suspect a raid directly from the south."
Lil-rin's little face was grave. "I believe you are right," she said. "And below the gap, quite a distance out in the desert beyond the spot where we found each other, the Ta n'Ur have a big dog farm.
"For several years, in secret, we have been breeding a race of desert dogs. They are lithe, speedy animals, requiring little water, and capable of withstanding the heat and dust. With them I believe we could reach Gakalu almost as quickly as the fleet will."
"Then let's do it," I decided, and my blood began to run faster with the knowledge of impending battle.
We took only Banur into our confidence. We left it up to him to spread some story that we had gone into seclusion to await the outcome of the war. Quietly, we slipped away with five hundred picked clansmen. It took us a full day to reach the breeding grounds.
The dogs were indeed marvelous specimens. Like all other of the Martian breed, they were as large as horses; But in build they reminded me much of greyhounds, only they were much sturdier.
Morning saw us on our way, the clansmen scorning the weight of armor, but all carrying several spring-guns in addition to spears and swords.
I had given Lil-rin my smaller automatic, and all the ammunition I had left for it. She had discarded the more cumbersome clothing of the north and all marks of her new rank, to appear in the light garb she wore when I first saw her. I too adopted the dress of the Ta n'Ur, with no distinguishing mark of rank.
It was near noon of the second day when we approached a ridge that looked like the rim of a great circle, toward which the dusty floor of the desert swept up gradually. We halted and looked down.
The ridge curved away from us to the north and south until it was lost on the horizon. Ahead of us was a gigantic depression, the other side of which was barely visible on the western horizon. It was an immense crater, at least four miles deep, I judged, the ground sloping down sharply from our feet at an angle of forty-five degrees or more.
We dismounted to gaze upon a sight which, despite its drab monotony and the ugly shade of the dust, had by its very size the element of grandeur.
There was a small piece of quartz near my foot. I picked it up and threw it far out. It flashed in the sun as it fell, disappeared completely in a little fountain of dust when it hit. And a moment later the whole side of the crater between that spot and where we stood seemed to be in motion.
"Back! Back!" Lil-rin cried, and blew a shrill blast on her whistle.
We threw ourselves, men and dogs together, backward just in time to escape slipping over the edge and down into that vast cavity, from which great clouds of impalpable dust were now billowing up like vaporized blood.
"It's my fault," said Lil-rin. "I should have remembered that it was there."
"And my bad mistake in throwing the stone," I admitted. "I seem to have started a landslide that has spread for miles."
CHAPTER XII. — ATTACKED!
AT any rate, it was clear that we could not cross the divide. We had to go around. And the question arose as to whether we should risk going farther out into the desert, or cut around it on the north.
We decided ultimately on the latter course. So, keeping well away from the edge, we circled northward. We had traveled some miles further on when we ran into one of those rarest of phenomena on Mars—a breeze. A wind of this nature always presages a hurricane; and in the desert section, the most terrible of dust storms.
We noticed it first when the great red, billowing cloud on our left, over the crater, began to drift across our path.
Quickly we dismounted and formed a number of circles, the great dogs crouching and whimpering in deep growls while their riders wrapped their charges' heads in cloths, and then attended to themselves. We barely had time ourselves to huddle thus and protect our own heads when the dust swept down on us.
Day became night. The howling wind tore at our garments, and our skin blistered under the oceans of dust and sand that were hurled over us. To take one's head out of the cloth meant almost instant suffocation.
Then my heart stood still. For some reason, the cloak that should have been at Lil-rin's saddle was missing. She had just wrapped her dog's head in one that a clansman tossed to her, and thought of herself only when the first blast of stinging dust swept by. Half blinded and in a sudden panic of fear, she began to run, crying out hysterically.
A single leap took me to her side, although the shrieking wind nearly tore my own cloak from my grasp. I drew her down beside me, under its shelter, and put a protecting arm around her trembling form. She nestled close, still quivering. And I thrilled to my feet, her arm encircling me.
I don't know how long that storm lasted, but it must have been a matter of hours. When at last it was over and we had struggled to our feet, casting aside the dust-laden cloak, Lil-rin did not release my hand at once. And then, suddenly conscious of this, she gently pulled her hand away and blushed.
All around us now the clansmen were emerging. Mound after mound of red dust heaved upward. Dogs and men rose to their feet once more, and there billowed up more clouds of red dust as they shook and brushed themselves off.
We resumed our way. Through the rest of the day and the following night we raced on, the dogs settling down tirelessly to that long, easy, loping pace that ate up the distance so rapidly. Dawn found us with our water almost exhausted, rounding the southernmost end of a great range of mountains.
At this point the range emerged into a line of low, rolling hills, and beyond these hills we came upon another stretch of red dust. Downward toward a band of vegetation it sloped, through the center of which trickled a tiny stream.
Here we rested to refill our water-skins and refresh ourselves, after having first thrown forward a number of scouts. For we were now in enemy territory and might at any moment contact a Gakalun patrol. We were most anxious to avoid discovery, or at least to annihilate any force we might meet so that word of our raid might not be carried in advance of our arrival at Gakalu.
The canal-valley, however, ran at about right angles to our route to Gakalu, and soon we were again racing on over arid land, which little by little revealed sparse and then more prolific vegetation as we advanced toward the fertile zone.
But early in the afternoon we halted in the protection afforded by a little depression between two hills, where a fairly thick growth of the yellow-green trees with their strange, pale branches gave additional safety.
"From here on, Danan-lih, we should travel only at top speed, but only by night," Lil-rin said. "If there are any Gakalun patrols in the neighborhood, they will be only perfunctory in their scouting. It is hard to keep the dulyals at work in the dark, and there is little chance that we would encounter them after nightfall.
"By day we will keep under cover, rest, and maintain a strict watch, that no messenger from the regions through which we have passed shall get through to spread the alarm."
The plan seemed most sensible and I gave it my hearty approval. But Lil-rin and I had no opportunity to further develop the understanding that was growing between us. We were weary almost to exhaustion. At least all the Martians were, too. So I took command of the first watch.
It was just as well that I did so, for so weary were the sentries that only by making my rounds constantly was I able to keep them awake.
I was making my way cautiously toward one of our advanced posts, located in a clump of trees whose club-like branches were weirdly outlined against one of the moons, when I thought I heard a sound from somewhere beyond.
Sound travels somewhat differently on Mars than on Earth, probably because of some quality of the atmosphere. Moreover, there is no crackling of twigs such as in an Earth woodland. The branches of Martian trees, when they die, become very dry and powdery. Consequently, difference in atmosphere and trees considered, when twigs are crunched underfoot, the resulting sound is very strange, almost indefinable to an Earth-trained ear.
My first instinct was one of suspicion. Yet I was not sure. Nevertheless I hastened forward, walking as lightly as I could.
Then I saw them, a group of struggling figures in silhouette, visible at a spot where there was a little opening among the trees, outlined by the gleam of moonlight. Our sentry was in their midst, fighting desperately and, true to the traditions of the Ta n'Ur, silently as well. So occupied was he in avoiding the vicious rushes of the foemen who circled about him, that apparently he forgot to shout the alarm.
Suddenly they all closed in on him at once. It was too late now to use the automatic held ready in my hand. So I gave a great shout of warning and leaped for the struggling mass, under which our man had now gone down beneath a heap of sprawling figures.
There was a sudden sharp command from one of the raiders, who stood a bit aside; a rintar, I judged, by the outlines of his armor. The rest scrambled to their feet and began to run. I took them at first for dulyals, but as they scurried out into the moonlight beyond the copse, I caught the gleam of white skins.
The rintar, still half obscured in the shadows of the trees, turned to meet me. I heard the clang of a spring-gun, and a bolt whistled past my ear. Then I fired.
By the stabbing flame of my gun, I saw the look of amazement and terror on the fellow's face; for his armor, which would stop a bolt from any but the heaviest of the Martian spring-guns, offered little resistance to my steel-jacketed bullet. He went down with a resounding crash of shattered metal.
As our sentry staggered dazedly to his feet, I called out to him to guard the rintar. With mighty leaps then I flashed on out into the moonlight after the fleeing ghostly figures.
I did not fire again, for I was rapidly overtaking them, and my ammunition was precious. As they glanced in terror over their shoulders and saw the great leaps with which I was overtaking them, a mad panic seized them and they scattered pell-mell, running frantically.
Several of them I overtook and struck down. Naked men they were, save for short kilts and sword belts, but they were so terrified by what must have appeared to them as a supernatural pursuer, that none made more than a clumsy defense.
As they were fleeing in all directions, and since the ground on several sides offered promise of protection, I had no other recourse than to use my automatic, after my command to halt and my promise of their lives were disregarded. So, one by one, I had to shoot them down.
CHAPTER XIII. — THE TABLES ARE TURNED
BY this time, of course, our entire camp was aroused, and the Ta n'Ur, spring-guns and swords ready, came dashing up, Lil-rin in the lead. She was breathing hard, one little hand at her swelling breast as though to quell the beating of her heart as she stood before me.
"Oh, I didn't know—I—I couldn't think—I was so afraid that something had happened to you!"
"It was nothing to worry about, Little One," I said gently. "Except that a party of Gakalunin, in command of a rintar—whom you'll find over there with a bullet in him—surprised our sentry."
"Are you sure you got them all, Danan-lih? Because if you didn't, the warning may precede us to Gakalu."
I had had no time to count the fellows. "I don't know," I admitted. "I think I got them all, but I'm not sure. I only know that I plugged every one in sight."
Lil-rin was thoughtful for a moment. "The best thing for us to do is to dash on ahead at full speed. If any of those Gakalunin did escape, we ought to overtake them. We should be starting now, anyhow."
So we leaped for our saddles, and in a matter of moments were again galloping over the countryside in the weird Martian moonlight. But gallop as we might, we overtook no one.
As we raced on a thought struck me. "Lil-rin!" I called to her. "We should be able to trail the fugitives, if there were any, by the dogs. Let's give them the scent!"
She gave me a puzzled look. "Scent? Why, what do you mean, Danan-lih?"
"Let them smell something belonging to the enemy, and then trail them by the scent," I explained.
"What an odd thought!" Lil-rin exclaimed. "Can dogs on Earth do that? I never heard of a dog being able to smell."
So, the dogs of Mars differed from those of Earth in more than size! And my bright suggestion was something of a dud.
We had now reached very flat country in the region of fertile, cultivated plains, and the problem of concealment during the following day was a big one. If we were successful, one more dash through the night would bring us to Gakalu in the bleak silence just before dawn.
At this hour dulyals would be torpid with sleep, and we could count on meeting little opposition except from their masters. A headlong attack, pushed home silently at that hour, as the Ta n'Ur knew well how to do it, would probably put Gakko safely in our hands.
But the risk was great, particularly in the matter of concealment for the day. Finally, just before the eastern sky began to lighten, our scouts found an irrigation ditch, an artificial branch of a canal, along both sides of which melon patches stretched for miles.
The ditch was of no great depth, and it was filled with water. At this point then we decided to conceal ourselves. Fortunately, the banks of the ditch were sloping. So men and dogs lay down quietly, their heads pillowed on the shallow banks. If now and then a Ta n'Ur head might be seen from a distance, it would be of about the same size as a melon, and probably would attract no attention.
Lil-rin and I worked our way upstream about a quarter of a mile, to a spot where the ditch made an angled turn, raising our heads cautiously from time to time to gaze across the level ground. Two or three times we saw dulyals laboring in the distance under the lash of an overseer, but there was no sign that our presence in the district was suspected.
Closer we approached to the turn. Again we raised our heads cautiously, Lil-rin covering hers with her cloak, that her golden hair might not catch the glint of the sun. Yet, all seemed peaceful. No living creature was in sight, save in the distance. So we went on.
We had not gone twenty feet further before we were trapped. Here, on both sides of the ditch, the melon vines were unusually thick. And from them suddenly there sprang some dozen dulyals, launching themselves at us low and hard, smothering us under the water before we had even a chance to reach for our guns.
Coughing and spluttering we were dragged along rapidly, animal hands choking back our attempted outcries, while ropes of twisted vines bound our arms to our sides. Further struggle on our part at this time was useless.
Upstream a few hundred feet a Martian in the armor of a rintar crawled from the vines beside the ditch and whistled to the dulyals. They brought us to the spot where he waited, and then with a sudden rush swept us off our feet and dragged us up the bank.
At the same instant a number of large dogs bounded up from where they had been crouching low, and in a trice we were each tied to a dog saddle. The rintar and his dulyals leaped on the backs of the other animals. In a twinkling we were being raced across the plain.
I let out a lusty shout, for no dulyal paws were gagging me now, and twisted my head in the direction of the camp. But our capture had not yet been noticed. And my shout evidently did not carry that far; or so I thought.
As a matter of fact, the Ta n'Ur had seen our capture, had even heard my shout, but by this time they had also observed another thing that had escaped Lil-rin and myself.
The fields on either side of the ditch, but at some distance back, were thick with dulyals, some fifteen hundred or two thousand of them, whereas the Ta n'Ur numbered only some hundred odd.
But Lil-rin and I knew nothing of this at the time.
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J.A. Croson Co. v. City of Richmond, Nos. 85-1002 - Federal Cases - Case Law - VLEX 893035111
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Federal Cases
J.A. Croson Co. v. City of Richmond, Nos. 85-1002
Court United States Courts of Appeals. United States Court of Appeals (4th Circuit) Writing for the Court Before HALL, SPROUSE, and WILKINSON; SPROUSE; In its action in the district court for an injunction, declaratory relief and damages; In the first place, a review of the evidence reveals that Continental was qualified to provide the fixtures called fo Citation 779 F.2d 181 Parties 38 Empl. Prac. Dec. P 35,760, 54 USLW 2356, 33 Cont.Cas.Fed. (CCH) 74,135 J.A. CROSON COMPANY, Appellant, v. CITY OF RICHMOND, Appellee. Associated General Contractors of America, Amicus Curiae. J.A. CROSON COMPANY, Appellee, v. CITY OF RICHMOND, Appellant. Associated General Contractors of America, Amicus Curiae. (L), 85-1041. Docket Number Nos. 85-1002 Decision Date 25 November 1985
Page 181
779 F.2d 181
38 Empl. Prac. Dec. P 35,760, 54 USLW 2356, 33 Cont.Cas.Fed. (CCH) 74,135
J.A. CROSON COMPANY, Appellant, v. CITY OF RICHMOND, Appellee. Associated General Contractors of America, Amicus Curiae. J.A. CROSON COMPANY, Appellee, v. CITY OF RICHMOND, Appellant. Associated General Contractors of America, Amicus Curiae.
Nos. 85-1002(L), 85-1041.
United States Court of Appeals, Fourth Circuit.
Page 182
Walter H. Ryland (Williams, Mullen & Christian, Richmond, Va., on brief), for appellant/cross-appellee.
Reginald M. Barley, Sr. Asst. City Atty. (Michael L. Sarahan, Asst. City Atty., Richmond, Va., on brief) for appellee/cross-appellant.
Michael E. Kennedy, Washington, D.C., for amicus curiae.
Before HALL, SPROUSE, and WILKINSON, Circuit Judges.
SPROUSE, Circuit Judge:
In its action in the district court for an injunction, declaratory relief and damages, J.A. Croson Company (Croson), challenged the Minority Business Utilization Plan of the City of Richmond. 1 The court ruled in favor of the City declaring the Plan valid and Croson brought this appeal. 2 The City of Richmond appeals the district court's denial of its motion for attorneys' fees. We affirm the district court's judgment in its entirety.
I.
The dispute arose from the application of Richmond's Minority Business Utilization Plan (the Plan) to Croson's bid on a proposed city contract to install plumbing fixtures at the City Jail. Croson, an Ohio mechanical, plumbing, and heating contractor with a Richmond branch, was the only bidder, but City officials refused to award it the contract since it did not obtain the services of a minority subcontractor as required by the Plan. After the City nullified Croson's bid and reopened the bidding, Croson filed this action for injunction, declaratory relief, and damages. It asked primarily that the Plan be declared void under Virginia statutory and constitutional law as well as under the fourteenth amendment to the United States Constitution. The trial court denied cross-motions for summary judgment, and after a bench trial ruled that the Plan was valid.
II.
The Richmond Council adopted the Plan on April 11, 1983. Richmond Va.Code Ch.24.1, Art. I(F) (Part B) (27.10) (27.20) and Art.VIII-A. It acted in response to information presented at a public hearing held that day which, among other things, indicated that, although minority groups made up 50% of the City's population, only 0.67% of the city's construction contracts for the five-year period from 1978-1983 were awarded to minority businesses. Simply stated, the Plan requires all contractors to whom the city awards construction contracts to subcontract at least 30% of the dollar amount of the contract to minority business enterprises (MBEs) unless the requirement is waived. Richmond, Va.Code Ch.24.1, Art. VIII-A(A), (B). 3The Plan is
Page 183
expressly remedial in nature and was "enacted for the purpose of promoting wider participation by minority business enterprises in the construction of public projects." Richmond, Va.Code Ch. 24.1, Art. VIII-A(C). It automatically expires on June 30, 1988, approximately five years after its effective date. Id.
Five months after enacting the Plan, the City issued an invitation to bid on the contract for the installation of plumbing fixtures at the City Jail involved in this dispute. The specifications defined fixtures manufactured by either Acorn Engineering Company or Bradley Manufacturing Company as suitable for the project. Croson, a non-MBE plumbing contractor, received the bid documents on September 30, 1983 and submitted its bid on October 12. After receiving the documents, Eugene Bonn, Croson's regional manager in Richmond, determined that the 30% MBE requirement on this project could only be met if an MBE was utilized as a supplier furnishing either the Acorn or Bradley plumbing fixtures.
Bonn telephoned either five or six MBEs on September 30 to obtain quotes on the fixtures. 4 There is a dispute as to the date Bonn first contacted Continental Metal Hose, the only one of these MBEs located in Richmond. Bonn testified that he contacted Melvin Brown, the president of Continental, on September 30. Brown, however, claimed that he was not contacted until October 12, 1983--the last day on which bids could be submitted.
On the morning of October 12, Bonn made a second brief round of telephone calls to MBEs, including a call to Brown of Continental. Brown informed him that Continental wished to participate in the project. Brown then contacted two sources of Bradley fixtures, Ferguson Plumbing Supply and W.G. Leseman. Ferguson informed Brown that the company had already provided a direct quote to Croson for the fixtures and consequently would not provide a quote to Brown. Leseman told Brown that it was not allowed to quote to unknown suppliers until the supplier had undergone a credit investigation taking at least thirty days.
On October 13, City officials opened the sealed bids, which revealed Croson as the only bidder. Its bid of $126,530 included a quote from a non-minority firm for the plumbing fixtures. That same day, Brown had detailed to Bonn his problems in obtaining a quote for the required fixtures, but Bonn encouraged him to continue his efforts. Although aware of Brown's continuing interest in supplying the fixtures, Bonn submitted a request for waiver of the 30% MBE requirement to the City on October 19, 1983. In his waiver request, Bonn indicated that Continental was "unqualified" and that the other MBEs contacted were either "non-responsive" or "unable to quote."
On October 27, 1983, Brown learned of Croson's request for waiver and telephoned an agent of Acorn, one of the two fixture manufacturers named in the bid specifications. The agent provided Brown with a quote on October 31, which Brown supplied to Bonn shortly thereafter.
Brown also informed the Director of Purchasing for the Department of General Services on October 27 that Continental could provide the required fixtures. Subsequently, the contract officer responsible for ruling on Croson's waiver request recommended that the request be disapproved because an MBE was available.
The City, by letter dated November 2, 1983, informed Croson that the Human Relations Commission had "withheld approval" of the waiver request. Croson was given ten days to submit a completed Commitment
Page 184
Form evidencing his compliance with the minority set-aside provision. He was advised that if he failed to submit the Form his bid would be considered non-responsive.
Three weeks later, Croson wrote to the Department of General Services requesting a review. The City rejected the request for review on the ground that the decision to rebid the project was not appealable. 5 Croson then filed this suit.
The district court in a well-written decision made comprehensive findings, reviewed both Virginia and Federal law and concluded that the Plan was valid. Croson does not pursue all of the arguments it raised below, but on this appeal, as at trial, it argues that: (1) under state law the City was without power to adopt the Plan, (2) the Plan is contrary to the public policy of Virginia, (3) the Plan violates the Virginia constitutional proscription against discrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin, Va.Const. Art. I, Sec. 11, and (4) the Plan violates the equal protection clause of the fourteenth amendment of the federal Constitution.
Affirmative action legislation creating minority set-aside plans and designed to ameliorate the effects of past discrimination in public construction contracts have been tested and approved in a number of state and federal decisions. Fullilove v. Klutznick, 448 U.S. 448 , 100 S.Ct. 2758 , 65 L.Ed.2d 902 (1980); South Florida Chapter of the Associated Gen. Contractors of America, Inc. v. Metropolitan Dade County, Florida, 723 F.2d 846 (11th Cir.), cert. denied, --- U.S. ----, 105 S.Ct. 220, 83 L.Ed.2d 150 (1984); Ohio Contractors Ass'n v. Keip, 713 F.2d 167 (6th Cir.1983); Schmidt v. Oakland Unified School Dist., 662 F.2d 550 (9th Cir.1981), vacated on other grounds, 457 U.S. 594 , 102 S.Ct. 2612 , 73 L.Ed.2d 245 (1982); Southwest Washington Chapter, Nat'l Elec. Contractors Ass'n. v. Pierce County, 100 Wash.2d 109, 667 P.2d 1092 (1983); contra Arrington v. Associated Gen. Contractors of America, 403 So.2d 893 (Ala.1981), cert. denied, 455 U.S. 913, 102 S.Ct. 1265, 71 L.Ed.2d 453 (1982). Because set-asides may be constitutionally permissible but are not constitutionally mandated, state and local programs must, of course, be permitted under state law. South Florida, 723 F.2d at 852; Schmidt, 662 F.2d at 558; Southwest Washington Chapter, 667 P.2d at 1100. We look first then to the issues of Virginia law raised by Croson both as they relate to pendent questions and as critical components of the test derived from Fullilove. We then examine the Richmond Plan under the Fullilove standards to determine if it survives scrutiny under the equal protection clause of the fourteenth amendment.
III.
Croson contends that the City of Richmond had no power to enact the plan--that it was ultra...
7 practice notes
Peightal v. Metropolitan Dade County, No. 88-5496 United States United States Courts of Appeals. United States Court of Appeals (11th Circuit) September 4, 1991 ...court upheld the Richmond Plan and a divided panel of the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed. Croson v. City of Richmond Croson I, 779 F.2d 181 (4th Cir.1985). The Supreme Court vacated the opinion of the Fourth Circuit, and remanded the case for further consideration in light of Wyga......
City of Richmond v. Croson Company, No. 87-998 United States United States Supreme Court January 23, 1989 ...in the Page 479 contract to enable meeting the 30% MBE goal." ¶ D, Record, Exh. 24, p. 1; see J.A. Croson Co. v. Richmond, 779 F.2d 181 , 197 (CA4 1985) (Croson I). The Director also promulgated "purchasing procedures" to be followed in the letting of city contracts in accorda......
Contractors Ass'n of Eastern Pennsylvania, Inc. v. City of Philadelphia, Nos. 92-1880 United States United States Courts of Appeals. United States Court of Appeals (3rd Circuit) October 7, 1993 ...the summary judgment stage, because the district court denied cross-motions for summary judgment and held a full bench trial. SeeCroson, 779 F.2d 181 , 182 (4th Cir.1985). But other cases firmly support our result. Coral Constr., 941 F.2d at 921; Cone Corp., 908 F.2d at 917 (both reversing s......
7 cases
Peightal v. Metropolitan Dade County, No. 88-5496 United States United States Courts of Appeals. United States Court of Appeals (11th Circuit) September 4, 1991 ...court upheld the Richmond Plan and a divided panel of the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed. Croson v. City of Richmond Croson I, 779 F.2d 181 (4th Cir.1985). The Supreme Court vacated the opinion of the Fourth Circuit, and remanded the case for further consideration in light of Wyga......
City of Richmond v. Croson Company, No. 87-998 United States United States Supreme Court January 23, 1989 ...in the Page 479 contract to enable meeting the 30% MBE goal." ¶ D, Record, Exh. 24, p. 1; see J.A. Croson Co. v. Richmond, 779 F.2d 181 , 197 (CA4 1985) (Croson I). The Director also promulgated "purchasing procedures" to be followed in the letting of city contracts in accorda......
Contractors Ass'n of Eastern Pennsylvania, Inc. v. City of Philadelphia, Nos. 92-1880 United States United States Courts of Appeals. United States Court of Appeals (3rd Circuit) October 7, 1993 ...the summary judgment stage, because the district court denied cross-motions for summary judgment and held a full bench trial. SeeCroson, 779 F.2d 181 , 182 (4th Cir.1985). But other cases firmly support our result. Coral Constr., 941 F.2d at 921; Cone Corp., 908 F.2d at 917 (both reversing s......
SJ Groves & Sons Co. v. Fulton County, Civ. A. No. C82-1895A. United States United States District Courts. 11th Circuit. United States District Courts. 11th Circuit. Northern District of Georgia March 30, 1987 ...requires an appellate determination independent from the district court's conclusions. See, e.g., J.A. Croson Company v. City of Richmond, 779 F.2d 181 , 188-90 (4th Cir.1985), vacated on other grounds, 478 U.S. 1016, 106 S.Ct. 3327, 92 L.Ed.2d 733 (1986). Finally, other district courts have......
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Conditional analysis of multiple SNPs near ZNF483 and RORA | Download Table
Download Table | Conditional analysis of multiple SNPs near ZNF483 and RORA from publication: Genome-wide association study of age at menarche in African-American women | African American (AA) women have earlier menarche on average than women of European ancestry (EA), and earlier menarche is a risk factor for obesity and type 2 diabetes among other chronic diseases. Identification of common genetic variants associated with age at menarche has... | Menarche, Postmenopause and Risk Factors | ResearchGate, the professional network for scientists.
Table 3
Conditional analysis of multiple SNPs near ZNF483 and RORA
Source publication
Genome-wide association study of age at menarche in African-American women
Article
Full-text available
Ching-Ti Liu
Nora Franceschini
[...]
Chris Haiman
African American (AA) women have earlier menarche on average than women of European ancestry (EA), and earlier menarche is a risk factor for obesity and type 2 diabetes among other chronic diseases. Identification of common genetic variants associated with age at menarche has potential value in pointing to the genetic pathways underlying chronic di...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... further explore the evidence of multiple independent signals within the RORA and ZNF483 loci, we performed conditional analyses in which both of our top SNPs and the index SNP reported for EA were included as covariates in each of the two independent regression models (
Table 3
; Fig. 2). For the RORA locus, we found evidence of two independent signals; both rs980000 (P ¼ 6.8 × 10 25 ) and rs339978 (P ¼ 2.5 × 10 23 ) remained significant when considered in the same model with the EA index SNP. ...
Context 2
... than ZNF483 (discussed above), these included SNPs near CCDC85A, C6orf173, and RXRG (Supplementary Mater- ial, Table S3). None of these passed the Bonferroni-adjusted P-value threshold for significance (P , 0.0011). ...
Context 3
... recombination rates are plotted in blue to reflect local LD structure using the 1KGP AFR reference panel, and the SNPs surrounding the top SNP from the Stage 1 meta-analysis (rs339978, purple diamond) are color coded to reflect their LD with this SNP. Both the first (represented by rs339978, P ¼ 1 × 10 26 ) and the second signal (represented by rs980000, P ¼ 2 × 10 26 ) were independent of the index SNP (rs3743266) previously reported for EA women (see
Table 3
). ...
Article
Full-text available
Li-Ping Bai
Zhen-Yu Qi
[...]
Zhong Wang
Studies of the association between excess body weight and risk of meningioma have produced inconsistent results. Therefore, a meta-analysis of published studies was performed to better assess the association between meningioma and excess body weight.
A literature search was conducted in the PubMed and EMBASE databases without any limitations. The r...
Citations
... The Population Architecture using Genomics and Epidemiology (PAGE) study replicated GWAS reproductive trait SNPs of European American women and found that many were associated with age at menarche and age at natural menopause in a diverse population (42 251 women including Native American, African American, Asian, Hispanic, Native Hawaiian, and European American) (173). A meta-analysis of 15 studies of NHB females (n = 18 000) examining age at menarche and previously identified menarche loci in NHW women, provided the first cross-ethnic validation of RORA as important loci
(174)
. RORA encodes 1 of the ROR nuclear receptors that regulate the transcription of numerous other genes and has recently been implicated in regulation of aromatase activity (175). ...
... Populations with African ancestry have greater haplotype diversity than White or Asian populations, and this yields lower sensitivity for GWAS studies. There is a need to expand GWAS studies to larger African and African American cohorts
(174)
. Increasing use of recently developed methods for trans-ethnic meta-analysis allows researchers to combine several populations while accounting for the heterogeneity between racial and ethnic groups in GWAS studies (250). ...
Endocrine Health and Health Care Disparities in the Pediatric and Sexual and Gender Minority Populations: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement
Article
Full-text available
... There were four loci with suggestive associations and strong peaks on the Manhattan plot ( Figure 1) that did not reach significance but should still be considered as potential variants of interest (Table S3). One chr9 peak (rs4576509) was intergenic ( Figure S4 ) while the second (rs6477824) is located in the 5'-UTR region of the zinc finger protein 483 (ZNF483) gene ( Figure S4), previously associated with age at menarche
(Demerath et al., 2013;
Elks et al., 2010). The chromosome 11 16 peak is located in the PPFIA binding protein 2 (PPFIBP2) gene ( Figure S5), which plays a role in axon guidance and neuronal synapse development and has previously been implicated in cancer development (Colas et al., 2011;Wu et al., 2018, p. 2). ...
Full-text available
The heritability of susceptibility to tuberculosis disease (TB) has been well recognized. Over one-hundred genes have been studied as candidates for TB susceptibility, and several variants were identified by genome-wide association studies (GWAS), but few replicate. We established the International Tuberculosis Host Genetics Consortium (ITHGC) to perform a multi-ancestry meta-analysis of GWAS including 14153 cases and 19536 controls of African, Asian, and European ancestry. Our analyses demonstrate a substantial degree of heritability (pooled polygenic h ² =26.3% 95% CI 23.7-29.0%) for susceptibility to TB that is shared across ancestries, highlighting an important host genetic influence on disease. We identified one global host genetic correlate for TB at genome-wide significance (p<5×10 ⁻⁸ ) in the human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-II region (rs28383206, p-value = 5.2×10 ⁻⁹ ). These data demonstrate the complex shared genetic architecture of susceptibility to TB and the importance of large scale GWAS analysis across multiple ancestries experiencing different levels of infection pressures.
... It is a ZF-TF with multiple roles in signal transduction during development. It belongs to the tripartite motif-containing (TRIM) family, most of which have E3 ubiquitin ligase activities implicated in innate immunity and tumorigenesis with multiple roles in signal transduction during development [68][69]
[70]
. It was predominantly expressed in pituitary and contributed to 3 categories in the network (DEG, TF, DAC). ...
Leveraging transcriptome and epigenome landscapes to infer regulatory networks during the onset of sexual maturation
Background
Despite sexual development being ubiquitous to vertebrates, the molecular mechanisms underpinning this fundamental transition remain largely undocumented in many organisms. We designed a time course experiment that successfully sampled the period when Atlantic salmon commence their trajectory towards sexual maturation.
Results
Through deep RNA sequencing, we discovered key genes and pathways associated with maturation in the pituitary-ovarian axis. Analyzing DNA methylomes revealed a bias towards hypermethylation in ovary that implicated maturation-related genes. Co-analysis of DNA methylome and gene expression changes revealed chromatin remodeling genes and key transcription factors were both significantly hypermethylated and upregulated in the ovary during the onset of maturation. We also observed changes in chromatin state landscapes that were strongly correlated with fundamental remodeling of gene expression in liver. Finally, a multiomic integrated analysis revealed regulatory networks and identified hub genes including TRIM25 gene (encoding the estrogen-responsive finger protein) as a putative key regulator in the pituitary that underwent a 60-fold change in connectivity during the transition to maturation.
Conclusion
The study successfully documented transcriptome and epigenome changes that involved key genes and pathways acting in the pituitary – ovarian axis. Using a Systems Biology approach, we identified hub genes and their associated networks deemed crucial for onset of maturation. The results provide a comprehensive view of the spatiotemporal changes involved in a complex trait and opens the door to future efforts aiming to manipulate puberty in an economically important aquaculture species.
... found in our sample is within the range of heritability estimates found in Asian and Western twin samples. Recently, in a metaanalysis of GWAS of AAM in African-American women (N = 18,089),
Demerath et al. (2013)
showed that 60% of menarche loci identified in European women contained variants significantly associated with AAM in African-American women. Given genetic and environmental differences between African and African-American women, however, a GWAS of AAM needs to be conducted on the basis of African women living in African countries to better understand the etiology of AAM and reproductive health in Africans. ...
Heritability of Age at Menarche in Nigerian Adolescent Twins
Full-text available
May 2022
Heritability of age at menarche (AAM) in African populations remains largely unknown. A question on AAM was given to 1803 [454 monozygotic (MZ), 823 same-sex dizygotic (DZ), and 526 female members of opposite sex] adolescent twins attending public schools in Lagos State, Nigeria. The age range of the sample was 12–18 years, with a mean (SD) of 14.57 (±1.70) years. The data included 905 missing cases consisting of those who had not experienced menarche and did not recall AAM. Missing values were imputed using the Expectation-Maximization algorithm. Kaplan–Meier analysis based on the imputed data yielded 13.23 years [95% CI [13.18, 13.28] for the mean and 13.00 years [95% CI [12.96, 13.04] for the median of AAM. Twin correlation and model-fitting analyses were performed on the basis of those who reported AAM (MZ = 82 complete pairs and 38 cotwin missing cases; DZ = 157 complete pairs and 99 cotwin missing cases). Maximum likelihood MZ and DZ twin correlations for AAM were .63 (95% CI [.48, .74]) and .33 (95% CI [.19, .45]) respectively. Model-fitting analyses indicated that 58% (95% CI [46, 67]) of the variance of AAM was associated with additive genetic influences with the remaining variance, 42% (33−54) being due to nonshared environmental influences including measurement error. The heritability estimate found in this study was within the range of those found in Asian and Western twin samples.
... Of the three studies that were not included in the meta-analysis, two were undertaken in women of Japanese ancestry, 24 25 and one was undertaken in women of African ancestry.
26
The studies of Japanese ancestry identified seventeen SNVs with p values below 5×10 -8 ; each of these variants was retained for replication and the polygenic score analyses. Although only one SNV from the African ancestry population was genome-wide significant, all eleven variants listed were included in the replication analysis and polygenic scores due to the similarity of genetic ancestry between that study population and this study population. ...
... When restricting to participants enrolled in the US and Barbados study sites, more variants had directions of effect that were concordant with the published literature (55.9%) than that restricting to the participants enrolled in Nigeria (49.1%). Of note, when examining the 11 SNVs that had been suggestively identified in previous populations of African ancestry,
26
the replication rate was similar, with 4 out of 11 SNVs having concordant directions of effect. The results were essentially the same when controlling for breast cancer status as a covariate. ...
... As with previous GWASs of women of African Ancestry,
26
this analysis of more than three thousand women of African descent identified few variants that were statistically associated with age at menarche. One imputed deletion at chr2:207 216 165 surpassed the genome wide association threshold. ...
Associations between age of menarche and genetic variation in women of African descent: genome-wide association study and polygenic score analysis
Dezheng Huo
Introduction
Many diseases of adulthood are associated with a woman’s age at menarche. Genetic variation affects age at menarche, but it remains unclear whether in women of African ancestry the timing of menarche is regulated by genetic variants that were identified in predominantly European and East Asian populations.
Methods
We explored the genetic architecture of age at menarche in 3145 women of African ancestry who live in the USA, Barbados and Nigeria. We undertook a genome-wide association study, and evaluated the performance of previously identified variants.
Results
One variant was associated with age at menarche, a deletion at chromosome 2 (chr2:207216165) (p=1.14×10 ⁻⁸ ). 349 genotyped variants overlapped with these identified in populations of non-African ancestry; these replicated weakly, with 51.9% having concordant directions of effect. However, collectively, a polygenic score constructed of those previous variants was suggestively associated with age at menarche (beta=0.288 years; p=0.041). Further, this association was strong in women enrolled in the USA and Barbados (beta=0.445 years, p=0.008), but not in Nigerian women (beta=0.052 years; p=0.83).
Discussion
This study suggests that in women of African ancestry the genetic drivers of age at menarche may differ from those identified in populations of non-African ancestry, and that these differences are more pronounced in women living in Nigeria, although some associated trait loci may be shared across populations. This highlights the need for well-powered ancestry-specific genetic studies to fully characterise the genetic influences of age at menarche.
... These genetic mutations are mainly located in the genes encoding the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, including hypothalamic neurotransmitter and receptor genes (KISS1, KISSR, TAC3, TACR3, GnRH1, MKRN3, and GnRHR) and pituitary development genes (HESX1, SOX2, FSH, FSHR, LH, and LHR). In addition, the discovery of age at menarche common genetic variants (SNPs) has been conducted using genome-wide association studies (GWAS)
(9,
10,11). These genetic mutations and common genetic SNPs highlight the polygenic regulation of the timing of human puberty. ...
... Several studies have previously identified genetic SNPs of pubertal timing by GWAS
(9,
10,11,26,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56). In the present study, a replication analysis of the reported GWAS genetic SNPs of pubertal timing was performed. ...
... In line with the results of the GWAS studies on pubertal timing
(9,
10,11,26,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56), the 33 reported SNPs were associated with the risk of early puberty in our study. These 33 reported SNPs were located in six genes, including HACE1, LIN28B, LOC105376607, DSCAML1, FTO, and DLGAP1. ...
Genetic factors of idiopathic central precocious puberty and their polygenic risk in early puberty
Objective:
To investigate the genetic characteristics of idiopathic central precocious puberty (ICPP) and validate its polygenic risk for early puberty.
Design and methods:
A bootstrap subsampling and genome-wide association study was performed on Taiwanese Han Chinese girls comprising 321 ICPP patients and 148 controls. Using previous GWAS data on pubertal timing, a replication study was performed. A validation group was also investigated for the weighted polygenic risk score (wPRS) of the risk of early puberty.
Results:
A total of 105 SNPs for the risk of ICPP were identified, of which 22 yielded an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.713 for the risk of early puberty in the validation group. A replication study showed that 33 SNPs from previous GWAS data of pubertal timing were associated with the risk of ICPP (training group: P-value < 0.05). In the validation group, a cumulative effect was observed between the wPRS and the risk of early puberty in a dose-dependent manner [validation group: Cochran-Armitage trend test: P-value < 1.00E-04; wPRS quartile 2 (Q2) (odds ratio [OR] = 5.00, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.5516.16), and wPRS Q3 (OR = 11.67, 95% CI: 2.4455.83)].
Conclusions:
This study reveals the ICPP genetic characteristics with 22 independent and 33 reported SNPs in the Han Chinese population from Taiwan. This study may contribute to understand the genetic features and underlying biological pathways that control pubertal timing and pathogenesis of ICPP and also to the identify of individuals with a potential genetic risk of early puberty.
... Among seven tested traits, only age at menarche showed statistically significant differences between different ancestry populations (two-sample t-test P = 7.1 × 10 −3 between Latino and European populations, P het = 0.01). It has been long established that there is population variation in the timing of menarche
(30)
(31)(32). Early menarche might influence the genetic basis of other medically relevant traits since early age at menarche is associated with a variety of chronic diseases such as childhood obesity, coronary heart disease and breast cancer (33,34). ...
Estimating heritability and its enrichment in tissue-specific gene sets in admixed populations
It is important to study the genetics of complex traits in diverse populations. Here, we introduce covariate-adjusted LD score regression (cov-LDSC), a method to estimate SNP-heritability (${\boldsymbol{h}}_{\boldsymbol{g}}^{\mathbf{2}}\Big)$ and its enrichment in homogenous and admixed populations with summary statistics and in-sample LD estimates. In-sample LD can be estimated from a subset of the GWAS samples, allowing our method to be applied efficiently to very large cohorts. In simulations, we show that unadjusted LDSC underestimates ${\boldsymbol{h}}_{\boldsymbol{g}}^{\mathbf{2}}$ by 10%-60% in admixed populations; in contrast, cov-LDSC is robustly accurate. We apply cov-LDSC to genotyping data from 8124 individuals, mostly of admixed ancestry, from the Slim Initiative in Genomic Medicine for the Americas (SIGMA) study, and to approximately 161 000 Latino-ancestry individuals, 47 000 African American-ancestry individuals, and 135 000 European-ancestry individuals, as classified by 23andMe. We estimate ${\boldsymbol{h}}_{\boldsymbol{g}}^{\mathbf{2}}$ and detect heritability enrichment in three quantitative and five dichotomous phenotypes, making this, to our knowledge, the most comprehensive heritability-based analysis of admixed individuals to date. Most traits have high concordance of ${\boldsymbol{h}}_{\boldsymbol{g}}^{\mathbf{2}}$ and consistent tissue-specific heritability enrichment among different populations. However, for age at menarche, we observe population-specific heritability estimates of ${\boldsymbol{h}}_{\boldsymbol{g}}^{\mathbf{2}}$. We observe consistent patterns of tissue-specific heritability enrichment across populations; for example, in the limbic system for BMI, the per-standardized-annotation effect size 𝛕* is 0.16 ± 0.04, 0.28 ± 0.11 and 0.18 ± 0.03 in the Latino-, African American- and European-ancestry populations, respectively. Our approach is a powerful way to analyze genetic data for complex traits from admixed populations.
... These proteins are the main ECM component in adipose tissue and their excessive accumulation in obesity is the main cause of tissue fibrosis, rigidity, and finally insulin resistance. A total of 12 GWAS-reported loci were grouped into this category after the search (ADIPOQ, APOE, CBLN4, COL4A1, COL6A5, CTSS, F12, F13A1, FRAS1, ITIH4, SGCZ, and SSPN) [64][65][66][69][70][71]73,[78][79][80][84][85]
[86]
[87]89,[92][93][94][95][96]. From these, it highlights structural collagen components such as COL4A1, COL6A5 and other types of structural ECM components such as FRAS1, SGCZ, and SSPN, for which SNPs and CNVs have been directly associated with higher risk of obesity or increased anthropometry measurements in diverse ethnic populations (at genome-wide significance levels P < 5 × 10 e−8 ) [62,67,68,72,74,75]. Furthermore, it is also remarkable the association of the gene cathepsin S (CTSS), known to degrade several components of the ECM, which is produced by human adipocytes and increased in obesity. ...
Omics Approaches in Adipose Tissue and Skeletal Muscle Addressing the Role of Extracellular Matrix in Obesity and Metabolic Dysfunction
Augusto Anguita-Ruiz
Julio Plaza-Díaz
Extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling plays important roles in both white adipose tissue (WAT) and the skeletal muscle (SM) metabolism. Excessive adipocyte hypertrophy causes fibrosis, inflammation, and metabolic dysfunction in adipose tissue, as well as impaired adipogenesis. Similarly, disturbed ECM remodeling in SM has metabolic consequences such as decreased insulin sensitivity. Most of described ECM molecular alterations have been associated with DNA sequence variation, alterations in gene expression patterns, and epigenetic modifications. Among others, the most important epigenetic mechanism by which cells are able to modulate their gene expression is DNA methylation. Epigenome-Wide Association Studies (EWAS) have become a powerful approach to identify DNA methylation variation associated with biological traits in humans. Likewise, Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) and gene expression microarrays have allowed the study of whole-genome genetics and transcriptomics patterns in obesity and metabolic diseases. The aim of this review is to explore the molecular basis of ECM in WAT and SM remodeling in obesity and the consequences of metabolic complications. For that purpose, we reviewed scientific literature including all omics approaches reporting genetic, epigenetic, and transcriptomic (GWAS, EWAS, and RNA-seq or cDNA arrays) ECM-related alterations in WAT and SM as associated with metabolic dysfunction and obesity
... Estudos internacionais (BANIK, 2011; KAUR; MEHTA; KAUR, 2015) encontraram 12,02 ± 0,75 (IC 95% : 12,03 -12,15) anos para classes altas e para as classes baixas de 13,70 ± 1,31 anos. O atual estudo encontra concordância com os resultados nacionais e internacionais mostrando que a idade da menarca vem diminuindo, independente da classe econômica
(DEMERATH et al., 2013;
CARVALHO;GUERRA-JÚNIOR, 2007). ...
Influência da classe socioeconômica, tamanho da família e a antropometria na idade da menarca
O objetivo do estudo foi verificar a idade da menarca (IM) e comparar à classe social, antropometria pré e pós-menarca. Amostra com 1026 meninas de 10 a 18 anos, divididas em dois grupos: pré-menarca 29,2% (n=299) e pós-menarca 70,8% (n=727). A IM foi obtida pelo método status quo. As comparações de diferenças entre a classe econômica e tamanho da família com a IM foi utilizada a análise de variância (ANOVA one-way), entre os grupos pré-menarca e pós-menarca o teste “t” de Student. A média total da IM na classe social foi de 11,91 ± 0,41 e tamanho da família 11,90 ± 0,21. As meninas de famílias classe A alta (p=0,02) atingiram menarca em torno de 6,0 a 8,0 meses mais cedo do que os seus pares de famílias de classe média e baixa. A comparação entre o pré e pós-menarca apresentaram diferenças significativas nas variáveis antropométricas p<0,001. Com base nos achados as meninas de famílias de classe elevada parecem menstruar mais cedo do que as meninas de classe social inferior. Na antropometria, as meninas do pós-menarca foram significativamente mais altas e mais pesadas. Já, as meninas pré-menarca mostraram um corpo linear melhor refletido pelo índice ponderal.
... Since serotonin, Vip and Trh have been implicated in lactation in mammals (Kato et al., 1978;Crowley, 2014), the defects in these systems might contribute to the nursing defects which were described for Bsx mutant female mice (McArthur and Ohtoshi, 2007). The hypothalamic nitric oxide system has been linked to ovarian cyclicity and the onset of puberty (Chachlaki et al., 2017) and, notably, BSX was identified as a locus for age at menarche in GWAS (Elks et al., 2010;
Demerath et al., 2013)
. Moreover, our data might help to reevaluate endocrine features of patients suffering from Jacobsen syndrome, a disease in which chromosome 11 deletions which encompass the BSX locus, were implicated (Haghi et al., 2004;Coldren et al., 2009). ...
The hypothalamus is characterized by great neuronal diversity, with many neuropeptides and other neuromodulators being expressed within its multiple anatomical domains. The regulatory networks directing hypothalamic development have been studied in detail, but, for many neuron types, control of differentiation is still not understood. The highly conserved Brain-specific homeobox (Bsx) transcription factor has previously been described in regulating Agrp and Npy expression in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) in mice. While Bsx is expressed in many more subregions of both tuberal and mamillary hypothalamus, the functions therein are not known. Using genetic analyses in zebrafish, we show that most bsx expression domains are dependent on Nkx2.1 and Nkx2.4 homeodomain transcription factors, while a subset depends on Otp. We show that the anatomical pattern of the ventral forebrain appears normal in bsx mutants, but that Bsx is necessary for the expression of many neuropeptide encoding genes, including agrp, penka, vip, trh, npb, and nts, in distinct hypothalamic anatomical domains. We also found Bsx to be critical for normal expression of two Crh family members, crhb and uts1, as well as crhbp, in the hypothalamus and the telencephalic septal region. Furthermore, we demonstrate a crucial role for Bsx in serotonergic, histaminergic and nitrergic neuron development in the hypothalamus. We conclude that Bsx is critical for the terminal differentiation of multiple neuromodulatory cell types in the forebrain.
| https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Conditional-analysis-of-multiple-SNPs-near-ZNF483-and-RORA_tbl2_236228141 |
STATE v. WILLIS | 100 P.3d 1218 (2004) | 3d121811309 | Leagle.com
On Certiorari to the Utah Court of Appeals PARRISH Justice 182 1 Petitioner Wade Willis Willis challenges the constitutionality of Utah Code section 76 10 503 2 a which prohibits certain restricted persons including those who like Willis are on probation for committing a felony from possessing firearms. Willis contends this prohibition violates his individual right to keep and bear arms guaranteed by article I section 6 of the Utah Constitution. The district court rejected his argument as did the court of appeals. We granted certiorari and now affirm. BACKGROUND 182 2 While on probation for evading a police officer a third degree felony Willis became a suspect in the alleged theft of a nine millimeter handgun from the home of his brother in law Jonathan Coones. Police officers conducted a search of Willis s home and found the gun in Willis s bedroom closet. As a result Willis was arrested. 182 3 Willis was charged with a second degree felony under Utah Code section 76 10 503 2 a which prohibits restricted persons as defined in subsection 1 a ii of that same section from possessing firearms. Utah Code Ann. 167 76 10 503 2003 . Willis moved to dismiss the charge on the ground that the statute violates his individual right to keep and bear arms as guaranteed by article I section 6 of the Utah Constituti3d121811309
STATE v. WILLIS
No. 20020703.
View Case
Cited Cases
Citing Case
100 P.3d 1218 (2004)
2004 UT 93
STATE of Utah, Plaintiff and Respondent,
v.
Wade WILLIS, Defendant and Petitioner.
Supreme Court of Utah. https://leagle.com/images/logo.png
November 5, 2004.
November 5, 2004.
Attorney(s) appearing for the Case
Mark L. Shurtleff, Att'y Gen., Brett J. Delporto, Asst. Att'y Gen., Salt Lake City, and David H.T. Wayment, Provo, for plaintiff.
Margaret P. Lindsay, Patrick V. Lindsay, Provo, for defendant.
Supreme Court of Utah.
On Certiorari to the Utah Court of Appeals
PARRISH, Justice:
¶ 1 Petitioner Wade Willis ("Willis") challenges the constitutionality of Utah Code section 76-10-503(2)(a), which prohibits certain "restricted persons," including those who, like Willis, are on probation for committing a felony, from possessing firearms. Willis contends this prohibition violates his individual right to keep and bear arms, guaranteed by article I, section 6 of the Utah Constitution. The district court rejected his argument, as did the court of appeals. We granted certiorari, and now affirm.
BACKGROUND
¶ 2 While on probation for evading a police officer, a third degree felony, Willis became a suspect in the alleged theft of a nine-millimeter handgun from the home of his brother-in-law, Jonathan Coones. Police officers conducted a search of Willis's home and found the gun in Willis's bedroom closet. As a result, Willis was arrested.
¶ 3 Willis was charged with a second degree felony under Utah Code section 76-10-503(2)(a), which prohibits restricted persons, as defined in subsection (1)(a)(ii) of that same section, from possessing firearms. Utah Code Ann. § 76-10-503 (2003). Willis moved to dismiss the charge on the ground that the statute violates his individual right to keep and bear arms as guaranteed by article I, section 6 of the Utah Constitution. After the district court denied his motion, Willis entered a conditional guilty plea to possession of a firearm by a restricted person, specifically reserving the right to appeal the denial of his motion to dismiss.
ANALYSIS
¶ 4 A constitutional challenge to a statute presents a question of law, as does an issue of constitutional interpretation. We review both for correctness. See Council of Holladay City v. Larkin,2004 UT 24, ¶ 6,89 P.3d 164; Midvale City Corp. v. Haltom,2003 UT 26, ¶ 10,73 P.3d 334. When addressing a constitutional challenge to a statute, we presume that the statute is valid and resolve any reasonable doubts in favor of constitutionality. Jones v. Utah Bd. of Pardons & Parole,2004 UT 53, ¶ 10,94 P.3d 283. When interpreting our state constitution, we look first to the plain meaning of the constitutional provision at issue. Grand County v. Emery County,2002 UT 57, ¶ 29,52 P.3d 1148. "We need not inquire beyond the plain meaning... unless we find it ambiguous." State v. Casey,2002 UT 29, ¶ 20,44 P.3d 756.
[100 P.3d 1220]
¶ 5 Willis bases his constitutional challenge to the statute on article I, section 6 of the Utah Constitution, which was amended in 1984 to read: "The individual right of the people to keep and bear arms for security and defense of self, family, others, property, or the state, as well as for other lawful purposes shall not be infringed; but nothing herein shall prevent the legislature from defining the lawful use of arms." Utah Const. art. I, § 6. In urging us to interpret this provision in such a way as to invalidate the statute under which he was convicted, Willis asks us to find a distinction between the right to use arms, which he concedes is subject to legislative regulation, and the right to merely possess arms, which he argues is absolute.
¶ 6 We decline to adopt the distinction advanced by Willis. Article I, section 6 is not so absolute as to prohibit the legislature from regulating the potentially deadly privilege of firearm possession by convicted felons. In reaching this conclusion, we find the language of the amendment to be sufficiently ambiguous as to require us to look beyond the text of the amendment itself. Because there is an absence of any evidence of an intent in either the legislature or the voting public to endow felons with a right to possess guns, we affirm the court of appeals. We also base our ruling on the canon that counsels us to avoid interpretations of the law that would yield absurd consequences. See Jackson v. Mateus,2003 UT 18, ¶ 25,70 P.3d 78.
¶ 7 Before its amendment in 1984, article I, section 6 read: "The people have the right to bear arms for their security and defense, but the Legislature may regulate the exercise of this right by law." Utah Const. art. I, § 6 (amended 1984). In contrast, the language of the 1984 amendment guarantees the right of the people to "keep and bear arms" and limits the legislature's role to "defining the lawful use of arms." Id.
¶ 8 Willis contends that the word "use" was chosen advisedly, designating a range of permissible regulation narrower than that denoted by the terms "keep" and "bear." According to his view, "use" entails some degree of immediate, active, and purposeful activity, such as aiming or firing a gun, which the legislature may lawfully regulate. It does not, however, include mere possession on a closet shelf.
¶ 9 In advocating his position, Willis also relies on the fact that the legislature employed the terms "use" and "possess" separately and distinctly in the statute under which he was convicted.
1
See
Utah Code Ann. § 76-10-503(2). Willis might also have called our attention to the distinction between "use" and "possession" in interpretation of federal firearms regulation. Specifically, the United States Supreme Court has concluded, in interpreting 18 U.S.C. § 924(c), that the term "use" of a firearm connotes more than mere "possession," "storage," or the "inert presence" of a firearm, and in fact means "active employment" of the weapon.
Bailey v. United States,
516 U.S. 137
, 142-49, 116 S.Ct. 501, 133 L.Ed.2d 472 (1995). Although Congress, in response to
Bailey,
amended § 924(c) to include possession as well as use, its response reinforces the distinction between use and possession. The lower federal courts have similarly interpreted the federal sentencing guidelines as distinguishing between "use" and "possession."
See, e.g., United States v. Purifoy,
326 F.3d 879
, 881 (7th Cir.2003) (holding that, in interpreting
[100 P.3d 1221]
section 2K2.1(b)(5) of the United States Sentencing Guidelines Manual, "[t]he distinction between mere possession and actual use of the gun distinguishes the two crimes and justifies treating them as separate offenses").
¶ 10 These observations, along with a common sense understanding that "use" implies immediate purposeful activity, and therefore would not ordinarily include mere storage in a bedroom closet, lend some support to Willis's position. That support is limited, however, by the fact that the term, as used in the federal firearms regulations and sentencing guidelines, arises in contexts different from the constitutional provision before us. For example, by including possession in the term "use," a sentencing court would lose the ability to distinguish between someone who brandished a pistol when police found drugs in his possession and someone who merely kept an unloaded gun under the bed and his drugs elsewhere.
¶ 11 In rejecting the hard and fast distinction between use and possession urged by Willis, the court of appeals correctly observed that "one may `use' a firearm by the mere act of possessing it — e.g., to deter unlawful behavior in `defense of self, family, and others' etc." State v. Willis,2002 UT App 229, ¶ 3 n. 3,52 P.3d 461. Moreover, self-defense is not the only use that might be served by possession of a firearm. Collection, decoration, investment, and peace of mind are a few additional reasons one might have to possess firearms, and each reflects a use to which a firearm can be put while not being fired, brandished, or even transported. In each of these instances, it is accurate to say that a firearm is being "used" no less than when a bank robber pulls a handgun on a bank teller. In other words, when mere possession serves the possessor's purpose, the weapon is not only being possessed, it is also being used.
¶ 12 Both Willis's and the court of appeals' interpretations are plausible readings of the amendment. Because the plain language of the amendment is susceptible to two plausible readings, it is ambiguous. Therefore, we may go beyond the text by looking to evidence of "legislative history and relevant policy considerations." In re Worthen,926 P.2d 853, 866 (Utah 1996).
¶ 13 Although evaluating evidence of legislative intent is inherently problematic, it is even more so in cases involving a constitutional amendment, where the relevant legislators include the voting public. Therefore, we evaluate both the legislative history and the relevant policy considerations to determine which interpretation is valid. Because felons were prohibited from possessing firearms or other dangerous weapons prior to the amendment, see State v. Wacek,703 P.2d 296, 298 (Utah 1985), we examine whether there is any evidence that the amendment was intended to change the status quo and bring gun possession by felons within the ambit of constitutional protection.
¶ 14 Unfortunately for Willis, there is no such evidence. On the contrary, during the deliberation over the proposed amendment in the Utah House of Representatives, the sponsor of the amendment made statements indicating his intent that the amendment not alter the legislature's then-existing right to restrict felons from possessing firearms. Utah H.R. Deb. on S.J. Res. No. 2(March 7, 1983) (statement of Rep. Harrison). 2
¶ 15 The amendment to article I, section 6 was ratified by the general electorate on November 6, 1984. Willis has produced no evidence, beyond the ambiguous text of the amendment itself, to suggest that voters expressed, or were exposed to, any suggestion, expectation, or intent that the amendment would guarantee to felons the right to possess firearms. Indeed, the only evidence is directly to the contrary. For example, the voter information pamphlet distributed to
[100 P.3d 1222]
voters in advance of the election contained a section labeled "Arguments for," which read in part:
The amendment specifically guarantees broad individual liberties and protects the enjoyment of those liberties from infringement. At the same time, the legislature may continue to enact laws against the misuse of arms and the police may continue to enforce such laws; enforcement would extend to seizing arms which are misused.
An individual right to keep and bear arms is guaranteed. However, convicted felons, mental incompetents, minors, and illegal aliens would not be guaranteed this right. The principle of law that such persons may be excluded from the enjoyment of the right to keep and bear arms is well-established.
Utah Voter Information Pamphlet28 (1984) (emphasis added). Even the section of the pamphlet entitled "Rebuttal to" reflected this understanding of the intent behind the amendment, although it questioned the mechanism for achieving that intent. Id.at 29. As a result of the absence of any evidence suggesting that the amendment was intended to extend the right to keep and bear arms to convicted felons, we reject Willis's proposed interpretation.
¶ 16 An equally compelling reason for rejecting the interpretation urged by Willis is the principle that constitutional provisions should be interpreted to avoid absurd results. Interpreting the constitutional amendment to provide an absolute right to gun possession would extend that right to, among others, prison inmates, mental incompetents, and minor children. To say the least, prisons, schools, and psychiatric hospitals would become difficult, if not impossible, to administer. While Willis recognizes the "unfavorable" consequences that would result from his interpretation, he implies that the only way to avoid them is by further constitutional amendment. On the contrary, it is our responsibility, when confronted by an ambiguous constitutional provision, to interpret the provision in a manner that avoids absurd results. See Jackson,2003 UT 18 at ¶ 25,70 P.3d 78. Accordingly, we interpret the grant of authority to the legislature to regulate the lawful "use" of arms in article I, section 6 of the Utah Constitution to include the ability to restrict convicted felons from possessing firearms.
CONCLUSION
¶ 17 We affirm the court of appeals' decision. Article I, section 6 of the Utah Constitution grants the legislature the authority to define the lawful use of firearms, which includes the ability to restrict convicted felons from possessing them.
¶ 18 Chief Justice DURHAM, Associate Chief Justice WILKINS, Justice DURRANT, and Justice NEHRING concur in Justice PARRISH'S opinion.
FootNotes
1. This point is of limited assistance in resolving the issue, however. Statutes defining criminal offenses often describe prohibited conduct by using a list of similar words in order to ensure that the statute is broad enough to encompass the full range of prohibited conduct.
Compare
Utah Code Ann. § 76-6-109(1) (2004) ("A person who commits any criminal offense with the intent to halt, impede, obstruct, or interfere with the lawful management, cultivation, or harvesting of trees or timber, or the management or operations of agricultural or mining industries is subject to an enhanced penalty...."),
with id.
§ 76-10-503(2) ("A Category I restricted person who intentionally or knowingly agrees, consents, offers, or arranges to purchase, transfer, possess, use, or have under his custody or control: (a) any firearm is guilty of a second degree felony...."). The fact that the statute utilizes two similar words in one of these categories does not necessarily imply that the legislature understood the words to have distinct or exclusive meanings. In any event, this statutory language is not determinative of the meaning of a word in our state constitution.
2. This exchange took place while considering an earlier version of the resolution that ultimately became the amendment. Willis argues that the views expressed are irrelevant because they were not articulated in consideration of the language that the legislature eventually approved for the amendment. It is true that this evidence, like all legislative debate, is of limited import and does not approach decisiveness. The point nevertheless remains that there is no evidence in the legislative history to suggest the existence of an intent to extend the right of gun possession to felons.
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Zenapax (Daclizumab) to Treat Relapsing Remitting Multiple Sclerosis - Full Text View - ClinicalTrials.gov
Zenapax (Daclizumab) to Treat Relapsing Remitting Multiple Sclerosis
The safety and scientific validity of this study is the responsibility of the study sponsor and investigators. Listing a study does not mean it has been evaluated by the U.S. Federal Government.
Read our disclaimer for details.
ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00071838 Recruitment Status :
Completed First Posted : November 3, 2003 Last Update Posted : July 2, 2017
Sponsor:
National Institutes of Health Clinical Center (CC)
Study Details
Study Description
Brief Summary:
This study will examine the safety of Zenapax (daclizumab) in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). MS is thought to be caused by an over-reactive immune response. T-lymphocytes (cells of the immune system), are thought to damage myelin, a substance that covers the nerve and parts of the spinal cord and is damaged in patients with MS. Interleukin-2 is a natural substance in the body that is necessary for the growth of T-lymphocytes. Zenapax is a genetically engineered antibody that blocks the activity of interleukin-2 and thus interferes with the growth of lymphocytes. Therefore, Zenapax may prevent some of the damage to myelin that occurs in multiple sclerosis.
Patients between 18 and 65 years of age with relapsing remitting MS may be eligible for this study. Patients with secondary-progressive or primary progressive MS may not participate. Candidates will be screened with a complete neurological and medical evaluation and review of medical records.
Participants will undergo the following tests and procedures:
Baseline evaluation: Participants have four magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans over a 3-month period to assess disease activity. For the MRI scans, the patient lies on a table that slides into the scanner - a narrow metal cylinder with a strong magnetic field. Scanning time varies from 20 minutes to 3 hours, with most scans lasting between 45 and 90 minutes. Only patients with activity at or above a certain level are eligible to continue with the treatment phase of the study.
Zenapax treatment: Patients receive intravenous (through a vein) infusions of Zenapax. The first two infusions are 2 weeks apart, followed by 13 monthly infusions.
MRI scans: Patients undergo MRI scanning before every infusion to evaluate disease activity and identify new brain lesions.
Blood and urine tests: Blood and urine samples are collected at each clinic visit for routine laboratory evaluations, immunologic study, and genetic testing to determine a predisposition for responding to Zenapax treatment.
Lumbar puncture (spinal tap): This procedure will be done during the last month before starting treatment and during the seventh month of treatment to examine immune changes that occur in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which circulates through and surrounds the brain and spinal cord. A local anesthetic is given and a needle is inserted in the space between the bones in the lower back where the CSF circulates below the spinal cord. A small amount of fluid is collected through the needle.
Skin test: A needle is placed just under the skin is done to assess the patient's immune status to common antigens such as tetanus, mumps and candida.
Lymphocytopheresis: Lymphocytes are collected three times - once during the last month of baseline before starting treatment, once during the fifth month of treatment, and once during the last month of treatment - for immunologic study. Blood is collected through a needle in an arm vein in a similar way to donating blood. The blood flows from the vein through a catheter (plastic tube) into a machine that separates it into its components by centrifugation (spinning). The lymphocytes are removed and the rest of the blood (red cells, plasma and platelets) is returned to the body, either through the same needle or through another needle in the other arm.
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is considered a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease leading to central nervous system (CNS) inflammation, demyelination, axonal loss, and leads to substantial disability in young adults. Existing approved treatments include interferon beta, glatiramer acetate and mitoxantrone. These therapies are only moderately effective in reducing disease activity.
The Neuroimmunology Branch (NIB) has during the last three years tested the tolerability and safety of monthly intravenously administered daclizumab (Zenapax(Registered Trademark)), a humanized monoclonal antibody against the IL-2 receptor alpha chain, in patients who receive interferon-beta, but responded incompletely to therapy with interferon-beta. Daclizumab has been well tolerated and inhibited inflammatory disease activity by almost 90%. Under an amendment of this protocol, it was demonstrated that the efficacy of daclizumab is maintained once interferon-beta therapy is discontinued.
In the current trial, we will test the efficacy of daclizumab alone in relapsing-remitting MS patients. This trial is a single-centre, open-label, baseline to treatment cross-over phase II trial. Daclizumab will be administered intravenously at 1mg/kg bodyweight. Contrast-enhancing MRI lesions will serve as the primary outcome measure in this phase II trial, and a number of clinical, MRI, and immunological parameters will be measured as secondary and tertiary outcomes. Daclizumab is a promising new immunomodulatory treatment for relapsing-remitting MS.
Study Design
Layout table for study information Study Type : Interventional
(Clinical Trial) Actual Enrollment : 16 participants Primary Purpose: Treatment Official Title: Zenapax (Daclizumab) Admin to Pts With Multiple Sclerosis (ZAP MS): Effect of Intravenously Admin Humanized Monoclonal Antibody Against the Interleukin-2 Receptor Alpha Subunit (Daclizumab) on Inflammatory Activity in the Central Nervous System Study Start Date : October 30, 2003 Actual Primary Completion Date : October 4, 2007 Actual Study Completion Date : August 16, 2011
Resource links provided by the National Library of Medicine
MedlinePlus Genetics related topics: Multiple sclerosis
MedlinePlus related topics: Multiple Sclerosis
Drug Information available for: Daclizumab
U.S. FDA Resources
:
Reduction in mean number of new gaolinium-enhancing lesions in the treatment phase (Weeks 18 to 30) versus baseline (Weeks -12 to 0).
Secondary Outcome Measures
:
Mean change in the MS functional composite from completion of treatment. Reduction of mean number of new gaolinium-enhancing lesions at the completion of treatment. Mean change in Multiple Sclerosis Quality of Life Inventory from completion of t...
Eligibility Criteria
Information from the National Library of Medicine
Choosing to participate in a study is an important personal decision. Talk with your doctor and family members or friends about deciding to join a study. To learn more about this study, you or your doctor may contact the study research staff using the contacts provided below. For general information, Learn About Clinical Studies.
Layout table for eligibility information Ages Eligible for Study: 18 Years to 65 Years (Adult, Older Adult) Sexes Eligible for Study: All Accepts Healthy Volunteers: No
Criteria
INCLUSION CRITERIA FOR PRE-TREATMENT SCREENING:
To be eligible for entry into the study, patients must meet the following criteria at the time of enrollment. Re-assessment of the inclusion criteria will occur on day zero of the twelve-month treatment phase.
Between the ages of 18 and 65 years, inclusive.
Patients with relapsing-remitting MS according to published criteria.
EDSS score between 1.0 and 5.5.
Patients have either failed standard therapies (interferon-beta, glatiramer acetate) by clinical measures, or are not eligible for standard therapies, or opted not to start or continue with any of the standard therapies.
Patients are able to provide written, informed consent prior to any testing under this protocol, including screening and baseline investigations that are not considered part of routine patient care.
Age criteria for inclusion in this study follow those of published diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis. Due to the uncommon occurrence of MS in individuals under the age of 18 and the requirement to study a large MS cohort to include these rarely occurring patients, this is an appropriate lower age range.
Patient decision not to start, or not to continue with standard immunomodulatory therapy, has to be made by the patient after discussing conventional treatment options to ensure the patient has made an informed decision. Additionally, the consent document provided to the patient will explicitly state the currently approved therapies and their potential benefits.
ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA FOR INITIATING THERAPY:
To be eligible to proceed to the treatment phase of the study, patients must have at least two new gadolinium-enhancing lesions or greater in the four sequential baseline MRI scans (average of greater than or equal to 0.5 gadolinium-enhancing lesions or more).
Patients can not have a relapse during 30 days before initiation of treatment. If a relapse occurs during this period and eligibility criteria are otherwise fulfilled, treatment (day one) will be delayed while corticosteroids are administered. If corticosteroids are administered, the MRI during that period will not be considered. An additional MRI will be added at 4 weeks following the completion of corticosteroids, to maintain a total of four MRI's that are analyzed in the baseline period. In the event of relapse, the baseline period will be prolonged, as necessary, to meet these criteria.
EXCLUSION CRITERIA FOR PRE-TREATMENT SCREENING:
Patients will be excluded from the study if any of the exclusion criteria exist at the time of enrollment. Re-assessment of the exclusion criteria will occur on day zero of the twelve month treatment phase.
MEDICAL HISTORY:
Diagnosis of secondary-progressive or primary-progressive MS, as defined by published diagnostic criteria.
Abnormal screening/baseline blood tests exceeding any of the limits defined below:
Serum alanine transaminase or aspartate transaminase levels which are greater than three times the upper limit of normal values.
Total white blood cell count less than 3000/mm(3)
Platelet count less than 85000/mm(3)
Serum creatinine level greater than 2.0 mg/dl
Serological evidence of HIV or active hepatitis A, B or C infection since the effects of daclizumab are not defined in these patients
Positive pregnancy test
Pregnant or breast-feeding female.
History or signs of immunodeficiency.
Concurrent clinically significant (as determined by the investigators) cardiac, immunological, pulmonary, neurological, renal or other major disease.
Any contraindication to monoclonal antibody therapy. Contraindication to monoclonal antibody therapy includes prior history of serum-sickness or similar hypersensitivity reaction to receipt of monoclonal antibody or intravenous immunoglobulin therapies.
Patients with cognitive impairments who are unable to provide written, informed consent prior to any testing under this protocol, including screening and baseline investigations that are not considered part of routine patient care.
TREATMENT HISTORY:
If prior treatments were administered, the patient must be off the following treatment agents for the required period prior to enrollment:
Glatiramer acetate, interferon-beta - 24 weeks
IVIg, azathioprine, methotrexate, cyclophosphamide, mitoxantrone, plasma exchange, cyclosporine, oral myelin, cladribine and other immunosuppressive treatments - 24 weeks
Corticosteroids - 6 weeks
Prior treatment with other investigational drugs or procedures will be evaluated individually by the investigators.
MISCELLANEOUS EXCLUSIONS:
History of alcohol or drug abuse within the 5 years prior to enrollment.
Female patients who are not post-menopausal or surgically sterile who are not using an acceptable method of contraception. Acceptability of various methods of contraception will be at the discretion of the investigator. Documentation that the patient is post-menopausal or surgically sterile must be available prior to enrollment.
Male patients who are not surgically sterile and not practicing adequate contraception. Acceptability of various methods of contraception will be at the discretion of the investigator. Documentation that the patient is surgically sterile must be available prior to enrollment.
Unwillingness or inability to comply with the requirements of this protocol including the presence of any condition (physical, mental, or social) that is likely to affect the patient returning for follow-up visits on schedule.
Previous participation in this study.
Publications:
Martin R, McFarland HF, McFarlin DE. Immunological aspects of demyelinating diseases. Annu Rev Immunol. 1992;10:153-87. doi: 10.1146/annurev.iy.10.040192.001101.
Wucherpfennig KW, Strominger JL. Molecular mimicry in T cell-mediated autoimmunity: viral peptides activate human T cell clones specific for myelin basic protein. Cell. 1995 Mar 10;80(5):695-705. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(95)90348-8.
Gran B, Hemmer B, Vergelli M, McFarland HF, Martin R. Molecular mimicry and multiple sclerosis: degenerate T-cell recognition and the induction of autoimmunity. Ann Neurol. 1999 May;45(5):559-67. doi: 10.1002/1531-8249(199905)45:53.0.co;2-q.
Layout table for additonal information Responsible Party: Bibiana Bielekova, M.D./National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00071838 History of Changes Other Study ID Numbers: 040019 04-N-0019 First Posted: November 3, 2003 Key Record Dates Last Update Posted: July 2, 2017 Last Verified: August 16, 2011
Keywords provided by National Institutes of Health Clinical Center (CC):
Neuroimmunology Therapy Demyelinating Disease Immunological Mechanism MRI Multiple Sclerosis MS
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| https://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00071838 |
Debate: Eden Project North (Morecambe) - 17th Oct 2019 - Eleanor Laing extracts
Thu 17th Oct 2019 - Commons - Adjournment Debate - Eden Project North (Morecambe) debate Eleanor Laing contributions to the 17th October 2019 Eden Project North (Morecambe) debate
Eden Project North (Morecambe) Debate
Eden Project North (Morecambe)
Eleanor Laing Excerpts
Thursday 17th October 2019
(3 years, 8 months ago)
Commons Chamber
The Minister for the Northern Powerhouse and Local Growth (Jake Berry)- Hansard- Copy Link-- Excerpts
What a brilliant debate, Madam Deputy Speaker; isn’t it fantastic to have a Parliament for the north, with all of us, except you and the Government Whip, representing north-west constituencies? While we are here to talk about the Eden Project, we may as well push a few other of our pet projects in the north-west of England. As a Lancastrian, I am delighted to have the opportunity to respond to my hon. Friend the Member for Morecambe and Lunesdale (David Morris), whom I congratulate on securing this debate.
One can travel anywhere in Lancashire and find that because of the support of partners, including the local enterprise partnership, Lancashire County Council, Lancaster City Council and Morecambe itself, people are really starting to talk about this hugely exciting opportunity we have in the north-west of England and, more importantly, in Lancashire to have the Eden of the north. It is great that this project enjoys cross-party support, because wherever one goes, one finds thatpeople are excited and passionate about driving forward Lancashire’s economy and they want to see this project delivered.
Of course, this is not the only thing that is happening in Morecambe. I am delighted that we have constructed the new link road with the M6, which is a significant driver of the economy. My hon. Friend has really campaigned on behalf of his constituents, as has the hon. Member for Lancaster and Fleetwood (Cat Smith), to transform the west coast of Lancashire, and I hope and believe that this can be the next project that drives the economy forward. Since the inception of this project, he has shown a dedication to the vision, and it is a bold vision; if someone were to approach an MP in their constituency and say, “I want to build giant mussel shells on the sand looking out to sea,” the MP could, if they were a doubter or they did not have the vision and passion of my hon. Friend, think that that person may be pulling their leg. But of course they are not, because the Eden Project has a track record of delivering these inspiring structures and inspiring the next generation about helping our environment.
Of course, more is happening in Morecambe, and I was delighted that it has recently secured the funding to go forward to the next phase of the Government’s future high streets fund. I was particularly pleased that in the last round of coastal community funding we were also able to support the Winter Gardens to have a new central heating system, which will transform it to a year-round venue. My hon. Friend is no stranger to the Winter Gardens, because he has a long history of supporting it. I believe I am correct in saying that he appeared there playing a guitar with members of Whitesnake—you may be a fan, Madam Deputy Speaker—to raise funds for the Morecambe Winter Gardens in its darker days, before we managed to support it with the coastal communities fund. He is passionate and he has a record to be proud of in his constituency, and I know he is valued by local residents from my many visits to the area.
I recognise, as do the Government, that the Eden Project North is not significant only to Lancashire—all of us Lancastrians know that it is significant to us—but is regionally and nationally significant, and can be seen as one of those big projects that can be a wider driver of our ambition for the northern powerhouse. That is why at the last Budget the Government committed £100,000 to work forward the business case, as my hon. Friend and the hon. Lady pointed out. The business case, which now sits on the Treasury desk, with a copy having been sent to me and to the Prime Minister, is exceptionally good work and draws a good plan for the future. The hon. Lady invited me to get out my cheque book this evening, but, as both she and my hon. Friend know, there is a Budget next month and decisions on funding on this scale would normally and naturally be made at a Budget. I know that both of them have been actively lobbying the Chancellor to make sure that he is as excited about this project as all of us already are. I hope that they will continue to do that, and I wish them success with their active lobbying work on behalf of their constituents and more widely on behalf of the whole of Lancashire.
It is extraordinary that the Eden Project chose Morecambe when it started to look for a site for an Eden North. Little old Morecambe is a wonderfulplace—anyone who has visited the Midland hotel will know what a wonderful place it is to spend time with friends and family on a holiday, or even on a day out—but it would not necessarily be the first place that came to mind for this. The project might have thought of better known resorts such as Blackpool, or of the Lake district, which is a UNESCO world heritage site. Morecambe was chosen, though, because the local authority and Members of Parliament were extremely active in engaging and lobbying the Eden Project to make sure that the opportunity came to Lancashire.
Morecambe is, of course, an extraordinary place. It has a tide that comes in faster than a horse can gallop. Anyone who has ever been on a guided tour from Morecambe over to what I think in modern parlance is referred to as Cumbria, but was always known as “Lancashire over the sands”, will have seen the extraordinary coastal beauty of the area. Anyone who has done that will, of course, want the project to come to Morecambe.
The economic case is compelling because of the potential economic benefits from bringing the Eden Project to Morecambe. The north has many areas of outstanding natural beauty, and this project could be an important part of the wider tourism offer that we can make from Lancashire and, of course, from the north-west more widely, as we leave the European Union on 31 October. Many people have spoken about the potential for visitors to the north of England—I encourage anyone to go there at any time, without waiting until we leave on 31 October. Other than Members of Parliament, who have to be here on Saturday, everyone else is free to go this weekend—but if the Eden Project was to be delivered, we would see a projected 750,000 visitors to Morecambe and Eden North in just the first few years of operation. It would create more than 6,000 jobs, and, as has been pointed out already, the economic case shows that for every pound spent—whether it be Government money, private money, local authority money or growth funding from the LEP—we will see a return of £4.20, which I can tell the House, as a good Lancastrian, is a good bit of brass for a bit of money that the Government are spending. I hope the Chancellor will be cognisant and mindful of the good economic case for the project as he looks forward to his next Budget.
The Eden Project North has the potential to be a transformational project for the north of England, and for Lancashire more widely. That is why it is very much supported by all Members of Parliament in Lancashire and all tiers of local government. In order to achieve it, I understand that the aim is to find £101 million of investment, which is what will be required to see the project through to completion. It will naturally be a cocktail of funding that comes forward to make sure this happens—I am sure there will be a requirement for some private sector funding and for some public sector funding—and we have some work ahead of us to make sure that we can blend that cocktail and see the project delivered.
As I have said, I believe the investment case for Eden is a compelling argument. There is a strong economic case for bringing the Eden Project to Morecambe. I am happy to work with Lancashire Members of Parliament from across the House on a cross-governmental basis to try to make sure that we can deliver not only theambition of the Eden Project in the north, but the wider ambition that we all share for the county we are so passionate about. Officials in my Department are already working with the Eden Project, and local partners have today written—I was handed a copy of a letter at the start of the debate—to express the continuing support of local government partners, educational establishments and the LEP. That is an acknowledgment of the wide benefits, including the training and economic impacts, that would come out of this fantastic project.
Over the months and years ahead, I am looking forward to hearing more about the Eden Project, and to seeing the economic benefits that can be achieved. I wish all hon. Members good luck in their negotiations with the Treasury. I will happily work with them, because this is a crucial part of delivering the northern powerhouse that can transform the lives of everyone living in the north of England, and especially in Lancashire.
I end with a quote from Morecambe’s most famous son—after my hon. Friend the Member for Morecambe and Lunesdale, of course, so Morecambe’s second-most famous son, Eric Morecambe. This is the approach we need to take to the cocktail of funding that we are going to blend. He famously said:
“I’m playing all the right notes. But not necessarily in the right order.”
I hope that we will get all the right money, albeit not necessarily in the right order. Let us work together to make sure that this happens.
Madam Deputy Speaker (Dame Eleanor Laing)- Hansard- Copy Link-
That was an excellent debate, totally different from and in contrast to the rest of the day, and so much better.
Question put and agreed to.
| https://www.parallelparliament.co.uk/mp/eleanor-laing/debate/2019-10-17/commons/commons-chamber/eden-project-north-morecambe |
Damian Grabowski (blue glove tape) vs. Dave Huckaba
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Kusmi 24 Sub Post Office, Kusmi 24, Surguja, Chattisgarh
Get Kusmi post office address, pincode, phone number, Kusmi speed post tracking, saving scheme and location map.
Kusmi Post Office, Kusmi
Kusmi Post Officeis located at Kusmi, Kusmi, Surgujaof Chattisgarh state. It is a sub office (S.O.). A Post Office (PO) / Dak Ghar is a facility in charge of sorting, processing, and delivering mail to recipients. POs are usually regulated and funded by the Government of India (GOI). Pin code of Kusmi POis 497224. This Postoffice falls under Raigarh postal division of the Chattisgarh postal circle. The related head P.O. for this sub office is Ambikapur head post office
Kusmi dak ghar offers all the postal services like delivery of mails & parcels, money transfer, banking, insurance and retail services. It also provides other services including passport applications, P.O. Box distribution, and other delivery services in Kusmi. The official website fo this PO is http://www.indiapost.gov.in.
Types of Post Offices
are basically classified into 3 types, namely – Head Post Office, Sub-Post Office including E.D. Sub-Office and Branch Postoffice. Kusmi P.O. is a Sub Post Office. So far as the public is concerned, there is basically no difference in the character of the service rendered by Sub-Post Offices and Head-Post Offices except in regard to a few Post Office Savings Bank (SB) transactions. Certain Sub Post Offices do not undertake all types of postal business. Facilities are generally provided at Branch Post Offices for the main items of postal work like delivery and dispatch of mails, booking of registered articles and parcels accepting SB deposits and effecting SB withdrawals, and issue and payment of money orders, though in a restricted manner.
Post Office Type Head Post Office Sub-Post Offices including E.D. Sub-Offices Branch Post Office
Kusmi Post Office & Its Pin Code
Branch Office Information
Kusmi Post Office Services
Mail Services
Parcels
Retail Services
Premium Services
Speed Post
India Post Speed Post Tracking
Tracking System
India Post Tracking Number Formats
Express Parcel Post
Media Post
Greetings Post
Logistics Post
ePost Office
Financial Services
Savings Bank (SB) Account
Recurring Deposit (RD) Account
Monthly Income Scheme (MIS)
Monthly Public Provident Fund (PPF)
Time Deposit (TD)
Senior Citizen Saving Scheme (SCSS)
National Savings Certificate (NSC)
Kisan Vikas Patra (KVP)
Sukanya Samriddhi Accounts (SSA)
Post Office Timings
India Post Tracking
Kusmi Post Office Recruitment
Location Map
Contact Details
About India Post
Kusmi Post Office & Its Pin Code
Often Post Offices are named after the town / village / location they serve. The Kusmi Post Office has the Postal Index Number or Pin Code 497224. A Pincode is a 6 digit post code of postal numbering system used by India Post. The first digit indicates one of the regions. The first 2 digits together indicate the sub region or one of the postal circles. The first 3 digits together indicate a sorting / revenue district. The last 3 digits refer to the delivery post office type.
P.O. Name Kusmi PO Pincode 497 224
The first digit of 497224 Pin Code '4' represents the region, to which this Post Office of Kusmi belongs to. The first two digits of the Pincode '49' represent the sub region, i.e, Chattisgarh. The first 3 digits '497' represent the post-office revenue district, i.e, Raigarh. The last 3 digits, i.e, '224' represent the Kusmi Delivery Sub Office.
Sub Office Information
The Kusmi Post Office is a sub office. The Delivery Status for this PO is that it has delivery facility. Postal division name for this Dak Ghar is Raigarh, which falls under Raipur region. The circle name for this PO is Chattisgarh and it falls under Kusmi Taluka and Surguja District. The state in which this Dakghar is situated or located is Chattisgarh. The related head postoffice is Ambikapur post office. The phone number of Kusmi post office is +91-777-827-4433.
PO Type Sub Office Delivery Status Delivery Postal Division Raigarh Postal Region Raipur Postal Circle Chattisgarh Town / City / Tehsil / Taluka / Mandal Kusmi District Surguja State Chattisgarh Kusmi Post Office Phone Number 07778274433 Related Head PO Ambikapur Head Post Office
Kusmi Post Office Services
Traditionally the primary function of Kusmi post office was collection, processing, transmission and delivery of mails but as of today, a Post Office offers many other vital services in addition to its traditional services. The additional services provided by a Dak Ghar include – Mail Services, Financial Services, Retail Services and Premium Services.
Mail Services
Mail Services are the basic services provided by Kusmi P.O. Mails and mail services include all or any postal articles whose contents are in the form of message which may include Letters, Postcards, Inland letter cards, packets or parcels, Ordinary mails etc.
Parcels
Mail Service also includes transmission and delivery of Parcels. A parcel can be anything ranging from a single written letter or anything addressed to an addressee. No parcel shall be by any chance be in a shape, way of packing or any other feature, such that it cannot be carried or transmitted by post or cause serious inconvenience or risk. Every parcel (including service parcels) that needs to be transmitted by post must be handed over at the window of the post office. Any parcel found in a letter box will be treated and charged as a registered parcel. Delivery services are provided by some selected delivery and branch post offices. This dakghar have the facility of delivery, thus the people of Kusmi and nearby localities can avail all the types of mail services.
Retail Services
Post offices in India serve in various ways and Kusmi Post Office offer most of the retail services. They offer the facility to accept or collect constomer bills like telephone or mobile bills, electricity bills for Government and private organizations through Retail Post. Some of the aditional agency services that Post offices offers through retail services are as follows - Telephone revenue collection, e-Ticketing for Road Transport Corporations and Airlines, Sale of UPSC forms, university applications, Sale of Passport application forms, Sale of Gold Coins, Forex Services, Sale of SIM and recharge coupons, Sale of India Telephone cards, e-Ticketing of Railway tickets etc. The postal customers of Kusmi can pay their bills and avail other retail services from this Dak Ghar.
Premium Services
Most of the premium services can be availed by the Kusmi peoples and nearby living people. The premium services provided by Kusmi Post Office are - Speed Post, Business Post, Express Parcel Post, Media Post, Greeting Post, and Logistics Post.
Speed Post
Speed Post is a time bound service in express delivery of letters and parcels. The max weight up to which an article or parcel be sent is 35 kgs between any two specified stations in India. Speed Post delivers 'Value for money' to everyone and everywhere, delivering Speed Post upto 50 grams @ INR 35 across the country and local Speed Post upto 50 grams @ INR 15, excluding applicable Service Tax. Kindly check official website for updated Speed Post service charges.
India Post Speed Post Tracking
Speed Post offers a facility of on-line tracking and tracing that guarantees reliability, speed and customer friendly service. Using a 13 digit barcode that makes a Speed Post consignment unique and identifiable. A web-based technology (www.indiapost.gov.in/speednettracking.aspx) helps the Kusmi customers track Speed Post consignments from booking to delivery.
Tracking System
Except Speed Post, India Post also allows people to track their order information for certain products like Parcels, Insured letters, Speed Post, Registered Post, Electronic Money Orders (EMO) and Electronic value payable parcel (EVPPs) etc. The tracking number is available on the receipt given at Kusmi Post Office. Using the tracking number postal customers can find out the date and time of dispatch of an article at various locations. The time of booking and the time of delivery of article.
India Post Tracking Number Formats
Different types of postal service have different kinds of tracking number formats. The tracking number for Express Parcel is a 13 digit alphanumeric format. The format for Express Parcel is XX000000000XX. The tracking number for a Registered Mail is a 13 digit alphanumeric number and its format is RX123456789IN. But a Electronic Money Order (EMO) has a 18 digit tracking number and its format is 000000000000000000. For domestic Speed Post (EMS) there is a 13 digit alphanumeric tracking number with the format EE123456789IN.
Bharatiya Dak Ghar Seva Tracking Number Format Number of Digits Electronic Money Order (eMO) 000000000000000000 18 Express Parcel XX000000000XX 13 International EMS Artilces to be delivered in India EE123456789XX 13 Registered Mail RX123456789IN 13 Speed Post (EMS) Domestic EE123456789IN 13
Express Parcel Post
In Express Parcel Post, the Kusmi postal customer gets time bound delivery of parcels. These parcels will be transmitted through air or any other fastest mean available at that time. Minimum chargeable weight for which Express Parcel consignments will be booked is 0.5 Kg. Maximum weight of Express Parcel consignments which shall be booked across the Post Office counter by a retail customer shall be 20 Kg and maximum weight that can be booked by corporate customer is 35 kgs.
Media Post
India Post offers a unique way or concept to help the Indian corporate organisations and the Government organizations reach potential customers through media post. Through media post people can advertise on postcards, letters, aerogramme, postal stationary etc. Customers get to see the logo or message of the respective corporate or government organizations. The Aerogramme even gives the organizations the opportunity to make their product have a global impact.
Greetings Post
Greeting Post is yet another innovative or unique step by India Post. It consists of a card with an envelope with pre-printed and pre attached postage stamp on the envelope. The stamp on the envelope is a replica of the design that appears upon the card but in miniature form. Thus there is no need affix postage stamps on the envelope implicitly saving your time of going to post offices and standing in the queue. All the rules and that are applicable for the postage dues will also be applicable to the Greeting Post.
Logistics Post
Logistics Post manages the entire transmission and distribution side of the parcels. It deals with collection of goods, storage of goods, carriage and distribution of the various parcels or goods, from order preparation to order fulfilment. And that too at the minimum possible price. Logistics Post services provides the Kusmi postal customer with cost-effective and efficient distribution across the entire country.
ePost Office
The advent of internet made communication very rapid through emails. But, the internet has not yet reached most of the rural parts of India. To change this division between rural & urban life, and to get the benefit of internet technology to Kusmi people's lives, Indian Postal Department has introduced e-post. e-post is a service in which personalized handwritten messages of customers are scanned and sent as email through internet. And at the destination address office, these messages are again printed, enveloped and delivered through postmen at the postal addresses. E-post centres are established in the Post Offices, covering a large geographical area including major cities and districts. These e-post centres are well equipped with internet connection, scanners, printers and other necessary hardware equipment. However, this e-post service doesn’t particularly need a e-post centre, but can this facility can be availed at any normal Post Office or you can visit www.epostoffice.gov.in to access postal services on your desktop, laptop or even on mobile. If a message is booked at Kusmi post office, the post is scanned and sent to an e-post centre by e-mail and a mail received at e-post centre is printed and sent to nearby Post Office for dispatch.
A Kusmi customer can also avail these services of an e-post, at his/ her home. All he/ she has do is to register as a user at www.epostoffice.gov.in website. After registration, a user can use e-post by scanning and sending messages, printing and receive messages. The message to be scanned must not be written in a paper not more A4. There is no limit for sending number of sheets of messages in e-post.
E-Post Office offers certain services like – Philately, Postal Life Insurance, Electronic Indian Postal Order, Information Services, Track & Trace and Complaints & Guidelines services.
Philately
Philately service deals with collection, sale and study of postage stamps. Philately includes lot of services Philately Information, Stamp issue Program, Stamps List and Buy Stamps service.
Postal Life Insurance (PLI)
A service offered by the Government to pay a given amount of money on the death of an individual to his prescribed nominee. The amount may also be paid to the person himself, in case he survives that maturity period. The two services offered under Postal Life Insurance are – Pay Premium service and PLI information.
Electronic Indian Postal Order
eIPO or Electronic Indian Postal Order is a facility to purchase an Indian Postal Order electronically by paying a fee on-line through e-Post Office. This service is launched by the Department of Posts, Ministry of Communications & IT, Government of India.
eIPO can now be used by Indian Citizens living in India for paying online fee, whoever seeks information under the RTI Act, 2005. eIPO offers 2 types of services – eIPO information and payment of online fees.
Information Services
This helps Kusmi customers to get information regarding certain products like – Pin Code search, Speed post, Banking, Insurance, Business Post, Logistics Post, IMTS and many more other services.
Track & Trace
The track & trace service is very helpful as it aids in getting information of our valuables. Track & Trace service offers 5 different services – Pin Code search, EMO tracking, Speed Post tracking, WNX tracking and International mail service.
Complaints & Guidelines
Using e-post office service Kusmi postal costumer can access services based on – complaint registration, complaint status and guidelines on complaints.
ePost Office Website www.epostoffice.gov.in
Financial Services
The customers of Kusmi can enjoy the various savings schemes available in this post office that prove to be highly beneficial for the people living in Kusmi area. The Financial service offered by PO includes Savings and Postal Life Insurance (PLI). There are various options available to save and invest with post-offices. The commonly used ones include - Savings account, Recurring Deposit, Monthly Income Scheme, Monthly Public Provident Fund, Time Deposit, Senior Citizen Saving Scheme, National Savings Certificate, Kisan Vikas Patra and Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana. Post Office also offers Insurance product through Postal Life Insurance (PLI) and Rural Postal Life Insurance (RPLI) schemes that offer low premium and high bonus.
Post Office Financial Services Kisan Vikas Patra (KVP) Monthly Income Scheme (MIS) Monthly Public Provident Fund (PPF) National Savings Certificate (NSC) Recurring Deposit (RD) Account Savings Bank (SB) Account Senior Citizen Saving Scheme (SCSS) Sukanya Samriddhi Accounts (SSA) Time Deposit (TD)
Savings Bank (SB) Account
A Savings bank account serves the need of regular deposits for its customers as well as withdrawals. Cheque facility is also avail by Kusmi postal consumers.
Recurring Deposit (RD) Account
A post office offers a monthly investment option with handsome return at the time period with an option to extend the investment period. Insurance facility is also available with certain conditions.
Monthly Income Scheme (MIS)
MIS offers a fixed investment technique for five or more years with monthly interest payment to the account holder. There is also a facility of automatic crediting of interest to SB account of the Kusmi postal customer.
Monthly Public Provident Fund (PPF)
This service offers intermittent deposits subject to a particular limit for a time period of 15 years with income tax exemptions, on the investment. It also offers loan and withdrawal facilities for the postal customers.
Time Deposit (TD)
Fixed deposit option for periods ranging from one, two, three to five years with facility to draw yearly interest offered at compounded rates. Automatic credit facility of interest to SB account.
Senior Citizen Saving Scheme (SCSS)
Offers fixed investment option for senior citizens for a period of five years, which can be extended, at a higher rate of interest that are paid in quarterly instalments.
National Savings Certificate (NSC)
NSC is offered with a fixed investment for 5 or 10 years on certificates of various denominations. Pledging facility available for availing loan from Banks.
Kisan Vikas Patra (KVP)
Kisan Vikas Patra is a saving certificate scheme in which the amount Invested doubles in 110 months (i.e. 9 years & 2 months). It is available in denominations of Rs 1,000, 5000, 10,000 and Rs 50,000. Minimum deposit is Rs 1000/- and there is no maximum limit. The KVP certificate can be purchased by any adult for himself or on the behalf of a minor. This certificate can also be transferred from one account holder to another and from one post office to another. This certificate can be en-cashed only after 2 and 1/2 years from the date of issue.
Sukanya Samriddhi Accounts (SSA)
Sukanya Samriddhi Account Yojana offers a small deposit investment for the girl children as an initiative under 'Beti Bachao Beti Padhao' campaign. This yojana is to facilitate girl children proper education and carefree marriage expenses. One of the main benefits of this scheme is that it is very affordable and offers one of the highest interest rates. Currently its interest rate is set as 8.6% per annum that is again compounded yearly. The minimum deposit allowed in a financial year is INR. 1000/- and Maximum is INR. 1,50,000/-. Subsequent deposits can be made in multiples of INR 100/-. Deposits can be made all at a time. No limit is set on number of deposits either for a month or a financial year. A legal Guardian can open an account in the name of a Girl Child. Account can be closed only after completion of 21 years of the respective child. The normal Premature closure allowed is after completion of 18 years only if that girl is getting married.
Post Office Timings
The official working hours of Post Offices vary from one another, but the general Post Office opening time starts from 08:00 AM or 09:00 AM or 10:00 AM and the closing time is 04:00 PM or 05:00 PM or 06:00 PM respectively. The working days are from Monday to Saturday, Sunday being a holiday. This doesn't include the public holidays or the extended working hours. You can verify the working hours of Kusmi Sub Post Office from the official resources.
India Post Tracking
Online tracking of India Post allowed Kusmi people to access their postal article tracking information and confirm the delivery of their postal article by using the tracking number assigned to them at the time of Booking. They can find the tracking number on the Postal acknowledgement handed over to them at the Kusmi Sub Post Office counter at the time of postal article booking. Following items can track through the www.indiapost.gov.in/articleTracking.aspx official website.
Business Parcel
Business Parcel COD
Electronic Money Order (e-MO)
Electronic Value Payable Parcel (eVPP)
Express Parcel
Express Parcel COD
Insured Letter
Insured Parcel
Insured Value Payable Letter
Insured Value Payable Parcel
International EMS
Registered Letter
Registered Packets
Registered Parcel
Registered Periodicals
Speed Post
Value Payable Letter
Value Payable Parcel
The India Post tracking system is updated at regular intervals to give the Kusmi postal customers with the most up to date information available about the location and status of their postal article. They'll be able to find out the following:
When their postal article was booked
When their postal article was dispatched at various locations during its Journey
When their postal article was received at various locations during its Journey
When their postal article was delivered, or
When a delivery intimation notice was issued to notify the recipient that the postal article is available for delivery
Kusmi Post Office Recruitment
For latest Kusmi post office recruitment kindly visit www.indiapost.gov.in/recruitment.aspx.
Location Map
Kusmi Sub Post Office is located in Kusmi, Kusmi, Surguja.
Contact Details
All the queries or complaints regarding Bill Mail Service, Booking Packets, Business Post, Direct Post, Flat Rate Box, Indian Postal Orders, Inland Letters, Instant Money Orders, Insurance of Postal Articles, Insurance of Postal Parcels, Letters, Logistics Posts, MO Videsh, Money Orders, Parcels, Post Office Savings Bank, Postal Life Insurance, Postcards, Registration of Postal Articles, Registration of Postal Parcels, Rural Postal Life Insurance, Saving Certificates, Small Saving Schemes, Speed Post, Value Payable Post etc.services in Kusmi Post Office, can be resolved at Kusmi Sub Post Office. You can send letters to "Postmaster, Kusmi Sub Post Office, Kusmi, Kusmi, Surguja, Chattisgarh, India, Pincode: 497 224". You can also contact customer serviceof this post office on +91-777-827-4433. The official website of the Berhampur University Sub Office is http://www.indiapost.gov.in.
Kusmi Sub Office
Address: Kusmi Sub Post Office, Kusmi, Kusmi, Surguja , Chattisgarh , India
Pin Code: 497224
Phone Number: 07778274433
Website: www.indiapost.gov.in
About India Post
India Postis a government-operated postal system, which is part of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology of the Government of India. It has the largest Postal Network in the Indiawith over 154882 Post Offices. There are around 139182 Post Offices in the rural India and 15700 Post Offices in urban India. The individual post office serves an area of 21.22 Sq. Km. and a population of 8221 people. The slogan of India Post is Dak Seva Jan Seva. There are 25464 departmental post offices and 129418 extra-departmental branch post offices in India.
Kusmi Post Office Summary
Dak Ghar Name Kusmi Sub Post Office Pincode 497224 Dakghar Type Sub Office Post Office Delivery Status Delivery Sub Office Postal Division Raigarh Postal Region Raipur Postal Circle Chattisgarh Location Kusmi Town / City / Tehsil / Taluka / Mandal Kusmi District Surguja State Chattisgarh Country India Kusmi Post Office Phone Number 07778274433 Related Head Office Ambikapur Head Post Office Website www.indiapost.gov.in ePost-office Web Site Address www.epostoffice.gov.in Speed Post Tracking Website www.indiapost.gov.in/speednettracking.aspx Recruitment Web Site Address www.indiapost.gov.in/recruitment.aspx
Previous Dak Ghar Larima Post Office
| https://www.postoffices.co.in/chattisgarh-ct-cg/kusmi-24-surguja/ |
NTU and Temasek Foundation transfer technology knowhow to China's quake-prone regions | EurekAlert! Science News
Singapore's Nanyang Technological University and Temasek Foundation are working together to bring earthquake resistance technology to regions in the People's Republic of China which are prone to earthquakes. Tapping NTU's expertise in earthquake engineering and seismic-resistant construction technologies, the program aims to promote safer construction practices, achieve transfer of technology, and enhance the skills of those involved in China construction industry.
NTU and Temasek Foundation transfer technology knowhow to China's quake-prone regions
S$1.7 million program to be implemented by NTU's LIEN Institute for the Environment
Nanyang Technological University
Singapore's Nanyang Technological University (NTU) and Temasek Foundation are working together to bring earthquake resistance technology to regions in the People's Republic of China which are prone to earthquakes. Tapping NTU's expertise in earthquake engineering and seismic-resistant construction technologies, the programme aims to promote safer construction practices, achieve transfer of technology, and enhance the skills of those involved in China construction industry.
Funded by Singapore's philanthropic organisation Temasek Foundation, the S$1.7 million (RMB 8 million) programme will be implemented by NTU's LIEN Institute for the Environment (LIFE) in Sichuan, Hebei and Liaoning (first phase), and Jiangsu, Shaanxi and Yunnan (second phase).
The programme covers two aspects. The first involves the strengthening of school buildings to improve their resistance to earthquakes. These retrofitted schools will then be used as training facilities and to showcase good construction practices.
"This project is a vital part of NTU's outreach programme to fulfil its role as a socially conscious university that goes beyond classroom education and research. Schools are chosen for the project as they are an appropriate entry point to the community, because not only do people care about schools, but there is also a flow of information and ideas between teachers, children, parents, and the community in general. We are glad to leverage our science and tech expertise to benefit mankind and society," says LIFE Director Associate Professor Li Bing.
The second aspect of the programme involves working with local universities and authorities in each of the six provinces to train the local masons and equip them with cost-effective techniques developed by NTU LIFE to strengthen buildings.
In total, about 60 trainers and 240 local masons from the six provinces will be trained under this programme.
A pilot project under the programme was initiated in May 2009 in Sichuan, an area highly prone to major earthquakes. Two schools in Sichuan, Shi Ban Primary School and Chao Zhen Primary School in the You Xian District of the Mianyang Prefecture were selected. Strengthening and retrofitting technology was applied to the school buildings.
The effectiveness of the strengthening and retrofitting technology was proven when an earthquake with a magnitude of 8.0 Ms hit the region on 17 July 2009. Schools which were retrofitted previously using the technology were not damaged even though the epicentre was less than 50 miles away.
While the schools are being strengthened, a team of 10 faculty and graduate students from the College of Architecture and Environment at Sichuan University was selected to be master trainers. They, in turn, transferred their knowledge by teaching the construction techniques to more than 40 local masons. Eventually, another 120 masons in Sichuan will be taught these techniques of building more earthquake-resistant buildings.
Singapore's Vice-Consul (Commercial) to Chengdu, Ms Isabel Yeo, Temasek Foundation's Chief Executive Officer Benedict Cheong, NTU School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Chair, Associate Professor Edmond Lo LIFE Director Associate Professor Li Bing and Dean of Faculty of Architecture, Civil & Environmental Engineering, Sichuan University, Professor Wang Qingyuan visited the two schools in Sichuan today. They toured the retrofitted schoolbuildings and saw the results of the programme.
"Temasek Foundation is pleased to support this programme to spread the knowledge of earthquake-resistant technology to quake-prone regions in China," says Mr Cheong. "We hope these retrofitted schools can be used as a model to showcase good earthquake-resistant construction practices, to help other local masons in Sichuan and the other provinces to apply these techniques to more buildings in their communities. This will hopefully mitigate the effects of damage in the event of an earthquake."
Associate Professor Li, who is also an expert in earthquake engineering and seismic-resistant construction technologies, says, "We are glad that Temasek Foundation recognises our expertise in seismic-resistant construction technologies, and chooses to collaborate with NTU again to promote cost-effective methods for enhancing seismic resilience with many institutions and communities throughout Asia. This programme is an excellent model of how we can work together to bring our technological know-how to communities which face a high risk of earthquakes."
This is the second collaboration by Temasek Foundation and LIFE. A similar training programme in July 2008 brought earthquake-resistant construction techniques to the faculty of the Department of Civil Engineering at Universitas Andalas Padang and masons in western Sumatra, an earthquake-prone region in Indonesia.
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Keywords
| https://archive.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2009-08/ntu-nat082709.php |
Differences in the acute effects of aerobic and resistance exercise in subjects with type 2 diabetes: results from the RAED2 Randomized Trial
Bacchi E, Negri C, Trombetta M, Zanolin ME, Lanza M, Bonora E, Moghetti P. Differences in the acute effects of aerobic and resistance exercise in subjects with type 2 diabetes: results from the RAED2 Randomized Trial. PLoS One. 2012;7(12):e49937. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049937. Epub 2012 Dec 5.
Differences in the acute effects of aerobic and resistance exercise in subjects with type 2 diabetes: results from the RAED2 Randomized Trial
Elisabetta Bacchi, Carlo Negri, Maddalena Trombetta, Maria Elisabetta Zanolin, Massimo Lanza, Enzo Bonora, Paolo Moghetti, Elisabetta Bacchi, Carlo Negri, Maddalena Trombetta, Maria Elisabetta Zanolin, Massimo Lanza, Enzo Bonora, Paolo Moghetti
Abstract
Objective:Both aerobic (AER) and resistance (RES) training, if maintained over a period of several months, reduce HbA1c levels in type 2 diabetes subjects. However, it is still unknown whether the short-term effects of these types of exercise on blood glucose are similar. Our objective was to assess whether there may be a difference in acute blood glucose changes after a single bout of AER or RES exercise.
Study design:Twenty-five patients participating in the RAED2 Study, a RCT comparing AER and RES training in diabetic subjects, were submitted to continuous glucose monitoring during a 60-min exercise session and over the following 47 h. These measurements were performed after 10.9+0.4 weeks of training. Glucose concentration areas under the curve (AUC) during exercise, the subsequent night, and the 24-h period following exercise, as well as the corresponding periods of the non-exercise day, were assessed. Moreover, the low (LBGI) and high (HBGI) blood glucose indices, which summarize the duration and extent of hypoglycaemia or hyperglycaemia, respectively, were measured.
Results:AER and RES training similarly reduced HbA1c. Forty-eight hour glucose AUC was similar in both groups. However, a comparison of glucose AUC during the 60-min exercise period and the corresponding period of the non-exercise day showed that glucose levels were lower during exercise in the AER but not in the RES group (time-by-group interaction p = 0.04). Similar differences were observed in the nocturnal periods (time-by-group interaction p = 0.02). Accordingly, nocturnal LBGI was higher in the exercise day than in the non-exercise day in the AER (p = 0.012) but not in the RES group (p = 0.62).
Conclusions:Although AER and RES training have similar long-term metabolic effects in diabetic subjects, the acute effects of single bouts of these exercise types differ, with a potential increase in late-onset hypoglycaemia risk after AER exercise.
Trial registration:ClinicalTrials.govNCT01182948.
Conflict of interest statement
Competing Interests: Please note that Enzo Bonora, co-author of the manuscript, is no longer a member of the Editorial Board of the journal. Therefore we do not think it is necessary to make any specific statement on his role. However, we are willing to declare that this does not alter the authors' adherence to all the PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials.
Figures
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Figure 1. Study flow diagram.
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Figure 2. Schematic overview of the study design.
The CGMS sensor was inserted at 8:30–9:30 am. Glucose concentrations were recorded over a 48-h period, starting at 6:30 pm of the same day, corresponding to the beginning of the 60-min exercise session. Several time periods were separately analyzed: the exercise period (6:30–7:30 pm), the subsequent nocturnal period (1:00 am–5:00 am) and the 24-h period following the beginning of the exercise session (exercise day), as well as the corresponding time periods of the following (non-exercise) day. The CGMS was removed at 7:30–8:30 pm of the non-exercise day. Meal times were between 6:30–8:30 am for breakfast, 12:30 am to 2:00 pm for lunch, 3:30–4:30 pm for a snack and 8:00–9:30 pm for dinner.
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Figure 3. Mean glucose concentrations behavior during selected periods, in the aerobic (A) and the resistance (B) groups.
Upper panels: glucose concentrations during the 60-min exercise session and the corresponding period of the non-exercise day. Lower panels: glucose concentrations during the nocturnal sleeping period (01:00–05:00 am) of the two days. White circles indicate glucose values in the exercise day, and black circles those in the non-exercise day. P values refer to differences in glucose concentration AUCs between the exercise day and the non-exercise day.
References
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Source:PubMed
| https://ichgcp.net/clinical-trials-registry/publications/151919-differences-in-the-acute-effects-of-aerobic-and-resistance-exercise-in-subjects-with-type-2-diabetes |
CAS:6975-77-5 - FACTA Search
91 women with metastatic breast cancer, who received prior CTX -5FU or CTX -5FU-PRD, were treated in 3 consecutive clinical trials with either CTX -5FU-PRD- MTX -VCR, MTX -VCR, or MTX -VCR-PRD in order to elucidate whether the effectiveness of 5 drugs was due only to the newly added drugs ( MTX -VCR +/- PRD) or whether the previously used drugs (CTX-5FU) were necessary as potentiating agents. There were 17 or 39 responders (43%) in the 5-drug group, 3 of 25 (12%) in the MTX -VCR group and 3 of 27 (11%) in the MTX -VCR-PRD group. The survival in the group treated with 5 drugs was significantly longer. Our results show that CTX -5FU-PRD- MTX -VCR was significantly more effective than MTX -VCR or MTX -VCR-PRD used alone after the patient had already had CTX -5FU +/- PRD. Thus, the previously used drugs (CTX-5FU) seemed to improve the response to the new agents ( MTX -VCR +/- PRD) by a potentiating action in the subsequent combination. It is concluded that the exploitation of this enhancing effect represents a significant improvement in the treatment options now available.
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PMID:Potentiating role of previously administered agents in the combination chemotherapy of breast cancer. 47 28
In a clinical trial, 42 patients with abdominal Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) were treated with a combination regimen, code-named CVA, consisting of cyclophosphamide ( CTX ), vincristine, and cystosine arabinoside. In addition, intrathecal methotrexate (i.t. MTX ) was administered as prophylaxis against subsequent central nervous system (CNS) involvement. Induced remissions, relapse, and survival were compared with those in a preceding group of 44 patients with abdominal BL treated with CTX along. Remission rate did not differ significantly in the two treatment groups, although induced remissions were higher in the CVA plus i.t. MTX -treated group (94% vs. 83%). Remission duration was significantly increases (p less than .05) and CNS relapse significantly reduced (p less than .05) in the group treated with CVA and i.t. MTX . The combination therapy was associated with higher early deaths during treatment, which adversely affected the overally survival. It is suggested that a reduction of the initial chemotherapeutic doses, particularly for patients with extensive tumor load, could further improve on the results of this trial.
...
PMID:Combination chemotherapy in abdominal Burkitt's lymphoma. 90 60
Ciguatera poisoning has long been recognized as a serious problem in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Due to international and interstate commerce and tourist travel the phenomenon is spreading to other parts of the globe. Various species of fish (surgeonfish, snapper, grouper, barracuda, jack, amberjack among others) have been implicated in this type of poisoning. These fish accumulate toxins in their flesh and viscera through the consumption of smaller fish that have been previously contaminated by feeding on toxic dinoflagellates. The most probable source of ciguatera is thought to be the benthic microorganism, Gambierdiscus toxicus, which produces both CTX and MTX , but other species of dinoflagellates such as Prorocentrum lima may also contribute with secondary toxins associated with the disease. Potentially ciguatoxic dinoflagellates have been isolated, cultured under laboratory conditions and dinoflagellate growth requirements as well as some factors affecting toxin production have been determined. Also, data from their ecological environment have been accumulated in an attempt to reveal a relationship with the epidemiology of ciguatera outbreaks. Several bioassays have been employed to determine the ciguatoxicity of fish. Cats have been used due to their sensitivity, but regurgitation has made dosage information difficult to obtain. Mongooses have also been used but they often carry parasitic and other type of diseases which complicate the bioassay. Mice have been used more commonly; they offer a more reliable model, can be easily housed, readily are dosed in several ways, and manifest diverse symptoms similar to human intoxications; but the amount of toxic extract needed, time consumed, complicated extraction techniques, and instrumentation involved limit the use of this assay commercially. Other bioassays have been explored including the brine shrimp, chicken, mosquito, crayfish nerve cord, guinea pig ileum, guinea pig atrium, and other histological preparations. All require elaborate time-consuming procedures, are not reproducible, lack specificity, and are semiquantitative at best. The techniques that appear to represent the major advance in identifying and detecting ciguatoxic fish are immunochemical methods: radioimmunoassay (RIA), competitive enzyme immunoassay (EIA), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Of these, the enzyme immunoassay stick test is the simplest, fastest, most specific, more sensitive, and does not require complicated instrumentation.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
...
PMID:Foodborne toxins of marine origin: ciguatera. 199 59
We designed an intensive, weekly treatment regimen for patients with small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) using six of the most active chemotherapeutic agents for this disease (doxorubicin [DOX], cyclophosphamide [ CTX ], vincristine [VCR], etoposide [VP-16], cisplatin [CDDP], and methotrexate [ MTX ]). The goal of this program was to gain rapid, repetitive exposure to multiple, active drugs. Treatment was administered weekly for a total of 16 weeks. Seventy-six SCLC patients (limited disease, 34; extensive disease, 42) were treated. The overall complete plus partial response rate was 82%. Complete response rates of 47% and 38% were observed in patients with limited (LD) and extensive disease (ED), respectively. The median survivals for patients with LD and ED were 16.6 and 11.4 months, respectively. Toxicities were tolerable and were primarily hematologic. Twenty-six patients had one or more transient life-threatening toxicities, but only one patient developed a fatal toxicity. Eighty-four percent of the patients received 80% or greater of the intended protocol dosages over the entire 16-week treatment period. We conclude that this intensive, short-duration treatment regimen is at least as good as other "standard" regimens, and we are encouraged aged by the complete response rate and median survival in patients with ED SCLC.
...
PMID:Treatment of small-cell lung cancer with an alternating chemotherapy regimen given at weekly intervals: a Southwest Oncology Group pilot study. 217 73
Nude mice, inoculated with LAX 83 in bilateral subrenal capsules, were used in experimental therapy with 8 antitumor drugs. Treatment was initiated 2 d after tumor inoculation. All the drugs were ip to the nude mice daily for 7 d. At the daily doses VCR 0.4, MMC 2, CCNU 16, cis-DDP 2, AdM 2.5, 5-Fu 30, CTX 40 and MTX 2-6 mg/kg, the inhibition of the tumor growth were 100, 95.8, 91.3, 79.2, 65.2, 60.7, 62.3 and 0%, respectively. The results indicated that the effects of the drugs on nude mice inoculated with LAX-83 in subrenal capsule not only exhibited a good correlation to those in sc, but also shortened the period of experiment from 22 to 11 d. Furthermore, when LAX-83 was inoculated into the subrenal capsule of Swiss +/+ mice, the tumor tissues degenerated and disintegrated 2 d after the inoculation and replaced by inflammatory granuloma tissues 6 d later.
...
PMID:[Effects of 8 antitumor drugs against the growth of human lung adenocarcinoma (LAX-83) transplanted under the kidney capsule of nude mice]. 261 35
The results of 63 patients with advanced malignant tumors treated by combined chemotherapy including high-dose cisplatin (HD-DDP) (single dose 50-100 mg/m2) are reported. The remission rates and duration of the remission for various malignant tumors were: 40% (10 PR out of 25 patients) and 3-8 months for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treated by PMFV (DDP, MMC, 5FU and VCR) regimen; 87% (4 CR and 9 PR out of 15) and 3-14 months for breast cancer treated by PCMF (DDP, CTX , MTX and 5FU) regimen; 100% (1 CR and 3 PR out of 4) and 3-10 months for testicular cancer treated by PPV (DDP, Pingyangmycin and VCR) regimen; 57% (1CR and 3 PR out of 7) and 5-12 months for malignant melanoma treated by PBDV (DDP, BCNU, DTIC and VCR) regimen; 33% (2 PR out of 6) and 5 months for esophageal cancer treated by PPV regimen. In 6 patients with other malignant tumors, the remission rate was 50% (3 PR). The results show that the combined regimens including HD-DDP in the treatment of breast cancer and NSCLC (remission rate 87% and 40%, respectively) are better than that including low-dose DDP (17% and 7%) (P less than 0.001, P less than 0.01) and that including adriamycin (30% and 13%) (P less than 0.001, P less than 0.05). In the treatment, obvious gastrointestinal reaction, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia and mild functional damage of the liver and kidney were observed.
...
One hundred and six consecutive small cell lung cancer patients were treated by a combination regimen COMVp ( CTX 1,000-1,400 mg IV D 1,8; VCR 1-2 mg IV D 1,8; MTX 20-40 mg IV or IM D 3,5,10,12; VP-16 100 mg IV drip D 3-7; three weeks as a cycle and 2-3 cycles as a course) in our hospital during 1983 to 1984. Among the 95 patients who were evaluated, 10 (10.5%) gave CR, 57 (60%) PR, 19 (20%) no change and 9 (9.5%) progression. The overall response rate was 70.5%. In this paper, factors influencing the response and side effects are also analysed. The data show that COMVp regimen is one of the good front line combination chemotherapy regimens currently available in the management of small cell lung cancer.
...
PMID:[COMVp regimen in the treatment of small cell lung cancer--report of 106 patients]. 282 52
Mitoxantrone is similar to Adriblastin in its mechanism of action and antitumor activity. Objective remissions were obtained in 20-30% pretreated patients and in 23-44% of untreated patients by single-drug treatment of patients suffering from metastatic breast cancer. The objective response rates to Mitoxantrone in combination with CTX , 5-FU, MTX , VCR, MMC. Prednimustine or Vindesine were 16-46% in treatment and 38-89% in primary treatment. Randomized studies comparing Mitoxantrone with Adriblastin in single-drug and combination treatment did not show any significant differences in efficacy. However, Mitoxantrone was significantly less toxic. Remission rates of between 24 and 54% were achieved by single-drug treatment in pretreated patients suffering from non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Mitoxantrone appears to be active in ovarian cancer, lung cancer and hepatocellular carcinoma.
...
PMID:Mitoxantrone: mechanism of action, antitumor activity, pharmacokinetics, efficacy in the treatment of solid tumors and lymphomas, and toxicity. 332 53
From 1977 to 1981 39 patients with advanced ovarian carcinoma (stage III, IV, and relapses) were treated at the department of oncology. From 1977 to 1979 we followed to a great extent the ECOG protocol (EST 2875) which means combination chemotherapy by alternating cycles. Since 1980 we used for treatment the PAC I regimen. There was no obvious difference between the therapeutic results of regimen 1 ( MTX /Thio followed by 5FU/ CTX ) and regimen 2 ( MTX /Thio followed by VCR/ADM/5FU/ CTX ). The greatest complete remission rate (confirmed by a second-look laparotomy) was obtained by regimen 3 (PAC I). In 8 cases PAC I was used as a second line treatment. Only 3 partial remissions were seen.
...
PMID:[Therapeutic results in advanced ovarian cancer]. 641 61
40 children (23 males, 17 females) have been diagnosed have ANLL during the period from february 1970 to september 1981. According to FAB classification, 24 cases were M1,-M2, 9 M3, 3 M4, 3 M5 and 1 M6. At diagnosis, 20 patients (50%) had leukocytes less than 10.000/mmc, 6 (15%) had leukocytes greater than 50.000mmc. Hb levels was 7 g% in 16 patients (40%); 10 children had hepatosplenomegaly (25%), 7 splenomegaly (18%) and 5 lymphoadenomegaly (13%). 4 patients had cutaneous or mucous infiltrates. None had meningeal involvement at diagnosis. According to the year of diagnosis, 3 groups can be identified. In the group I (1970-73), 11 patients have been treated with not codified combination chemotherapy as ARA-C, 6-TG, DNR, CTX , Metil-GAG. In the group II (1974-76) and in the group III (1977-81), the patients (respectively 12 and 17) have been treated according to the following protocols: LAM-5 (3), TRAP (5), COAP (1), LAM 80 (2), AIL 7402 (8), AIL 7604, AIL 7801 (6). Immunotherapy has been performed in 7 cases. CNS prophylaxis ( MTX i.t. +/-ARA-C +/- RT) was given in 5 patients of group II and in 6 of group III. I patients of group I (45%), 6 of group II (50%) and 13 of group III (76%) achieved CR. Median duration of remission was 5 months in the group I and in 17 in group II and III.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
...
PMID:[Acute non-lymphatic leukemia in children]. 654 20
| http://www.nactem.ac.uk/facta/cgi-bin/facta3.cgi?query=CAS%3A6975-77-5%7C111111%7C0%7C0%7C18457%7C0%7C10 |
Accurate Description of Aqueous Carbonate Ions: An Effective Polarization Model Verified by Neutron Scattering | Request PDF
Request PDF | Accurate Description of Aqueous Carbonate Ions: An Effective Polarization Model Verified by Neutron Scattering | The carbonate ion plays a central role in the biochemical formation of the shells of aquatic life, which is an important path for carbon dioxide... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
Article
Accurate Description of Aqueous Carbonate Ions: An Effective Polarization Model Verified by Neutron Scattering
May 2012
The Journal of Physical Chemistry B116(28)
DOI: 10.1021/jp3008267
Source
PubMed
Authors:
<here is a image f2f62089ad6ff61c-d19572ff1996375a>
Philip E Mason
Philip E Mason
<here is a image 5af3aef2190b6169-ef4efba26bf2d473>
Erik Bialik
Molecules in Motion
<here is a image f2f62089ad6ff61c-d19572ff1996375a>
Pavel Jungwirth
Pavel Jungwirth
Abstract
The carbonate ion plays a central role in the biochemical formation of the shells of aquatic life, which is an important path for carbon dioxide sequestration. Given the vital role of carbonate in this and other contexts, it is imperative to develop accurate models for such a high charge density ion. As a divalent ion, carbonate has a strong polarizing effect on surrounding water molecules. This raises the question whether it is possible to describe accurately such systems without including polarization. It has recently been suggested the lack of electronic polarization in nonpolarizable water models can be effectively compensated by introducing an electronic dielectric continuum, which is with respect to the forces between atoms equivalent to rescaling the ionic charges. Given how widely nonpolarizable models are used to model electrolyte solutions, establishing the experimental validity of this suggestion is imperative. Here, we examine a stringent test for such models: a comparison of the difference of the neutron scattering structure factors of K(2)CO(3) vs KNO(3) solutions and that predicted by molecular dynamics simulations for various models of the same systems. We compare standard nonpolarizable simulations in SPC/E water to analogous simulations with effective ion charges, as well as simulations in explicitly polarizable POL3 water (which, however, has only about half the experimental polarizability). It is found that the simulation with rescaled charges is in a very good agreement with the experimental data, which is significantly better than for the nonpolarizable simulation and even better than for the explicitly polarizable POL3 model.
<here is a image 175d1bd4b7439d95-754927124da715c1>
... Hence, to account for the consistency in the treatment of the electrostatic interactions between the solute and solvent, effective charges that incorporate explicit polarizability should be used for both
[316]
. Assuming the electronic polarization response as continuum, the effective atomic charges are simply the actual charges scaled by 1/ \surd \varepsi \mathrm{ , where \varepsi \mathrm{ is the part of the dielectric constant contributed by the electronic degrees of freedom (\varepsi \mathrm{ = 1.78 for water) [192,213,316]. ...
... Hence, to account for the consistency in the treatment of the electrostatic interactions between the solute and solvent, effective charges that incorporate explicit polarizability should be used for both [316]. Assuming the electronic polarization response as continuum, the effective atomic charges are simply the actual charges scaled by 1/ \surd \varepsi \mathrm{ , where \varepsi \mathrm{ is the part of the dielectric constant contributed by the electronic degrees of freedom (\varepsi \mathrm{ = 1.78 for water) [192,213,
316]
. This adjustment in the atomic partial charges can also be interpreted as an explicit initiation of the electronic dielectric continuum [214,316], and in the chapter 4, this model will be referred to as the Electronic Continuum ...
... Assuming the electronic polarization response as continuum, the effective atomic charges are simply the actual charges scaled by 1/ \surd \varepsi \mathrm{ , where \varepsi \mathrm{ is the part of the dielectric constant contributed by the electronic degrees of freedom (\varepsi \mathrm{ = 1.78 for water) [192,213,316]. This adjustment in the atomic partial charges can also be interpreted as an explicit initiation of the electronic dielectric continuum [214,
316]
, and in the chapter 4, this model will be referred to as the Electronic Continuum ...
Highly charged dendritic polyelectrolytes: Competitive ion binding and charge renormalization
Thesis
Apr 2021
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Rohit Nikam
Polyelektrolyte (PEs) bilden eine große Klasse von Materialien, die in der wissenschaftlichen Forschung immer mehr Beachtung findet. Aufgrund der Lange-Bereich Elektrostatic ist das theoretische Verständnis von PE-Lösungen im Vergleich zu ihren neutralen Gegenstücken noch relativ schlecht gewesen, dadurch die Rationalisierung der Gegenionskondensation auf hochgeladenen PEs herausfordern. Die Komplexität des Problems wird noch zusätzlich durch die gleichzeitige Anwesenheit monovalenter und divalenter Gegenionen in der Lösung, was vielen biologische Umgebungen entspricht, erhöht. Dies beeinflusst die PE-Protein Komplexierungen, damit ihren Funktionen und Anwendungen in der Biomedizin und Biotechnologie. In dieser Arbeit führen wir eine umfassende Analyse der Ladungs- und Hydratationsstruktur von dendritischen PEs in einem monovalenten Salz unter Verwendung von atomistischen Molekulardynamik (MD) Computersimulationen mit explizitem Wasser durch. Darüber hinaus untersuchen der kompetitiven Adsorption der monovalenten und divalenten Gegenionen am globulären PE mit Hilfe theoretischer Mean-Field-Modelle, vergröberter und atomistischer (expliziter) Wasser-Simulationen und Kalorimetrie-Experimenten. Wir befassen uns mit der Herausforderung, eine genau definierte effektive Ladung und ein Oberflächenpotential der PEs für praktische Anwendungen zu finden, und präsentieren ein neuartiges kompetitives Ionenbindungsmodell, das einen aussagekräftigen Vergleich zwischen Theorie, Simulationen und Experimenten gewährleistet. Diese Arbeit stellt eine systematische elektrostatischen Beschreibung von PE vor, untersucht die thermodynamische PE-Wasser Signatur und analysiert die kompetitiven Bindung von monovalenten und divalenten Gegenionen an PEs. Es wird ein tieferer Einblick in die physikochemischen Aspekte von PE-Gegenionen- und PE-Wasser-Wechselwirkungen erhalten, was für das rationale Design von PEs auf einer gezielten Anwendungsbasis von entscheidender Bedeutung ist.
... The first pioneering works on phospholipid bilayers document the need of including polarizability and extra screening in the development of the first models, which was achieved at that time through an empirical scaling factor for the partial atomic charges of the phospholipids (Egberts et al., 1994). A similar strategy supported by continuum theory was used in the recent developments of phospholipid force fields, which implicitly account for the electronic polarization using Electronic continuum correction (ECC) Stuchebrukhov, 2009, 2010a;
Mason et al., 2012;
Pegado et al., 2012;Pluhařová et al., 2013;Martinek et al., 2018). Despite the approximate treatment of the polarizability using ECC, such lipid force fields provide accurate interactions between phospholipid bilayers and cations in agreement with experiments (Melcr et al., 2018). ...
... Electronic continuum correction is a very efficient alternative to otherwise computationally demanding explicit modeling of electronic polarization (Bedrov et al., 2019). The accuracy of the ECC method was shown to yield promising results on several polar organic solvents Stuchebrukhov, 2010b, 2012;Lee and Park, 2011;Vazdar et al., 2013), while it proved to be necessary yet sufficient for an accurate description of the structure of several monovalent and divalent ions in aqueous solutions
(Mason et al., 2012;
Pegado et al., 2012;Pluhařová et al., 2013). To date, the array of force fields utilizing ECC has grown from a wide range of biologically relevant ions (Kohagen et al., 2014(Kohagen et al., , 2015Martinek et al., 2018), to protein moieties (Vazdar et al., 2013;Duboué-Dijon et al., 2018a;Mason et al., 2019), and whole phospholipid molecules (Melcr et al., 2018) making realistic simulations of e.g., membrane proteins at physiological ionic conditions possible. ...
... In summary, we have presented several important classes and case studies of biomolecules, where including polarizability is an important factor for the simulation accuracy. Cytosolic environment in cells is mostly composed of water solutions of ions, for which polarizability is necessary for the accurate description of the solvated structure of ions, their pairing and interaction with other biomolecules (Piquemal et al., 2006b;Wu et al., 2010;
Mason et al., 2012;
Pegado et al., 2012;Pluhařová et al., 2013;Duboué-Dijon et al., 2018a,b;Martinek et al., 2018;Melcr et al., 2018). Polarizability is an important factor for accurate interactions between amino acids, namely salt bridges between them, which are overestimated in strength in current non-polarizable force fields (Friesner, 2005;Vazdar et al., 2013;Ahmed et al., 2018;Célerse et al., 2019;Mason et al., 2019). ...
Accurate Biomolecular Simulations Account for Electronic Polarization
Article
Full-text available
Dec 2019
<here is a image a122fce1d36cc998-72f72afb8f64a09c> Josef Melcr
<here is a image bf990ebb478e50f8-5ac77f11e402dc96> Jean-Philip Piquemal
In this perspective, we discuss where and how accounting for electronic many-body polarization affects the accuracy of classical molecular dynamics simulations of biomolecules. While the effects of electronic polarization are highly pronounced for molecules with an opposite total charge, they are also non-negligible for interactions with overall neutral molecules. For instance, neglecting these effects in important biomolecules like amino acids and phospholipids affects the structure of proteins and membranes having a large impact on interpreting experimental data as well as building coarse grained models. With the combined advances in theory, algorithms and computational power it is currently realistic to perform simulations with explicit polarizable dipoles on systems with relevant sizes and complexity. Alternatively, the effects of electronic polarization can also be included at zero additional computational cost compared to standard fixed-charge force fields using the electronic continuum correction, as was recently demonstrated for several classes of biomolecules.
... A similar strategy supported by continuum theory was used in the recent developments of phospholipid force fields, which implicitly account for the electronic polarization using Electronic continuum correction (ECC). Stuchebrukhov, 2009, 2010a;Martinek et al., 2018;
Mason et al., 2012;
Pegado et al., 2012;Pluhařová et al., 2013) Despite the approximate treatment of the polarizability using ECC, such lipid force fields provide accurate interactions between phospholipid bilayers and cations in agreement with experiments. (Melcr et al., 2018) In particular, in the case of the neutral phosphatidylcholine (PC), ECC improved the cation binding affinity for monovalent and divalent cations reaching agreement with experiments (Melcr et al., 2018) , while for negatively charged phosphatidylserine (PS) it has also improved the overall structure of the phospholipid and the interactions with other lipids. ...
... (Antila et al.; Melcr et al.) Electronic continuum correction is a very efficient alternative to otherwise computationally demanding explicit modeling of electronic polarization. (Bedrov et al., 2019) The accuracy of the ECC method was shown to yield promising results on several polar organic solvents (Lee and Park, 2011;Stuchebrukhov, 2010b, 2012;Vazdar et al., 2013) , while it proved to be necessary yet sufficient for an accurate description of the structure of several monovalent and divalent ions in aqueous solutions
(Mason et al., 2012;
Pegado et al., 2012;Pluhařová et al., 2013) . To date, the array of force fields utilizing ECC has grown from a wide range of biologically relevant ions (Kohagen et al., 2014(Kohagen et al., , 2015Martinek et al., 2018) In ECC all particles are assumed to have equal polarizabilities and the electric field and electron density within each particle is homogenous. ...
... Cytosolic environment in cells is mostly composed of water solutions of ions, for which polarizability is necessary for the accurate description of the solvated structure of ions, their pairing and interaction with other biomolecules. (Duboué-Dijon et al., 2017;Duboué-Dijon et al., 2018a;Martinek et al., 2018;
Mason et al., 2012;
Melcr et al., 2018;Pegado et al., 2012;Piquemal et al., 2006b;Pluhařová et al., 2013;Wu et al., 2010) Polarizability is an important factor for accurate interactions between amino acids, namely salt bridges between them, which are overestimated in strength in current non-polarizable force fields (Ahmed et al., 2018;Célerse et al., 2019;Friesner, 2005;Mason et al., 2019;Vazdar et al., 2013) . Moreover, polarizable force fields yield a better description of the hydrophobic effect and hydrogen bond networks in proteins, which to a large extent determine the dynamic structure and conformational changes of proteins (Célerse et al., 2019;Dill et al., 1995;Fitch et al., 2002;Freddolino et al., 2010;García-Moreno et al., 1997;Huang and MacKerell, 2014;Lemkul et al., 2016;Morozov et al., 2006;Piana et al., 2011Piana et al., , 2014Venable et al., 2019) . ...
Accurate biomolecular simulations account for electronic polarization
Preprint
Full-text available
Sep 2019
<here is a image a122fce1d36cc998-72f72afb8f64a09c> Josef Melcr
<here is a image bf990ebb478e50f8-5ac77f11e402dc96> Jean-Philip Piquemal
In this perspective, we discuss where and how accounting for electronic many-body polarization affects the accuracy of classical molecular dynamics simulations of biomolecules.While the effects of electronic polarization are highly pronounced for molecules with an opposite total charge, they are also non-negligible for interactions with overall neutral molecules. For instance, neglecting these effects in important biomolecules like amino acids and phospholipids affects the structure of proteins and membranes having a large impact on interpreting experimental data as well as building coarse grained models. With the combined advances in theory, algorithms and computational power it is currently realistic to perform simulations with explicit polarizable dipoles on systems with relevant sizes and complexity. Alternatively, the effects of electronic polarization can also be included at zero additional computational cost compared to standard fixed-charge force fields using the electronic continuum correction, as was recently demonstrated for several classes of biomolecules.
... Even for ions of low charge density, this approach was found to be effective in reproducing the experimental activity coefficients, ion-pairing propensity, and diffusion. For example, the ECC models (sometimes with refined ionic radii) have been shown to produce ion-ion and ion-solvent structures that compare well with results of neutron scattering experiments for a variety of aqueous solutions such as those consisting of monovalent alkali and halide ions, [33][34][35][36][37] divalent atomic ions 34 and also more complex polyatomic ions such as carbonate, sulfate, guanidinium, etc 33,
[38]
[39][40] . In a recent study, 41 the results of ECC models were compared with those of ab initio molecular dynamics simulations for the Ca 2+ -Cl ion pair formation. ...
... 41 The ECC models have also been shown to produce correct concentration dependence of water diffusion in aqueous alkali halide solutions of different sized ions 42 unlike non-polarizable models. Besides, the performance of ECC models have also been examined against explicit polarizable models for aqueous solutions consisting of carbonate and sulfate ions
38,
43 where the ECC models were found to perform fairly well when compared with the corresponding neutron scattering and other experimental results. Such a comparison of the results of the ECC model with those of explicit polarizable force fields is also presented here as a test case for the structure of one of the solutions considered here. ...
... As noted in the Introduction, the ECC model was earlier found to provide a good description of aqueous solutions of many different ions such as alkali nitrate, carbonate, and sulfate salts and also guanidinium carbonate in water. [33][34][35][36][37]
[38]
[39][40]42,43 However, since the scaling of the partial charges in this model is done uniformly over space, the force field may not be accurately transferable to model interfaces and phase coexistence with highly inhomogeneous electron densities. In fact, in a recent study, 56 the ECC approach was found to be not fully adequate in describing the correct concentration dependence of surface tension of aqueous NaCl solutions. ...
Preferential solvation, ion pairing, and dynamics of concentrated aqueous solutions of divalent metal nitrate salts
Article
Full-text available
<here is a image bcda6755e9d6bf2d-d82e6c8fc30e959b> Sushma Yadav
Amalendu Chandra
We have investigated the characteristics of preferential solvation of ions, structure of solvation shells, ion pairing, and dynamics of aqueous solutions of divalent alkaline-earth metal nitrate salts at varying concentration by means of molecular dynamics simulations. Hydration shell structures and the extent of preferential solvation of the metal and nitrate ions in the solutions are investigated through calculations of radial distribution functions, tetrahedral ordering, and also spatial distribution functions. The Mg²⁺ ions are found to form solvent separated ion-pairs while the Ca²⁺ and Sr²⁺ ions form contact ion pairs with the nitrate ions. These findings are further corroborated by excess coordination numbers calculated through Kirkwood-Buff G factors for different ion-ion and ion-water pairs. The ion-pairing propensity is found to be in the order of Mg(NO3)2 < Ca(NO3)2 < Sr(NO3)2, and it follows the trend given by experimental activity coefficients. It is found that proper modeling of these solutions requires the inclusion of electronic polarization of the ions which is achieved in the current study through electronic continuum correction force fields. A detailed analysis of the effects of ion-pairs on the structure and dynamics of water around the hydrated ions is done through classification of water into different subspecies based on their locations around the cations or anions only or bridged between them. We have looked at the diffusion coefficients, relaxation of orientational correlation functions, and also the residence times of different subspecies of water to explore the dynamics of water in different structural environments in the solutions. The current results show that the water molecules are incorporated into fairly well-structured hydration shells of the ions, thus decreasing the single-particle diffusivities and increasing the orientational relaxation times of water with an increase in salt concentration. The different structural motifs also lead to the presence of substantial dynamical heterogeneity in these solutions of strongly interacting ions. The current study helps us to understand the molecular details of hydration structure, ion pairing, and dynamics of water in the solvation shells and also of ion diffusion in aqueous solutions of divalent metal nitrate salts.
... The charge scaling has received strong support in applications to ions [53][54]
[55]
[56], in particular in ionic liquids. As reported in ref [53], the use of scaled charges substantially improved the description of dynamical properties of ionic liquids, such as electric conductivity while previously the accurate modeling was reachable only in polarizable simulations [57][58][59][60]. ...
... Previously it was believed [61] that the selective effect can be reproduced only in polarizable simulations but in refs [54,62,63] the effect was predicted in computationally more efficient nonpolarizable simulations with scaled ionic charges. Another test was to reproduce the neutron scattering structure data for highly concentrated ionic solutions
[55]
. In standard MD simulations, with unscaled ion charges, the authors observed unphysical clustering of ions due to the exaggerated electrostatic interactions. ...
... The correction of ion charges by factor 1/ el resolved the problem
[55]
. In a comparative study [56] of polarizable and non-polarizable models, the nonpolarizable 28 MDEC simulations with scaled charges demonstrated capability of reproducing ion pairing structure properties. ...
Polarizable molecular interactions in condensed phase and their equivalent nonpolarizable models
Article
Alexei A. Stuchebrukhov
Earlier, using phenomenological approach, we showed that in some cases polarizable models of condensed phase systems can be reduced to nonpolarizable equivalent models with scaled charges. Examples of such systems include ionic liquids, TIPnP-type models of water, protein force fields, and others, where interactions and dynamics of inherently polarizable species can be accurately described by nonpolarizable models. To describe electrostatic interactions, the effective charges of simple ionic liquids are obtained by scaling the actual charges of ions by a factor of [Formula: see text], which is due to electronic polarization screening effect; the scaling factor of neutral species is more complicated. Here, using several theoretical models, we examine how exactly the scaling factors appear in theory, and how, and under what conditions, polarizable Hamiltonians are reduced to nonpolarizable ones. These models allow one to trace the origin of the scaling factors, determine their values, and obtain important insights on the nature of polarizable interactions in condensed matter systems.
... This electronic continuum correction (ECC) strategy has been first successfully employed to reproduce structural 5 features of aqueous ionic solutions.
[25]
[26][27][28] We, among others, demonstrated 7,8,19,29 that they could also provide a more accurate description of water dynamics than full charge models. ...
... While previous studies had mostly focused on cation parameters,
[25]
[26][27][28] we have developed corresponding parameters for the halogen series in combination with the SPC/E water model. 7 ...
On water reorientation dynamics in cation hydration shells
Article
J MOL LIQ
<here is a image 01cc2878b93b567e-ed60b0282133dfce> Eva Pluharova
Guillaume Stirnemann
<here is a image 8b07f5cfcb9a99d6-b7a075ad7aa91cb2> Damien Laage
The effects of ions on liquid water’s structural, dynamical, and thermodynamical properties have key implications for a wide range of biological and technological processes. Based on simulations and analytic modeling, we have recently developed a framework that allows to rationalize the effects of solutes and interfaces on water reorientation dynamics. However, this picture still misses some contributions of the cations to the experimentally measured slowdown or acceleration of water dynamics. All-atom classical simulations also face some limitations in quantitatively reproducing water structural and dynamical features in ionic aqueous solutions. Here, we show that a scaled-charge approach can successfully reproduce experimental trends and that ab-initio descriptions are not required. We show that a picture where the cation would lock a water molecule dipole and lead to partial OH reorientation is both incorrect for some ions, and largely exaggerated for others. We demonstrate that a combination of two effects on the hydrogen-bond (H-bond) exchange dynamics allows to understand the ambient temperature acceleration of water reorientation next to a cesium cation, and the retardation next to lithium and magnesium cations. First, ions create a local excluded volume, which hinders the approach of possible new H-bond partners, leading to a retarding contribution. However, they also perturb the local water structure, reducing the energetic cost of elongating the initial H-bond. For magnesium and lithium cations, the excluded volume effect dominates, which leads to an overall retardation of the H-bond exchange. For the cesium cation, at room temperature, this latter contribution overcomes the excluded volume effect, leading to an acceleration; moreover, the strong temperature dependence observed in the experiments, going from a large acceleration close to freezing to a retardation close to boiling, is understood by the key enthalpic effect of the elongation contribution. Overall, our framework now allows to reach a comprehensive understanding of cations’ and anions’ effects on water reorientation dynamics.
... 32,43,44 The importance of the ECC model manifests itself for both monovalent and multivalent ions, as they are capable of polarising their surrounding water molecules. 30,[45]
[46]
[47][48][49] Mason et al. 46 and Pegado et al. 50 showed that, predictions of the properties of aqueous salt solutions in the bulk improved significantly using the electronic continuum correction model compared with non-polarisable simulations. ...
... 32,43,44 The importance of the ECC model manifests itself for both monovalent and multivalent ions, as they are capable of polarising their surrounding water molecules. 30,[45][46][47][48][49] Mason et al.
46
and Pegado et al. 50 showed that, predictions of the properties of aqueous salt solutions in the bulk improved significantly using the electronic continuum correction model compared with non-polarisable simulations. ...
Interfacial and bulk properties of concentrated solutions of ammonium nitrate
Article
Full-text available
<here is a image 203e287239b1b8d2-53a3a4eb4349b71e> Sara Mosallanejad
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Ibukun OLUWOYE
<here is a image 136df4694952c78e-8501d97096f3925a> Mohammednoor Altarawneh
<here is a image 82554d3c3caaa564-af49e3e80327dfeb> Bogdan Z Dlugogorski
We conducted molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to calculate the density and surface tension of concentrated ammonium nitrate (AN) solutions up to the solubility limit of ammonium nitrate in water, by combining the SPC/E, SPCE/F and TIP4P/2005 water models with OPLS model for ammonium and nitrate ions. This is the first time that the properties of concentrated solutions of nitrates, especially AN, have been studied by molecular dynamics. We effectively account for the polarisation effects by the electronic continuum correction (ECC), practically realised via rescaling of the ionic charges. We found that, the full-charge force field MD simulations overestimate the experimental results, as the ions experience repulsion from the interface and prefer to remain in the subsurface layer and the bulk solution. In contrast, reducing the ionic charges results in the behaviour that fits well with the experimental data. The nitrate anions display a greater propensity for the interface than the ammonium cations. We accurately predict both the density and the rise in the surface tension of concentrated solutions of AN, recommending TIP4P/2005 for water and the scaled-charge OPLS model (OPLS/ECC) for the ions in the solutions. We observe that, the adsorption of anions to the interface accompanies their depletion in the subsurface layer, which is preferentially occupied by cations, resulting in the formation of the electric double layer. We demonstrate the ion deficiency for up to 3 Å below the surface and establish the requirement to include the polarisability effects in the OPLS model for AN. While these results confirmed the findings of the previous studies for dilute solutions, they are new in the solubility limit. Concentrated solutions exhibit a strong effect of the abundance of solute on the coordination numbers of ions and on the degree of ion pairing. Surprisingly, ion pairing decreases significantly at the interface compared with the bulk. The present study identifies OPLS/ECC, along with TIP4P/2005, to yield accurate predictions of physical properties of concentrated AN, with precision required for industrial applications, such as a formulation of emulsion and fuel-oil explosives that now predominate the civilian use of AN. An application of this model will allow one to predict the surface properties of supersaturated solutions of AN which fall outside the capability of the present laboratory experiments but are important industrially.
... 12 Leontyev and Stuchebrukhov have coined this the molecular dynamics electronic continuum (MDEC) model, 11,12 which has also been referred to as the electronic continuum correction (EEC) method.
13
It has been widely used with good results, 9,14 for example, for the structure of concentrated ionic solutions, 13 electronic conductivity, 15 as well as solvation and ion pairing. 16 The rescaled charges should account for the missing static polarizability of the water in the force field but could cause other undesired effects: for example, when ions sample regions in space that have a polarizability different from that of water or when ion association becomes important at high concentrations. ...
... 12 Leontyev and Stuchebrukhov have coined this the molecular dynamics electronic continuum (MDEC) model, 11,12 which has also been referred to as the electronic continuum correction (EEC) method. 13 It has been widely used with good results, 9,14 for example, for the structure of concentrated ionic solutions,
13
electronic conductivity, 15 as well as solvation and ion pairing. 16 The rescaled charges should account for the missing static polarizability of the water in the force field but could cause other undesired effects: for example, when ions sample regions in space that have a polarizability different from that of water or when ion association becomes important at high concentrations. ...
Dielectric Decrement for Aqueous NaCl Solutions: The Effect of Ionic Charge Scaling in Non-Polarizable Water Force Fields
Article
Full-text available
Sayan Seal
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Katharina Doblhoff-Dier
<here is a image 18409e515503215b-8243764de67a830f> Jörg Meyer
We investigate the dielectric constant and the dielectric decrement of aqueous NaCl solutions by means of molecular dynamic simulations. We thereby compare the performance of four different force fields and focus on disentangling the origin of the dielectric decrement and the influence of scaled ionic charges, as often used in non-polarizable force fields to account for the missing dynamic polarizability in the shielding of electrostatic ion interactions. Three of the force fields showed excessive contact ion pair formation, which correlates with a reduced dielectric decrement. In spite of the fact that the scaling of charges only weakly influenced the average polarization of water molecules around an ion, the rescaling of ionic charges did influence the dielectric decrement and a close to linear relation of the slope of the dielectric constant as a function of concentration with the ionic charge was found.
... 36 More recently, nonpolarizable force fields that effectively account for polarization effects within the electronic continuum correction with rescaling (ECCR) scheme were developed for Na + 37 and K + .
38
Building on these studies, a general nonpolarizable force field for ions in water (denoted as Madrid-2019), which adopts scaled charges, was shown to provide a reliable description of several thermodynamic properties of ionic aqueous solutions. 39 A new set of nonpolarizable force fields developed for several ions, including Na + and K + , using a global optimization procedure, were shown to reproduce the concentration-dependent density, ionic conductivity, and dielectric constant of various electrolyte solutions. ...
Hydration Structure of Na+ and K+ Ions in Solution Predicted by Data-Driven Many-Body Potentials
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Full-text available
The hydration structure of Na+ and K+ ions in solution is systematically investigated using a hierarchy of molecular models that progressively include more accurate representations of many-body interactions. We found that a conventional empirical pairwise additive force field that is commonly used in biomolecular simulations is unable to reproduce the extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectra for both ions. In contrast, progressive inclusion of many-body effects rigorously derived from the many-body expansion of the energy allows the MB-nrg potential energy functions (PEFs) to achieve nearly quantitative agreement with the experimental EXAFS spectra, thus enabling the development of a molecular-level picture of the hydration structure of both Na+ and K+ in solution. Since the MB-nrg PEFs have already been shown to accurately describe isomeric equilibria and vibrational spectra of small ion–water clusters in the gas phase, the present study demonstrates that the MB-nrg PEFs effectively represent the long-sought-after models able to correctly predict the properties of ionic aqueous systems from the gas to the liquid phase, which has so far remained elusive.
Ion-induced transient potential fluctuations facilitate pore formation and cation transport through lipid membranes
Unassisted ion transport through lipid membranes plays a crucial role in many cell functions without which life would not be possible, yet the precise mechanism behind the process remains unknown due to its molecular complexity. Here, we demonstrate a direct link between membrane potential fluctuations and divalent ion transport. High-throughput wide-field second harmonic (SH) microscopy shows that membrane potential fluctuations are universally found in lipid bilayer systems. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal that such variations in membrane potential reduce the free energy cost of transient pore formation and increase the ion flux across an open pore. These transient pores can act as conduits for ion transport, which we SH image for a series of divalent cations (Cu$^{2+}$, Ca$^{2+}$, Ba$^{2+}$, Mg$^{2+}$) passing through GUV membranes. Combining the experimental and computational results, we show that permeation through pores formed via an ion-induced electrostatic field is a viable mechanism for unassisted ion transport.
Structure, dynamics and phase behavior of concentrated electrolytes for applications in energy storage devices
Diese Arbeit widmet sich der Untersuchung der dynamischen und strukturellen Eigenschaften sowie des Phasenverhaltens konzentrierter flüssiger Elektrolyte und ihrer Anwendung in Energiespeichern mittels Methoden der statistischen Mechanik und mithilfe atomistischer Molekulardynamik (MD) Simulationen. Zuerst untersuchen wir die Struktur-Eigenschafts-Beziehungen in konzentrierten Elektrolytlösungen wie sie in Lithium-Schwefel (Li/S), durch wir ein MD Simulationsmodell repräsentativer state-of-the-art Elektrolyt-Systeme für Li/S-Batterien bestehend aus Polysulfiden, lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) und LiNO 3 Elektrolyten mit jeweils unterschiedlichen Kettenlängen gemischt in organischen Lösungsmitteln aus 1,2-dimethoxyethane and 1,3-dioxolane erstellen. Als Zweites befassen wir uns mit der Phasenseparation, die auftritt, wenn sich die physikalisch-chemischen Eigenschaften flüssiger Gemische voneinander unterscheiden. Diese Systeme bestehen üblicherweise aus einem konzentrierten anorganischen Salz und einer ionischen Flüssigkeit. In dieser Arbeit untersuchen wir eine Vielfalt von hochkonzentrierten wässrigen Elektrolytlösungen, die aus unterschiedlichen Zusammensetzungen von LiCl und LiTFSI bestehen. Daraufhin beantworten wir die Frage, wie unterschiedlich die Komponenten in der wässrigen Lösung gemischt sein sollten, damit eine solche flüssig-flüssig-Phasentrennung stattfinden kann. Als letztes untersuchen wir die Ladungsabschirmung, die ein grundlegendes Phänomen ist, das die Struktur von Elektrolyten im Bulk und an Grenzflächen bestimmt. Wir haben in dieser Arbeit die Abschirmlängen für verschiedene Elektrolyte von niedrigen bis zu hohen Konzentrationen untersucht.
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Resolving the Equal Number Density Puzzle: Molecular Picture from Simulations of LiCl(aq) and NaCl(aq)
The change in number densities of aqueous solutions of alkali chlorides should be qualitatively predictable. Typically, as cations get larger, the number density of the solution decreases. However, aqueous solutions of lithium and sodium chloride exhibit at ambient conditions practically identical number densities at equal molalities despite different ionic sizes. Here, we provide an atomistic interpretation of this experimentally observed anomalous behavior using molecular dynamics simulations. The obtained results show that the rigidity of the Li+ first and second solvation shells and the associated compromised hydrogen bonding result in practically equal average water densities in the local hydration regions for Li+ and Na+ despite different sizes of the cations. In addition, in more distant regions from the cations, the water densities of these two solutions also coincide. These findings thus provide an atomistic interpretation for matching number densities of LiCl and NaCl solutions. In contrast, the number density differences between NaCl and KCl solutions as well as between LiCl and KCl solutions behave in a regular fashion with lower number densities of solutions observed for larger cations.
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A practical guide to biologically relevant molecular simulations with charge scaling for electronic polarization
Molecular simulations can elucidate atomistic-level mechanisms of key biological processes, which are often hardly accessible to experiment. However, the results of the simulations can only be as trustworthy as the underlying simulation model. In many of these processes, interactions between charged moieties play a critical role. Current empirical force fields tend to overestimate such interactions, often in a dramatic way, when polyvalent ions are involved. The source of this shortcoming is the missing electronic polarization in these models. Given the importance of such biomolecular systems, there is great interest in fixing this deficiency in a computationally inexpensive way without employing explicitly polarizable force fields. Here, we review the electronic continuum correction approach, which accounts for electronic polarization in a mean-field way, focusing on its charge scaling variant. We show that by pragmatically scaling only the charged molecular groups, we qualitatively improve the charge–charge interactions without extra computational costs and benefit from decades of force field development on biomolecular force fields.
Structural and Transport Properties of Li/S Battery Electrolytes: Role of the Polysulfide Species
Lithium--sulfur (Li/S) batteries are regarded as one of the most promising energy storage devices beyond lithium-ion batteries because of their high energy density of 2600 Wh/kg and an affordable cost of sulfur. Meanwhile, some challenges inherent to Li/S batteries remain to be tackled, for instance, the polysulfide (PS) shuttle effect, the irreversible solidification of Li$_2$S, and the volume expansion of the cathode material during discharge. On the molecular level, these issues originate from the structural and solubility behavior of the PS species in bulk and in the electrode confinement. In this study, we use classical molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to develop a working model for PS of different chain lengths in applied electrolyte solutions of lithium bistriflimide (LiTFSI) in 1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME) and 1,3-dioxolane (DOL) mixtures. We investigate conductivities, diffusion coefficients, solvation structures, and clustering behavior and verify our simulation model with experimental measurements available in literature and newly performed by us. Our results show that diffusion coefficients and conductivities are significantly influenced by the chain length of PS. The conductivity contribution of the short chains, like Li$_2$S$_4$, is lower than of longer PS chains, such as Li$_2$S$_6$ or Li$_2$S$_8$, despite the fact that the diffusion coefficient of Li$_2$S$_4$ is higher than for longer PS chains. The low conductivity of Li$_2$S$_4$ can be attributed to its low degree of dissociation and even to a formation of large clusters in the solution. It is also found that an addition of 1 M LiTFSI into PS solutions considerably reduces the clustering behavior. Our simulation model enables future systematic studies in various solvating and confining systems for the rational design of Li/S electrolytes.
... However, only starting 2010 its importance for modeling ionic solutions has been elaborated in numerous works by Leontyev and Stuchebrukhov, e.g. [ 7,8,9], defining the Molecular Dynamics in Electronic Continuum (MDEC) model, soon adopted as the Electronic Continuum Correction (ECC) by Jungwirth et al. [ 10], who published several contributions, particularly developing the potentials for biologically relevant ions with charges scaled down to 75% of their nominal values [ 11,12,13,14,15,16,
17,
18]. They have proven ECC approach to significantly improve the description of ion-ion and ion-water interactions in aqueous solutions, especially in the case of multivalent ions, often significantly changing the population of contact vs. solvent separated ion pairs and/or associated free energy barriers. ...
Electronic continuum correction without scaled charges
In recent years the “Pandora's box” of charges used in classical simulations of nonpolarizable molecular models, especially for aqueous solutions and ionic liquids, has been opened. Particularly we refer to the Electronic continuum correction (ECC) model that suggests applying scaled down charges of ions and tearing down the ‘dogma’ of identical charges used to describe the potential energy surfaces (PES) and dipole moment surface (DMS). We elaborate on both ideas and integrate them into a consistent description of ‘real’ atomic charges of water and ions, which does not necessarily need to violate the ‘dogma’. We promote ECCε approach directly incorporating the electronic polarizability into screening of electrostatic interactions, avoiding the use of scaled charges, which perplex the comparison with experiment, ab initio or polarizable models and are cumbersome for interactions with external electric or magnetic fields. We conclude that none of the existing nonpolarizable water models is fully consistent with the continuum electronic polarizability and stimulate a quest for a better model implementing ECCε ideas.
... Still, there is much evidence that the reliable treatment of the polarizable interactions in nonpolarizable simulations can be efficiently done by simple scaling of ionic charges. [119][120]
[121]
Aggregation dynamics of charged peptides in water: Effect of salt concentration
Extensive molecular dynamics simulations have been employed to probe the effects of salts on the kinetics and dynamics of early-stage aggregated structures of steric zipper peptides in water. The simulations reveal that the chemical identity and valency of cation in the salt play a crucial role in aggregate dynamics and morphology of the peptides. Sodium ions induce the most aggregated structures, but this is not replicated equivalently by potassium ions which are also monovalent. Divalent magnesium ions induce aggregation but to a lesser extent than that of sodium, and their interactions with the charged peptides are also significantly different. The aggregate morphology in the presence of monovalent sodium ions is a compact structure with interpenetrating peptides, which differs from the more loosely connected peptides in the presence of either potassium or magnesium ions. The different ways in which the cations effectively renormalize the charges of peptides are suggested to be the cause of the differential effects of different salts studied here. These simulations underscore the importance of understanding both the valency and nature of salts in biologically relevant aggregated structures.
... Still, there is much evidence that the reliable treatment of the polarizable interactions in nonpolarizable simulations can be efficiently done by simple scaling of ionic charges. [119][120]
[121]
[122] In this paper, the calculation of effective charge of metal ions can address this issue at some extent. Therefore, caution is needed to choose appropriate force-field parameters in the protein aggregation studies. ...
Aggregation dynamics of charged peptides in water: effect of salt concentration
Extensive molecular dynamics simulations have been employed to probe the effects of salts on the kinetics and dynamics of early-stage aggregated structures of steric zipper peptides in water. The simulations reveal that the chemical identity and valency of cation in the salt play a crucial roles in aggregate morphology of the peptides. Sodium ions induce the most aggregated structures but this is not replicated by potassium ions which are also monovalent. Divalent Magnesium ions induce aggregation, but to a lesser extent than that of sodium and their interactions with the charged peptides are also significantly different. The aggregate morphology in the presence of monovalent sodium ions is a compact structure with interpenetrating peptides, which differs from the more loosely connected peptides in the presence of either potassium or magnesium ions. The different ways in which the cations effectively renormalize the charges of peptides is suggested to be the cause of the differential effects of different salts studied here. These simulations underscore the importance of understanding both the valency and nature of of salts in biologically relevant aggregated structures.
... Many of these computational and spectroscopic studies compared the hydration of carbonate to nitrate because nitrate and carbonate are isostructural yet have very different viscosity B coefficients [22,23,26,27,29]. Nitrate's viscosity B coefficient would indicate that it weakly interacts with water [18], which is also consistent with many computational, spectroscopic, and diffraction studies [26,27,[30][31][32][33]
[34]
[35][36][37][38][39][40][41]. Thus, nitrate and carbonate appear to have different interactions with water despite having similar structures and sizes. ...
The importance of ion interactions on electrolyte solution viscosities determined by comparing concentrated sodium carbonate and nitrate solutions
Sodium carbonate is a common electrolyte in high pH aqueous solution, and its contribution to the viscosity of those electrolytes solutions is of practical importance. Nitrate is isostructural with carbonate, and has nearly identical ionic radius. The relative importance of ionic size versus interactions with water on electrolyte solution viscosity at moderate and high electrolyte concentrations has been ambiguous in the literature. The current study reviews and compiles the available literature data for carbonate and nitrate solution viscosities, and supplements these data with new measurements of the viscosity of sodium carbonate solutions. Given that carbonate and nitrate anions have nearly identical ion size, the large difference in observed viscosity indicate it that carbonate/nitrate ion interactions with water are more important than ion size in determining the viscosity of these two electrolyte solutions. Sodium carbonate viscosity data was also used to parametrize the Laliberté model of electrolyte solution viscosities between 20 and 98 °C.
... For many ions, mainly divalent, it has already been proven that the ECCR approach in aqueous environment, scaling charges to 75% of their nominal values, brings significant improvement in the structure of ion-water interactions, free energy profiles, ion-ion pairing, and ion dynamics. [45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52][53]
[54]
[55][56][57][58][59][60] The structural improvement was observed particularly when combining the neutron diffraction data vs. simulation data using full or ECCR charges. The standard potentials with full charges are typically designed to predict correctly the peak positions of X-ray diffraction data, but less attention has often been paid to the agreement in the heights of these peaks and the valleys which separate them -either due to the lack of more detailed information from experiments or simply because the fitted potentials failed to produce them accurately at the same time. ...
Modeling of solid-liquid interfaces using scaled charges: rutile (110) surfaces
Electronic continuum correction (ECC) has been proven to bring significant improvement in the modeling of interactions of ions (especially multivalent) in aqueous solutions. We present generalization and the first application of this approach to modeling solid−liquid interfaces, which are omnipresent in physical chemistry, geochemistry, and biophysics. Scaling charges of the top layer of surface atoms makes the existing solid models compatible with the ECC models of ions and molecules, allowing to use the modified force fields for a more accurate investigation of interactions of various metal and metal−oxide surfaces with aqueous solutions, including complex biomolecules and multivalent ions. We have reparametrized rutile (110) models with different surface charge densities (from 0 to −0.416 C/m²) and adopted/developed scaled charge force fields for ions, namely Na⁺, Rb⁺, Sr²⁺, and Cl⁻. A good agreement of obtained molecular dynamics (MD) data with X-ray experiments and previously reported MD results was observed, but changes in the occupancy of various adsorption sites were observed and discussed in detail.
... Briefly, it has been shown that polarization can be effectively accounted for within nonpolarizable simulations via rescaling ionic charges by multiplying atomic partial charges by a coefficient and, at the same time, readjusting the van der Waals parameters. 48,
50,
51 This method is called electronic continuum correction with rescaling (ECCR) which leads to significant improvements in the description of calcium ions. In this study, we used the charge rescaled force field developed by Jungwirth et al., 52 in which they provided a calcium model that could be reliably used in simulations of aqueous solutions of calcium ions in various aqueous and biological applications. ...
Molecular dynamics simulation, ab initio calculation, and size-selected anion photoelectron spectroscopy study of initial hydration processes of calcium chloride
To understand the initial hydration processes of CaCl2, we performed molecular simulations employing the force field based on the theory of electronic continuum correction with rescaling. Integrated tempering sampling molecular dynamics were combined with ab initio calculations to overcome the sampling challenge in cluster structure search and refinement. The calculated vertical detachment energies of CaCl2(H2O)n⁻ (n = 0–8) were compared with the values obtained from photoelectron spectra, and consistency was found between the experiment and computation. Separation of the Cl—Ca ion pair is investigated in CaCl2(H2O)n⁻ anions, where the first Ca—Cl ionic bond required 4 water molecules, and both Ca—Cl bonds are broken when the number of water molecules is larger than 7. For neutral CaCl2(H2O)n clusters, breaking of the first Ca—Cl bond starts at n = 5, and 8 water molecules are not enough to separate the two ion pairs. Comparing with the observations on magnesium chloride, it shows that separating one ion pair in CaCl2(H2O)n requires fewer water molecules than those for MgCl2(H2O)n. Coincidentally, the solubility of calcium chloride is higher than that of magnesium chloride in bulk solutions.
... 13 We note the recent molecular dynamics study of K 2 CO 3 in water that employed electronic continuum corrections for the ionic charges to take into account the polarization effects and found good agreement between the simulation and experimental neutron scattering structure factors.
17
This study also showed the inadequacy of nonpolarizable models in describing solvation of high charge density solutes like the carbonate ion in water. In another study, 18 classical molecular dynamics simulations of calcium carbonate in water using polarizable force fields provided a molecular-level picture of the solvation properties of ions involved in calcium carbonate mineral nucleation. ...
Structural and Dynamical Nature of Hydration Shells of the Carbonate Ion in Water: An Ab Initio Molecular Dynamics Study
Structural and dynamical nature of hydration shells of the carbonate ion in water is investigated through ab initio molecular dynamics simulation. The anisotropic solvation shell structure of the ion is resolved by calculating conically restricted pair distribution and radial/angular correlation functions. The vibrational frequency of OD modes hydrogen bonded to the ion is found to be smaller than that of bulk water which means the carbonate ion-water hydrogen bonds are stronger than that between water molecules. Calculations of the orientational and residence dynamics and translational diffusion reveal retarded mobility of hydration shell water molecules compared to the bulk water due to stronger ion-water interactions. It is shown that the rotation of hydration shell water takes place through dual routes of hydrogen bond switching where an OD bond initially hydrogen bonded to a carbonate oxygen switches its hydrogen bond to another carbonate oxygen or to a water oxygen. The carbonate ion is found to have a non-zero dipole moment of 1.0\,D in water which can be attributed to its interactions with the fluctuating environment of the surrounding water. The carbonate ion is also found to have a long range effect on neighboring water molecules which goes beyond the first solvation shell.
... Not surprisingly, and in accordance with previous studies [22,
45]
of other charged compounds, the impact of the ECCR approach on the behavior of the divalent oxalate dianion in water was observed to be dramatic. ...
Force field parametrization of hydrogenoxalate and oxalate anions with scaled charges
Models of the hydrogenoxalate (bioxalate, charge −1) and oxalate (charge −2) anions were developed for classical molecular dynamics (CMD) simulations and parametrized against ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) data from our previous study (Kroutil et al. (2016) J Mol Model 22:210). The interactions of the anions with water were described using charges scaled according to the electronic continuum correction approach with rescaling of nonbonded parameters (ECCR), and those descriptions of anion interactions were found to agree well with relevant AIMD and experimental results. The models with full RESP charges showed excessively strong electrostatic interactions between the solute and water molecules, leading to an overstructured solvation shell around the anions and thus to a diffusion coefficient that was much too low. The effect of charge scaling was more evident for the oxalate dianion than for the hydrogenoxalate anion. Our work provides CMD models for ions of oxalic acid and extends previous studies that showed the importance of ECCR for modeling divalent ions and ions of organic compounds.
... Practically, this electronic continuum correction means running the nonpolarizable simulation of aqueous salt solutions as usual, except with charges of the ions being reduced by 25%. It has been shown recently that this charge scaling, which has incidentally been used in simulations of ionic liquids as an effective fix [69], significantly improves agreement with experiments for ion pairing, particularly if polyvalent ions are present [34,
70]
. ...
Advances in Chemical Physics: Volume 155
This chapter briefly describes technical problems connected with polarizable force fields stemming from the fact that polarization is an inherently many-body electronic effect, which can be only approximately accounted for using atomic polarizabilities and assuming a linear polarization response. A computationally cheap way to completely circumvent such issues is to account for ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD), where polarization is consistently accounted for within an explicit electronic structure approach. It reviews two recent case studies of charged particles at aqueous interfaces, both of them accompanied with controversies. The first concerns the interfacial behavior of one of the inherent water ions—hydroxide. The second is about the surface structure and energetics of the hydrated electron as a representative of a nonclassical charged particle characterized by a soft electronic cloud. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the developments expected in the field in the near future.
Hydrated Ions: From Individual Ions to Ion Pairs to Ion Clusters
The structure of hydrated ions plays a central role in chemical and biological sciences. In the present paper, five ions, namely Na+, K+, Mg2+ ,Ca2+ and Cl-, are examined using molecular dynamics simulations. In addition to hydrated individual ions and ion pairs identified previously, hydrated ion clusters containing 3, 4, 5, or more ions are identified in the present paper. The dependence of hydration numbers and mole fractions of individual ions, ion pairs and larger ion clusters on the electrolyte concentration is determined. As the electrolyte concentration increases, the mole fraction of hydrated individual ions decreases and the mole fraction of hydrated larger ion clusters increases. The results also reveal that the hydrogen bonding numbers of the H2O molecules of the first hydration shells of individual ions, ion pairs, and larger ion clusters are insensitive to the electrolyte concentration, but sensitive to the nature and conformation of ions.
Calcium Binding to Calmodulin by Molecular Dynamics with Effective Polarization
Calcium represents a key biological signaling ion with the EF-hand loops being its most prevalent binding motif in proteins. We show using molecular dynamics simulations with umbrella sampling that including electronic polarization effects via ionic charge rescaling dramatically improves agreements with experiment in terms of the strength of calcium binding and structures of the calmodulin binding sites. The present study thus opens way to accurate calculations of interactions of calcium and other computationally difficult high-charge-density ions in biological contexts.Keywords: EF-hand motif; free energy calculations; charge scaling; calcium-binding protein; umbrella sampling
Accounting for Electronic Polarization Effects in Aqueous Sodium Chloride via Molecular Dynamics Aided by Neutron Scattering
Modelled ions, described by non-polarizable force fields, can suffer from unphysical ion pairing and clustering in aqueous solutions well below their solubility limit. The electronic continuum correction takes electronic polarization effects of the solvent into account in an effective way by scaling the charges on the ions, resulting in a much better description of the ionic behavior. Here, we present parameters for the sodium ion consistent with this effective polarizability approach and in agreement with experimental data from neutron scattering, which could be used for simulations of complex aqueous systems where polarization effects are important.
Exploring Ion–Ion Interactions in Aqueous Solutions by a Combination of Molecular Dynamics and Neutron Scattering
Recent advances in computational and experimental techniques have allowed for accurate description of ion pairing in aqueous solutions. Free energy methods based on ab initio molecular dynamics, as well as on force fields accounting effectively for electronic polarization, can provide quantitative information about the structures and occurrences of individual types of ion pairs. When properly benchmarked against electronic structure calculations for model systems and against structural experiments, in particular neutron scattering, such force field simulations represent a powerful tool for elucidating interactions of salt ions in complex biological aqueous environments.
Polarizability series of aqueous polyatomic anions revealed by femtosecond Kerr effect spectroscopy
The polarizability or hyperpolarizability of aqueous anions is closely related to important processes such as the surface tension change of water and the empirical Hofmeister effect. Herein, we measured the hyperpolarizabilities of six polyatomic anions (HPO42−, HSO4−, CO32−, CH3COO−, NO3− and SCN−) in their aqueous potassium salt solutions using femtosecond optical Kerr effect spectroscopy. We found that the hyperpolarizability of these six aqueous anions increased in the following order: HPO42− HSO4− < CO32− < CH3COO− < NO3− < SCN−, which correlated well with the Hofmeister series of aqueous anions in their decreasing ability to precipitate proteins. However, the CO32− anion is the exceptional anion. The current study is useful for disclosing these fundamental physicochemical properties in aqueous salt solutions.
A scaled-ionic-charge simulation model that reproduces enhanced and suppressed water diffusion in aqueous salt solutions
Non-polarizable models for ions and water quantitatively and qualitatively misrepresent the salt concentration dependence of water diffusion in electrolyte solutions. In particular, experiment shows that the water diffusion coefficient increases in the presence of salts of low charge density (e.g., CsI), whereas the results of simulations with non-polarizable models show a decrease of the water diffusion coefficient in all alkali halide solutions. We present a simple charge-scaling method based on the ratio of the solvent dielectric constants from simulation and experiment. Using an ion model that was developed independently of a solvent, i.e., in the crystalline solid, this method improves the water diffusion trends across a range of water models. When used with a good-quality water model, e.g., TIP4P/2005 or E3B, this method recovers the qualitative behaviour of the water diffusion trends. The model and method used were also shown to give good results for other structural and dynamic properties including solution density, radial distribution functions, and ion diffusion coefficients.
An atomic charge model for graphene oxide for exploring its bioadhesive properties in explicit water
Graphene Oxide (GO) has been shown to exhibit properties that are useful in applications such as biomedical imaging, biological sensors, and drug delivery. The binding properties of biomolecules at the surface of GO can provide insight into the potential biocompatibility of GO. Here we assess the intrinsic affinity of amino acids to GO by simulating their adsorption onto a GO surface. The simulation is done using Amber03 force-field molecular dynamics in explicit water. The emphasis is placed on developing an atomic charge model for GO. The adsorption energies are computed using atomic charges obtained from an ab initio electrostatic potential based method. The charges reported here are suitable for simulating peptide adsorption to GO.
Polarizable mean-field model of water for biological simulations with AMBER and CHARMM force fields
Although a great number of computational models of water are available today, the majority of current biological simulations are done with simple models, such as TIP3P and SPC, developed almost 30 years ago and only slightly modified since then. The reason is that the nonpolarizable force fields that are mostly used to describe proteins and other biological molecules are incompatible with more sophisticated modern polarizable models of water. The issue is electronic polarizability: in a liquid state, in protein, and in a vacuum, the water molecule is polarized differently and therefore has different properties; thus the only way to describe all of these different media with the same model is to use a polarizable water model. However, to be compatible with the force field of the rest of the system, e.g., a protein, the latter should be polarizable as well. Here, we describe a novel model of water that is in effect polarizable and yet compatible with the standard nonpolarizable force fields such as AMBER, CHARMM, GROMOS, OPLS, etc. Thus, the model resolves the outstanding problem of incompatibility.
Continuum level treatment of electronic polarization in the framework of molecular simulations of solvation effects
The hybrid molecular–continuum model for polar solvation considered in this paper combines the dielectric continuum approximation for treating fast electronic (inertialess) polarization effects and a molecular dynamics (MD) simulation for the slow (inertial) polarization component, including orientational and translational solvent modes. The inertial polarization is generated by average charge distributions of solvent particles, composed of permanent and induced (electronic) components. MD simulations are performed in a manner consistent with the choice of solvent and solute charges such that all electrostatic interactions are scaled by the factor 1/ε∞, where ε∞ is the optical dielectric permittivity. This approach yields an ensemble of equilibrium solvent configurations adjusted to the electric field created by a charged or strongly polar solute. The electrostatic solvent response field is found as the solution of the Poisson equation including both solute and explicit solvent charges, with accurate account of electrostatic boundary conditions at the surfaces separating spatial regions with different dielectric permittivities. Both equilibrium and nonequilibrium solvation effects can be studied by means of this model, and their inertial and inertialess contributions are naturally separated. The methodology for computation of charge transfer reorganization energies is developed and applied to a model two-site dipolar system in the SPC water solvent. Three types of charge transfer reactions are considered. The standard linear-response approach yields high accuracy for each particular reaction, but proves to be significantly in error when reorganization energies of different reactions were compared. This result has a purely molecular origin and is absent within a conventional continuum solvent model. © 2003 American Institute of Physics.
Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms
| https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225045343_Accurate_Description_of_Aqueous_Carbonate_Ions_An_Effective_Polarization_Model_Verified_by_Neutron_Scattering |
/raid1/www/Hosts/bankrupt/TCREUR_Public/150313.mbx
T R O U B L E D C O M P A N Y R E P O R T E R
E U R O P E
Friday, March 13, 2015, Vol. 16, No. 51
Headlines
F I N L A N D
TALVIVAARA MINING: Audley to Acquire Bankrupt Operational Unit
F R A N C E
BANQUE PSA: S&P Affirms 'BB/B' CCRs Over Santander Partnership
CREDIPAR: S&P Raises LT CCR to 'BB+' Over Santander Partnership
G E R M A N Y
TELE COLUMBUS: S&P Assigns 'B+' Corp. Credit Rating
I R E L A N D
AQUILAE CLO II: S&P Affirms 'CCC+' Rating on Class E Notes
I T A L Y
WIND ACQUISITION: Fitch Rates Proposed Sr. Sec. Bonds 'BB-(EXP)'
L U X E M B O U R G
ELEX ALPHA: S&P Lowers Rating on Class E Notes to 'CCC+'
M A L T A
CITIES ENTERTAINMENT: Took Almost EUR300,000 Worth of Furniture
N E T H E R L A N D S
GATEWAY II: S&P Lowers Rating on Class B-1 Notes to 'CCC+'
P O R T U G A L
BANCO BPI: S&P Revises CreditWatch on 'BB-' Rating to Developing
R U S S I A
MECHEL OAO: Debt Settlement Plan May Help Avert Bankruptcy
S P A I N
TDA IBERCAJA: S&P Affirms 'D' Rating on Class B Notes
U N I T E D K I N G D O M
ANYSTAFF RECRUITMENT: In Administration After No Buyer Found
ATMOSPHERE BARS: Broadway Boulevard Could Sell for GBP1
CELESTE MORTGAGE 2015-1: S&P Assigns Prelim. B Rating to F Notes
KEY HOMES: Berkeley Homes Takes Over Abandoned Woolwich Hotel
MASTERTON LTD: Unprofitable Contracts Prompt Administration
MUIRFIELD CONTRACTS: In Administration, Staff Put on Leave
PT MCWILLIAMS: Creditors May Lose GBP25MM After Administration
X X X X X X X X
* BOOK REVIEW: Lost Prophets -- An Insider's History
*********
=============
F I N L A N D
=============
TALVIVAARA MINING: Audley to Acquire Bankrupt Operational Unit
--------------------------------------------------------------
Kati Pohjanpalo and Kasper Viita at Bloomberg News report that a
group of investors led by Audley Capital Advisors will acquire
Talvivaara Mining Co.'s bankrupt operational unit.
Finland's Economy Ministry said in an e-mailed statement Audley
signed a conditional agreement to acquire Talvivaara Sotkamo's
operations from its bankruptcy estate, Bloomberg relates. It
also signed an investment deal with the Finnish state's Terrafame
Oy, Bloomberg notes.
According to the investment agreement, Audley will hold an 85%
stake in a new mining company that will operate the nickel mine
in northern Finland, with Terrafame owning the remaining 15%,
Bloomberg relates.
The companies are planning to invest more than EUR200 million
(US$212 million) to restart operations at the mine and agreed to
share environmental risks, Bloomberg discloses.
Economy Minister Jan Vapaavuori, as cited by Bloomberg, said the
value of the deal is less than the EUR40 million the Finnish
government has spent after the operational unit's bankruptcy in
November.
The company suffered from falling nickel prices, a slow ramp-up
at its mine as well as environmental issues and pollution caused
by excess water, Bloomberg relays.
Mr. Vapaavuori said the state will continue to spend about
EUR10 million per month until the new owner takes over, Bloomberg
notes.
The ministry, as cited by Bloomberg, said funding for the deal,
as well as approval by authorities, are still pending and the
target date for the arrangement was set at "summer" 2015.
About Talvivaara Mining
Talvivaara Mining Co. Ltd. is a Finnish nickel producer. It
filed for a corporate reorganization on Nov. 15, 2013, to raise
funds and avoid bankruptcy. The company suffered from falling
nickel prices and a slow ramp-up at its mine in northern Finland,
forcing it to seek fundraising help from investors and creditors.
===========
F R A N C E
===========
BANQUE PSA: S&P Affirms 'BB/B' CCRs Over Santander Partnership
--------------------------------------------------------------
Standard & Poor's Ratings Services said that it affirmed the
long- and short-term counterparty credit ratings on European auto
manufacturer Peugeot S.A.'s captive finance company, France-based
Banque PSA Finance (BPF) at 'BB/B'. S&P's outlook on BPF's long-
term counterparty credit rating is positive.
On July 10, 2014, BPF and Santander Consumer Finance (SCF), the
consumer finance subsidiary of Spanish bank Banco Santander
(Santander), signed a framework agreement to establish joint-
partnerships between the two groups in 11 European countries. On
Feb. 2, 2015, BPF announced that its 50/50 partnership with SCF
had obtained regulatory approvals to start operating in France
and in the U.K. S&P expects the remaining transactions to close
during 2015 and early 2016.
S&P does not view the BPF-SCF partnership as having consequences
for BPF's degree of insulation from its 100%-owner Peugeot. S&P
continues to consider BPF as a "core" and "insulated" subsidiary
of Peugeot and S&P caps its long-term rating at two notches above
its parent under S&P's group rating methodology. Previously, the
two-notch differential also reflected S&P's view of BPF's
systemic importance to the French government, which S&P has now
revised to "low" from "moderate." In S&P's view, BPF's reduced
balance sheet size going forward means that a default is not
likely to weaken the French financial system. In the meantime,
although BPF will continue to oversee the financial services
operations of Peugeot, the ability of the group to provide
financing solutions to its customers (and potentially preserving
employment in France) is in itself enhanced through the joint-
ventures. BPF will directly supervise its existing financing
activities in Latin America, Central and Eastern Europe (CEE),
and Russia, while providing commercial, information technology
(IT), and operational services for the 11 joint-ventures for a
fee.
S&P now analyzes BPF as a member of a wider group, the BPF group,
that provides car financing for Peugeot and that includes 50% of
the joint-ventures. This is to better reflect the credit
strength of the combined operations by allowing S&P to capture
the benefits brought by the joint-ventures to BPF's overall
credit profile. S&P assess the group credit profile of the BPF
group before extraordinary support (unsupported GCP). S&P then
assess the potential extraordinary support BPF might receive,
together with its degree of insulation from Peugeot, to derive
its issuer credit rating (ICR). S&P assess the unsupported GCP
at 'bb+'. Based on this, S&P rates BPF at 'BB'.
The starting point for S&P's unsupported GCP assessment is the
anchor for the BPF group, which S&P assess as 'bbb+'. The anchor
factors in the full lending activities of BPF in Latin America,
CEE, and Russia, and 50% of the loan book exposure of the joint-
ventures.
S&P does not expect the group to restore its business model
resilience until 2016, given Peugeot's weak sales growth
momentum. However, S&P expects the group's loan book to stabilize
and operating revenues to rise in 2015. In 2014, the group's
operating performance remained satisfactory and broadly in line
with S&P's expectations, despite weak business volumes and high
cost of funding, in S&P's view.
S&P expects BPF group to remain adequately capitalized. S&P
forecasts its RAC ratio (calculated at the level of BPF's
regulatory perimeter) will progressively decrease, but stabilize
at slightly above 7% by year-end 2016. S&P anticipates a sharp
decrease as it expects significant dividends and equity to be
upstreamed to Peugeot and S&P's model includes a 1,250% risk-
weight for BPF's minority equity holding in the joint ventures.
S&P considers that BPF group's credit exposure is low risk,
despite its high concentration in the auto dealership sector.
The group's credit risk performance in 2014 was comparable with
that of captive peers and the banking industry in general.
In S&P's view, the ongoing funding and liquidity support the
joint-ventures receive from SCF balances the less-secured funding
structure for BPF subsidiaries in Latin America, CEE, and Russia.
Under the partnership with SCF, although each joint-venture will
need to find and diversify its own sources of funding, SCF will
provide additional financing to close any funding gaps.
The positive outlook mirrors that on Peugeot. S&P would likely
raise the long-term rating on BPF if we upgraded Peugeot, all
else remaining equal.
S&P would consider revising the outlook to stable if it revised
the outlook on Peugeot to stable.
CREDIPAR: S&P Raises LT CCR to 'BB+' Over Santander Partnership
---------------------------------------------------------------
Standard & Poor's Ratings Services said that it has raised its
long-term counterparty credit rating on the French captive
finance company of European auto manufacturer Peugeot S.A.,
Credipar to 'BB+' from 'BB'. S&P's outlook on Credipar's long-
term counterparty credit rating is positive. S&P also affirmed
its short-term counterparty credit ratings on Credipar and its
sister company Sofira at 'B'.
On July 10, 2014, BPF and Santander Consumer Finance (SCF), the
consumer finance subsidiary of Spanish bank Banco Santander
(Santander), signed a framework agreement to establish joint-
partnerships between the two groups in 11 European countries. On
Feb. 2, 2015, BPF announced that its 50/50 partnership with SCF
had obtained regulatory approvals to start operating in France
and in the U.K. S&P expects the remaining transactions to close
during 2015 and early 2016.
"In our view, the French joint-venture would likely receive
extraordinary support from Santander in case of need, but if
Peugeot experienced financial stress, it would likely affect the
joint-venture's creditworthiness. As a result, we could factor
up to one notch of group support from Santander into our long-
term rating on the French joint-venture, but we would cap it at
three notches above the long-term rating on Peugeot. Under our
group rating methodology, we define the French joint-venture as a
"moderately strategic" subsidiary of Santander and an "insulated"
subsidiary of Peugeot. Among other things, this reflects SCF's
50% ownership, its full consolidation for accounting and
regulatory purpose, the long-term nature of the partnership, and
the contractual agreement from SCF to provide liquidity support
if needed," S&P said.
The French joint-venture consists of Credipar, its sister company
Sofira, and their unrated direct parent SOFIB, all of which
operated before the BPF-SCF partnership and were owned by BPF.
Now, BPF and SCF each own 50% of SOFIB, which directly owns
Credipar and Sofira. All three companies operate exclusively in
France: Credipar handles the financing of Peugeot's end-
customers, Sofira handles the financing of the dealers' network,
and SOFIB will book the deposit business.
The long-term rating on Credipar and the short-term ratings on
Credipar and Sofira reflect S&P's assessment of the
creditworthiness of the French joint-venture.
S&P analyzes Credipar as a member of a wider group, the BPF
group, that provides car financing for Peugeot and that includes
50% of the joint-ventures. This is to better capture the close
links, in S&P's view, between the joint-ventures and their 50%
owner BPF. S&P assess the group credit profile of the BPF group
before extraordinary support (unsupported GCP). S&P then assess
the potential extraordinary support Credipar might receive,
together with its degree of insulation from Peugeot, to derive
its issuer credit rating (ICR). S&P assess the unsupported GCP
at 'bb+'. Based on this, S&P has assessed the ICR of Credipar at
'BB+'.
The French joint-venture is exclusively focused on car finance
and auto leasing for Peugeot in France, which S&P views as a
rating weakness. In the meantime, S&P anticipates that its
capitalization will remain at an adequate level, and consider
that its credit exposure is low risk, although highly
concentrated on the auto dealership sector. S&P understands
that, under the partnership, SCF will close any funding gaps,
although the joint-venture will need to maintain its own
diversified sources of funding.
The positive outlook mirrors that on Peugeot. S&P would likely
raise the long-term rating on Credipar if S&P upgraded Peugeot,
all else remaining equal.
S&P would consider revising the outlook to stable if it revised
the outlook on Peugeot to stable.
=============
G E R M A N Y
=============
TELE COLUMBUS: S&P Assigns 'B+' Corp. Credit Rating
---------------------------------------------------
Standard & Poor's Ratings Services said that it has assigned its
'B+' long-term corporate credit rating to German cable operator
Tele Columbus AG. The outlook is stable.
S&P also assigned its 'B+' issue rating to the company's EUR500
million senior facilities, consisting of a EUR375 million term
loan, a EUR75 million capital expenditure facility, and a EUR50
million revolving credit facility (RCF). The recovery rating on
these facilities is '4', indicating S&P's expectation of 30%-50%
recovery in the event of a payment default. S&P's recovery
expectations are in the upper half of the 30%-50% range.
These ratings are in line with the preliminary ratings that S&P
assigned on Oct. 6, 2014.
The corporate credit rating is constrained by Tele Columbus'
still-significant reliance on third-party cable-TV networks and
the need to successfully execute its ambitious network
modernization program, which is necessary to upgrade its
technology to the highest industry standards. The company's
limited scale and diversity also constrain the rating, as do huge
investment outlays and significant execution risks as it seeks to
accelerate its transition away from basic cable-TV offerings
toward the model of its successful European and German peers. If
it manages to do so, the transition should support customer
retention, increase bundle penetration, and lift its average
revenues per user (ARPU) through upselling activity. The sheer
level of investments involved in the various projects related to
this transformation, spanning technical upgrades, own network
extension, and commercial initiatives, generates a risk,
including timing uncertainty, which could materially affect
overall performance in a very competitive environment. In S&P's
view, there is a risk that, on renewal dates, housing-association
direct customers would move to larger and generally more-advanced
cable providers Kabel Deutschland or Unitymedia, or to competing
products from Deutsche Telekom, if Tele Columbus cannot offer
upgraded and converged services.
However, the long-term nature of the housing-association
contracts provides the company with some visibility and leeway to
deploy its investment plan. S&P also acknowledges that the
company has been able to significantly increase its broadband
market share against incumbent Deutsche Telekom in the recent
past and that it boasts leading local cable market shares in
Eastern Germany, testifying to the company's successful
commercial achievements within its own upgraded footprint, and
also reflecting the technical edge of an upgraded cable offer
over inferior ADSL technology.
S&P thinks the company has had a good operational track record in
the recent past, benefiting from a well-seasoned new management
team, and that it will continue to shift an increasing portion of
its ultimate customers to its own broadband-enabled network.
This should allow customers to increasingly benefit from its
high-speed broadband offers based on data over cable service
interface specification (DOCSIS) 3.0 technology, reduce the risk
of losing customers to the competition, and increase the
prospects for higher ARPU as subscribers take up triple-play
bundles. Good operating efficiency and an increasing proportion
of customers served over the company's own network should provide
some margin upside, in S&P's view.
S&P's financial risk and management and governance assessments
reflect its assumption that historical shareholders no longer
control the company after the IPO, as a result of the injection
of EUR367 million of fresh capital and the planned post-IPO
liquidation of Tele Columbus Management and Tele Columbus
Holdings S.A., two entities through which former shareholders
used to fully control the company. S&P takes into account
management's intention to maintain unadjusted net debt to EBITDA
of about 3x-4x in the future and to not pay dividends for
financial years 2014 and 2015.
The stable outlook reflects S&P's assumption that the company
will maintain its high operating efficiency in the next two
years, successfully renegotiate maturing housing-association
contracts, and continue to deliver its operational targets, which
should be illustrated by revenue growth of more than 4% in 2015
and 2016 and improving EBITDA margins. In addition, S&P
anticipates FOCF will improve from negative EUR30 million before
IPO-related one-time items in 2015 to positive in 2017, adjusted
debt to EBITDA will remain below 4x, and liquidity will remain
adequate.
Rating downside would stem from evidence of rising churn levels
and loss of customers, which could come from delays or setbacks
in the company's network investment program, various execution
issues, or customer losses to Deutsche Telekom or other cable
providers on contract renewal dates. In addition, heavy capital
outlays not properly matched by revenues could adversely affect
liquidity. Therefore, while S&P sees Tele Columbus as adequately
funded to match its network upgrade program over the next two to
three years, S&P would likely see rating pressure build if Tele
Columbus depleted its cash balances and started to draw on its
RCFs because revenues or EBITDA failed to increase. Given the
company's cash-generation profile, adjusted leverage staying at
about 4x could also put downward pressure on the rating.
Rating upside appears limited for the next two to three years,
but could occur if the company successfully executes its
investment plan and manages to migrate an increasing portion of
its customers to its own network and bundled offers, while
maintaining leverage below 4x and strengthening free cash flow
generation to about 10% of adjusted debt.
=============
I R E L A N D
=============
AQUILAE CLO II: S&P Affirms 'CCC+' Rating on Class E Notes
----------------------------------------------------------
Standard & Poor's Ratings Services raised its credit ratings on
Aquilae CLO II PLC's class A, B, and C notes. At the same time,
S&P has affirmed its ratings on the class D and E notes.
The rating actions follow S&P's credit and cash flow analysis of
the transaction using data from the trustee report dated Jan. 7,
2015 and the application of S&P's relevant criteria.
S&P conducted its cash flow analysis to determine the break-even
default rate (BDR) for each rated class of notes. The BDR
represents S&P's estimate of the maximum level of gross defaults,
based on S&P's stress assumptions, that a tranche can withstand
and still fully repay the noteholders. S&P used the portfolio
balance that it considers to be performing, the reported
weighted-average spread, and the weighted-average recovery rates
that S&P considered to be appropriate. S&P incorporated various
cash flow stress scenarios using S&P's standard default patterns,
levels, and timings for each rating category assumed for each
class of notes, combined with different interest stress scenarios
as outlined in S&P's criteria.
S&P's review of the transaction highlights that the class A notes
have amortized by more than 75% since S&P's Oct. 26, 2012 review.
Overall, the deleveraging of the class A notes has resulted in
increased available credit enhancement for all classes of rated
notes. S&P's cash flow results show that the available credit
enhancement for the class A and B notes is now commensurate with
'AAA (sf)' ratings. S&P has therefore raised to 'AAA (sf)' from
'AA+ (sf)' its rating on the class A notes, and to 'AAA (sf)'
from 'A+ (sf)' its rating on the class B notes.
In addition, the transaction's exposure to 'CCC' rated assets is
now lower than in S&P's previous review. These assets now
account for EUR0.943 million (equivalent to 0.74% of the
performing portfolio). In S&P's previous review, EUR13.65
million assets had 'CCC+', 'CCC' or 'CCC-' ratings, representing
5.19% of the performing balance at the time.
Predominantly driven by the class A notes' amortization, S&P
considers the available credit enhancement for the class C notes
to be commensurate with a higher rating than that currently
assigned. While S&P's credit and cash flow results indicate a
rating that is at least equal to 'AA' for the class C notes, S&P
has raised its rating on this class of notes to 'A+ (sf)' from
'BBB+ (sf)' as the application of S&P's largest obligor
supplemental test constrains its rating at this level.
Similarly, S&P's credit and cash flow results indicate higher
rating levels for the class D and E notes than those currently
assigned. However, the application of S&P's largest obligor
supplemental test constrains its ratings at their currently
assigned levels. S&P has therefore affirmed its 'BB+ (sf)' and
'CCC+ (sf)' ratings on the class D and E notes, respectively.
Aquilae CLO II is a cash flow collateralized loan obligation
(CLO) transaction that closed in November 2006 and securitizes
loans to primarily speculative-grade corporate firms.
RATINGS LIST
Aquilae CLO II PLC
EUR316.5 mil floating-rate and deferrable floating-rate notes
Rating
Class Identifier To From
A 03842EAA3 AAA (sf) AA+ (sf)
B 03842EAB1 AAA (sf) A+ (sf)
C XS0272303776 A+ (sf) BBB+ (sf)
D XS0272304154 BB+ (sf) BB+ (sf)
E XS0272304238 CCC+ (sf) CCC+ (sf)
=========
I T A L Y
=========
WIND ACQUISITION: Fitch Rates Proposed Sr. Sec. Bonds 'BB-(EXP)'
----------------------------------------------------------------
Fitch Ratings has assigned proposed new euro-denominated floating
rate notes due 2020 issued by Wind Acquisition Finance S.A. (WAF)
and guaranteed by Wind Telecomunicazioni SpA (B+/Stable) (Wind)
an expected 'BB-(EXP)'/RR2(EXP)' rating.
The proposed bond will effectively be a senior secured obligation
of Wind ranking pari passu with other senior secured debt. The
'BB-(EXP)'/RR2(EXP)' expected rating reflects Fitch's expectation
of high recoveries for secured creditors.
The new bond is a part of EUR600 million offering, in a
combination with a tap issue of WAF's currently outstanding euro-
denominated 4% senior secured notes due 2020 ('BB-'/RR2) also
guaranteed by Wind. The new issue proceeds, along with the tower
sale proceeds and the recently announced new term loans, will be
used for repayment of the existing EUR1.7bn term loans.
The final rating is contingent upon the receipt of final
documents conforming to information already received.
On a standalone basis, Wind's rating corresponds to 'B'/Stable.
Wind's Issuer Default Rating is lifted by one notch to 'B+' for
potential parental support. Wind is the number-three mobile
operator in Italy with a subscriber market share of approximately
25% and the second-largest alternative fixed-line/broadband
provider with a subscriber market share of approximately 16% at
end-2014. Its leverage is high, reported at 5.9x net debt/EBITDA
at end-2014.
KEY RATING DRIVERS
Challenging Operating Environment
The Italian mobile market continues to contract in revenue terms.
However, there are signs that the pricing war may be over. Key
operators expect less direct tariff competition, with network
quality issues coming to the fore. Wind demonstrates strong
relative outperformance slowly increasing its subscriber market
share, but this is not sufficient to protect it from absolute
revenue and EBITDA declines. The weak economic environment in
Italy continues to weigh on customer sentiment.
Stable Fixed-Line
Wind has significantly improved profitability in its fixed-line
segment which Fitch believes should be sustainable with
continuing focus on more profitable direct customers. Fibre
roll-out in Italy is likely to be slow, protecting Wind's
position as the largest alternative fixed-line operator in Italy.
High Leverage
Wind's leverage is high, reported at 5.9x net debt/EBITDA at end-
2014. Fitch estimates that the impact of the tower sale on
leverage will be marginally positive as the reduction in net debt
on the back of cash proceeds will be muted by increased rent
expense, which Fitch capitalizes at a multiple of eight and adds
to the total debt for funds from operations (FFO) adjusted net
leverage calculation. The refinancing would improve the
company's maturity profile and lead to interest savings.
Deleveraging is likely to be slow. At above 5.5x net
debt/EBITDA, Wind's leverage is sensitive to even minor EBITDA
pressures. Fitch expects the company's free cash flow (FCF) to
remain positive in the medium term but modest in absolute terms
on average with less than EUR250m per year available for debt
reduction in 2015-2017.
Shareholder Support Positive but Limited
Wind's ratings benefit from potential support from its sole
ultimate shareholder, Vimpelcom Ltd., whose credit profile
remains significantly stronger than Wind's. However, Fitch
believes that a further rise in Wind's leverage may diminish
Vimpelcom's propensity to provide support. An increase in
leverage to above 6x net debt/EBITDA will no longer likely be
consistent with expectations of any parental support.
Vimpelcom's support has been modest so far. A EUR500m cash
contribution in conjunction with PIK-notes refinancing in 1H14
was insufficient to materially reduce Wind's leverage, given its
limited size relative to Wind's total debt of approximately
EUR10bn. Vimpelcom has not committed itself to any additional
support.
No Short-Term Refinancing Risks
Wind does not face any material refinancing risks before 2019
when the bulk of its debt comes due. Post-refinancing, the
maturity profile is expected to improve.
KEY ASSUMPTIONS
-- Continuing modest revenue declines tempering from mid-
single digit territory in 2015 to low-single digits
afterwards.
-- EBITDA margin stabilising at above 37%.
-- Interest rate savings on the back of refinancing in 2014.
-- Substantial on-going network investments with capex to
revenue ratio of above 15% in the medium-term.
-- No common dividends.
-- No equity injection from the parent.
RATING SENSITIVITIES
Negative: Future developments that may individually or
collectively lead to negative rating action include:
-- A deterioration in leverage beyond 6x net debt /EBITDA
and/or FFO adjusted net leverage sustainably above 6.5x.
-- Continuing operating and financial pressures leading to
negative FCF generation.
Positive: Future developments that may individually or
collectively lead to positive rating action include:
-- Tangible parental support such as equity contribution or
debt refinancing via intercompany loans leading to a
material reduction in Wind's leverage.
-- Net debt/EBITDA sustainably below 5.5x and FFO adjusted net
leverage sustainably below 6x.
-- Stabilization of operating and financial performance
resulting in stronger and less volatile FCF generation.
===================
L U X E M B O U R G
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ELEX ALPHA: S&P Lowers Rating on Class E Notes to 'CCC+'
--------------------------------------------------------
Standard & Poor's Ratings Services raised its credit ratings on
eleX Alpha S.A.'s class A-1, A-2, B, C, and D notes. At the same
time, S&P has lowered its rating on the class E notes.
The rating actions follow S&P's credit and cash flow analysis of
the transaction using data from the trustee report dated Jan. 26,
2015 and the application of S&P's relevant criteria.
S&P conducted its cash flow analysis to determine the break-even
default rate (BDR) for each rated class of notes. The BDR
represents S&P's estimate of the maximum level of gross defaults,
based on S&P's stress assumptions, that a tranche can withstand
and still fully repay the noteholders. S&P used the portfolio
balance that it considers to be performing, the reported
weighted-average spread, and the weighted-average recovery rates
that S&P considered to be appropriate. S&P incorporated various
cash flow stress scenarios using its standard default patterns,
levels, and timings for each rating category assumed for each
class of notes, combined with different interest stress scenarios
as outlined in S&P's criteria.
S&P's review of the transaction highlights that the class A-1 and
A-2 notes have amortized by nearly 80% of the initial balance
since closing. S&P's cash flow results show that the available
credit enhancement for these classes of notes is commensurate
with a 'AAA (sf)' rating. S&P has therefore raised to 'AAA (sf)'
from 'AA+ (sf)' its ratings on the class A-1 and A-2 notes.
As of the January 2015 trustee report, the portfolio's weighted-
average life has increased to 3.98% from 3.92% since S&P's
previous review. All else being equal, an increase in the
weighted-average life would result in an increase in scenario
default rates (SDRs) at each rating level. The SDR is the
minimum level of portfolio defaults that S&P expects each CDO
tranche to be able to support the specific rating level using CDO
Evaluator. S&P then determine whether the BDRs pass their SDRs at
the assigned rating levels.
Assets rated in the 'CCC' category ('CCC+', 'CCC', 'CCC-', and
'CC') have decreased to EUR9.8 million from EUR15.05 million
since S&P's previous review. Defaults have also decreased to
EUR6.4 million from EUR13.1 million over the same period. The
concentration risk has peaked, compared with S&P's previous
reviews, but will continue to increase as the transaction
amortizes.
S&P considers the available credit enhancement for the class B,
C, and D notes to be commensurate with higher ratings than those
previously assigned. S&P has therefore raised its ratings on the
class B, C, and D notes.
S&P's cash flow results indicate that the available credit
enhancement for the class E notes is commensurate with a lower
rating than that currently assigned. Additionally, the weighted-
average recovery rate at the 'B' and 'CCC' rating levels has
decreased to 67.8% from 70.5% since S&P's previous review, which
has caused the class E notes' BDR to pass its SDR at lower rating
than that currently assigned. S&P has therefore lowered to 'CCC+
(sf)' from 'B+ (sf)' its rating on the class E notes.
eleX Alpha is a cash flow collateralized loan obligation (CLO)
transaction that securitizes loans to primarily speculative-grade
corporate firms. The transaction closed in December 2006. Since
the reinvestment period ended in March 2013, the issuer has used
all scheduled principal proceeds to redeem the notes in the
transaction's documented priority of payments.
RATINGS LIST
Class Rating Rating
To From
eleX Alpha S.A.
EUR300 Million Senior Secured Floating-Rate Notes
Ratings Raised
A-1 AAA (sf) AA+ (sf)
A-2 AAA (sf) AA+ (sf)
B AA+ (sf) AA- (sf)
C AA (sf) A (sf)
D BBB- (sf) BB+ (sf)
Rating Lowered
E CCC+ (sf) B+ (sf)
=========
M A L T A
=========
CITIES ENTERTAINMENT: Took Almost EUR300,000 Worth of Furniture
---------------------------------------------------------------
Maltatoday reports that Former Cafe Premier owners Cities
Entertainment were allowed to take almost EUR300,000 worth of
office furniture and equipment after the company was liquidated.
Addressing parliament, Nationalist MP Jason Azzopardi said it was
"scandalous" that a company facing liquidation was also allowed
to take the assets with it, according to Maltatoday.
MP Azzopardi explained that through liquidation, owners would use
all their assets to pay some of their debts, the report notes.
The report relates that Mr. Azzopardi said a copy of the most
recent audited accounts of Cities Entertainment were dated
December 31, 2012, with a disclaimer that the audit evidence was
not sufficient.
The report by the National Audit Office, requested by the
Opposition, was spurred on by MaltaToday's first report back in
February 2014 when it broke the story that the Government
Property Department (GPD) had withdrawn legal action for the
rescission of CE's lease, despite having fallen back on some
EUR250,000 in ground rent.
Instead, on the advice of former GPD director and advisor to the
Prime Minister, John Sciberras, the Cabinet approved a EUR4.2
million bailout to buy back the 65-year lease on the cafe in Old
Theatre Street, Valletta; which money was used to pay the State
back on outstanding rents, energy bills, VAT and tax, as well as
Banif Bank loans of EUR2 million and a EUR210,000 fee to CE's
shareholder Mario Camilleri for brokering the deal with John
Sciberras, the report says.
The NAO found a "lack of rigorous and documented consideration of
other options" such as the legally justified rescission of the
lease; "poor governance" with the Prime Minister's negotiating
team failing to involve the GPD from the initial stages of
negotiations; an absence of documentation to sustain government
claims that there was a danger to the overlying National Library
by gas cylinders in the cafe; and that a 5% commission for CE's
shareholder was "unsubstantiated and . . . inappropriately
included in the agreement," the report adds.
=====================
N E T H E R L A N D S
=====================
GATEWAY II: S&P Lowers Rating on Class B-1 Notes to 'CCC+'
----------------------------------------------------------
Standard & Poor's Ratings Services took various credit rating
actions in Gateway II Euro CLO B.V.
Specifically, S&P has:
-- Raised its ratings on the class A1-E, A-1R, A-2, and A-3
notes; and
-- Lowered its ratings on the class B-1 and B-2 notes.
The rating actions follow S&P's credit and cash flow analysis of
the transaction using data from the trustee report dated Jan. 9,
2015 and the application of S&P's relevant criteria.
S&P conducted its cash flow analysis to determine the break-even
default rate (BDR) for each rated class of notes. The BDR
represents S&P's estimate of the maximum level of gross defaults,
based on S&P's stress assumptions, that a tranche can withstand
and still fully repay the noteholders. S&P used the portfolio
balance that S&P considers to be performing, the reported
weighted-average spread, and the weighted-average recovery rates
that S&P considered to be appropriate. S&P incorporated various
cash flow stress scenarios using S&P's standard default patterns,
levels, and timings for each rating category assumed for each
class of notes, combined with different interest stress scenarios
as outlined in S&P's criteria.
S&P then compare the BDRs with the scenario default rates (SDRs).
S&P generates the SDRs by using its CDO Evaluator and taking into
account the obligors in the portfolio, S&P's ratings, industries,
maturities, and countries in which the obligors operate.
Obligor concentration has increased since our Feb. 24, 2012
review, mainly due to asset amortization.
Assets rated in the 'CCC' category have decreased to 3.28% from
about 8.00% over the same period. Defaults have also decreased
to 0.80% from 1.84%. S&P also notes that British pound sterling
assets are now greater than liabilities. The transaction's
weighted-average life has decreased as it is nearing its
maturity.
The class A1-E and A1-R notes (together class A1 notes) have
amortized by nearly 79% of their outstanding balance since the
end of the reinvestment period that ended in July 2013. With
higher available credit enhancement and lower SDRs, S&P's cash
flow analysis shows that credit enhancement is commensurate with
'AAA' ratings. S&P has therefore raised to 'AAA (sf)' from 'AA+
(sf)' its ratings on the class A1-E andA1-R notes.
Due to the class A1 notes' amortization, lower SDRs, and a higher
recovery rate, S&P considers the available credit enhancement for
the class A-2 and A-3 notes to be commensurate with higher
ratings than previously assigned. S&P has therefore raised to
'AA+ (sf)' from 'A+ (sf)' and to 'A (sf)' from 'BBB+ (sf)' its
ratings on the class A-2 and A-3 notes, respectively.
While the available credit enhancement for the B-1 and B-2 notes
has also increased since S&P's previous review, the results of
S&P's cash flow analysis indicate that the notes are able to
sustain defaults at rating levels which are lower than those
currently assigned. S&P has therefore lowered to 'B+ (sf)' from
'BB+ (sf)' and to 'CCC+ (sf)' from 'B (sf)' its ratings on the
class B-1 and B-2 notes, respectively.
Gateway II Euro CLO is a cash flow collateralized loan obligation
(CLO) transaction that securitizes loans to primarily
speculative-grade corporate firms. The transaction closed in
April 2007 and is currently amortizing. Since the end of the
reinvestment period, the issuer has used all scheduled principal
proceeds to redeem the notes in the transaction's documented
priority of payments.
RATINGS LIST
Class Rating
To From
Gateway II Euro CLO B.V.
EUR413 Million Floating-Rate Notes
Ratings Raised
A-1E AAA (sf) AA+ (sf)
A-1R AAA (sf) AA+ (sf)
A-2 AA+ (sf) A+ (sf)
A-3 A (sf) BBB+ (sf)
Ratings Lowered
B-1 B+ (sf) BB+ (sf)
B-2 CCC+ (sf) B (sf)
===============
P O R T U G A L
===============
BANCO BPI: S&P Revises CreditWatch on 'BB-' Rating to Developing
----------------------------------------------------------------
Standard & Poor's Ratings Services said that it revised the
CreditWatch status to developing from positive on its 'BB-' long-
term rating on Portugal-based Banco BPI S.A. (BPI) and its core
subsidiary Banco Portugues de Investimento S.A. S&P affirmed its
'B' short-term rating on both BPI and Banco Portugues de
Investimento.
The CreditWatch developing placement follows the recommendation
of BPI's board of directors that the shareholders decline the
recent tender offer from Caixabank S.A. S&P believes that the
possible failure of Caixabank's tender offer could lead to
material changes to BPI's current ownership structure and
strategic direction, and could put pressure on the ratings on
BPI. When Caixabank launched the offer in February, S&P only
contemplated the possibility of a positive impact on the
long-term ratings on BPI if the tender offer were successful, or
a neutral impact if it were to fail.
BPI's board of directors' recommendation primarily reflects their
view that the tender offer price does not reflect the bank's fair
value. Caixabank responded that it considered the price offered
to be appropriate and its plans beneficial for BPI and its
shareholders.
Santoro Finance-Prestacao de Servi‡os S.A., BPI's second-largest
shareholder with a stake of about 19%, has suggested that BPI
explore strategic alternatives, in particular the possibility of
a merger with Banco Comercial Portugues S.A. (Millenium bcp).
These developments make the deal with Caixabank more uncertain
and indicate the divergence of views among shareholders on BPI's
strategy. S&P considers it feasible that if Caixabank's offer is
not accepted, this could lead to material changes in BPI's
ownership structure (with Caixabank potentially reducing its
interest in the bank) and, as a result, in the bank's strategic
direction.
S&P understands that the next step will be the decision of BPI's
shareholders at their general meeting regarding the removal of
existing limitations on voting rights. The outcome of this
decision is, in S&P's view, a key determinant of whether the
tender offer will proceed as Caixabank's offer is conditional on
these limitations being removed. S&P understands that the
general shareholders' meeting could take place in April. At that
point, S&P expects to be able to have greater visibility on the
likelihood of the tender offer progressing and the implications
| http://bankrupt.com/TCREUR_Public/150313.mbx |
Publications - Global Disability Innovation Hub
The GDI Hub brings together academic excellence, innovative practice and co-creation; harnessing the power of technology for good.
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Seeking information about assistive technology: Exploring current practices, challenges, and the need for smarter systems
Jamie Danemayer,Cathy Holloway,Youngjun Cho, Nadia Berthouze, Aneesha Singh, William Bhot, Ollie Dixon, Marko Grobelnik, John Shawe-Taylor
Paper highlights: Assistive technology (AT) information networks are insular among stakeholder groups, causing unequal access to information. Participants often cited fragmented international marketplaces as a barrier and valued info-sharing across industries. Current searches produce biased results in marketplaces influenced by commercial interests and high-income contexts. Smart features could facilitate searching, update centralised data sources, and disseminate information more inclusively.
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies; 2023
Abstract
Seeking information about assistive technology: Exploring current practices, challenges, and the need for smarter systems
Ninety percent of the 1.2 billion people who need assistive technology (AT) do not have access. Information seeking practices directly impact the ability of AT producers, procurers, and providers (AT professionals) to match a user's needs with appropriate AT, yet the AT marketplace is interdisciplinary and fragmented, complicating information seeking. We explored common limitations experienced by AT professionals when searching information to develop solutions for a diversity of users with multi-faceted needs. Through Template Analysis of 22 expert interviews, we find current search engines do not yield the necessary information, or appropriately tailor search results, impacting individuals’ awareness of products and subsequently their availability and the overall effectiveness of AT provision. We present value-based design implications to improve functionality of future AT-information seeking platforms, through incorporating smarter systems to support decision-making and need-matching whilst ensuring ethical standards for disability fairness remain.
Seeking information about assistive technology: Exploring current practices, challenges, and the need for smarter systems
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Evaluating the use of a thermoplastic socket in Kenya: A pilot study
Giulia Barbareschi, Wesley Teerlink, Josepg Gakunga Njuguna, Purity Musungu, Mary Dama Kirino, andCatherine Holloway
According to estimates from the World Health Organization, in 2010, there were more than 30 million people in need of prosthetic and orthotic devices across Africa, Asia, and Latin America. 1This number is likely to have grown significantly in the past decade, in line with trends recorded for the general need of assistive technology. 2For many people who undergo a lower limb amputation, access to an appropriate prosthesis is essential to restore functional mobility and ensure good quality of life. 3Ultimately, an appropriate lower-limb prosthesis (LLP) can enable people with amputation to fulfill their desired role in their family, work, and community life. 4
Prosthetic and Orthotics International; 2022
Abstract
Evaluating the use of a thermoplastic socket in Kenya: A pilot study
Background:
Many people with amputations who live in low-resourced settings struggle to access the workshops where qualified prosthetists provide appropriate care. Novel technologies such as the thermoplastic Confidence Socket are emerging, which could help facilitate easier access to prosthetic services.
Objectives:
The objective of this study was to evaluate the satisfaction and the performance of transtibial prosthesis featuring the Confidence Socket.
Study design:
This is a longitudinal repeated-measures design study.
Methods:
A convenience sample of 26 participants who underwent transtibial amputation were fitted with the Confidence Socket. The performance of the socket was evaluated after a follow-up period between 1 month and 6 months using the L test of functional mobility and the amputee mobility predictor. Satisfaction with the prosthesis was measured using the Trinity Amputation and Prosthetic Experience Scales and purposefully designed 7-point Likert scales.
Results:
Ten of the 26 participants returned for follow-up. Perceived activity restriction and L test times improved significantly at follow-up, but the self-reported satisfaction with the Confidence Socket was lower at follow-up compared with that after fitting.
Conclusions:
The Amparo Confidence Socket represents a potentially viable alternative to improve access to appropriate prosthesis in Kenya, but some aspects of users’ self-reported satisfaction should be further investigated.
Cite
Evaluating the use of a thermoplastic socket in Kenya: A pilot study
Barbareschi G, Teerlink W, Njuguna JG, Musungu P, Kirino MD, Holloway C. Evaluating the use of a thermoplastic socket in Kenya: A pilot study. Prosthet Orthot Int. 2022 Oct 1;46(5):532-537. doi: 10.1097/PXR.0000000000000130. Epub 2022 Mar 25. PMID: 35333813; PMCID: PMC9554758.
Evaluating the use of a thermoplastic socket in Kenya: A pilot study
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Responding to the coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic with innovative data use: The role of data challenges
Jamie Danemayer, Andrew Young, Siobhan Green, Lydia Ezenwa, Michael Klein
This study synthesizes learnings from three distinct datasets: innovator applications to the COVIDaction data challenges, surveys from organizers from similarly-aimed data challenges, and a focus group discussion with professionals who work with COVID-19 data. Thematic and topic analyses were used to analyze these datasets with the aim to identify gaps and barriers to effective data use in responding to the pandemic.
Data & Policy; 2023
Abstract
Responding to the coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic with innovative data use: The role of data challenges
Innovative, responsible data use is a critical need in the global response to the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Yet potentially impactful data are often unavailable to those who could utilize it, particularly in data-poor settings, posing a serious barrier to effective pandemic mitigation. Data challenges, a public call-to-action for innovative data use projects, can identify and address these specific barriers. To understand gaps and progress relevant to effective data use in this context, this study thematically analyses three sets of qualitative data focused on/based in low/middle-income countries: (a) a survey of innovators responding to a data challenge, (b) a survey of organizers of data challenges, and (c) a focus group discussion with professionals using COVID-19 data for evidence-based decision-making. Data quality and accessibility and human resources/institutional capacity were frequently reported limitations to effective data use among innovators. New fit-for-purpose tools and the expansion of partnerships were the most frequently noted areas of progress. Discussion participants identified building capacity for external/national actors to understand the needs of local communities can address a lack of partnerships while de-siloing information. A synthesis of themes demonstrated that gaps, progress, and needs commonly identified by these groups are relevant beyond COVID-19, highlighting the importance of a healthy data ecosystem to address emerging threats. This is supported by data holders prioritizing the availability and accessibility of their data without causing harm; funders and policymakers committed to integrating innovations with existing physical, data, and policy infrastructure; and innovators designing sustainable, multi-use solutions based on principles of good data governance.
Cite
Responding to the coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic with innovative data use: The role of data challenges
Danemayer, J., Young, A., Green, S., Ezenwa, L., & Klein, M. (2023). Responding to the coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic with innovative data use: The role of data challenges. Data & Policy, 5, E11. doi:10.1017/dap.2023.6
Responding to the coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic with innovative data use: The role of data challenges
Type
Editorial
Themes
Culture and Participation
COVID-19 as social disability: the opportunity of social empathy for empowerment
Ikenna D Ebueny, Emma M Smith,Catherine Holloway, Rune Jensen, Lucía D'Arino, Malcolm MacLachlan
Social empathy is ‘the ability to more deeply understand people by perceiving or experiencing their life situations and as a result gain insight into structural inequalities and disparities’. Social empathy comprises three elements: individual empathy, contextual understanding and social responsibility. COVID-19 has created a population-wide experience of exclusion that is only usually experienced by subgroups of the general population. Notably, persons with disability, in their everyday lives, commonly experience many of the phenomena that have only recently been experienced by members of the general population. COVID-19 has conferred new experiential knowledgeon all of us. We have a rare opportunity to understand and better the lives of persons with disabilities for whom some aspects of the COVID- 19 experience are enduring. This allows us greater understanding of the importance of implementing in full a social and human rights model of disability, as outlined in the UNCRPD.
BMJ Global Health; 2020
Abstract
COVID-19 as social disability: the opportunity of social empathy for empowerment
COVID-19 has conferred new experiential knowledge on society and a rare opportunity to better understand the social model of disability and to improve the lives of persons with disabilities.
The COVID-19 experience may offer contextual knowledge of the prepandemic lives of persons with disabilities and foster greater social awareness, responsibility and opportunities for change towards a more inclusive society.
Information, family and social relationships, health protection and healthcare, education, transport and employment should be accessible for all groups of the population. The means must be developed and deployed to ensure equity – the deployment of resources so that people with different types of needs have the same opportunities for living good lives in inclusive communities.
We have learnt from COVID-19 that inclusive healthcare and universal access should be the new normal, that its provision as a social good is both unifying and empowering for society as a whole.
COVID-19 as social disability: the opportunity of social empathy for empowerment
Ebuenyi ID, Smith EM, Holloway C , et alCOVID-19 as social disability: the opportunity of social empathy for empowerment BMJ Global Health2020;5:e003039.
COVID-19 as social disability: the opportunity of social empathy for empowerment
Type
Editorial
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Research Group
Social Justice
Developing inclusive and resilient systems: COVID-19 and assistive technology
Emma M. Smith, Malcolm MacLachlan, Ikenna D. Ebuenyi,Catherine Holloway&Victoria Austin
While the inadequacies of our existing assistive technology systems, policies, and services have been highlighted by the acute and rapidly changing nature of the COVID-19 pandemic, these failures are also present and important during non-crisis times. Each of these actions, taken together, will not only address needs for more robust and resilient systems for future crises, but also the day-to-day needs of all assistive technology users. We have a responsibility as a global community, and within our respective countries, to address these inadequacies now to ensure an inclusive future.
Disability & Society; 2020
Abstract
Developing inclusive and resilient systems: COVID-19 and assistive technology
Assistive technology is a critical component of maintaining health, wellbeing, and the realization of rights for persons with disabilities. Assistive technologies, and their associated services, are also paramount to ensuring individuals with functional limitations have access to important health and social service information, particularly during a pandemic where they may be at higher risk than the general population. Social isolation and physical distancing have further marginalized many within this population. We have an opportunity to learn from the COVID-19response to develop more inclusive and resilient systems that will serve people with disabilities more effectively in the future. In this Current Issues piece, we present a starting point for discussion, based on our experiences working to promote access to assistive technologies through inclusive and sustainable systems and policies.
Developing inclusive and resilient systems: COVID-19 and assistive technology
Emma M. Smith, Malcolm MacLachlan, Ikenna D. Ebuenyi, Catherine Holloway & Victoria Austin (2021) Developing inclusive and resilient systems: COVID-19 and assistive technology, Disability & Society, 36:1, 151-154, DOI:10.1080/09687599.2020.1829558
Developing inclusive and resilient systems: COVID-19 and assistive technology
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Assistive Technology Use and Provision During COVID19: Results From a Rapid Global Survey
Emma M Smith, Maria Luisa Toro Hernandez, Ikenna D Ebuenyi, Elena V Syurina,Giulia Barbareschi, Krista L Best,Jamie Danemayer,Ben Oldfrey, Nuha Ibrahim,Catherine Holloway, Malcolm MacLachlan
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has impacted all segments of society, but it has posed particular challenges for the inclusion of persons with disabilities, those with chronic illness and older people regarding their participation in daily life. These groups often benefit from assistive technology (AT) and so it is important to understand how use of AT may be affected by or may help to mitigate the impacts of COVID-19.Objective:The objectives of this study were to explore the how AT use and provision have been affected during the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, and how AT policies and systems may be made more resilient based on lessons learned during this global crisis.
International Journal of Health Policy and Management; 2020
Abstract
Assistive Technology Use and Provision During COVID19: Results From a Rapid Global Survey
Abstract
Background:The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has impacted all segments of society, but it has posed particular challenges for the inclusion of persons with disabilities, those with chronic illness and older people regarding their participation in daily life. These groups often benefit from assistive technology (AT) and so it is important to understand how use of AT may be affected by or may help to mitigate the impacts of COVID-19.Objective:The objectives of this study were to explore the how AT use and provision have been affected during the initial stages of the COVID-19 pandemic, and how AT policies and systems may be made more resilient based on lessons learned during this global crisis.
Methods:This study was a rapid, international online qualitative survey in the 6 United Nations (UN) languages (English, French, Spanish, Russian, Arabic, Mandarin Chinese) facilitated by extant World Health Organization (WHO) and International Disability Alliance networks. Themes and subthemes of the qualitative responses were identified using Braun and Clarke's 6-phase analysis.
Results:Four primary themes were identified in in the data: Disruption of Services, Insufficient Emergency Preparedness, Limitations in Existing Technology, and Inadequate Policies and Systems. Subthemes were identified within each theme, including subthemes related to developing resilience in AT systems, based on learning from the pandemic.
Conclusion:COVID-19 has disrupted the delivery of AT services, primarily due to infection control measures resulting in lack of provider availability and diminished one-to-one services. This study identified a need for stronger user-centred development of funding policies and infrastructures that are more sustainable and resilient, best practices for remote service delivery, robust and accessible tools and systems, and increased capacity of clients, caregivers, and clinicians to respond to pandemic and other crisis situations.
Assistive Technology Use and Provision During COVID19: Results From a Rapid Global Survey
Smith EM, Toro Hernandez ML, Ebuenyi ID, Syurina EV, Barbareschi G, Best KL, Danemayer J, Oldfrey B, Ibrahim N, Holloway C, MacLachlan M. Assistive Technology Use and Provision During COVID-19: Results From a Rapid Global Survey. Int J Health Policy Manag. 2022 Jun 1;11(6):747-756. doi: 10.34172/ijhpm.2020.210. PMID: 33201656;
Assistive Technology Use and Provision During COVID19: Results From a Rapid Global Survey
Type
Editorial
Research Group
Social Justice
Assistive Technology (AT), for What?
Vicki Austin, Catherine Holloway
This year (2022) has seen the publication of the World’s first Global Report on Assistive Technology (GReAT) [1]. This completes almost a decade of work to ensure assistive technology (AT) access is a core development issue. The lack of access to assistive products (APs), such as wheelchairs, hearing aids, and eyeglasses, as well as less well-referenced products such as incontinence pads, mobile phone applications, or walking sticks, affects as many as 2.5 billion people globally. Furthermore, the provision of APs would reap a 1:9 return on investment [2]. This could result in a family in need netting (or living without) over GBP 100,000 in their lifetime [2] or more, if we count dynamic overspills in the economy such as employment of assistive technology services and manufacturing of devices [3].
Societies; 2021
Abstract
Assistive Technology (AT), for What?
Amartya Sen’s seminal Tanner lecture: Equality of What?began a contestation on social justice and human wellbeing that saw a new human development paradigm emerge—the capability approach (CA)—which has been influential ever since. Following interviews with leading global assistive technology (AT) stakeholders, and users, this paper takes inspiration from Sen’s core question and posits, AT for what?arguing that AT should be understood as a mechanism to achieve the things that AT users’ value. Significantly, our research found no commonly agreed operational global framework for (disability) justice within which leading AT stakeholders were operating. Instead, actors were loosely aligned through funding priorities and the CRPD. We suggest that this raises the possibility for (welcome and needed) incoming actors to diverge from efficiently designed collective action, due to perverse incentives enabled by unanchored interventions. The Global Report on Assistive Technology (GReAT) helps, greatly! However, we find there are still vital gaps in coordination; as technology advances, and AT proliferates, no longer can the device-plus-service approach suffice. Rather, those of us interested in human flourishing might explore locating AT access within an operational global framework for disability justice, which recognizes AT as a mechanism to achieve broader aims, linked to people’s capabilities to choose what they can do and be.
Assistive Technology (AT), for What?
Austin, V.; Holloway, C. Assistive Technology (AT), for What? Societies2022, 12, 169.https://doi.org/10.3390/soc120...
Assistive Technology (AT), for What?
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Applying market shaping approaches to increase access to assistive technology in low- and middle-income countries
Margaret Savage, Sarah Albala, Frederic Seghers, Rainer Katte, Cynthia Liao, Mathilde Chaudron, Novia Afdhila
Development outcomes are inextricably linked to the health of the marketplace that delivers products and services to people in low- and middle- income countries (LMIC). Shortcomings in the market for assistive technology (AT) contribute to low access in LMIC. Market shaping is aimed at improving a market’s specific outcomes, such as access to high quality, affordable AT, by targeting the root causes of these shortcomings. The paper summarizes the findings of a market and sector analysis that was conducted under the UK aid funded AT2030 programme and aims to discuss how market shaping can help more people gain access to the AT that they need and what are the best mechanisms to unlock markets and commercial opportunity in LMICs.
Assistive Technology The Official Journal of RESNA; 2021
Abstract
Applying market shaping approaches to increase access to assistive technology in low- and middle-income countries
Development outcomes are inextricably linked to the health of the marketplace that delivers products and services to people in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). Shortcomings in the market for assistive technology (AT) contribute to low access in LMIC. Market shaping is aimed at improving a market’s specific outcomes, such as access to high quality, affordable AT, by targeting the root causes of these shortcomings. The paper summarizes the findings of market analyses conducted under the UK aid funded AT2030 programme in support of ATscale and aims to discuss how market shaping can help more people gain access to the AT that they need and what are the best mechanisms to unlock markets and commercial opportunity in LMICs. The paper also explores how market shaping for AT markets could be part of a mission-oriented approach AT policy. A mission-oriented approach can help accelerate progress toward a common objective among stakeholders, at country or global level. While market-shaping activities direct the outcomes of the market toward a specific end goal, such as access to quality, affordable products and services, missions are more comprehensive and include other policy interventions and stakeholder collaborations in order to create a robust and sustainable structure.
Applying market shaping approaches to increase access to assistive technology in low- and middle-income countries
Margaret Savage, Sarah Albala, Frederic Seghers, Rainer Kattel, Cynthia Liao, Mathilde Chaudron & Novia Afdhila (2021) Applying market shaping approaches to increase access to assistive technology in low- and middle-income countries, Assistive Technology, 33:sup1, 124-135, DOI: 10.1080/10400435.2021.1991050
Applying market shaping approaches to increase access to assistive technology in low- and middle-income countries
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Assistive technology access in longitudinal datasets: a global review
Jamie Danemayer, Sophie Mitra,Cathy Holloway, Shereen Hussein
A person’s access to assistive products such as hearing aids, wheelchairs, and glasses, is an essential part of their ability to age in a healthy way. But, according to the World Health Organization, a staggering 90% of people who need assistive products worldwide, do not have access to them. In many instances access is limited or simply non-existent. This is often due to assistive products being too expensive, demand outweighing supply, not always being suitable to use in different environments, or even the lack of availability of trained providers. In such circumstances, people are more likely to age ‘unhealthily’ if they do not have access to assistive products that are designed to support their day to day functioning and independence.
International Journal of Population Data Science; 2023
Abstract
Assistive technology access in longitudinal datasets: a global review
Functional limitations become more prevalent as populations age, emphasising an increasingly urgent need for assistive technology (AT). Critical to meeting this need trajectory is understanding AT access in older ages. Yet few publications examine this from a longitudinal perspective.
This review aims to identify and collate what data exist globally, seeking all population-based cohorts and repeated cross-sectional surveys through the Maelstrom Research Catalogue (searched May 10, 2022) and the Disability Data Report (published 2022), respectively. Datasets incorporating functional limitations modules and question(s) dedicated to AT, with a wave of data collection since 2009, were included.
Of 81 cohorts and 202 surveys identified, 47 and 62 meet inclusion criteria, respectively. Over 40% of cohorts were drawn from high-income countries which have already experienced significant population ageing. Cohorts often exclude participants based on pre-existing support needs. For surveys, Africa is the most represented region (40%). Globally, 73% of waves were conducted since 2016. 'Use' is the most collected AT access indicator (69% of cohorts and 85% of surveys). Glasses (78%) and hearing aids (77%) are the most represented AT. While gaps in data coverage and representation are significant, collating existing datasets highlights current opportunities for analyses and methods for improving data collection across the sector.
Assistive technology access in longitudinal datasets: a global review
Danemayer, J., Mitra, S., Holloway, C. and Hussein, S. (2023) “Assistive technology access in longitudinal datasets: a global review”, International Journal of Population Data Science, 8(1). doi: 10.23889/ijpds.v8i1.1901.
Assistive technology access in longitudinal datasets: a global review
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Estimating need and coverage for five priority assistive products: A systematic review of global population based research
Jamie Danemayer, Dorothy Boggs, Vinicius Delgado Ramos, Emma M. Smith, Ariana Kular, William Bhot, Felipe Ramos Barajas, Sarah Polack,Catherine Holloway
Assistive technology (AT) includes assistive products (APs) and related services that can improve health and well-being, enable increased independence and foster participation for people with functional difficulties, including older adults and people with impairments or chronic health conditions. 1This paper uses the umbrella term ‘functional difficulty’ (FD) to refer to all of these groups. This systematic review was undertaken to identify studies presenting population-based estimates of need and coverage for five APs (hearing aids, limb prostheses, wheelchairs, glasses and personal digital assistants) grouped by four functional domains (hearing, mobility, vision and cognition).
BMJ Global Health; 2021
Abstract
Estimating need and coverage for five priority assistive products: A systematic review of global population based research
Introduction:To improve access to assistive products (APs) globally, data must be available to inform evidence based decision-making, policy development and evaluation, and market-shaping interventions.
Methods:This systematic review was undertaken to identify studies presenting population-based estimates of need and coverage for five APs (hearing aids, limb prostheses, wheelchairs, glasses and personal digital assistants) grouped by four functional domains (hearing, mobility, vision and cognition).
Results:Data including 656 AP access indicators were extracted from 207 studies, most of which (n=199, 96%) were cross-sectional, either collecting primary (n=167) or using secondary (n=32) data. There was considerable heterogeneity in assessment approaches used and how AP indicators were reported; over half (n=110) used a combination of clinical and self-reported assessment data. Of 35 studies reporting AP use out of all people with functional difficulty in the corresponding functional domains, the proportions ranged from 4.5% to 47.0% for hearing aids, from 0.9% to 17.6% for mobility devices, and from 0.1% to 86.6% for near and distance glasses. Studies reporting AP need indicators demonstrated >60% unmet need for each of the five APs in most settings.
Conclusion:Variation in definitions of indicators of AP access have likely led to overestimates/underestimates of need and coverage, particularly, where the relationship between functioning difficulty and the need for an AP is complex. This review demonstrates high unmet need for APs globally, due in part to disparate data across this sector, and emphasises the need to standardise AP data collection and reporting strategies to provide a comparable evidence base to improve access to APs.
Cite
Estimating need and coverage for five priority assistive products: A systematic review of global population based research
Danemayer J, Boggs D, Delgado Ramos V, et al. Estimating need and coverage for five priority assistive products: a systematic review of global population-based research. BMJ Global Health 2022;7:e007662. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2021-007662
Estimating need and coverage for five priority assistive products: A systematic review of global population based research
Type
Workshop
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Research Group
Disability Interactions
Could AI Democratise Education? Socio-Technical Imaginaries of an EdTech Revolution
Sahan Bulathwela, María Pérez-Ortiz,Catherine Holloway, John Shawe-Taylor
This paper starts by synthesising how AI might change how we learn and teach, focusing specifically on the case of personalised learning companions, and then move to discuss some socio-technical features that will be crucial for avoiding the perils of these AI systems worldwide (and perhaps ensuring their success). This paper also discusses the potential of using AI together with free, participatory and democratic resources, such as Wikipedia, Open Educational Resources and open-source tools. We also emphasise the need for collectively designing human-centered, transparent, interactive and collaborative AI-based algorithms that empower and give complete agency to stakeholders, as well as support new emerging pedagogies.
Workshop on Machine Learning for the Developing World (ML4D) at the Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems 2021; 2021
Abstract
Could AI Democratise Education? Socio-Technical Imaginaries of an EdTech Revolution
Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Education has been said to have the potential for building more personalised curricula, as well as democratising education worldwide and creating a Renaissance of new ways of teaching and learning. Millions of students are already starting to benefit from the use of these technologies, but millions more around the world are not. If this trend continues, the first delivery of AI in Education could be greater educational inequality, along with a global misallocation of educational resources motivated by the current technological determinism narrative. In this paper, we focus on speculating and posing questions around the future of AI in Education, with the aim of starting the pressing conversation that would set the right foundations for the new generation of education that is permeated by technology. This paper starts by synthesising how AI might change how we learn and teach, focusing specifically on the case of personalised learning companions, and then move to discuss some socio-technical features that will be crucial for avoiding the perils of these AI systems worldwide (and perhaps ensuring their success). This paper also discusses the potential of using AI together with free, participatory and democratic resources, such as Wikipedia, Open Educational Resources and open-source tools. We also emphasise the need for collectively designing human-centered, transparent, interactive and collaborative AI-based algorithms that empower and give complete agency to stakeholders, as well as support new emerging pedagogies. Finally, we ask what would it take for this educational revolution to provide egalitarian and empowering access to education, beyond any political, cultural, language, geographical and learning ability barriers.
Could AI Democratise Education? Socio-Technical Imaginaries of an EdTech Revolution
Type
Workshop
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Towards Proactive Information Retrieval in Noisy Text with Wikipedia Concepts
Tabish Ahmed, Sahan Bulathwela
The informational needs of people are highly contextual and can depend on many different factors such as their current knowledge state, interests and goals [1, 2, 3]. However, an effective information retrieval companion should minimise the human effort required in i) expressing a human information need and ii) navigating a lengthy result set. Using topical representations of the user history (e.g. [4]) can immensely help formulating zero shot queries and refining short user queries that enable proactive information retrieval (IR). While the world has digital textual information in abundance, it can often be noisy (e.g. extracted through Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR), PDF text extraction etc.), leading to state-of-the-art neural models being highly sensitive to the noise producing sub-optimal results [5]. This demands denoising steps to refine both query and document representation. In this paper, we argue that Wikipedia, an openly available encyclopedia, can be a humanly intuitive knowledge base [6] that has the potential to provide the world view many noisy information Retrieval systems need.
Published at the First Workshop on Proactive and Agent-Supported Information Retrieval at CIKM 2022; 2022
Abstract
Towards Proactive Information Retrieval in Noisy Text with Wikipedia Concepts
Extracting useful information from the user history to clearly understand informational needs is a crucial feature of a proactive information retrieval system. Regarding understanding information and relevance, Wikipedia can provide the background knowledge that an intelligent system needs. This work explores how exploiting the context of a query using Wikipedia concepts can improve proactive information retrieval on noisy text. We formulate two models that use entity linking to associate Wikipedia topics with the relevance model. Our experiments around a podcast segment retrieval task demonstrate that there is a clear signal of relevance in Wikipedia concepts while a ranking model can improve precision by incorporating them. We also find Wikifying the background context of a query can help disambiguate the meaning of the query, further helping proactive information retrieval.
Towards Proactive Information Retrieval in Noisy Text with Wikipedia Concepts
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Experiences of lower limb prosthesis users in Kenya: a qualitative study to understand motivation to use and satisfaction with prosthetic outcomes
Kate Mattick,Ben Oldfrey, Maggie Donovan-Hall, Grace Magomere, Joseph Gakunga,Catherine Holloway
An estimated 1.5 million people undergo limb amputation each year [1]. Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are projected to have a rapid increase in people living with an amputation in the coming years due to prevalence of non-communicable dis-ease, trauma and conflict [1–3]. This paper explores the personal and system factors that motivate and enhance outcomes for patients accessing a prosthetic service and using a lower-limb prosthesis within a low resource setting.
Disability and Rehabilitation; 2022
Abstract
Experiences of lower limb prosthesis users in Kenya: a qualitative study to understand motivation to use and satisfaction with prosthetic outcomes
PurposeTo explore the personal and system factors that motivate and enhance outcomes for patients accessing a prosthetic service and using a lower-limb prosthesis within a low resource setting.
Materials and methodsThis study employed a qualitative approach to explore the motivations and satisfaction of individuals with lower limb loss engaging with a prosthetic service in Mombasa, Kenya. In-depth interviews were conducted over Microsoft Teams with 10 lower limb prosthesis users and thematic analysis was applied.
ResultsFive key themes emerged: acceptance, self-determination, hope, clinician relationship and perception. These findings demonstrate the importance of hopeful thinking and a supportive community in overcoming physical and stigmatising challenges. The findings further highlight the value of the service provider relationship beyond just prescribing an assistive device.
ConclusionThese results have relevance in developing patient-centred services, assistive devices and personnel training that are responsive, motivating, and cognisant of the service user. This is of particular interest as assistive technology services are newly developed in low resource settings.
Experiences of lower limb prosthesis users in Kenya: a qualitative study to understand motivation to use and satisfaction with prosthetic outcomes
Kate Mattick, Ben Oldfrey, Maggie Donovan-Hall, Grace Magomere, Joseph Gakunga & Catherine Holloway (2022) Experiences of lower limb prosthesis users in Kenya: a qualitative study to understand motivation to use and satisfaction with prosthetic outcomes, Disability and Rehabilitation, DOI:10.1080/09638288.2022.2152875
Experiences of lower limb prosthesis users in Kenya: a qualitative study to understand motivation to use and satisfaction with prosthetic outcomes
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Culture and Participation
Research Group
Social Justice
“Give Us the Chance to Be Part of You, We Want Our Voices to Be Heard”: Assistive Technology as a Mediator of Participation in (Formal and Informal) Citizenship Activities for Persons with Disabilities Who Are Slum Dwellers in Freetown, Sierra Leone
Victoria Austin,Catherine Holloway, Ignacia Ossul Vermehren, Abs Dumbuya,Giulia Barbareschiand Julian Walker
The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that there are currently one billion people in the world who need access to assistive technology (AT). Yet over 90% currently do not have access to assistive products (AP)—such as wheelchairs, hearing aids, walking sticks and eyeglasses—they need, nor and the systems and services necessary to support their appropriate provision [1]. This shocking deficit is set to double by 2050, with about two billion of us likely to require AT but no anticipated reduction in lack of access. The World Health Organisation defines AT as the “the umbrella term covering the systems and services related to the delivery of assistive products and services”, which are products that “maintain or improve an individual’s functioning and independence, thereby promoting their well-being” [2], and the importance of AT provision is strongly highlighted in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) [3]. AT has also been shown to be essential to achieving many of the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) [4]. Without access to AT, many persons with disabilities are unable to go to school, be active in their communities, earn an income, or play a full role in their families [5]. As a recent study found, “AT can make the impossible possible for people living with a wide range of impairments, but a lack of access to basic AT …excludes individuals and reduces their ability to live full, enjoyable, and independent lives” [6].
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health; 2021
Abstract
“Give Us the Chance to Be Part of You, We Want Our Voices to Be Heard”: Assistive Technology as a Mediator of Participation in (Formal and Informal) Citizenship Activities for Persons with Disabilities Who Are Slum Dwellers in Freetown, Sierra Leone
The importance of assistive technology (AT) is gaining recognition, with the World Health Organisation (WHO) set to publish a Global Report in 2022. Yet little is understood about access for the poorest, or the potential of AT to enable this group to participate in the activities of citizenship; both formal and informal. The aim of this qualitative study was to explore AT as mediator of participation in citizenship for persons with disabilities who live in two informal settlements in Freetown, Sierra Leone (SL). The paper presents evidence from 16 participant and 5 stakeholder interviews; 5 focus groups and 4 events; combining this with the findings of a house-to-house AT survey; and two national studies—a country capacity assessment and an informal markets deep-dive. Despite citizenship activities being valued, a lack of AT was consistently reported and hindered participation. Stigma was also found to be a major barrier. AT access for the poorest must be addressed if citizenship participation for persons with disabilities is a genuine global intention and disability justice is to become a reality.
“Give Us the Chance to Be Part of You, We Want Our Voices to Be Heard”: Assistive Technology as a Mediator of Participation in (Formal and Informal) Citizenship Activities for Persons with Disabilities Who Are Slum Dwellers in Freetown, Sierra Leone
Austin, V.; Holloway, C.; Ossul Vermehren, I.; Dumbuya, A.; Barbareschi, G.; Walker, J. “Give Us the Chance to Be Part of You, We Want Our Voices to Be Heard”: Assistive Technology as a Mediator of Participation in (Formal and Informal) Citizenship Activities for Persons with Disabilities Who Are Slum Dwellers in Freetown, Sierra Leone. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health2021, 18, 5547.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph...
“Give Us the Chance to Be Part of You, We Want Our Voices to Be Heard”: Assistive Technology as a Mediator of Participation in (Formal and Informal) Citizenship Activities for Persons with Disabilities Who Are Slum Dwellers in Freetown, Sierra Leone
Type
Editorial
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Research Group
Disability Interactions
The Digital and Assistive Technologies for Ageing initiative: learning from the GATE initiative
Chapal Khasnabis,Catherine Holloway, Malcolm MacLachlan
We are now in an era of assistive care and assistive living—whereby many people, of all ages, in good health, and those who are more frail, or with cognitive or functional impairments, are using a broad range of technologies to assist and enhance their daily living. Assistive living 1is becoming an important part of population health and rehabilitation, which can help to maximise an individual's abilities, regardless of age or functional capacity. This encouraging shift in ethos has been strengthened by the response to the COVID-19 pandemic, in which a plethora of digital and remote technologies have been used.
The Lancet; 2020
The Digital and Assistive Technologies for Ageing initiative: learning from the GATE initiative
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Research Group
Local Productions
Additive manufacturing techniques for smart prosthetic liners
B Oldfrey, A Tchorzewska, R Jackson, M Croysdale, R Loureiro,C Holloway, M Miodownik
Elastomeric liners are commonly worn between socket and limb by prosthetic wearers. This is due to their superior skin adhesion, load distribution and their ability to form a seal. Laboratory tests suggest that elastomeric liners allow reduced shear stress on the skin and give a higher cushioning effect on bony prominences, since they are soft in compression, and similar to biological tissues [1]. However, they also increase perspiration reducing hygiene and increasing skin irritations. Prosthetic users in general face a myriad of dermatological problems associated with lower limb prosthesis such as ulcers, cysts, and contact dermatitis, which are exacerbated by the closed environment of a fitted socket where perspiration is trapped and bacteria can proliferate [2].
Medical Engineering & Physics; 2021
Abstract
Additive manufacturing techniques for smart prosthetic liners
Elastomeric liners are commonly worn between the prosthetic socket and the limb. A number of improvements to the state of the art of liner technology are required to address outstanding problems. A liner that conforms to the residuum more accurately, may improve the skin health at the stump-socket interface. Previous work has shown that for effective thermal management of the socket environment, an active heat removal system is required, yet this is not available. Volume tracking of the stump could be used as a diagnostic tool for looking at the changes that occur across the day for all users, which depend on activity level, position, and the interaction forces of the prosthetic socket with the limb. We believe that it would be advantageous to embed these devices into a smart liner, which could be replaced and repaired more easily than the highly costly and labour-intensive custom-made socket. This paper presents the work to develop these capabilities in soft material technology, with: the development of a printable nanocomposite stretch sensor system; a low-cost digital method for casting bespoke prosthetic liners; a liner with an embedded stretch sensor for growth / volume tracking; a model liner with an embedded active cooling system.
Additive manufacturing techniques for smart prosthetic liners
, Additive manufacturing techniques for smart prosthetic liners, Medical Engineering & Physics, Volume 87, 2021, Pages 45-55, ISSN 1350-4533,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mede....
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Culture and Participation
Research Group
Disability Interactions
“When They See a Wheelchair, They’ve Not Even Seen Me”—Factors Shaping the Experience of Disability Stigma and Discrimination in Kenya
Giulia Barbareschi, Mark T. Carew, Elizabeth Aderonke Johnson, Norah Kopi,Catherine Holloway
Stigmatizing attitudes and beliefs towards disability represent one of the most pervasive and complex barriers that limits access to health care, education, employment, civic rights and opportunities for socialization for people with disabilities [1,2,3]. The damaging impact of disability stigma is widely acknowledged and, according to article 8 of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with disabilities, developing strategies, campaigns, policies and other initiatives to combat disability stigma and ensure that all people with disabilities are treated with dignity and respect is also a duty of the 182 countries who ratified the treaty [4]. Although the majority of literature focused on understanding disability stigma has been carried out in high-income settings [5,6,7], in the last decade, an increasing number of scholars have conducted studies looking at the negative stereotypes, prejudices and inaccurate beliefs that shape disability stigma in the Global South [3,8,9,10]. Most of these studies have described how these stigmatizing beliefs are often driven by a combination of personal and societal factors, ranging from misconceptions concerning the causes of different impairments (e.g., disability to be seen as a form of curse or punishment); assumptions about the lack of capabilities of people with disabilities; or discriminatory practices that actively endorse separation between people with and without disabilities [3,9,11,12]. Yet, there is a dearth of comparative studies that examine the perspectives of both people with and without disabilities of disability stigma and discrimination, including how the use of assistive technology may shape stigmatizing interactions.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health; 2021
Abstract
“When They See a Wheelchair, They’ve Not Even Seen Me”—Factors Shaping the Experience of Disability Stigma and Discrimination in Kenya
Disability stigma in many low- and middle-income countries represents one of the most pervasive barriers preventing people with disabilities from accessing equal rights and opportunities, including the uptake of available assistive technology (AT). Previous studies have rarely examined how disability stigma may be shaped through factors endemic to social interactions, including how the use of assistive technology itself may precipitate or alleviate disability stigma. Through two strands of work, we address this gap. Via a series of focus groups with Kenyans without disabilities (Study 1) and secondary data analysis of consultations with Kenyans with disabilities and their allies (Study 2), we identify shared and divergent understandings of what shapes disability stigma and discrimination. Specifically, Kenyans with and without disabilities were cognizant of how religious/spiritual interpretations of disability, conceptions of impairments as “different” from the norm, and social stereotypes about (dis)ability shaped the experience of stigma and discrimination. Moreover, both groups highlighted assistive technology as an influential factor that served to identify or “mark” someone as having a disability. However, whereas participants without disabilities saw assistive technology purely as an enabler to overcome stigma, participants with disabilities also noted that, in some cases, use of assistive technologies would attract stigma from others.
“When They See a Wheelchair, They’ve Not Even Seen Me”—Factors Shaping the Experience of Disability Stigma and Discrimination in Kenya
Barbareschi G, Carew MT, Johnson EA, Kopi N, Holloway C. “When They See a Wheelchair, They’ve Not Even Seen Me”—Factors Shaping the Experience of Disability Stigma and Discrimination in Kenya. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(8):4272.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph...
“When They See a Wheelchair, They’ve Not Even Seen Me”—Factors Shaping the Experience of Disability Stigma and Discrimination in Kenya
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Inclusive Design
Culture and Participation
Research Group
Disability Interactions
Bridging the Divide: Exploring the use of digital and physical technology to aid mobility impaired people living in an informal setlement
Giulia Barbareschi,Ben Oldfrey, Long Xin, Grace N. Magomere, Wyclife A. Wetende, Carol Wanjira, Joyce Olenja,Victoria Austin, andCatherine Holloway
The World Health Organisation estimate that there are approximately a billion people with disabilities who require access to appropriate assistive technology and this number is set to double by 2050 [82]. Assistive technologies (ATs) play a crucial role in the lives of people with disabilities and are necessary to be able to access essential services and participate in family and community life according to one’s aspirations [40, 62, 68, 81]. Although this is not often specifcally mentioned, the large majority of people with disabilities will routinely use more than one assistive device in their everyday lives [25, 26]. For example a person with a visual impairment is likely to use a white cane to navigate from their house to the office where they work and have a screen-reader, or an equivalent accessibility software, on their computer to be able to do their work once in the office [17].
ASSETS '20: Proceedings of the 22nd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility; 2020
Abstract
Bridging the Divide: Exploring the use of digital and physical technology to aid mobility impaired people living in an informal setlement
Living in informality is challenging. It is even harder when you have a mobility impairment. Traditional assistive products such as wheelchairs are essential to enable people to travel. Wheelchairs are considered a Human Right. However, they are difficult to access. On the other hand, mobile phones are becoming ubiquitous and are increasingly seen as an assistive technology. Should therefore a mobile phone be considered a Human Right? To help understand the role of the mobile phone in contrast of a more traditional assistive technology – the wheelchair, we conducted contextual interviews with eight mobility impaired people who live in Kibera, a large informal settlement in Nairobi. Our findings show mobile phones act as an accessibility bridge when physical accessibility becomes too challenging. We explore our findings from two perspective – human infrastructure and interdependence, contributing an understanding of the role supported interactions play in enabling both the wheelchair and the mobile phone to be used. This further demonstrates the critical nature of designing for context and understanding the social fabric that characterizes informal settlements. It is this social fabric which enables the technology to be useable.
Bridging the Divide: Exploring the use of digital and physical technology to aid mobility impaired people living in an informal setlement
Giulia Barbareschi, Ben Oldfrey, Long Xin, Grace Nyachomba Magomere, Wycliffe Ambeyi Wetende, Carol Wanjira, Joyce Olenja, Victoria Austin, and Catherine Holloway. 2020. Bridging the Divide: Exploring the use of digital and physical technology to aid mobility impaired people living in an informal settlement. In Proceedings of the 22nd International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS '20). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, Article 50, 1–13.https://doi.org/10.1145/337362...
Bridging the Divide: Exploring the use of digital and physical technology to aid mobility impaired people living in an informal setlement
Type
Editorial
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Culture and Participation
Research Group
Social Justice
Critical Junctures in Assistive Technology and Disability Inclusion
Dr Maria Kett,Catherine Holloway,Vicki Austin,Dr Maria Kett
It is clear from the events of the last 18 months that while technology has a huge potential for transforming the way we live and work, the entire ecosystem—from manufacturing to the supply chain—is vulnerable to the vagaries of that ecosystem, as well as having the potential to exacerbate new and existing inequalities [1]. Nowhere has this been more apparent than in the lives of people with disabilities, who make up around 15% of the world’s population and already face barriers to accessing education, employment, healthcare and other services [2]. Some of these barriers are a result of unequal access and opportunities. However, there is a growing movement to better understand how assistive technology systems and services can be designed to enable more robust and equitable access for all. As part of this growing movement, the Paralympic Games in Tokyo this autumn saw the launch of a new global campaign to transform the lives of the world’s 1.2 bn persons with disabilities: the ‘WeThe15’ campaign reached more than 4.5 billion people through its marketing and stands ready to be the biggest of its kind in history. Next year, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), AT scale and GDI Hub will publish the first World Report on Access to Assistive Technology, which will include research from the £20 million, UK Aid funded, GDI Hub-led, programme, AT2030. Ahead of that, in this Special Issue, we focus on how some events and situations—as diverse as the coronavirus pandemic and the Paralympics—can act as ‘critical junctures’ that can enable a rethink of the status quo to facilitate and promote change.
Sustainability; 2021
Critical Junctures in Assistive Technology and Disability Inclusion
Kett, M.; Holloway, C.; Austin, V. Critical Junctures in Assistive Technology and Disability Inclusion. Sustainability2021, 13, 12744.https://doi.org/10.3390/su1322...
Type
Book
Research Group
Disability Interactions
Disability Interactions Creating Inclusive Innovations
Catherine Holloway,Giulia Barbareschi
Abstract
Disability Interactions Creating Inclusive Innovations
Disability interactions (DIX) is a new approach to combining cross-disciplinary methods and theories from Human Computer Interaction (HCI), disability studies, assistive technology, and social development to co-create new technologies, experiences, and ways of working with disabled people. DIX focuses on the interactions people have with their technologies and the interactions which result because of technology use. A central theme of the approach is to tackle complex issues where disability problems are part of a system that does not have a simple solution. Therefore, DIX pushes researchers and practitioners to take a challenge-based approach, which enables both applied and basic research to happen alongside one another. DIX complements other frameworks and approaches that have been developed within HCI research and beyond. Traditional accessibility approaches are likely to focus on specific aspects of technology design and use without considering how features of large-scale assistive technology systems might influence the experiences of people with disabilities. DIX aims to embrace complexity from the start, to better translate the work of accessibility and assistive technology research into the real world. DIX also has a stronger focus on user-centered and participatory approaches across the whole value chain of technology, ensuring we design with the full system of technology in mind (from conceptualization and development to large-scale distribution and access). DIX also helps to acknowledge that solutions and approaches are often non-binary and that technologies and interactions that deliver value to disabled people in one situation can become a hindrance in a different context. Therefore, it offers a more nuanced guide to designing within the disability space, which expands the more traditional problem-solving approaches to designing for accessibility. This book explores why such a novel approach is needed and gives case studies of applications highlighting how different areas of focus—from education to health to work to global development—can benefit from applying a DIX perspective. We conclude with some lessons learned and a look ahead to the next 60 years of DIX.
Disability Interactions Creating Inclusive Innovations
Type
Editorial
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Research Group
Disability Interactions
Introduction to the companion papers to the global report on assistive technology
Johan Borg, Wei Zhang, Emma M. Smith,Cathy Holloway
GReAT, but do we care?
If accessible, assistive technology would be life changing for a billion people across the world today – and two billion people in 2050 (WHO,2018). It would make the difference between independence and dependence, inclusion and exclusion, life and death. It holds the potential to improve and transform health, education, livelihood and social participation; fundamental human rights everyone is entitled to. And if we are lucky to grow old, the chances are that we all would use assistive technology by then. But do we care?
Assistive Technology, The Official Journal of RESNA; 2021
Johan Borg, Wei Zhang, Emma M. Smith & Cathy Holloway (2021) Introduction to the companion papers to the global report on assistive technology, Assistive Technology, 33:sup1, 1-2, DOI:10.1080/10400435.2021.2003658
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Climate & Crisis Resilience
Research Group
Disability Interactions
Measuring assistive technology supply and demand: A scoping review
Jamie Danemayer,Dorothy Boggs, Emma M. Smith, Vinicius Delgado Ramos, Linamara Rizzo Battistella,Cathy Holloway,and Sarah Polack
An assistive product (AP) is defined as a product used exter-nally to the human body, whose primary purpose is to main-tain or improve an individual’s functioning and independence and thereby promote his or her well-being (WHO, 2016). Global population aging forecasts a rise in the need for solu-tions that support participation and independence, including APs. In this paper, we review current population-level AP supply and demand estimation methods for five priority APs and provide recommendations for improving national and global AP market evaluation.
Assistive Technology The Official Journal of RESNA; 2021
Measuring assistive technology supply and demand: A scoping review
The supply of and market demand for assistive products (APs) are complex and influenced by diverse stakeholders. The methods used to collect AP population-level market data are similarly varied. In this paper, we review current population-level AP supply and demand estimation methods for five priority APs and provide recommendations for improving national and global AP market evaluation. Abstracts resulting from a systematic search were double-screened. Extracted data include WHO world region, publication year, age-groups, AP domain(s), study method, and individual assessment approach.497 records were identified. Vision-related APs comprised 65% (n = 321 studies) of the body of literature; hearing (n = 59), mobility (n = 24), cognitive (n = 2), and studies measuring multiple domains (n = 92) were proportionately underrepresented. To assess individual AP need, 4 unique approaches were identified among 392 abstracts; 45% (n = 177) used self-report and 84% (n = 334) used clinical evaluation. Study methods were categorized among 431 abstracts; Cross-sectional studies (n = 312, 72%) and secondary analyses of cross-sectional data (n = 61, 14%) were most common. Case studies illustrating all methods are provided. Employing approaches and methods in the contexts where they are most well-suited to generate standardized AP indicators will be critical to further develop comparable population-level research informing supply and demand, ultimately expanding sustainable access to APs.
Measuring assistive technology supply and demand: A scoping review
Jamie Danemayer, Dorothy Boggs, Emma M. Smith, Vinicius Delgado Ramos, Linamara Rizzo Battistella, Cathy Holloway & Sarah Polack (2021) Measuring assistive technology supply and demand: A scoping review, Assistive Technology, 33:sup1, S35-S49, DOI: 10.1080/10400435.2021.1957039
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Research Group
Humanitarian & Disasters
Meeting AT needs in humanitarian crises: The current state of provision
Golnaz Whittaker, Gavin Adam Wood, Giulia Oggero,Maria Kett, Kirstin Lange
This paper discusses the evidence available in the literature for the scale and quality of AT provision interventions in crises, and what is known about the challenges and facilitators of provision. We conducted a search of the academic literature and retained literature that reported on any form of AT provision following crisis, where international humanitarian response was in place, published in English between January 2010 and June 2020.
Assistive Technology The Official Journal of RESNA; 2021
Abstract
Humanitarian coordination systems increasingly recognize and aim to respond to the needs of people with disabilities within populations affected by crises, spurred on by the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) which was adopted in 2006. Many agencies state their aim to meet the requirements of the CRPD using a “twin track” approach: ensuring the inclusion of people with disabilities in mainstream provision, alongside targeted support for their needs, which may include the need for Assistive Technology (AT). However, there is very little evidence of AT provision in humanitarian settings, which is a specific and urgent need for many people including the elderly and people with disabilities, and an implicit requirement of Article 11 of the CRPD and World Health Assembly resolution on improving access to assistive technology. There is also little evidence of effective mechanisms for AT provision in humanitarian settings. This is despite high and growing levels of unmet AT need in crises, and despite the legally binding requirement in the CRPD to provide AT for those who need it. AT provision faces unique challenges in humanitarian settings. This paper discusses the evidence available in the literature for the scale and quality of AT provision interventions in crises, and what is known about the challenges and facilitators of provision. We conducted a search of the academic literature and retained literature that reported on any form of AT provision following crisis, where international humanitarian response was in place, published in English between January 2010 and June 2020. We found very few examples in that academic literature of systematic and coordinated AT provision at the acute stage of crisis, and even less in the preparedness and post-acute stages. However, it is difficult to assess whether this is the result of insufficient academic attention or reflects a lack of provision. The small body of academic literature that describes AT provision in humanitarian settings paints a picture of small-scale provision, specialized to single types of impairments, and delivered by predominantly by NGOs. We also conducted a search of the gray literature, using the same inclusion criteria, in two countries: Afghanistan and South Sudan (case studies forthcoming). This gray literature provided supplementary evidence of the types of AT providers and AT provision available in those protracted crises. There are very few examples of how AT services can be scaled up (from a very low baseline) and maintained sustainably within a strengthened health system. The literature also describes more examples of provision of assistive products for mobility over assistive products for other impairments. If the paucity of literature on AT provision in humanitarian settings is a reflection of the scale of provision, this implies a deficiency in humanitarian response when it comes to providing people with AT needs with the essential products and services to which they have a right, and which will enable their access to basic, life-saving assistance. We conclude by providing recommendations for urgent actions that the AT and humanitarian community must take to fill this critical gap in the provision of essential products and services for a potentially marginalized and excluded group.
Meeting AT needs in humanitarian crises: The current state of provision
Golnaz Whittaker, Gavin Adam Wood, Giulia Oggero, Maria Kett & Kirstin Lange (2021) Meeting AT needs in humanitarian crises: The current state of provision, Assistive Technology, 33:sup1, S3-S16, DOI: 10.1080/10400435.2021.1934612
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Research Group
Local Productions
Could Assistive Technology Provision Models Help Pave the Way for More Environmentally Sustainable Models of Product Design, Manufacture and Service in a Post-COVID World?
Ben Oldfrey,Giulia Barbareschi, Priya Morjaria, Tamara Giltsoff, Jessica Massie, Mark Miodownik andCatherine Holloway
From multiple studies conducted through the FCDO AT2030 Programme, as well as key literature, we examine whether Assistive Technology (AT) provision models could look towards more sustainable approaches, and by doing this benefit not only the environment, but also address the problems that the current provision systems have.
Sustainability
Could Assistive Technology Provision Models Help Pave the Way for More Environmentally Sustainable Models of Product Design, Manufacture and Service in a Post-COVID World?
From multiple studies conducted through the FCDO AT2030 Programme, as well as key literature, we examine whether Assistive Technology (AT) provision models could look towards more sustainable approaches, and by doing this benefit not only the environment, but also address the problems that the current provision systems have. We show the intrinsic links between disability inclusion and the climate crisis, and the particular vulnerability people with disabilities face in its wake. In particular, we discuss how localised circular models of production could be beneficial, facilitating context driven solutions and much needed service elements such as repair and maintenance. Key discussion areas include systems approaches, digital fabrication, repair and reuse, and material recovery. Finally, we look at what needs be done in order to enable these approaches to be implemented. In conclusion, we find that there are distinct parallels between what AT provision models require to improve equitable reliable access, and strategies that could reduce environmental impact and bring economic benefit to local communities. This could allow future AT ecosystems to be key demonstrators of circular models, however further exploration of these ideas is required to make sense of the correct next steps. What is key in all respects, moving forward, is aligning AT provision with sustainability interventions.
Could Assistive Technology Provision Models Help Pave the Way for More Environmentally Sustainable Models of Product Design, Manufacture and Service in a Post-COVID World?
Oldfrey, B.; Barbareschi, G.; Morjaria, P.; Giltsoff, T.; Massie, J.; Miodownik, M.; Holloway, C. Could Assistive Technology Provision Models Help Pave the Way for More Environmentally Sustainable Models of Product Design, Manufacture and Service in a Post-COVID World? Sustainability2021, 13, 10867.https://doi.org/10.3390/su1319...
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Research Group
Local Productions
A review of innovation strategies and processes to improve access to AT: Looking ahead to open innovation ecosystems
Catherine Holloway, Dafne Zuleima Morgado Ramirez,Tigmanshu Bhatnagar,Ben Oldfrey, Priya Morjaria, Soikat Ghosh Moulic, Ikenna D. Ebuenyi,Giulia Barbareschi,Fiona Meeks, Jessica Massie, Felipe Ramos-Barajas, Joanne McVeigh, Kyle Keane, George Torrens, P. V.M. Rao, Malcolm MacLachlan,Victoria Austin, Rainer Kattel, Cheryl D Metcalf & Srinivasan Sujatha
It is essential to understand the strategies and processes which are deployed currently across the Assistive Technology (AT) space toward measuring innovation. The main aim of this paper is to identify functional innovation strategies and processes which are being or can be deployed in the AT space to increase access to AT globally.
Assistive Technology The Official Journal of RESNA
A review of innovation strategies and processes to improve access to AT: Looking ahead to open innovation ecosystems
It is essential to understand the strategies and processes which are deployed currently across the Assistive Technology (AT) space toward measuring innovation. The main aim of this paper is to identify functional innovation strategies and processes which are being or can be deployed in the AT space to increase access to AT globally. We conducted a scoping review of innovation strategies and processes in peer-reviewed literature databases and complemented this by identifying case studies demonstrating innovation strategies. The review includes WHO world region, publication year, AT type and a sector analysis against the Systems-Market for Assistive and Related Technologies Framework. We analyzed the case studies and interviews using thematic analysis. We included 91 papers out of 3,127 after review along with 72 case studies. Our results showed that product innovations were more prevalent than provision or supply innovations across papers and case studies. Case studies yielded two themes: open innovation (OI); radical and disruptive innovation. Financial instruments which encourage OI are needed and we recommend pursuing OI for AT innovation. Embedding AT within larger societal missions will be key to success governments and investors need to understand what AT is and their translational socioeconomic value.
A review of innovation strategies and processes to improve access to AT: Looking ahead to open innovation ecosystems
Catherine Holloway, Dafne Zuleima Morgado Ramirez, Tigmanshu Bhatnagar, Ben Oldfrey, Priya Morjaria, Soikat Ghosh Moulic, Ikenna D. Ebuenyi, Giulia Barbareschi, Fiona Meeks, Jessica Massie, Felipe Ramos-Barajas, Joanne McVeigh, Kyle Keane, George Torrens, P. V.M. Rao, Malcolm MacLachlan, Victoria Austin, Rainer Kattel, Cheryl D Metcalf & Srinivasan Sujatha (2021) A review of innovation strategies and processes to improve access to AT: Looking ahead to open innovation ecosystems, Assistive Technology, 33:sup1, 68-86, DOI:10.1080/10400435.2021.1970653
A review of innovation strategies and processes to improve access to AT: Looking ahead to open innovation ecosystems
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Inclusive Design
Co-creating Inclusive Public Spaces: Learnings from Four Global Case Studies on inclusive Cities
Mikaela Patrick,Iain McKinnon
Public spaces, including recreational and social spaces, are often not prioritised. Inclusive public spaces are fundamental to participation and inclusive in society. Including persons with disabilities in the design and planning of the built environment supports equal rights and helps identify people’s aspirations for inclusive environments. Four city case studies will be discussed in this paper: Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; Varanasi, India; Surakarta, Indonesia; and Nairobi, Kenya.
The Journal of Public Space
Abstract
Co-creating Inclusive Public Spaces: Learnings from Four Global Case Studies on inclusive Cities
This paper presents some of the findings from a global research study on inclusive infrastructure and city design and will focus on inclusive public spaces. Persons with disabilities can experience multi-dimensional exclusion from urban life, including but not limited to physical, attitudinal and social barriers. Public spaces, including recreational and social spaces, are often not prioritised. Inclusive public spaces are fundamental to participation and inclusive in society. Including persons with disabilities in the design and planning of the built environment supports equal rights and helps identify people’s aspirations for inclusive environments.Four city case studies will be discussed in this paper: Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia; Varanasi, India; Surakarta, Indonesia; and Nairobi, Kenya. Research participants and objectives are organised by three stakeholder groups:
People - first-hand experiences of persons with disabilities living in the city and their aspirations for a more inclusive city
Policy - the awareness and understanding of inclusive design among policy-makers
Practice - the awareness and understanding of inclusive design among practitioners including barriers to implementation, opportunities and the relationship with assistive technology
Methods include document reviews, interviews, photo diaries and co-design workshops with participatory and inclusive engagement of persons with disabilities throughout. Findings on public spaces are discussed in three ways:
The types of public spaces valued by participants in each of the four cities.
The barriers and challenges experienced by persons with disabilities in the public realm.
Aspirations for more inclusive public spaces and opportunities for inclusive design
The paper concludes by discussing how the targeted stakeholder groups of people, policy and practice also help represent three essential dimensions of inclusive city design and forming a framework for successful implementation and delivery and supporting targets set out through the UNCRPD and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Co-creating Inclusive Public Spaces: Learnings from Four Global Case Studies on inclusive Cities
Patrick, M. and McKinnon, I. (2022) “Co-creating Inclusive Public Spaces: Learnings from Four Global Case Studies on inclusive Cities”, The Journal of Public Space, 7(2), pp. 93–116. doi: 10.32891/jps.v7i2.1500.
Co-creating Inclusive Public Spaces: Learnings from Four Global Case Studies on inclusive Cities
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Culture and Participation
Research Group
Social Justice
Paralympic Broadcasting in Sub-Saharan Africa: Sport, Media and Communication for Social Change
Jessica Noske-Turner, Emma Pullen, Mufunanji Magalasi, Damian Haslett, Jo Tacchi
Communication & Sport
Abstract
Paralympic Broadcasting in Sub-Saharan Africa: Sport, Media and Communication for Social Change
The purpose of this commentary is to discuss how Paralympic coverage in sub-Saharan Africa can be effectively mobilised to stimulate discursive and structural change around disability. Paralympic coverage has demonstrated its pedagogical power to engage public(s) and challenge stigma toward disability. Yet, the Global picture of Paralympic broadcasting is deeply uneven, with audiences in parts of the Global South afforded limited opportunities to watch the Games. Considering this, the International Paralympic Committee has begun to broadcast Paralympic coverage across sub-Saharan Africa with an explicit aim to challenge stigma toward disability. In this article, we draw on examples from research to argue that ideas from the field of Communication for Social Change (CfSC) can add value towards this aim. We begin by providing a brief overview of CfSC before critically examining one of the field’s key concepts – Communicative (E)ecologies. Following this, we critically reflect on the potential of Paralympic broadcasting as a vehicle for social change and disability rights agendas in sub-Saharan Africa. We argue that thinking with CfSC concepts show the importance of a ‘decentred’ media approach that engages with disability community advocacy groups, localised communication activities and practices, and culturally specific disability narratives.
Paralympic Broadcasting in Sub-Saharan Africa: Sport, Media and Communication for Social Change
Noske-Turner, J., Pullen, E., Magalasi, M., Haslett, D., & Tacchi, J. (2022). Paralympic Broadcasting in Sub-Saharan Africa: Sport, Media and Communication for Social Change. Communication & Sport, 10(5), 1001–1015.https://doi.org/10.1177/216747...
Paralympic Broadcasting in Sub-Saharan Africa: Sport, Media and Communication for Social Change
Type
Toolkit
Innovate Now Toolkit
As an entrepreneur, learning how to solve problems by creating and experimenting with different strategies is a core pillar of the entrepreneurial mindset you need to succeed. However, there’s rarely a single correct way to solve problems as an entrepreneur, so you need to learn how to create and compare different solutions.
The open entrepreneurship toolkit is a set of learning materials that can help you and your team do just that. Covering the domains of user, product, market and business development, the set of cards have been designed to be used by two or more group members to actively experiment with different solutions.
Innovate Now
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Culture and Participation
Research Group
Social Justice
This Is the Story of Community Leadership with Political Backing. (PM1)" Critical Junctures in Paralympic Legacy: Framing the London 2012 Disability Inclusion Model for New Global Challenges ?"
Victoria Austin,Kate Mattick, andCathy Holloway
Disability inclusion necessitates proactive efforts to ensure everybody has an independent and equitable opportunity to meaningfully participate in the activities of their choosing [1,2,3]. Furthermore, disability justice is not a minority concern. There are more than a billion disabled people worldwide, and impairment is something which affects most people’s family right now and will impact all of us over our lifetime. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) enshrines human rights of all disabled people [4], and in 2015 the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) recognised disability inclusion for the first time with the call to ‘leave no-one behind’. Increasingly, governments, non-governmental agencies and businesses alike are seeking to develop and implement policy and practice which enables greater social inclusion for disabled people (In this paper, Disabled People is used in line with the Social Model of Disability in the UK, though please note the UN uses ‘Persons with Disabilities’ as is common in North America) [5]. Eighty percent of the disabled people in the world live in low resource settings in the Global South [3] with a projected growth of this number due to an increase in population age, there is the ever-pressing need to critically evaluate how best to approach disability inclusion to build a societies where we all can flourish. Despite this, we lack case studies of how disability inclusion can be done well—in the literature and in practice. For this reason, we set out to undertake this research using one the most recognised cases of ‘disability inclusion done well’.
Sustainability
Abstract
This Is the Story of Community Leadership with Political Backing. (PM1)" Critical Junctures in Paralympic Legacy: Framing the London 2012 Disability Inclusion Model for New Global Challenges ?"
The London 2012 Paralympic Games was called “the most successful Paralympic Games ever” (by the then-President of the IPC), and it saw more athletes from more countries than ever before compete and become global heroes for the first time in a redeveloped part of East London which also hosted “the most accessible Olympic Games ever” that summer. However, the model used to design and deliver disability inclusion for London 2012, and its legacy, has never been explicitly written up. This paper presents new primary evidence from first-hand research from those who were involved; retrospectively framing the London 2012 Disability Inclusion Model such that it might be usable and developed for other global disability challenges. We used an adapted Delphi methodology, through four rounds: beginning with an initial hypothesis and testing through semi-structured interviews with ten key players in the London 2012 disability inclusion approach. Using thematic analysis with consensus building surveys and workshops we came to a settled unanimous agreement on the 12-step London 2012 Disability Inclusion Modelcomprising three parts: (Get ready) community-led mission setting, (Get set) essential building blocksand (Go) enabling a culture of success. The model is presented here, alongside a narrative on its uniqueness and replicability to other major programs, as a public good. We welcome its active use, testing and adaption by others in service of disability innovation for a fairer world.
Cite
This Is the Story of Community Leadership with Political Backing. (PM1)" Critical Junctures in Paralympic Legacy: Framing the London 2012 Disability Inclusion Model for New Global Challenges ?"
Victoria Austin, Kate Mattick, and Cathy Holloway. 2021. "“This Is the Story of Community Leadership with Political Backing. (PM1)” Critical Junctures in Paralympic Legacy: Framing the London 2012 Disability Inclusion Model for New Global Challenges" Sustainability13, no. 16: 9253.https://doi.org/10.3390/su13169253
This Is the Story of Community Leadership with Political Backing. (PM1)" Critical Junctures in Paralympic Legacy: Framing the London 2012 Disability Inclusion Model for New Global Challenges ?"
Type
Workshop
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Culture and Participation
Rethinking the Senses: A Workshop on Multisensory Embodied Experiences and Disability Interactions
Maryam Bandukda, Aneesha Singh,Catherine Holloway,Nadia Berthouze, Emeline Brulé, Ana Tajadura-Jiménez, Oussama Metatla, Ana Javornik, and Anja Thieme
The emerging possibilities of multisensory interactions provide an exciting space for disability and open up opportunities to explore new experiences for perceiving one's own body, it's interactions with the environment and also to explore the environment itself. In addition, dynamic aspects of living with disability, life transitions, including ageing, psychological distress, long-term conditions such as chronic pain and new conditions such as long-COVID further affect people's abilities. Interactions with this diversity of embodiments can be enriched, empowered and augmented through using multisensory and cross-sensory modalities to create more inclusive technologies and experiences. To explore this, in this workshop we will explore three related sub-domains: immersive multi-sensory experiences, embodied experiences, and disability interactions and design.
CHI EA '21: Extended Abstracts of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems
Abstract
Rethinking the Senses: A Workshop on Multisensory Embodied Experiences and Disability Interactions
The emerging possibilities of multisensory interactions provide an exciting space for disability and open up opportunities to explore new experiences for perceiving one's own body, it's interactions with the environment and also to explore the environment itself. In addition, dynamic aspects of living with disability, life transitions, including ageing, psychological distress, long-term conditions such as chronic pain and new conditions such as long-COVID further affect people's abilities. Interactions with this diversity of embodiments can be enriched, empowered and augmented through using multisensory and cross-sensory modalities to create more inclusive technologies and experiences. To explore this, in this workshop we will explore three related sub-domains: immersive multi-sensory experiences, embodied experiences, and disability interactions and design. The aim is to better understand how we can re-think the senses in technology design for disability interactions and the dynamic self, constructed through continuously changing sensing capabilities either because of changing ability or because of the empowering technology. This workshop will: (i) bring together HCI researchers from different areas, (ii) discuss tools, frameworks and methods, and (iii) form a multidisciplinary community to build synergies for further collaboration.
Cite
Rethinking the Senses: A Workshop on Multisensory Embodied Experiences and Disability Interactions
Maryam Bandukda, Aneesha Singh, Catherine Holloway, Nadia Berthouze, Emeline Brulé, Ana Tajadura-Jiménez, Oussama Metatla, Ana Javornik, and Anja Thieme. 2021. Rethinking the Senses: A Workshop on Multisensory Embodied Experiences and Disability Interactions. Extended Abstracts of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, Article 118, 1–5. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1145/341176...
Rethinking the Senses: A Workshop on Multisensory Embodied Experiences and Disability Interactions
Type
Editorial
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
A right to the frivolous? Renegotiating a wellbeing agenda for AT research
Giulia Barbareschi& Tom Shakespeare
Assistive products (APs) are broadly defined as “ any product (including devices, equipment, instruments, and software), either specially designed and produced or generally available, whose primary purpose is to maintain or improve an individual’s functioning and independence and thereby promote their wellbeing” (Khasnabis et al.,2015). Although the concept of wellbeing is extremely slippery and researchers have yet to agree on a single definition for it, as individuals we instinctively develop mental models about what does, and does not, promote our happiness and wellbeing. Considerations about values, wellbeing and happiness are extremely personal and are shaped by a variety of factors ranging from our age and socio-cultural background to our life experiences (Schwartz & Bardi,2001).
RESNA
Abstract
A right to the frivolous? Renegotiating a wellbeing agenda for AT research
Assistive products (APs) are broadly defined as “ any product (including devices, equipment, instruments, and software), either specially designed and produced or generally available, whose primary purpose is to maintain or improve an individual’s functioning and independence and thereby promote their wellbeing” (Khasnabis et al.,2015). Although the concept of wellbeing is extremely slippery and researchers have yet to agree on a single definition for it, as individuals we instinctively develop mental models about what does, and does not, promote our happiness and wellbeing. Considerations about values, wellbeing and happiness are extremely personal and are shaped by a variety of factors ranging from our age and socio-cultural background to our life experiences (Schwartz & Bardi,2001).
However, when it comes to assistive technology (AT) research, our focus seems to be primarily geared toward values and activities in the domains of education, employment, transport or health, often framed according to an outcome driven perspective that is heavily influenced by what is seen as useful (often what is measurable), vs what is frivolous (less tangible social or emotional aspects).
This disparity parallels the priorities of the disability rights movement and disability studies research that have helped to shape the research agenda around disability and AT. Often influenced by labor movement politics, or feminism, there appears to have been more concern with public and practical aspects of social life as opposed to the more private and sensitive ones (Shakespeare,2014). The focus on the public utilitarian function of AT becomes even more evident when we consider AT research carried out in the Global South. In this context the success of an intervention is usually assessed using measures of outcome and impact which can be somehow linked to economic improvement (Alkire,2016).
In this editorial, we are not suggesting that enabling people with disabilities to gain a good education, obtain a fulfilling job or be able to vote are not important goals for the APs we develop and research. But are those the only worthwhile goals? Should we not also enquire whether existing and future APs could help people with disabilities to develop meaningful friendships, enjoy fulfilling sex lives with their partners of choice, cook sociable dinners, or engage in their favorite hobbies? Although sporadic publications focus on the role of APs in the context of personal relationships, sexuality, or fun and play for people with disabilities do exist, these are rare, and often framed around utilitarian goals. For example, research around AT and play is largely focused on children and often examined in connection to learning outcomes. Similarly, sex and sexuality are often explored solely in connection to dysfunction, abuse or sexual health (Shakespeare & Richardson,2018).
These unbalanced narratives show how the AT research agenda is dictated by a set of universal priorities that are largely focused on global measurable goals that do not necessarily match the everyday values of people with disabilities. We invite researchers and practitioners to consider ways to find a better balance between public and private aspects of life, and between utilitarian and emotional values. Both approaches have a significant impact on the lives of people with disabilities.
Ultimately, as AT researchers we need to actively engage with people with disabilities to uncover their priorities, understand what different people with disabilities most value in life, and identify how current and future APs might help to make a positive impact on wellbeing. Aspects of life such as friendship, socialization, sexuality, love and play might indeed be more frivolous than practical ones such as education, health, employment and civil rights, but they are inherent to our shared humanity and fundamental to our happiness.
Cite
A right to the frivolous? Renegotiating a wellbeing agenda for AT research
Giulia Barbareschi & Tom Shakespeare (2021) A right to the frivolous? Renegotiating a wellbeing agenda for AT research, Assistive Technology, 33:5, 237, DOI:10.1080/10400435.2021.1984112
Type
Workshop
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Research Group
Disability Interactions
Disability Design and Innovation in Low Resource Settings: Addressing Inequality Through HCI.
Giulia Barbareschi,Dafne Zuleima Morgado-Ramirez,Catherine Holloway, Swami Manohar Swaminathan, Aditya Vashistha, and Edward Cutrell.
Approximately 15% of the world's population has a disability and 80% live in low resource-settings, often in situations of severe social isolation. Technology is often inaccessible or inappropriately designed, hence unable to fully respond to the needs of people with disabilities living in low resource settings. Also lack of awareness of technology contributes to limited access. This workshop will be a call to arms for researchers in HCI to engage with people with disabilities in low resourced settings to understand their needs and design technology that is both accessible and culturally appropriate.
Extended Abstracts of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems.
Abstract
Disability Design and Innovation in Low Resource Settings: Addressing Inequality Through HCI.
Approximately 15% of the world's population has a disability and 80% live in low resource-settings, often in situations of severe social isolation. Technology is often inaccessible or inappropriately designed, hence unable to fully respond to the needs of people with disabilities living in low resource settings. Also lack of awareness of technology contributes to limited access. This workshop will be a call to arms for researchers in HCI to engage with people with disabilities in low resourced settings to understand their needs and design technology that is both accessible and culturally appropriate. We will achieve this through sharing of research experiences, and exploration of challenges encountered when planning HCI4D studies featuring participants with disabilities. Thanks to the contributions of all attendees, we will build a roadmap to support researchers aiming to leverage post-colonial and participatory approaches for the development of accessible and empowering technology with truly global ambitions.
Cite
Disability Design and Innovation in Low Resource Settings: Addressing Inequality Through HCI.
Giulia Barbareschi, Dafne Zuleima Morgado-Ramirez, Catherine Holloway, Swami Manohar Swaminathan, Aditya Vashistha, and Edward Cutrell. 2021. Disability Design and Innovation in Low Resource Settings: Addressing Inequality Through HCI. Extended Abstracts of the 2021 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, Article 124, 1–5. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1145/3411763.3441340
Type
Journal Paper
Themes
Assistive & Accessible Technology
Research Group
Disability Interactions
Physiological Computing
STEP-UP: Enabling Low-Cost IMU Sensors to Predict the Type of Dementia During Everyday Stair Climbing
Catherine Holloway, William Bhot, Keir X. X. Yong, Ian McCarthy, Tatsuto Suzuki, Amelia Carton, Biao Yang, Robin Serougne, Derrick Boampong, Nick Tyler, Sebastian J. Crutch, Nadia Berthouze andYoungjun Cho
Posterior Cortical Atrophy is a rare but significant form of dementia which affects people's visual ability before their memory. This is often misdiagnosed as an eyesight rather than brain sight problem. This paper aims to address the frequent, initial misdiagnosis of this disease as a vision problem through the use of an intelligent, cost-effective, wearable system, alongside diagnosis of the more typical Alzheimer's Disease.
Frontiers in Computer Science
Abstract
STEP-UP: Enabling Low-Cost IMU Sensors to Predict the Type of Dementia During Everyday Stair Climbing
Posterior Cortical Atrophy is a rare but significant form of dementia which affects people's visual ability before their memory. This is often misdiagnosed as an eyesight rather than brain sight problem. This paper aims to address the frequent, initial misdiagnosis of this disease as a vision problem through the use of an intelligent, cost-effective, wearable system, alongside diagnosis of the more typical Alzheimer's Disease. We propose low-level features constructed from the IMU data gathered from 35 participants, while they performed a stair climbing and descending task in a real-world simulated environment. We demonstrate that with these features the machine learning models predict dementia with 87.02% accuracy. Furthermore, we investigate how system parameters, such as number of sensors, affect the prediction accuracy. This lays the groundwork for a simple clinical test to enable detection of dementia which can be carried out in the wild.
| https://www.disabilityinnovation.com/publications?page=6&type=book+toolkit+journal-paper+workshop+editorial |
1 Samuel 29 NASB BSB Parallel
NASB Parallel BSB [BSB CSB ESV HCS KJV ISV NAS NET NIV NLT HEB]
<table><tbody><tr><td> New American Standard Bible 1995</td><td> Berean Study Bible</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td> 1 Now the Philistines gathered together all their armies to Aphek, while the Israelites were camping by the spring which is in Jezreel.</td><td> 1 Now the Philistines brought all their forces together at Aphek, while Israel camped by the spring in Jezreel.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td> 2 And the lords of the Philistines were proceeding on by hundreds and by thousands, and David and his men were proceeding on in the rear with Achish.</td><td> 2 As the Philistine leaders marched out their units of hundreds and thousands, David and his men marched behind them with Achish.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td> 3 Then the commanders of the Philistines said, "What are these Hebrews doing here?" And Achish said to the commanders of the Philistines, "Is this not David, the servant of Saul the king of Israel, who has been with me these days, or rather these years, and I have found no fault in him from the day he deserted to me to this day?"</td><td> 3 Then the commanders of the Philistines asked, “What about these Hebrews?” Achish replied, “Is this not David, the servant of King Saul of Israel? He has been with me all these days, even years, and from the day he defected until today I have found no fault in him.”</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td> 4 But the commanders of the Philistines were angry with him, and the commanders of the Philistines said to him, "Make the man go back, that he may return to his place where you have assigned him, and do not let him go down to battle with us, or in the battle he may become an adversary to us. For with what could this man make himself acceptable to his lord? Would it not be with the heads of these men?</td><td> 4 But the commanders of the Philistines were angry with Achish and told him, “Send that man back and let him return to the place you assigned him. He must not go down with us into battle only to become our adversary during the war. What better way for him to regain the favor of his master than with the heads of our men?</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td> 5 "Is this not David, of whom they sing in the dances, saying, 'Saul has slain his thousands, And David his ten thousands '?"</td><td> 5 Is this not the David about whom they sing in their dances: ‘Saul has slain his thousands, and David his tens of thousands’?”</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td> 6 Then Achish called David and said to him, "As the LORD lives, you have been upright, and your going out and your coming in with me in the army are pleasing in my sight; for I have not found evil in you from the day of your coming to me to this day. Nevertheless, you are not pleasing in the sight of the lords.</td><td> 6 So Achish summoned David and told him, “As surely as the LORD lives, you have been upright in my sight, and it seems right that you should march in and out with me in the army, because I have found no fault in you from the day you came to me until this day. But you have no favor in the sight of the leaders.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td> 7 "Now therefore return and go in peace, that you may not displease the lords of the Philistines."</td><td> 7 Therefore turn back now and go in peace, so that you will not do anything to displease the leaders of the Philistines.”</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td> 8 David said to Achish, "But what have I done? And what have you found in your servant from the day when I came before you to this day, that I may not go and fight against the enemies of my lord the king?"</td><td> 8 “But what have I done?” David replied. “What have you found against your servant, from the day I came to you until today, to keep me from going along to fight against the enemies of my lord the king?”</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td> 9 But Achish replied to David, "I know that you are pleasing in my sight, like an angel of God; nevertheless the commanders of the Philistines have said, 'He must not go up with us to the battle.'</td><td> 9 Achish replied, “I know that you are as pleasing in my sight as an angel of God. But the commanders of the Philistines have said, ‘He must not go into battle with us.’</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td> 10 "Now then arise early in the morning with the servants of your lord who have come with you, and as soon as you have arisen early in the morning and have light, depart."</td><td> 10 Now then, get up early in the morning, along with your master’s servants who came with you, and go as soon as it is light.”</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td> 11 So David arose early, he and his men, to depart in the morning to return to the land of the Philistines. And the Philistines went up to Jezreel.</td><td> 11 So David and his men got up early in the morning to return to the land of the Philistines. And the Philistines went up to Jezreel.</td></tr></tbody></table>
<table><tbody><tr><td> New American Standard Bible Copyright © 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995 by The Lockman Foundation, La Habra, Calif. All rights reserved. For Permission to Quote Information visit //www.lockman.org</td><td> The Berean Bible (Berean Study Bible (BSB)© 2016, 2018 byBible HubandBerean.Bible. Used by Permission. All rights Reserved.</td></tr></tbody></table>
| https://www.biblehub.com/p/nas/bsb/1_samuel/29.shtml |
Remote Sensing | Free Full-Text | Extracting Impervious Surface from Aerial Imagery Using Semi-Automatic Sampling and Spectral Stability
The quantification of impervious surface through remote sensing provides critical information for urban planning and environmental management. The acquisition of quality reference data and the selection of effective predictor variables are two factors that contribute to the low accuracies of impervious surface in urban remote sensing. A hybrid method was developed to improve the extraction of impervious surface from high-resolution aerial imagery. This method integrates ancillary datasets from OpenStreetMap, National Wetland Inventory, and National Cropland Data to generate training and validation samples in a semi-automatic manner, significantly reducing the effort of visual interpretation and manual labeling. Satellite-derived surface reflectance stability is incorporated to improve the separation of impervious surface from other land cover classes. This method was applied to 1-m National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) imagery of three sites with different levels of land development and data availability. Results indicate improved extractions of impervious surface with user’s accuracies ranging from 69% to 90% and producer’s accuracies from 88% to 95%. The results were compared to the 30-m percent impervious surface data of the National Land Cover Database, demonstrating the potential of this method to validate and complement satellite-derived medium-resolution datasets of urban land cover and land use.
Extracting Impervious Surface from Aerial Imagery Using Semi-Automatic Sampling and Spectral Stability
by Hua Zhang 1,* , Steven M. Gorelick 2 and Paul V. Zimba 3
1
School of Engineering and Computing Sciences, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USA
2
Department of Earth System Science, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
3
Center for Coastal Studies, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, Corpus Christi, TX 78412, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Remote Sens. 2020 , 12 (3), 506; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030506
Received: 4 January 2020 / Revised: 30 January 2020 / Accepted: 1 February 2020 / Published: 4 February 2020
(This article belongs to the Section Urban Remote Sensing )
Abstract
The quantification of impervious surface through remote sensing provides critical information for urban planning and environmental management. The acquisition of quality reference data and the selection of effective predictor variables are two factors that contribute to the low accuracies of impervious surface in urban remote sensing. A hybrid method was developed to improve the extraction of impervious surface from high-resolution aerial imagery. This method integrates ancillary datasets from OpenStreetMap, National Wetland Inventory, and National Cropland Data to generate training and validation samples in a semi-automatic manner, significantly reducing the effort of visual interpretation and manual labeling. Satellite-derived surface reflectance stability is incorporated to improve the separation of impervious surface from other land cover classes. This method was applied to 1-m National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) imagery of three sites with different levels of land development and data availability. Results indicate improved extractions of impervious surface with user’s accuracies ranging from 69% to 90% and producer’s accuracies from 88% to 95%. The results were compared to the 30-m percent impervious surface data of the National Land Cover Database, demonstrating the potential of this method to validate and complement satellite-derived medium-resolution datasets of urban land cover and land use.
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Graphical Abstract
1. Introduction
Over half the Earth’s population now resides in cities [ 1 ]. Urbanization inevitably alters hydrologic processes, energy balance, and biological composition, resulting in higher nutrient loads, elevated surface temperature, increased peak flow, and accelerated habitat degradation in many urban areas and watersheds [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. A characteristic indicator of urbanization is the increase of impervious surface, a unique land cover class that involves paved roads, sidewalks, parking lots, buildings, and other built structures, through which precipitation does not readily infiltrate into the underlying soil [ 5 ]. Understanding the spatiotemporal pattern of impervious surface has important implications for many urban studies on stormwater, heat islands, water quality, ecosystem function, population growth, and community resilience [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. The quantification of impervious surface provides critical information to city managers and researchers for a range of issues in urban planning and environmental management [ 5 ].
Remote sensing has been used for decades to monitor land cover change and map the growth of impervious surface. This has led to the generation of important databases at national or global scales, such as the National Land Cover Database (NLCD) in the United States [ 12 , 13 ], Coordination of Information on the Environment (CORNIE) land cover inventory in Europe [ 14 ], Finer Resolution Observation and Monitoring-Global Land Cover (FROM-GLC) database in China [ 15 ], and MODIS Land Cover Type Yearly Global dataset [ 16 ]. As these databases are derived from medium-resolution satellite imagery with pixel size ranging from 30 m to 500 m, they have to use multiple urban land cover classes (i.e., low- and high-intensity developed areas) to reflect different levels of impervious surface cover at the scale of a satellite image pixel. High-resolution datasets of impervious surface are not available over large spatial extents, but some studies have utilized meter- or submeter-level aerial imagery to characterize urban landscape. For example, object-based feature extraction and regression tree techniques were applied to National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) orthophotography in Minnesota and led to an overall accuracy of 74% [ 17 ]. An algorithm of multiple agent segmentation was applied to analyze NAIP imagery of Rhode Island [ 18 ]. More recently, random forest (RF) models were combined with geographic object-based image analysis to generate a 1-m land cover dataset of West Virginia with an overall accuracy of 96.7% [ 19 ].
However, reported accuracies for impervious surface were often lower than the accuracies of other land cover classes in supervised classification. An important reason is the acquisition of sufficient and reliable samples that are needed to train a classification model. Studies have shown that increasing the size of training data generally improves classification performance and could have a greater influence than the classification model [ 19 , 20 ]. Collecting a large number of quality samples by field surveys or screen digitalization is very complex, costly, and time consuming [ 21 ]. This is exacerbated by the acquisition of independent samples for validation, as using the same data for training and validation could result in optimistically biased accuracy assessments [ 22 ]. Another influential factor on the extraction of impervious surface is the selection of variables. Including predictor variables in addition to original image bands generally improves classification performance. These additional predictors include a variety of spectral, textural, and feature geometric indices, derived from the targeted image and sometimes with the support of ancillary datasets [ 2 , 19 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. These measures enhance the signatures of impervious surface across various spatial scales, but they lack the information about the unique temporal behaviors of impervious surface. Although some predictor variables of temporal changes (e.g., phenological features and time series) have been used in studies on vegetation classification [ 30 , 31 , 32 ], such variables have been rarely included in the extraction of impervious surface.
The goal of this study was to develop a hybrid method for extracting impervious surface from 1-m NAIP imagery. Reference data for training and validation were generated in a semi-automatic scheme that integrated multiple ancillary datasets to minimize human edits. Classification was also improved by analyzing temporal stability of surface reflectance based on a time series of Landsat imagery. We demonstrated this method at three sites in South Texas to address different levels of development intensity and data availability. Furthermore, after the accuracy assessment, the 1-m results of impervious surface were upscaled to 30-m resolution for a comparison to the NLCD percent impervious surface product, demonstrating the potential value of our method to validate and complement this important national land cover database.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area and Data
The study area is located in the Corpus Christi-Kingsville metropolitan region in South Texas, United States (
Figure 1
). This region is a flat coastal plain that faces the Gulf of Mexico. Elevation varies from sea level to 70 m with an average slope of 0.5%. Soils are mainly Victorian clay and Orelia fine sandy loam. According to 2016 NLCD data, the major land cover classes in this area include developed (26%), open water (24%), cultivated crops (15%), hay and pasture (10%), and shrub and scrub (8%). This area has a humid subtropical climate with an average annual precipitation of 805 mm and an average annual temperature of 22.3 °C.
Figure 1. Study area in South Texas, United States.
Three sites were selected for this study (
Figure 1
). Site 1 was in the south region of Corpus Christi, the urban core with a population of 325,733 in 2016. The landscape of this site was dominated by developed land and large areas of coastal water. Site 2 covered the majority of Kingsville, a satellite city with a population of 25,714 in 2016 and surrounded by agricultural land. Site 3 was an industrial zone in north Corpus Christi with a mixture neighborhood of farmland and wetland. Thus, the three sites reflected a gradient of land development: high (Site 1), medium (Site 2), and low (Site 3). They also addressed different conditions of barren land, ranging from limited mixed barren land (Site 1) to abundant single-type barren land (Site 3) and abundant mixed barren land (Site 2). NAIP imagery of these sites consisted of three 1-m multispectral (blue, green, red, and near-infrared) images acquired in May 2016.
Several ancillary datasets were used in this study. Vector datasets of building and roads were downloaded from the database of the OpenStreetMap (OSM) project (
www.openstreetmap.org
). Built on the concept of volunteered geographic information, the OSM project relies on volunteers to collect information of various built features, collates them on a central database, and distributes free datasets with sound quality [
33
]. Vector datasets of freshwater and estuarine wetland boundaries were extracted from the National Wetland Inventory (NWI) database of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. Created through a hierarchical classification framework that utilizes aerial photography, NWI maps are recognized as the most comprehensive wetland maps in the United States [
34
]. National cropland data were accessed through Google Earth Engine (GEE). This robust raster dataset is created annually by the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) of the United States Department of Agriculture using moderate resolution satellite imagery and extensive agricultural ground truth [
35
].
We also directly used satellite data, including 9 Landsat-5 TM images, 41 Landsat-7 ETM+ images, and 25 Landsat-8 OLI images, acquired from 2011 and 2016 in the path-26/row-41 scene of the Landsat World Reference System 2. The Landsat data were Level-2 30-m surface reflectance of six bands (blue, green, red, near-infrared, and two shortwave infrared bands). GEE was used to access and process all remote sensing data in this study.
2.2. Sample Generation
We developed a semi-automatic approach to efficiently generate quality training samples for land cover classification ( Figure 2 ). This method uses multiple ancillary datasets to improve the identification of representative pixels for impervious surface, vegetation, water, and barren land.
Figure 2. Flowchart of the generation of training samples using ancillary datasets (green parallelograms). OSM, NASS, and NWI denote OpenStreetMap, National Agricultural Statistics Service, and National Wetland Inventory databases, respectively.
First, training samples for impervious surface were generated using vector data of buildings and roads extracted from OSM (
Figure 3
). Building samples were created by buffering building polygons inward by three meters and then calculating the centroids of the buffered polygons. Using the centroids instead of taking random positions within the building polygons reduced the potential disturbance of vegetation around roof edges. Road samples were generated using the vertices of road polylines in OSM. This comprehensive road dataset included a variety of motorway, primary, secondary, residential, and service roads, as well as the lanes in many commercial parking lots. NAIP pixels at the centroids of building polygons and the vertices of road polylines were extracted to establish the pool of samples for impervious surface. The size of this pool would vary with the local availability of OpenStreetMap data. The three sites in this study reflected a gradient of OSM data availability: abundant (Site 1), medium (Site 2), and scarce (Site 3).
Figure 3. Extracting training samples of impervious surface based on ( a ) NAIP imagery and ( b ) OpenStreetMap vector data.
Second, a sampling pool of barren land was established to represent both barren wetland (
Figure 4
) and barren farmland (
Figure 5
). Barren wetland consists of tidal flats, sand beaches, and sand dunes that are adjacent to natural water bodies. They were first roughly delineated on the NAIP image by overlaying polygons of estuarine and freshwater wetlands extracted from the National Wetland Inventory. Then, barren wetland was identified using masks of NDVI < 0 and NDWI < 0.1, calculated using the green, red, and near-infrared bands of the NAIP image. Barren farmland mainly consists of bare soils in arable lands that are left fallow. Arable lands were first identified using the cultivated areas of the NASS Cropland Data. Then, a threshold of NDVI < 0 was applied to identify pixels without crop cover. We did not attempt to differentiate all non-vegetation patches through NDVI thresholding. The purpose of using an NDVI threshold was to identify representative areas with sufficiently low values of NDVI, which were highly unlikely to be vegetated areas. Samples were randomly generated within these identified areas of barren land.
Figure 4. Extracting training samples of barren wetland using three criteria: ( a ) located within the wetland areas of the NWI dataset, ( b ) NDWI values < 0.1, and ( c ) NDVI values < 0. Subplot ( d ) shows the identified areas of barren wetland and the samples (circles) randomly generated within them.
Figure 5. Extracting training samples of barren farmland using two criteria: ( a ) Located within the cultivated areas of the USDA Cropland Layer, and ( b ) NDVI values < 0. Subplot ( c ) shows the identified areas of barren farmland and the samples (circles) randomly generated within them.
Third, sampling pools of water and vegetation were established using thresholds of NDVI and NDWI, respectively. The thresholds were calculated based on NDVI and NDWI values of impervious surface samples within the same NAIP image:
T N D = μ i m p , N D + c N D σ i m p , N D V I
(1)
where
T N D
is the threshold of a normalized difference index (i.e., NDVI or NDWI);
μ i m p , N D
and
σ i m p , N D
denote the mean and standard deviation of this index, respectively, calculated from its values of all impervious surface samples; and
c N D
is a coefficient with values of 1.0 and 2.0 for NDVI and NDWI, respectively. Pixels with values above the calculated NDVI and NDWI thresholds were determined as vegetation and water samples, respectively.
Last, 600 samples were randomly selected from the pool of impervious surface and 300 samples for each of the other classes (vegetation, water, and barren land), leading to a training dataset of 1500 samples for the targeted NAIP image. Using a large sample size for impervious surface was aligned with the emphasis of this study on separating impervious surface from other land cover classes. If a pool did not contain sufficient samples, all available samples were included. Given the 1-m resolution of NAIP imagery, it was reasonable to assign a single land cover class to each pixel, so we did not consider any mixed land cover classes.
A modified scheme was developed to generate a separate dataset of samples for validation. First, a group of 1500 pixels were randomly selected across the scene of the NAIP image. Second, pixels located within inward-buffered building polygons or outward-buffered road polygons were labeled as impervious surface. Third, pixels with NDVI and NDWI values exceeding the above thresholds (Equation (1)) were labeled as vegetation and water, respectively. Finally, unlabeled points were visually inspected to determine its land cover. In doing so, the effort of manual editing in generating validation samples was significantly reduced.
2.3. Spectral Stability
Spectral stability (in %) describes the variability (standard deviation
σ
) of a pixel reflectance
ρ λ
relative to the average reflectance
ρ λ ¯
over the whole time series [
36
]:
T S λ = 100 × σ ρ λ − ρ λ ¯ ρ λ ¯
(2)
This index was calculated using a six-year time series of Landsat imagery that covered the domain of the targeted NAIP image. The time series consisted of Level 2 surface reflectance products from Landsat 5 TM, Landsat 7 ETM+, and Landsat 8 OLI sensors. They are high-level Landsat products generated by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) to eliminate the need for routine reprocessing efforts of geometric, radiometric, and atmospheric corrections [
37
]. Landsat images with cloud and cloud shadow cover over 50% were excluded. Over the selected satellite images, spectral stability was calculated for each of six bands: Blue, green, red, near-infrared, shortwave infrared 1, and shortwave infrared 2. Details of band characteristics are available on the website of USGS (
www.usgs.gov
). The generated 30-m spectral stability images were resampled and clipped to align with the 1-m resolution and domain of the targeted NAIP image.
2.4. Classification and Accuracy Assessment
Three types of predictor variables were used in classification: (i) four original NAIP brightness bands (red, green, blue, and near-infrared); (ii) two multispectral indices (NDVI and NDWI) calculated using NAIP brightness bands; and (iii) six bands of spectral stability calculated using the time series of Landsat surface reflectance. This led to a 12-band, 1-m composite image for classification. For each site, a random forest model of 100 trees was trained on GEE using the 1500-sample training dataset and was then applied to the whole NAIP image. Accuracy was assessed using overall accuracy, the kappa statistics, and the class user’s and producer’s accuracies based on the independent 1500-sample validation dataset.
After the 1-m classification results were fully validated, we further compared the results to the NLCD imperviousness product that represents impervious surface as a percentage of developed surface over every 30-m pixel. We first converted our result into a 1-m binary impervious/non-impervious layer. Then, the percent impervious surface was calculated by dividing the number of 1-m impervious pixels by 900 within each of 30-m grids that were aligned with NLCD pixels.
3. Results
3.1. Classification Results
For Sites 1 to 3 (
Table 1
,
Table 2
and
Table 3
), overall accuracies were 96%, 92%, and 91%, respectively, and kappa values were 0.94, 0.86, and 0.85, respectively. As expected, user’s and producer’s accuracies were higher for vegetation and water relative to the accuracies for impervious surface and barren land. Producer’s accuracies varied from 88% to 95% for impervious surface and from 60% to 84% for barren land. User’s accuracies were more variable, ranging from 69% to 90% for impervious surface and 57% to 99% for barren land. Confusion associated with impervious surface was a primary area of disagreement, accounting for 92%, 63%, and 54% of the classification errors at Sites 1 to 3, respectively. In particular, the classification errors were driven by the confusion between impervious surface and barren land, accounting for over 40% of the classification errors at all sites. As shown in
Figure 6
, it mainly included the misidentification of impervious surface from various natural bare ground along shorelines (Sites 1 and 3), unpaved rural roads (Sites 2 and 3), and the edges of cropland patches (Site 3). Most of these areas represent a transition zone between a homogeneous landscape feature and its neighboring features that are smaller and more fragmented (i.e., estuary water versus narrow beach zones, and cropland versus rural roads). The resolution mismatch between 1-m NAIP imagery and 30-Landsat imagery was evident in such areas and had an apparent impact on the spectral characteristics of training samples. Another noticeable component of disagreement was the confusion between vegetation and impervious surface in residual areas with low or medium development intensity, accounting for ~25% of the classification errors.
Figure 6. NAIP images and classification results of Site 1 ( a , d ), Site 2 ( b , e ), and Site 3 ( c , f ).
Table 1. Error matrix of classification results at Site 1 using automatically generated reference data.
Table 2. Error matrix of classification results at Site 2 using automatically generated reference data.
Table 3. Error matrix of classification results at Site 3 using automatically generated reference data.
3.2. Selection of Predictor Variables
As shown in
Figure 7
, including NAIP-derived multispectral indices (i.e., NDVI and NDWI) and Landsat-derived spectral stability led to improved classification accuracies at all three sites, compared to the performance of only using NAIP four-band brightness. Improvements on the identification of impervious surface and barren land were particularly evident. For example, at Site 1, the user’s accuracy of the barren land improved 20% and the producer’s accuracy of impervious surface improved 10%. At Site 3, the user’s accuracy of the barren land improved 5% and the producer’s accuracy of impervious surface improved 13%. This had an important impact on the overall agreement, as the confusion between impervious surface and barren land was the dominant source of classification errors. The results also indicate that including both multispectral indices and spectral stability was more effective than using only one of them. For example, at Site 1, adding multispectral indices alone was better than adding spectral stability alone, but including both further improved the performance.
Figure 7. Effect of predictor variables on classification accuracies. In the legend, B, MI, and TS denote brightness, multispectral indices, and temporal spectral stability, respectively. In the y-axis labels of subplots, OA, UA, and PA denote overall accuracy, user’s accuracy, and producer’s accuracy, respectively.
3.3. Training and Validation Samples
The semi-automatic sampling approach resulted in large training and validation datasets for each site (
Figure 8
). There were 600, 300, 300, and 300 training samples for impervious surface, water, vegetation, and barren land, respectively. This led to a total of 1500 pixels per NAIP image, i.e., one sample per 35,000 pixels or a high sampling fraction of 0.00286. As expected, the spatial distributions of training samples per class and overall were not homogeneous, as the locations of these samples were confined to scene-specific availability of ancillary data (e.g., OSM building polygons and road polylines) and overall land cover pattern. The validation dataset also consisted of 1500 pixels for each site. Because these pixels were selected using random sampling, the fractions of different land cover categories in the validation dataset reflected the actual land cover composition of the site. The size of validation dataset was deemed sufficient to represent minor land cover categories, e.g., barren ground at Site 1 (2.5%) and water at Site 3 (4.3%). The semi-automatic sampling approach significantly reduced the manual effort of assigning labels to individual pixels. In this study, manual labeling was only needed for 315, 570, and 615 pixels of the validation dataset for Sites 1 to 3, respectively, or on average 17% of the whole 3000-pixel reference dataset per site. To ensure the quality of the reference datasets, visual inspection was performed on all samples that were generated automatically from ancillary data in this study, and no correction was needed for any of them.
Figure 8. Training samples ( a – c ) and validation samples ( d – f ) of the study sites.
Although the semi-automatic sampling approach could generate even larger reference datasets, using more samples did not always lead to enhanced agreement ( Figure 9 ). The performance based on 50 samples per class was quite close to the performance of using 400 samples per class. This indicates that the quality of samples plays a more important role than the quantity of samples in training the random forest models of this study. This is generally consistent with the findings from other studies on the insensitivity of random forest models to the size of training data [ 19 , 38 ].
Figure 9. Effects of the number of training samples per category on classification accuracies.
3.4. NDVI and NDWI Thresholds
The generation of vegetation and water samples relied on the thresholds of NDVI and NDWI, respectively. As shown in Equation (1), the thresholds were determined by: (i) The statistics of index values, calculated from the pool of impervious samples; and (ii)
c N D
, the predefined multiplicative coefficient.
Figure 10
and
Figure 11
show the responses of classification accuracies to different values of
c N D
, ranging from 0 to 3.0. The increase of
c N D
for NDVI generally led to decreased producer’s accuracy and increased user’s accuracy (
Figure 10
). This pattern was more evident for impervious surface than barren land. The default value of 1.0 was associated with high values of overall accuracy and kappa coefficient. In comparison, the change of
c N D
for NDWI appeared to have limited effect on classification (
Figure 11
). Exceptions were accuracies of impervious surface at Site 2, where the increased NDWI threshold tended to improve producer’s accuracy and reduce user’s accuracy. The default value of 2.0 for NDWI thresholds yielded good results at all sites.
Figure 10. Effects of the NDVI threshold on classification accuracies.
Figure 11. Effects of the NDWI threshold on classification accuracies.
3.5. Comparison to NLCD data
Figure 12 shows the comparison between the NLCD percent impervious surface and the NAIP-derived percent impervious surface from this study. The NLCD dataset was produced using regressions tree models with predictor variables from Landsat images and ancillary data of nighttime lights and road networks [ 12 , 13 ]. Overall, the two datasets agreed quite well for all three sites, with R 2 = 0.87, 0.69, and 0.68, respectively. The best agreement occurred at Site 1 due to the high intensity of development and the easy identification of open water. Visual inspection using the original NAIP images ( Figure 6 a–c) indicates the overestimation of the NLCD data in residential areas mainly due to the misclassification of urban green space as developed land. The NLCD data had a better performance than our results in identifying barren wetland, leading to fewer low-intensity developed areas along shorelines. The confusion with barren land contributed to the overestimation of low-density impervious areas at Site 2 ( Figure 10 b) and Site 3 ( Figure 10 c) in our results. Nevertheless, our results suggest a smaller fraction of developed land with medium intensity (i.e., 50%–80% impervious surface cover) compared to the NLCD estimate ( Figure 10 g–i). This is consistent with the low producer’s accuracy of this class reported by Yang et al. [ 12 ].
Figure 12. Estimates of percent impervious surface by this study ( a – c ) and the NLCD product ( d – f ). Subplots ( g – i ) compare the histograms of the two estimates.
4. Discussion
Our method addressed two important issues in mapping impervious surface: reference data and selection of predictor variables. Obtaining high-quality reference data is one of the most important factors in achieving an accurate classification and accounts for a major component of time and resource demands [ 19 ]. Our method was able to significantly reduce the effort of visual interpretation and manual labeling in the generation of quality samples for training and validation ( Figure 8 ). In the era of big data, the fast expansion of satellite and aerial imagery resources is outpacing the capacity of conventional effort of collecting ground truth through field surveys or on-screen digitalization. Our results suggest that semi-automatic sampling approaches have the potential to fill this gap through efficient uses of existing ancillary data with proven accuracy. The benefit of ancillary data also contributed to the improved inclusion of predictor variables ( Figure 7 ). Through extending variables into the temporal perspective, classification models were able to separate landscape features that were spectrally indifferentiable in a snapshot. This is consistent with findings on the positive effect of including temporal measures in classification [ 39 ]. Our method echoes the concept of pseudo-invariant features (PIV) [ 40 , 41 , 42 ] in radiometric calibration and provides an example of integrating satellite and aerial imagery to enhance the extraction of impervious surface.
The proposed method could contribute to the improved production and assessment of NLCD products and other satellite-derived national land cover data that have played a critical role in a variety of environmental and socioeconomic studies [ 9 , 12 , 13 , 43 ]. The landmark assessment by Wickham et al. in 2013 [ 13 ] found that user’s accuracies for developed classes in NLCD products increased as the level of urbanization (i.e., percent impervious surface) increased. However, a more recent assessment on NLCD products of 2001–2016 [ 12 ] reported an opposite pattern, i.e., increased percent impervious surface was associated with reduced user’s accuracies. Although the overall accuracies in the former study (0.78–0.79) were comparable to that of the later study (0.88–0.90), their conflicting findings in the user’s accuracies of developed land classes indicate a need to improve the consistence of reference data and validation procedure. The agreement of urban classes in NLCD products is generally lower than other land cover classes. A separated assessment on the NLCD imperviousness product has been highly recommended [ 12 ]. Wickham et al. [ 13 ] suggested that the ideal assessment of NLCD products would require estimation of percent impervious surface for every 30-m pixel based on NAIP imagery, but they had to use a more limited, indirect method because the cost to obtain such ideal reference data was prohibitive. Although a national assessment on the NLCD imperviousness product has not been reported, a recent pilot study in the Chesapeake Bay region has demonstrated the promising value of using NAIP imagery as reference data [ 44 ]. The demand of substantial human intervention in generating pixel-level, full-coverage reference data for impervious surface is a major obstacle for the continuous development and validation of NLCD products and similar medium-resolution satellite-derived datasets in other countries.
As indicated in Figure 12 , our method could provide an alternative means to verify NLCD products. The quality of samples was ensured by the proven high quality of ancillary datasets. NWI data has already been used as the proxy of ground truth for the validation of satellite-derived land cover products [ 12 ], and studies have indicated the trend of incorporating volunteered geographic information data in environmental remote sensing [ 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ]. As our approach is built on GEE and uses publicly available ancillary datasets, it can be easily applied to the validation of NLCD products for other regions. This method provides an efficient, comprehensive, and transferrable way to evaluate the quality of NLCD land cover and imperviousness products. It is feasible to plan for a full validation of NLCD products at the national level using this method, but that would require the technical support of GEE to upgrade the storage and computation capacity that are available for regular users. Those issues are irrelevant to our methodology and are thus beyond of the scope of this paper.
5. Conclusions
A hybrid remote sensing method was developed to improve the extraction of impervious surface from aerial imagery. This method took advantage of multiple ancillary datasets to accelerate the acquisition of reference data and incorporated satellite-derived spectral stability to enhance the signature of impervious surface. This method was applied to three Texas sites with different levels of land development and availability of ancillary data. Results indicate satisfactory separation of impervious surface from barren land, vegetation, and water, with user’s accuracies ranging from 69% to 90% and producer’s accuracies from 88% to 95%. This method was able to significantly reduce the effort of visual interpretation and manual labeling in the generation of quality samples for training and validation. Including measures of spectral stability as predictor variables led to improved classification performance. The comparison of our results to the NLCD percent impervious cover product at the 30-m level indicates the value of this method as an efficient, comprehensive means to validate and complement satellite-derived medium-resolution datasets of urban land cover and land use at regional or national scales.
Author Contributions
H.Z., S.M.G. and P.V.Z. conceptualized the methodology, designed the study and collected the data; H.Z. performed the validation and prepared the original draft; H.Z., S.M.G. and P.V.Z. reviewed and edited the draft. All authors read and approved the submitted manuscript.
Funding
The efforts of H. Zhang and P.V. Zimba were funded by a grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) under Contract 18-087-000-A597 to Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi. The effort of S.M. Gorelick was conducted as part of the Belmont Forum Sustainable Urbanisation Global Initiative (SUGI)/Food-Water-Energy Nexus theme and was supported by the US National Science Foundation (NSF) under grant ICER/EAR-1829999 to Stanford University. The opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of NOAA, NSF and their subagencies.
Acknowledgments
We are thankful for the insightful comments from four anonymous reviewers.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Figure 2. Flowchart of the generation of training samples using ancillary datasets (green parallelograms). OSM, NASS, and NWI denote OpenStreetMap, National Agricultural Statistics Service, and National Wetland Inventory databases, respectively.
Figure 3. Extracting training samples of impervious surface based on ( a ) NAIP imagery and ( b ) OpenStreetMap vector data.
Figure 4. Extracting training samples of barren wetland using three criteria: ( a ) located within the wetland areas of the NWI dataset, ( b ) NDWI values < 0.1, and ( c ) NDVI values < 0. Subplot ( d ) shows the identified areas of barren wetland and the samples (circles) randomly generated within them.
Figure 5. Extracting training samples of barren farmland using two criteria: ( a ) Located within the cultivated areas of the USDA Cropland Layer, and ( b ) NDVI values < 0. Subplot ( c ) shows the identified areas of barren farmland and the samples (circles) randomly generated within them.
Figure 6. NAIP images and classification results of Site 1 ( a , d ), Site 2 ( b , e ), and Site 3 ( c , f ).
Figure 7. Effect of predictor variables on classification accuracies. In the legend, B, MI, and TS denote brightness, multispectral indices, and temporal spectral stability, respectively. In the y-axis labels of subplots, OA, UA, and PA denote overall accuracy, user’s accuracy, and producer’s accuracy, respectively.
Figure 8. Training samples ( a – c ) and validation samples ( d – f ) of the study sites.
Figure 9. Effects of the number of training samples per category on classification accuracies.
Figure 10. Effects of the NDVI threshold on classification accuracies.
Figure 11. Effects of the NDWI threshold on classification accuracies.
Figure 12. Estimates of percent impervious surface by this study ( a – c ) and the NLCD product ( d – f ). Subplots ( g – i ) compare the histograms of the two estimates.
Table 1. Error matrix of classification results at Site 1 using automatically generated reference data.
Reference Impervious Surface Vegetation Water Barren Row Total UA Classification Impervious Surface 279 12 8 11 309 90.0% Vegetation 2 389 0 0 392 99.5% Water 1 0 766 0 766 99.9% Barren 12 1 0 17 31 56.7% Column Total 277 402 774 28 Overall: 96.2% PA 94.9% 96.8% 99.0% 60.7% Kappa: 0.939
PA = Producer’s accuracy, UA = User’s accuracy.
Table 2. Error matrix of classification results at Site 2 using automatically generated reference data.
Reference Impervious Surface Vegetation Water Barren Row Total UA Classification Impervious Surface 200 31 0 49 280 71.4% Vegetation 10 788 0 38 836 94.3% Water 1 0 2 0 3 66.7% Barren 8 3 0 370 381 97.1% Column Total 219 822 2 457 Overall: 91.5% PA 91.3% 95.9% 100.0% 81.0% Kappa: 0.855
Table 3. Error matrix of classification results at Site 3 using automatically generated reference data.
Reference Impervious Surface Vegetation Water Barren Row Total UA Classification Impervious Surface 160 15 4 53 232 69.0% Vegetation 17 725 7 32 781 92.8% Water 3 0 49 0 52 94.2% Barren 2 1 2 430 435 98.9% Column Total 182 741 62 515 Overall: 90.6% PA 86.8% 97.4% 80.6% 83.3% Kappa: 0.849
Zhang, H.; Gorelick, S.M.; Zimba, P.V. Extracting Impervious Surface from Aerial Imagery Using Semi-Automatic Sampling and Spectral Stability. Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 506.
https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030506
AMA Style
Zhang H, Gorelick SM, Zimba PV. Extracting Impervious Surface from Aerial Imagery Using Semi-Automatic Sampling and Spectral Stability. Remote Sensing. 2020; 12(3):506.
https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030506
Chicago/Turabian Style
Zhang, Hua, Steven M. Gorelick, and Paul V. Zimba. 2020. "Extracting Impervious Surface from Aerial Imagery Using Semi-Automatic Sampling and Spectral Stability" Remote Sensing12, no. 3: 506.
https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12030506
| https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/12/3/506/xml |
Swine torque teno virus (TTV) infection and excretion dynamics in conventional pig farms | Request PDF
Request PDF | Swine torque teno virus (TTV) infection and excretion dynamics in conventional pig farms | Torque teno virus (TTV) is a non-enveloped, single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) virus infecting human and non-primate species. Two genogroups of TTV (TTV1... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
Swine torque teno virus (TTV) infection and excretion dynamics in conventional pig farms
June 2009
Veterinary Microbiology139(3-4):213-8
DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.05.017
Authors:
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Sibila Marina
CReSA Research Centre for Animal Health
L Martínez-Guinó
L Martínez-Guinó
E Huerta
A Llorens
A Llorens
Abstract
Torque teno virus (TTV) is a non-enveloped, single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) virus infecting human and non-primate species. Two genogroups of TTV (TTV1 and TTV2) have been described in swine so far. In the present study, TTV1 and TTV2 prevalences in serum, and nasal as well as rectal swabs of 55 randomly selected piglets from seven Spanish multi-site farms, were monitored from 1 to 15 weeks of age. Also, blood from their dams (n=41) were taken at 1 week post-farrowing. Samples were tested by means of two TTV genogroup specific PCRs. Although prevalence of TTV1 and TTV2 in sows was relatively high (54% and 32%, respectively), it was not directly associated to their prevalence in the offspring. Percentage of viremic pigs for both TTV genogroups followed similar dynamics, increasing progressively over time, with the highest rate of detection at 11 weeks of age for TTV1 and at 15 weeks for TTV2. Forty-two (76%) and 33 (60%) of the 55 studied pigs were TTV1 and TTV2 PCR positive in serum, respectively, in more than one sampling time. TTV1 and TTV2 viremia lasted in a number of animals up to 15 and 8 weeks, respectively. Co-infection with both TTV genogroups in serum was detected at all sampling points, but at 1 week of age. On the contrary, there were animals PCR negative to both genogroups in serum at all sampling times but at 15 weeks of age. During the study period, TTV1 and TTV2 nasal shedding increased also over time and faecal excretion was intermittent and of low percentage (<20%). In conclusion, the present study describes for the first time the infection dynamics of TTV1 and TTV2 as well as the nasal and faecal excretion throughout the life of pigs from conventional, multi-site farms. Moreover, results indicate that both swine TTV genogroups are able to establish persistent infections in a number of pigs.
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... However, serological assays, immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization techniques, and viral culture systems are specific research tools that are not well established for this virus (, Leme et al. 2012). Studies have demonstrated the presence of TTSuV in the serum and organs of pigs of different ages (Kekarainen & Segalés 2012) and have shown that the prevalence increases with the age of the animals (
Sibila et al. 2009b
, Aramouni et al. 2010). In Brazil, TTSuV infection has been identified in suckling piglets (Leme et al. 2012 ) and slaughter-age pigs (Leme et al. 2013), and in the reproductive tracts of boars and sows (Ritterbusch et al. 2012). ...
... These results indicate that TT- SuV infection has spread to pigs of all production stages. Finisher pigs had significantly higher rates of TTSuV detection than animals from the other stages, in agreement with previous studies that have reported that TTSuV infection increases with the age of the animals (
Sibila et al. 2009b
, Aramouni et al. 2010). In our study, the overall percentage of TTSuV-positive pigs (66.3%) was higher than that described in a study performed with rectal swabs (Sibila et al. 2009b ), which reported a low percentage (<20%) of TTSuV detection. ...
... Finisher pigs had significantly higher rates of TTSuV detection than animals from the other stages, in agreement with previous studies that have reported that TTSuV infection increases with the age of the animals (Sibila et al. 2009b, Aramouni et al. 2010). In our study, the overall percentage of TTSuV-positive pigs (66.3%) was higher than that described in a study performed with rectal swabs (
Sibila et al. 2009b
), which reported a low percentage (<20%) of TTSuV detection. Previous studies reported higher rates for TTSuV in fecal samples, suggesting that the fecal-oral route is an important route of TTSuV transmission (Brassard et al. 2008, Leme et al. 2012). ...
Torque teno sus virus (TTSuV) infection at different stages of pig production cycle
Article
Full-text available
Jul 2013
PESQUISA VET BRASIL
<here is a image 1efbe5e68265790f-a9d05b5192976178> Raquel de Arruda Leme
Alice Fernandes Alfieri
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Amauri A Alfieri
Torque teno sus virus (TTSuV) infection is present in pig herds worldwide. It has been
demonstrated that TTSuV might increase the severity of other important viral diseases
with economic and public health impacts. At present, there is no information on the age
distribution of pigs infected with TTSuV in Brazilian herds. This study evaluated the frequency
of TTSuV infection in pigs at different stages of production. Fecal samples (n=190)
from pigs at 1 to 24 weeks of age and from breeders at 6 farrow-to-weaning (up to 8 weeks
of age) and 9 grower-to-finish (9 weeks of age onwards) farms in the western region of
Paraná state, Brazil, were evaluated by PCR. Fragments of the 5’ UTRs of TTSuV1 and/or
TTSuVk2 DNAs were identified in 126 (66.3%) of the fecal samples. Significant differences
were found with the percentages of positive samples for TTSuV1, TTSuVk2, and mixed
infections by both genera between and within the different pig production stages. Fecal
samples from the grower-to-finish farms had TTSuV detection rates (90.1%; 64/71) that
were significantly (p<0.05) higher than those from the farrow-to-weaning farms (52.1%;
62/119). TTSuV detection was significantly (p<0.05) more frequent in finisher pigs than
in the animals from the other stages. The UTR nucleotide sequences in this study presented
higher similarities to strains from Norway (96%, TTSuV1), and Argentina and China
(97.1%, TTSuVk2). These results suggest that TTSuV infection has spread to pigs of all
production stages and that the viral infection rate increases with the age of the animals. In
the western region of Paraná state, Brazil, TTSuV1 and TTSuVk2-induced infections were
more frequently observed in suckling piglets and finisher pigs, respectively. Phylogenetic
analysis pointed out the possibility of different strains of TTSuV1 and TTSuVk2 circulating
in pig herds of Brazil.
... The TTV of pig origin, Torque teno sus virus (TTSuV), was first described in 1999 (Leary et al., 1999;Okamoto et al., 2002). TTSuV DNA has been detected in various sample types collected from pigs including serum, feces, saliva, semen and a variety of tissue samples (Kekarainen et al., 2007;
Sibila et al., 2009a;
Aramouni et al., 2010;Huang et al., 2010b). Two distinct species, TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 with 40-50% sequence identity, have been identified (Niel et al., 2005;Okamoto et al., 2002;Huang et al., 2010b;Cortey et al., 2011). ...
... The present study also demonstrated a higher prevalence of TTSuV1 DNA compared to that of TTSuV2 DNA. This observation is consistent with previous investigations in other countries
Sibila et al., 2009a
Sibila et al., , 2009bGallei et al., 2010;Pérez et al., 2011) but in contrast to one recent study from the Czech Republic (Jarosova et al., 2011). ...
... The detection rates of both, TTSuV DNA and anti-TTSuV2 antibody levels increased progressively from very young to mature pigs (Table 1), with the highest prevalence of TTSuV infections in finisher pigs (8-25 weeks) which is consistent with recent results demonstrating that age appears to be an important factor that influences the profile of TTSuV2 infection since pigs of older ages had higher prevalence rates of TTSuV2 viremia and antibodies (Huang et al., 2011). The results of the current study are also similar to a recent Spanish study that found the highest detection rate at 11 weeks of age for TTSuV1 and at 15 weeks for TTSuV2
(Sibila et al., 2009a)
. The high prevalence of both TTSuV species in adult pigs (79.6% for TTSuV1, 22.2% for TTSuV2, and 22.2% for mixed infection) may indicate establishment of persistent infection, although some of the adult pigs may be able to clear viral infection (Table 1), as suggested by a previous TTSuV2 investigation based on a limited sample size (Huang et al., 2011). ...
The prevalence of Torque teno sus virus (TTSuV) is common and increases with the age of growing pigs in the United States
Article
Mar 2012
<here is a image 9703d1fe287c8cdc-fb1293624de8db5d> Ct Xiao
<here is a image 406d85318352fdef-e34f6b75ff996d0d> Luis G Gimenez Lirola
Tanja Opriessnig
<here is a image 3edee8d66f4d3037-41dbb68ba66354ff> Yao-Wei Huang
Infection with the Torque teno sus virus (TTSuV) is believed to be common yet limited information is available on the epidemiology of TTSuV. The objectives of this study were to develop novel and improve existing diagnostic methods for TTSuV infection and to investigate the prevalence of TTSuV species 1 (TTSuV1) and 2 (TTSuV2) in the USA. Three hundred and four blood or fetal thoracic fluid samples were collected from pigs on 40 US farms in 12 States. Samples were collected from fetuses and in pre-suckle neonates (n=73), suckling pigs (1-20 days of age; n=27), nursery pigs (21-55 days of age; n=60), finisher pigs (8-25 weeks of age; n=90) and adults (>25 weeks of age; n=54). Samples were tested by a new quantitative differential real-time PCR for TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 DNA and by ELISA for detection of anti-TTSuV2-antibodies. The prevalence of TTSuV1 DNA ranged from 8.2% (fetuses and neonates) to 81% (finisher pigs) and the prevalence of TTSuV2 DNA ranged from 3.7% (suckling pigs) to 67% (finisher pigs). Evidence of fetal TTSuV infection was minimal. Mixed infection of TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 was seen in 6.7% of the nursery pigs, 52.2% of the finisher pigs, and 22.2% of the mature pigs. The prevalence of TTSuV1 was higher than that of TTSuV2. Anti-TTSuV2 antibodies were not detected in the fetuses and neonates and the seroprevalence of TTSuV2 was between 3.8% and 100% in growing pigs. The results of this study indicate that vertical transmission may not be a main route of TTSuV transmission in pigs in the USA.
... Although the main route of anellovirus transmission is supposed to be the faecal-oral, vertical and transplacental/ intra-uterine transmissions are also important in dissemination (Guinó et al., , 2010 Pozzuto et al., 2009). Nasal and faecal samples (Brassard et al., 2008;
Sibila et al., 2009a
) can be TTSuV DNA positive already in 1-week-old piglets and prevalence increases with the age of the animals (Sibila et al., 2009a). Faecal excretion ...
... Although the main route of anellovirus transmission is supposed to be the faecal-oral, vertical and transplacental/ intra-uterine transmissions are also important in dissemination (Guinó et al., , 2010 Pozzuto et al., 2009). Nasal and faecal samples (Brassard et al., 2008; Sibila et al., 2009a) can be TTSuV DNA positive already in 1-week-old piglets and prevalence increases with the age of the animals (
Sibila et al., 2009a
). Faecal excretion ...
... T. Kekarainen and J. Segalé s in 15-week-old pigs is lower (15%) than the nasal one (30% for TTSuV1 and 55% for TTSuV2) (
Sibila et al., 2009a
). Vertical transmission is also occurring as the viruses have been detected in foetal tissues and blood, semen and colostrum (Kekarainen et al., 2007; MartínezGuinó et al., 2009 Pozzuto et al., 2009; Aramouni et al., 2010). ...
Torque Teno Sus Virus in Pigs: An Emerging Pathogen?
TRANSBOUND EMERG DIS
The newly established family Anelloviridae includes a number of viruses infecting humans (Torque teno viruses) and other animal species. The ones infecting domestic swine and wild boar are nowadays named Torque teno sus viruses (TTSuV), which are small circular single-stranded DNA viruses highly prevalent in the pig population. So far, two genetically distinct TTSuV species are infecting swine. Both TTSuVs appear to efficiently spread by vertical and horizontal transmission routes; in fact, foetuses may be infected and the prevalence and viral loads increase by age of the animals. Detailed immunological studies on TTSuVs are still lacking, but it seems that there are no efficient immunological responses limiting viraemia. These viruses are currently receiving more attention due to the latest results on disease association. Torque teno sus viruses have been circulating unnoticed in pigs for a long time, and even considered non-pathogenic by themselves; there is increasing evidence that points to influence the development of some diseases or even affect their outcome. Such link has been mainly established with porcine circovirus diseases.
... TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 (TTSuVs) have been detected from serum, plasma, semen, faeces, colostrum, nasal secretion and various tissues [5,8,13,
26,
29,30] exclusively by Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and different pig rearing countries have reported prevalence rate ranging from 24 to 100% [4,8,[14][15][16][17][24][25][26]. Limited longitudinal studies employing serum [17,26] and cross-sectional studies employing serum and tissues [1,8,9,27] have shown that TTSuV infection increases with age. ...
... TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 (TTSuVs) have been detected from serum, plasma, semen, faeces, colostrum, nasal secretion and various tissues [5,8,13,26,29,30] exclusively by Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and different pig rearing countries have reported prevalence rate ranging from 24 to 100% [4,8,[14][15][16][17][24][25]
[26]
. Limited longitudinal studies employing serum [17,26] and cross-sectional studies employing serum and tissues [1,8,9,27] have shown that TTSuV infection increases with age. ...
... TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 (TTSuVs) have been detected from serum, plasma, semen, faeces, colostrum, nasal secretion and various tissues [5,8,13,26,29,30] exclusively by Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and different pig rearing countries have reported prevalence rate ranging from 24 to 100% [4,8,[14][15][16][17][24][25][26]. Limited longitudinal studies employing serum [17,
26]
and cross-sectional studies employing serum and tissues [1,8,9,27] have shown that TTSuV infection increases with age. However, little is known about primary infection with TTSuV and sites of viral persistence and reactivation after infection in the pigs, and to the best of our knowledge there is no report on the detection of TTSuVs in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in pigs. ...
Infection Dynamics of Torque Teno Sus Virus Types 1 and 2 in Serum and Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells
<here is a image 503d73901218e9cb-cab3090995061a90> Chenga Tshering
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Mitsuhiro Takagi
Eisaburo Deguchi
This study was carried out to investigate the presence of Torque teno sus virus types 1 (TTSuV1) and 2 (TTSuV2) in a longitudinally (14 to 150 days of age) collected paired pooled sera (pSE) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (pPBMCs) using nested polymerase chain reaction. The detection rate of TTSuV1 in pSE increased from 14 to 90 days of age, but a progressive decline was observed from 120 to 150 days of age, while in pPBMC, a high value was maintained till the end of growing-finishing period. On the contrary, except in PBMCs at 30 days of age, high detection rates of TTSuV2 were found in both pSE and pPBMCs in all sampling ages. The detection rate of TTSuVs between pSE and pPBMCs was positively correlated at all sampling ages except for TTSuV1 at 150 days of age. This is the first study showing the presence of TTSuVs in PBMCs from pigs and describing the in vivo infection dynamics of TTSuV in paired sera and PBMCs during the entire growing and finishing periods of pigs reared in conventional farms.
... TTSuVs have been found in swine serum worldwide with prevalence rates ranging from 24% to 100% (Bigarré et al., 2005;Kekarainen et al., 2006;Martelli et al., 2006;Taira et al., 2009;Gallei et al., 2010) and it is likely that both species are ubiquitous in domestic pigs and wild boar . TTSuVs have been also found in biological fluids such as semen, colostrum, nasal cavity and faeces (Kekarainen et al., 2007;Martínez-Guinó et al., 2009;
Sibila et al., 2009a)
, indicating the occurrence of both vertical and horizontal transmission (Martínez-Guinó et al., 2009;Pozzuto et al., 2009;Sibila et al., 2009a,b;Aramouni et al., 2010). Viral prevalence increases with age and most if not all animals get persistently infected (Sibila et al., 2009a,b;Taira et al., 2009). ...
... To date, the only longitudinal study investigating the dynamics of infection in pigs have used conventional PCR
(Sibila et al., 2009a)
, just giving qualitative results. Similar prevalence rates and individual results were obtained with conventional PCR by Sibila et al. (2009a) and since some of the animals tested here were also included in such study, these two techniques can be considered consistent in prevalence studies. ...
... To date, the only longitudinal study investigating the dynamics of infection in pigs have used conventional PCR (Sibila et al., 2009a), just giving qualitative results. Similar prevalence rates and individual results were obtained with conventional PCR by
Sibila et al. (2009a)
and since some of the animals tested here were also included in such study, these two techniques can be considered consistent in prevalence studies. ...
Dynamics of Torque teno sus virus 1 (TTSuV1) and 2 (TTSuV2) DNA loads in serum of healthy and postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) affected pigs
<here is a image 69af4aa483644d0e-4b51524a80b889b5> David Nieto
<here is a image 03424edccbb9a082-644a1c204129ad7d> Llorenç Grau Roma
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Mario Aramouni
<here is a image 409157d0d4357219-6c78453e6c8d34a8> Tuija Kekarainen
Torque teno viruses (TTVs) are vertebrate infecting, small viruses with circular single stranded DNA, classified in the Anelloviridae family. In pigs, two different TTV species have been described so far, Torque teno sus virus 1 (TTSuV1) and 2 (TTSuV2). TTSuVs have lately been linked to postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS). In the present study, TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 prevalence and DNA loads in longitudinally collected serum samples of healthy and PMWS affected pigs from Spanish conventional, multi-site farms were analyzed. Serum samples were taken at 1, 3, 7, 11 and around 15 weeks of age (age of PMWS outbreak) and viral DNA loads determined by quantitative PCR. For both TTSuV species, percentage of viremic pigs increased progressively over time, with the highest prevalence in animals of about 15 weeks of age. TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 viral DNA loads in healthy and TTSuV1 loads in PMWS affected animals increased until 11 weeks of age declining afterwards. On the contrary, TTSuV2 DNA loads in PMWS affected pigs increased throughout the sampling period. It seems that TTSuV species differ in the in vivo infection dynamics in PMWS affected animals.
... The present and other studies have demonstrated that both TTSuV species are widely distributed in European herds (Bigarré et al., 2005;Martelli et al., 2006;Martínez-Guinó et al., 2009;Martínez et al., 2006;Segalé s et al., 2009;Sibila et al., 2009a,b). Also, the present work has shown that the presence of viral DNA in tissues increased with age, in agreement with the increasing prevalence of both TTSuVs in sera in a longitudinal analysis carried out with animals aged from 1 to 15 weeks
(Sibila et al., 2009a)
. Existing results may point out the validity of the TTSuV infection as a potential model for the human TTV infection , since the human TTV prevalence also increases with age, with peaks in young adults or later in life (Bendinelli et al., 2001;Ninomiya et al., 2008). ...
... Both TTSuV species were found to be present in high amounts in all the tissues of animals older than 5 weeks. In TTSuV1 TTSuV2 TTSuV1 TTSuV2 TTSuV1 TTSuV2 TTSuV1 TTSuV2 TTSuV1 TTSuV2 TTSuV1 TTSuV2 Brain --Total infected animals 4/5 4/5 2/5 5/5 5/5 5/5 5/5 5/5 5/5 5/5 5/5 5/5 the longitudinal study made on sera
(Sibila et al., 2009a)
, the oldest pigs tested (15 weeks) had the highest TTSuV prevalence. Altogether, these results could indicate a progressive persistent infection that begins at early stages of life, with increasing prevalence and viral load in tissues with age. ...
... On the other hand, the evidence of persistent infection across the pig productive life and the infection before the immunocompetence age (Redman, 1979), might point out to immunological tolerance to the virus, despite further analyses are needed to confirm this point. TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 prevalence in sera of different aged animals reached the maximum at 11 weeks (76%) for TTSuV1 and 15 weeks of age (65%) for TTSuV2 in a previous work
(Sibila et al., 2009a)
. In contrast, the results reported in the current study (even with a much lower number of pigs per group) indicate that the prevalence of both TTSuV species was high even in foetuses, suggesting that a tissue based study is more sensitive to determine TTSuV infection. ...
Age-related tissue distribution of swine Torque teno sus virus 1 and 2
Dec 2010
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Mario Aramouni
Joaquim Segalés
<here is a image d5264b7d69e01420-6f8892c020cd47d0> Martí Cortey
<here is a image 409157d0d4357219-6c78453e6c8d34a8> Tuija Kekarainen
Torque teno viruses (TTVs) are small, non-enveloped viruses with a circular single-stranded DNA genome, belonging to the family Anelloviridae. In swine, two genetically distinct species have been identified, Torque teno sus virus 1 (TTSuV1) and 2 (TTSuV2). The aim of the present work was to study the tissue distribution of TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 in pigs of different ages, including foetuses at the second and last thirds of gestation, and animals at 5 days and 5, 15 and 24 weeks of age. Investigated tissues included brain, lung, mediastinal and mesenteric lymph nodes, heart, liver, spleen, kidney and bone marrow. Viral DNA from tissue extractions were tested by a comparative PCR for the presence of TTSuVs. Overall, TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 species were found in all tissues tested, with variations depending on age, and following similar infection dynamics in all tissues, increasing progressively in prevalence and virus load over time. The highest prevalence was found at 5 weeks of age and maintained afterwards, and the highest loads of virus in the different tissues were seen in the oldest animals (15 and 24 weeks of age). No animals were negative to TTV, including foetuses. In conclusion, the present study indicated that swine TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 can be found virtually in all body tissues of the pig. Both swine TTV species were present in high levels in almost all older animals, while viral negative tissues were only found in 5-week-old and 5-day-old pigs, and foetuses.
... It is controversially discussed whether there is a direct association between TTSuV infection and the occurrence of disease. A relatively high proportion of animals with TTSuV infection are clinically healthy
[12]
. Furthermore, it was shown that TTSuVk2a seroprevalence is significantly higher in pigs with postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) than in unaffected healthy pigs; no such difference was detected with TTSuV1 [13,14]. ...
... The clinical relevance of these findings is uncertain because it is known from the literature that TTSuV represents a frequently detected viral agent in healthy and diseased pigs. Therefore, it was described that a relatively high proportion of animals with TTSuV infection are clinically healthy
[12,
16]. In general, TTSuV seroprevalence in pigs seems to be high (33% to 100%) in various countries such as in the USA, Thailand, Canada, China, Korea, and Spain [17]. ...
First report of TTSuV1 in domestic Swiss pigs
<here is a image 7c20ad30e8778fbb-a3acb0f0bf3bd94c> Frauke Seehusen
Julia Lienhard
Serum prevalence of Torque teno sus viruses (TTSuV1 and k2; family Anelloviridae) is known to be high in the porcine population worldwide but pathogenesis and associated pathomorphological lesions remain to be elucidated. In this study, quantitative real-time PCR for detection of TTSuV1 was performed in 101 porcine samples of brain tissue, with animals showing inflammatory lesions or no histological changes. Additionally, a pathomorphological and immunohistochemical characterization of possible lesions was carried out. Selected cases were screened by TTSuV1 in situ hybridization. Furthermore, TTSuV1 quantitative real-time PCR in splenic and pulmonary tissue and in situ hybridization (ISH) in spleen, lungs, mesenteric lymph node, heart, kidney, and liver were performed in 22 animals. TTSuV1 was detected by PCR not only in spleen and lung but also in brain tissue (71.3%); however, in general, spleen and lung tissue displayed lower Ct values than the brain. Positive TTSuV1 results were frequently associated with the morphological diagnosis of non-suppurative encephalitis. Single TTSuV1-positive lymphocytes were detected by ISH in the brain but also in lungs, spleen, mesenteric lymph node and in two cases of non-suppurative myocarditis. A pathogenetic role of a TTSuV1 infection as a co-factor for non-suppurative encephalitides cannot be ruled out.
... Horizontal transmission via the fecal oral-route is considered to be the most common method of transmission for TTVs. While titers of TTSuVs in nasal secretions are reported to be higher than those in feces
(Sibila et al., 2009)
, it is not clear if transmission by inhalation occurs. Similarly, interstitial nephritis was detected in experimental infection of piglets with TTSuV1 , but viral shedding in urine is not yet unreported. ...
... Infection with TTSuVs can occur soon after birth, with the rates of prevalence increasing with age. Prevalence rates of 6.7% in nursery pigs and 52% in finishing pigs (Xiao et al., 2012) and up to 75% in sows
(Sibila et al., 2009
) are reported. Semen (Kekarainen et al., 2007) and colostrum are reported to transmit TTSuV DNA. ...
Torque teno viruses in health and disease
VIRUS RES
Brett Webb
<here is a image b32a8d0541708945-be3ff8254ccbd8fb> A G M Rakibuzzaman
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Sheela Ramamoorthy
... Although the fecal-oral route is considered the primary mode of transmission, other ways may contribute to the dissemination of the virus. TTSuVs have been found in the feces and in the nasal secretions of piglets in their first week of life; the prevalence of infection increases with age, and the virus is shed more through nasal secretions than through fecal elimination [71,
72]
. TTSuVs are also found in seminal fluid, indicating the possibility of sexual transmission of infection [73]. ...
... Regarding AVs infecting animals, most studies to date have focused on the role of TTSuV in pig diseases. Although TTSuVs were found at particularly high frequency in healthy animals [70,
72]
, they are currently receiving more attention due to the latest results on disease association. In fact, TTSuVs are considered non-pathogenic by themselves, but there is increasing evidence that points to their influence on the development of some diseases or suggests that these viruses even affect disease outcome [66]. ...
Global impact of Torque teno virus infection in wild and domesticated animals
<here is a image 3af74399839f4365-1a92e1cd1c939985> Lisa Macera
<here is a image e0b69dd10eea6cf2-632a0d845855816b> Aldo Manzin
Francesca Mallus
Sylvain Blois
Infection with Torque teno viruses (TTVs) is not restricted to humans. Different domestic and wild animal species are naturally infected with species-specific TTVs worldwide. Due to the global spread of the infection, it is likely that essentially all animals are naturally infected with species-specific TTVs, and that co-evolution of TTVs with their hosts probably occurred. Although TTVs are potentially related to many diseases, the evidence of the widespread infection in healthy human and nonhuman hosts raised doubts about their pathogenic potential. Nonetheless, their role as superimposed agents of other diseases or as triggers for impairment of immune surveillance is currently under debate. The possible contribution of animal TT viruses to interspecies transmission and their role as zoonotic agents are currently topics of discussion.
... It is believed that TTSuV infection is both horizontal and vertical [33,34]. TTSuV infection appears early during production and spread in the farrowing crates [35,
36]
. Differences observed in different genogroups of TTSuV infection could be due to the pig breed [37]. ...
... Previous studies reported that TTSuV was also detected in brain, lung, heart, liver, spleen, kidney, bone marrow, mediastinal and mesenteric lymph nodes at different ages [40]. Dynamics of infection and excretion of TTSuVs throughout the productive life of animals were also described
[36]
. Additionally, high prevalence of TTSuVs was observed in dozens of species of European wild boars (Sus scrofa) [9,11]. ...
Molecular investigation of Torque teno sus virus in geographically distinct porcine breeding herds of Sichuan, China
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Zhiwen Xu
<here is a image 2b852706fb10339d-fbee1adec4cece06> Miao Mei
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Ling Zhu
Wanzhu Guo
Background
Torque teno sus virus (TTSuV), infecting domestic swine and wild boar, is a non-enveloped virus with a circular, single-stranded DNA genome. which has been classified into the genera Iotatorquevirus (TTSuV1) and Kappatorquevirus (TTSuV2) of the family Anelloviridae. A molecular study was conducted to detect evidence of a phylogenic relationship between these two porcine TTSuV genogroups from the sera of 244 infected pigs located in 21 subordinate prefectures and/or cities of Sichuan.
Results
Both genogroups of TTSuV were detected in pig sera collected from all 21 regions examined. Of the 244 samples, virus from either genogroup was detected in 203 (83.2%), while 44 animals (18.0%) were co-infected with viruses of both genogroups. Moreover, TTSuV2 (186/244, 76.2%) was more prevalent than TTSuV1 (61/244, 25%). There was statistically significant difference between the prevalence of genogroups 1 infection alone (9.4%, 23/244) and 2 alone (64.8%, 158/244), and between the prevalence of genogroups 2 (76.2%, 186/244) and both genogroups co-infection (18.0%, 44/244). The untranslated region of the swine TTSuV genome was found to be an adequate molecular marker of the virus for detection and surveillance. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that both genogroups 1 and 2 could be further divided into two subtypes, subtype a and b. TTSuV1 subtype b and the two TTSuV2 subtypes are more prevalent in Sichuan Province.
Conclusions
Our study presents detailed geographical evidence of TTSuV infection in China.
... There are also concerns for risk of potential human infection during xenotransplantation and a public health problem. The role of the sows in transmitting porcine TTSuV to piglets and the infection dynamics of both swine TTSuV genogroups (TTSuV1 and TTSuV2) during the lactation period has been studied [29,
33
]. However, the resent studies is roughly focused on serum sample analysis of sows and piglets based on porcine torque teno virus nucleic acid by conventional nested PCR and real-time PCR assays [18,19,26] and no methods about tissue detection, pathogenesis or cell culture lines studies were conducted, and nothing is known regarding porcine TTSuV2-specific histopathological examination, except that the development of ELISA assay based on expressing of the putative OFR1 capsid protein of PTTSuV2 for the possibility of serological diagnoses [43,44], The aim of this study was to describe whether the presence of specific histopathological lesions of PTTSuV-2 infection was observed by hematoxylin-eosin stain and olympus light microscope on an intensive pig farm in Sichuan of China. ...
... To date, much attention has been paid to TTSuV infection in other vertebrates [8,27,28], especially pigs [4,10,13,15-17,19-22,29-
33
]. Even though porcine TTSuVs are ubiquitous in swine, the pathogenesis is not clear [4]. ...
Histopathological investigation in porcine infected with torque teno sus virus type 2 by inoculation
<here is a image 2b852706fb10339d-fbee1adec4cece06> Miao Mei
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Ling Zhu
Yun Wang
Wanzhu Guo
Porcine torque teno sus virus (TTSuV) is a small icosahedral and non-enveloped virus which contains a single-stranded (ssDNA), circular and negative DNA genome and infects mainly vertebrates and is currently classified into the 'floating' genus Anellovirus of Circoviridae with two species. Viral DNA of both porcine TTSuV species has a high prevalence in both healthy and diseased pigs worldwide and multiple infections of TTSuV with distinct genotypes or subtypes of the same species has been documented in the United States, Europe and Asia. However, there exists no information about histopathological lesions caused by infection with porcine TTSuV2.
Porcine liver tissue homogenate with 1 ml of 6.91 × 107 genomic copies viral loads of porcine TTSuV2 that had positive result for torque teno sus virus type 2 and negative result for torque teno sus virus type 1 and porcine pseudorabies virus type 2 were used to inoculate specific pathogen-free piglets by intramuscular route and humanely killed at 3,7,10,14,17,21 and 24 days post inoculation (dpi), the control pigs were injected intramuscularly with 1 ml of sterile DMEM and humanely killed the end of the study for histopathological examination routinely processed, respectively.
All porcine TTSuV2 inoculated piglets were clinic asymptomatic but developed myocardial fibroklasts and endocardium, interstitial pneumonia, membranous glomerular nephropathy, and modest inflammatory cells infiltration in portal areas in the liver, foci of hemorrhage in some pancreas islet, a tiny amount red blood cells in venule of muscularis mucosae and outer longitudinal muscle, rarely red blood cells in the microvasculation and infiltration of inflammatory cells (lymphocytes and eosinophils) of tonsil and hilar lymph nodes, infiltration of inflammatory lymphocytes and necrosis or degeneration and focal gliosis of lymphocytes in the paracortical zone after inoculation with porcine TTSuV2-containing tissue homogenate.
Analysis of these presentations revealed that porcine TTSuV2 was readily transmitted to TTSuV-negative swine and that infection was associated with characteristic pathologic changes in specific pathogen-free piglets inoculated with porcine TTSuV2. Those results indicated no markedly histopathological changes happened in those parenchymatous organs, especially the digestive system and immune system when the specific pathogen-free pigs were infected with porcine TTSuV2, hence, to some extent, it was not remarkable pathological agent for domestic pigs at least. So, porcine TTSuV2 could be an unrecognized pathogenic viral infectious etiology of swine. This study indicated a directly related description of lesions responsible for TTSuV2 infection in swine.
... Torque teno sus viruses (TTSuVs) have been found at a particularly high frequency in healthy swine 50,
51
. While considered non-pathogenic on their own, there is increasing evidence that TTSuVs may influence the development or outcome of some diseases 52 . ...
Discovery and comparative genomic analysis of a novel equine anellovirus, representing the first complete Mutorquevirus genome
<here is a image f431c2ac2709eae7-016f60df7ea1fc21> Mathew Fisher
Michelle Nebroski
Jennifer L Davies
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Oliver Lung
The complete genome of a novel torque teno virus species (Torque teno equus virus 2 (TTEqV2) isolate Alberta/2018) was obtained by high-throughput sequencing (HTS) of nucleic acid extracted from the lung and liver tissue of a Quarter Horse gelding that died of nonsuppurative encephalitis in Alberta, Canada. The 2805 nucleotide circular genome is the first complete genome from the Mutorquevirus genus and has been approved as a new species by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. The genome contains several characteristic features of torque teno virus (TTV) genomes, including an ORF1 encoding a putative 631 aa capsid protein with an arginine-rich N-terminus, several rolling circle replication associated amino acid motifs, and a downstream polyadenylation signal. A smaller overlapping ORF2 encodes a protein with an amino acid motif (WX7HX3CXCX5H) which, in general, is highly conserved in TTVs and anelloviruses. The UTR contains two GC-rich tracts, two highly conserved 15 nucleotide sequences, and what appears to be an atypical TATA-box sequence also observed in two other TTV genera. Codon usage analysis of TTEqV2 and 11 other selected anelloviruses from five host species revealed a bias toward adenine ending (A3) codons in the anelloviruses, while in contrast, A3 codons were observed at a low frequency in horse and the four other associated host species examined. Phylogenetic analysis of TTV ORF1 sequences available to date shows TTEqV2 clusters with the only other currently reported member of the Mutorquevirus genus, Torque teno equus virus 1 (TTEqV1, KR902501). Genome-wide pairwise alignment of TTEqV2 and TTEqV1 shows the absence of several highly conserved TTV features within the UTR of TTEqV1, suggesting it is incomplete and TTEqV2 is the first complete genome within the genus Mutorquevirus.
... TTSuVs are mainly transmitted by the fecal-route, and they are frequently detected in fecal excretions as well as nasal excretions, sera, and several organs including the liver of infected pigs [23]. The virus transmission may also occur by a vertical route, as fetuses infected with TTSuV have been found at different stages of pregnancy
[24,
25]. ...
Torque Teno Sus Virus (TTSuV) Prevalence in Wild Fauna of Northern Italy
<here is a image 12529f499629aa5f-bb075be4d5d62e85> Francesco Righi
<here is a image 2cb5fa35a7ebd870-46b56d9c63a5dca3> Sara Arnaboldi
<here is a image bddbbef10def395f-0d1093ddc2958d76> Virginia Filipello
<here is a image 65c1b1948f327443-c83968a195cb8806> Antonio Lavazza
Torque teno sus virus (TTSuV) is a non-enveloped circular ssDNA virus which frequently infects swine and has been associated with hepatic, respiratory, and autoimmune disorders. TTSuV’s pathogenic role is still uncertain, and clear data in the literature on virus reservoirs are lacking. The aims of this study were to investigate the presence of potentially zoonotic TTSuV in wild animals in Northern Italy and to evaluate their role as reservoirs. Liver samples were collected between 2016 and 2020 during four hunting seasons from wild boars (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), and chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra). Samples originated from areas in Northern Italy characterized by different traits, i.e., mountains and flatland with, respectively low and high farm density and anthropization. Viral identification was carried out by end-point PCR with specific primers for TTSuV1a and TTSuVk2a species. TTSuV prevalence in wild boars was higher in the mountains than in the flatland (prevalence of 6.2% and 2.3%, respectively). In wild ruminants only TTSuVk2a was detected (with a prevalence of 9.4%). Our findings shed light on the occurrence and distribution of TTSuV in some wild animal species, investigating their possible role as reservoirs.
... The prevalence of TTSuVs in Korea in this study was equivalent to the positive rate of one in Thailand (McKeown et al., 2004). However, the detection rate of TTSuV1 and/or TTSuV2 in this study was lower compared with reports in other countries (Blois et al., 2014;Li et al., 2013;
Sibila et al., 2009)
and even that of Korea before 2004(McKeown et al., 2004. ...
Torque teno virus from Korean domestic swine farms, 2017-2018
May 2021
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Nguyen Giap
Cheong Ung Kim
<here is a image 90c3a22d6f942780-cca89ef3de2389f9> Quynh do hai
<here is a image c223c2bb92115448-ce3ea2ec1a1f617b> Hee Chun Chung
Background:
Torque teno viruses (TTVs) have been detected worldwide, from a wide range of animals. Up to date, few studies focused on the prevalence of TTVs in general and swine torque teno viruses (TTSuVs) in particular in Korean swine farms.
Objective:
This study aimed to investigate the appearance of TTSuVs and TTVs in sick pigs during the 2017-2018 period.
Materials and methods:
Molecular-based method using TTSuV1-, TTSuV2- and TTV3-specific primers was used to screen for the viruses from either sera or pooled internal organs of sick pigs. For genetic characterization, genomic sequences of TTVs were sequenced by a primer walking method. Several bioinformatic tools have been utilized to investigate the genomic organization and genetic relationship of TTVs.
Results:
Two years of prevalence survey reveal that the prevalence of TTSuV2 is about twice that of TTSuV1. Furthermore, we identified TTV of genogroup 3 in swine pooled organ samples. The genome of two strains, M265_Korea_2017 and N119_Korea_2018, are 3,817 bp in size; M265_2017 has three open reading frames (ORFs); and N119_2018 strain has four ORFs. The complete genome nucleotide sequencing of the two strains shows 98.4% homology, and the phylogenetic analysis of Open reading frame (ORF)1 indicates that the strains are located close to TUPB strain subgroup C of genogroup 3.
Conclusion:
Our study provided the information of TTSuVs prevalence in swine farms in Korea and highlighted the presence of TTV genogroup 3 strains in pigs.
... The immunity of pigs can be reduced significantly upon M. hyopneumoniae infection, which can induce infection by other pathogens. If M. hyopneumoniae is present with other pathogens, such as Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae, Pasteurella multocida, Streptococcus suis, or Haemophilus parasuis, respiratory infections are aggravated and leads to porcine respiratory disease complex, which can cause considerable economic losses to the pig industry
(Sibila et al., 2009)
. ...
Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Integration of Doxycycline Against Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae in an In Vitro Model
Sep 2019
Huilin Zhang
Chunxiao Mao
Jinju Li
Huanzhong Ding
Doxycycline is a broad-spectrum antibacterial drug. It is used widely to treat diseases caused by Mycoplasma species. We investigated the antibacterial activity of doxycycline against the Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae strain ATCC25934. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of doxycycline against M. hyopneumoniae determined by a microdilution method was 0.125 μg/ml. Static time–kill curves with constant drug concentrations (0–64 MIC) showed that a bacteriostatic effect occurred if the doxycycline concentration reached 4 MIC. Doxycycline produced a maximum antimycoplasmal effect (reduction of 2.76 log10CFU/ml) at 64 MIC within 48 h. The effect of doxycycline against M. hyopneumoniae was analyzed by a sigmoid E max model, and there was high correlation between the kill rate and doxycycline concentration (R 2 = 0.986). A one-compartment open model with first-order absorption was adopted and was used to simulate doxycycline pharmacokinetics in porcine plasma. The dynamic time–concentration curve showed that the area under the curve at 24 h (AUC24 h) and C max (peak concentration) after each drug administration was 1.78–48.4 μg h/ml and 0.16–3.41 μg/ml, respectively. The reduction of M. hyopneumoniae (log10CFU/ml) for 1, 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 20, and 30 mg/kg body weight was 0.16, 1.29, 1.75, 2.94, 3.35, 3.91, 4.35, and 5.77, respectively, during the entire experiment, respectively. When the dose was >10 mg/kg body weight, continuous administration for 3 days could achieve a bactericidal effect. The correlation coefficient of AUC24 h/MIC, C max/MIC, and %T > MIC (the cumulative percentage of time over a 24-h period that the drug concentration exceeds the MIC) with antibacterial effect was 0.917, 0.923, and 0.823, respectively. Doxycycline showed concentration-dependent activity, and the value of AUC24 h/MIC and C max/MIC required to produce a drop of 1 log10CFU/ml was 164 h and 9.89, respectively.
... In addition, no association was identified in TTSuV loads between adults and young pigs (data not shown). Although employing different methodological approaches, other authors observed that the prevalence of at least one genus of TTSuV was higher in nursery or young pigs (Blois et al., 2014;de Castro et al., 2015;de Menezes Cruz et al., 2016) whereas others provided evidence that the prevalence of TTSuV would increase with aging
(Sibila et al., 2009;
Nieto et al., 2011;Xiao et al., 2012;Teixeira et al., 2015). N. Ramos et al. ...
High frequency and extensive genetic heterogeneity of TTSuV1 and TTSuVk2a in PCV2- infected and non-infected domestic pigs and wild boars from Uruguay
Aug 2018
VET MICROBIOL
<here is a image 20e19642abf2b1f7-927ad310814768f9> Natalia Ramos
<here is a image c35c93a870088ba2-655add2a5f99767a> Santiago Mirazo
<here is a image 6318480029a594c3-cde1fafdb4174402> German Botto
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Juan Arbiza
Torque teno sus virus (TTSuV) infection is common worldwide in both healthy and diseased swine and a relationship between this virus and a particular disease in pigs has not been established. This work aimed to investigate the presence of TTSuV1 and TTSuVk2a in Porcine Circovirus type 2 (PCV2)-infected and non-infected domestic pigs and free-living wild boars from Uruguay. Our data evidenced a high frequency of detection and a wide circulation of TTSuV among pig herds and wild boar populations. Furthermore, TTSuV1+TTSuVk2a co-infection was more frequent than single infections in domestic pigs. In addition, we thoroughly characterized at the molecular level TTSuV strains by extensive sequence data analysis. Our findings revealed an extremely high genetic heterogeneity among Uruguayan isolates. On the basis of detailed analyses, we proposed a more comprehensive criterion of TTSuV classification which would contribute to shedding light over the genetic diversity of these viruses worldwide. On the other hand, data obtained suggested that neither TTSuV1 nor TTSuVk2a frequency of infection or viral loads have any correlation with PCV2 infection, health status or age. The role of TTSuV during co-infection with other pathogens and the age-related dynamics of TTSuV infection are currently under debate. Therefore, taking into account the controversial epidemiological data regarding these viruses and their ubiquitous infection, a likely role as components of the host microbiota should be brought into discussion.
... The virus infects a relatively high proportion of otherwise healthy pigs ( Sibila et al., 2009b). TTSuVs DNA can be detected in as early as one-week-old piglets, but the likelihood of detecting TTSuV DNA or antibodies in a pig increases with age ( Brassard et al., 2008;
Sibila et al., 2009a;
Aramouni et al., 2010a;Xiao et al., 2012). TTSuV's DNA can be detected in a number of tissues including brain, lymph node, heart, liver, bone marrow, lung, spleen and pulmonary epithelium indicating a broad tissue tropism [Reviewed in ( Hino and Miyata, 2007;Aramouni et al., 2010a)]. ...
Prevalence of the Novel Torque Teno Sus Virus Species k2b from Pigs in the United States and Lack of Association with Post-Weaning Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome or Mulberry Heart Disease
Nov 2016
<here is a image 32c3280e08ff418d-1d88a62df455aa70> Adam Rogers
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> C. Lynn Heffron
<here is a image 3edee8d66f4d3037-41dbb68ba66354ff> Yao-Wei Huang
<here is a image b4c031ffd4336d50-96eaeb91c1b081e2> Xiang-Jin Meng
The family Anelloviridae includes a number of viruses infecting humans (Torque teno viruses, TTV) and other animals including swine (Torque teno sus viruses, TTSuV). Two genetically distinct TTSuV species have been identified from swine thus far (TTSuV1 and TTSuVk2), although their definitive association with disease remains debatable. In 2012, a novel TTSuV species was identified from commercial swine serum and classified in the genus Kappatorquevirus as TTSuVk2b. The other Kappatorquevirus species, TTSuVk2a, has been associated with post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) when coinfected with porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2). Therefore, in this study, we initially amplified a portion of TTSuVk2b ORF1 and, subsequently, assessed the molecular prevalence of the virus in pigs in the United States. A total of 127 serum and 115 tissue samples were obtained from pigs with PMWS or mulberry heart disease (MHD) in six states and tested by PCR for the presence of TTSuVk2b DNA. Approximately 27.6% of the serum and 21.7% of tissue samples tested positive for TTSuVk2b DNA, and the positive products were confirmed by sequencing. However, we did not detect a correlation between TTSuVk2b infection and PMWS or MHD. The near full-length genomic sequence of US TTSuVk2b was determined, and sequence analysis revealed that the US TTSuVk2b isolates were 95% identical to the TTSuVk2b isolate from Spain, with most of the variations clustering in ORF1. We conclude that the novel TTSuVk2b species is present in pigs in the United States and its potential association with a disease warrants further investigation.
... These viruses have been found in domesticated pigs worldwide and in wild boars (Cornelissen-Keijsers et al., 2012;Cortey et al., 2012;Gallei et al., 2010;Martínez et al., 2006). TTSuVs are mainly transmitted by oral-faecal route but other routes of infection do exist (Kekarainen et al., 2007;Kekarainen et al., 2009;Martínez-Guinó et al., 2010;Pozzuto et al., 2009;
Sibila et al., 2009a;
Sibila et al., 2009b). Prevalence of infection increases with age, with early infection occurring during the lactation period, although a percentage of animals are born already infected (Martínez-Guinó et al., 2010;Pozzuto et al., 2009;Sibila et al., 2009b). ...
Development of an indirect ELISA assay for the detection of IgG antibodies against the ORF1 of Torque teno sus viruses 1 and 2 in conventional pigs
Sep 2015
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> David Nieto Blanco
Laura Martínez-Guinó
<here is a image 8127d4928db2e66f-99ed200a24cff68b> Alexandra Jiménez-Melsió
<here is a image 409157d0d4357219-6c78453e6c8d34a8> Tuija Kekarainen
Torque teno sus viruses (TTSuV, family Anelloviridae) cause long lasting and persistent infection in pigs under subclinical scenarios, and are potentially linked to several economically important swine diseases. Currently, little is known about swine immune response against TTSuV infections. In this study, an ELISA assay was developed based on the ORF1-A recombinant protein of two known TTSuVs, namely TTSuV1 (genus Iotatorquevirus) and TTSuV2 (genus Kappatorquevirus). The assay was used to study the development of the humoral immune response against TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 in longitudinally sampled clinically healthy pigs and their dams. Anti ORF1-A IgG was found in serum of pigs and sows for both TTSuVs. From 15 sows, 15 (100%) and 13 (83%) had anti ORF1-A IgG against TTSuV1 and TTSuV2, respectively. Pig sero-prevalences at the first sampling (4 weeks of age) were 65% (24/37) and 5% (2/37) for TTSuV1 and TTSuV2, respectively. For TTSuV1, the highest anti ORF1-A IgG prevalence was observed at weeks 21 and 25, with 68% (25/37) sero-positive pigs. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) results at week 21 revealed that 26 out of 32 (81%) pigs were positive for TTSuV1. In the case of TTSuV2, the highest anti ORF1-A IgG prevalence was observed at week 21, with 84% (31/37) pigs being sero-positive. At the same week, 92% (34/37) of pigs were qPCR positive. In summary, anti ORF1-A IgGs were detected in both sows and piglets at different ages, indicating that these animals could mount a humoral immune response against both TTSuVs. However, the high percentage of viremic pigs in presence of anti ORF1-A IgG suggests that these antibodies are not able to remove TTSuVs from circulation.
... However, the findings reported here are in agreement with other researchers, albeit employing different approaches, no correlation between TTSuVs and occurrence of PMWS could be established (Blomstrom et al., 2010;Lee et al., 2010). In addition, TTSuV1 viral loads in adult animals were significantly higher than those in healthy young and SPF animals; this is in accordance with previous reports
Sibila et al., 2009a
Sibila et al., , 2009b where TTSuV prevalence in serum was found to increase with ageing. ...
Torque teno sus virus 1 (TTSuV1) and 2 (TTSuV2) viral loads in serum of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS)-affected and healthy pigs in Brazil
Jun 2015
RES VET SCI
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Helton Fernandes dos Santos
Thais Fumaco Teixeira
<here is a image a322c79849658c4e-66149c99a4a7634f> Samuel Cibulski
<here is a image 7b8b28c292cacf78-7f43c85894cd6f8b> Paulo Michel Roehe
Associations between Torque teno sus viruses (TTSuVs) and the occurrence of postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) have been reported with controversial results. Currently, no studies have been performed comparing simultaneously viral loads of TTSuVs and PCV2. To examine the role for TTSuVs in PMWS-affected animals, a SYBR Green-based quantitative PCR (qPCR) was designed to detect and quantify TTSuV1, TTSuV2 and PCV2 genomes in swine sera. TTSuV1 genome loads were significantly higher in healthy adults than in young and SPF animals (p<0.05) suggesting that the prevalence of TTSuV1 infection increases with age and bears no association with PMWS. Regarding TTSuV2, no significant variation was detected in viral loads within any of the groups. As expected, PCV2 genome loads were higher in PMWS-affected swine than in healthy or SPF animals (p<0.001). These findings provide clear evidence to indicate that neither TTSuV1 nor TTSuV2 viral loads have any correlation with the occurrence of PMWS.
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
... TTSuVs are ubiquitous and distributed worldwide [17], both in domestic pigs and wild boars [18,19]. TTSuVs are likely transmitted horizontally, as viral DNA has been detected in sera, feces, semen and nasal secretions [6,20,
21]
. TTSuV DNA has also been found in colostrum and stillborn, suggesting that the vertical and transplacental/intra-uterine transmissions are important routes of dissemination [22,23]. Infection with TTSuV occurs early in life and leads to a progressive persistent infection, and viral load appears to increase with the age of the animals [24,25]. ...
High Prevalence of Co-Infection with Multiple Torque Teno Sus Virus Species in Italian Pig Herds
Nov 2014
PLOS ONE
Sylvain Blois
Francesca Mallus
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Manuele Liciardi
<here is a image e0b69dd10eea6cf2-632a0d845855816b> Aldo Manzin
Torque teno viruses (TTVs) are a large group of vertebrate-infecting small viruses with circular single-stranded DNA, classified in the Anelloviridae family. In swine, two genetically distinct species, Torque teno sus virus 1a (TTSuV1a) and 1b (TTSuV1b) are currently grouped into the genus Iotatorquevirus. More recently, a novel Torque teno sus virus species, named Torque teno sus virus k2b (TTSuVk2b), has been included with Torque teno sus virus k2a (TTSuVk2a) into the genus Kappatorquevirus. In the present study, TTSuV1 (TTSuV1a and TTSuV1b), TTSuVk2a and TTSuVk2b prevalence was evaluated in 721 serum samples of healthy pigs from Sardinian farms, insular Italy. This is the largest study to date on the presence of TTSuV in healthy pigs in Italy. The global prevalence of infection was 83.2% (600/721), being 62.3% (449/721), 60.6% (437/721), and 11.5% (83/721) the prevalence of TTSuV1, TTSuVk2a and TTSuVk2b, respectively. The rate of co-infection with two and/or three species was also calculated, and data show that co-infections were significantly more frequent than infections with single species, and that TTSuV1+TTSuVk2a double infection was the prevalent combination (35.4%). Quantitative results obtained using species-specific real time-qPCR evidenced the highest mean levels of viremia in the TTSuV1 subgroup, and the lowest in the TTSuVk2b subgroup. Interestingly, multiple infections with distinct TTSuV species seemed to significantly affect the DNA load and specifically, data highlighted that double infection with TTSuVk2a increased the viral titers of TTSuV1, likewise the co-infection with TTSuVk2b increased the titers of TTSuVk2a.
... The current knowledge on anelloviruses is based mainly on published work on TTSuV and human TTV. Characteristic to anelloviruses are their high genetic diversity (Biagini et al., 2006;Cortey et al., 2011;Huang et al., 2010;Jelcic et al., 2004), ubiquitous and persistent infection (Cornelissen-Keijsers et al., 2012;Cortey et al., 2012;Maggi et al., 2001;Moen et al., 2003), and transmission using several routes, mainly faecal-oral (Chung et al., 2007;Ishikawa et al., 1999;Martínez-Guinó et al., 2009;Pozzuto et al., 2009;
Sibila et al., 2009
). These viruses are considered non-pathogenic by themselves, but are suggested to be co-factors in several diseases (Kekarainen and Segalés, 2012;Okamoto, 2009). ...
Detection of porcine anelloviruses in pork meat and human faeces
Sep 2013
<here is a image 8127d4928db2e66f-99ed200a24cff68b> Alexandra Jiménez-Melsió
<here is a image 0eeeade121084314-487198285631e4cf> Sílvia Parés
Joaquim Segalés
<here is a image 409157d0d4357219-6c78453e6c8d34a8> Tuija Kekarainen
Torque teno viruses (TTV) are icosahedral, single-stranded circular DNA viruses infecting several vertebrate species. Currently, these viruses are considered non-pathogenic although they are suggested to be co-factors in several diseases. Recently single-stranded circular DNA viruses have been found in human faeces. Considering the consumption of pork meat products and the ubiquitous nature of swine TTV (Torque tenosus virus, TTSuV), the human population is frequently exposed to these viruses. To determine if TTSuVs could be delivered through food, human faecal samples were analysed for their presence. Indeed, the results of this study show that up to 25% of faecal samples were positive for known TTSuVs by PCR and sequencing. Additionally, all commercially available pork products purchased in Spanish supermarkets contained DNA of TTSuV.
... It seems that the infection in pigs is ubiquitous (Kekarainen & Segalés, 2009). TTSuVs have been also found in biological fluids such as semen, colostrum, nasal cavity secretions and faeces (Kekarainen et al., 2007;Martínez-Guino et al., 2009;
Sibila et al., 2009a)
, which suggests that transmission may occur by both horizontal and vertical routes (Martínez-Guino et al., 2009;Pozzuto et al., 2009;Sibila et al., 2009a, b;Aramouni et al., 2010). Viral prevalence increases with age and in most animals the infection can be persistent (Sibila et al., 2009a, b;Taira et al., 2009). ...
Preliminary epitope mapping of Torque Teno Sus Virus 1 and 2 capsid protein and serological detection of infection in pigs.
Feb 2013
J GEN VIROL
V. Jarosova
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Vladimir Celer
The aim of this work is to identify antigenic regions within the ORF1 protein of TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 which could be used as antigens to detect virus specific antibodies following infection in pigs. Protein sequences of TTSuV ORF1 genes were analyzed for the prediction of linear antigenic epitopes. Synthesized peptides were analyzed for their serological reactivity with swine sera. Such an antigenic region was identified at C' terminal terminus of ORF1 protein of both viruses and showed serological reactivity with 78% (TTSuV1) and 88% (TTSuV2) of swine sera. An ELISA test with immunodominant peptide as an antigen was used to examine the sera of piglets, aged 4-20 weeks, and in adults. Detection of antibodies indicated that TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 specific antibodies were detectable at age of 4 weeks. Antibody titers started to increase at week 10 and peaked at week 20. A relatively high antibody titer persisted till adulthood.
... Viral prevalence increases with age, leading to persistent infection in a proportion of adult animals (Kekarainen and Segalé s, 2012). TTSuVs are transmitted by horizontal and vertical routes (
Sibila et al., 2009;
Aramouni et al., 2010). Anellovirus infections are believed to cause no disease, but it is suggested that they may act as co-factors in certain diseases (Kekarainen and Segalé s, 2012). ...
Torque teno sus virus 1 and 2 distribution in tissues of porcine circovirus type 2-systemic disease affected and age-matched healthy pigs
Article
Jan 2013
<here is a image 69af4aa483644d0e-4b51524a80b889b5> David Nieto
<here is a image 409157d0d4357219-6c78453e6c8d34a8> Tuija Kekarainen
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Mario Aramouni
Joaquim Segalés
... Swine infecting Torque teno sus viruses (TTSuV) are divided into two genera due to their high genetic divergence: Iotatorquevirus containing TTSuV1 species and Kappatorquevirus containing TTSuV2 species (ICTV report, 2010; http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/). TTSuV infection in pigs is distributed worldwide ( Cortey et al., 2011b), and it is characterized by a persistent viraemia with high prevalence of both species (
Sibila et al., 2009
). Viral loads are up to 10 5 DNA copies per ml of sera for TTSuV1 and up to 10 6 for TTSuV2 in healthy animals ( Nieto et al., 2011). ...
Increased viral load and prevalence of Torque teno sus virus 2 (TTSuV2) in pigs experimentally infected with classical swine fever virus (CSFV)
Dec 2012
<here is a image 5967c3f7f8e4c1ec-d956ae7b3b160cf1> Llilianne Ganges
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Mario Aramouni
<here is a image 409157d0d4357219-6c78453e6c8d34a8> Tuija Kekarainen
Joaquim Segalés
Torque teno sus viruses (TTSuVs) are considered non-pathogenic viruses, although lately they have been linked to porcine circovirus diseases, mainly with post weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS). These associations point out a possible pathogenic role of TTSuVs or, alternatively, that TTSuV replication is up-regulated under disease conditions. In order to further explore the association of TTSuVs with disease occurrence, TTSuVs prevalence and viral load were assessed before and after an experimental infection with a highly pathogenic classical swine fever (CSF) virus (CSFV) isolate. Serum samples from 56 animals were analysed by means of a real time quantitative PCR (qPCR) for TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 before and after (between 6 and 13 days post-inoculation) the CSFV challenge. Based on the post-infection clinical evolution and immune response against CSFV, the animals were divided into two groups: group I, with protecting immunity against CSFV and no clinical signs at the day of necropsy, and group II, with no detectable immune response against CSFV and moderate to severe clinical signs. TTSuVs qPCR results indicated that TTSuV2 and not TTSuV1 load in serum increased significantly after challenge with CSFV in the group of pigs with clinical signs, specifically in those with a moderate course of the disease. Therefore, this study emphasizes the different behaviour of both TTSuVs, as already found in the PMWS background, and further supports the association of TTSuV2 with disease occurrence.
... TTSuV appears to be ubiquitous in both healthy and diseased pigs worldwide. Torque teno sus virus has been detected in serum, faeces, saliva, semen and tissue samples of infected pigs, indicating its potential diverse transmission routes including both horizontal and vertical transmissions (Aramouni et al., 2010; Huang et al., 2010c; Kekarainen et al., 2007; Pozzuto et al., 2009;
Sibila et al., 2009a
,b). Co-infections with TTSuV1 and TTSuV2 at high prevalence rate have been documented in pigs worldwide using PCR and real-time PCR assays (Bigarré et al., 2005). ...
Emerging and Re-emerging Swine Viruses
Jan 2012
TRANSBOUND EMERG DIS
<here is a image b4c031ffd4336d50-96eaeb91c1b081e2> Xiang-Jin Meng
In the past two decades or so, a number of viruses have emerged in the global swine population. Some, such as porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), cause economically important diseases in pigs, whereas others such as porcine torque teno virus (TTV), now known as Torque teno sus virus (TTSuV), porcine bocavirus (PBoV) and related novel parvoviruses, porcine kobuvirus, porcine toroviruses (PToV) and porcine lymphotropic herpesviruses (PLHV), are mostly subclinical in swine herds. Although some emerging swine viruses such as swine hepatitis E virus (swine HEV), porcine endogenous retrovirus (PERV) and porcine sapovirus (porcine SaV) may have a limited clinical implication in swine health, they do pose a potential public health concern in humans due to zoonotic (swine HEV) or potential zoonotic (porcine SaV) and xenozoonotic (PERV, PLHV) risks. Other emerging viruses such as Nipah virus, Bungowannah virus and Menangle virus not only cause diseases in pigs but some also pose important zoonotic threat to humans. This article focuses on emerging and re-emerging swine viruses that have a limited or uncertain clinical and economic impact on pig health. The transmission, epidemiology and pathogenic potential of these viruses are discussed. In addition, the two economically important emerging viruses, PRRSV and PCV2, are also briefly discussed to identify important knowledge gaps.
... TTSuV infection is considered to be ubiquitous in both healthy and diseased animals (Bigarré et al., 2005;Kekarainen et al., 2006;Taira et al., 2009;Gallei et al., 2010;Aramouni et al., 2011), with prevalence varying among ages ( Sibila et al., 2009a
Sibila et al., , 2009b
Aramouni et al., 2010). The initial concern with TTSuVs (only TTSuV1 at that time) came from the risk of human infection during xenotransplantation with pig organs and cells, but their role in pig disease manifestation during co-infection was Torque teno sus virus 2 (TTSuV2) Viral load Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) Subclinical infection PCV2 vaccination A B S T R A C T Anelloviruses are small, non-enveloped viruses with circular single stranded DNA, which infect a number of animal species as well as humans. ...
Lack of effect of piglet vaccination against Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) on serum viral loads of Torque teno sus virus 2 (TTSuV2)
Dec 2011
<here is a image 69af4aa483644d0e-4b51524a80b889b5> David Nieto
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Mario Aramouni
<here is a image 63ee4c1c1931ada9-0d2108d43e3e763d> Sibila Marina
Joaquim Segalés
Anelloviruses are small, non-enveloped viruses with circular single stranded DNA, which infect a number of animal species as well as humans. In pigs, two distinct Torque teno sus virus (TTSuV) species have been described so far, being one of them linked to disease occurrence. Specifically, TTSuV2 loads in serum have been found increased in pigs suffering from postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS). Since this pathological condition is able to be controlled by means of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) vaccination, it was hypothesized the possibility that such vaccination would have an impact on TTSuV2 prevalence and loads. A total of 150 pigs were divided in two study groups. Half of them received a PCV2 commercial vaccine, while the other half remained as non-vaccinated controls. PCV2 infection was monitored at 3-4, 8, 12, 16 and 21 weeks of age by means of an standard PCR, while TTSuV2 loads were determined at 8, 16 and 21 weeks of age by a quantitative PCR. No obvious PMWS clinical signs were observed among studied animals, although PCV2 infection was confirmed in both groups of pigs. Almost all pigs got TTSuV2 infection throughout the study period, independently of the PCV2 vaccination status of animals. Moreover, TTSuV2 load did not show significant differences between different pig groups at each sampling time, but mean viral load increased with age. Taking into account that previous results suggest that TTSuV2 load in serum is increased in the background of PMWS, the present study suggests that this is not the case in a PCV2 subclinical infection scenario. Therefore, vaccination of PCV2 subclinically infected pigs did not modify the outcome of TTSuV2 infection.
Multiple genotypes infection and molecular characterization of Torque teno neovison virus: A novel Anelloviridae of mink in China
Jun 2023
RES VET SCI
Weizhi Xin
Zhiyuan Guo
Lin Wang
<here is a image e15cc8c5301947c5-1cf17d1d25b15108> Junwei Ge
A novel Torque teno neovison virus (TTVs) was identified in specimens collected from dead mink during an outbreak of the Aleutian mink disease virus. Eighteen complete genomic sequences were obtained, ranging from 2109 to 2158 nucleotides in length and consisting of an untranslated region and three open reading frames. The genomic organization of mink TTVs is similar to previously reported anelloviruses. However, the deduced amino acid sequence of its ORF1 protein shows genetic diversity compared to related anelloviruses, suggesting that it represents a putative new species within the Anelloviridae family. This study provides a detailed molecular characterization of the novel mink anelloviruses, including its codon usage pattern, origin, and evolution. Analysis of the viral genomic sequences reveals the existence of multiple genotypes of co-infection. Principal component analysis and phylogenetic trees confirm the coexistence of multiple genotypes. Furthermore, the codon usage analyses indicate that mink TTVs have a genotype-specific codon usage pattern and show a low codon usage bias. Host-specific adaptation analysis suggests that TTVs are less adapted to mink. The possible origin and evolutionary history of mink TTVs were elucidated. Mink TTVs was genetically closely related to giant panda anellovirus, representing a new species. The observed incongruence between the phylogenetic history of TTVs and that of their hosts suggests that the evolution of anellovirus is largely determined by cross-species transmission. The study provides insights into the co-infection and genetic evolution of anellovirus in China.
torque teno sus virus infection
Article
Torque teno sus viruses (TTSuVs) are the Torque teno virus (TTV) species infecting swine. The classification of TTSuVs is based on several tentative pairwise identity thresholds: variants, subtypes, types, species and genus. TTVs have been found in humans, nonhuman primates, livestock species, companion animals, wild boars, badgers, pine martens, tupaias, rodents, bats, sea turtles, and sea lions. TTSuVs can be detected in tissues, blood, semen, colostrum, nasal, and fecal samples. In fetuses, the highest concentration of TTSuV is found in the lung, heart, spleen, and kidney, suggesting that these tissues contain a significant number of cells supporting viral replication. Diagnosis of TTSuV infection is based on the detection of viral DNA and/or antibodies against the virus. The high percentage of viremic, but antibody‐positive, pigs reflects an inefficient anti‐TTSuV immune response. The immunopathogenesis of swine anelloviruses is unknown.
Retrospective study of the relationship of Torque teno sus virus 1a and Torque teno sus virus 1b with porcine circovirus associated disease
Genus Iotatorquevirus consists of 2 species, Torque teno sus virus 1a and Torque teno sus virus 1b, which are ubiquitous in swine populations, and are widely reported in association with porcine circovirus associated disease (PCVAD). To evaluate the relationship with PCVAD, 100 formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples were used to detect both Iotatorquevirus species by nested PCR and sequencing. Sixty-eight PCVAD cases were selected as well as 32 porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) non-affected cases. Overall, 33 of the 100 cases were positive for Torque teno sus virus 1a and 8 of 100 were positive for Torque teno sus virus 1b. Only 24 of 68 (35%) PCVAD cases were positive for Torque teno sus virus 1a; 39% (9/23) of post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome, and 33% (15/45) of PCV2-associated reproductive failure cases. Among PCV2 non-affected cases, 28% were positive for Torque teno sus virus 1a and 6% were positive for Torque teno sus virus 1b. Torque teno sus virus 1b was not detected in PCV2-associated reproductive failure cases. Regardless of the PCV2-status, a lower frequency of both Iotatorquevirus species was found than depicted in other reports and there was no statistical relationship with PCVAD (χ
2
< 0.01). Given the worldwide genomic variability of Iotatorquevirus species, it is feasible that species prevalent in Mexico share a lower nucleotide sequence identity, leading to different pathogenic potential.
Prevalence and Infection Dynamics of Swine Torque Teno Virus (TTV) in Pig Herds in Tochigi Prefecture
According to the published genomic sequence of TTSuVl (GenBank Accession No. AB07 6001.1), the pairs of specific PCR/nested-PCR primers were designed to amplify the full length of TTSuVl complete genome from blood serum samples in Sichuan province. The amplified fragments were cloned, sequenced and named as TTSuVl-SCI and TTSuVl-SC2, respectively. The sequencing results showed that the complete genome of them were 2852 bp and 2917 bp in length. And then, the correct target sequences gained were deposited in GenBank and the GenBank accession number JF694116 and JF694117 were generated. Homology analysis of TTSuVl-SCI, TTSuVl-SC2 and reference strain sequences retrieved in GenBank indicated that the complete genome of TTSuVl-SCl and TTSuVl-SC2 from Sichuan isolated strains shared 81-98 and 82-99% homology, respectively with those reference sequences. The phylogenetic tree analysis indicated that the closest genetic relationship of TTSuVl-SCl and TTSuVl-SC2 isolated strains were TTVlBjlO strain HM633251.1 and TTVSH0822/2008 strain (GU450331.1). The study would lay a biological foundation to understand the epidemiology, genetic variation of the virus.
Vaccination of pigs reduces Torque teno sus virus viremia during natural infection
| https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26323772_Swine_torque_teno_virus_TTV_infection_and_excretion_dynamics_in_conventional_pig_farms |
Outflows, infall and evolution of a sample of embedded low-mass protostars - The William Herschel Line Legacy (WILL) survey | Astronomy & Astrophysics (A& A)
Astronomy & Astrophysics (A& A) is an international journal which publishes papers on all aspects of astronomy and astrophysics
Outflows, infall and evolution of a sample of embedded low-mass protostars
The William Herschel Line Legacy (WILL) survey ⋆
J. C. Mottram 1 ,2 ⋆⋆, E. F. van Dishoeck 1 ,3, L. E. Kristensen 4 ,5, A. Karska 3 ,6, I. San José-García 1, S. Khanna 1, G. J. Herczeg 7, Ph. André 8, S. Bontemps 9 ,10, S. Cabrit 11 ,12, M. T. Carney 1, M. N. Drozdovskaya 1, M. M. Dunham 4, N. J. Evans 13, D. Fedele 2 ,14, J. D. Green 13 ,15, D. Harsono 1 ,16, D. Johnstone 17 ,18, J. K. Jørgensen 5, V. Könyves 8, B. Nisini 19, M. V. Persson 1, M. Tafalla 20, R. Visser 21and U. A. Yıldız 22
Abstract
Context. Herschelobservations of water and highly excited CO ( J > 9) have allowed the physical and chemical conditions in the more active parts of protostellar outflows to be quantified in detail for the first time. However, to date, the studied samples of Class 0/I protostars in nearby star-forming regions have been selected from bright, well-known sources and have not been large enough for statistically significant trends to be firmly established.
Aims.We aim to explore the relationships between the outflow, envelope and physical properties of a flux-limited sample of embedded low-mass Class 0/I protostars.
Methods.We present spectroscopic observations in H 2O, CO and related species with HerschelHIFI and PACS, as well as ground-based follow-up with the JCMT and APEX in CO, HCO +and isotopologues, of a sample of 49 nearby ( d < 500pc) candidate protostars selected from Spitzerand Herschelphotometric surveys of the Gould Belt. This more than doubles the sample of sources observed by the WISH and DIGIT surveys. These data are used to study the outflow and envelope properties of these sources. We also compile their continuum spectral energy distributions (SEDs) from the near-IR to mm wavelengths in order to constrain their physical properties (e.g. L bol, T boland M env).
Results.Water emission is dominated by shocks associated with the outflow, rather than the cooler, slower entrained outflowing gas probed by ground-based CO observations. These shocks become less energetic as sources evolve from Class 0 to Class I. Outflow force, measured from low- JCO, also decreases with source evolutionary stage, while the fraction of mass in the outflow relative to the total envelope (i.e. M out / M env) remains broadly constant between Class 0 and I. The median value of ~1 %is consistent with a core to star formation efficiency on the order of 50 %and an outflow duty cycle on the order of 5 %. Entrainment efficiency, as probed by F CO / Ṁ acc, is also invariant with source properties and evolutionary stage. The median value implies a velocity at the wind launching radius of 6.3 km s -1, which in turn suggests an entrainment efficiency of between 30 and 60 %if the wind is launched at ~1 AU, or close to 100 %if launched further out. L[O i] is strongly correlated with L bolbut not with M env, in contrast to low- JCO, which is more closely correlated with the latter than the former. This suggests that [O i] traces the present-day accretion activity of the source while CO traces time-averaged accretion over the dynamical timescale of the outflow. H 2O is more strongly correlated with M envthan L bol, but the difference is smaller than low- JCO, consistent with water emission primarily tracing actively shocked material between the wind, traced by [O i], and the entrained molecular outflow, traced by low- JCO. L[O i] does not vary from Class 0 to Class I, unlike CO and H 2O. This is likely due to the ratio of atomic to molecular gas in the wind increasing as the source evolves, balancing out the decrease in mass accretion rate. Infall signatures are detected in HCO +and H 2O in a few sources, but still remain surprisingly illusive in single-dish observations.
Herschelis an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA.
| https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/abs/2017/04/aa28682-16/aa28682-16.html |
Custom Elements: Difference between revisions - WHATWG Wiki
Custom Elements: Difference between revisions
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* Lifecycle callbacks for: insertion into a document, removal from a document, mutation of an attribute
* Lifecycle callbacks for: insertion into a document, removal from a document, mutation of an attribute
==
Additional lifecycle callbacks
==
==
Open issues
==
There's a proposal in various bugs to offer these lifecycle callbacks as well:
* Upgrading
* Subclassing existing elements (<code>is=""</code>)
* Using symbols rather than strings
* Adopting so when moving nodes across documents adjustments can be made (e.g. an <code><img></code> has its animation restarted). This callback needs to be passed the old and new document.
===
Upgrading
===
* Cloning so <code>cloneNode()</code> can have similar semantics for custom elements as it does for e.g. <code><input></code>. For cloning we want the browser to create a clone (via the constructor) and copy all content attributes. Then the callback is passed the clone, a document, and the clone children flag (note that these are only needed for children not part of a tree, for elements such as <code><template></code>, children part of the tree are handled by the browser).
==
Use symbols to identify lifecycle callbacks ==
It has been suggested that we should use symbols rather than names ending in <code>Callback</code> to avoid collisions with libraries.
==
Upgrading
==
Upgrading is the concept of going from a piece of markup, such as <code><my-div data-teehee="💩"></my-div></code>, to an object in a tree.
Upgrading is the concept of going from a piece of markup, such as <code><my-div data-teehee="💩"></my-div></code>, to an object in a tree.
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(Written under the assumption that mutating the prototype of the basic element is no longer considered viable.)
(Written under the assumption that mutating the prototype of the basic element is no longer considered viable.)
== Subclassing existing elements ==
=
== Subclassing existing elements
=
==
Subclassing existing elements is hard as implementation-wise identity is both object-based and name/namespace based. See also [https://annevankesteren.nl/2015/01/dom-element-constructors DOM: element constructors].
Subclassing existing elements is hard as implementation-wise identity is both object-based and name/namespace based. See also [https://annevankesteren.nl/2015/01/dom-element-constructors DOM: element constructors].
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This hack did allow for somewhat improved accessibility for trivial components, but that would quickly break down and not scale to anything more complex. It would also provide slightly better integration with the HTML parser. For example, extending <code><template></code> for [https://blog.polymer-project.org/howto/2014/09/11/template-is-autobinding/ data binding] or as a way to specify [http://jsbin.com/xuheb/3/edit?html,output shadow trees in HTML].
This hack did allow for somewhat improved accessibility for trivial components, but that would quickly break down and not scale to anything more complex. It would also provide slightly better integration with the HTML parser. For example, extending <code><template></code> for [https://blog.polymer-project.org/howto/2014/09/11/template-is-autobinding/ data binding] or as a way to specify [http://jsbin.com/xuheb/3/edit?html,output shadow trees in HTML].
== ARIA integration ==
=== Use symbols to identify lifecycle callbacks ===
It has been suggested that we should use symbols rather than names ending in <code>Callback</code> to avoid collisions with libraries.
== New features (v2) ==
=== Additional lifecycle callbacks ===
There's a proposal in various bugs to offer these lifecycle callbacks as well:
* Adopting so when moving nodes across documents adjustments can be made (e.g. an <code><img></code> has its animation restarted). This callback needs to be passed the old and new document.
* Cloning so <code>cloneNode()</code> can have similar semantics for custom elements as it does for e.g. <code><input></code>. For cloning we want the browser to create a clone (via the constructor) and copy all content attributes. Then the callback is passed the clone, a document, and the clone children flag (note that these are only needed for children not part of a tree, for elements such as <code><template></code>, children part of the tree are handled by the browser).
=
== ARIA integration
=
==
https://lists.w3.org/Archives/Public/public-webapps/2014JulSep/0355.html
https://lists.w3.org/Archives/Public/public-webapps/2014JulSep/0355.html
[[Category:Spec coordination]]
[[Category:Spec coordination]]
Revision as of 12:58, 6 May 2015
This page documents open technical issues with
Custom Elements
based on
public-webapps@w3.orgfrom January to March 2015
.
Contents
1 Rough consensus
2 Open issues
2.1 Upgrading
2.2 Subclassing existing elements
2.3 Use symbols to identify lifecycle callbacks
3 New features (v2)
3.1 Additional lifecycle callbacks
3.2 ARIA integration
Rough consensus
There appears to be rough consensus for:
ES6-style classes (Spec/Chrome: mutating prototype)
Subclassing of HTMLElement and SVGElement
An API to tie a class to a local name (e.g. registerElement() )
Lifecycle callbacks for: insertion into a document, removal from a document, mutation of an attribute
Open issues
Upgrading
Subclassing existing elements ( is="" )
Using symbols rather than strings
Upgrading
Upgrading is the concept of going from a piece of markup, such as
<my-div data-teehee="💩"></my-div>
, to an object in a tree.
Tactic Explanation Drawbacks Spec/Chrome A basic element is created by the parser and then its prototype is mutated at a later stage followed by a callback. Does not use ES6-style classes Does not have identity at all (at best it looks alike due to the mutated prototype) Brain transplant ( "Dmitry" ) A basic element is created by the parser and a callback registered by the developer is invoked at a later point to turn that basic element into a custom element. Not having identity at creation-time is currently a mismatch with the rest of the platform. (Domenic suggests we could maybe change the rest of the platform.) Dummy replacement A dummy element is created by the parser and replaced at a later point by an actual instance of the custom element created by invoking the constructor registered by the developer. What about attributes on the dummy element? What about event listeners on the dummy element? What if the dummy element was removed from the tree (or moved around)? Causes mutation observer "spam" Synchronous constructor The constructor registered by the developer is invoked by the parser at the point the custom element is created and inserted into the tree. Requires synchronization for document.write() for each custom element. Nested event loop. Does not work with asynchronously loaded assets. Unclear how it works with cloning. Almost-synchronous constructor ( "Jonas" ) The parser does bookkeeping of where custom elements need to be inserted and does it at a later synchronization point. Potential performance issues. Complicated? Unclear how it works with cloning.
(Written under the assumption that mutating the prototype of the basic element is no longer considered viable.)
Subclassing existing elements
Subclassing existing elements is hard as implementation-wise identity is both object-based and name/namespace based. See also
DOM: element constructors
.
A hack was invented to make this work:
<button is="my-button">
. This relies on not changing name/namespace. However, this goes against the design goal of custom elements to give web developers control over the markup. And breaks down the moment you want a custom or modified shadow DOM.
To make subclassing of built-in elements work and in general improve built-in elements we need to:
Figure out built-in elements: https://github.com/domenic/html-as-custom-elements
Browsers need to change from localName -based checks to crossGlobalIsInstanceOf -based checks (while retaining performance).
This hack did allow for somewhat improved accessibility for trivial components, but that would quickly break down and not scale to anything more complex. It would also provide slightly better integration with the HTML parser. For example, extending
<template>
for
data binding
or as a way to specify
shadow trees in HTML
.
Use symbols to identify lifecycle callbacks
It has been suggested that we should use symbols rather than names ending in
Callback
to avoid collisions with libraries.
New features (v2)
Additional lifecycle callbacks
There's a proposal in various bugs to offer these lifecycle callbacks as well:
Adopting so when moving nodes across documents adjustments can be made (e.g. an <img> has its animation restarted). This callback needs to be passed the old and new document.
Cloning so cloneNode() can have similar semantics for custom elements as it does for e.g. <input> . For cloning we want the browser to create a clone (via the constructor) and copy all content attributes. Then the callback is passed the clone, a document, and the clone children flag (note that these are only needed for children not part of a tree, for elements such as <template> , children part of the tree are handled by the browser).
ARIA integration
https://lists.w3.org/Archives/Public/public-webapps/2014JulSep/0355.html
| https://wiki.whatwg.org/index.php?title=Custom_Elements&diff=9947&oldid=9946 |
Conception d'un piège de Paul microfabiqué pour le développement d'une horloge optique compacte, à ion piégé Yb+ | Request PDF
Request PDF | Conception d'un piège de Paul microfabiqué pour le développement d'une horloge optique compacte, à ion piégé Yb+ | Depuis les années 1970 et avec la contribution de Hans Dehmelt, d’immenses progrès ont été réalisés dans le domaine de la mesure du temps et des... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
Conception d'un piège de Paul microfabiqué pour le développement d'une horloge optique compacte, à ion piégé Yb+
Abstract
Depuis les années 1970 et avec la contribution de Hans Dehmelt, d’immenses progrès ont été réalisés dans le domaine de la mesure du temps et des fréquences. L’apparition, au milieu du XXe siècle des premières horloges atomiques, puis des peignes de fréquences optiques ont permis l’avènement des horloges optiques. Ce type de dispositif présente un intérêt majeur pour de nombreux domaines de la physique car il permet de fournir un signal à la fois stable et précis à des niveaux inatteignables par des moyens mécaniques ou piézoélectriques.Parmi les différents domaines d’application possibles des horloges, nombreux sont ceux qui s’intéressent également à la compacité et à la transportabilité du dispositif. Les systèmes embarqués en premier lieu sont toujours plus exigeants en termes de contraintes de volume, de consommation énergétique et de performance. D’autres applications comme la géodésie nécessitent de pouvoir emmener l’horloge sur le terrain.C’est dans ce contexte qu’a débuté le développement de l’horloge optique compacte à ion Yb+ à l’institut FEMTO-ST en 2014. L'objectif est de développer une horloge atomique d’un volume total inférieur à 500 L et capable d’atteindre des performances supérieures d’un facteur dix à celles des horloges atomiques compactes actuelles. Mes travaux ont débuté en 2016, par la mise en place du système expérimental complet, depuis les bancs optiques et les sources lasers utilisées pour créer, refroidir et manipuler les ions, jusqu’à la mise sous vide de l’enceinte expérimentale et la capture des premiers ions Yb+. Le piège actuellement utilisé est un prototype de piège surfacique en cuivre sur FR-4, conçu pour mettre rapidement le système expérimental en fonctionnement et réaliser les premiers piégeages d’ion. A ce titre il présente plusieurs défauts et mon travail par la suite s’est donc orienté vers la conception et la réalisation d’un nouveau piège, utilisant les ressources de salle blanche (centrale de technologie MIMENTO) pour réaliser un nouveau piège micro-fabriqués utilisant des techniques de MEMS (Micro Electro Mechanical Systems).
NAT PHOTONICS
Eric Oelker
C. J. Kennedy
For the past 15 years, tremendous progress within the fields of laser stabilization, optical frequency combs and atom cooling and trapping have allowed the realization of optical atomic clocks with unrivaled performances. These instruments can perform frequency comparisons with fractional uncertainties well below 10-17, finding applications in fundamental physics tests, relativistic geodesy and time and frequency metrology. Even though most optical clocks are currently laboratory setups, several proposals for using these clocks for field measurements or within an optical clock network have been published, and most of time and frequency metrology institutes have started to develop transportable optical clocks. For the purpose of this special issue, we chose to focus on trapped-ion optical clocks. Even though their short-term fractional frequency stability is impaired by a lower signal-to-noise ratio, they offer a high potential for compactness: trapped ions demand low optical powers and simple loading schemes, and can be trapped in small vacuum chambers. We review recent advances on the clock key components, including ion trap and ultra-stable optical cavity, as well as existing projects and experiments which draw the picture of what future transportable, single-ion optical clocks may resemble.
Using the Deep Space Atomic Clock for Navigation and Science
Routine use of one-way radiometric tracking for deep space navigation and radio science is not possible today because spacecraft frequency and time references that use stateof- the-art Ultra Stable Oscillators (USOs) introduce errors from their intrinsic drift and instability on timescales past 100 seconds. The Deep Space Atomic Clock (DSAC), currently under development as a NASA Technology Demonstration Mission, is an advanced prototype of a space-flight suitable, mercury-ion atomic clock that can provide an unprecedented frequency and time stability in a space-qualified clock. Indeed, ground-based results of the DSAC space demonstration unit have already achieved an Allan deviation of 2 × 10-15 at one day; space performance on this order will enable use of one-way radiometric signals for deep space navigation and radio science.
Optical Trapping of Ion Coulomb Crystals
The electronic and motional degrees of freedom of trapped ions can be controlled and coherently coupled on the level of individual quanta. Assembling complex quantum systems ion by ion while keeping this unique level of control remains a challenging task. For many applications, linear chains of ions in conventional traps are ideally suited to address this problem. However, driven motion due to the magnetic or radio-frequency electric trapping fields sometimes limits the performance in one dimension and severely affects the extension to higher dimensional systems. Here, we report on the trapping of multiple Barium ions in a single-beam optical dipole trap without radio-frequency or additional magnetic fields. We study the persistence of order in ensembles of up to six ions within the optical trap, measure their temperature and conclude that the ions form a linear chain, commonly called a one-dimensional Coulomb crystal. As a proof-of-concept demonstration, we access the collective motion and perform spectrometry of the normal modes in the optical trap. Our system provides a platform which is free of driven motion and combines advantages of optical trapping, such as state-dependent confinement and nano-scale potentials, with the desirable properties of crystals of trapped ions, such as long-range interactions featuring collective motion. Starting with small numbers of ions, it has been proposed that these properties would allow the experimental study of many-body physics and the onset of structural quantum phase transitions between one- and two-dimensional crystals.
Measuring Anomalous Heating in a Planar Ion Trap with Variable Ion-Surface Separation
Cold ions trapped in the vicinity of conductive surfaces experience heating of their oscillatory motion. Typically, the rate of this heating is orders of magnitude larger than expected from electric field fluctuations due to thermal motion of electrons in the conductors. This effect, known as anomalous heating, is not fully understood. One of the open questions is the heating rate's dependence on the ion-electrode separation. We present a direct measurement of this dependence in an ion trap of simple planar geometry. The heating rates are determined by taking images of a single $^{172}$Yb${^+}$ ion's resonance fluorescence after a variable heating time and deducing the trapped ion's temperature from measuring its average oscillation amplitude. Assuming a power law for the heating rate vs. ion-surface separation dependence, an exponent of -3.79 $\pm$ 0.12 is measured.
Generation of high-fidelity quantum control methods for multi-level systems
Quantum control methods are essential in many areas of experimental quantum physics, and they are critical for the manipulation of trapped atoms, ions and molecules and solid state systems. A broad range of quantum control methods has been developed for two-level systems, however the complexity of multi-level quantum systems make the development of analogous control methods extremely challenging. Here, we introduce a powerful technique to transform all existing two-level quantum control methods to new multi-level quantum control methods. As a practical demonstration of this technique, we develop both adiabatic and composite quantum control methods for the robust manipulation of a three-level system. We experimentally realise these methods using an $^{171}$Yb$^+$ ion system, and measure the average infidelity of the process in both cases to be around $10^{-4}$, demonstrating that this technique can be used to develop a wide range of high-fidelity multi-level quantum control methods and can, for example, be applied as part of fault-tolerant quantum computing protocols.
A compact, transportable single-ion optical clock with 7.8 × 10−17 systematic uncertainty
A transportable optical clock based on the 4s²S1/2-3d²D5/2 electric quadrupole transition at 729 nm of a single ⁴⁰Ca⁺ ion trapped in a mini Paul trap has been developed. The physical system of the ⁴⁰Ca⁺ optical clock is re-engineered from a bulky and complex setup to an integration of two subsystems: a compact single ion unit including ion trapping and detection modules, and a compact laser unit including laser sources, beam distributor and frequency reference modules. The systematic fractional uncertainty has been evaluated to be 7.8 × 10⁻¹⁷, and the Allan deviation has been rescaled to be \({2.3\times {{10}^{-14}}}/{\sqrt{\tau }}\;\) for a single clock by self-comparison with a probe pulse time of 20 ms. Apart from the electronics, the whole setup has been constructed within a volume of 0.54 m³. This size is to our knowledge currently the best achieved compactness with any type of optical clock. Moreover, this transportable clock is planned to be used for high precision measurements and it’s the first step to a space optical clock.
Why it took so long for the laser and the optical comb to be invented: The unmarked trail from concept to experimental reality [Invited]
It is interesting to try to understand the rate-limiting processes in scientific and technical research and applications. In this invited paper, I use data about the introduction of the maser, the laser, and the optical comb to see if unnecessary delays can be identified. The general result is that it all depends - on circumstances and breadth of awareness, and luck!.
Ultra-stable optical clock with two cold-atom ensembles
Atomic clocks based on optical transitions are the most stable, and therefore precise, timekeepers available. These clocks operate by alternating intervals of atomic interrogation with dead time required for quantum state preparation and readout. This non-continuous interrogation of the atom system results in the Dick effect, an aliasing of frequency noise of the laser interrogating the atomic transition. Despite recent advances in optical clock stability achieved by improving laser coherence, the Dick effect has continually limited optical clock performance. Here we implement a robust solution to overcome this limitation: a zero-dead-time optical clock based on the interleaved interrogation of two cold-atom ensembles. This clock exhibits vanishingly small Dick noise, thereby achieving an unprecedented fractional frequency instability of $6 \times 10^{-17} / \sqrt{\tau}$ for an averaging time $\tau$ in seconds. We also consider alternate dual-atom-ensemble schemes to extend laser coherence and reduce the standard quantum limit of clock stability, achieving a spectroscopy line quality factor $Q> 4 \times 10^{15}$.
Is the time right for a redefinition of the second by optical atomic clocks?
Given the dramatic rate of progress in optical atomic clocks over the last decade, this paper presents the current state of play, and considers the possibilities, implications and timescales for a potential redefinition of the SI second in terms of an optical reference transition. In particular, the question of choice of a future standard is addressed, together with the requirements to accurately compare realisations of such standards, both for clocks local to, and remote from each other. Current performances of various optical clock systems are examined and possibilities for moving beyond potential limitations by alternative strategies are outlined.
Compact Yb$^+$ optical atomic clock project: design principle and current status
| https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358973160_Conception_d%27un_piege_de_Paul_microfabique_pour_le_developpement_d%27une_horloge_optique_compacte_a_ion_piege_Yb |
2014 WI App 130
court of appeals of wisconsin
published opinion
Case No.:
2014AP619-CR
Complete Title of Case:
State of Wisconsin,
���������
Plaintiff-Respondent,
����
v.
Frank M. Zdzieblowski,
���������
Defendant-Appellant.
Opinion Filed:
November 6, 2014
Submitted on Briefs: �
Oral Argument: �
October 9, 2014
JUDGES:
Blanchard, P.J., Higginbotham and Kloppenburg, JJ.
�����������
Concurred:
�����������
Dissented:
Appellant
ATTORNEYS:
On behalf of the defendant-appellant, the cause was
submitted on the briefs of
Donald T. Lang , assistant state public defender of Madison
. �
There was oral argument by Donald T. Lang
.
Respondent
ATTORNEYS:
On behalf of the plaintiff-respondent, the cause was
submitted on the brief of
Christine A. Remington , assistant attorney general, and J.B.
Van Hollen , attorney general
. �
There was oral argument by
Christine
A. Remington
.
2014 WI App 130
COURT OF APPEALS
DECISION
DATED AND FILED
November 6, 2014
Diane M. Fremgen
Clerk of Court of Appeals
NOTICE
This opinion is subject to
further editing. �
If published, the
official version will appear in the bound volume of the Official
Reports. �
A party may file with the
Supreme Court a petition to review an adverse decision by the Court of
Appeals. � See Wis. Stat
. � 808.10 and Rule
809.62. �
Appeal No. �
2014AP619-CR Cir. Ct. No. � 2012CF139
STATE OF WISCONSIN �
IN COURT OF
APPEALS
State of Wisconsin,
���������
Plaintiff-Respondent,
����
v.
Frank M. Zdzieblowski,
���������
Defendant-Appellant.
�����������
APPEAL
from a judgment and an order of the circuit court for Portage County: � thomas
t. flugaur
, Judge. � Affirmed
. �
�����������
Before Blanchard, P.J., Higginbotham and Kloppenburg, JJ.
�
1 �������
KLOPPENBURG, J. A jury convicted Frank
Zdzieblowski of operating a vehicle with a prohibited blood alcohol
concentration as a sixth offense and felony bail jumping. �
Zdzieblowski argues on appeal, as he did
before the circuit court after trial, that he is entitled to a new trial based
on plain error or in the interest of justice, because improper questioning of
prospective jurors by the prosecutor during voir dire compromised his
constitutional right to a jury trial. �
Specifically, Zdzieblowski argues that when the prosecutor during voir
dire elicited a promise from prospective jurors that they would convict if the
State proved the elements of the charged crimes beyond a reasonable doubt, and
then reminded the jurors of that promise in his rebuttal closing argument, that
elicited promise diminished Zdzieblowski�s constitutional right to a jury trial
by eliminating the jury�s power to exercise its nullification authority. [1]
�
We conclude that in the circumstances of this
case, and consistent with Wisconsin precedent pertaining to jury nullification,
the prosecutor�s unobjected to questioning and rebuttal closing argument
neither rose to the level of plain error nor warranted a new trial in the
interest of justice. �
Therefore, we
affirm.
BACKGROUND
�
2 �������
The State charged 73-year-old Zdzieblowski with operating a
vehicle while intoxicated as a sixth offense, operating a vehicle with a
prohibited blood alcohol concentration greater than .02, and bail jumping. �
Evidence supporting these charges arose
following a valid traffic stop. �
Zdzieblowski told the officer who stopped him that he had drunk two
beers at his daughter�s home within one to two hours before the stop. �
Zdzieblowski did not display any signs of
intoxication before or during the stop. �
His blood alcohol concentration at the time of the stop was .035. �
As of the date of the stop, Zdzieblowski was
limited by law to a .02 blood alcohol concentration while driving, and was
separately subject to a bond condition requiring absolute sobriety (resulting
in the bail jumping charge). �
The case
proceeded to a jury trial on the charges of operating a vehicle with a
prohibited blood alcohol concentration and bail jumping. �
�
3 �������
This appeal turns on what took place during the prosecutor�s
questioning of prospective jurors before the trial commenced, along with his
reference to that questioning in his rebuttal closing argument. �
T he
prosecutor said the following while questioning prospective jurors:
If you are selected to serve
on this jury and you are satisfied beyond a reasonable doubt that the evidence
proves [the defendant] did consume alcohol in violation of that bond condition,
raise your hand if you would find the defendant guilty in that situation[.]
�.
... If I prove and the
evidence proves beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant drove a vehicle on
a public highway and that at that time his blood alcohol concentration was a .2
-- excuse me -- .02 or higher, if you�re satisfied beyond a reasonable doubt of
that, is there anyone who despite that would still find the defendant not
guilty?
I�m not seeing any responses.
Raise your hand if you can
promise that if you are satisfied beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant
drove with a .02 or higher, that you will find the defendant guilty. �
If you can make that promise, raise your
hand.
I�m seeing almost everyone�s
hand up.
[Juror], I didn�t see you
raise your hand.� �
I will rephrase the
question.
So there are certain elements
I need to prove for the prohibited alcohol concentration offense. �
One is that the defendant drove a vehicle on
a highway, and the second is that at that time his blood alcohol concentration
was a .02 or higher.
And so if you are selected to
sit on this jury panel and you hear the testimony and you make factual
determinations and you find beyond a reasonable doubt that both of those
elements have been proved, would you find the defendant guilty?
�����������
....
... Was there anyone else who
couldn�t raise [a] hand [in response] to that question, wasn�t able to make
that promise?
So my understanding is, if
those elements are proved, that [the defendant] drove with a blood alcohol
concentration over a .02, you can find the defendant guilty?
Thank you.
During follow-up questioning,
still during voir dire, the prosecutor asked:
I had asked the question if at the close of evidence
after you have heard the witnesses, you have seen the evidence, the
stipulations and exhibits, if you are satisfied that the evidence shows beyond
a reasonable doubt that the defendant drove a motor vehicle and that his blood
alcohol concentration was at or exceeded a .02, raise your hand if you can
promise that you would find the defendant guilty.
�.
... If it�s proved beyond a
reasonable doubt, you can say you will find the defendant guilty?
� 4 ������� During
his rebuttal closing argument, the prosecutor stated:
And I�d like to bring all of
us back to jury selection. I asked you all a question, �If the State proves
beyond a reasonable doubt and you�re satisfied with the evidence that the
defendant was at or above .02, to promise to find the defendant guilty.� �
I asked you that question.
�If the evidence satisfies
you, can you make that promise?�
�
Every
juror raised [a] hand. Every juror could make that promise.
This evidence does satisfy
beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant drove, and he had a PAC of .02 or
above. �
You should convict for those
reasons.
�
5 �������
Defense counsel did not object to the prosecutor�s questions
during voir dire or to the prosecutor�s rebuttal closing argument. �
�
6 �������
The jury convicted Zdzieblowski of operating a vehicle with a
prohibited blood alcohol concentration and bail jumping. �
�
7 �������
Zdzieblowski filed a postconviction motion for a new trial
�because his right to a trial by jury was compromised by the prosecutor�s voir
dire questioning impermissibly soliciting a promise from prospective jurors to
return a guilty verdict if hypothetical conditions were satisfied and by the
prosecutor�s subsequent closing argument invoking this promise.� �
The circuit court denied the motion after
briefing and oral argument. �
Zdzieblowski
appeals his judgment of conviction and the circuit court�s order denying his
postconviction motion.
DISCUSSION
�
8 �������
Zdzieblowski argues that the �nub� of his contention is that,
by eliciting a promise from prospective jurors to convict if all of the
elements were proven beyond a reasonable doubt, the prosecutor eroded
Zdzieblowski�s right to a trial by jury, because this caused the jury to
surrender its power to nullify from the outset of the case. �
Accordingly, Zdzieblowski requests a new
trial based on plain error or in the interest of justice. �
As explained below, we deny his request
because we conclude, based on the record, that any error involving the
questioning was harmless and that the controversy was fully tried.
Propriety of
Questions Eliciting a Promise to Convict
�
9 �������
The parties have not identified, and our research has not
revealed, any Wisconsin case that has addressed the precise issue on appeal,
namely, the propriety of questioning that asks prospective jurors to promise to
convict if the State proves the elements of the crime beyond a reasonable
doubt. �
Cases from other states that have
considered questions from prosecutors most similar to the questioning that
occurred here have found the questions to be proper. �
We summarize some of these cases, because
they illuminate the basic issues. �
�
10 �����
In Urtado v. State
, 333 S.W.3d 418 (Tex. App. 2011), the question
posed by the prosecutor during voir dire was:
Now, here's the question. �
[ Assume
that
] I have proven to you beyond a
reasonable doubt [the] elements of aggravated assault
, that the defendant
on or about a certain date in Travis County intentionally, knowingly, or
recklessly caused serious bodily injury to a victim by stabbing him with a
knife. �
The self-defense claim, it may or
may not be raised, if I prove to you beyond a reasonable doubt�because the
burden shifts back to the State. �
If I
prove to you beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant was not protecting
himself against the unlawful use of deadly force, it wasn't self-defense, will
you convict him of aggravated assault?
Id. at 426-27 (emphasis added).
� 11 ����� The
Texas appellate court called this question a �commitment question� and found it
proper because the law � requires the commitment,� in that the question merely asked the prospective jurors
whether they could follow what the law required: �
In this case, the State asked potential jurors whether
they could convict a defendant of aggravated assault if, after the State proved
all of the elements of the offense beyond a reasonable doubt, a self-defense
claim was raised and the State then proved beyond a reasonable doubt that self
defense did not apply. �
Because this
commitment is required by the law, it is permissible ....
Id. at 427.
�
12 ����� In State v. Sanchez , 785 P.2d 224, 229
(N.M. 1989), the prosecutor asked prospective jurors, without objection,
Can everyone here promise that if the state does its
job correctly, that is, provides enough evidence to base a conviction beyond a
reasonable doubt, that they will return a guilty verdict? �
Is there somebody here who can't do that? �
I need to know. �
Can everybody here make that promise? �
The New Mexico Supreme Court
held that allowing this questioning was not fundamental error, explaining that
�a
conditional
question asking
whether the jury would return a verdict in favor of the state, if the state proves its case
, is
permissible.� � Id.
(alteration in
original).
�
13 �����
In contrast, the Mississippi Supreme Court in
Stringer v. State
, 500 So. 2d 928, 938-39 (Miss. 1986), found
impermissible the prosecutor�s questions that asked potential jurors to commit
that they would not consider factors that the law �demands� jurors to consider
in deciding whether to return the death penalty. � In that case, the prosecutor asked prospective
jurors if they could not vote for the death penalty if the defendant did not
himself pull the trigger or because of sympathy for the defendant. � Id. at 938. � In closing argument, the prosecutor reminded
the jurors that they �promised� him that they would vote for the death
penalty. �
Id. � The court found that the closing argument
turned the voir dire questions into a promise, and held that the questions and
closing argument, along with �other tactics used by the prosecution during the
sentencing phase,� were improper because they asked prospective jurors to
promise to return the death penalty regardless of mitigating factors, thereby
�prevent[ing]� the jurors from considering all relevant factors. � Id. at 938-39.
�
14 �����
The principles that can be derived from this persuasive
authority are that voir dire questions that assume proof of, or demand
consideration of, only what the law requires are proper because they ask that
the jurors do no more than promise to fulfill their duty to follow the law, and
do not limit the jurors� consideration of any pertinent factors or invite them
to prejudge any particular fact. �
Under
this view, the prosecutor�s questioning in Zdzieblowski�s case was not a
violation of his right to a trial by jury. �
We are persuaded by this view. �
�
15 �����
Zdzieblowski presents three reasons to support his view that
the questioning here was not proper, even if limited to the elements of the
crime. [2]
�
First, he asserts that the questioning was
improper because it forged an improper, personal bond between the State and
each juror, consisting of the juror�s promise to the State and creating an
imbalance against Zdzieblowski, because the jury made no pledge to him. �
Second, Zdzieblowski asserts that the
questioning was improper because it bound the jurors to pre-judgment of the
case before hearing any evidence or instruction. �
Third, and most important according to
Zdzieblowski, he asserts that the questioning was improper because it
eliminated his �full right� to a trial by jury by committing jurors to forego
exercising their power to nullify, even if nullification ultimately would have
appeared to them to be the most just outcome. �
�
16 �����
Zdzieblowski correctly frames the issue to the extent that he
speaks of the jury�s power
to
nullify, not its right
to do so. � See State
v. Bjerkaas
, 163 Wis. 2d 949, 961, 472 N.W.2d 615 (Ct. App. 1991)
(��jury nullification is just a power, not also a right��) (quoted source
omitted). �
Thus, just as a jury has no
�right� to exercise its nullification power, no party has �a right
to have a jury decide a case
contrary to law or fact, much less a right to an instruction telling jurors
they may do so or to an argument urging them to nullify applicable laws.� � Id.
at 960-61 (alteration in
original). �
�
17 �����
The State responds that the questioning engaged in by the
prosecutor here, eliciting a promise to convict, �could be seen as unfair� to
the extent that the defense cannot in response tell the jury that it can acquit
even if the State meets its burden of proving the elements of the crime. �
For this reason, the State suggests that what
the prosecutor did here is a �practice to avoid.� �
But, the State asserts, the questioning did
not �rise[]to the level of being a plain error or [keep] the real controversy
from being tried, because of the facts of this case.� �
�
18 �����
We address the issues of plain error and whether the real
controversy was not fully tried in the two sections that follow. �
We conclude that, even if allowing the
prosecutor to elicit promises from prospective jurors here was error, it was
harmless, and the controversy was fully tried. �
Request for a New
Trial Based on Plain Error
�
19 �����
Under the �plain error doctrine,� recognized in Wis. Stat.
� 901.03(4), appellate
courts may review errors that were otherwise forfeited by a party�s failure to
object. � State v. Jorgensen
, 2008
WI 60, �21, 310 Wis. 2d 138, 754 N.W.2d 77. �
The doctrine applies to an �error [that] is fundamental, obvious, and
substantial,� such as ��where a basic constitutional right has not been
extended to the accused.�� � Id.
,
��21-23 (quoted source omitted). �
However, courts do not invoke the plain error doctrine where the State
shows that the error was harmless. � Id.
,
�23. �
�To determine whether an error is
harmless, this court inquires whether the State can prove beyond a reasonable
doubt that a rational jury would have found the defendant guilty absent the
error[].� � Id.
(internal quotation
marks and quoted source omitted). �
�
20 �����
The following are among the factors to consider in determining
whether an error is harmless: �
�(1) the
frequency of the error; (2) the importance of the erroneously admitted
evidence; (3) the presence or absence of evidence corroborating or
contradicting the erroneously admitted evidence; (4) whether the erroneously
admitted evidence duplicates untainted evidence; (5) the nature of the defense;
(6) the nature of the State�s case; and (7) the overall strength of the State�s
case.� �
Id.
�
21 �����
Zdzieblowski argues that the prosecutor�s questioning of
prospective jurors elicited a promise from each juror that deprived him of a
jury that was free to exercise its power of nullification, thereby violating
his right to a trial by jury, and that this violation of a basic constitutional
right is plain error. �
Zdzieblowski
further argues that this violation is not �amenable� to the harmless error rule
because once the trial proceeded, the jury was not �the jury [to] which Mr.
Zdzieblowski was entitled.� �
However,
with regard to plain error, as Zdzieblowski�s counsel conceded at oral
argument, he is aware of no case that has held that the kind of promise
questioning engaged in by the prosecutor in this case violated a defendant�s
right to a trial by jury. �
Moreover, we
are persuaded by the State�s argument that: �
(1) even if the questioning did constitute error, it was harmless
because the evidence establishing the elements of the crimes charged was
overwhelming, such that a rational jury would have found Zdzieblowski guilty
absent the error; and (2) the harmless error analysis does not include
consideration of the availability of the jury�s power of nullification. �
�
22 �����
As noted above, the harmless error analysis involves inquiring
�whether the State can prove beyond a reasonable doubt that a rational jury
would have found the defendant guilty absent the error[].� �
Jorgensen
, 310 Wis. 2d 138, �23
(internal quotation marks and quoted source omitted). �
Exercising the power of jury nullification is
not one of the factors, quoted above, which our supreme court has identified to
assist in making that assessment. � See id. �
Nor could the availability of nullification
reasonably be an additional factor; if a court were required to consider the
possibility that a jury could exercise its power of nullification, then the
State could never meet its burden of showing that a rational jury could convict
on the evidence presented at trial. �
As
the State explained at oral argument, �If the harmless error analysis included
some consideration of jury nullification,� the harmless error showing �could
never be met.� �
�
23 �����
Zdzieblowski does not dispute that a rational jury could have
convicted him on the evidence presented at trial. �
Rather, he argues that �the defense �
essentially boiled down to an implicit invitation to employ jury
nullification.� �
Under the
well-established plain error case law summarized above, together with the
equally well-established legal principle that no defendant has the right to
even make such an invitation, Bjerkaas
, 163 Wis. 2d at 960, the
harmless error analysis does not include consideration of jury
nullification. �
Accordingly, we agree
with the State that if the promise questioning by the prosecutor during voir
dire was error, it was harmless. [3]
Request for a New
Trial in the Interest of Justice
�
24 �����
Appellate courts may also reverse judgments �where
unobjected-to error results in either the real controversy not having been
fully tried or for any reason justice is miscarried.� � Vollmer v. Leuty
, 156 Wis. 2d
1, 17, 456 N.W.2d 797 (1990);
see also Wis. Stat.
�� 751.06,
752.35. �
The first category of cases arises when the real
controversy has not been fully tried. �
Under this first category, it is unnecessary for an appellate court to
first conclude that the outcome would be different on retrial. �
The second class of cases is where for any
reason the court concludes that there has been a miscarriage of justice. �
Under this second category of the statutes,
an appellate court must first make a finding of substantial probability of a
different result on retrial.
Vollmer
, 156 Wis. 2d at
19.
�
25 �����
Zdzieblowski argues that we should reverse in the interest of
justice under the first prong, because the real controversy could not be fully
tried once the jury �entered the jury room having given away its nullification
power way back at the voir dire.� �
To the
contrary, the record shows that the real controversy was fully tried. �
First, as noted above, the prosecutor�s
questioning of prospective jurors referred only to the elements of the crimes
charged, not to any hypothetical facts that might predispose a juror before any
evidence was presented. �
Second, the
trial transcript reveals that the parties fully tried those elements, namely
whether Zdzieblowski was driving with a blood alcohol concentration above .02
and whether he violated a condition of his bond requiring absolute
sobriety. �
�
26 �����
Third, the circuit court properly instructed the jury on the
elements of the crimes. �
The court also
properly instructed that the jurors were to follow the law and consider only
the evidence presented, and that remarks by counsel were not evidence:
It is your duty to follow all
of these instructions. �
Regardless of any
opinion you may have about what the law is or ought to be, you must base your
verdict on the law I give you in these instructions. �
Apply that law to the facts in the case which
have been properly proven by the evidence. �
Consider only the evidence
received during this trial and the law given to you....
....
If you are satisfied beyond a
reasonable doubt that all the elements of this offense have been proved, you
should find the defendant guilty. �
If you are not so satisfied,
you must find the defendant not guilty.
....
... You are to decide the case
solely on the evidence offered and received at trial....
....
Remarks of the attorneys are
not evidence....
....
Consider carefully the closing
arguments of the attorneys, but their arguments and conclusions and opinions
are not evidence.
The jury is presumed to have
followed the court�s instructions. � State
v. Poellinger
, 153 Wis. 2d 493, 507, 451 N.W.2d 752 (1990)
(�[O]nce the jury has been properly instructed on the principles it must apply
to find the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt, a court must assume on
appeal that the jury has abided by those instructions.�).
�
27 �����
Fourth, the transcript shows that the prosecutor�s reference to
the promise elicited during voir dire was only a brief reference during
rebuttal closing argument, and that the promise was not referred to at all in
the State�s closing argument. �
The focus
of the prosecutor�s closing and rebuttal arguments was on how the evidence
established, beyond a reasonable doubt, the elements of the crimes
charged. �
The brief reference to the
jurors� pre-trial promise to convict, should the State prove the elements of
those crimes beyond a reasonable doubt, did not prevent a full trial of the
controversy presented.
�
28 �����
In sum, we conclude that Zdzieblowski is not entitled to a new
trial in the interest of justice, because the controversy was fully tried.
�
29 �����
Before concluding, we make several observations because of the
significance of the issues raised by �promise� questioning, consistent with the
State�s position on appeal that �promise� questioning by counsel may be a
practice best avoided. �
We begin by
observing that, in posing the �promise� questions here, the prosecutor appears
to have chosen his words with care, focusing the jury exclusively on a scenario
in which the State has in fact proven the elements beyond a reasonable doubt,
without taking even one step in the direction of discussing how
the State might prove the elements
or the ways in which the defense might seek to undermine the State�s case. �
Regardless whether this was proper or not, it
is easy for us to envision variations in attempts to emulate, or expand on,
this approach that would be improper. �
Examples of such attempts include using hypothetical facts or eliciting
promises to pre-judge based on references to particular forms or modes of
proof, or based on different ways of framing legal standards. �
In other words, questions that might be
reasonably interpreted to lead prospective jurors to think that they are
committing to reaching a particular factual conclusion, or that they are cabining
their consideration of relevant factors regarding an element or defense, might
rise to the level of a violation of a defendant�s right to a jury trial. � See,
e.g.
, Stringer , 500 So. 2d at 938-39. �
� 30 �����
Timely
pre-trial motions or objections, along with the circuit court�s authority to
exercise its discretion to supervise voir dire in virtually all respects, are
available to protect against such potential violations. �
Indeed, given the chance for some forms of
�promise� questions to generate at least confusion among potential jurors, if
not possible violations of the constitutional rights of defendants, some
circuit courts might find it advisable to limit counsel in this area in advance
of any voir dire conducted by counsel. �
�
31 �����
However, we emphasize that, as explained above, given the facts
here and the arguments of the parties, we need not and do not decide the degree
to which any particular form of �promise� questioning may violate a defendant�s
right to trial, �
including what occurred
here. �
CONCLUSION
�
32 �����
For the reasons stated above, we conclude that in this case,
and consistent with Wisconsin precedent pertaining to jury nullification, the
prosecutor�s questioning of prospective jurors, eliciting a promise to convict
if the elements of the crimes charged were established beyond a reasonable
doubt, along with the prosecutor�s reference to the elicited promise in his
rebuttal closing argument, neither rose to the level of plain error nor warranted
a new trial in the interest of justice. �
Therefore, we affirm.
����������� By the Court.
�Judgment and order
affirmed.
[1]
Juries
have �the power to nullify the objectively correct application of the law,� �in
the sense that they may acquit a defendant in a criminal case on the basis of
extraneous considerations, even when the defendant may be objectively guilty in
light of the facts of the case and the court�s instructions.� � State v. Bjerkaas
, 163 Wis. 2d 949,
960, 472 N.W.2d 615 (Ct. App. 1991) (emphasis omitted).
[2]
Zdzieblowski
contends that the prosecutor�s questioning was improper for yet another reason,
because it asked prospective jurors to promise to convict if certain
hypothetical facts were established. �
For
the following reasons, we reject this separate argument.
Zdzieblowski points to Wis.
Stat.
� 805.08(1) (2011-12), which provides that in questioning prospective
jurors, �such examination shall not be repetitious or based upon hypothetical
questions,� and to statements in treatises, articles, and cases from other
states which acknowledge the impropriety of asking prospective jurors how they
would decide a case given a particular hypothetical set of facts. �
The State responds that, notwithstanding the
statute, hypothetical questions are commonly used, and perhaps even necessary,
to uncover bias. �
We do not address this dispute because the questioning
in this case did not involve hypothetical facts; rather, it referred only to
the elements of the crimes. �
The
questions asked the jurors to assume not that specific hypothetical facts were
proven, but to assume that the elements of the crimes were established. �
Thus, the �assumption� part of the
questioning was indistinguishable from asking that the prospective jurors hold
the State to its burden of proving beyond a reasonable doubt all of the
elements of the crimes.
The problem, according to Zdzieblowski, is that the
questioning went beyond holding the State to its burden of proof, by asking the
prospective jurors to promise an outcome. �
Thus, Zdzieblowski confirms that it was the securing of the promise to
convict, not the assumption that the elements of the crime were established
beyond a reasonable doubt, that made the questioning here problematic, and that
is the issue that we address in this opinion. �
All references to the Wisconsin Statutes are to the
2011-12 version unless otherwise noted.
[3]
For
a similar conclusion based on a similar analysis, see
United States v. Fambro
,
526 F.3d 836, 847-48 (5 th
Cir. 2008):
We do not approve of �commitment� questions
.... �
However there was no plain error
.... �
[W]e are unaware of any decision by
the Supreme Court or any federal appellate court that has reversed a district
court because it allowed commitment questions on voir dire in violation of the
due process clause or the Sixth Amendment. �
Moreover, there was considerable evidence from which the jury could reasonably
conclude that [the defendant was guilty]. �
We therefore cannot say that the error, if any, was plain. | https://www.wicourts.gov/ca/opinion/DisplayDocument.html?content=html&seqNo=125788 |
Canada Gazette – Order Accepting the Recommendation of the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Concerning the Two-Year Review of the List set out in the Regulations Establishing a List of Entities
March 25, 2015, Part 2, Volume 149, Number 6, Canada Gazette
Vol. 149, No. 6 — March 25, 2015
Registration
SI/2015-24 March 25, 2015
CRIMINAL CODE
Order Accepting the Recommendation of the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Concerning the Two-Year Review of the List set out in the Regulations Establishing a List of Entities
P.C. 2015-331 March 12, 2015
Whereas, on July 23, 2014, 12 years had elapsed since the establishment of a list by the Regulations Establishing a List of Entities(see footnote a)pursuant to subsection 83.05(1)(see footnote b)of the Criminal Code(see footnote c);
And whereas, pursuant to subsection 83.05(9)(see footnote d)of the Criminal Code(see footnote e), the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness has reviewed that list, as it existed on July 23, 2014, and has determined that there are still reasonable grounds to believe that each entity listed on that date has knowingly carried out, attempted to carry out, participated in or facilitated a terrorist activity or is knowingly acting on behalf of, at the direction of or in association with such an entity;
Therefore, His Excellency the Governor General in Council, on the recommendation of the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness made pursuant to subsection 83.05(9)(see footnote f)of the Criminal Code(see footnote g), accepts that each entity listed as of July 23, 2014 remain a listed entity.
EXPLANATORY NOTE
( This note is not part of the Order.)
Proposal
The title is: “ Order Accepting the Recommendation of the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Concerning the Two-Year Review of the List set out in the Regulations Establishing a List of Entities.”
Objective
The Criminal Code, pursuant to subsection 83.05(9), obliges the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness to review the list of terrorist entities as established by the Regulations Establishing a List of Entities, every two years commencing on the anniversary date of July 23, 2002, in order to determine if there are still reasonable grounds for the entities to remain listed. The Order confirms that this review has been completed, and that the Governor in Council has accepted the Minister’s recommendation.
As the list of terrorist entities was established on July 23, 2002, this two-year review commenced on the anniversary date of July 23, 2014, and encompasses the 53 entities found on the list at that time. The Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness has completed his review of the list. The review has determined that all of the entities reviewed will remain listed pursuant to subsection 83.05(1) of the Criminal Code.
The listing of entities under the Criminal Codeenhances Canada’s national security, strengthens the Government’s ability to take action against terrorists and gives effect to international obligations, including the implementation of the United Nations International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorismand United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373. In addition, the listing of an entity is a means for the Government to inform Canadians of the Government’s position with regard to a particular entity.
Background
On December 18, 2001, Bill C-36, the Anti-terrorism Act, received royal assent. The Anti-terrorism Actprovides the Government of Canada with the ability to create a list of entities. Under the Criminal Code, the Governor in Council may, on the recommendation of the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness, establish a list of entities if the Governor in Council is satisfied that there are reasonable grounds to believe that the entity has knowingly carried out, attempted to carry out, participated in or facilitated a terrorist activity; or is knowingly acting on behalf of, at the direction of or in association with an entity that has knowingly carried out, attempted to carry out, participated in or facilitated a terrorist activity.
An entity is defined in the Criminal Codeas a person, group, trust, partnership or fund or an unincorporated association or organization. A listed entity is included in the definition of terrorist group in the C riminal Codeso offences applicable to terrorist groups apply to these entities. However, unlike terrorist groups that are not listed, a prosecution related to a listed entity does not require the Crown to demonstrate that the group has, as one of its purposes or activities, facilitated or carried out a terrorist activity.
The Criminal Codeprovides for a thorough and fair mechanism for reviewing the listing of an entity. A listed entity may apply to the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness requesting that it no longer be a listed entity. In such cases, the Minister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness would determine whether there are reasonable grounds to recommend to the Governor in Council that the applicant no longer be a listed entity. The entity may have the decision reviewed by the Federal Court.
Implications
Listing a terrorist entity sets in motion requirements for reporting suspicious terrorist financing transactions and requires anyone to disclose to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) and Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) the existence of any property in his or her possession or control that he or she knows is owned or controlled by or on behalf of a terrorist group. As noted previously, the definition of a terrorist group includes a listed entity .In addition, bodies that are subject to the Proceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) and Terrorist Financing Actmust also report the information to the Financial Transactions and Reports Analysis Centre of Canada. The costs to banks, financial institutions, and individuals in meeting these requirements are not significant due in large part to the existence of electronic banking systems while there are significant benefits of the Order for the security of Canada and Canadians.
Consultation
The Privy Council Office, the Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development, the Department of Justice, RCMP and CSIS were consulted.
Departmental contact
National Security Operations DirectoratePublic Safety Canada340 Laurier Avenue WestOttawa, OntarioK1A 0P8Telephone: 613-993-4595Fax: 613-991-4669
Footnote a SOR/2002-284
Footnote b S.C. 2005, c. 10, subpar. 34(1)( f )(iii)
Footnote c R.S., c. C-46
Footnote d S.C. 2005, c. 10, s. 18(3)
Footnote e R.S., c. C-46
Footnote f S.C. 2005, c. 10, s. 18(3)
Footnote g R.S., c. C-46
| https://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p2/2015/2015-03-25/html/si-tr24-eng.html?wbdisable=false |
To Pluto and Beyond: Planetarium Show Wows Space Fans | Space
A presentation this month at New York City's Hayden Planetarium took audience members on a journey with NASA's New Horizons Pluto mission.
NASA's New Horizons spacecraft obtained this view of Pluto at a distance of about 280,000 miles (450,000 kilometers) on July 14, 2015. (Image credit: NASA)
NEW YORK — The first-ever flyby of Pluto left scientists and the public wide-eyed, and the surprises will likely keep on coming.
NASA's New Horizons spacecraft
zoomed through the Pluto system on July 14, coming within 7,800 miles (12,500 kilometers) of the dwarf planet's surface. Images captured by the probe have revealed a world with its own cryogenic geology, situated in a diverse array of moons.
At the American Museum of Natural History here, Emily Rice, an astrophysicist at the College of Staten Island, and Jackie Faherty, an astronomer with the Carnegie Institute, took an audience on a journey with New Horizons last week to highlight the science. [
New Horizons' Pluto Flyby: Complete Coverage
]
The Aug. 11 presentation was in the museum's Hayden Planetarium and used its skylike dome to immerse people in the vastness of space. The show, called "Visiting Pluto and Friends in the 21st Century," was part of the museum's "Astronomy Live" series.
Using new visualization technologies, Rice and Faherty offered views of Pluto and
its five moons
as New Horizons might have seen them and placed the dwarf planet system in relation to the sun and Earth.
Carter Emmart, who directs Astrovisualization at the museum's Rose Center for Earth and Space, Skyped in from Singapore to show off some of the technology, and to talk about how New Horizons made its way through the Pluto
system.
"I'm calling from the future," he quipped, noting the time difference. (Singapore lies on the other side of the International Date Line.)
The 3D view showed the shadows of Pluto and gave a feel for how the spacecraft was oriented, and how the craft had to move in space to get the pictures that NASA sent around the world.
Rice said the accuracy of the flyby was quite good; the probe arrived within 90 seconds of its targeted time.
"It's like hitting a hole in one on a golf course in Los Angeles from New York," she said.
New Horizons also had to navigate among Pluto's five moons — Charon, Nix, Hydra, Styx and Kerberos. Styx and Kerberos weren't discovered until 2011 and 2012, when New Horizons
was well on its way to Pluto. (The $720 million mission launched in January 2006.)
Later in the show, Rice called up an old artist's rendering of Pluto, which had been created long before New Horizons' historic flyby. [
Flying Over Pluto: Ice Mountains and 'Young' Plains (Video)
]
"We were so wrong," she said. The old picture doesn't show ice mountains, or even a surface that bears much resemblance to the one New Horizons showed.
Faherty and Rice also demonstrated how New Horizons studied
Pluto's thin atmosphere
, using a picture of Pluto "eclipsing" the sun. A hazy ring marked the edge of the dwarf planet, showing that there was some gas diffusing the light. The atmosphere contains methane-based chemicals called tholins.
"The tholins probably rain out," Faherty said, adding that they are what give Pluto its reddish-brown color.
The big highlight of the mission, though, was finding that Pluto's surface has been reworked in the recent past — it's smooth in places, and cratered lightly or not at all. This suggests that some sort of internal heat source remained active until relatively recently, and
may still be active today
, mission scientists have said.
"But we don't know what it is," Faherty said.
Many more pictures are coming from New Horizons; they'll just take a long time to transmit. Mission team members have said the complete flyby data set probably won't come down to Earth until late 2016. Emmart said the data-transmission rate is akin to that of a dial-up connection, and New Horizons is a good 3 billion miles (4.8 billion km) from Earth..
Pluto wasn't the only object that got attention during the planetarium show;
Charon
did as well. Faherty noted that Charon is "Pluto's opposite" in that it's made mostly of water ice rather than mostly rock, methane and nitrogen. She pointed out the tantalizing features that New Horizons saw, such as a large, miles-deep canyon and the dark spot near the moon's north pole, which has been dubbed Mordor.
The two scientists also mentioned the dwarf planet Ceres, which is currently being studied by NASA's orbiting Dawn spacecraft. Dawn has spotted intriguing
bright spots on Ceres' surface
that could be ice or salts of some sort; Dawn is moving down to a lower orbit to map the surface and get a better look.
Then there is the European Space Agency's Rosetta mission
, which began orbiting Comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko in August 2014 and dropped a lander named Philae onto the icy object's surface three months later.
Comet 67P harbored its own surprises. "When they [Rosetta scientists] saw it, they said, 'Oh damn, it looks like a rubber duck,'" Rice said.
Philae didn't manage to land in quite the way the mission planners hoped; it actually bounced off the comet twice and came to rest in a place where it couldn't get as much sunlight as it needed to run its instruments continually.
But Philae did gather data for more than two days on the comet's surface, and the Rosetta mothership continues to study the object from orbit. Rice showed one photo taken by Philae during its November 2014 descent, at a distance of just 30 feet (9 meters) from 67P's surface. It showed the place where scientists think the lander initially hit the surface. [
Surprising Comet Discoveries by Rosetta and Philae (Infographic)
]
Rosetta's mission will end when the lander is sent into the comet in September 2016. "I would call it crashing; Jackie would call it landing," Rice said.
Even Mercury got a place in the sun (no pun intended). NASA's MESSENGER (Mercury Surface, Space Environment, Geochemistry, and Ranging) mission, which ended in April of this year, gathered a wealth of new data about the small planet, which is smaller than the Jupiter moon Ganymede, the solar system's largest satellite.
Rice brought up an emotional moment with one of the mission specialists on MESSENGER. "I asked if he was sad that the mission was over," she said. "He said he woke up one morning and wanted to look for new images from MESSENGER, and there weren't any."
Its fuel tank empty, MESSENGER was deliberately crashed into the planet's surface on April 30.
The show ended with a journey to the Oort Cloud, a huge comet repository that lies perhaps 2 light-years from the sun. None of the objects that inhabit this distant realm have been imaged yet.
After the presentation, audience members got a chance to ask questions, some about the future of New Horizons. One person asked how long New Horizons would last. Rice noted that the probe's plutonium power source could keep it going for years yet — perhaps another decade or two. But keeping New Horizons going has less to do with science and engineering than with Earthly politics.
"It's all dependent on the funding," Rice said.
Another question was whether New Horizons has solar panels in case it might pass another star. "It would take about 100,000 years for it to get to another star," Rice said. "And it's going in the wrong direction." So the probe wasn't designed with solar panels.
New Horizons will fly by another object in the Kuiper Belt — the ring of icy bodies beyond Pluto — in 2019 if NASA approves and funds a proposed extended misison.
"Maybe other Kuiper Belt objects won't be as sexy as Pluto, but who knows?" Rice said.
Follow us @Spacedotcom , Facebook or
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Jesse Emspak is a freelance journalist who has contributed to several publications, including Space.com, Scientific American, New Scientist, Smithsonian.com and Undark. He focuses on physics and cool technologies but has been known to write about the odder stories of human health and science as it relates to culture. Jesse has a Master of Arts from the University of California, Berkeley School of Journalism, and a Bachelor of Arts from the University of Rochester. Jesse spent years covering finance and cut his teeth at local newspapers, working local politics and police beats. Jesse likes to stay active and holds a fourth degree black belt in Karate, which just means he now knows how much he has to learn and the importance of good teaching.
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\u0026lt; 0.01, ***\u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.001 (Bonferroni \u003Cem\u003Et\u003C\/em\u003E test). Data are mean \u00b1 SEM; \u003Cem\u003En\u003C\/em\u003E = 7 or 8\/group.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-26\u0022\u003ENext, we sought to determine whether ETP69 treatment differentially affects performance accuracy in the OLM task in a pre-trial versus a post-trial administration paradigm. The pre-trial versus post-trial paradigms for the OLM task allow for testing of two distinct components of memory formation. Specifically, the pre-training drug administration evaluates acquisition and recall of memory, whereas the post-training drug administration targets memory consolidation and recall. Thus, we administered the drug either 30 min before or immediately after the acquisition phase of the OLM test. We found that 10 mg\/kg (i.p.) of the drug, administered either 30 min before acquisition phase or immediately after acquisition, improved performance in the OLM task (interaction effect: \u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(2,19)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 9.81, \u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.01; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-3-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F3\u0022\u003EFig. 3\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cem\u003Eb\u003C\/em\u003E). Further \u003Cem\u003Epost hoc\u003C\/em\u003E testing showed a significant effect in both the pretrial and post-trial groups (\u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.001). This was also confirmed by one-way ANOVA (\u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(2,19)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 3.67) of the discrimination index (\u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.01 for pre-trial and \u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.05 for post trial; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-3-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F3\u0022\u003EFig. 3\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cem\u003Ec\u003C\/em\u003E) The acquisition phase of the testing showed no significant group differences (interaction: \u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(2,19)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 0.26, \u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E = 0.773; main effect of drug: \u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(2,19)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 0.01, \u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E = 0.982; main effect of object location: \u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(1,19)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 0.01, \u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E = 0.901; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-3-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F3\u0022\u003EFigure 3\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cem\u003Ea\u003C\/em\u003E).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022F3\u0022 class=\u0022fig pos-float odd\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-figure\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img-wrapper\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F3.large.jpg?width=800\u0026amp;height=600\u0026amp;carousel=1\u0022 title=\u0022a, Effect of the drug at 10 mg\/kg (i.p.) administered either 30 min before acquisition phase (pre-trial) or immediately after acquisition (post-trial) in the object location memory task in aged mice. No difference in object exploration (measured in seconds) in the acquisition phase. Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM. Pre-trial, n = 6\/group; post-trial, n = 8\/group. b, In the retention phase of the task (24 h \u0026#xB1; 30 min, after drug administration), mice treated with 10 mg\/kg of ETP69 (i.p.) explored the novel location (measured in seconds) significantly more than the familiar location. ***p \u0026lt; 0.001 (Bonferroni t test). Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM. Pre-trial, n = 6\/group; post-trial, n = 8\/group. c, Effect of ETP69 treatment on discrimination index in aged animals either 30 min before acquisition phase (pre-trial) or immediately after acquisition (post-trial). Mice treated with 10 mg\/kg of ETP69 (i.p.) showed improved discrimination index [time spent at novel object location \u0026#x2212; time spent at familiar object location]\/[total time exploring both objects \u0026#xD7; 100] compared with aged control in both conditions. *p \u0026lt; 0.05 (Bonferroni t test). **p \u0026lt; 0.01 (Bonferroni t test). Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM; n = 7 or 8\/group.\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-images-214328257\u0022 data-figure-caption=\u0022\u0026lt;div class=\u0026quot;highwire-markup\u0026quot;\u0026gt;\u0026lt;div xmlns=\u0026quot;http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0026quot;\u0026gt;\u0026lt;strong\u0026gt;\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;a\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/strong\u0026gt;, Effect of the drug at 10 mg\/kg (i.p.) administered either 30 min before acquisition phase (pre-trial) or immediately after acquisition (post-trial) in the object location memory task in aged mice. No difference in object exploration (measured in seconds) in the acquisition phase. Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM. Pre-trial, \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;n\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; = 6\/group; post-trial, \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;n\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; = 8\/group. \u0026lt;strong\u0026gt;\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;b\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/strong\u0026gt;, In the retention phase of the task (24 h \u0026#xB1; 30 min, after drug administration), mice treated with 10 mg\/kg of ETP69 (i.p.) explored the novel location (measured in seconds) significantly more than the familiar location. ***\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;p\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; \u0026lt; 0.001 (Bonferroni \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;t\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; test). Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM. Pre-trial, \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;n\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; = 6\/group; post-trial, \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;n\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; = 8\/group. \u0026lt;strong\u0026gt;\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;c\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/strong\u0026gt;, Effect of ETP69 treatment on discrimination index in aged animals either 30 min before acquisition phase (pre-trial) or immediately after acquisition (post-trial). Mice treated with 10 mg\/kg of ETP69 (i.p.) showed improved discrimination index [time spent at novel object location \u0026#x2212; time spent at familiar object location]\/[total time exploring both objects \u0026#xD7; 100] compared with aged control in both conditions. *\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;p\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; \u0026lt; 0.05 (Bonferroni \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;t\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; test). **\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;p\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; \u0026lt; 0.01 (Bonferroni \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;t\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; test). Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM; \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;n\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; = 7 or 8\/group.\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022hw-responsive-img\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 3.\u0022 src=\u0022data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\u0022 data-src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F3.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022317\u0022\/\u003E\u003Cnoscript\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 3.\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F3.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022317\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/noscript\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022highwire-figure-links inline\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-fig first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F3.large.jpg?download=true\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download\u0022 title=\u0022Download Figure 3.\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload figure\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022new-tab\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F3.large.jpg\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab\u0022 target=\u0022_blank\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EOpen in new tab\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-ppt last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/powerpoint\/592865\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload powerpoint\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022fig-label\u0022\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cp id=\u0022p-27\u0022 class=\u0022first-child\u0022\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003Ea\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, Effect of the drug at 10 mg\/kg (i.p.) administered either 30 min before acquisition phase (pre-trial) or immediately after acquisition (post-trial) in the object location memory task in aged mice. No difference in object exploration (measured in seconds) in the acquisition phase. Data are mean \u00b1 SEM. Pre-trial, \u003Cem\u003En\u003C\/em\u003E = 6\/group; post-trial, \u003Cem\u003En\u003C\/em\u003E = 8\/group. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003Eb\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, In the retention phase of the task (24 h \u00b1 30 min, after drug administration), mice treated with 10 mg\/kg of ETP69 (i.p.) explored the novel location (measured in seconds) significantly more than the familiar location. ***\u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.001 (Bonferroni \u003Cem\u003Et\u003C\/em\u003E test). Data are mean \u00b1 SEM. Pre-trial, \u003Cem\u003En\u003C\/em\u003E = 6\/group; post-trial, \u003Cem\u003En\u003C\/em\u003E = 8\/group. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003Ec\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, Effect of ETP69 treatment on discrimination index in aged animals either 30 min before acquisition phase (pre-trial) or immediately after acquisition (post-trial). Mice treated with 10 mg\/kg of ETP69 (i.p.) showed improved discrimination index [time spent at novel object location \u2212 time spent at familiar object location]\/[total time exploring both objects \u00d7 100] compared with aged control in both conditions. *\u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.05 (Bonferroni \u003Cem\u003Et\u003C\/em\u003E test). **\u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.01 (Bonferroni \u003Cem\u003Et\u003C\/em\u003E test). Data are mean \u00b1 SEM; \u003Cem\u003En\u003C\/em\u003E = 7 or 8\/group.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-28\u0022\u003ETo test the hypothesis that H3K9me3 inhibition positively impacts memory in young and aged mice, we extended the behavioral testing to young mice. Unlike in aged animals, administration of ETP69 did not improve OLM performance in young mice. The 10 mg\/kg (i.p.) of the drug, administered either 30 min before acquisition phase (pre-trial) or immediately after acquisition (post-trial), did not show any statistical differences compared with young controls (interaction effect: \u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(2,15)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 0.32, \u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E = 0.728; main effect of drug: \u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(2,15)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 2.21, \u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E = 0.143; main effect of object location: \u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(2,15)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 6.02, \u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.05; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-4-1\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F4\u0022\u003EFigure 4\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cem\u003Eb\u003C\/em\u003E). This was also confirmed by one-way ANOVA (\u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(2,17)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 0.035) of the discrimination index (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-4-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F4\u0022\u003EFig. 4\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cem\u003Ec\u003C\/em\u003E). The acquisition phase of the testing also showed significant group differences (interaction: \u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(2,15)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 0.44, \u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E = 0.652; main effect of drug: \u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(2,15)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 25.01, \u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.01) in the pre-trial versus post-trial groups, but no difference between exploration of Position 1 versus Position 2 (main effect of object location: \u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(2,15)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 1.56, \u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E = 0.229; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-4-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F4\u0022\u003EFig. 4\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cem\u003Ea\u003C\/em\u003E). This suggests that H3K9me3 manipulation may have quite different effects in the young versus aged brain.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022F4\u0022 class=\u0022fig pos-float odd\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-figure\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img-wrapper\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F4.large.jpg?width=800\u0026amp;height=600\u0026amp;carousel=1\u0022 title=\u0022a, Effect of the drug at 10 mg\/kg (i.p.) administered either 30 min before acquisition phase (pre-trial) or immediately after acquisition (post-trial) in the object location memory task in young mice. No difference in object exploration (measured in seconds) in the acquisition phase. Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM; n = 6\/group. b, In the retention phase of the task (24 h \u0026#xB1; 30 min, after drug administration), drug-treated young animals did not show a preference for novel location (measured in seconds), performing similar to the young controls. Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM; n = 6\/group. c, Effect of ETP69 treatment on discrimination index in young animals. Mice treated with 10 mg\/kg of ETP69 (i.p.) showed no improvement in discrimination index [time spent at novel object location \u0026#x2212; time spent at familiar object location]\/[total time exploring both objects \u0026#xD7; 100] compared with age-matched controls. Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM; n = 6\/group.\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-images-214328257\u0022 data-figure-caption=\u0022\u0026lt;div class=\u0026quot;highwire-markup\u0026quot;\u0026gt;\u0026lt;div xmlns=\u0026quot;http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0026quot;\u0026gt;\u0026lt;strong\u0026gt;\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;a\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/strong\u0026gt;, Effect of the drug at 10 mg\/kg (i.p.) administered either 30 min before acquisition phase (pre-trial) or immediately after acquisition (post-trial) in the object location memory task in young mice. No difference in object exploration (measured in seconds) in the acquisition phase. Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM; \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;n\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; = 6\/group. \u0026lt;strong\u0026gt;\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;b\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/strong\u0026gt;, In the retention phase of the task (24 h \u0026#xB1; 30 min, after drug administration), drug-treated young animals did not show a preference for novel location (measured in seconds), performing similar to the young controls. Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM; \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;n\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; = 6\/group. \u0026lt;strong\u0026gt;\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;c\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/strong\u0026gt;, Effect of ETP69 treatment on discrimination index in young animals. Mice treated with 10 mg\/kg of ETP69 (i.p.) showed no improvement in discrimination index [time spent at novel object location \u0026#x2212; time spent at familiar object location]\/[total time exploring both objects \u0026#xD7; 100] compared with age-matched controls. Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM; \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;n\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; = 6\/group.\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022hw-responsive-img\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 4.\u0022 src=\u0022data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\u0022 data-src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F4.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022302\u0022\/\u003E\u003Cnoscript\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 4.\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F4.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022302\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/noscript\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022highwire-figure-links inline\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-fig first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F4.large.jpg?download=true\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download\u0022 title=\u0022Download Figure 4.\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload figure\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022new-tab\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F4.large.jpg\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab\u0022 target=\u0022_blank\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EOpen in new tab\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-ppt last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/powerpoint\/592662\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload powerpoint\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022fig-label\u0022\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cp id=\u0022p-29\u0022 class=\u0022first-child\u0022\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003Ea\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, Effect of the drug at 10 mg\/kg (i.p.) administered either 30 min before acquisition phase (pre-trial) or immediately after acquisition (post-trial) in the object location memory task in young mice. No difference in object exploration (measured in seconds) in the acquisition phase. Data are mean \u00b1 SEM; \u003Cem\u003En\u003C\/em\u003E = 6\/group. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003Eb\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, In the retention phase of the task (24 h \u00b1 30 min, after drug administration), drug-treated young animals did not show a preference for novel location (measured in seconds), performing similar to the young controls. Data are mean \u00b1 SEM; \u003Cem\u003En\u003C\/em\u003E = 6\/group. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003Ec\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, Effect of ETP69 treatment on discrimination index in young animals. Mice treated with 10 mg\/kg of ETP69 (i.p.) showed no improvement in discrimination index [time spent at novel object location \u2212 time spent at familiar object location]\/[total time exploring both objects \u00d7 100] compared with age-matched controls. Data are mean \u00b1 SEM; \u003Cem\u003En\u003C\/em\u003E = 6\/group.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022sec-20\u0022 class=\u0022subsection\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3\u003EETP69 administration improves performance in the USL task in aged animals\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-30\u0022\u003ETo evaluate whether H3K9me3 is implicated in measures of spatial learning and to evaluate molecular endpoints, we conducted a second series of experiments, with the USL task being the behavioral endpoint. The USL task is a simple behavioral paradigm in which mice are allowed to freely explore a four-compartment environment for a specified period of time. Reduction in overall activity and exploration of the test arena over this time is considered a measure of learning and short-term memory. If this occurs at similar rates in the two groups, it indicates no significant differences in short-term learning and the locomotor pattern of animals during this task is highly correlated with synaptic changes in the hippocampus (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-9-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022 href=\u0022#ref-9\u0022\u003ECox et al., 2014\u003C\/a\u003E).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-31\u0022\u003EDuring the test, well-handled mice were placed in the four-compartment test box and their movements were monitored for 30 min on day 1 and then again 24 h later on day 2. We found that animals treated with ETP69 (10 mg\/kg, i.p.) showed a significant decrease in habituation\/exploration (as measured by distance traveled) 24 h after treatment but not in the first 30 min on day 1 (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-5-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F5\u0022\u003EFig. 5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cem\u003Eb\u003C\/em\u003E). One-way ANOVA revealed significant group differences (\u003Cem\u003EF\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003E(3,19)\u003C\/sub\u003E = 4.05, \u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.05), and \u003Cem\u003Epost hoc\u003C\/em\u003E testing confirmed the difference between performance on day 1 and day 2 in ETP69-treated animals (\u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.05) but not in the age-matched control group (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-fig-5-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-fig\u0022 href=\u0022#F5\u0022\u003EFig. 5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cem\u003Ec\u003C\/em\u003E). The 30 min of exploration on day 1 is sufficient to induce some long-term memory of the test arena in the mice and can be measured on day 2 of testing. We found a difference in activity levels on day 2 and interpret this as improved retention and recall in ETP69-treated animals, even when learning remains the same between groups.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022F5\u0022 class=\u0022fig pos-float odd\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-figure\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img-wrapper\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F5.large.jpg?width=800\u0026amp;height=600\u0026amp;carousel=1\u0022 title=\u0022a, The unsupervised learning test arena is a large open field divided by walls into 4 chambers, all accessible by small entrances in each dividing wall, and a black box into which mice can escape. b, Aged mice treated with ETP69 (10 mg\/kg, i.p.) showed a significant decrease in habituation\/exploration (as measured by distance traveled) on day 2 compared with day 1. Aged control mice spent equal time(s) exploring the test arena on both day 1 and day 2. Habituation was measured over 30 min, and data shown are in 5 min bins. *p \u0026lt; 0.05, significant difference between habituation\/exploration on day 1 and day 2 at the specified time points (Tukey\u0027s t test). n = 5 or 6\/group. c, Graph represents the total distance traveled over 30 min on day 1 and day 2 following administration of ETP69 (10 mg\/kg, i.p) or vehicle. *p \u0026lt; 0.05, significant decrease in total distance traveled in 30 min between day 1 and day 2 (Tukey\u0027s t test). Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM; n = 5 or 6\/group.\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-images-214328257\u0022 data-figure-caption=\u0022\u0026lt;div class=\u0026quot;highwire-markup\u0026quot;\u0026gt;\u0026lt;div xmlns=\u0026quot;http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0026quot;\u0026gt;\u0026lt;strong\u0026gt;\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;a\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/strong\u0026gt;, The unsupervised learning test arena is a large open field divided by walls into 4 chambers, all accessible by small entrances in each dividing wall, and a black box into which mice can escape. \u0026lt;strong\u0026gt;\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;b\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/strong\u0026gt;, Aged mice treated with ETP69 (10 mg\/kg, i.p.) showed a significant decrease in habituation\/exploration (as measured by distance traveled) on day 2 compared with day 1. Aged control mice spent equal time(s) exploring the test arena on both day 1 and day 2. Habituation was measured over 30 min, and data shown are in 5 min bins. *\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;p\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; \u0026lt; 0.05, significant difference between habituation\/exploration on day 1 and day 2 at the specified time points (Tukey\u0027s \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;t\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; test). \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;n\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; = 5 or 6\/group. \u0026lt;strong\u0026gt;\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;c\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/strong\u0026gt;, Graph represents the total distance traveled over 30 min on day 1 and day 2 following administration of ETP69 (10 mg\/kg, i.p) or vehicle. *\u0026lt;em\u0026gt;p\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; \u0026lt; 0.05, significant decrease in total distance traveled in 30 min between day 1 and day 2 (Tukey\u0027s \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;t\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; test). Data are mean \u0026#xB1; SEM; \u0026lt;em\u0026gt;n\u0026lt;\/em\u0026gt; = 5 or 6\/group.\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022hw-responsive-img\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 5.\u0022 src=\u0022data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\u0022 data-src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F5.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022281\u0022\/\u003E\u003Cnoscript\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 5.\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F5.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022281\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/noscript\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022highwire-figure-links inline\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-fig first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F5.large.jpg?download=true\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download\u0022 title=\u0022Download Figure 5.\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload figure\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022new-tab\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/36\/12\/3611\/F5.large.jpg\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab\u0022 target=\u0022_blank\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EOpen in new tab\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-ppt last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/powerpoint\/592790\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload powerpoint\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022fig-label\u0022\u003EFigure 5.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cp id=\u0022p-32\u0022 class=\u0022first-child\u0022\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003Ea\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, The unsupervised learning test arena is a large open field divided by walls into 4 chambers, all accessible by small entrances in each dividing wall, and a black box into which mice can escape. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003Eb\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, Aged mice treated with ETP69 (10 mg\/kg, i.p.) showed a significant decrease in habituation\/exploration (as measured by distance traveled) on day 2 compared with day 1. Aged control mice spent equal time(s) exploring the test arena on both day 1 and day 2. Habituation was measured over 30 min, and data shown are in 5 min bins. *\u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0026lt; 0.05, significant difference between habituation\/exploration on day 1 and day 2 at the specified time points (Tukey\u0027s \u003Cem\u003Et\u003C\/em\u003E test). \u003Cem\u003En\u003C\/em\u003E = 5 or 6\/group. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003Ec\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, Graph represents the total distance traveled over 30 min on day 1 and day 2 following administration of ETP69 (10 mg\/kg, i.p) or vehicle. *\u003Cem\u003Ep\u003C\/em\u003E \u0
Text\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-3-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-3\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.3\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1002\/hipo.20369\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBachevalier\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ENemanic\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ES\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2008\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EMemory for spatial location and object-place associations are differently processed by the hippocampal formation, parahippocampal areas TH\/TF and perirhinal cortex\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EHippocampus\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E18\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E64\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E80\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.1002\/hipo.20369\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E17924520\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DHippocampus%26rft.stitle%253DHippocampus%26rft.aulast%253DBachevalier%26rft.auinit1%253DJ.%26rft.volume%253D18%26rft.issue%253D1%26rft.spage%253D64%26rft.epage%253D80%26rft.atitle%253DMemory%2Bfor%2Bspatial%2Blocation%2Band%2Bobject-place%2Bassociations%2Bare%2Bdifferently%2Bprocessed%2Bby%2Bthe%2Bhippocampal%2Bformation%252C%2Bparahippocampal%2Bareas%2BTH%252FTF%2Band%2Bperirhinal%2Bcortex.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1002%252Fhipo.20369%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F17924520%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1002\/hipo.20369\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 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class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003Evan Summeren\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ERC\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EEeftens\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EEikelenboom\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EN\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBenevento\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ETachibana\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EShinkai\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EY\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKleefstra\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ET\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003Evan Bokhoven\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EH\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EVan der Zee\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ECE\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2013\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EHippocampal dysfunction in the Euchromatin histone methyltransferase 1 heterozygous knockout mouse model for Kleefstra syndrome\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EHum Mol Genet\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E22\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E852\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E866\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.1093\/hmg\/dds490\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E23175442\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DHum%2BMol%2BGenet%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1093%252Fhmg%252Fdds490%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F23175442%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/ijlink\/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6MzoiaG1nIjtzOjU6InJlc2lkIjtzOjg6IjIyLzUvODUyIjtzOjQ6ImF0b20iO3M6MjM6Ii9qbmV1cm8vMzYvMTIvMzYxMS5hdG9tIjt9czo4OiJmcmFnbWVudCI7czowOiIiO30=\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-ijlink\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-abstract\u0022\u003EAbstract\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-sep cit-reflinks-variant-name-sep\u0022\u003E\/\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-full-text\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022free-full-text\u0022\u003EFREE \u003C\/span\u003EFull Text\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-5-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-5\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.5\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1039\/C5SC01536G\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBaumann\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EDieskau\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EAP\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ELoertscher\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EBM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EWalton\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EMC\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ENam\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ES\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EXie\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHorne\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ED\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EOverman\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ELE\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2015\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003ETricyclic analogues of epidithiodioxopiperazine alkaloids with promising in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EChem Sci\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E6\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E4451\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E4457\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.1039\/C5SC01536G\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E26301062\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DChem%2BSci%26rft.volume%253D6%26rft.spage%253D4451%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1039%252FC5SC01536G%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F26301062%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1039\/C5SC01536G\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=26301062\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fjneuro%2F36%2F12%2F3611.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-6-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-6\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.6\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1073\/pnas.0912973107\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EChen\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ELY\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ERex\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ECS\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ESanaiha\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EY\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ELynch\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EG\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EGall\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ECM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2010a\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003ELearning induces neurotrophin signaling at hippocampal synapses\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EProc Natl Acad Sci U S A\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E107\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E7030\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E7035\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.1073\/pnas.0912973107\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E20356829\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DProc%2BNatl%2BAcad%2BSci%2BU%2BS%2BA%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1073%252Fpnas.0912973107%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F20356829%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles 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ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-7-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-7\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.7\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3549-10.2010\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EChen\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ELY\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ERex\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ECS\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPham\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EDT\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ELynch\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EG\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EGall\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ECM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2010b\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EBDNF signaling during learning is regionally differentiated within hippocampus\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EJ Neurosci\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E30\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E15097\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E15101\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3549-10.2010\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E21068315\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DJournal%2Bof%2BNeuroscience%26rft.stitle%253DJ.%2BNeurosci.%26rft.aulast%253DChen%26rft.auinit1%253DL.%2BY.%26rft.volume%253D30%26rft.issue%253D45%26rft.spage%253D15097%26rft.epage%253D15101%26rft.atitle%253DBDNF%2BSignaling%2Bduring%2BLearning%2BIs%2BRegionally%2BDifferentiated%2Bwithin%2BHippocampus%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1523%252FJNEUROSCI.3549-10.2010%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F21068315%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/ijlink\/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6Njoiam5ldXJvIjtzOjU6InJlc2lkIjtzOjExOiIzMC80NS8xNTA5NyI7czo0OiJhdG9tIjtzOjIzOiIvam5ldXJvLzM2LzEyLzM2MTEuYXRvbSI7fXM6ODoiZnJhZ21lbnQiO3M6MDoiIjt9\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-ijlink\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-abstract\u0022\u003EAbstract\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-sep cit-reflinks-variant-name-sep\u0022\u003E\/\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-full-text\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022free-full-text\u0022\u003EFREE \u003C\/span\u003EFull Text\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-8-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-8\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.8\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1038\/nchembio.1187\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ECherblanc\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EFL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EChapman\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EKL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBrown\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ER\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EFuchter\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EMJ\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2013\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EChaetocin is a nonspecific inhibitor of histone lysine methyltransferases\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003ENat Chem Biol\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E9\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E136\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E137\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.1038\/nchembio.1187\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E23416387\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DNat%2BChem%2BBiol%26rft.volume%253D9%26rft.spage%253D136%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1038%252Fnchembio.1187%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F23416387%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1038\/nchembio.1187\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=23416387\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fjneuro%2F36%2F12%2F3611.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-9-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-9\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.9\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4159-13.2014\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ECox\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ECD\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ERex\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ECS\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPalmer\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ELC\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBabayan\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EAH\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPham\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EDT\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ECorwin\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ESD\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ETrieu\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EBH\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EGall\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ECM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ELynch\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EG\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2014\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EA map of LTP-related synaptic changes in dorsal hippocampus following unsupervised learning\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EJ Neurosci\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E34\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E3033\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E3041\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4159-13.2014\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E24553943\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DJournal%2Bof%2BNeuroscience%26rft.stitle%253DJ.%2BNeurosci.%26rft.aulast%253DCox%26rft.auinit1%253DC.%2BD.%26rft.volume%253D34%26rft.issue%253D8%26rft.spage%253D3033%26rft.epage%253D3041%26rft.atitle%253DA%2BMap%2Bof%2BLTP-Related%2BSynaptic%2BChanges%2Bin%2BDorsal%2BHippocampus%2BFollowing%2BUnsupervised%2BLearning%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1523%252FJNEUROSCI.4159-13.2014%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F24553943%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/ijlink\/YTozOntzOjQ6InBhdGgiO3M6MTQ6Ii9sb29rdXAvaWpsaW5rIjtzOjU6InF1ZXJ5IjthOjQ6e3M6ODoibGlua1R5cGUiO3M6NDoiQUJTVCI7czoxMToiam91cm5hbENvZGUiO3M6Njoiam5ldXJvIjtzOjU6InJlc2lkIjtzOjk6IjM0LzgvMzAzMyI7czo0OiJhdG9tIjtzOjIzOiIvam5ldXJvLzM2LzEyLzM2MTEuYXRvbSI7fXM6ODoiZnJhZ21lbnQiO3M6MDoiIjt9\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-ijlink\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-abstract\u0022\u003EAbstract\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-sep cit-reflinks-variant-name-sep\u0022\u003E\/\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-full-text\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022free-full-text\u0022\u003EFREE \u003C\/span\u003EFull Text\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-10-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-10\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.10\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1016\/S0197-4580(88)80117-9\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EdeToledo-Morrell\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EGeinisman\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EY\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EMorrell\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EF\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E1988\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EAge-dependent alterations in hippocampal synaptic plasticity: relation to memory disorders\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003ENeurobiol Aging\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E9\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E581\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E590\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.1016\/S0197-4580(88)80117-9\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E3062469\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DNeurobiology%2Bof%2Baging%26rft.stitle%253DNeurobiol%2BAging%26rft.aulast%253DdeToledo-Morrell%26rft.auinit1%253DL.%26rft.volume%253D9%26rft.issue%253D5-6%26rft.spage%253D581%26rft.epage%253D590%26rft.atitle%253DAge-dependent%2Balterations%2Bin%2Bhippocampal%2Bsynaptic%2Bplasticity%253A%2Brelation%2Bto%2Bmemory%2Bdisorders.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1016%252FS0197-4580%252888%252980117-9%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F3062469%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1016\/S0197-4580(88)80117-9\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=3062469\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fjneuro%2F36%2F12%2F3611.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-11-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-11\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.11\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1037\/0735-7044.111.6.1184\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EDuva\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ECA\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EFloresco\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ESB\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EWunderlich\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EGR\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ELao\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ETL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPinel\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJP\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPhillips\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EAG\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E1997\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EDisruption of spatial but not object-recognition memory b
ethylation changes in the aged hippocampus and restores age-related memory deficits\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EBiology (Basel)\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E4\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E298\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E313\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.3390\/biology4020298\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E25836028\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DBiology%2B%2528Basel%2529%26rft.volume%253D4%26rft.spage%253D298%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.3390%252Fbiology4020298%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F25836028%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.3390\/biology4020298\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=25836028\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fjneuro%2F36%2F12%2F3611.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-26-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-26\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.26\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EOverman\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ELE\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EBaumann\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ENam\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ES\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHorne\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ED\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EJove\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ER\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EXie\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKwolik\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EC\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2014\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EPreparation of epipolythiodioxopiperazine ETP derivatives for treatment of cancer\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EPCT Int App\u003C\/abbr\u003E, \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-comment\u0022\u003EWO2014066435, A1\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-27-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-27\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.27\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1038\/nrc3653\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPark\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EH\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPoo\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EMM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2013\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003ENeurotrophin regulation of neural circuit development and function\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003ENat Rev Neurosci\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E14\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E7\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E23\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.1038\/nrc3653\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E23254191\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DNat%2BRev%2BNeurosci%26rft.volume%253D14%26rft.spage%253D7%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1038%252Fnrc3653%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F23254191%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1038\/nrc3653\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=23254191\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fjneuro%2F36%2F12%2F3611.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-28-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-28\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.28\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1126\/science.1102026\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPark\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan 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class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2004\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003ERecycling endosomes supply AMPA receptors for LTP\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EScience\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E305\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E1972\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E1975\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.1126\/science.1102026\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E15448273\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DScience%26rft.stitle%253DScience%26rft.aulast%253DPark%26rft.auinit1%253DM.%26rft.volume%253D305%26rft.issue%253D5692%26rft.spage%253D1972%26rft.epage%253D1975%26rft.atitle%253DRecycling%2BEndosomes%2BSupply%2BAMPA%2BReceptors%2Bfor%2BLTP%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1126%252Fscience.1102026%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F15448273%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca 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in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-29\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.29\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1073\/pnas.1514486112\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EPrieto\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EGA\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E
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class=\u0022cit-reflinks-abstract\u0022\u003EAbstract\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-sep cit-reflinks-variant-name-sep\u0022\u003E\/\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-reflinks-full-text\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022free-full-text\u0022\u003EFREE \u003C\/span\u003EFull Text\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-42-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-42\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.42\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1002\/dneu.20765\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EYoshii\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EA\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EConstantine-Paton\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2010\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EPostsynaptic BDNF-TrkB signaling in synapse maturation, plasticity, and disease\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EDev Neurobiol\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E70\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E304\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E322\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.1002\/dneu.20765\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E20186705\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022{openurl}?query=rft.stitle%253DDev%2BNeurobiol%26rft.aulast%253DYoshii%26rft.auinit1%253DA.%26rft.volume%253D70%26rft.issue%253D5%26rft.spage%253D304%26rft.epage%253D322%26rft.atitle%253DPostsynaptic%2BBDNF-TrkB%2Bsignaling%2Bin%2Bsynapse%2Bmaturation%252C%2Bplasticity%252C%2Band%2Bdisease.%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1002%252Fdneu.20765%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Apmid%252F20186705%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-openurl cit-ref-sprinkles-open-url\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EOpenUrl\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=10.1002\/dneu.20765\u0026amp;link_type=DOI\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-doi cit-ref-sprinkles-crossref\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003ECrossRef\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/lookup\/external-ref?access_num=20186705\u0026amp;link_type=MED\u0026amp;atom=%2Fjneuro%2F36%2F12%2F3611.atom\u0022 class=\u0022cit-ref-sprinkles cit-ref-sprinkles-medline\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EPubMed\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022ref-label ref-label-empty\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Ca class=\u0022rev-xref-ref\u0022 href=\u0022#xref-ref-43-1\u0022 title=\u0022View reference in text\u0022 id=\u0022ref-43\u0022\u003E\u21b5\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit ref-cit ref-journal\u0022 id=\u0022cit-36.12.3611.43\u0022 data-doi=\u002210.1016\/j.mcn.2015.02.011\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-metadata\u0022\u003E\u003Col class=\u0022cit-auth-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EZhang\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EL\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EHsu\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EFC\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EMojsilovic-Petrovic\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EJablonski\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EAM\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EZhai\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EJ\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003ECoulter\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003EDA\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E, \u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-auth\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-surname\u0022\u003EKalb\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-name-given-names\u0022\u003ERG\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ol\u003E\u003Ccite\u003E (\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-date\u0022\u003E2015a\u003C\/span\u003E) \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-article-title\u0022\u003EStructure-function analysis of SAP97, a modular scaffolding protein that drives dendrite growth\u003C\/span\u003E. \u003Cabbr class=\u0022cit-jnl-abbrev\u0022\u003EMol Cell Neurosci\u003C\/abbr\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-vol\u0022\u003E65\u003C\/span\u003E:\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-fpage\u0022\u003E31\u003C\/span\u003E\u2013\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-lpage\u0022\u003E44\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-doi-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-doi\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-doi\u0022\u003Edoi:\u003C\/span\u003E10.1016\/j.mcn.2015.02.011\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-sep cit-pub-id-pmid-sep\u0022\u003E, \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id cit-pub-id-pmid\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022cit-pub-id-scheme-pmid\u0022\u003Epmid:\u003C\/span\u003E25701814\u003C\/span\u003E.\u003C\/cite\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022cit-extra\u0022\u003E\u003Ca 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Radioimmunotherapy of Nude Mice Bearing a Human Interleukin 2 Receptor α-expressing Lymphoma Utilizing the α-emitting Radionuclide-conjugated Monoclonal Antibody 212Bi-anti-Tac | Cancer Research | American Association for Cancer Research
Radioimmunotherapy of Nude Mice Bearing a Human Interleukin 2 Receptor α-expressing Lymphoma Utilizing the α-emitting Radionuclide-conjugated Monoclonal Antibody 212 Bi-anti-Tac
Abstract
The efficacy, specificity, and toxicity of bismuth ( 212Bi) α particle-mediated radioimmunotherapy was evaluated in nude mice bearing a murine lymphoma transfected with the human CD25[human Tac; interleukin 2 receptor α (IL-2Rα)] gene. The therapeutic agent used was the tumor-specific humanized monoclonal antibody anti-Tac conjugated to 212Bi.
The human IL-2Rα-expressing cell line was produced by transfecting the gene encoding human Tac into the murine plasmacytoma cell line SP2/0. The resulting cell line, SP2/Tac, expressed approximately 18,000 human IL-2Rα molecules/cell. Following s.c. or i.p. injection of 2 × 10 6SP2/Tac cells into nude mice, rapidly growing tumors developed in all animals after a mean of 10 and 13 days, respectively. The bifunctional chelate cyclohexyldiethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid was used to couple 212Bi to the humanized anti-Tac monoclonal antibody. This immunoconjugate was shown to be stable in vivo. Specifically, in pharmacokinetic studies in nude mice, the blood clearance patterns of i.v. administered 205/206Bi-anti-Tac and coinjected 125I-anti-Tac were comparable. The toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of 212Bi-anti-Tac were evaluated in nude mouse ascites or solid tumor models wherein SP2/Tac cells were administered either i.p. or s.c., respectively. The i.p. administration of 212Bi-anti-Tac, 3 days following i.p. tumor inoculation, led to a dose-dependent, significant prolongation of tumor-free survival. Doses of 150 or 200 µCi prevented tumor occurrence in 75% (95% confidence interval, 41–93%) of the animals. In the second model, i.v. treatment with 212Bi-anti-Tac 3 days following s.c. tumor inoculation also resulted in a prolongation of the period before tumor development. However, prevention of tumor occurrence decreased to 30% (95% confidence interval, 11–60%). In both the i.p. and s.c. tumor trials, 212Bi-anti-Tac was significantly more effective for i.p. ( P2 = 0.0128 50/100 µCi 212Bi-anti-Tac versus50/100 µCi Mikβ; P2 = 0.0142 150/200 µCi anti-Tac versus150/200 µCi Mikβ) and for s.c. tumors ( P2 = 0.0018 100 µCi anti-Tac versus100 µCi Mikβ; P2 = 0.0042 200 µCi anti-Tac versus200 µCi Mikβ1) than the control antibody Mikβ1 coupled to 212Bi at comparable dose levels. In contrast to the efficacy observed in the adjuvant setting, therapy of large, established s.c. SP-2/Tac-expressing tumors with i.v. administered 212Bi-anti-Tac (at doses up to 200 µCi/animal) failed to induce tumor regression. Pharmacokinetic and tissue distribution studies of radiolabeled anti-Tac in this particular therapeutic situation provided an explanation for this observation. Only 5–6% of the injected dose of radiolabeled antibody was present per g of tumor at 2 h following injection at a time when 75% of the administered 212Bi radioactivity had decayed. Furthermore, at this time point, there was no greater uptake of Bi-anti-Tac into Tac-expressing tumors than was observed with Tac-nonexpressing variants of SP2/0. Finally, the specific antibody 205/206Bi-anti-Tac was not enriched in the tumor when compared to the irrelevant monoclonal antibody 205/206Bi- Mikβ1. Although specific enrichment of radiolabeled Bi-anti-Tac was not seen at 2 h, such enrichment in the tumor was observed at 5 and 24 h postinjection with up to 15.6% injected dose present per g of tumor. The dose-limiting acute toxicity following i.v. administration of 212Bi-anti-Tac was bone marrow suppression, which was observed at doses above 200 µCi.
In summary, 212Bi-anti-Tac as a complete antibody may be of only limited value in the therapy of bulky solid tumors due to the short physical half-life of 212Bi and the time required to achieve a useful tumor:normal tissue ratio of the radionuclide following administration of the radiolabeled antibody. However, this radionuclide may be useful in select situations such as adjuvant or intracavitary therapy, strategies that target the vascular endothelial cells of tumors, or in the treatment of leukemias.
| https://aacrjournals.org/cancerres/article/54/16/4362/500385/Radioimmunotherapy-of-Nude-Mice-Bearing-a-Human?searchresult=1 |
People v. Allen, 368 Ill. 368 (1937) | Caselaw Access Project
Full text of People v. Allen, 368 Ill. 368 (1937) from the Caselaw Access Project.
People v. Allen, 368 Ill. 368 (1937)
Oct. 22, 1937 · Illinois Supreme Court · No. 24057
368 Ill. 368
Case outline
majority — mr. justice wilson
dissent — mr. justice shaw
People v. Allen, 368 Ill. 368 (1937)
Oct. 22, 1937 · Illinois Supreme Court · No. 24057
368 Ill. 368
The People of the State of Illinois, Defendant in Error, vs. John C. Allen, Plaintiff in Error
(No. 24057.
The People of the State of Illinois, Defendant in Error, vs. John C. Allen, Plaintiff in Error.
Opinion filed October 22, 1937
— Rehearing denied April 20, 1938.
*369Stone and Shaw, JJ., dissenting.
Hopkins, Starr & Godman, (James A. Sprowl, Charles M. McDonnell, William R. Emery, and George E. McMurray, of counsel,) for plaintiff in error.
Otto Kerner, Attorney General, Thomas J. Courtney, State’s Attorney, and A. B. Dennis, (Edward E. Wilson, John T. Gallagher, Melvin S. Rembe, and Blair Varnes, of counsel,) for the People.
*370Mr. Justice Wilson
delivered the opinion of the court:
The defendant, John C. Allen, was indicted in the criminal court of Cook county for the involuntary manslaughter of Charles B. Klafter with an automobile. A jury found him guilty. Following denials of motions for a new trial, in arrest of judgment and for probation, the defendant was sentenced to imprisonment in the penitentiary for an indeterminate period of from one to fourteen years. He prosecutes this writ of error.
On the evening of Saturday, February 16, 1935, at about 9:15, defendant was driving his automobile, a 1933 Ford V-8 sedan, north on Dearborn street, in Chicago. Accompanying him was Betty Spence, an unemployed waitress whom he had met at the home of mutual friends where they were both dinner guests. Before dinner defendant and the young woman had two small highballs mixed by their host. They departed about 9 :oo P. M. and at her request defendant drove to the "Loop” but did not stop, and proceeded north on Dearborn street. His automobile appears to have been in good mechanical condition and equipped with efficient brakes which he said he applied on the way down town to demonstrate their effectiveness. Approaching the intersection of Dearborn and Erie streets defendant’s car was preceded by another automobile, a Chrysler coupe, traveling in the same direction, ahead of and immediately to the right. Homer Anderson was driving this car, and his wife, Betty Anderson, was with him. As these two cars approached the south cross-walk of Dear-born and Erie streets three men, Ray Duran, Charles B. Klafter and Hollis Mather were walking abreast across Dearborn street from east to west. Anderson slowed his car down when he saw them. The men passed his car into the path of defendant’s automobile, and all three were struck by it. Their bodies were carried north by defendant’s car, one man being found a little north of the middle of the intersection, the second at the north cross-walk, and the*371third, eight or ten feet farther north. Duran and Klafter died as the result of the collision and Mather sustained serious injuries. After the crash defendant’s car swerved slightly. He did not stop his automobile, but continued north for three blocks to Chicago avenue, and turned east on that street. Anderson pursued defendant’s car to the point where it was brought to a stop on Chicago avenue between Dearborn street and State street, the next north and south street. Mrs. Anderson summoned the police, who, upon arrival fifteen to twenty minutes later, placed defendant under arrest.
At the point where the collision occurred Dearborn street is a wide thoroughfare sixty feet wide from curb line to curb line. Erie street, the intersecting' east and west street, is forty feet wide. A distinctive black line ran through the center of Dearborn street dividing the north and south lanes of traffic. The street was adequately lighted and on the night of , February 16, 1935, dry and in good condition. Cars parked along both the east and west curbs of Dear-born street partly obstructed the view,
Mather resided on Erie street near the scene of the accident. He testified that, after hesitating at the southeast corner of Dearborn and Erie streets, he and his friends proceeded across Dearborn street from east to west about five feet south of the curb line of Erie street, he, the witness, being in the middle, Duran to his left and Klafter to his right; that they were engaged in conversation as they hurried across the street, almost on a run; that he noticed no traffic from the north, but saw a coupe coming slowly about one hundred feet to the south; that after passing the center line of the street he saw a second car pull out from behind the coupe, advancing at a terrific rate of speed; that when he first saw defendant’s car it was seventy-five or eighty feet away, and at least five feet west of the center line of Dearborn street; that he and his companions were then directly in front of the second*372car; that he stopped, put out his hand and touched Duran, who jumped toward the west curb; that when defendant’s car struck Duran, the latter was only two feet from the west curb of Dearborn street; that he, himself, was hit instantly and did not know what happened afterwards; that at the time Duran jumped, and when the car struck him (Mather) he was about eight feet from the west curb line of Dearborn street. According to the witness the left portion of the defendant’s automobile struck Duran and the right side struck him — the car coming between them.
From Anderson’s testimony it appears that just prior to the accident he was traveling at a speed of about thirty-five or forty miles per hour; that thirty or forty feet south of the intersection he observed Mather, Klafter and Duran, practically at the center of Dearborn street, walking at an ordinary gait; that a roar described as a “swish” or “swush” attracted his attention as defendant’s car shot by him and crashed into the three men who were then five to eight feet west of the center line of Dearborn street; that judging by the “terrible roar” and the way defendant’s car rushed by it must have been going at least sixty miles an hour; that the left-hand side of his own (Anderson’s) car was three or four feet east of the center line and at the moment of impact, according to his estimate, from twenty to thirty feet south of the building line on the south side of Erie street; that although he promptly shifted into second gear to accelerate his speed and started sounding his horn as he continued north in pursuit of defendant’s car the latter outdistanced him; that at Chicago avenue defendant swerved through a red traffic light to the right, but that he followed through and forced defendant to a stop at an alley around the corner. Anderson added that defendant, in answer to his query as to why he had driven on from the scene of the accident, replied that he was looking for a place to park; that defendant’s companion said, “Go on, drive on, pay no attention to this punk;” that defendant made no*373move and said nothing further; that the horn of defendant’s car was continually sounding, and that he, the witness, pulled the wire on the horn to silence it.
Betty Anderson corroborated her husband’s testimony. In particular, she said the pedestrians, when struck, were just a little to the west of the center of the street, and that she and her husband were in the second lane of north bound traffic as cars were parked in the first lane. Mrs. Anderson testified that after the collision the first man was approximately in the middle of the street intersection, and that one of the others was a little east of the center of Dearborn street.
Charles W. Hardy, a former neighbor of Mather’s, together with his wife and sister-in-law, was walking north on the east side of Dearborn street between Kinzie and Illinois streets, four and one-half blocks south of the corner of Dearborn and Erie streets, at about 9:15 on the night of the accident. According to Hardy’s testimony it appears that a continuous stream of traffic was driving north; that he noticed a mud-spattered Ford sedan, without a tail light, headed north in the middle of the street at the rate of between fifty and fifty-five miles an hour; that after proceeding about one-half block he heard the impact and hurried to the scene of the collision where he saw the bodies of the men struck by defendant’s automobile. Hardy placed the bodies in about the center of Dearborn street, the first in the middle of the thoroughfare about forty feet north of the south curb line of Erie street; the second about forty-eight feet from, the south curb line, or six or eight feet north of the first, both of these first two bodies being a little to the west of the center line of Dearborn street, and the third about fifty-two feet from the south curb line, and farther to the east, and that two bodies were nineteen, and one twenty-one, feet east of the west curb, respectively. The witness testified further that he later saw the same mud-spattered car, identified as defendant’s automobile, at the Chicago avenue police station.
*374Irving O. Lintner, a funeral director, testified that he was driving east on Chicago avenue at the time of the crash; that the “go”lights were on for east and west traffic and that as he approached the intersection of Chicago avenue and Dearborn street there was an automobile coming north on Dearborn street with a horn blowing; that he had to turn south to avert a collision with defendant’s car; that both defendant’s and Anderson’s cars went through the red light on Dearborn street. On cross-examination he added that defendant’s car was traveling twenty-five or thirty miles an hour. Lintner placed the bodies in approximately the same position as Hardy.
The defendant, a manufacturer of automobile accessories, came to Chicago from Mississippi in 1931. At the time of the trial he was forty-six years of age and unmarried. He testified that just before the collision he was driving at a speed of about twenty-five or thirty miles per hour; that the car in front of him to his right was traveling at about the same speed, although he, defendant, might have been driving a fraction faster than the other car; that both cars were in the north bound lanes of traffic; that at Erie street he saw no pedestrians, could see no cars coming from the west and had started across the intersection when suddenly the car ahead slowed, practically stopped, and, without warning, three men jumped directly in front of his automobile “as though they might have come up from the ground.” Defendant stated that when he first saw them they were about ten feet from him, and that he struck them instantly before he could apply his brakes. At no time, defendant asserted, did he drive in the south bound traffic lane west of the center line of Dearborn street. He maintained that his left wheels were possibly two feet east of the center. To explain his failure to stop the car, defendant testified further that he was shocked and stunned at the time of the crash, and did not know what happened thereafter, until he reached Chicago avenue; that he pulled*375around the corner and stopped his car, shut off the motor and turned out the lights; that he got out to stop the blowing of one of the horns; that afterwards a man appeared in the middle of the street car tracks and informed him he had struck someone; that he then got back in his car, unable to speak about it.
Betty Spence, at the time of the trial, was absent from the jurisdiction of the court. Her statement made at the coroner’s inquest was read to the jury. She asserted that defendant’s car never crossed the center line of Dearborn street. The statement discloses that she noticed the three men when they were standing at the south cross-walk just off the east curb of Dearborn street; that defendant was then approximately thirty feet, or farther, south of this walk; that at the time of the accident she knew defendant was driving thirty-two miles per hour because she had happened to look at the speedometer several times; that she looked back after the impact and saw three bodies, but did not, however, observe Anderson’s car in pursuit; that after the collision defendant moderated his speed to eighteen or twenty miles per hour, and just “crept along” to Chicago avenue. She testified further that the crash occurred so suddenly she did not remember just what was said by defendant and herself, although she did ask him why he did not stop, but that he did not reply. At Chicago avenue, she continued, defendant said something about stopping at the first parking place. According to her statement there was no available parking space on the east side of Dear-born street from Erie street to Chicago avenue. She denied that defendant went through a red light on Chicago avenue.
Anthony King, a witness for defendant, was driving north in the vicinity of Dearborn and Erie streets when the crash occurred. He was not, however, an occurrence witness. He testified that the three bodies were directly in a row down the center of Dearborn street, the first a little*376north of the center of Dearborn and Erie streets, the second body on the center line of Dearborn street at the north cross-walk, and the third, eight or ten feet farther north.
Earl Mudd, service manager for a Ford dealer, checked defendant’s car at the latter’s request, and found the left lens broken and the light bent, the radiator grill caved in, one headlight bent and broken, the hood smashed on top, and the left fender dented. The car had two horns.
Three witnesses, a lawyer who had represented defendant in other matters, a former United States senator from Mississippi, and an automobile dealer, testified to his good reputation as a law-abiding citizen.
Prior to the trial defendant filed a petition for discharge. The petition alleged that he had been previously discharged by the court under an indictment charging him with the involuntary manslaughter of Ray Duran; that the earlier indictment was returned during the May, 1935, term of the criminal court; that on August 14, 1935, the indictment was stricken on motion of the State’s attorney, with leave to re-instate; that he, defendant, demanded trial in that cause in writing on August 15, 1935, again on September 17, October 18, and November 29, 1935, and that on May 7, 1936, he was discharged by the court from said cause; that the matters in the two causes of action against him arose out of the same set of facts and out of the same collision; that, in particular, the same act or cause of injury affected both Duran and Klafter, and, in consequence, that his discharge on May 7, 1936, growing out of the same act or cause of injury as that charged in the present indictment for the manslaughter of Klafter, placed him in jeopardy. The petition for discharge for double jeopardy was overruled. This ruling, defendant strenuously insists, was erroneous. The petition for discharge was overruled strictly as a matter of law. No issue of fact was made with respect to the allegations of defendant’s petition and no evidence was heard with respect thereto. The propriety*377of the disposition of the legal question presented was properly preserved for review. The order to strike, with leave to re-instate, implied that the cause was still subject to the action of the trial court. (Peoplev. Kidd,357 Ill. 133.) That court, in the Duran case,had jurisdiction of the defendant, Allen, and of the subject matter. The order of discharge cannot, therefore, be collaterally attacked by the People in this case.
It may be conceded, as defendant contends, that a discharge under section 18 of division 13 of the Criminal Code, (Smith-Hurd Stat. 1935, p. 1237,) because not tried within four months after written demand, renders an accused immune from trial for “the same offense” whether under the same or a new indictment. (Nagelv. People,229 Ill. 598; Peoplev. Heider,225 id. 347; Newlinv. People,221 id. 166; Brooksv. People,88 id. 327.) In Newlinv. People, supra,this court expressly held that where a defendant, indicted and committed for crime, is entitled, under the statute, to a discharge for delay in not bringing him to trial while being held under the indictment, the fact that a second indictment is found for the same offense and a nolle prosequientered as to the first indictment, does not defeat his right to be discharged. Again, in Peoplev. Heider, supra,the court held that an accused, committed for crime, who has obtained his discharge owing to the failure of the People to bring his case to trial within the time prescribed by the statute enacted to carry into effect the constitutional guaranty of the right to a speedy trial, cannot be committed or held for the same offense under a new indictment. In short, defendant’s discharge on May 7, 1936, necessarily rendered him immune from trial under the same or a new indictment charging him with the involuntary manslaughter of Ray Duran. The discharge was a bar to another trial on the first charge. It does not follow, however, that the discharge prevented the People from returning another indictment charging defendant with*378the involuntary manslaughter of Charles Klafter, a different person from Ray Duran. The determination of that issue requires preliminary consideration.
Defendant earnestly contends that the indictment for the manslaughter of Klafter was for the same offense as the prior indictment for the manslaughter of Duran. This contention rests upon - the premise that where a person so operates a motor vehicle as to strike and injure several persons at the same time his act constitutes but a single offense, if any, although two or more of the persons struck die as a result of the injuries received.
Decided cases in which pleas of former jeopardy have been considered fall into three principal classes: (1) Where there are different degrees of the same offense and the defendant has been acquitted or convicted of a charge involving one of those degrees. In such case the plea will be sustained. (Peoplev. Fox,269 Ill. 300.) This class comes under the doctrine of carving— i. e.,the taking of one out of the other. (2) Where the commission of larceny consists of the felonious act and different kinds or articles of property or articles of different owners are stolen there is but a single larceny, (Peoplev. Israel,269 Ill. 284; Peoplev. Perrello,350 id. 231,) and (3) where a single felonious act results in the commission of two or more crimes not embraced in different degrees of the same offense. This case falls within the third class. There was but a single physical act — the collision — from which two persons met their deaths.
Our constitution commands that no person shall be twice put in jeopardy for the same offense. A distinction obtains between an offense and the unlawful act out of which it arises. The act is the cause of the offense which, conversely, is the result of the act. The constitutional inhibition is directed to the identity of the offense and not to the act. (Statev. Billotto,104 Ohio St. 13.) This is the basis of the holding in Peoplev. Israel, supra.In that*379case junk belonging to different owners was stolen from the same building at the same time. Similarily, in Peoplev. Perrello, supra,several individuals were robbed at the same time in a hold-up of a social gathering. In each of those cases this court held that the whole transaction constituted but one offense and could be prosecuted as such. Several physical acts may constitute one crime or offense. On the other hand, two or more distinct offenses may grow out of the same transaction or act, and the rule that a person cannot be twice put in jeopardy for the same offense has no application where two separate and distinct crimes are committed by one and the same act. (Peoplev. Fox, supra; Spearsv. People,220 Ill. 72; Wharton on Crim. Evidence, (10th ed.) sec. 578; 3 Greenleaf on Evidence, (15th ed.) sec. 36.) In the Fox casean acquittal on a former charge of arson was held no bar to a prosecution for simultaneously burning the contents of the building to defraud an insurance company. In Peoplev. Bain,358 Ill. 177, a prosecution for receiving deposits in an insolvent bank was held not to be barred by a former acquittal on a charge of conspiracy to receive those deposits. Where the night watchman of a building was killed during the commission of a burglary, the acquittal of defendant on a charge of murder was not a bar to a subsequent prosecution for the burglary. Peoplev. Andrae,305 Ill. 530.
When a former acquittal or conviction is pleaded in bar of a subsequent prosecution, the test is whether the facts charged in the latter indictment would, if found to be true, have justified a conviction under the earlier indictment. If they do, then the judgment on the earlier indictment is a complete bar to a prosecution under the later indictment, otherwise not. (Peoplev. Bain, supra; Peoplev. Greenspawn,346 Ill. 484; Peoplev. Mendelson,264 id. 453; Campbellv. People,109 id. 565; Durhamv. People, 4Scam. 172.) The same principle is expressed in Wharton*380on Criminal Law, (6th ed.) sec. 565; Statev. Billotto, supra,and Statev. Corbett,117 S. C. 356.
Applying these principles to the facts in this case, the question presented is: Could a jury in the former case, which charged the manslaughter of Ray Duran, have returned a verdict for the manslaughter of Charles Klafter? In indictments for offenses against persons or property the name of the person injured must be stated, if known. The necessity for stating the name of the person injured is to enable the defendant to plead either a former acquittal or conviction in case of a second prosecution for the same offense. (Peoplev. Clavey,355 Ill. 358; Peoplev. Smith,341 id. 649; Aldrichv. People,225 id. 610; Willisv. People,1 Scam. 399.) An accused cannot be tried for the manslaughter of any other person than the one charged by the indictment upon which he is then being tried. The substance of one crime cannot be proved by proving the substance of another. (Statev. Billotto, supra.) Aconviction or acquittal under one charge is a bar to a prosecution for another crime growing out of the same act only where the offense for which the accused was tried and acquitted or convicted is but one of the degrees of the same offense for which it is later attempted to put him on trial. (Peoplev. Fox, supra.)In order for one prosecution to be a bar to another it is not sufficient to show that the act is the same, but it must be shown that the offense, also, is the same in law and in fact. Peoplev. Fox, supra; Peoplev. Mendelson, supra; Nagelv. People, supra.
We recognize the conflict among decisions in other jurisdictions. Some of them are opposed to the views expressed by this court. Many of them are based upon provisions of local laws. Some of them have, in effect, been nullified by later decisions of the same tribunals, and others have been criticised by adverse holdings in other jurisdictions.
Defendant places reliance upon a number of cases which will be reviewed. In Statev. Cosgrove,103 N. J. L. 412,*381a motorist accidentally struck two persons with his car, killing one and injuring the other. He was charged with manslaughter and assault and battery. It was held that the act of the accused constituted only a single offense. The Cosgrove caseis based on the earlier case of Statev. Cooper,13 N. J. L. 361. In the Cooper casea plea of autrefois convictwas sustained to an indictment for murder, the defendant having been previously convicted of arson, resulting in the death of the person for whose murder he was indicted. That holding is contrary to the decision of this court in Peoplev. Andrae, supra.In Peoplev. Fox, supra,our court pointed out that the decision in the Cooper caserested on a statute of New Jersey making the crime of arson murder where a person was killed in the fire, the murder being, under the statute, only a higher degree of the same offense. This places the Cooper casein the first class of cases previously enumerated. The Cosgrove case,being based on the Cooper case,is not persuasive.
Statev. Wheelock,216 Iowa, 1428, a case involving the manslaughter of three persons by an automobile; Peoplev. Barr,259 N. Y. 104, involving a prosecution for manslaughter of ten persons in a fire, by negligence in failing to install sprinklers; Woodfordv. People,62 N. Y. 117, where an indictment charged the burning of thirty-five buildings by setting fire to one of them;and Smithv. State,159 Tenn. 674, under facts similar to Statev. Cosgrove, supra,tend to support defendant’s theory, but they are contrary to the established policy of the law in Illinois, repeatedly announced by this court.
In Commonwealthv. Veley,63 Pa. Sup. Ct. 489, three people were killed by the breaking of a dam. The defendant was charged with manslaughter through negligence. The court held there was but one causal effect though the result affected many parties and there was but one injury to the State. The prosecution was under a statute pertaining to involuntary manslaughter, providing for the admis*382sion in evidence of any act or acts of manslaughter. The court evidently construed the intent of the statute to treat all the occurrences as one offense. This is another example of statutory construction. Commonwealthv. Ernesto,93 Pa. Sup. Ct. 339, is to the same effect.
Numerous cases supporting the rule that a conviction or acquittal of one charged with the murder of or an assault upon one person is not a bar to his subsequent prosecution for the murder of or an assault upon another person at the same time are collected in Statev. Corbett, supra,and the accompanying annotations in20 A. L. R. 341. Some of them may be noted: Peoplev. Majors,65 Cal. 138, and Statev. Vines,34 La. Ann. 1079, each of which involves a simultaneous double murder by two defendants; Teatv. State,53 Miss. 439, for a similar crime; Keetonv. Commonwealth,92 Ky. 522, where a pistol was pointed at two persons at the same time in demand for property; Commonwealthv. Browing,146 Ky. 770, where two persons were wounded by the same bullet in an affray; Peoplev. Warren,1 Park. Crim. (N. Y.) 338, where poison was mixed with flour, resulting in the poisoning of different persons; Vaughanv. Commonwealth,2 Va. Cas. 273, where two persons were shot by the same discharge of a gun. These cases are in harmony with the decisions of this court.
Statev. Fredlund,273 N. W. (Minn.) 353, is in accord with the result reached by this court. Conformably to the provisions of an applicable Minnesota statute the trial court certified the following question to the Supreme Court of the State: “In a case where two automobiles collided on a public highway resulting in the death of two persons who were passengers in one of said automobiles, and the driver of the other automobile is charged in each of two indictments with murder in the third degree, one of said indictments being based on the death of one of said passengers and the other indictment on the death of the other passenger, does acquittal of the charge contained in one of said*383indictments operate as a bar to further prosecution for the offense charged in the other indictment ?” Defendant Fredlund, as does defendant Allen, in the case before us, particularly relied upon Statev. Wheelock, supra, Statev. Cosgrove, supra,and Peoplev. Barr, supra,as determinative of his position. Upon consideration of these authorities, together with additional cases involving the same question from other jurisdictions, the court rejected the defendant’s contentions and held that the protection afforded by the plea of former jeopardy is not against the peril of second punishment, but against being again tried for the same offense. “The constitutional provision against double jeopardy has, as we have seen,” the court said, “for its objective that no one shall be brought into danger of punishment for the same offense more than once. But neither in the Federal nor in our own constitution is there any prohibition against successive prosecutions if the wrongful actis the cause of separate and distinct offenses.”The court held, further, that it is the identity of the offense, and not of the act, which is referred to in the constitutional guaranty against putting a person twice in jeopardy, and specifically, where two or more persons are injured in their persons, though it be by a single act, yet, since the consequences affect, separately, each person injured, there is a corresponding number of distinct offenses.
Payv. State,71 Pac. (2d) 768, decided September 10, 1937, by the Criminal Court of Appeals of Oklahoma, follows the Predlund caseand is in conformity with our conclusion. There, the defendant Fay’s automobile struck two children, Betty Joe and Genella Brewer. He was first tried and convicted of the crime of assault with intent to kill Betty Joe Brewer. Subsequently, he was tried and convicted of assault with intent to kill Genella Brewer. Upon review, the defendant insisted that his plea of former jeopardy should have been sustained for the reason that the injury to Genella occurred at the same time that Betty Joe*384was injured by his car, and, the injuries occurring practically at the same time and the same place, were not separate crimes, but one act. In rejecting the contention, the Oklahoma court said: “While the authorities are not in harmony on the question involved in this case, we hold that the greater weight of respectable authorities sustains the contention of the State that, notwithstanding the fact that the injury of the Brewer girls was caused by the car of the defendant striking them at or near the same time and place, the injury to each of the girls constitutes a separate offense, and that the contention of the defendant that he could not be put on trial for the injury to Genella Brewer, after he had been tried and convicted and his case pending in the Criminal Court of Appeals for the injury to Betty Joe Brewer, is without merit. This court holds that where two or more persons are injured by a single criminal act, there are as many separate and distinct offenses as there are persons injured by the unlawful act.”
Adhering to the general rule and our former decisions in analogous cases, we hold that the deaths of Ray Duran and Charles B. Klafter named in the separate indictments were separate offenses. The trial court properly denied defendant’s petition for discharge.
Objection is made that the court erred in permitting Mather, who was struck by defendant’s car at the same time as Klafter, to exhibit his bandaged leg to the jury, and to remove some of the bandaging. From the record it appears that the witness came into the court room on crutches, and, on cross-examination, by defendant’s counsel, testified that it had been necessary for him to use them continuously since the accident — being unable to walk without such assistance. Mather was also asked, on cross-examination, if, on certain named occasions, he had not walked without the use of his crutches. The objection of the prosecution to this line of questioning was overruled, and Mather was permitted to answer, denying that he had*385done so. On re-direct examination, upon interrogation by an assistant State’s attorney, Mather stepped in front of the jury box, raised his trouser leg and exhibited his bandages to the jury in order to show the condition of his leg. The defendant’s objection was overruled. It thus appears that the matter of the injured leg, and the ability of Mather to walk, without artificial aid, was brought out by the defendant over the objection of the prosecution. Furthermore, defendant and two witnesses, called by him, declared that prior to the trial they had seen Mather walk on the streets naturally, entirely without the use of crutches. Of these, one was a long-time friend of the defendant, who had grown up with him in a small southern city. After defendant’s witnesses had testified that they had seen Mather walk naturally, the prosecution re-called the latter, and, in rebuttal, again had him lift up his trouser leg. In the colloquy incident to ruling on defendant’s objection thereto, the assistant State’s attorney stated that it was decided to show Mather’s injuries after defendant had called witnesses to show he could walk. The court sustained the objection to the second exhibition of the injured limb, and admonished the jury to disregard the scene in front of the jury box, stating that no more had been shown than exhibited the first time. A physician and surgeon, called as a People’s rebuttal witness, testified that he was treating Mather for injuries, among others, a compound fracture of the shin bone running from the knee to the ankle, received on February 16, 1935; that he saw him two or three times a week, and that he had never seen him without his crutches. The witness expressed the opinion that Mather could not move around without them.
The ability of Mather to walk without crutches was not a proper issue in this case. A witness may not be impeached on a collateral matter. The prosecution was warranted, however, in attempting to rebut unfavorable inferences against the witness, or, on the other hand, favorable infer*386enees in behalf of the defendant, under the circumstances narrated. Peoplev. Oliff,361 Ill. 237; Wilsonv. People,94id. 299.
Complaint is made concerning the court’s refusal to give to the jury an instruction defining intoxication, and in failing to define the degree of intoxication which would render the driving of a car unlawful and, thereby, according to the defendant, left an important element of the case to the speculation of the jury. It is true that the evidence discloses that defendant had two small highballs before dinner, at least two hours prior to the accident. The prosecution did not claim or attempt to prove that defendant was inebriated. No witness testified that he was under the influence of alcoholic liquors, before, at the time of, or after the collision. Obviously, intoxication was not an issue in this case. It follows that the court was warranted in refusing to give the proffered instruction. Peoplev. Schneider,362 Ill. 478, cannot avail defendant. Intoxication was an issue in that case as it was in the former appeal. Peoplev. Schneider,360 Ill. 43.
Defendant further insists that the assistant State’s attorneys, in their arguments to the jury, made improper, inflammatory and highly prejudicial remarks not based on the evidence. We have read the arguments to the jury comprising more than one hundred pages of the record. Only six objections were interposed by defendant’s counsel to the extended remarks of the assistant State’s attorneys. Four of these and two statements not objected to, defendant now contends, were prejudicial. One of the prosecutors, in the opening statement, said: “Oh, there is a conspiracy here among the State’s witnesses to put this man in jail or convict him or put him on probation.” Counsel objected and requested that the prosecutor be admonished. The court sustained the objection. Again, in the closing argument, it was said: “Your verdict does not put anybody in the penitentiary as they want you to believe*387in appealing to your sympathy, so whether this man is sentenced any place if you find him guilty rests solely in the discretion of the court.” Defendant’s objection was sustained. The quoted statements are assailed on the ground that the court was without discretion as to the penalty for manslaughter, and that a penitentiary sentence of not less than one nor more than fourteen years was mandatory. The amendment to the Criminal Code of July 5, 1935, (Laws of 1935, p. 721; Smith-Hurd Stat. 1935, p. 1244;) made manslaughter a probationable offense. Indeed, defendant availed himself of that provision by making a motion for probation. Furthermore, the court instructed the jury that it was not concerned with the question of what the law provides as punishment of the crime charged, pointing out to the jurors that their duty was merely to determine the guilt or innocence of the accused, and, that, under their oaths, they must completely disregard the question of and arguments relative to punishment. Defendant directs our attention to the fact that one of the prosecutors pointed out the defendant in the court room and said: “Look at Allen! Is there any look of remorse on his face ? Is there any showing there that he has suffered ?” This statement was undoubtedly provoked by argument of defendant’s counsel: “I don’t think there is a person who has suffered more mental agony than John Allen.” Counsel on both sides might well have been more temperate in their arguments. The statements about one of defendant’s witnesses were legitimate inferences from the facts and circumstances proved and, hence, within the rule of proper argument. Two other statements alleged to constitute inflammatory discussion were not objected to, and the propriety of the remarks assailed is, therefore, not properly preserved for review. Had timely objection been made we could not, however, hold the statements prejudicial. One of defendant’s trial attorneys, able and experienced, in addressing the jury, referred to his extensive experience*388at the bar and well said: “Ihave concluded that very seldom is the jury swayed to sign a verdict by reason of arguments.” His comment is particularly pertinent and decisive here.
The remaining contention of the defendant is that the evidence is insufficient to sustain his conviction. Every person who drives upon a public highway is under a legal obligation to observe, in the control and management of his motor vehicle, the exercise of reasonable care to prevent injury to others. (Peoplev. Adams,289 Ill. 339; Peoplev. Falkovitch,280 id. 321.) Where a person with willful and wanton negligence drives his automobile in a reckless manner, in disregard of the safety of others, and thereby runs over and kills another, even - though unintentionally, his action constitutes manslaughter. (Peoplev. Peterson,364 Ill. 80; Peoplev. Herkless,361 id. 32.) Flight from the scene of a collision without any effort to ascertain the extent of the injuries caused by his act or to aid the injured person may be taken into consideration as evidence of guilt. (Peoplev. Herkless, supra; Peoplev. Smaszcz,344 Ill. 494; Peoplev. Schwartz,298 id. 218.) It is the province of the jury to determine, from a consideration of all the evidence, under correct instructions, whether defendant is guilty of culpable or criminal negligence which was the proximate cause of the resultant death. (Peoplev. Peterson, supra; Peoplev. Herkless, supra; Peoplev. Smaszcz, supra.)In the present case, defendant, driving on a well-lighted wide street, struck and killed two persons and injured a third. The testimony as to speed, the traffic, the excellent mechanical condition of defendant’s car, and, in particular, the fact that the street was well-lighted, buttressed by defendant’s failure to stop his automobile and driving on for more than three blocks, together with other facts and circumstances shown by the evidence, was sufficient to sustain a verdict of guilty. It is true, as defendant points out, that there are certain inconsistencies*389in the testimony of several witnesses for the People. The discrepancies are not, however, of such a character as to impair the effect of their testimony in essential particulars, and to justify its rejection. The law has committed to the jury the determination of the credibility of the witnesses and the weight to be accorded to their testimony. We can not say that the verdict of the jury is palpably contrary to the weight of the evidence. Under this situation, and where errors of law have not occurred which would warrant a reversal, we will not substitute our judgment for that of the jury. Peoplev. Herkless, supra; Peoplev. Wattage,353 Ill. 95.
The defendant was ably represented and had a fair trial. The record, while not free from error, does not, however, contain reversible error.
The judgment of the criminal court is affirmed.
Judgment affirmed.
Mr. Justice Shaw,
dissenting:
I am unable to concur with the views expressed in the foregoing opinion and because of the importance of the constitutional point involved feel it necessary to state my views. It must be borne in mind that under the rule announced in this case a citizen may be tried an indefinite númber of times for the same criminal act until a jury is finally found which will render a verdict suitable to the prosecution. Under this rule, if a grossly negligent act should result in a large number of deaths, the defendant might be tried as many different times as there were deaths involved. Even though jury after jury might find that he had not been grossly negligent he could be compelled to return again and again to stand trial on this one point, which is the gist of the case.
The crime involved is a single offense against the peace and dignity of the People— i. e.,the reckless driving of an automobile. This is an offense under the Motor Vehicle act*390whether or not any one is injured or killed. This identical offense— i. e.,reckless driving, becomes involuntary manslaughter by virtue of the Criminal Code and regardless of any intent of the defendant, if one or more persons are killed and no matter how many or how few are killed. The defendant need have no criminal intent of any kind, as the result of the act, rather than the intent, is what determines the character of the crime, and that character is fixed by the happening of one death or many from the same act.
This has been so definitely held in so many cases in other States as to make any review of the authorities in this dissenting opinion entirely unnecessary. Some of these cases are referred to in the majority opinion and no effort is made to distinguish them, nor can they be successfully distinguished. Many of the cases referred to in the opinion are such as involve intentional acts on the part of the defendant and, therefore, not in point. The Minnesota caserelied upon has been severely criticized and, in my opinion, runs contrary to the better reasoning of the courts of many other States.
It is my view that this opinion definitely impairs that provision of the constitution upon which the defendant relies. Under this rule a defendant would be subjected to being put in jeopardy, not only twice but many times, for one criminal act. This is not only contrary to our constitution but oppressive to my personal sense of justice. It is to be hoped that the Supreme Court of the United States will sometime take occasion to make an authoritative decision on this important question. The courts of Minnesota, Oklahoma, and now of Illinois, have ranged themselves in opposition to the older line of cases which appear to me to have been better decided.
Mr. Justice Stone, also dissenting.
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11.0
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13
--
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15
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16
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26
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L
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SRS
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23
11
--
1.1
NYM
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17
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18
7.0
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PHI
15
19
8.0
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WSN
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20
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14
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15
1.5
0.3
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16
2.5
1.3
CIN
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19
5.5
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STL
10
24
10.0
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LAD
20
14
--
1.3
ARI
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14
0.5
0.3
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18
16
2.0
0.2
SFG
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17
4.0
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21
7.0
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Women in Whistler’s Images of Chelsea and the Thames | Article index | Articles | British Art Studies
An online, open-access and peer-reviewed academic journal for research on all aspects of British art, architecture and visual culture.
Women in Whistler’s Images of Chelsea and the Thames
ArticlebyPatricia de Montfort
James McNeill Whistler, Battersea Reach from Lindsey Houses (detail), 1864–1871, oil on canvas, 51.3 × 76.5 cm. Collection of The Hunterian, University of Glasgow (GLAHA_46358).
Digital image courtesy of Bridgeman Images (all rights reserved).
Abstract
DOI
Variations in Pink and Grey: Chelsea
and
Cremorne Gardens, No. 2
Introduction
DOI
Women are an active, if usually low-key, presence in Whistler’s representations of Chelsea and the Thames, placed within the composition as colour notes and visual points of interest. They feature not only in the role of professional studio model (as in early studies such as
The Balcony
Oliver Twist
(1838), and the drover’s former lover driven to prostitution in D.G. Rossetti’s
Found
(1854), to William Hayward’s popular melodrama,
London by Night
(1865).
1
fig. 1
).
2
Chelsea in Ice
(1864–1867) and
Variations in Pink and Grey: Chelsea
3
I suggest that if Whistler’s images of women in his Thames paintings perform a role in his construction of modernity, it is bound up with the shifting environment of the river itself.
DOI Figure 1.
The Thames Embankment, in The Illustrated London News50, no. 1432, 22 June 1867.Digital image courtesy of Mary Evans (all rights reserved).
Whistler’s Images of Women
4
5
Whistler’s images of women from this period reflect these intimate settings in which women from his family, including Deborah, are seen engaged in domestic activities, for example reading and sewing—as in the etching
Reading by Lamplight
(1859)—and in genteel accomplishments, such as music-making. In
Harmony in Green and Rose: The Music Room
(1860–1861), however, painted in the music room at Sloane Street, Deborah is captured in three-quarter view, reflected by the mirror, in an implied conversation with a standing figure dressed in a riding habit, identified as Isabella Boott (
fig. 2
The Works of John Ruskin
, 39 vols, ed. Edward Tyas Cook and Alexander Wedderburn (1903–1912), Vol. 18, 122,
https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/the-ruskin/the-complete-works-of-ruskin/.[/
fn] By contrast, the shifting margins and muddy levels of the nearby River Thames, together with the choking pollution of the city (caused at least in part by domestic coal fires), made for a hazardous and uncertain environment. Richard Dorment conveys the starkness of these divergent worlds succinctly in his description of
Battersea Reach from Lindsey Houses
(1864/71) (
fig. 3
), one of Whistler’s earliest atmospheric depictions of the river
a view looking across the river to a coal slag on the Battersea side … instead of the working class bargemen in the foreground Whistler places fashionably dressed Victorian ladies, two carrying open parasols that make them look like delicate figures on a Japanese screen.
6
Why does Whistler give these women, carrying parasols in the fashionable garb of the period, prominence in this grimy setting?
Figure 2.
James McNeill Whistler, Harmony in Green and Rose: The Music Room, 1860–1861, oil on canvas, 96.3 × 71.7 cm. Collection of the Freer Gallery of Art, National Museum of Asian Art, Smithsonian Institute, Gift of Charles Lang Freer (F1917.234a-b).
Digital image courtesy of Smithsonian Institute (CC0 1.0).
Figure 3.
James McNeill Whistler, Battersea Reach from Lindsey Houses, 1864–1871, oil on canvas, 51.3 × 76.5 cm. Collection of The Hunterian, University of Glasgow (GLAHA_46358).
Digital image courtesy of Bridgeman Images (all rights reserved).
DOI
It is worth considering the conditions in which such women moved about outside the home in the nineteenth-century city. These have been examined over several decades by scholars including Griselda Pollock, Janet Wolff, and Lynda Nead, as has the existence and nature of the
flâneuse
—the so-called female counterpart of the Baudelairean
flâneur
in Paris and London. Wolff argued against its existence, claiming “that such a character was rendered impossible by the sexual divisions of the nineteenth century”, for, after all, women could not stroll alone in the city.
7
More recent studies, such as D’Souza and McDonough’s
The Invisible Flâneuse: Gender, Public Space and Visual Culture in Nineteenth-Century Paris
(2006) have sought a nuanced reading of what has been interpreted as the opposing forces of masculine public space versus feminine private space.
8
My concern here, however, is more with the fact that, while a doctrine of separate public and private spheres prevailed among the Victorian middle classes from the 1830s, it was not always applied consistently. As Wolff has argued,
9
In the same vein, Lynda Nead has warned against the assumption “that the only way to write middle-class women into histories of modernity is by looking at the private sphere, or the history of shopping”, especially since “shopping imposes a specific chronology on the emergence of women into the public sphere”, beginning in the 1870s.
10
As she has argued: “Rather than seeing public life as a monolithic entity, it is possible to conceive a variety of ways of accessing the public world and a number of different public arenas in which women could be involved”.
11
This could mean clubs aimed at middle-class working women, for example the Somerville Club (founded in 1878), but also public spaces, such as railway station buffets, department store refreshment rooms and, later in the century, tearoom chains, similar to Lyons or Fuller’s. She also joins Elizabeth Wilson in questioning the all-pervasive presence of the
flâneur
, “one of the central orthodoxies of recent accounts of modernity” therein opening up examination of women’s presence on the city streets.
12
This line of argument has also been explored in more recent times by scholars of historical geography such as Richard Dennis. He cites a number of examples of female characters in George Gissing’s novels of the 1890s, who “lead independent lives, confident in their knowledge of the city’s geography and use of its public transport”.
13
14
This same territory of inconsistency informs women’s presence in the late nineteenth-century environment of the Thames that included parks, gardens, promenades, and river crossings. This riverside space—a space in which the stark boundaries between danger and opportunity blurs—is the basis of my observations of the women in Whistler’s Thames paintings.
Distinction should be made, however, between green spaces inhabited by women represented by Whistler in these pictures, such as the embankment gardens, and those elsewhere. While Nancy Rose Marshall evokes the so-called feminine sphere in her discussion of the painting of London’s parks—“grass in a park represented nature in its domesticated and orderly form”,
15
16
Women were prominent in visualisations of this setting “since, with the horses, they provided flesh of two sorts”.
16
Moreover, most of the new urban parks that emerged in British cities during the late nineteenth century were planned and constructed with a clear sense of social purpose. As Hilary Taylor puts it,
One of the main aims of those setting up the parks was so to embody the teachings of science and art as to elevate the personal and public character of all urban dwellers, especially the working classes.
18
By contrast, any sense of social improvement attached to the embankment gardens was complicated by their fluid boundaries with the Thames, always at risk of the damage caused by flooding.
Chelsea and the Embankment
Let us return to the embankment project itself and its impact on Whistler’s neighbourhood. Before the Embankment was commenced in 1868, the geography of Chelsea close to the river at Old Battersea Bridge and Cheyne Walk looked rather different. As the river, with its tidal creeks, its spaces were more haphazard and meandering, opening out into an estuary that was, as Théophile Gautier noted on a visit to London in 1842,
so wide and the banks themselves so low that these cannot be seen from the centre of the stream. It is only after steaming many a mile that one at last makes them out, narrow, flat, black lines between the grey sky and the turbid water.
19
Boats and barges lined the foreshore, including those belonging to the Greaves family of boatmen, Whistler’s neighbours at Lindsey Row, whose sons Walter and Henry became his studio assistants for a time. Although only a limited area of land was reclaimed for the Chelsea Embankment at this spot, access to the river was streamlined and its views reconfigured. In 1878, Edward Walford noted the alterations that had taken place,
20
The partial demolition of Lombard Street (and nearby Duke Street) to make way for the embankment was approved enthusiastically by the London
Times
; it did away with a “row of ancient and dilapidated houses” in Lombard Street and an adjacent crumbling row of tenements of “disreputable appearance”.
21
The narrow semi-rural track that bordered the river in front of Cheyne Walk also disappeared, to be replaced by a broad new highway. Nearby, the old Ranelagh pleasure gardens, by then absorbed by the Royal Hospital grounds but which had enjoyed a licentious reputation in the eighteenth century, became separated from the Thames altogether (
figs. 4
and
5
).
These changes introduced a heightened sense of order to the riverside that was remarked upon in the press. “Chelsea”, the
Daily News
reflected in 1872, “waking up from its somnolence of many years, seems determined not to be behindhand with its neighbours in this rejuvenescent age”.
22
23
By contrast, the embankments introduced a sleek, modern world of sanitation, underground railways, and spaces for leisure in the name of progress.
A photograph from the 1870s by James Hedderly, photographic chronicler of Chelsea’s transformation, hints at the new atmosphere of the neighbourhood (
fig. 6
fig. 7
). This atmosphere is echoed in John O’Connor’s panoramic view of the Victoria Embankment looking eastwards, towards the City and St. Paul’s Cathedral; the view was painted in 1874 shortly after the embankment’s completion in 1872 (
fig. 8
At the same time, as Vanessa Taylor has emphasised, “rivers have always been enmeshed in dominant economic and political discourses”.
24
In August 1871, the
Times
reported Joseph Bazalgette’s speech as the foundation stone was laid for the construction of the Embankment between Chelsea Hospital and Battersea Bridge. It emphasised the grand scale of his ambitions, and the belief that London’s improvements bore comparison with those that had taken place recently in other European cities.
25
The scale of the work yet to be undertaken in this one section of the embankments was remarkable: ninety-one acres were to be reclaimed from the river and replaced by a seventy-foot wide roadway, three-quarters of a mile long and bordered by public gardens.
26
The gardens contributed to the promotion of physical and social hygiene as well as the embankment. There were precedents: in Paris, Baron Haussmann’s garden schemes, executed under the patronage of Napoleon III (an admirer of Hyde Park), were considered the above-ground counterpart to a network of sewers built in the 1850s.
27
His approach was widely admired; indeed, his gardens are considered a model for the Temple Garden at Victoria Embankment.
28
Whistler’s Variations
The innovative nature of Bazalgette’s project and its impact on the river boundaries can be glimpsed in two oils by Whistler of this period:
Variations in Violet and Green
(1871) and
Variations in Pink and Grey: Chelsea
(1871/2) (
figs. 9
and
10
). In
Variations in Violet and Green
Variations in Pink and Grey: Chelsea
is painted in a similar format/spatial arrangement. Three Thames barges are partially obscured by some temporary hoarding—only their furled sails can be seen—as can a newly constructed boundary wall, formed of concrete faced with granite, reinforced concrete having recently come into vogue as an industrial material.
Whistler himself maintained that
Variations in Pink and Grey
was “not a Nocturne!! but a little picture of Chelsea”, his attitude suggesting that he intended it as a nod to the material transformation of his neighbourhood taking place before him that was being documented by Hedderly.
29
According to Mrs. Whistler, he often worked outside during the summer of 1871 and was invigorated by the experience, which presumably would have been intensified by the clamour of construction activity. To “work in the open air”, Mrs. Whistler wrote, “was like the renewal of Etching & gave zest to Studio at intervals”.
30
The hoarding clearly remained for some time, for it forms a backdrop to his depiction of the riverbank being recolonised by urban dwellers. This centres on several female strollers who appear to weave in and out of the newly planted trees.
Symphony in Flesh Colour and Pink: Portrait of Mrs Frances Leyland
(1871/1874), wife of Frederick Leyland, Whistler’s chief patron during this period (
fig. 11
). Its decorative, ethereal elements—and Mrs. Leyland’s three-quarter pose—resonate with the figures in the two
Variations
pictures and in
Battersea Reach from Lindsey Houses
. Certainly, Whistler attended to every detail of the setting: his biographers, the Pennells, reported that “Mrs Leyland stood in the flesh-colour and yellow drawing room and he designed her gown to harmonise with it”.
31
More recently, Susan Galassi has emphasised the uniqueness of the gown (which she classifies roughly as a tea gown), with its train decorated with rosettes in white and gold, and how it became a vehicle for Whistler’s artistic aims.
Like all of Whistler’s work of the period, the costume draws from an eclectic mix of historic traditions and current trends, freely adapted to articulate his ideas of the beautiful, and to assert his modernity—for which fashion was an important signifier.
32
Through the portrait, Whistler could present “an ideal modern world—a symphony of the arts”.
33
DOI Figure 11.
James McNeill Whistler, Symphony in Flesh Colour and Pink: Portrait of Mrs Frances Leyland, 1871–1874, oil on canvas, 95.9 × 102.2 cm. Collection of The Frick Collection, Henry Clay Frick Bequest (1917.1.133).Digital image courtesy of The Frick Collection (all rights reserved).
Whistler himself was dissatisfied with the result, however, as he told Frances Leyland,
34
Nevertheless, the aestheticised nature of the portrait (Rossetti called it “a graceful design” but not “at all a likeness”) and Whistler’s subsequent response point towards a transformative role for the semi-anonymised female figure in his Thames images during this period.
35
Variations
and Cremorne images.
Marshall highlights the extent to which ‘“woman” in nineteenth-century representation came to stand for modernity, a trope that was recognised and celebrated in countless texts and illustrations.
36
Variations
and
Battersea Reach
paintings of linear elements such as railings, hoardings, and balconies is also worth noting—the latter are seen in earlier representations that include the Thames, as in
Variations in Flesh Colour and Green: The Balcony
(1864/73). This correlates with the prevalence of balconies in Haussmann’s Paris where, as Gen Doy has examined, land values were high and the structures became “a means of providing additional space and light”.
37
Indeed for both locals and visitors, Haussmannisation offered, as Temma Balducci points out, “ever more visual distractions and alluring vistas through its expanded park system, new layout and burgeoning variety of commercial establishments”.
38
It offered new ways of viewing the city.
DOI
Balducci also gives attention to the presence of balconies (and windows) as vantage points in French painting of the period, most memorably in Manet’s eponymous
Le Balcon
(1868), a painting likely known to Whistler, who maintained his contacts with French artists long after he settled in London.
39
Manet’s focus is essentially inward—on the domestic interior and the eerily still spectacle of the figures on the balcony. By contrast, our experience of Whistler’s depictions of women posed by balconies and railings—from the explicitly titled
Variations in Flesh Colour and Green: The Balcony
(1864–1873), to early crepuscular pictures such as
Variations in Violet and Green
and
Battersea Reach from Lindsey Houses
, is led by the largely outward gaze of the female figures over and beyond the human-made structures around them. Even in other comparable Whistlerian subjects, Gustave Caillebotte’s
Le Pont de l’Europe
(1876) for instance, the male and female pedestrians are engulfed by the girders of the bridge. Indeed, Whistler’s elevated representations of women in these settings seem on this basis to have more in common with the work of female Impressionists, for example Morisot’s distant, indistinct representations of Paris in works like
Femme et Enfant au Balcon
(1872).
The aestheticised world of Whistler’s female bystanders, and their outward gaze, surfaces in his “Ten O’Clock” lecture, first delivered on 20 February 1885.
40
In Whistler’s imaginary history of art, the artist—a “dreamer apart”—“stayed by the tents with the women” to perform a magician-like role as “deviser of the beautiful”. Nature is represented in feminised terms as the fount of the artist’s imagination.
41
Elsewhere in the lecture, the artist’s self-directed journey into the imagination is described with the same deft brush strokes that Whistler applied to his visualisation of the women bystanders in his Thames images.
42
43
At the same time, the spectral women in Whistler’s paintings confirmed the domestication of the river in line with technological progress. This is betrayed by the explicit presence of civic structures (and public safety devices like hoardings) in Thames views as in
Variations in Pink and Grey: Chelsea
. The women themselves had come to belong to what Oliver describes as a “regulated landscape of water, controlled and channelled into [an] ordered form”.
44
This correlates with the rationalist tenor of nineteenth-century urban planning more generally that was based, as Elizabeth Wilson puts it, on “utilitarian principles of surveillance, hygiene and labour discipline” (although this was challenged on occasion by socialist demands that principles of redistribution be applied).
45
Guardians of moral and physical hygiene, bearers of the next generation to labour for trade and empire, middle-class women were required to fit into this schematic landscape. As Wilson highlights, for many Victorians: “the condition of women was the touchstone of the state of civilisation and progress”.
46
Although a new world was emerging along these lines, the “old” world of Battersea Bridge, the eighteenth-century wooden structure depicted repeatedly by Whistler over forty years, still exercised its own constraints, in particular over the working-class men and women, who can be glimpsed making the crossing in etchings such as
Old Battersea Bridge
(1879) (
fig. 12
). While the bridge, as one commentator explained in 1872, had “always been, more or less, a resort for strollers”, it was as much about economics as leisure.
47
The passage of the women who crossed the creaking bridge (soon to be replaced by a gleaming new structure) was constrained by the old-style economics of Victorian laissez-faire capitalism.
48
DOI Figure 12.
James McNeill Whistler, Old Battersea Bridge, 1879, etching, 20.2 × 29.3 cm. Collection of the Art Institute of Chicago, Gift of Thomas E. Donnelley (1953.215).Digital image courtesy of Art Institute of Chicago (public domain).
DOI
49
Gas lamps were installed to improve lighting and, for a time, the stretch from Westminster to Blackfriars was lit by electricity, attracting crowds of curious onlookers.
50
By the time Whistler made a watercolour in the same vicinity a few years later,
Pink and Silver—Chelsea, the Embankment
(circa 1885), the ornamental trees were maturing and the Albert Bridge, then undergoing substantial modifications, is clearly visible on the horizon (
fig. 13
).
51
The revitalised bridge, the
Times
declared, would be “an ornament to the river and neighbourhood, and … command an extensive and picturesque prospect”.
52
The embankments came to form part of a complex web of modern structures in the service of urban life, delivering an aesthetic experience within a productive landscape.
DOI Figure 13.
James McNeill Whistler, Pink and silver—Chelsea, the Embankment, circa 1885, watercolour, 12.7 × 21.6 cm. Collection of The Clark, Williamstown, MA (1955.1533).Digital image courtesy of The Clark, Williamstown, MA (public domain).
Cremorne
But for women of all classes, the problem remained—as Nord has shown, there was little escape from their status as urban spectacle.
53
54
Cremorne Gardens, No. 2
, the largest of these, in which brightly dressed women, some of whom may have been sex workers, meander and chat in a naturalistic setting, the trees lit with fairy lights (
fig. 14
).
55
DOI Figure 14.
James McNeill Whistler, Cremorne Gardens, No. 2, 1870–1880, oil on canvas, 68.6 × 134.9 cm. Collection of The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, John Stewart Kennedy Fund, 1912 (12.32).Digital image courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art (public domain).
Cremorne had long been subject to moral scrutiny, not helped by its proximity to respectable parts of suburban Chelsea. Visiting London in the late 1860s, Daniel Joseph Kirwan declared it:
56
Kirwan’s forensic description of his visit includes statistical information from the police returns as to the numbers of women engaged in sex work in the neighbourhood in the tradition of urban investigation practised by Henry Mayhew in
London Labour and the London Poor
(1851–1862).
57
58
Cremorne also drew women from a category that Hemyng termed “convives”, women who lived together by necessity with their co-workers, albeit this was often a fitful arrangement.
They never stay long in one house, although some will remain for ten or twelve months in a particular lodging. It is their principle to get as deeply into debt as they are able, and then to pack up their things, have them conveyed elsewhere by stealth.
59
Such transgressions of the social order had long been part of the scene at Cremorne. In the end, local disapproval of the night-time crowd (which led to a procession of drunk and disorderly cases before the magistrate), defeated the efforts of its last proprietor, John Baum, to run the gardens as a middle-class leisure facility. He closed the enterprise in 1877 and the women moved on. Soon, developers moved in to exploit the site for building, encouraged by the gentrification of the surrounding area brought about by Chelsea Embankment. With his final Cremorne painting completed the same year, Whistler moved into a crisis period of his own—his libel case against Ruskin and subsequent bankruptcy—a crisis period which nevertheless led to a transformation of his art over the next few years.
What can we conclude from such shifting settings about women’s relations with the environment of the Thames in this period? How can their presence be contextualised in Whistler’s paintings of this subject? I have argued previously that the positioning of the female figures in paintings such as the two
Variations
help Whistler convey his vision of the urban landscape that is about wide open spaces, light, and air. So too does the format of subsequent subjects like
Chelsea Shops: Yellow and Grey
(1884) with its strong verticals and horizontals, the vastness of the foreground punctuated by scurrying movement of the figures, including several women. This contrasts with
Cremorne Gardens, No. 2
, in which there is a perceptible psychological focus on the women that conforms to the notion of the sex worker as “a central spectacle in a set of urban encounters and fantasies”, as Walkowitz puts it.
60
61
The ghostly appearance of the women precludes their categorisation as Frith-like physiognomic street types.
Richard Dennis cautions, however, against likening “public spaces” such as Cremorne and the Embankment with “public sphere” for, he points out, while in the late nineteenth century, “women were increasingly visible in the city’s streets and other public spaces … it does not follow that they were also more engaged in political and social debate”.
62
This is reflected in women’s relations with the Thames environment. The Embankment and its gardens formed part of a movement not only to improve hygiene but also to bring the country to the city.
63
64
Nevertheless, by the same token, his consistent inclusion of women in futuristic public settings, his avoidance of physiognomic types, and resolute disinterest in narrative (as he says in “The Red Rag”, “I care nothing for the past, present, or future of the black figure, placed there because the black was wanted at that spot”), affirms powerfully their place within it.
Dr. Patricia de Montfort is Lecturer in Art History in the School of Culture and Creative Arts and Research Curator for Whistler Studies in The Hunterian at the University of Glasgow. Her research interests focus on British and American art, especially the work of James McNeill Whistler (1834–1903); exhibition culture and the London art market 1850–1914; and nineteenth-century women artists, with a particular focus on digital methodologies. She has curated national and international exhibitions on these topics including Whistler and Nature(UK tour 2018–2019). Recent publications include Louise Jopling: A Biographical and Cultural Study of the Modern Woman Artist in Victorian Britain(2016) and Whistler and Nature(2018, exhibition catalogue).
Footnotes
Stuart Oliver, “Fantasies in Granite: The Thames Embankments as a Boundary to the River”, Literary London: Interdisciplinary Studies in The Representation of London5, no. 1 (March 2007),http://www.literarylondon.org/london-journal/march2007/oliver.html.
1
Stephen Halliday, The Great Stink of London(Stroud: Sutton, 1999), 149–150.
2
Vanessa Taylor, “London’s River? The Thames as Contested Environmental Space”, The London Journal40, no. 3 (2015): 183–195, DOI:10.1179/1749632215Y.0000000010.
3
Whistler to Henri Fantin-Latour, 4 January–3 February 1864, Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Pennell–Whistler Collection, PWC 1/33/15. See The Correspondence of James McNeill Whistler, 1855–1903, ed. Margaret F. MacDonald, Patricia de Montfort and Nigel Thorp, online edition (Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2003).http://www.whistler.arts.gla.ac.uk/correspondence, GUW #08036. Thereafter cited “GUW”, followed by record number.
4
Anna Matilda Whistler to James H. Gamble, 10–11 February 1864. Glasgow University Library, MS Whistler W516, GUW #06522.
5
Richard Dorment, “Whistler and the Thames, Dulwich Picture Gallery, Review”, Daily Telegraph, 21 October 2013,https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/10393447/Whistler-and-the-Thames-Dulwich-Picture-Gallery-review.html.
6
Janet Wolff, “The Invisible Flâneuse: Women and the Literature of Modernity”, Theory, Culture and Society2, no. 3 (November 1985): 45.
7
Aruna D’Souza and Tom McDonough, eds., The Invisible Flâneuse: Gender, Public Space and Visual Culture in Nineteenth-Century Paris(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006).
8
Wolff, “The Invisible Flâneuse”.
9
Lynda Nead, Victorian Babylon: People, Streets and Images in Nineteenth-Century London(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 69.
10
Nead, Victorian Babylon, 70.
11
Nead, Victorian Babylon, 70–71.
12
Richard Dennis, Cities in Modernity: Representations and Productions of Metropolitan Space, 1840–1930(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 156. Dennis also cites an earlier example of the young independent woman, Lucy Snowe in Charlotte Brontë’s Villette(1853), who travels and walks alone in London, although she is more naïve abroad than a streetwise flâneuse.See Dennis, Cities in Modernity, 152.
13
Elizabeth Wilson. The Contradictions of Culture: Cities, Culture, Women(London: SAGE, 2000), 83.
14
Nancy Rose Marshall, City of Gold and Mud: Painting Victorian London(New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012), 217.
15
Marshall, City of Gold and Mud, 221.
16
Marshall, City of Gold and Mud, 221.
17
Hilary A. Taylor, “Urban Public Parks, 1840–1900: Design and Meaning”, Garden History, 23, no. 2 (Winter 1995): 213.
18
Théophile Gautier, “Une Journée à Londres”, in The Works of Théophile Gautier, 24 vols. (New York: G.D. Sproul, 1900), Vol. 14, 301–302.
19
Edward Walford, Old and New London, 6 vols. (London: Cassell, Petter and Galpin, 1878), Vol. 5, 50–70,https://www.british-history.ac.uk/old-new-london/vol5/pp50-70.
20
“The Chelsea Embankment”, The Times, 25 December 1872.
21
“Old Chelsea”, Daily News, 2 November 1872.
22
“Old Chelsea”, Daily News.
23
Taylor, “London’s River?”
24
“New Embankment on The Thames”, The Times, 7 August 1871.
25
“New Embankment on The Thames”, The Times. The river embankment was estimated to be forty-one miles in length from Blackfriars to Battersea Bridge.
26
In his Mémoires, Haussmann emphasised the importance of public parks within the framework of the modern city; Georges Eugène Haussmann, Mémoires du Baron Haussmann, 3 vols .(Paris: Victor-Havard, 1890–1893), Vol. 3: Grands travaux de Paris.
27
Haussmann’s influence remains visible today in the meandering paths and “corbeille”-shaped flowerbeds in the adjacent smaller gardens. I am grateful to my colleague Prof. Clare A.P. Willsdon for this observation.
28
Whistler to D.C. Thomson, 28 February 1892, Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Pennell–Whistler Collection, PWC 3, GUW #08213.
29
Anna Matilda Whistler to James H. Gamble, 29 November 1871, Glasgow University Library, MS Whistler W541. GUW #06547.
30
Elizabeth Robins Pennell and Joseph Pennell, The Whistler Journal(London: J.B. Lippincott, 1921), 301.
31
Susan Galassi, “Whistler and Aesthetic Dress: Mrs Frances Leyland”, in Whistler, Women and Fashion, ed. Margaret F. MacDonald, Susan Galassi, Aileen Ribeiro, and Patricia de Montfort (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003), 95–96.
32
Galassi, “Whistler and Aesthetic Dress: Mrs Frances Leyland”, 96.
33
Whistler to Frances Leyland, [1/6 January 1874], Library of Congress, Manuscript Division, Pennell-Whistler Collection, PWC 13/1171-72, GUW #10867,http://www.whistler.arts.gla.ac.uk/correspondence/recno/display/?cid=10867.
34
Rossetti to Ford Madox Brown, [August 1874], William Fredeman, ed., The Correspondence of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, 9 vols. (Woodbridge: Brewer, 2002–15), Vol. 6, 523.
35
Marshall, City of Gold and Mud, 222–223.
36
Doy suggests that the presence of balconies had particular implications for bourgeois women since they “turned domestic life outward to the street, rather than towards an inner courtyard”. Gen Doy, Seeing and Consciousness: Women, Class and Representation(London: Routledge, 2020), 62–63.
37
Temma Balducci, Gender, Space, and the Gaze in Post-Haussmann Visual Culture: Beyond the Flâneur(London: Routledge, 2017), 2 and 113.
38
Whistler first met Manet through their mutual friend Henri Fantin-Latour in 1861. In 1864, Fantin-Latour depicted the two men in Hommage à Eugène Delacroix(Musée d’Orsay) in which artists (who also included the painters Alphonse Legros and Félix Bracquemond) and critics (Charles Baudelaire, Edmond Duranty, and Jules Champfleury) gather in tribute to Eugène Delacroix, who had recently died.
39
James McNeill Whistler, Mr Whistler’s Ten O’Clock(London: Chatto & Windus, 1888).
40
James McNeill Whistler, The Gentle Art of Making Enemies, 2nd rev. ed. (London, 1892), 144.
41
Whistler, The Gentle Art of Making Enemies, 144.
42
Judith R. Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight: Narratives of Sexual Danger in Late-Victorian London(Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2013), 21.
43
Oliver, “Fantasies in Granite”, 3.
44
Wilson, The Contradictions of Culture, 69.
45
Elizabeth Wilson, The Sphinx in the City: Urban Life, the Control of Disorder, and Women(Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992), 29.
46
Anon., “London Bridges and their Memories”, Kind Words for Boys and Girls, 1 December 1872.
47
Most London bridges were private enterprises that charged tolls before these were abolished with the passing of the Metropolitan Toll Bridges Act, 1877.
48
See Nead, Victorian Babylon, 62ff .
49
This stretch was lit by electricity between 1878 and 1884 but, after the failure of the Jablochkoff electricity supply company in 1884, gas lighting was reinstated. Halliday, Great Stink of London, 163.
50
Built in 1873, the Albert Bridge proved to be unsound. The modifications under Bazalgette’s direction included incorporating the design elements of a suspension bridge.
51
“The Albert-Bridge at Chelsea”, The Times, 26 December 1871.
52
Deborah Epstein Nord, Walking the Victorian Streets: Women, Representation, and the City(Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1995), 4.
53
Nead, Victorian Babylon, 67.
54
The scene may incorporate an encounter between several prostitutes and a potential customer. See Margaret F. MacDonald and Grischka Petri, James McNeill Whistler: The Paintings: A Catalogue Raisonné(Glasgow: University of Glasgow, 2020),http://whistlerpaintings.gla.ac.uk.
55
Daniel Joseph Kirwan, Palace and Hovel: or, Phases of London Life(Hartford, CT: Columbian Book Company, 1878), 594–595.
56
Kirwan, Palace and Hovel, 590.
57
Henry Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor, 4 vols. (London: Charles Griffin & Company, 1862), Vol. 4, 220.
58
Mayhew, London Labour and the London Poor, Vol. 4, 218–219.
59
Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight, 21.
60
Marshall, City of Gold and Mud, 43.
61
Dennis, Cities in Modernity, 154–155.
62
Albeit the reality may have been much grittier, prompting leading commentators such as George Sala to declare his wish that the Embankment “be something more than a camping-ground for hulking roughs and blackguard little boys”. George Augustus Sala, “Imaginary London”, Belgravia: A London Magazine1 (July 1873): 29–30.
63
Certainly, their aestheticised attire (which includes what looks like Japanese kimonos and parasols) points towards this. See, for example, Battersea Reach from Lindsey Houses(1864/71) or Variations in Violet and Green(1871).
64
Bibliography
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“The Albert-Bridge at Chelsea”. Times, 26 December 1871.
Allen, Michelle. Cleansing the City: Sanitary Geographies in Victorian London.Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2008.
Anon. “London Bridges and their Memories”. Kind Words for Boys and Girls, 1 December 1872.
Balducci, Temma. Gender, Space, and the Gaze in Post-Haussmann Visual Culture: Beyond the Flâneur. London: Routledge, 2017.
“The Chelsea Embankment”. Times, 25 December 1872.
Darling, Elizabeth, and Lesley Whitworth, eds. Women and the Making of Built Space in England, 1870–1950. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007.
Dennis, Richard. Cities in Modernity: Representations and Productions of Metropolitan Space, 1840–1930. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Dorment, Richard. “Whistler and the Thames, Dulwich Picture Gallery, Review”. Daily Telegraph, 21 October 2013.https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/art/art-reviews/10393447/Whistler-and-the-Thames-Dulwich-Picture-Gallery-review.html.
Doy, Gen. Seeing and Consciousness: Women, Class and Representation.London: Routledge, 2020.
D’Souza, Aruna, and Tom McDonough, eds. The Invisible Flâneuse: Gender, Public Space and Visual Culture in Nineteenth-century Paris. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2006.
Fredeman, William, ed. The Correspondence of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, 9 vols. Woodbridge: Brewer, 2002–2015.
Galassi, Susan. “Whistler and Aesthetic Dress: Mrs Frances Leyland”. In Whistler, Women and Fashion, edited by Margaret F. MacDonald, Susan Galassi, Aileen Ribeiro, and Patricia de Montfort, 92–115. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003.
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Patricia de Montfort
Date
14 April 2022
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Panasonic of North America 9TAWV-TW370 Body Worn Camera User Manual Short Term Confidential
User manual instruction guide for Body Worn Camera 9TAWV-TW370 Panasonic Corporation of North America. Setup instructions, pairing guide, and how to reset.
Panasonic of North America 9TAWV-TW370 Body Worn Camera User Manual Short Term Confidential
Panasonic Corporation of North America Body Worn Camera Short Term Confidential
Contents
1. Users manual
2. (Short-Term Confidential) User Manual
(Short-Term Confidential) User Manual
Important Information
Body W or n Camera
Model No. WV -TW370
WV -TW370
Before attempting to connect or operate this pr oduct,
please read these instructions car efully and save this manual for future use.
The model number is abbreviated in some descriptions in this manual.
The model number and serial number of this
product may be found on the surface of the
unit.
Y ou should note the model number and serial
number of this unit in the space provided and
retain this book as a permanent r ecord of your
purchase to aid identification in the event of
theft.
Model No.
Serial No.
For U.S.A
WARNING:
• Batteries (battery pack or batteries installed)
shall not be exposed to excessive heat such
as sunshine, fir e or the like.
• The installation shall be carried out in accor -
dance with all applicable installation rules.
• The connections should comply with local
electrical code.
CAUTION:
• Changes or modifications not expressly
approved by the party r esponsible for compli-
ance could void the user’ s authority to operate
the equipment.
For U.S.A.
[Part 15 Subpart B]
Note: This equipment has been tested and found to comply with the limits for a Class A digital
device, pursuant to part 15 of the FCC Rules. These limits are designed to provide reasonable
protection against harmful interference when the equipment is operated in a commercial
environment. This equipment generates, uses, and can radiate radio frequency energy and, if not
installed and used in accordance with the instruction manual, may cause harmful interference to
radio communications. Operation of this equipment in a residential area is likely to cause harmful
interference in which case the user will be required to correct the interference at his own expense.
[Part 15 Subpart C ]
This transmitter must not be co-located or operated in conjunction with any other antenna or
transmitter .
The available scientific evidence does not show that any health problems are associated with using
low power wireless devices. There is no proof, however, that these low power wireless devices are
absolutely safe. Low power Wireless devices emit low levels of radio frequency energy (RF) in the
microwave range while being used. Whereas high levels of RF can produce health effects (by heating
tissue), exposure of low-level RF that does not produce heating effects causes no known adverse
health effects. Many studies of low-level RF exposures have not found any biological effects. Some
studies have suggested that some biological effects might occur, but such findings have not been
confirmed by additional research. WV-TW370 has been tested and found to comply with FCC
radiation exposure limits set forth for an uncontrolled environment and meets the FCC radio frequency
(RF) Exposure Guidelines.
[Part 15 Subpart E]
Compliance with FCC requirement 15.407(c)
Data transmission is always initiated by software, which is the passed down through the MAC, through
the digital and analog baseband, and finally to the RF chip. Several special packets are initiated by
the MAC. These are the only ways the digital baseband portion will turn on the RF transmitter, which it
then turns off at the end of the packet. Therefore, the transmitter will be on only while one of the
aforementioned packets is being transmitted. In other words, this device automatically discontinue
transmission in case of either absence of information to transmit or operational failure.
Frequecncy Tolerance: within ±20 ppm
MEDICAL:
Consult the manufacturer of any personal medical devices, such as pacemakers, to determine if they
are adequately shielded from external RF (radio frequency) energy. (The unit operates in the
frequency range of 2.412 GHz to 2.462 GHz, and the power output level is 0.1 watts.)
Do not use the unit in health care facilities if any regulations posted in the area instruct you not to do
so. Hospitals or health care facilities may be using equipment that could be sensitive to external RF
(radio frequency) energy.
For U.S.A.
CAN ICES-3(A)/NMB-3(A)
For Canada
For Canada
[RSS-Gen]
This device complies with Industry Canada’ s licence-exempt RSSs. Operation is subject to the
following two conditions:
(1) This device may not cause interference; and
(2) This device must accept any interference, including interference that may cause undesired opera-
tion of the device.
Le présent appareil est conforme aux CNR d’Industrie Canada applicables aux appareils radio
exempts de licence.
L ’exploitation est autorisée aux deux conditions suivantes:
(1) l’appareil ne doit pas produire de brouillage;
(2) l’utilisateur de l’appareil doit accepter tout brouillage radioélectrique subi, même si le brouillage
est susceptible d’en compromettre le fonctionnement.
[RSS-102]
The available scientific evidence does not show that any health problems ar e associated with using
low power wireless devices. Ther e is no proof, howeve r , that these low power wireless devices ar e
absolutely safe. Low power Wireless devices emit low levels of radio fr equency energy (RF) in the
microwave range while being used. Wher eas high levels of RF can produce health ef fects (by heating
tissue), exposure of low-level RF that does not pr oduce heating effects causes no known adverse
health effects. Many studies of low-level RF exposur es have not found any biological effects. Some
studies have suggested that some biological effects might occu r , but such findings have not been
confirmed by additional resear ch. WV -TW370 has been tested and found to comply with IC radiation
exposure limits set forth for an uncontr olled environment and meets RSS-102 of the IC radio
frequency (RF) Exposur e rules.
Les connaissances scientifiques dont nous disposons n’ont mis en évidence aucun problème de
santé associé à l’usage des appareils sans fil à faible puissance. Nous ne sommes cependant pas en
mesure de pr ouver que ces appareils sans fil à faible puissance sont entièr ement sans dange r . Les
appareils sans fil à faible puissance émettent une éner gie radioélectrique (RF) très faible dans le
spectre des micr o-ondes lorsqu’ils sont utilisés. Alors qu’une dose élevée de RF peut avoir des effets
sur la santé (en chauffant les tissus), l’exposition à de faibles RF qui ne pr oduisent pas de chaleur n’a
pas de mauvais effets connus sur la santé. De nombr euses études ont été menées sur les
expositions aux RF faibles et n’ont découvert aucun effet biologique. Certaines études ont suggér é
qu’il pouvait y avoir certains effets biologiques, mais ces r ésultats n’ont pas été confirmés par des
recher ches supplémentaires. WV -TW370 a été testé et jugé conforme aux limites d’exposition aux
rayonnements énoncées pour un environnement non contr ôlé et respecte les r ègles d’exposition aux
fréquences radioélectriques (RF) CNR-102 de l’IC.
[RSS- 2 47 ]
5150-5350 MHz band is restricted to indoor operation only.
La bande 5150-5350 MHz est restreinte à une utilisation à l’intérieur seulement.
High-power radars are allocated as primary users (i.e. priority users) of the bands 5250-5350 MHz
and 5650-5850 MHz and that these radars could cause interference and/or damage to LE-LAN
devices.
Les radars de haute puissance sont désignés utilisateurs principaux (c.-à-d., qu'ils ont la priorité) pour
les bandes 5250-5350 MHz et 5650-5850 MHz, et ces radars pourraient causer du brouillage et/ou
des dommages aux dispositifs LAN-EL.
FCC RF Exposure Warning:
The Body Worn Camera may be carried and operated with only the tested clip. Other non-tested
clips or similar body-won accessories may not comply and must be avoided.
Contents
Important safety instructions ......................................................................................................... 5
About the Battery .......................................................................................................................... 5
Limitation of liability ....................................................................................................................... 7
Disclaimer of warranty ................................................................................................................... 8
Preface ....................................................................................................................... ................... 8
Main functions ............................................................................................................................... 9
About the user manuals ................................................................................................................ 9
System requir ements for a PC .................................................................................................... 10
T rademarks and register ed trademarks....................................................................................... 10
Copyright ..................................................................................................................... ................ 10
Open Source Softwar e ................................................................................................................ 10
Network security ......................................................................................................................... 11
Precautions ................................................................................................................... .............. 12
Precautions for installation .......................................................................................................... 16
Parts and functions ..................................................................................................................... 17
Indicators ..................................................................................................................................... 20
Specifications ................................................................................................................ .............. 23
Standard accessories .................................................................................................................. 25
Optional accessories ................................................................................................................... 25
Important safety instructions
1) Read these instructions.
2) Keep these instructions.
3) Heed all warnings.
4) Follow all instructions.
5) Do not use this apparatus near water . (Common T rigger Box: WV -TW37003, Pairing Dock:
WV -TW37004 and Multi-Dock Charger: WV -TC370 only)
6) Clean only with dry cloth. (Common T rigger Box: WV -TW37003, Pairing Dock: WV-TW37004
and Multi-Dock Charger: WV -TC370 only)
7) Do not block any ventilation openings. Install in accordance with the manufactur er’ s instruc-
tions. (Multi-Dock Charger: WV -TC370 only)
8) Do not install near any heat sources such as radiators, heat r egisters, stoves, or other appara-
tus (including amplifiers) that produce heat.
9) Only use attachments/accessories specified by the manufacturer .
10) Refer all servicing to qualified service personnel. Servicing is requir ed when the apparatus has
been damaged in any way , such as power -supply cord or plug is damaged, liquid has been
spilled or objects have fallen into the apparatus, the apparatus has been exposed to rain or
moisture, does not operate normally , or has been dr opped.
About the Battery
When Using the Battery
DANGER
(1) Misusing the battery may cause the battery to get hot, explode, or ignite and cause serious
injury . Be sure to follow the safety instructions listed below:
• Keep the battery away from heat and fire.
• Do not forcibly set or connect the battery in the r everse direction. The battery has a certain
polarity .
• Do not connect the positive terminal and the negative terminal of the battery to each other
with any metal object (such as a wire).
• T o prevent damages or short-cir cuit of the metal terminal, tightly pack the battery into a case
during transport.
• Do not solder directly onto the battery .
• Do not expose the battery to water or salt water , or allow the battery to get wet.
(2) Do not disassemble or modify the battery . The battery contains safety and protection device
which, if damaged, may cause the battery to generate heat, explode, or ignite.
(3) Do not place the battery on or near fire, stoves, or other high temperature locations. Do not
place the battery in direct sunlight, inside cars, or in hot water . Failur e to observe this may
cause the battery to generate heat, explode, or ignite.
(4) Do not insert the battery into equipment designed to be hermetically sealed. In some cases,
hydrogen or oxygen may be discharged fr om the cell resulting in ruptur e, fire, or explosion.
WARNING
(1) Immediately discontinue use of the battery if, while using, charging, or storing the battery , the
battery is giving out an unusual smell, feels hot, changes color , changes shape or appears
abnormal in any other way . Contact your authorized dealer or Panasonic if any of these prob-
lems are observed.
(2) Do not place the batteries in microwave ovens, high-pr essure containers, or on induction cook-
ware.
(3) In the event that the battery leaks and the electrolyte gets into your eye, do not rub the eye.
Rinse well with water and immediately seek medical care. If left untr eated, the battery fluid
could cause damage to the eye.
(4) If electrolyte leaks fr om the battery and adheres to the skin or clothes, immediately rinse with
water . Otherwise, it may cause skin irritation.
(5) If the battery is leaking or giving out an unusual smell, immediately keep away the battery from
flames. Otherwise, it may be a cause of ignition, smoke, or rupture.
CAUTION
(1) If the device is to be used by small children, an adult should explain the contents of the user’ s
manual to the children. Pr ovide an adequate supervision and ensure that the device is being
used as explained in the user’ s manual.
(2) When the battery is worn out, insulate the terminals with adhesive tape or similar materials
before disposal.
While Charging
DANGER
Be sure to follow the instructions listed below while charging the battery . Failur e to observe those
may cause the battery to become hot, rupture, or ignite r esulting in serious injury .
(1) When charging the battery , either use a specified battery charger or otherwise ensure that the
battery charging conditions specified by Panasonic are met.
(2) Do not attach the batteries to a power supply plug or directly to a vehicle’ s cigarette lighter .
WARNING
Do not continue charging the battery if it does not charge within the specified time. Otherwise, it
may cause the battery to become hot, rupture, or ignite.
CAUTION
(1) The temperature range over which the battery can be charged is 0 °C to 60 °C {32 °F to
140 °F}. Charging the battery at temperatures outside of this range may cause the battery to
become hot or to break. Charging the battery outside of this temperatur e range may also harm
the performance of the battery or reduce the battery’ s life expectancy .
(2) Do not charge the battery near flames or in a car parked under blazing sun. If the battery gets
hot, the protection cir cuit will be activated and the battery may not be charged normally . Also, if
the protection cir cuit is damaged, it may be a cause of an abnormal chemical reaction r esulting
in fire, smoke, heat generation, or ruptur e.
Limitation of liability
THIS PUBLICA TION IS PROVIDED “AS IS” WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EITHER
EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANT ABILITY , FITNESS FOR ANY P ARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR NON-INFRINGEMENT OF
THE THIRD P ARTY'S RIGHT .
THIS PUBLICA TION COULD INCLUDE TECHNICAL INACCURACIES OR TYPOGRAPHICAL
ERRORS. CHANGES ARE ADDED TO THE INFORMA TION HEREIN, A T ANY TIME, FOR THE
IMPROVEMENTS OF THIS PUBLICA TION AND/OR THE CORRESPONDING PRODUCT (S).
Battery Replacement
WARNING
The battery should be replaced only by personnel fr om Panasonic Service Center .
(1) Risk of explosion if battery is replaced by an incorr ect type. Dispose of used batteries accord-
ing to the instructions.
(2) Dispose of used batteries according to the instructions. (Refer to the instructions below for safe
disposal of lithium ion polymer battery .)
When Discharging the Battery
DANGER
Do not discharge the battery using any device except for specified devices. When the battery is
used in devices aside from the specified device, it may harm the performance of the battery or
reduce the battery’ s life expectancy . Also, if the device causes an abnormal current to flow , it may
cause the battery to become hot, explode, or ignite resulting in serious injury .
CAUTION
The temperature range over which the battery can be discharged is –20 °C to 50 °C {–4 °F to
122°F}. Using the battery outside of this temperature range may also harm the performance of the
battery or reduce the battery’ s life expectancy .
Safe Disposal of Lithium Ion Polymer Battery
(1) Be sure to discharge battery cells befor e disposal.
(2) If the battery is physically damaged, it is not recommended to discharge battery cells befor e
disposal.
(3) Battery must also be cooled off befor e proceeding disposal.
(4) Submerge the battery into a bucket or tub of salt water . This container should have a lid but it
does not need to be air -tight.
Allow the battery to remain in the tub of slat water for at least 2 weeks.
(5) Remove the battery from the salt water and dispose of as hazar dous waste.
Disclaimer of warranty
IN NO EVENT SHALL Panasonic System Networks Co., Ltd. BE LIABLE TO ANY P ARTY OR ANY
PERSON, EXCEPT FOR REPLACEMENT OR REASONABLE MAINTENANCE OF THE PRODUCT ,
FOR THE CASES, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO BELOW:
(1) ANY LOSS OR DAMAGE, INCLUDING WITHOUT LIMIT A TION, DIRECT OR INDIRECT , SPE-
CIAL, CONSEQUENTIAL OR EXEMPLARY , ARISING OUT OF OR RELA TING TO THE PROD-
UCT ;
(2) ANY INCONVENIENCE, LOSS, OR DAMAGE CAUSED BY INAPPROPRIA TE USE OR NEGLI-
GENT OPERA TION OF THE USER;
(3) ALL MALFUNCTIONS OR TROUBLES FROM UNAUTHORIZED DISASSEMBLE, REP AIR OR
MODIFICA TION OF THE PRODUCT BY THE USER, REGARDLESS OF THE CAUSE OF THE
MALFUNCTION OR TROUBLE;
(4) INCONVENIENCE OR ANY LOSS ARISING WHEN IMAGES ARE NOT DISPLA YED, DUE TO
ANY REASON OR CAUSE INCLUDING ANY F AILURE OR PROBLEM OF THE PRODUCT ;
(5) ANY PROBLEM, CONSEQUENTIAL INCONVENIENCE, OR LOSS OR DAMAGE, ARISING
OUT OF THE SYSTEM COMBINED BY THE DEVICES OF THIRD P ARTY ;
(6) ANY CLAIM OR ACTION FOR DAMAGES BROUGHT BY ANY PERSON OR ORGANIZA TION
AS A PHOTOGRAPHED SUBJECT DUE TO VIOLA TION OF PRIV ACY CONCERNING A SUR-
VEILLANCE CAMERA'S PICTURE OR SA VED DA T A, FOR SOME REASON (INCLUDING USE
WHEN USER AUTHENTICA TION ON THE AUTHENTICA TION SETTING SCREEN IS SET TO
OFF), BECOMING PUBLIC OR BEING USED FOR ANY PURPOSE;
(7) LOSS OF REGISTERED DA T A CAUSED BY ANY F AILURE (INCLUDING INITIALIZA TION OF
THE PRODUCT DUE TO FORGOTTEN AUTHENTICA TION INFORMA TION SUCH AS A USER
NAME AND P ASSWORD).
Pr eface
WV -TW370 Body W orn Camera is battery-powered camera that is used to recor d images by being
worn on a human body .
It has fisheye lens, which enables shooting with wide angles.
It is also possible to recor d images on the internal memory card of the camera.
About the user manuals
Main functions
Panasonic’ s power -saving design and newly adopted battery enable long hour operation
A long hour operation without charging, such as in two-shift work system, is possible.
Wide angle
Wide angle shooting is achieved by adopting a fisheye lens and 1/2.86 type MOS image sensor .
Compliant with IEEE802.11ac standard, high-speed wir eless communication function is
provided.
The recor ded data can be uploaded in a high speed via wireless communication.
BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy) enables low-power communication with peripheral devices
Low power consumption is achieved in communication with peripheral device.
GPS (Global Positioning System) is adopted
The camera positions can be recor ded.
Robust designing for rough envir onment
• High falling shock resistance compliant with MIL-STS-810G is pr ovided.
• IP67-compliant superior dust-proof and water -proof properties ar e provided.
• A scratch-resistant har d coating is applied to the surface of the fisheye lens.
There is an operating instruction for the WV -TW370 as follows.
• Installation Guide: Explains how to install and connect devices.
The instructions for mounting the optional parts to be used with BWC are
included.
• Important Information (this document): Pr ovides basic information about the pr oduct.
The external appearance and other parts shown in this manual may differ from the actual pr oduct
within the scope that will not interfere with normal use due to impr ovement of the product.
10
System r equir ements for a PC
T rademarks and register ed trademarks
• The Bluetooth word mark and logos are r egistered trademarks owned by Bluetooth SIG, Inc.
and any use of such marks by Panasonic Corporation is under license.
• All other trademarks identified herein are the pr operty of their respective owners.
Copyright
Except for open source softwar e licensed under GPL/LGPL and so on, distributing, copying, disas-
sembling, reverse compiling and r everse engineering of the software pr ovided with this product ar e
all expressly pr ohibited. In addition, exporting any software pr ovided with this product violating
export laws is prohibited.
Open Sour ce Softwar e
• This product contains open source softwar e licensed under GPL (GNU General Public
License), LGPL (GNU Lesser General Public License), etc.
• Customers can duplicate, distribute and modify the source code of the software under license
of GPL and/or LGPL.
• Refer to the “Open Source Software” leaflet for further information about open sour ce software
licenses and the source code.
• Please note that Panasonic shall not respond to any inquiries regar ding the contents of the
source code.
For the system requir ements for a PC, refer to “Operating Instructions” of Back-End Client (Back-
End Application).
11
Network security
As you will use this unit connected to a network, your attention is called to the following security
risks.
q Leakage or theft of information through this unit
w Use of this unit for illegal operations by persons with malicious intent
e Interference with or stoppage of this unit by persons with malicious intent
It is your responsibility to take pr ecautions such as those described below to protect yourself
against the above network security risks.
• Use this unit in a network secured by a fir ewall, etc.
• If this unit is connected to a network that includes PCs, make sure that the system is not
infected by computer viruses or other malicious entities (using a regularly updated anti-virus
program, anti-spywar e program, etc.).
12
Pr ecautions
T urn off the power in air planes
Failure to observe this may interfer e with the
safety of the flight.
Do not bring the camera near medical
devices (Do not bring it into an operating
room, ICU, or CCU, etc.)
The waveform emitted from the device may
affect the medical devices. It may cause mal-
function resulting in an accident.
Refer installation work to the dealer .
Installation work requir es technique and experi-
ence. Failure to observe this may cause injury ,
or damage to the product. Be sur e to consult
the dealer .
T urn the power off when do wiring of this
product.
Failure to observe this may cause electric
shock. In addition, short circuit or wr ong wiring
may cause fire.
Correctly perform all wiring
Short circuits in the wiring or incorr ect wiring
may cause fire or electrical shock.
Do not pull the cables
Failure to observe this may cause injury .
Do not damage the cables
If a heavy object is put on the cable or is
pinched, the cable may be damaged and be a
cause of injury .
Do not rub the edges of metal parts with
your hand
Failure to observe this may cause injury .
Do not use this product in an inflammable
atmosphere
Failure to observe this may cause an explosion
resulting in injury .
The screws and bolts must be tightened to
the specified torque
Failure to observe this may cause a dr op
resulting in injury or accidents.
Do not block the ventilation openings.
Failure to observe this may cause fir e since
blocking the ventilation openings can raise the
temperature inside the pr oduct.
(Multi-Dock Charger:WV -TC370 only)
Do not strike or give a strong shock to this
product
Failure to observe this may cause fir e or injury .
Do not pour or wet the unit.
This may result electric shock or fir e. T urn the
power off immediately and contact qualified
service personnel for service.
(Multi-Dock Charger: WV -TC370,
Common T rigger Box: WV -TW37003,
Pairing Dock: WV -TW37004 only)
Do not insert any foreign objects
Fire or electrical shock may be caused if water
or any foreign objects, such as metal objects,
enter inside the unit.
T urn the power off immediately and contact
qualified service personnel for service.
Do not attempt to disassemble or modify
this product
Failure to observe this may cause fir e or elec-
tric shock.
Consult the dealer for the repair or inspections.
Periodic inspections shall be conducted.
Rust on the metal parts or screws may cause a
fall of the product r esulting in injury or acci-
dents.
Consult the dealer for the inspections.
T urn the power off when cleaning this pro-
duct.
Failure to observe this may cause injury .
13
Stop the operation immediately when
something is wrong with this pr oduct.
When smoke goes up from the pr oduct, the
smell of smoke comes from the pr oduct, or the
exterior of the product has deteriorated, con-
tinued use will cause a fire or fall of the pr oduct
resulting in injury , or damage to the pr oduct.
In this case, turn the power off immediately
and contact qualified service personnel for ser -
vice.
Do not throw into flame
Failure to observe this may cause ignition or
rupture.
Refer disposal to experts
If burned, chemical substance may be dis-
charged and hurt eyes, cause fire or burn.
Use a specified battery charger .
Failure to observe this may be a cause of leak-
age, heat generation, or rupture of the battery .
Do not throw into flame or heat up.
Failure to observe this may be a cause of leak-
age, heat generation, or rupture of the battery .
Use the same model or equivalent lithium
ion polymer battery when replacement is
requir ed.
Failure to observe this may r esult in heat gener -
ation, rupture of the battery , or ignition.
Contact your dealer for replacement of the lith-
ium ion polymer battery .
Do not directly touch the pr oduct with
your skin when it has been turned on for
an extended period.
Direct skin contact with high-temperatur e parts
of the product for extended periods may cause
low-temperature burns.
A lithium ion polymer battery that is recy-
clable powers the product you have pur -
chased.
Please call 1-800-8-BA TTERY for information
on how to recycle this battery .
(L ’appareil que vous vous êtes pr ocur é est ali-
menté par une batterie au lithium-ion/lithium-
polymère.
Pour des renseignements sur le r ecyclage de la
batterie, veuillez composer
le 1-800-8-BA TTERY .)
14
[Precautions for use]
T o keep on using with stable performance
Do not use this product in hot and humid con-
ditions for a long time.
Failure to observe this causes component deg-
radation resulting in life shortening of this pr od-
uct.
Do not expose this product to dir ect heat
sources such as a heater .
Handle this product with car e.
Do not drop this pr oduct, nor apply shock or
vibration to the product.
Failure to observe this may cause tr ouble.
If a strong shock or vibration is applied to the
enclosure, it may cause damage to this pr od-
uct.
About the battery
A battery is installed inside the camera. Do not
leave the battery exposed in environments of
excessive heat as a result of sunlight or fir e.
The capacity of the battery is reduced each
time it is used. In particular , recharging or using
the battery in high-temperature locations
increases deterioration.
Do not touch the lens with your bare
hands.
A dirty lens causes deterioration of picture
quality .
When an error is detected, this pr oduct
will restart automatically .
This product will be inoperable for ar ound 1
minute after the restart just as when the power
is turned on.
Periodically images on the screen appear
to be distorted
When the camera is installed in a location
where it is subject to small vibrations (for
example, when it is installed near devices that
vibrate), images may appear distorted and
stretched lengthways.
This phenomenon is a characteristic of image
pickup devices that use MOS sensors and is
caused by the relationship between the peri-
odic movements of the camera and the timing
that the image sensor reads images. This is not
a problem with the camera.
About internal memory card
The internal memory card is consumables:
Replace it in accordance with their operating
lifetimes. It's operating lifetimes vary depending
on the usage environment and conditions.
Make sure to contact a service engineer when
replacing the internal memory card.
About the MOS image sensor
• When continuously shooting a bright light
source such as a spotlight, the color filter
of the MOS image sensor may become
deteriorated and this may cause discolor -
ation.
Even when changing the fixed shooting
direction after continuously shooting a
spotlight for a certain period, the discolor -
ation may remain.
• When shooting fast-moving subjects or
objects crossing the shooting ar ea may
look to be bending askew .
About the built-in microphone
• If moisture attach to the peristome of buil-
tin microphone, the volume may decr ease.
Please leave it to air dry sufficiently befor e
use.
• When cleaning the peristome of built-in
microphone, do not use any sharp-ended
object to stab it. Doing so may result in
failure.
15
Cleaning this product body
Be sure to turn off the power befor e cleaning.
Failure to observe this may cause injury .
Do not use benzine, thinner , alcohol, or any
other types of solvents or detergents.
Otherwise, it may cause discoloration.
When using a chemical cloth for cleaning, read
the caution provided with the chemical cloth
product.
Do not loozen or remove scr ews unless
instructed to do so in the product documenta-
tion.
Cleaning the lens
Use a lens cleaning paper (used to clean cam-
era lenses or lenses of spectacles).
When using solvent, use an alcohols solvent
and do not use a thinner or a glass cleaner .
A VC Patent Portfolio License
THIS PRODUCT IS LICENSED UNDER THE
A VC P A TENT PORTFOLIO LICENSE FOR THE
PERSONAL USE OF A CONSUMER OR
OTHER USES IN WHICH IT DOES NOT
RECEIVE REMUNERA TION TO (i) ENCODE
VIDEO IN COMPLIANCE WITH THE A VC
ST ANDARD (“A VC VIDEO”) AND/OR (ii)
DECODE A VC VIDEO THA T WAS ENCODED
BY A CONSUMER ENGAGED IN A PER-
SONAL ACTIVITY AND/OR WAS OBT AINED
FROM A VIDEO PROVIDER LICENSED TO
PROVIDE A VC VIDEO. NO LICENSE IS
GRANTED OR SHALL BE IMPLIED FOR ANY
OTHER USE. ADDITIONAL INFORMA TION
MA Y BE OBT AINED FROM MPEG LA, L.L.C.
SEE HTTP://WWW .MPEGLA.COM
Equipment classification and power
source indication label
Refer to the indication label on the rear side of
this unit for the equipment classification, power
source, and other information.
Product disposal/transfer
Data saved on this product or a storage device
used with this product may lead to personal
information leakage.
When it is necessary to dispose or give this
product to someone, even when for r epair ,
make sure that ther e is no data on this prod-
uct.
16
Pr ecautions for installation
Do not place this product in the following
places:
• Locations where a chemical agent is used
such as a swimming pool
• Locations subject to moisture or oil smoke
such as a kitchen
• Locations that have a specific environment
that is subject to an inflammable atmo-
sphere or solvents
• Locations where a radiation, an X-ray , a
strong radio wave or a str ong magnetic
field is generated
• Locations near coasts directly subjected to
sea breezes, or locations subject to corr o-
sive gases such as from hot springs, vol-
canic regions, etc.
• Locations where the temperature is not
within the specified range (–20 °C to
+50°C {–4 °F to 122 °F})
• Locations subject to condensation as the
result of sever e changes in temperature (In
case of installing the product in such loca-
tions, the lens may become foggy or con-
densation may be caused on the lens.)
Sulfurization caused by rubber products
Do not place the product near rubber pr oducts
(packing, rubber feet, etc.) that contain sulfur .
There is a risk that sulfur components in rubber
products may cause electrical parts and termi-
nals, etc. to become sulfurized and corrode.
When noise disturbance may happen
Conduct the power distribution work to keep a
distance of 1 m {3.28 feet} or more fr om the
120 V (for U.S. and Canada) or 220 V – 240 V
(for Europe and other countries) power line.
Or conduct the electric conduit work sepa-
rately (Always connect the metal pipe with
grounding).
Radio disturbance
When this product is used near TV/radio
antenna, strong electric field or magnetic field
(near a motor , a transformer or a power line),
images may be distorted and noise may be
produced.
Panasonic assumes no responsibility for injuries or pr operty damage resulting fr om
failures arising out of impr oper installation or operation inconsistent with this
documentation.
For information about the installation tasks, refer to the pr ovided Installation Guide.
17
Parts and functions
q Status Screen
The operating condition of the camera or a remaining amount of the battery is displayed. The fol-
lowing describes the display layout. Refer to page 20 for further information about details of the dis-
play .
w Audio mute
Press the mute button to mute the audio during r ecording.
q Status Screen
w Mute
Lens
r Port for
External
camera
u B-1 button
i B-2 button
o B-3 button
2 ! Micro USB
Port
4 ! Bottom T erminal
1 ! B-5 button
t Wireless LAN
y Indicator
Mode
0 ! B-4 button
3 ! Power SW (off) 3 ! Power SW (on)
e Record
18
e Record
Start: When it’ s pushed.
Stop: Press and hold the Recor d button for more than two seconds(default) depending on the
settings (2/3/5 seconds).
r Port for Exter nal Camera (Release in March, 2017)
A terminal to connect an external camera. When an exter nal camera is connected, the imaging cir -
cuit with a built-in camera will be automatically turned off.
t Wireless LAN
Wireless LAN has 3 differ ent modes as Station 1/ Station 2/ AP/ OFF .
Station1: For connecting with VPU (Video Processing Unit Recor der of ICV system).
Station2: For connecting with BES (Back end Server).
AP: AP (Access Point) mode for the live view of the system via smart phone application
OFF: T urn off the Wireless LAN
y Indicator Mode
A display mode can be selected from the following:
LED and Vibrator Mode: Indicate the operation or status of system via LED and Vibrator .
LED Mode: Indicate the operation or status of system via LED indicator
Vibrator Mode: Indicate the operation or status of system via Vibrator
None Mode: It doesn’t indicate the operation or status of system
u B-1 button/ i B-2 button/ o B-3 button/ !0 B-4 button/ !1 B-5 button
There ar e configurable buttons on the camera.
Configurable button, Available functions for each button.
B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5
Record Start/Stop Default N/A N/A OK N/A
Classify 1 N/A Default N/A N/A N/A
Classify 2 N/A N/A Default N/A N/A
Classify 3 N/A N/A N/A Default N/A
Snapshot OK N/A N/A OK Default
* About Classify button
The camera has a push switch to select the incidents type and also it has button to add the inci-
dents type to the video data.
19
2 ! Micro USB Port
It will be used for charging and USB connection.
The charging time depends on the connected device,
PC: about 6 hours
Cigar charging adapter: about 3 hours
3 ! Power switch
Control power on/of f
4 ! Bottom T erminal (USB, Power)
A terminal to be used when charging the camera by setting onto Multi-Dock Charger (WV -TC370 :
option) or Pairing Dock (WV -TW37004 : option). Also, it is used when transferring r ecorded data to
the PC.
• BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy) * Equipped inside the camera
A function to be used for making wireless connection with peripheral devices such as Common
T rigger Box (WV -TW37003 : option).
• Wireless LAN * Equipped inside the camera
A function to be used for making wireless connection with Acess Point on IEEE802.11 a/b/g/n/ac
mode.
20
Indicators
Battery indicators
Wireless LAN indicators
There ar e LED indicators in main controller like below details.
■ Wireless LAN indicators (ST1, ST2, ST3, AP , Wireless LAN)
• ST1 (Wireless LAN Station1 Mode Status LED)
Connection to Video Processing Unit (Recor der of ICV system) □ : On ■ : Off
Display and meaning Wireless LAN LED operation ST1 LED operation
Not ST1 mode (LED off /
Power off) ■ Off ■ Of f
Searching Access Point
(No link to Wireless LAN) □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 0.5 sec: Off) □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 2.5 sec: Off)
Has been linked to
Access Point. □ Lights green □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 2.5 sec: Off)
Has been linked to Video
Processing Unit. □ Lights green □ Lights green
T ransfer Data to Video
Processing Unit. □ Lights green □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 0.5 sec: Off)
• ST2 (Wireless LAN Station2 Mode Status LED)
Connection to Back End Server □ : On ■ : Off
Display and meaning Wireless LAN LED operation ST2 LED operation
Not ST2 mode (LED off /
Power off) ■ Off ■ Of f
Searching Access Point
(No link to Wireless LAN) □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 0.5 sec: Off) □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 2.5 sec: Off)
Has been linked to
Access Point. □ Lights green □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 2.5 sec: Off)
Has been linked to Back
End Server
System or completed
uploading.
□ Lights green □ Lights green
Uploading / Streaming /
Data transferring □ Lights green □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 0.5 sec: Off)
• ST3 (Wireless LAN Station3 Mode Status LED )
This indicator is not used (as of January , 2017).
21
• AP (Wireless LAN AP Mode Status LED)
Connected with smart phone □ : On ■ : Off
Display and meaning Wireless LAN LED operation AP LED operation
Not AP mode (LED off /
Power off) ■ Off ■ Of f
AP mode is selected, but
not connected anything. □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 0.5 sec: Off) □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 2.5 sec: Off)
Connected with a
smartphone □ Lights green □ Lights green
Streaming / Playback.
A smart phone is
connected.
□ Lights green □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 0.5 sec: Off)
• Wireless LAN (Wireless LAN Link Status LED) □ : On ■ : Off
Display and meaning Wireless LAN LED operation
Detect any hardwar e
problems □ Lights r ed
No link Wireless LAN o ff
(LED of f / Power of f) ■ Off
W aiting to be linked □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 0.5 sec: Off)
Has been linked to any
client. □ Lights green
■ Battery indicators □ : On ■ : Off
Power SW = On and at not Charging
(Normally operating)
Power SW = On or Off and at Char ging
(Charging)
Lights green Remain = 100% Lights green Remain = 100%
Lights green Remain ≧ Thresh (A) Blink green Remain ≧ Thresh (A)
Lights green Thresh (A) >Remain
≧ Thresh (B) Blink green Thresh (A) >Remain
≧ Thresh (B)
Lights green Thresh (B) >Remain
≧ Thresh (C) Blink orange Thresh (B) >Remain
≧ Thresh (C)
Blink orange Thresh (C) >Remain>5% Blink orange Thresh (C) >Remain>5%
Fast blink red Remain < 5% * 1 Fast blink red Remain < 5% * 1
Off Indicator mode
= LED off mode Of f Indicator mode
= LED off mode
*1 BWC does not wake up.
The values of Thresh (A), Thr esh (B), Thresh (C) can be changed with softwar e.
The defaults are as follows:
Thr esh (A): 50 %, Thr esh (B): 30 %, Thresh (C): 15 %
Fore details, r efer to “Operating Instructions” of Back-End Client (Back-End Application).
22
■ Others
• Inter nal memory card (Storage Status LED)
Remain recor ding time or card status. □ : On ■ : Off
Display and meaning Internal memory card LED operation
LED off / Power of f ■ Off
Remain recor ding time > 3 Hours □ Lights green
3 Hours > Remain recor ding time > 1 Hour □ Lights orange
1 Hour > Remain recor ding time □ ⇔ ■ Blink red
(0.5 sec: On 0.5 sec: Off)
Card Full > Car d Error/Corrupted car d, No Card,
Pr otected car d □ Lights r ed
• Mute (Audio mute LED) Audio Mute on/o ff
Display and meaning Mute LED operation
Audio mute off (LED of f / Power off) ■ Off
Audio Mute on □ Lights orange
Under connected with PC via USB □ ⇔ ■ Blink orange
(0.5 sec: On 0.5 sec: Off)
• BLE (Bluetooth LED) Connect to Bluetooth device. □ : On ■ : Off
Display and meaning BLE LED operation
No link/ Bluetooth off (LED of f / Power off) ■ Off
Sear ching Device □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(0.5 sec: On 0.5 sec: Off)
No pairing information □ ⇔ ■ Blink green
(2.5 sec: On 2.5 sec: Off)
Connected to Bluetooth Device. □ Lights gr een
• Rec (Recording LED) □ : On ■ : Off
Display and meaning Rec LED operation
Not Recording / Recor ding stops (LED off / Power of f) ■ Off
During Recording □ Lights red
Snapshot is recor ded □ → ■ Flash once in the red
Classify is recor ded □ → ■ Flash once in the red
Fail to Start Recording □□□ → ■ Blinking 3 times in the red
When BWC receive the command fr om PC application. □ ⇔ ■ Blink red
(0.5 sec: On 0.5 sec: Off)
23
Specifications
● Basic
Power source: Rechargeable lithium ion polymer battery: 3400 mAh or more
* Battery can be charged using Multi-Dock Charger (WV -TC370),
Pairing Dock (WV -TW37004) or Cigar charging adapter
(accessory) Can be charged from the PC connecting with a USB
cable.
Power consumption: DC 3.7 V/ Approx. 3.4 A/ Appr ox. 12.9 W
Continuous operating time * 1 : 17 hours
(1280 × 720 30 fps mode, Wireless LAN: Off, GPS: On, REC: Of f)
Full-charging term * 2 : About 3 hours
(by Multi-Dock Charger or Cigar charging adapter)
About 6 hours
(by PC USB connection)
Operating environment: Ambient operating temperature: −20°C to +50°C {−4°F to 122°F}
Ambient operating humidity: 10 % to 100 %
Storage environment: Storage temperature: –30°C to +60°C {–22°F to 140°F}
Storage humidity: 10 % to 95 % (no condensation)
Built-in microphone: Nondirectional electr et condenser microphone
Internal memory card: 64 GB
T erminals: External Camera terminal
micro USB terminal
W aterproof * 3 : IP67/IP66 (IEC60529), T ype 4X (UL50), NEMA 4X compliant
On-vehicle support: Compliant with MIL-STS-810G
Dimensions: 70 mm (W) x 86 mm (H) x 31 mm (D)
{2-3/4 inches (W) x 3-3/8 inches (H) x 1-7/32 inches (D)}
(Excluding projections)
Mass: Appr ox. 200 g {0.44 lbs}
Finish: Main body: ABS resin, Lusterless black
*1 The measurement r esult is based on the Panasonic original standard. It varies depending on
the operating environment and system configuration.
*2 Charging with a Multi-Dock Charger (WV -TC370), left at a room temperature. The battery
charging time varies depending on the operating environment and the system configuration.
*3 Limited for the case when the cap of the exter nal camera and the USB connector cap are
properly closed.
24
● Others
Wireless LAN
Communication Standard: IEEE802.11 a/b/g/n/ac
Access Control: CSMA/CA
Frequency Band(ST A): 2.4 GHz band (ISM)
2412 to 2462 MHz, 5 MHz step 11ch
5.3 GHz band
5280 to 5320 MHz, 20 MHz step 3ch (20 MHz BW),
5310 MHz (40 MHz BW)
5.6 GHz band
5500 to 5580 MHz, 20 MHz step 5ch (20 MHz BW),
5660 to 5720 MHz, 20 MHz step 4ch (20 MHz BW),
5510 MHz, 5550 MHz, 5670 MHz, 5710 MHz (40 MHz BW),
5530 MHz, 5690 MHz (80 MHz BW)
5.8 GHz band
5745 to 5825 MHz, 20 MHz step 5ch
5755 MHz, 5795 MHz (40 MHz BW), 5775 MHz (80 MHz BW)
Frequency Band(AP): 2.4 GHz band (ISM)
2412 to 2462 MHz, 5 MHz step 11ch
5.8 GHz band
5745 to 5825 MHz, 20 MHz step 5ch
5755 MHz, 5795 MHz (40 MHz BW), 5775 MHz (80 MHz BW)
SISO: 1x1, 1 stream
Bluetooth
Communication protocol: BLE (Bluetooth4.1)
GPS (Global Positioning System)
Geodetic system: WGS-84
Communication protocol: NEMA-0183
Positioning accuracy
(Open air):
Single GPS: 2.2 m, CEP (5.3 m, 2DRMS)
Follow-up performance: Speed: 200 km/h or less
Acceleration: 2 G or less, Signal follow-up
25
Important Information (this document) ...............................................1 pc.
W arranty card* 1 .................................................................................1 pc.
Code label* 2 ......................................................................................1 pc.
*1 This product comes with several types of warranties. Each warranty is only applicable to the
products pur chased in the regions indicated on the r elevant warranty .
*2 This label may be requir ed for network management. The network administrator shall retain the
code label.
Cigar charging adapter ......................................................................1 pc.
USB charging cable ...........................................................................1 pc.
1st plate ............................................................................................1 pc.
Standar d accessories
Optional accessories
• Multi-Dock Charger:
(Up to eight cameras can be charged simultaneously)
WV -TC370
• Body Worn Exter nal Camera (Release in March, 2017):
(Sub-camera to be connected with BWC)
WV -TW37001
• Common T rigger Box:
(An I/O device to enable camera activation from external devices,
or to notify the external device of camera activation.)
WV -TW37003
• Pairing Dock:
(Connected with the Common T rigger Box with a ethernet cable to
execute initial pairing of Bluetooth. Also, charging can be done
simultaneously .)
WV -TW37004
: This pr oduct is compliant with APPLIANCE EFFICIENCY REGULA TIONS of the California
Energy Commission (CEC).
26
27
Disposal of Old Equipment and Batteries
Only for European Union and countries with r ecycling systems
These symbols on the products, packaging, and/or accompanying documents mean
that used electrical and electronic pr oducts and batteries must not be mixed with
general household waste.
For proper tr eatment, recovery and r ecycling of old products and used batteries, please
take them to applicable collection points in accordance with your national legislation.
By disposing of them correctly , you will help to save valuable resour ces and prevent any
potential negative effects on human health and the envir onment.
For more information about collection and r ecycling, please contact your local
municipality .
Penalties may be applicable for incorrect disposal of this waste, in accor dance with
national legislation.
Note for the battery symbol (bottom symbol)
This symbol might be used in combination with a chemical symbol. In this case it
complies with the requir ement set by the Directive for the chemical involved.
For U.S. and Canada:
Panasonic System Communications
Company of North America,
Unit of Panasonic Corporation
of North America
www .panasonic.com/business/
For customer support, call 1.800.528.6747
T wo Riverfr ont Plaza, Newark, NJ 07102-5490
Panasonic Canada Inc.
5770 Ambler Drive, Mississauga,
Ontario, L4W 2T3 Canada
(905)624-5010
www .panasonic.ca
© Panasonic System Networks Co., Ltd. 2017
NSh1216-0 PGQX2140ZA Printed in Japan
Wiki Guide
PDF
| https://usermanual.wiki/Panasonic-of-North-America/9TAWV-TW370.-Short-Term-Confidential-User-Manual |
Interactive Quiz: Chronic Venous Ulcers | Consultant360
In this interactive quiz, we present a case of a 79-year-old man who has had a 5-month history of poorly healing venous ulcers on the anterior and medial aspect of the left calf, which had been recurring over 14 years. Can you take the correct diagnostic steps and treat this patient? Quizzes
Elderly Patients
Interactive Quiz: Chronic Venous Ulcers
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Welcome to Cardiology Consultant's latest interactive diagnostic quiz. Over the next few pages, we'll present a case and ask you to make the diagnostic steps and treat the patient. Along the way, we'll provide details about the case, and at the end, we'll share the patient's outcome.
Ready to get started? >>
First, let’s meet the patient…
A 79-year-old man with a history of type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension presented with a 5-month history of poorly healing venous ulcers on the anterior and medial aspect of the left calf, which had been recurring over 14 years.
The ulcers were limited to the patient’s left lower extremity and did not involve the contralateral limb, despite his having advanced venous stasis skin changes and swelling on both calves. He reported having leg heaviness and constant pain that is alleviated by elevation of his lower extremities. Additionally, he reported having debilitating venous claudication symptoms, which he described as left calf and thigh pain that radiates up to the flank and buttock upon walking 2 blocks.
The patient had previously been treated with compression stockings and Unna boots at a local wound-care center with minimal success; the ulcers had recurred, along with functionally debilitating symptoms consistent with venous hypertensive disease.
Physical examination revealed visually remarkable calf-size asymmetry, extensive hyperpigmentation, stasis dermatitis, indurated skin, and active open and healed ulcers on the left leg ( Figure 1). The left lower extremity demonstrated +3 (of 4) pretibial and ankle pitting edema extending to the mid-thigh, compared with +2 pitting edema limited to below the knee in the right lower extremity. There were palpable anterior tibial (AT), posterior tibial (PT), and dorsalis pedis (DP) pulses bilaterally.
Are you correct? >>
Answer: All of the above
Lower-extremity arterial Doppler ultrasonography ruled out the presence of peripheral arterial disease. Venous Doppler ultrasonography findings showed no reflux in the superficial and deep vein systems. There was neither acute nor chronic deep vein thrombosis. Given the patient’s cardiovascular risk factors and bilateral leg swelling, transthoracic echocardiography was performed to rule out a cardiac etiology by confirming normal biventricular function.
Before this visit, the patient had had several consultations and vascular Doppler studies at various vein centers; however, he had not undergone intravascular ultrasonography (IVUS) guided endovascular therapy for possible proximal deep vein compression.
Are you correct? >>
Answer: Yes
The decision was made to proceed with iliocaval venography and subsequent examination using IVUS. Under US guidance, the left great saphenous vein (GSV) was accessed using a micropuncture needle and a 4F sheath and subsequent upgrade to an 11F sheath using a Bentson guidewire. The wire was then advanced proximally into the left common iliac vein (CIV) up to the inferior vena cava (IVC); injection of contrast dye showed no apparent venous stenosis ( Figure 2).
However, on evaluation with IVUS, extrinsic compression of the CIV and external iliac vein (EIV), with approximately 70% reduction in diameter compared with the adjacent normal reference segment, was identified ( Figures 3 and 4).
Answer: Balloon dilation with stent deployment
Balloon dilation with stent deployment was performed successfully. Subsequent IVUS showed a complete resolution of diffuse iliac vein compression by right common iliac artery (CIA) after iliac vein stent implantation ( Figures 5 and 6).
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<here is a image c7e61cfc4437df53-6f58e2477343f2b6>
In addition, clear post-procedural improvement to 0% luminal narrowing and wall apposition were demonstrated. Despite this remarkable improvement in luminal patency recorded by IVUS, the post-stent venogram showed no significant difference from the one prior to intervention, demonstrating the important role of IVUS ( Figure 7) despite no identifiable change in luminogram by contrast fluoroscopy.
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Answer: At 1, 3, and 6 months and yearly thereafter
Stent patency was confirmed by duplex ultrasonography at 1, 3, and 6 months and yearly thereafter. Iliac vein stenting resulted in rapid healing of this patient's ulcer as well as in significant improvement in limb pain and swelling; those outcomes have continued without further reports of recurrent open ulcers. With relief of orthostatic leg pain and achiness, the patient returned to baseline normal daily activities. His venous stasis hyperpigmentation improved, and his leg swelling was significantly reduced.
Authors, citation >>
Authors:
Tae An Choi, ANP-BC; Esad Vucic, MD, CBNC; Back Kim, MD; and Nay Htyte, MD, MSc, DASNC
Heart Vein NYC, New York, New York
Citation:
Choi TA, Htyte N, Vucic E, Kim B. Chronic venous ulcer treated with iliac vein stenting for proximal deep vein compression [published online June 18, 2018]. Cardiology Consultant.https://www.consultant360.com/articles/chronic-venous-ulcer-treated-iliac-vein-stenting-proximal-deep-vein-compression.
| https://www.consultant360.com/article/cardiology/interactive-quiz-chronic-venous-ulcers?page=3%3Fpage=5%3Fpage=6%3Fpage=4%3Fpage=3%3Fpage=2%3Fpage=3%3Fpage=2 |
NAE Website - STEWART E. MILLER 1918-1990
BY C. CHAPIN CUTLER AND JOHN R. WHINNERY Stewart Edward Miller, a pioneer in microwave and optical communications, died February 27, 1990, in Middletown,
STEWART E. MILLER 1918-1990
Tribute Author
Dr. John R. Whinnery
Mr. C. Chapin Cutler
Membership Directory
Mr. Stewart E. Miller
Publisher National Academies Press
Released August 1, 1992
Copyright 1992
ISBN 978-0-309-04689-3
Memorial Tributes: National Academy of Engineering, Volume 5
This is the fifth volume in the series of Memorial Tributes compiled by the National Academy of Engineering as a personal remembrance of the lives and outstanding achievements of its members and international members. These volumes are intended to stand as an enduring record of the many contributions of engineers and engineering to the benefit of humankind. In most cases, the authors of the tributes are contemporaries or colleagues who had personal knowledge of the interests and the engineering accomplishments of the deceased.
This is the fifth volume in the series of Memorial Tributes compiled by the National Academy of Engineering as a personal remembrance of the lives and outstanding achievements of its members and international members. These volumes are intended to stand as an enduring record of the many contributions of engineers and engineering to the benefit of humankind. In most cases, the authors of the tributes are contemporaries or colleagues who had personal knowledge of the interests and the engineering accomplishments of the deceased.
Table of Contents
STEWART E. MILLER 1918-1990
Table of Contents
FOREWORD
HERBERT ALLEN 1907-1990
LUIS W. ALVAREZ 1911-1988
ARSHAM AMIRIKIAN 1899-1990
JAMES BLISS AUSTIN 1904-1988
ROY BAINER 1902-1990
WILLIAM B. BERGEN 1915-1987
JAMES BOYD 1904-1987
ROY W. CARLSON 1900-1990
LEO CASAGRANDE 1903-1990
CARL COVALT CHAMBERS 1907-1987
ARTHUR A. COLLINS 1909-1987
THOMAS W. DAKIN 1915-1990
RICHARD W. DAMON 1923-1991
DUNCAN S. DAVIES 1921-1987
RICHARD D. DELAUER 1918-1990
JACOB PIETER DEN HARTOG 1901-1989
JOSEPH K. DILLARD 1917-1988
CHARLES W. ELSTON 1914-1989
MARS G. FONTANA 1910-1988
PAUL D. HANEY 1911-1990
RAYMOND J. HODGE 1922-1990
GEORGE EDWARD HOLBROOK 1909-1987
J. HERBERT HOLLOMON 1919-1985
RAYMOND W. KETCHLEDGE 1919-1987
GARBIS HVANNES KEULEGAN 1890-1989
JAMES R. KILLIAN, JR. 1904-1988
AUGUST UNO LAMM 1904-1989
HELMUT E. LANDSBERG 1906-1985
LESTER LEES 1920-1986
BENJAMIN G. LEVICH 1917-1987
W. BENNETT LEWIS 1908-1987
RAY K. LINSLEY 1917-1990
JOHN A. LOGAN 1908-1987
BERNARD D. LOUGHLIN 1917-1988
YI-SHENG MAO 1896-1989
SACHIO MATOBA 1899-1987
STEWART E. MILLER 1918-1990
RICHARD STETSON MORSE 1911-1988
GERALD L. PEARSON 1905-1987
KENDALL PERKINS 1908-1987
DEAN F. PETERSON 1913-1989
JAN A. RAJCHMAN 1911-1989
WILLIAM BRADFORD WHITEHILL RAND 1902-1988
PHILIP C. RUTLEDGE 1906-1990
WARREN F. SAVAGE 1922-1988
HARRY BOLTON SEED 1922-1989
FRED N. SEVERUD 1899-1990
WILLIAM PENCE SLICHTER 1922-1990
EUGENE C. STARR 1901-1988
CHARLES W. STEPHENS 1930-1990
ELI STERNBERG 1917-1988
ALDERT VAN DER ZIEL 1910-1991
EUGENE W. WEBER 1910-1989
ABEL WOLMAN 1892-1989
APPENDIX
Download Chapter 166KB, PDF
STEWART E. MILLER 1918-1990
BY C. CHAPIN CUTLER AND JOHN R. WHINNERY
Stewart Edward Miller, a pioneer in microwave and optical communications, died February 27, 1990, in Middletown, New Jersey. Most of his career was with the Bell Laboratories, but following his retirement from there in 1983 he was active as a consultant to Bellcore until his death. His fifty- year career in telecommunications established him as one of the most productive and influential leaders of this field.
Stewart (known to friends and colleagues as ''Stew'') was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on September 1, 1918. He attended high school in Wauwatosa, Wisconsin, and three years at the University of Wisconsin before transferring to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, receiving S.B. and S.M. degrees in electrical engineering there in 1941. He joined the Bell Telephone Laboratories (now AT&T Bell Laboratories) that year and began work on microwave radar and its components. He was a technical leader in design of X-band (3 cm) microwave plumbing for the radar bombsight used on B-29 aircraft during World War II. Following the war, he became the key person on the L-3 coaxial cable carrier systems, but saw the potential for greater information capacity through the use of higher carrier frequencies and other wave-guiding systems. He transferred to the Radio Research Department in Holmdel and made vital contributions to circular-electric modes for low-loss millimeter-wave guides, microwave ferrite design, and many other millimeter-wave components.
In the early 1960s, following the demonstration of the laser, Stew was among the first to recognize the potential of optical communications and from that point on concentrated on this rapidly developing technology. At that time there was no good transmission medium for optics because fibers of that date were impossibly lossy. As a result, Stew, who was then director of Guided Wave Research, initiated a program to investigate a variety of periodic lens systems. With the availability of low-loss fibers in the late 1960s, he proposed and participated in the demonstration of single-material fibers that achieved single-mode and multimode guiding through transverse variation of the dielectric material. He also proposed the combination of several optical components on one semiconductor chip, and proposed the name "integrated optics" as analogous to the "integrated circuits" of modern electronics. This proposal stimulated a lively research endeavor, resulting in units that are now being placed in systems.
Stew was made director of Lightwave Research at Bell Laboratories in 1980. Following his retirement from that position, his work at Bellcore concentrated on analysis of semiconductor lasers for improvements in noise and linewidth properties important to advanced fiber-optic communication systems, and he also contributed to the new field of neural networks. Just a year before his death he wrote a fundamental and incisive paper on modal partition noise that was published in the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' (IEEE) Journal of Quantum Electronics (February 1990, p. 242). He had more than forty journal papers and eighty patents to his credit and was also coeditor of two very comprehensive books, Optical Fiber Telecommunications (with Alan Chynoweth) and Optical Fiber Telecommunications II (with Ivan Kaminow).
Stew was elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 1973. He was also a fellow of the Optical Society of America, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, a Life Fellow of the IEEE, and a member of the honor societies Sigmi Xi, Tau Beta Pi, and Eta Kappa Nu. He was instrumental in establishing the annual Optical Fiber Conference, with the first meeting in 1975, and was active in many other conference and professional society committees. He received the Naval Ordnance Development Award in 1945, the IEEE Morris Liebmann Award in 1972, the IEEE W.R.G. Baker Prize Award (with Tingye Li and E.A.J. Marcatili) in 1975, the Stuart Ballantine Medal of the Franklin Institute in 1977, and in 1989 the John Tyndall Award of the Laser and Electro-optics Society of IEEE for distinguished contributions to fiber optics technology.
Stew was an active member of the Freehold, New Jersey, Rotary, and was an enthusiastic and skillful renovator of Corvairs. He is survived by his wife Helen and three sons, Chris Richard of the U.S. Foreign Service; Stewart Ferguson, a pathologist in Tom's River; and Jonathon James, a software designer. His family, friends, and colleagues are proud of the key role he played in the development of lightwave communications—one of the major technologies of this century.
| https://www.nae.edu/188918/STEWART-E-MILLER-19181990?layoutChange=Print |
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15/210-06:10:13.150 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1212 0.3697 1149 2.8036
15/210-06:15:41.322 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1212 0.3697 1148 2.8011
15/210-06:17:11.326 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1212 0.3697 1149 2.8036
15/210-06:20:11.334 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1212 0.3697 1150 2.8060
15/210-06:20:11.338 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1212 0.3697 1150 2.8060
15/210-06:20:13.178 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1212 0.3697 1149 2.8036
15/210-06:23:11.342 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1212 0.3697 1150 2.8060
15/210-06:29:11.354 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1212 0.3697 1149 2.8036
15/210-06:30:41.358 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1149 2.8036
15/210-06:32:11.362 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1212 0.3697 1149 2.8036
15/210-06:35:11.374 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF 1212 0.3697 1149 2.8036
15/210-06:39:41.382 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF 1212 0.3697 1150 2.8060
15/210-06:40:13.226 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF 1212 0.3697 1149 2.8036
15/210-06:50:11.410 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF 1212 0.3697 1148 2.8011
15/210-06:50:11.414 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1212 0.3697 1148 2.8011
15/210-06:54:41.418 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1212 0.3697 1147 2.7987
15/210-06:59:11.430 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1146 2.7962
15/210-07:00:13.273 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1212 0.3697 1146 2.7962
15/210-07:02:11.438 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1146 2.7962
15/210-07:03:41.442 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1145 2.7938
15/210-07:05:11.449 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1145 2.7938
15/210-07:08:11.454 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1144 2.7914
15/210-07:14:11.466 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1143 2.7889
15/210-07:18:41.477 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1142 2.7865
15/210-07:20:13.325 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1143 2.7889
15/210-07:23:11.489 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1142 2.7865
15/210-07:29:11.505 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1141 2.7840
15/210-07:35:11.525 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1141 2.7840
15/210-07:40:13.373 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1214 0.3703 1141 2.7840
15/210-07:42:41.537 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1141 2.7840
15/210-07:48:41.553 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1214 0.3703 1141 2.7840
15/210-07:50:11.557 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1141 2.7840
15/210-07:50:11.561 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1213 0.3700 1141 2.7840
15/210-07:56:11.573 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1214 0.3703 1142 2.7865
15/210-07:59:11.577 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1215 0.3706 1142 2.7865
15/210-08:00:41.581 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1216 0.3709 1142 2.7865
15/210-08:02:11.585 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1217 0.3712 1142 2.7865
15/210-08:03:41.589 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1219 0.3718 1142 2.7865
15/210-08:05:11.593 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1220 0.3721 1142 2.7865
15/210-08:06:41.597 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1223 0.3730 1142 2.7865
15/210-08:08:11.601 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1226 0.3739 1141 2.7840
15/210-08:09:41.605 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1229 0.3748 1141 2.7840
15/210-08:11:11.609 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1232 0.3758 1141 2.7840
15/210-08:12:41.613 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1231 0.3755 1140 2.7816
15/210-08:14:11.617 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1190 0.3629 1139 2.7792
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15/210-08:17:11.625 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 1001 0.3053 1140 2.7816
15/210-08:18:41.625 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF OFF OFF 886 0.2702 1144 2.7914
15/210-08:20:11.629 ON ON ON OFF ON ON ON OFF ON OFF
| https://lasp.colorado.edu/maven/sdc/public/data/sites/site-20220726T201351/anc/eng/sasm2/sci_anc_sasm215_209_215.drf |
Refworld | Ouganda : information sur le Forum pour un changement démocratique (Forum for Democratic Change - FDC); sa structure, son programme électoral, ses dirigeants et ses membres exécutifs; le traitement réservé à ses membres par les autorités
Refworld is the leading source of information necessary for taking quality decisions on refugee status. Refworld contains a vast collection of reports relating to situations in countries of origin, policy documents and positions, and documents relating to international and national legal frameworks. The information has been carefully selected and compiled from UNHCR's global network of field offices, Governments, international, regional and non-governmental organizations, academic institutions and judicial bodies.
Ouganda : information sur le Forum pour un changement démocratique (Forum for Democratic Change - FDC); sa structure, son programme électoral, ses dirigeants et ses membres exécutifs; le traitement réservé à ses membres par les autorités
Publisher Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada
Publication Date 2 June 2010
Citation / Document Symbol UGA103506.EF
Cite as Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Ouganda : information sur le Forum pour un changement démocratique (Forum for Democratic Change - FDC); sa structure, son programme électoral, ses dirigeants et ses membres exécutifs; le traitement réservé à ses membres par les autorités , 2 June 2010, UGA103506.EF, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/4e43d25f2.html [accessed 8 June 2023]
Des sources soulignent que le Forum pour un changement démocratique (Forum for Democratic Change - FDC) est le principal parti de l'opposition en Ouganda ( Political Parties of the World2009, 595; Freedom House 2010; VOA15 avr.2010). Il a été créé en 2004 à la suite d'une fusion entre des groupes de l'opposition, dont le Programme de réforme (Reform Agenda), le Forum parlementaire pour la défense des droits (Parliamentary Advocacy Forum) et le Forum démocratique national (National Democratic Forum) ( Political Parties of the World2009, 595; PHW 20102010, 1507; Europa2009, 4604). Des sources signalent que, lors des élections de février 2006, le candidat du FDC à la présidence Kizza Besigye a récolté 37 p. 100 des voix et que le parti a obtenu 37 sièges au parlement ( Political Parties of the World2009, 595; African Elections Database s.d.) sur les 284 sièges comblés par suffrage direct ( ibid.).
Le « FDC 2006 Manifesto », qui est affiché sur le site Internet du parti, présente les priorités dans cinq domaines pour les années 2006 à 2011, à savoir [traduction] « faire renaître la confiance dans le gouvernement, assurer la sécurité de tous, procurer à chacun des débouchés économiques, investir dans les citoyens ainsi que rétablir la crédibilité du pays et regagner le respect de la communauté internationale » ( ibid. 2006). Le site Internet du parti comprend également le « FDC Strategic Plan »; il s'agit d'un plan pour 2006-2011 axé sur [traduction] « le développement des structures du parti, le recrutement de membres, la création d'un secrétariat national fonctionnel et la mobilisation des ressources » ( ibid. 20 mars 2007). Voici la mission du parti énoncée dans le « FDC Strategic Plan » :
[traduction]
Le FDC est un parti politique ayant pour objectif de faire de l'Ouganda une nation réellement prospère et unie au sein de laquelle les citoyens vivent dans la paix et la dignité sous un gouvernement honnête grâce
a. à la mise sur pied d'institutions assurant la gouvernance démocratique et la reddition de compte;
b. au développement d'un sentiment nationaliste fondé sur la justice et l'égalité;
c. à la création d'occasions renforçant l'autonomie sociale, politique et économique des citoyens ( ibid.).
Dirigeants
Plusieurs sources présentent Kizza Besigye comme le chef (ou le président) du FDC ( Europa2009, 4604; PHW 20102010, 1507; Political Parties of the World2009, 595; New Vision19 août 2009) et Alice Alaso Asianut comme la secrétaire générale ( Political Parties of the World2009, 595; FDC 20 mars 2007; PHW 20102010, 1507). L'ouvrage Political Parties of the Worldaffirme qu'Ogenga Latigo, Sam K. Njuba et Salaamu Musumba sont les vice-présidents du FDC, alors que, selon le Political Handbook of the World ( PHW ) 2010, le vice-président du parti serait Salaamu Musumba (2010, 1507). Le PHW 2010souligne aussi que Ofwono Opondo est le porte-parole, que John Butime est le président national intérimaire et que Geoffrey Ekanya et Nuwe Amanya Mushega comptent également parmi les dirigeants du parti (2010, 1507). Des médias ougandais soutiennent qu'Ingrid Turinawe est la présidente de la Ligue des femmes du FDC (FDC Women's League) ( Daily Monitor20 mars 2010; The Independent23 mars 2010; Daily Monitor30 mars 2010). D'après les Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2009du Département d'État des États-Unis (É.-U.), Abedi Nasser Obole serait le chef de l'aile jeunesse du FDC (É.-U. 11 mars 2010, sect. 3).
Des sources avancent que Kizza Besigye sera le candidat du FDC lors des élections présidentielles de 2011 (FDC s.d.b; VOA15 avr.2010). Il s'agira de sa troisième participation à des élections contre le président en place ( ibid.; FDC s.d.b). Il s'était également présenté aux élections de 2001 et de 2006 ( VOA15 avr.2010; Daily Monitor25 juill.2008). Un média ougandais signale que M.Besigye avait quitté le pays après sa défaite aux élections de 2001 du fait qu'il [traduction] « craignait pour sa vie » ( ibid.). Des sources soulignent que lorsqu'il est rentré au pays en 2005 afin de se présenter aux élections de 2006, il a été arrêté, puis accusé de trahison et de viol ( ibid.; Freedom House 2009). Freedom House souligne qu'il a été disculpé de l'accusation de viol ( ibid.), mais, en 2010, des sources ont précisé que le procès pour trahison était toujours en instance ( AI2010; É.-U. 11 mars 2010, sect. 1.e)
Traitement réservé aux membres par les autorités
Selon un média ougandais, Kizza Besigye a affirmé qu'au cours des six premiers mois de 2007, trois membres du FDC sont décédés alors qu'ils étaient détenus par les policiers; il a également souligné qu'à l'époque, 16 autres partisans du FDC étaient en détention sans avoir subi de procès ( Daily Monitor25 juin 2007). Parmi les sources qu'elle a consultées dans les délais fixés, la Direction des recherches n'a trouvé aucun renseignement sur la situation de ces 16 personnes depuis la déclaration de M.Besigye.
Freedom House signale qu'en juin 2008, le FDC a déclaré que plusieurs membres avaient été arrêtés alors qu'ils participaient à des ateliers de formation à Kampala, à Mbarara et à Naguru, même si les autorités avaient été averties au préalable de la tenue de ces événements (Freedom House 2010).
Les Country Reports 2009soutiennent qu'en janvier 2009, des agents de sécurité auraient [traduction] « torturé à mort » un membre du FDC pour possession illégale d'une arme à feu (É.-U. 11 mars 2010, sect. 1.a).
Un média ougandais fait état de l'assassinat, en juin 2009, d'un militant du FDC qui avait fait campagne pour le parti en participant à des manifestations ainsi qu'à des tribunes radiophoniques ( New Vision8 juin 2009). Selon l'article, les représentants du FDC affirment qu'il a été tué par les autorités de l'État, allégations que nie la police ( ibid.). Les Country Reports 2009soulignent que ce même mois, le porte-parole adjoint du FDC a été maintenu en détention pour une nuit au motif qu'il aurait [traduction] « fait de la propagande » (É.-U. 11 mars 2010, sect. 3).
Selon des médias, un policier qui avait ouvert le feu lors d'un rassemblement du FDC en février 2006, tuant ainsi deux personnes et en paralysant une autre, a été condamné en juin 2009 à 14 ans d'emprisonnement pour homicide involontaire ( BBC25 juin 2009; Daily Monitor25 juin 2009; ISI 26 juin 2009). Le FDC et des organisations de défense des droits de la personne auraient critiqué le jugement, qualifiant la peine de trop clémente ( ibid.).
Des sources soulignent qu'en août 2009, plusieurs membres du FDC ont été arrêtés au cours d'une manifestation à Kampala et qu'ils ont été accusés d'avoir organisé un rassemblement illégal (É.-U. 11 mars 2010, sect. 3; Human Rights Watch janv.2010; AFP 18 août 2009). Une accusation de la sorte pourrait entraîner une peine d'emprisonnement de trois ans ( New Vision19 août 2009). D'après Human Rights Watch, des manifestants ont été battus par des policiers (Human Rights Watch janv.2010). Les Country Reports 2009font état de l'arrestation de 11 membres de l'aile jeunesse du FDC (É.-U. 11 mars 2010, sect. 3), tandis que selon deux médias, il y aurait plutôt eu 10 arrestations (AFP 18 août 2009; New Vision19 août 2009).
Les Country Reports 2009soulignent qu'un membre du FDC aurait été enlevé en août 2009 alors qu'il se rendait à une conférence de presse du parti et que des groupes de défense des droits de la personne en ont imputé la responsabilité au gouvernement; personne ne connaissait l'endroit où celui-ci se trouvait, jusqu'à son retour en décembre 2009 (É.-U. 11 mars 2010, sect. 1.b). De plus, les Country Reports 2009font état d'une accusation portée en septembre 2009 contre le chef de l'aile jeunesse du FDC, Abedi Nasser Obole, parce qu'il aurait organisé des rassemblements illégaux et y aurait participé; il a aussi été arrêté pour menaces à l'endroit du président de la Commission électorale et de quatre commissaires ( ibid., sect. 3).
D'après un média ougandais, en décembre 2009, les policiers auraient eu recours à des gaz lacrymogènes pour maîtriser Kizza Besigye et auraient battu des partisans du FDC à Hoima, où une grande foule s'était massée pour accueillir le cortège du chef du parti ( Daily Monitor7 déc.2009). Parmi les sources qu'elle a consultées dans les délais fixés, la Direction des recherches n'a trouvé aucun renseignement additionnel sur cet incident.
Des médias ougandais signalent que les policiers auraient battu la présidente de la Ligue des femmes du FDC, Ingrid Turinawe, jusqu'à ce qu'elle plonge dans le coma, au cours d'un affrontement entre des partisans du parti et des policiers en raison du traitement réservé à un jeune du FDC qui avait été détenu plus tôt cette semaine-là ( ibid. 20 mars 2010; The Independent19 mars 2010; Daily Monitor30 mars 2010). Les policiers auraient nié les allégations à ce sujet ( ibid.; ibid. 20 mars 2010; The Independent19 mars 2010).
Cette réponse a été préparée par la Direction des recherches à l'aide de renseignements puisés dans les sources qui sont à la disposition du public, et auxquelles la Direction des recherches a pu avoir accès dans les délais fixés. Cette réponse n'apporte pas, ni ne prétend apporter, de preuves concluantes quant au fondement d'une demande d'asile. Veuillez trouver ci-dessous les sources consultées pour la réponse à cette demande d'information.
Références
African Elections Database. S.d. « Elections in Uganda ».
Agence France-Presse (AFP). 18 août 2009. « Uganda Arrests Opposition Demonstrators ». (Factiva)
Amnesty International (
AI
). 2010. « Uganda ».
Amnesty International Report 2010
.
[Date de consultation : 31 mai 2009]
British Broadcasting Corporation (
BBC
). 25 juin 2009. « Fury at Uganda Shooting Verdict ».
[Date de consultation : 19 mai 2010]
Daily Monitor
[Kampala]. 30 mars 2010. Flavia Nafubega. « Turinawe to Sue Police Over Rukiga Violence ».
[Date de consultation : 26 mai 2010]
_____. 20 mars 2010. Gerald Bareebe et Joseph Mazige. « Fighting in Kabale Ahead of Key By-election ».
[Date de consultation : 26 mai 2010]
_____. 7 décembre 2009. Francis Mugerwa, Isaac Imaka et Ausi Balyesiima. « Police Block Rally, Teargas Besigye ».
[Date de consultation : 26 mai 2010]
_____. 25 juin 2009. Alfred Nyongesa et Lydia Mukisa. « Uganda: Anger as Magara gets 14 Years in Jail for Killing FDC Supporters ». (All Africa)
[Date de consultation : 19 mai 2010]
_____. 25 juillet 2008. Francis Mugerwa. « Besigye Claims Plot to Re-Arrest Him ». ( BBCMonitoring Africa/Factiva)
_____. 25 juin 2007. Risdel Kasasira. « FDC Men Died in Army Jail - Besigye ». (All Africa Global Media via Comtex/Factiva)
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2009
.
[Date de consultation : 19 mai 2010]
The Europa World Year Book 2009. 2009. « Uganda ». Londres : Routledge.
Forum for Democratic Change (FDC). 20 mars 2007. « FDC Strategic Plan ».
[Date de consultation : 19 mai 2010]
_____. 2006. « FDC 2006 Manifesto ».
[Date de consultation : 20 mai 2010]
_____. S.d.a. « Constitution of Forum for Democratic Change ».
[Date de consultation : 19 mai 2010]
_____. S.d.b. « Welcome to Forum for Democratic Change Uganda ».
[Date de consultation : 19 mai 2010]
Freedom House. 2010. « Uganda ». Countries at the Crossroads 2010. <<http://www.freedomhouse.org/modules/publications/ccr/modPrint Version.cfm?edition=9&ccrpage=43&ccrcountry=199> [Date de consultation : 19 mai 2010]
_____. 2009. « Uganda ». Freedom in the World 2009. <<http://www.freedomhouse.org/inc/content/pubs/fiw/inc_country_detail .cfm?year=2009&country=7725&pf> [Date de consultation : 19 mai 2010]
Human Rights Watch. Janvier 2010. « Uganda ».
World Report 2010: Events of 2009
.
[Date de consultation : 19 mai 2010]
The Independent
[Kampala]. 19 mars 2010. Mubatsi Asinja Habati. « Police Beat Up FDC Chiefs in Rukiga By-Election Campaign ».
[Date de consultation : 19 mars 2010]
[Kampala]. 19 août 2009. Edward Anyoli. « FDC Supporters Charged, Remanded ».
[Date de consultation : 26 mai 2010]
_____. 8 juin 2009. « FDC Activist was Shot Dead - Police ».
[Date de consultation : 26 mai 2010]
Political Handbook of the World 2010 ( PHW 2010). 2010. « Uganda ». Sous la direction d'Arthur S. Banks, Thomas C. Muller, William R. Overstreet et Judith F. Isacoff. Washington : CQ Press.
Political Parties of the World. 2009. 7th ed. Sous la direction de D. J.Sagar. Londres : John Harper Publishing.
La Voix de l'Amérique ( VOA). 15 avril 2010. « Uganda Opposition FDC Elects Besigye as 2011 Presidential Candidate ». (Factiva)
Autres sources consultées
Sites Internet, y compris :European Country of Origin Information Network (ecoi.net), International Crisis Group, Nations Unies - Refworld, Uganda Human Rights Commission (UHRC).
Document annexé
Forum for Democratic Change (FDC). S.d.a. « Constitution of Forum for Democratic Change ».
| https://www.refworld.org/country,,IRBC,QUERYRESPONSE,UGA,456d621e2,4e43d25f2,0.html |
(PDF) Effect of hot water treatment on the incidence of lenticel browning and quality of mango fruits
PDF | The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effect of hot water treatment on the incidence of lenticel browning (LB) in mango, which... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
Effect of hot water treatment on the incidence of lenticel browning and quality of mango fruits
December 2016
Indian Journal of Horticulture 73(4):576-580
DOI: 10.5958/0974-0112.2016.00118.3
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
Abstract
The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effect of hot water treatment on the incidence of
lenticel browning (LB) in mango, which is becoming one of the main problems in handling and trade of fresh
fruits. Fruits of four selected mango varieties (Indian – ‘Dashehari’, ‘Langra’; Exotic – ‘Sensation’, ‘Eldon’)
which were found susceptible to LB, were subjected to hot water treatment (HWT) at different levels (45°, 50°
and 55°C for 30 min.). After treatment, the fruits were stored at ambient conditions (35 ± 4ºC and 65 ± 5% RH) for 10 days. At the end of storage period, observations were recorded on various parameters. Our results revealed that fruits of ‘Langra’ exhibited 100% LB, followed by ‘Dashehari’ (52.8%), ‘Sensation’ (35.9%) and ‘Eldon’ (28.3%). All levels of hot water treatment reduced the LB to a greater extent as well as improved fruit quality
attributes signifiantly over untreated fruits. The best results were obtained with HWT at 50°C for 30 min. for
reducing LB and fruit decay in different mango varieties and maintaining better quality over untreated fruits.
Thus, it can be concluded that hot water treatment at 50°C for 30 min. could be recommended for reducing
incidence of LB in mango.
Keywords: Enzymes, fruit quality, mango, hot water treatment, lenticel browning.
INTRODUCTION
Mango ( Mangifera indica L.), commonly called
as the ‘King of fruits’ and traditional fruit of India
(Chattopadhyay, 2). It is being grown for over 400
years and its production accounts for over 45% of
the global mango production. At national level, its
importance can be judged from the fact that mango
alone contributes 34.7% of the total fruit production
(Anon, 1). Mango export has been increased from Rs.
209 crores in 2011-12 to Rs. 285 crores in 2014-15,
representing a growth of about 35 per cent. The major
ve importing countries of Indian mangoes are UAE,
UK, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Qatar , which comprises
around 80% of total export. Mango export is becoming
the time-to-time, there has been occurrence of several
hurdles in export (Chattopadhyay, 2). Several factors
affect the fruit appeal and quality during trade, but
lenticel browning (LB) is responsible for quality loss of
mango fruits at both domestic trade and export from
the country (Rymbai et al ., 11).
Lenticels are macroscopic openings present on
fruit peel, and stem of fruit plants (Wenneker and
Kohl, 17). These play signicant role in physiological
processes like transpiration and exchange of gases,
but their browning and discoloration has greater effect
on fruit appeal, which makes farmers to bear the loss
in economic terms. It also affects the fruit quality
(Rymbai et al. , 11). Once its initiation starts, several
other factors, favour its expansion further on the fruit
(Cronje, 3).
Mango fruits respond well to postharvest hot water
treatment, especially for the management of diseases
(Joyce et al ., 6) but no attempt has been made to study
its impact on LB. Hence, keeping this fact in mind, we
attempted different levels of postharvest hot water
treatments on mango fruits to observe its effects on LB.
The fruits of different mango varieties were
procured from the Experimental Orchard of the
Division of Fruits and Horticultural T echnology ,
ICAR-IARI, New Delhi and the study was undertaken
in the Division of Food Science and Postharvest
T echnology , during 2014-15. On the basis of
preliminary screening study, two most susceptible
Indian (‘Langra’ and ‘Dashehari’) and exotic
(‘Sensation’ and ‘Eldon’) varieties of mango were
selected for this study. Fruits were subjected to hot
water treatment (HWT) at three levels, i.e. , HWT at
45°, 50° and 55°C temperature for 30 min., and a
simple tap water dip was given to fruits under control.
Hot water treatment was given to 50 fruits of each
variety, replicated three times. After treatment, the
fruits were stored at ambient conditions (35 ± 4ºC
Effect of hot water treatment on the incidence of lenticel browning and
quality of mango fruits
K. Prasad, R.R. Sharma * , Manish Srivastav ** and Shruti Sethi
Division of Food Science and Postharvest T echnology , ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi 110 012
ABSTRACT
The present investigation was undertaken to evaluate the effect of hot water treatment on the incidence of
lenticel browning (LB) in mango, which is becoming one of the main problems in handling and trade of fresh
fruits. Fruits of four selected mango varieties (Indian – ‘Dashehari’, ‘Langra’; Exotic – ‘Sensation’, ‘Eldon’)
which were found susceptible to LB, were subjected to hot water treatment (HWT) at different levels (45°, 50°
and 55°C for 30 min.). After treatment, the fruits were stored at ambient conditions (35 ± 4ºC and 65 ± 5% RH) for
10 days. At the end of storage period, observations were recorded on various parameters. Our results revealed
that fruits of ‘Langra’ exhibited 100% LB, followed by ‘Dashehari’ (52.8%), ‘Sensation’ (35.9%) and ‘Eldon’
(28.3%). All levels of hot water treatment reduced the LB to a greater extent as well as improved fruit quality
attributes signicantly over untreated fruits. The best results were obtained with HWT at 50°C for 30 min. for
reducing LB and fruit decay in different mango varieties and maintaining better quality over untreated fruits.
Thus, it can be concluded that hot water treatment at 50°C for 30 min. could be recommended for reducing
incidence of LB in mango.
Keywords: Enzymes, fruit quality , mango, hot water treatment, lenticel browning.
*Corresponding author’s E-mail: rrs_fht@rediffmail.com
**Division of Fruits and Horticultural T echnology, ICAR-IARI, New Delhi
DOI : 10.5958/0974-0112.2016.001 18.3
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577
Effect of Hot Water Treatment on Lenticel Browning in Mango
and 65 ± 5% RH) for 10 days. At the end of storage
period, observations were recorded on the incidence
of LB, fruit decay, total phenols content and activity
of polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase enzymes and
fruit quality attributes.
Lenticel browning in mango fruits was estimated
by counting the number of lenticels browned on the
peel present per cm 2 and represented as percentage.
Fruit decay was estimated by counting the disease-
infected fruits among healthy ones, and represented
as percentage. T otal phenolic content was estimated
using Sharma et al . (12) method, and expressed as
mg GAE g -1 fresh weight. Polyphenol oxidase (PPO)
enzyme activity was estimated by method developed
by Sharma et al. (13). The enzyme activity was
recorded at the interval 30 sec. and the PPO activity
was expressed as ∆ A 410 OD min -1 g -1
.
Peroxidase (POD) enzyme extraction was also
carried out at 4°C. First, 0.15 ml of 4% guaiacol was
added to 0.15 ml of 1% hydrogen peroxide, 2.6 ml of
0.1 M phosphate buffer was added to this and the pH
was maintained at neutral, i.e . 7.0. T o this mixture, 40
µl of enzyme extract was added. The absorbance of
this reaction mixture was recorded at 410 nm at room
temperature and the POD activity was expressed as
∆ A 470 O.D. min -1 mg -1 .
Under quality attributes, total soluble solids of
mango fruit pulp were estimated at room temperature
by using Fisher's hand refractometer having range 0
to 50 and results were expressed in ºBrix. The total
carotenoids content was estimated by homogenising
5 g pulp in 15 ml acetone. Crushing was continued
till the pulp turned totally white, which shows the
complete removal of pigments. The sample was
then put in separating funnel to separate the clean
golden coloured carotenoids. Petroleum ether was
then added with 2-3 pinches of sodium sulphate.
The separating funnel was kept undisturbed after a
vigorous shaking. Golden coloured pigment solution
layer was collected in volumetric ask. The sample
was further taken in cuvette and the absorbance
was recorded on spectrophotometer at 452 nm
wavelength. The carotenoid contents were expressed
as mg 100 g -1 pulp.
The data obtained from the experiment were
analysed, using factorial CRD design (two factor CRD)
with each treatment consisting of three replications.
The online statistical software of ICAR-IASRI, New
Delhi and CCSHAU, Hisar were used for the analysis
of data and the results were compared from ANOV A
table by calculating the critical difference.
RESUL TS AND DISCUSSION
All treatments of HWT reduced lenticel browning
over control fruits, but fruits treated with HWT at
50°C for 30 min. had the lowest incidence of lenticels
browning (11.2%) (T able 1). Reduction in lenticels
browning by hot water treatment at appropriate
time-temperature combination may be because of
induction of resistance developed against water entry
and damage, as reported in mango by Joyce et al.
(6). Signicant reduction in LB at HWT (50°C) may
also be attributed to signicant reduction in PPO and
POD activities in comparison to other treatments
and control.
Irrespective of treatment, signicant dif ferences
occurred among varieties with respect to incidence
of lenticel browning. ‘Langra’ exhibited the highest
incidence of lenticel browning (100%) and ‘Eldon’
the lowest (4.8%) (T able 1). These differences in
LB among varieties may be attributed to genetic
differences among them. In an earlier study , ‘T ommy
Table 1. Effect of hot water treatment on lenticel browning and postharvest decay in mango at 10 th day of storage
under ambient conditions (35 ± 4ºC and 65 ± 5% RH).
Treatment Lenticel browning (%) Mean Postharvest decay (%) Mean
Indigenous Exotic Indigenous Exotic
Dashehari Langra Sensation Eldon Dashehari Langra Sensation Eldon
Control 52.8 100 35.9 28.3 54.2 53.3 66.6 60.0 53.0 58.3
HWT @ 45°C for
30 min.
40.0 52.8 12.7 13.3 29.7 30.0 43.3 30.0 23.0 31.5
HWT @ 50°C for
30 min.
15.0 18.0 7.1 4.8 11.2 12.0 13.3 16.4 13.3 13.7
HWT @ 55°C for
30 min.
56.2 82.3 25.0 26.6 47.5 43.3 40.2 33.5 23.3 35.0
Mean 41.0 63.2 20.1 18.2 - 34.6 40.8 34.9 28.2 -
CD 0.05 Variety (V) = 1.8; Treatment (T) = 1.8 and
V × T = 3.6
Variety (V) = 5.5; Treatment (T) = 5.5 and
V × T = 1 1.0
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578
Indian Journal of Horticulture, December 2016
Atkins’ and ‘Keitt’ mango have been reported to be
more susceptible, while ‘Kent’ to be less susceptible
to LB in South Africa (Oosthuyse, 9). Furthermore,
irrespective of variety, treatment had signicantly
influenced the incidence of lenticel browning in
mango, as it was the highest in untreated (control)
fruits (54.2%) and lowest in fruits treated with hot
water treatment at 50°C for 30 min. (1 1.2%) (T able 1).
The interaction between variety and treatment (V x
T) was also effective as untreated (control) fruits of
‘Langra’ exhibited the maximum incidence of lenticel
browning (100%) and ‘Eldon’ fruits treated with hot
water treatment at 50°C for 30 min. exhibited the
lowest incidence of lenticel browning (4.8%) (T able
1). This may be due to synergistic and interactive
inuence of genotype and HWT on LB.
Postharvest decay is directly related to the
incidence of lenticel browning and was recorded to
be having signicant differences among the varieties
and treatments. Among varieties, ‘Langra’ has shown
the highest postharvest decay (66.6%) signicantly
followed by ‘Sensation (60.0%) and minimum in
‘Eldon’ (53.0%). This variation in postharvest decay
among different mango varieties may be due to
genetic variability existing among them. The highest
postharvest decay was recorded in control fruits
(58.3%) and minimum in fruits, which received hot
water treatment at 50°C for 30 min. with a decay of
13.7% (T able 1). The interaction of variety x treatment
(V x T) was also signicant as untreated (control) fruits
of ‘Langra’ have shown maximum postharvest decay
(66.6%) and ‘Dashehari’ fruits treated with hot water
at 50°C for 30 min. showed the minimum postharvest
decay (12.0%) (T able 1). The higher incidence of
postharvest decay at a higher temperature might
be due to tissue breakdown, which shows that time-
temperature combination of hot water treatment is also
equally important in mango as reported by Jabbar et
al. (5).
Phenolic content increased with hot water
treatment but up to a certain limit of hot water, i.e. ,
up to 50°C for 30 min., above which, it had displayed
a decrease in phenolic content. This indicates that
increase in total phenolic content was inversely
related with the incidence of lenticel browning.
Whereas increase in the phenolic content up to
certain time-temperature combination of hot water
treatment supports the ndings of Xu et al. (18) who
reported that hot water treatment increased phenol
content of citrus but only up to a certain limit. With
respect to varieties and treatments, significant
differences were observed in total phenolic content
of the mango fruit peel (T able 2). Among varieties,
irrespective of the treatment, the highest total
phenolic content was recorded in fruits of ‘Sensation’
variety (16.54 mg GAE/100 g), whereas the lowest
value was exhibited by the fruits of ‘Langra’ variety
(9.33 mg GAE/100 g). This nding is in supportive of
conclusions drawn by Sogi et al. (15) who reported
that differences among different mango varieties for
the phenolic content may be due to the differences
in the composition of polysaccharides in them. In the
similar way, treatments were also found to be have
signicant differences for total phenolic content, as
highest content among treatments was recorded in
fruits receiving HWT at 50°C for 30 min. (15.55 mg
GAE/ 100 g) and lowest in fruits treated with hot water
treatment at 55°C for 30 min. (12.30 mg GAE/ 100 g).
Similarly, interaction of variety and treatment (V x T)
was also found to be having signicant differences
as fruits of ‘Sensation’ receiving hot water treatment
of 50°C for 30 min. exhibited the highest total phenol
content (20.44 mg GAE/100 g), whereas the lowest
content was recorded in untreated (control) fruits of
‘Langra’ (T able 2).
There was a signicant difference in polyphenol
oxidase activity for varieties and treatments. Among
varieties, the highest polyphenol oxidase activity was
recorded in the fruits of ‘Langra’ (1.084 ∆A 410 OD min -1
mg -1 ) and among treatments the highest polyphenol
activity was exhibited by untreated (control) fruits
(0.791 ∆ A 410 OD min -1 mg -1 ). The interaction of variety
x treatment was also found signicant as ‘Eldon’ fruits
treated with hot water treatment at 50°C for 30 min.
had displayed the lowest polyphenol oxidase activity
(0.268 A 410 OD min -1 mg -1 ), whereas untreated (control)
fruits of ‘Langra’ exhibited the highest polyphenol
oxidase activity (1.267 A 410 OD min -1 mg -1 ) (T able 2).
Peroxidase enzyme activity showed a pattern similar
to polyphenol oxidase activity , which was signicant
among the treatments and varieties. In case of
treatments, untreated (control) fruits exhibited the
highest peroxidase enzyme activity (0.119 ∆ A 470 OD
min -1 mg -1 ), whereas fruits of ‘Langra’ have shown the
maximum peroxidase enzyme activity (0.123 ∆ A 470 OD
min -1 mg -1 ) (T able 2).
With respect to polyphenol oxidase (PPO)
and peroxidase (POD) enzymatic activities, our
ndings indicate that polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and
peroxidase (POD) enzymatic activities in mango
was directly inuenced by the occurrence of lenticel
browning as signicant differences were observed
both by varieties and treatments, which can be
correlated directly with the incidence of lenticel
browning and the treatments which collaborates with
the work of Prasad et al. (10). Among varieties, the
highest polyphenol activity was recorded in ‘Langra’
fruits and among treatments, the highest polyphenol
activity was exhibited by untreated (control) fruits
(T able 2). Our ndings corroborate with the ndings
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579
Effect of Hot Water Treatment on Lenticel Browning in Mango
drawn by Menezes et al. (8) who showed decline in
PPO activity with the increase in the temperature of
hot water treatment in mango fruits. However, on
the other hands, our results reveal that there was
increase in polyphenol oxidase enzyme activity at
further higher level of time-temperature combination,
i.e. hot water treatment of 55°C for 30 min. This
increase in enzyme activity at high temperature
might be related with pericarp browning (Sivakumar
et al. , 14).
Our ndings showed that peroxidase activity
was highest in fruits of ‘Langra’ (T able 3). In case
of treatments, untreated (control) fruits exhibited
the highest peroxidase activity (0.120 ∆ A 470 O D
min -1 mg -1 ) and there was a gradual decrease in
POD enzyme activity with increase in temperature
but only upto 50°C. Increase in temperature, POD
enzyme activity increased, which corroborate with
the work done of Varit and Songsin (16) in banana.
Under studied quality parameters, soluble solids
content (SSC) in mango varieties were signicantly
inuenced (T able 3), which might be attributed by
the genetic differences existing among the varieties
as highest soluble solids content was observed
in ‘Langra’ (19.2°B) and lowest in ‘Eldon’ (14.0°B)
(T able 3). Further, the results indicated that total
soluble solids among the treatments were non-
signicant. Although an increasing pattern of total
soluble solids were observed with HWT at 45 and
5°C but it deceased with the increase in hot water
treatment to 55°C. These ndings are in line with
these of Kumah et al. (7).
The carotenoid contents were also observed to be
having signicant differences among the varieties and
within treatments. Among the varieties, ‘Dushehari’
was recorded for the maximum carotenoid content
(5.2 mg/100 g pulp), and ‘Sensation’ the minimum
(2.6 mg/100 g pulp). These differences in carotenoid
content among varieties may be due to varietal
characteristics. In treatments, hot water treatment at
both the levels, i.e. at 45° and 50°C had shown the
highest carotenoid content (4.0 mg/100 g pulp), which
was signicantly different to control (3.8 mg/100 g
there was an increase in total carotenoids but up
to certain temperature, and thereafter, there was a
decline. These results are in line with the work of
Djiouaa et al. (4) who reported that up to a specic
increase in temperature of hot water treatment (45-
50°C), there was an increase in total carotenoids
content. We have also observed similar results. This
decrease in total carotenoids content might be due
to isomerisation of carotenoids at higher temperature
(Djiouaa et al. , 4).
Table 2. T otal phenolic content, polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and peroxidase (POD) activities in mango varieties as inuenced by hot water treatment at 10 th
day of storage at ambient conditions (35 ± 4ºC and 65 ± 5% RH).
Treatment T otal phenolic content
(mg GAE/100 g)
Mean Polyphenol oxidase activity
(∆ A 410 O.D min -1 g -1 )
Mean Peroxidase activity
(∆ A 470 O.D. min -1 mg -1 )
Mean
Indigenous Exotic Indigenous Exotic Indigenous Exotic
Dashehari Langra Sensation Eldon Dashehari Langra Sensation Eldon Dashehari Langra Sensation Eldon
Control 1 1.83 9.33 16.54 13.07 12.69 0.816 1.267 0.608 0.476 0.791 0.134 0.197 0.093 0.054 0.119
for 30 min.
12.96 10.95 18.93 14.92 14.44 0.653 1.096 0.515 0.366 0.657 0.091 0.106 0.055 0.037 0.072
HWT @ 50°C
for 30 min.
14.31 11.94 20.44 15.54 15.55 0.524 0.853 0.361 0.268 0.501 0.034 0.073 0.025 0.022 0.038
HWT @ 55°C
for 30 min.
11.81 8.92 15.55 12.93 12.30 0.715 1.122 0.582 0.426 0.711 0.107 0.116 0.075 0.043 0.085
Mean 12.72 10.28 17.86 14.11 0.513 1.084 0.516 0.384 - 0.091 0.123 0.062 0.039 -
CD (0.05) Variety (V) = 0.04; T reatment (T) = 0.04
Variety (V) = 0.002; T reatment (T) = 0.002
V × T = 0.005
Variety (V) = 0.002; T reatment (T) = 0.002
V × T = 0.004
of Agriculture, Government of India, Gurgaon,
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Amin, M., Khan, A.S., Rajwana, I.A., Saleem,
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Table 3. Ef fect of hot water treatment on total soluble solids and total carotenoids in mango at 10 th day of storage
at ambient conditions (35 ± 4ºC and 65 ± 5% RH).
Treatment Soluble solid contents (°B) Mean T otal carotenoids content (mg 100 g -1 pulp) Mean
Indigenous Exotic Indigenous Exotic
Dashehari Langra Sensation Eldon Dashehari Langra Sensation Eldon
Control 15.0 19.0 18.0 13.0 16.2 5.2 3.3 2.6 4.1 3.8
HWT @ 45°C for
30 min.
16.0 19.5 15.0 14.0 16.1 5.6 3.9 2.8 3.8 4.0
HWT @ 50°C for
30 min.
15.0 20.5 16.0 15.0 16.6 5.1 4.2 3.1 3.6 4.0
HWT @ 55°C for
30 min.
16.0 18.0 15.0 14.0 15.7 4.8 3.1 2.8 3.6 3.5
Mean 15.5 19.2 16.0 14.0 5.2 3.6 2.8 3.7
CD 0.05 Variety (V) = 0.8; Treatment (T) = N.A.
V × T = 1.7
CD (0.05) V ariety (V) = 0.15; T reatment (T) = 0.15
V × T = 0.3
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Effect of Hot Water Treatment on Lenticel Browning in Mango
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Received : January, 2016; Revised : October , 2016;
Accepted : November, 2016
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(Prasad et al. 2016b
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Kalyan Barman
Meenakshi Kumari
In this study, fifteen commercial varieties, nine exotic genotypes, and three wild species of tomato grown in Eastern India were analyzed for variations in different phytochemicals viz. ascorbic acid, lycopene, total carotenoids, total phenolics content and total antioxidant capacity. Selected genotypes showed significant differences with respect to phytochemical composition. Among antioxidant property parameter, ascorbic acid content ranged between 12.62 to 76.15 mg 100 g-1 of Fresh Weight (FW), whereas, the total phenolic content and total antioxidant capacity varied from 41.10 to 139.59 mg GAE 100 g-1 of FW and 1.16 to 4.52 µmol Trolex Equivalent (TE) g-1 of FW, respectively. Among carotenoid parameters, lycopene and total carotenoids content in whole tomato fruit ranged between 0.47 to 5.48 and 1.14 to 5.79 mg 100 g-1 of FW, respectively. Interestingly, it was found that, among the evaluated genotypes, Exotic Collection (EC lines) showed significant enriched amount of these phytochemicals. Results indicated that the maximum ascorbic acid (76.15 mg 100 g-1 FW), total phenolics content (139.59 mg GAE 100 g-1 of FW), and total antioxidant capacity (4.52 µmol TE g-1 of FW) was highest in exotic collection EC 528372, while, lycopene (5.48 mg 100 g-1 of FW) and total carotenoids content (5.79 mg 100 g-1 of FW) were recorded highest in cultivar Rio Grande. Thus, this group of screened genotypes consisting of phytochemical rich wild species and exotic collection can be further used for improvement of functional quality of tomato in future breeding programs of India and the Indo Gangetic region.
Hydrocolloid edible coatings extend shelf life, reduce postharvest decay, and maintain keeping quality of mango fruits (Mangifera indica L.) under ambient storage
J FOOD BIOCHEM
K. Prasad
R. R. Sharma
Ram Asrey
Ajay Arora
Mango fruit exhibit high postharvest losses due to physiological, biochemical, and pathological deterioration during storage. Edible coatings such as hydrocolloids (HC) bear promising potential for fruit quality preservation at ambient storage due to its triple action (physiological, biochemical and pathological) on fruit and thus widely researched in recent years. This study demonstrates the influence of health and eco‐safe hydrocolloid edible coatings such as “Carboxymethyl cellulose” (CMC) (1%), “Guar gum” (1.5%), “Gum Arabica” (10%), and “Xanthan gum” (0.3%) as dip treatment to enhance the postharvest quality and storage life of mangoes at ambient storage (25 ± 4°C and 65 ± 5% RH). “Xanthan gum” (0.3%) treatment exhibited the highest efficacy in reducing the decay loss by more than threefold and physiological loss by twofold over control fruit. It lowered the physiological and fruit softening enzyme activities (PG, PME, and LOX), while maintaining the biochemicals. Moreover, it maintained both internal as well as external (consumer preference) quality of fruit and extended 6 days shelf life on the physiological loss standard basis (≤10%) than that of the control. The results recommend the application of “Xanthan gum” (0.3%) as an efficacious ecological, sustainable, and health‐friendly surface edible coating for quality preservation and storage period extension of mango fruit under ambient storage.
Practical applications
The selected hydrocolloid edible coatings dip treatment showed promising potential in controlling the physiological, biochemical, and pathological deterioration of mango fruit stored under ambient condition. The selected treatments extended the shelf life without diminishing fruit quality. However, among the attempted HC treatments, the “Xanthan gum” (0.3%) (XG) coating displayed the excellent results. It added the storage life of mango fruit by 6 days over the control. XG treated fruit displayed the excellent results in terms of storage period extension, quality retention, consumer preference, and control over the fruit decay and softening enzymes activities. Postharvest preservation of mango fruit using HC is nonchemical, cost‐effective approach which is GRAS (generally recognized as safe), health, and eco safe.
hot water treatment for fruits and vegetables: a review
Atul Khalangre
pradip relekar
Being a good source of vitamins, minerals and fibers and also rich source of several other bioactive compounds with antioxidant properties, the fruits and vegetables are the part of human diet. The huge postharvest losses of fresh fruits and vegetables are a great challenge for the post harvest research workers. Many studies revealed that hot water treatment is most effective method for controlling these postharvest losses of horticultural crops. Hot water treatment is effective technique to control postharvest diseases, insect-pest, microbial growth and contamination, rot development, chilling injury, delaying ripening, browning, etc. The HWT at proper temperature is more useful for controlling postharvest losses and prolonging the shelf life and quality of fruits and vegetables.
Relationship between lenticel discoloration and biochemical and quality attributes in mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruit
K. Prasad
R. R. Sharma
Manish Srivastav
Ram Asrey
Postharvest lenticel discoloration (LD) deteriorates the external appearance of mango fruit and is supposed to be associated with biochemical changes in fruit peel. Hence, an experiment was executed to ascertain the relationship between biochemical parameters such as polyphenol oxidase (PPO), peroxidase (POD), lipoxygenase (LOX), total phenol content (TPC) and fruit quality parameters i.e., external appeal of fruit (EAF), total soluble solids (TSS), total carotenoids (TC) to the incidence of LD. 30 (20 indigenous and 10 exotic) commercial mango varieties of India grown at ICAR-IARI, New Delhi, were harvested at full maturity and stored at ambient conditions (24 ± 4 ºC, 75 ± 5% RH) for 10 days. During the storage duration, fruit analyzed for LD (%), biochemical and quality parameters. Results revealed significant correlations existed between LD % and biochemical parameters as LD vs PPO (r2 = + 0.98), LD vs POD (r2 = + 0.79), LD vs LOX (r2 = + 0.70) were found to be positively correlated, while LD vs TPC was negatively correlated. Similarly, among the quality parameters, LD found to have no relation with internal quality i.e., TSS (r2 = + 0.08) and TC (r2 = + 0.2), whereas negatively correlated with external quality i.e., EAF (r2 = − 0.71). Our findings suggest that monitory loss of mango growers because of LD is solely due to deterioration of external quality. LD does not have any impact on internal/nutritional quality. Furthermore, the positive relationship of LD % with enzymes suggests their role and biochemical basis in causation and control of LD.
Postharvest treatment of antioxidant reduces lenticel browning and improves cosmetic appeal of mango (Mangifera indica L.) fruits without impairing quality
Article
| https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314225789_Effect_of_hot_water_treatment_on_the_incidence_of_lenticel_browning_and_quality_of_mango_fruits |
Luke 24:44 (YLT) - Forerunner Commentary
and he said to them, `These `are' the words that I spake unto you, being yet with you, that it behoveth to be fulfilled all the things that are written in the L
Luke 24:44 ( Young's Literal Translation )
Luke 24:44
Jesus, using a common Jewish method of organizing the Scriptures (only theOld Testamentat that time), breaks it down into three sections. Even today, Jews group them in these same sections: Law ( Torah), Prophets ( Nevi'im), and Psalms or Writings ( Ketuvim). Thus, Hebrew Bibles are called Tanakh, a word made up by combining the three initial Hebrew letters of each major section of Scripture.
The section of the Prophets is itself divided into two major parts, the Former Prophets and the Latter Prophets. The Former Prophets are the historical books of Joshua, Judges, I & II Samuel, and I & II Kings. The Latter Prophets are the named prophets from Isaiah to Malachi (excluding Daniel, whose book is included in the Writings). The twelve works that comprise theMinor Prophetsare a subset of these, which the Jews consider to be, not twelve little books, but one large book, the fourth of the Latter Prophets, balancing the four books of the Former Prophets (I & II Samuel are considered one book, as are I & II Kings). As such, the Minor Prophets were often written on one scroll.
Richard T. RitenbaughMeet the Minor Prophets (Part One)
Luke 24:44-45
A local radio preacher says that the book of Proverbs is in "the Jewish Testament." What is that? There is no such thing! We could call the Old Testament "the Hebrew Testament" with some legitimacy because it was written in Hebrew, but what would make it Jewish? Was he trying to say that, if we read only the Old Testament, we would become followers of Judaism? Or, that the Jews somehow own the Old Testament? Or, that because the Old Testament is revered by Jews as their holy book, it is somehow inferior to "the Christian Testament?"
Certainly, the Bible never calls the Old Testament "the Jewish Testament." Paul calls it "the Holy Scriptures" inII Timothy 3:15. Jesus calls it "the Law ofMosesand the Prophets and the Psalms" inLuke 24:44. In many places, the writers simply refer to it as "the word [ofGodor of the Lord]" or "the Scripture(s)." The only hint that the Old Testament "belongs" to the Jews is a misinterpretation ofRomans 3:2, "to them were committed theoracles of God." This means only that the Jews are responsible for their accurate transmission throughout history, not that they apply only to Jews or that Jews possess them in some way.
No, this all stems from the mistaken idea that the Old Testament is the Old Covenant, "becoming obsolete and growing old . . . ready to vanish away" (Hebrews 8:13), while the New Testament is the New Covenant. Thus, to a "Christian" under the New Covenant, anything that appears in the Old Testament is of lesser value than what appears in the New Testament. This error has led to countless misunderstandings and misinterpretations of the message Jesus brought to mankind.
In fact, the New Testament cannot be understood without the foundation of the Old Testament—and not just in historical terms. Paul is not overstating things when he says the church is "built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets,Jesus Christbeing the chief cornerstone" (Ephesians 2:20). After His resurrection, Jesus "beginning at Moses and all the Prophets, . . . expounded to [the disciples] in all the Scriptures the things concerning Himself" (Luke 24:27). Later, "He opened their understanding, that they might comprehend the Scriptures" (verse 45). Which Scriptures? The Old Testament, of course!
Just these few verses say that we New Covenant Christians cannot understand Jesus Christ, His doctrine, His church, and God's plan without the Old Testament. We can see this by how frequently the apostles quote from the writings of Moses, David, and the prophets to support and fill out their doctrinal teachings. There is hardly a page in the New Testament that does not have a quotation or allusion to the Old Testament on it. It is a vital part of New Covenant—New Testament—Christianity!
Lack of space does not permit an explanation of the differences between the Old Covenant and the New. However, let it suffice to say that the major problem in the Old Covenant was the people with whom God made it (seeHebrews 8:7-12;Romans 8:3). The New Covenant is modeled after the Old with its basic law, the Ten Commandments, retained in all its force and wisdom. In fact, Jesus makes it plain that He added intent to the law's scope so that it is now stricterunder the New Covenant (Matthew 5:17-48)!
In the end, we must conclude that the Bible is a whole with two parts, which came as a result of the ministry of Jesus Christ and the languages in which the two parts were penned. The theology and the goal of the instruction in the two are the same. The same God who never changes rules, acts, and speaks in both. Those who believed and lived byfaithin both eras will receive the same gift of eternal life (I Thessalonians 4:14-17;Hebrews 11:40).
| https://www.bibletools.org/index.cfm/fuseaction/Bible.show/sVerseID/26036/eVerseID/26036/version/ylt |
Alexis Vila (red trunks) vs. Marcos Galvao
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BCL11A enhancer Haplotypes Are Associated with the Distribution of HbF in Arab-Indian and African Haplotype Sickle Cell Anemia but Not the Different Population Levels of HbF | Blood | American Society of Hematology
Abstract. Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) modulates the phenotype of sickle cell anemia. In the Middle East and India the HbS gene is often on an Arab-Indian HBB haploty
113. Hemoglobinopathies, Excluding Thalassemia – Basic and Translational Science: Poster III | December 6, 2014
BCL11A enhancer Haplotypes Are Associated with the Distribution of HbF in Arab-Indian and African Haplotype Sickle Cell Anemia but Not the Different Population Levels of HbF
Paola Sebastiani, PhD
,
Paola Sebastiani, PhD *
John J. Farrell, PhD
John J. Farrell, PhD *
Shuai Wang, MS *
3 Boston University, Boston, MA
Heather L Edward, BA
Heather L Edward, BA *
Heather M. Shappell, BS
Heather M. Shappell, BS *
Harold T. Bae, PhD
Harold T. Bae, PhD *
Clinton T. Baldwin, PhD
Clinton T. Baldwin, PhD *
A. M. Al-Rubaish, MD
A. M. Al-Rubaish, MD *
Zaki Naserullah, MD
Zaki Naserullah, MD *
Ahmed Alsuliman, MD
Ahmed Alsuliman, MD *
Pradeep K. Patra, PhD
Pradeep K. Patra, PhD *
Lindsay A. Farrer, PhD
Lindsay A. Farrer, PhD *
10 Boston University School of Medicine, Boston,
David H.K. Chui, MD
David H.K. Chui, MD
11 Boston University, Boston, MA
Abdulrahman Alsultan, MD
Abdulrahman Alsultan, MD
12 College of Medicine, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Blood (2014) 124 (21): 4066.
https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.V124.21.4066.4066
Abstract
Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) modulates the phenotype of sickle cell anemia. In the Middle East and India the HbS gene is often on an Arab-Indian HBBhaplotype that is associated with high HbF levels. HbF is “normally” distributed in this population with a mean ~20%. In African HbS haplotypes, HbF levels are much lower (mean value ~6%) with a highly skewed distribution. BCL11Ais an important modulator of γ-globin gene ( HBG2 and HBG1) expression and BCL11Ais regulated by erythroid specific enhancers in its 2nd intron. The enhancers consist of 3 DNase hypersensitive sites (HS) +62, +58 and +55 kb from the transcription initiation site of this gene. Polymorphisms (SNPs) in these enhancers are associated with HbF. The strongest association with HbF levels in African Americans with sickle cell anemia was with rs1427407 in HS +62 and to a lesser extent, rs7606173 in HS+55. Using the results of whole genome sequencing of 14 AI haplotype patients—half with HbF <10%, half with HbF >20%—6 SNPs in the BCL11Aenhancer region, rs1427407, rs7599488, rs6706648, rs6738440, rs7565301, rs7606173 and 2 indels rs3028027 and rs142027584 (CCT, CCTCT and AAAAC respectively), were detected as possibly associated with HbF level. There were no novel polymorphisms detected. We genotyped the 6 SNPs and studied their associated haplotypes in 137 Saudi (HbF18.0±7.0%) and 44 Indian patients (HbF23.0±4.8%) with the Arab-Indian HBBhaplotype; 50 African Americans with diverse African haplotypes, including 4 Senegal haplotype heterozygotes, (20 with HbF 17.2±4.6% and 30 with HbF 5.0±2.5%) and imputed genotypes for these SNPs in 847 African Americans with sickle cell anemia and diverse haplotypes (HbF 6.6±5.5%). Four SNPs (rs1427407, rs6706648, rs6738440, and rs7606173) in the HS sites showed consistent associations with HbF levels in all 4 cohorts. Haplotype analysis of these 4 SNPs showed that there were 4 common and 10 rare haplotypes. The most common, GCAG, was found in ~54% of Arab-Indian haplotype carriers (HbF, ~20%) and in ~33% of African origin haplotype carriers (HbF, ~5.5%). Two haplotypes, GTAC and GTGC, were carried by ~40% of African American patients and were associated with lower levels of HbF (3.6%-4%). These same haplotypes were carried by 18% of Arab-Indian haplotype carriers and their average HbF level was 17%. These differences were significant. Haplotype TCAG was present in 20% of Arab-Indian and 25% of African haplotype cases, and carriers had on average higher HbF levels (~22% in the Arab-Indian haplotype, ~8% in African Americans). The analysis shows that: BCL11Aenhancer haplotypes are differentially distributed among patients with the HbS gene on Arab-Indian or African origin haplotypes; haplotype pairs TCAG/TCAG and GTAC/GTGC are associated with the highest and lowest HbF levels in all the studied groups; the population-specific prevalence of HbF BCL11Aenhancer haplotypes are likely to explain the different distributions of HbF in African origin and Arab-Indian haplotypes but do not account for the differences in average population levels of HbF or the high HbF of the Arab-Indian haplotype. Novel SNPs in BCL11Ado not explain the high HbF of the Arab-Indian haplotype. Other important loci must have a predominant role in the differential expression of HbF among HbS Arab-Indian haplotype carriers.
Topics:
arab ethnic group
,
enhancer of transcription
,
fetal hemoglobin
,
sickle cell anemia
,
hemoglobin, sickle
,
deoxyribonuclease i
,
deoxyribonucleases
,
globins
,
introns
| https://ashpublications.org/blood/article/124/21/4066/115403/BCL11A-enhancer-Haplotypes-Are-Associated-with-the?searchresult=1 |
Unity of the Church, an Image of the Holy Trinity: Orthodox Triadology as a Principle of Ecclesiology / OrthoChristian.Com
Unity of the Church, an Image of the Holy Trinity: Orthodox Triadology as a Principle of Ecclesiology
By St. Sophrony (Sakharov)
St. Sophrony (Sakharov)
Elder Sophrony (Sakharov) After an unofficial announcement during his trip to Mt. Athos in October, Patriarch Bartholomew and the Holy Synod of the Patriarchate of Constantinople officially canonized Elder Sophrony (Sakharov) St. Sophrony (Sakharov)Sophrony (Sakharov), Elder of Essex as a saint on November 27, 2019.
Though within the Patriarchate of Constantinople for most of his life, St. Sophrony was able to see developing problems in the Patriarchate and to penetratingly analyze and critique them.
In this essay first published in Russian and French in 1950, the Elder Sophrony (Sakharov), then a relatively young hieromonk, argues forcefully that Orthodox ecclesiology must conform to Orthodox Trinitarian theology. In striking contrast with ideas later put forward by Metropolitan John (Zizioulas), Elder Sophrony understands the Orthodox dogma of the Trinity to reject any form of subordinationism whatsoever, as subordinationism corresponds to papism. In Orthodoxy, the Father begets the Son, but the Son is no less equal to the Father for this. Therefore, there can be no primacy that places a certain bishop or Church over the other Churches. Likewise, the institution of autocephaly is fundamental to Orthodox ecclesiology as it expresses the consubstantiality and equality of all the local Churches and teaches us that no place and no race enjoys a greater fullness of divine grace than any other. For Sophrony, the best canonical expression of Orthodox ecclesiology is Apostolic Canon 34.
Photo: gallerix.ru
Nineteen centuries have passed since Saint Paul, as he walked through the city of Athens examining objects of worship, found an altar bearing this inscription: “to the unknown God (Agnosto Theo)” (Acts 17:23).
It is clear that this altar was erected by the best representatives of human thought, by sages who had reached the limits of knowledge, limits that remain unsurpassable even to our own day for man’s natural understanding—for God is unknowable for logical thought. True knowledge of the true God comes from Revelation.
In the divine economy of our salvation, the Church marks certain events as being essential by commemorating them with Feasts. They follow each other chronologically:Annunciation The Annunciation,Nativity The Nativity of Our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ,Epiphany Theophany(in the Byzantine rite, this feast is called the Baptism of Christ),Transfiguration The Transfiguration of the Lord, thePassion Holy WeekTherefore, no matter what we experience, or no matter how little we experience, let us attend these services, let us immerse ourselves in what they have to say to us. We will not try to forcibly squeeze some feelings out of ourselves: it is enough to watch; it is enough to hear. Let the events themselves—for these are events and not just memories—break us in body and soul., theResurrection The Bright Resurrection of Christ, PaschaAn explanation of certain expressions of St. Gregory the Theologian which are sung together with the troparia at Holy Pascha (Instruction 21),Ascension Ascension of the LordAscension of the Lordand theDescent of the Holy Spirit On the Descent of the Holy SpiritBut why did the Holy Ghost come to them, not while Christ was present, nor even immediately after his departure, but, whereas Christ ascended on the fortieth day, the Spirit descended when the day of Pentecost, that is, the fiftieth, was fully come (Act. 2:1)? And how was it, if the Spirit had not yet come, that He said, Receive ye the Holy Ghost (Jn. 20:22)? In order to render them capable and meet for the reception of Him.. In God’s revelatory designs, each of these events is tied to the others in an organic and indissoluble manner, but the day of Pentecost, the day when the descent of the Holy Spirit is celebrated, has a particular place because it marks the fulfillment of the Revelation of the Great God Almighty, the Creator of all things.
God knows no envy, pride or ambition. The Spirit of God follows man humbly and patiently on all the paths of life in order to make Himself known to him and by this to even join him to His divine eternity (cf. Acts 10:35). This is why in every age man could, to a certain degree, attain knowledge of the true God. Apart from the Incarnation of the Word and the coming of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost, however, perfect knowledge of God was impossible. Apart from Christ, who has come in the flesh, no spiritual, philosophical or mystical experience allows man to know the Divine Being as absolute Objectivity, an unknowable, in Three Subjects equally absolute and unknowable; in other words: the consubstantial and indivisible Trinity.
The nature of man, who is created in the image and likeness of God the Creator, possesses the faculty of a certain conjecture about the Divine Being. But this conjecture does not lead to true knowledge of the divine mystery, as all historical experience shows us, and this is why it is necessary for God Himself to reveal to man, to the degree accessible to his understanding, the image of His existence.
We must not forget that the Revelation of the New Testament was preceded by that of the Old. When Christians immerse themselves in the contemplation of biblical Revelation, they already hear in the first chapters of Genesis familiar words about the One God who is, at the same time, multiple: “God says: let us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness.” And again, “God says: behold, man has become like one of Us” (Genesis 1:26, 3:22). The Psalms and the Prophets show us that the Old Testament knew of God’s Word (Λόγος) and Spirit (Πνεῦμα). “The heavens were created by the word (Λόγος) of God and all their host by the breath (Πνεῦμα) of His mouth” (Psalm 33:6, and others). But we do not find there knowledge of the Word and Spirit as Hypostases, as Person-Subjects. They are seen there as energies. The humankind of the Holy Testament desperately debated the notion of the One God, understood not within the framework of Christian monotheism, but within that of non-Christian henotheism (that is to say, God with one sole hypostasis). One cold even wonder if it was not an account of the narrowness of the framework imposed by henotheism that the Jews of the Old Testament felt so attracted to to polytheism. But that path being forbidden to them by the Law and the Prophets, they languished awaiting the promised Messiah-Emmanuel, Who would reveal to them the entire truth about God (John 4:25).
It is strange to note that the impersonal monism of pantheists and even pagan pluralism belong, to a certain degree, to human thought even into our own day.
The pantheistic understanding of Being is superior to pagan polytheism inasmuch as it takes account of the primordial unity of Being. The advantage of pagan pluralism, at its best, consists of true knowledge of the person as a profound and ontological principle all rational being and of understanding it as one of the Energies, one of the manifestations of this principle.
Thus the experience of the pre-Christian world, whether or not it participated in the Revelation of the Old Testament, clearly teaches us that man gets lost in his misunderstandings, unable to find a way out and to arrive at true knowledge of God. This way out and this knowledge are given to humankind by the divine Revelation in Jesus Christ and by the descent of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost.
But what is the knowledge of the mystery of the Divine Being that were were given by this Revelation? Can one express it in words and if that is possible, where are these words? It is the Church of Christ Who keeps them, She Who teaches us that the true God is the one God in three Persons. She speaks to us of the divine existence as an inseparable Tri-Unity without confusion; as the consubstantial and indivisible Trinity. Here we would like to cite an exposition of that teaching known under the name “the Creed-Confession of our Father among the Saints Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria.” 1
“Whosoever seeks salvation must first of all confess the catholic faith. There is no doubt that if one does not hold this faith in its fullness and purity, one cannot avoid perishing for eternity. Here is this Catholic faith: We worship the one God in Trinity and the Trinity in unity, without confusing the Hypostases and without dividing the Substance. For one is the Hypostasis of the Father, another That of the Son, and another That of the Holy Spirit. But the Divinity of the Father, of the Son and of the Holy Spirit is One, Their Glory is equal and their Majesty coeternal. Such is the Father, such also is the Son and such is the Holy Spirit. Uncreated is the father, uncreated the Son and uncreated the Holy Spirit. Incomprehensible is the Father, Incomprehensible is the Son and incomprehensible the Holy Sprit. Eternal is the Father, eternal the Son, eternal the Holy Spirit: however, there are not three eternal things, but One eternal. Likewise, there are not three uncreated and incomprehensible things, but One alone is uncreated and incomprehensible. Likewise: almighty (Pantocrator) is the Father, almighty the Son and almighty the Holy Spirit: however, there are not three almighty things, but One Almighty. Thus, God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit, but nevertheless there are not three gods, but One sole God. Likewise: the Father is Lord, the Son is Lord and the Holy Spirit is Lord; however, there are not three lords, but One Lord; Since we have been brought by Christian truth to confess each of the Hypostases as God and Lord; and at the same time catholic piety forbids us from naming three gods and three lords. The Father was not created, made or begotten by anybody. The Son is from the Father, still not created or made, but begotten. The Holy Spirit was not created or made by the Father, but proceeds from Him. One alone is Father and not three fathers. One alone is Son and not three sons. One alone is Holy Spirit and not three holy spirits. And in this Holy Trinity none is first or last. None is greater or less great. But the three Hypostases are whole, coeternal to Each Other and equal. Thus it follows from all that has been said that the Trinity is worshipped in Unity and Unity in Trinity. He who seeks his salvation, let him think in this way about the Holy Trinity.”
This creed of Saint Athanasius is usually found in the Psalter. It is followed by the “exposition of the faith of Saint Maximus, questions and brief responses.” Here is how he confesses the Holy Trinity:
“If you want to know what God is and how it is fitting to worship Him, understand and comprehend and truly know the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. One is holy, one desire, one will, one wisdom and one power. One is not before all ages while Another is within the ages; but the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit are together. The Son is in the Father the the Spirit is in the Son, together one Nature and one Godhead. This Godhead is divided in Three in the Hypostases, but It is one in substance. This is why, when invoking the Father, in glorifying the Son and in confessing the Holy Spirit, we call upon God, since the divine nature is common to the Father, to the Son and to the Holy Spirit. But the Names of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit are not names common to all the Persons, but particular to each of the Hypostases. For the Father is not called Son, the Son is not called Father, and the Holy Spirit is not called Father or Son, but God is always called Trinity. I say three Hypostases, which is to say three Persons, but one image. We do not say: three substances in three Persons; nor three natures, nor three gods as the disciples of the accursed Arius say. But we confess one God, one substance, one nature in Three Hypostases. We do not confess one sole hypostasis like the accursed Sabellians: but we confess, pray to, and worship Three Hypostases, Three Persons in one image and in one sole Godhead.”
This Revelation of the Triune God is an inexhaustible source of wisdom, joy and light for every believer. It flows out onto all manifestations of human life. It resolves all the problems and misunderstandings of the mind and the heart. It leads us into the infinite spaces of eternal life. However, when our intellect is detached from our heart, which is filled by the grace of faith, and remains alone before Revelation with the laws proper to reasoning, this Revelation presents itself to it as a series of insoluble problems.
It is impossible for us to imagine a personal Being Who is perfect Life and eternally realized, Life which excludes any shadow of a process. In other words, a Being in Whose life self-awareness does not precede the act of perfect self-determination and in Which this self-determination is not anterior to the absolute fullness of self-awareness.
It is impossible for us to conceive of a personal Being Who, being absolutely free in its self-determination and, consequently, not limited by any predestination whatsoever, does not exclude an absolute objectivity of its nature and its essence. Our intellect does not comprehend how nature or existence, which is absolute and objective reality, does not in any way precede and determine the absolute perfection of the self-determination of the Persons of the Holy Trinity.
Such a personal Being appears unthinkable for us, one Who, being absolutely unique and simple, is at the same time triune, such that each of the Three is an absolute Subject Who bears in Himself all the fullness of Divine Being; that is to say, Who is perfect and unique God, dynamically equal to the whole Tri-Unity.
Our thought cannot access the existence of a Triune Being in Whom the Begetter does not precede the Begotten, nor Him Who proceeds; where begetting and procession in no way limit the absolute freedom of the personal self-determination of the Begotten and of the One Who proceeds.
The Being in Which the Three Persons are distinguished from the one Essence, this Essence which is distinguished from the energies, and Who at the same time absolutely simple and excludes all complexity, This Being is beyond our understanding.
How can this Being, Who encloses within Himself a series of acts, such that the begetting of the Son, the procession of the Holy Spirit, acts of self-determination and self-knowledge, be at the same time an absolutely simple act, outside of any process and any duration? This is also beyond our understanding.
We cannot imagine a Being whose ontological principle, the Father, precedes neither the begotten Son nor the proceeding Spirit and is not ontologically superior to either, to the point that it is possible to speak of Their coeternity and Their absolute equality in honor, power and Divinity or, to put it better, of Their unity in power, in honor and in Divinity; of their one glory, Their one energy, Their one will—and all this to such a point that dogma “forbids” any thought of hierarchical structure or subordination within the Holy Trinity. “And in this Holy Trinity none is first or last, none is greater or less great, but the Three Hypostases are whole, coeternal and equal to Each Other.”
The Church teaches us that God is a Being who has His cause in Himself and Who, apart from Himself, has no being that is independent and parallel to Him. She speaks to us of the perfect, living God Who is, consequently,pure act. But when our understanding stops before this Being, He appears as apure facton account of His primordial and absolute perfection.
Confronted with this doctrine of the Church, our intellect is filled with astonishment and silence. She does not adapt herself to the narrow frameworks of our reasoning. And when we examine what the Church teaches about the Incarnation of One of the Three—the Son, the Logos—several even more complex problems arise before us. We cannot conceive how the Infinite takes a beginning, how the Uncreated takes the form of a created existence. How can the only Son be perfect God and perfect Man? How does the one Hypostasis of the One Who became incarnate indissolubly and distinctly unite two natures, two wills, two actions, divine and human? We cannot conceive of dogma of the Church which speaks to us of the one nature, the one will, the one action of the Holy Trinity and at the same time of the two natures, two actions two wills united in One of the Three.
These are not the only problems presented to our intellect when it encounters the doctrine of the Church. Some will always present themselves and they will always appear unsolvable. And if, despite Revelation, the divine Being remains for us inconceivable, unfathomable, invisible, undefinable, unspeakable, then what is the new life and the new knowledge that the dogma of the Church brings to us regarding the Holy Trinity? We will pose another question here: When it happens that we fall on a doctrine of a reality not corresponding to the concepts of our intellect, which always reasons according to its own laws, is this contradiction a sufficient reason to consider this doctrine false? The answer to this question is formal: this reason is not sufficient. The history of human culture gives us multiple examples. Countless facts that today belong to the domain of empirical science until very recently still appeared impossible to all scientific minds. Let us imagine that during the last century someone would have delved by intuition into the structure of matter. This intuition would have revealed to him the life of the atom and he would have developed modern theories without always being able to demonstrate them experimentally. Of course, he would have been considered a madman or at least a fantasist or dreamer.
On the other hand, as soon as science has empirical proof of a phenomenon, it becomes foolish to want to prove, through logical conclusions, the non-existence or impossibility of that phenomenon. And now in the domain of science we find ourselves before the fact of its empirically-established existence and our reason can no longer resist it and so necessarily comes to terms with this fact. It is the same with the Revelation given to the Church which speaks to us of a determinedfact—the Divine Being. When our reason follows this fact, it arrives to a certain degree at knowledge of what was previously unknown and inconceivable.
The “Creed” cited above expounds extremely concisely on the fulness of the knowledge of the Divine Being accessible to man. This confession, which is the dogma of the Church, has no need of logical proofs. To the contrary, she makes us see the supreme fact of the Being Who acts as the foundation of all, of our life and of our knowledge, which is to say of our whole being, which is simple and unique in its wholeness. In order to arrive at this knowledge, there is no other path but the one shown by the Church. The sciences taught in schools demand of the students learning them submission to the methods and instructions of their teachers. The Church has Her own science, which is knowledge of God. She has her path, her method, which leads to this knowledge. Those desiring to reach it must follow this path traced by the Church, which is that of faith and obedience to Christ’s commandments.
Let us nevertheless refrain from going too far in the quest for a verbal definition of the mysterious principle of this attribute of Divine Life, which is at the basis of the unity that makes the Three Persons of the Holy Trinity only one Being. Our mind should stop at a certain limit so that our confession of faith will not be falsified by rationalizing dogma. However, since Revelation teaches us that God is Love and our Savior has given us the commandment to love our neighbor as ourselves, for these reasons we can conceive of the essence of the Divine Being as Love. This does not mean that love, as an essence, preceded the Three Persons, that the essence is anterior to the Persons, who in that case would only be the manifestations of that Essence. No, Love is the Essence, the very Nature of the Godhead, but in the sense of an absolute liberty of self-determination of the Three Persons. This self-determination is not, however, a “psychological” and subjective state of the Hypostases, but a reality, an objectively existing nature. This is why the dogma of the Church distinguishes between the Persons and the Essence in the Divine Being.
Man is preceded in his existence by another existence. For him, this is an established an incontestable fact that appears to limit his self-determination from the outside. Man manifests his qualities over the course of his development, going through a certain process, an evolution. This process and this evolution are totally absent in the Divine Being. We must always remember this when we think of God, so as not to fall into the error of anthropomorphism. Even though man is created in God’s image, he nevertheless inverses the hierarchy of life when he seeks to attribute to God notions inspired by his knowledge of himself. At that point he starts to create God in his own image and likeness. The contrary path is that of the Church. We do not create God in our own image, but rather, by following Christ’s commandments, we discover within ourselves the attributes of our nature which is created in God’s image.
Two commandments of Christ lead man to deification: “’You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind, and with all your strength.’ This is the first commandment. And the second, like it, is this: ‘You shall love your neighbor as yourself’” (Mark 12:30-31). Of these two commandments, it is the second that reveals to us more of the mystery of the consubstantial and indivisible Trinity. Here’s why.
The first commandment tells us, “’You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind, and with all your strength.” It did not say, “You shall love your God as yourself.” That would be pantheism. This commandment speaks to us of a degree of love. We must know God as love, but at the same time it shows us the limit between man and God. It causes us to participate in the divine life, but it does not cause the difference of nature (ἑτερούσιον) to disappear.
The second commandment, “You shall love your neighbor as yourself,” not only teaches us the measure or the degree of love, but by the expression “as yourself” it rather shows us a profound ontological community of all our pan-human existence, of our consubstantiality (to homoousion). Realized in life, this commandment leads us to the fact that all humanity is nothing butone man. 2
Love has the result of transposing the existence of the person who loves into that of the beloved. He who loves starts to live in the beloved. The person, the Ego, can thus be penetrated by Love. The absolute perfection of love in the Trinity reveals the perfect interpenetration of the Three Persons, to such a point that they are only one will, only one action, only one glory, only one power, only one Divinity, only one Essence. This is why each Person-Hypostasis is the bearer of the whole fullness of the Godhead and is dynamically equal to the unity of the Three.
It is in the image of this love that the keeping of the second commandment, “You shall love your neighbor as yourself,” reestablishes the consubstantiality of the human race, which was broken by sin, and leads to the fullness of the human being becoming the possession of each person. Realized in its final perfection, this commandment reveals thatman is one, one in his essence and multiple in his hypostases. Thus man, in the image of the Holy Trinity, is a consubstantial and catholic being. When love is realized in all its fullness, each hypostasis, by virtue of its abiding in the fullness of catholic unity, represents the fulfillment of the human being and is dynamically equal to all humanity, to the One Universal Man, in the image of the Perfect Man, Christ who contains within Himself all Man.
Thus, along the path of keeping Christ’s commandments, which is the path of the Church, the mystery of the Holy Trinity is revealed. This mystery is revealed in an existential, vital manner that is neither abstract nor rational. There is no other way to knowledge of the divine mysteries.
Before this Revelation of the Church, words of profound astonishment have always rung out and shall ring out until the end of the ages: “Strange words, strange doctrines, strange dogmas of the Holy Trinity” (the Matins of Pentecost).
The fullness of dogmatic life in the Church is never interrupted, never diminished. Nevertheless, various historical periods bring out certain aspects of Her teaching which always remain one overall, emphasizing these aspects in order to avoid the danger of diminishing the wholeness of the truth by an error of detail. In our own day, a great danger threatens the dogma concerning the Church within the Orthodox Church herself. The idea of the Church, of this “Kingdom which is not of this world”, the Kingdom of the Heavenly King, of the Holy Spirit, the Comforter, of this new life, established on earth by the incarnate Word, is in danger of being once more distorted, which may cause immense harm to the work of our salvation. It is thus natural that our attention be concentrated on this issue.
Periods similar to our own place great responsibilities upon each of us, for according to the teaching of the Church, perfectly expressed in the Encyclical of the Patriarchs of the East in 1848, it does not belong only to the hierarchy to protect the truth, but rather this task is entrusted to the Church in Her fullness. 3
Judging it impossible to remove from us the responsibility that has been laid upon us, as a son of the Church, although we are unworthy, we make a fervent appeal to all Orthodox Christians to examine the danger that threatens them in all its profundity so that, aided by the grace of God, we may remove this danger and preserve the truth inherited from our Holy Fathers in all its purity. We call upon our brothers to consider with full consciousness these dogmatic questions that are of cardinal importance in the work of our salvation.
It is always painful to enter into debates where people accuse each other of having abandoned the truth, but that was the environment in which the Fathers lived in the period that we call the Church’s golden age, that of the holy Ecumenical Councils. Let us recall the history of the Fathers who fought for Orthodoxy, ready not only to endure all suffering, but also to suffer death. Who does not remember Athanasius, Patriarch of Alexandria, who spend the greater part of his life in incessant struggles, in exile and misery, all for just one iota—“homoousios” against the “homoiousios” of the Arians. We know the example of Saint Bail, who was ready to die for this same iota. Let us remember Gregory of Nazianzus, Maximus the Confessor, John of Damascus, Patriarch Photius, Simeon the New Theologian, Mark of Ephesus, Gregory Palamas, as well as other Fathers whose names are great before God, albeit little known to men. They all suffered without end and accepted martyrdom of death for the true faith. In the writings of several eminent Russian theologians such as Khomiakov, Bolotov, Nesmelov and others, the exceptional importance of the dogmatic element for our salvation has been forcefully demonstrated. May we all have the fire with which Bishop Ignatius Brianchaninov burned when he wrote, “The world in no way enticed me. I remained cold and indifferent to it as though it were devoid of any charms, as though it didn’t exist at all! My spirit was absorbed with learning and at the same time it burned with the desire to learn where the true faith was hidden, where the true teaching was to be found, free from all dogmatic and moral error.” (The edition of 1885, pp. 633-35. See also The Works of Bishop I. Brianchaninov, vol. I, 1886, Biography, p. 13).
So great was the fervor of our fathers for dogmatic questions because they were conscient of their importance not only for their own salvation, but also for the salvation of the whole world, for the very existence of the true Church on earth.
We have the task of showing in a short exposition that the catholic principle of the Orthodox Church is a reality in the image of the Holy consubstantial and indivisible Trintiy.
The Church has the goal of introducing her members into the domain of Divine Life and, consequently, it is inevitable that her historical reality reflections the image of that Life. The dogma of the Church speaks to us of an inconceivable perfection of Divine, Triune, Catholic Life. This dogma affirms the equality in divinity, in kingship, in sovereignty or, more synthetically, the equality in the absolute of the Three Hypostases of the Holy Trinity. “Nothing (in It) is first or last. Nothing is greater or less great.” In the interior of trinitarian life, there is no hint of submission, of subordination. The begetting of the Son, the procession of the Holy Spirit, all while demonstrating one sole principle in the Holy Trinity, nevertheless do not cause the Son or the Holy Spirit to be diminished before the Father. “But the Three Hypostases are coeternal and equal among Themselves.”
The Church is called to reveal to us the image of this Triune Being. If someone asks us, “What are the forms or the historical principles that reveal this image to us?” We could answer: the principle of catholicity and that of autocephaly. 4Translating these terms onto another plane, we can say: the principle of love and of equality, that of freedom and of consubstantiality. And again, by connecting these concepts we will have: in the freedom of catholic charity and in the equality of consubstantiality.
Is it necessary to insist on the gap that exists between the ideal to which we are called and the historical reality of the Church? Our distance from this ideal is so great that we can neither feel nor comprehend it. There is no love in us and for this reason we disregard the profundity of our consubstantial equality and unity. We have lost our love and out of this result our divisions and our tendencies to domination.
We have lost love and with it the guidance of the Divine Light and we walk in the shadows of “dusky pride” and in the death of hatred. It is to us that Christ said, “you are the light of the world” and we have become a scandal to all.
We said above that a great danger is making itself felt within Orthodoxy itself, threatening to disfigure the teaching about the nature of the Church and, consequently, Her entire life, since dogmatic consciousness is organically tied to the entirety of spiritual life. It is impossible to change the least thing in our dogmatic understanding without changing to the same degree the image of our spiritual existence.
And, conversely, a deformation in the inner life will lead to a deformation of dogmatic consciousness. The loss of dogmatic truth will have as an inevitable consequence the impossibility of attaining true knowledge of God, the fullness of which the Church possesses. The Church’s dogmatic confession forms an indivisible organic whole and it is not permitted to treat the different parts of this confession separately. One deformed detail will influence the whole. If the teaching on the nature of the Church is disfigured, and as a consequence, as we have already said, also the image of Her existence, how can She serve Her children on the path towards the truth?
One may ask us, “In what is this deformation currently manifesting itself?” We answer: in the neo-papism of Constantinople which is tending to progress rapidly from theoretical form to practical realization.
Papist tendencies in general are only natural to our sinful world. They manifest themselves in the East as in the West, in Byzantium as in Rome. But until now God has protected the Eastern Church and these tendencies died out without disturbing the profound peace of the Church. We do not want to pause here over the the reasons that have caused a new growth in these tendencies, limiting ourselves to examine only the dogmatic basis of this question in order to show that papism, whether of First, Second or Third Rome or of any important or unimportant city is foreign to the very nature of Christ’s Church.
The dogma about the Church is tightly bound to that of the Trinity and the Incarnation. That is to say, to Triadology and Christology. The articles of the Rev Fr Kovalevsky, of Mr Lossky and also of Hieromonk Silvanus, which appeared in Issue I of our Messengerdeal with the Christological aspect of the dogma about the Church. This is why here we shall only touch upon the tradological aspect of this teaching.
This dogma teaches us that the perfect Unity of the Divine Love of the Three Persons excludes any domination by One of Them. Each time that Christian thought slid towards rationalism, it became unable to contemplate this aspect of the divine nature. Rationalism, which always tends toward logical monism, cannot avoid imagining either a hierarchical structure within the Holy Trinity by affirming the superiority of the First Person as an ontological principle or the confusion of the Three Persons, thining of them as “modes” of manifestation of the One Essence of the Godhead. Theology calls the first deformation “subordinationism” and the second “modalism”. The principle of the papacy introduces subordinationism into the inside of the Church. As only this principle interests us here, we will set aside modalism and limit our analysis to the first triadological deformation.
The forms of subordinationism vary. Sometimes people saw within the Trinity an ontological subordination, independent of the relationship between God and His creation. This “ontological” subordinationism was held by Origen. Sometimes people attributed to the First and Second Persons a diminished importance and power with regard to the creation of the world and the economy of our salvation. Tertullian and Arius are examples of this “cosmological” or “economic” subordinationism. Over the course of its development, ontological subordinationism naturally acquired an economic aspect and vice-versa—economic and cosmological subordinationism took on an ontological aspect, unless the Hypostases were treated as modes of manifestation of God in the world.
The Church categorically rejects every form of subordinationism. She professes her faith in the Holy Trinity in these terms: “None is greater, none is less great (in the Trinity), but rather the Three Hypostases are whole, coeternal with Each Other and equal.”
Triadological subordinationism, transposed onto the structure of the Church, takes the form of papism, which reflects one or another form of this false doctrine. Thus in ecclesiology Roman Papism corresponds to the ontological aspect of Arius’ subordinationism, since it give the Bishop of Rome a place that separates him from the rest of the body of the Church, raising him to a height that makes him not simply great but ofanother nature(τὸ ἑτερούσιον). We must make clear that we are not applying this parallel to the origin of Roman Papism, but to its current form established by the Vatican Council in 1870. Its origin is nothing but a survival from the pagan Roman Empire. Its dogmatic conception was later influenced by the theology of the “filioque”, which leads to a specific form of christocentrism. There then appeared a rupture between God and the world: Christ became transcendent to the world and the Bishop of Rome took His place in the earthly Church; the Holy Spirit, in practice, lost His absolute hypostatic equality to the Father and the Son, becoming nothing but a power of Christ, entrusted to the authority and judgment of the Bishop of Rome.
All these historical processes are of an extreme complexity. They are the result of the reciprocal action of countless influences, conditions and wills. In speaking here schematically about Roman papism, we limit ourselves to only a dogmatic summary.
The modern papacy of Constantinople is only in its embryonic phase. For the last 20 or 30 years, it has appeared to seek ground. Its current development is very rapid, in contrast to the slow development over centuries of Roman papism, which only attained its final phase in 1870. In fact, the ideology of Constantinople’s papism has varied several times in only a little time and it is still difficult to define.
The Russian adepts of this papism are almost all found in France. Until 1948, we had not seen among them any canonically or theologically-founded idea. As they themselves admitted, they “were looking” above all “for a canonical basis” so as not to be outside the Body of the Universal Orthodox Church after their separation from the Mother-Church of Russia. With this goal, they began by recognizing a privilege of jurisdictional right of the Patriarch of Constantinople inasmuch as he is “Ecumenical”. Later, they attributed to the See of Constantinople primacy and the right of Supreme Appeal in the Universal Church, forgetting the struggle that the latter had waged for centuries against Rome’s pretentions to this right; forgetting that these pretentions were precisely the cause of the definitive Great Schism in the Church in 1054 and that at the Council of Florence Rome sought above all from the East recognition of this supreme arbitration in the Universal Church. They also forgot the multiple Canons of the Ecumenical and Local Councils which refused to attribute these rights to any given local Church, canons that even the Church of Constantinople understood very well when she was firmly insisting on the Orthodox position in order to combat Rome’s pretentions.
Until 1946, this group, loyal to Metropolitan Evlogy, considered its dependence on Constantinople as provisional. Starting from that date, they believed “to have found canonical truth” by submitting to her definitively. At the same time, they sought not only a canonical basis, but also a theological foundation for their position. Adopting the principle of “development”, 5particular to the theology of Roman Catholics, they attributed to Constantinople exclusive authority over the Orthodox “diaspora” in the entire world, denying other Autocephalous Churches this same right with regard to their dispersed children. Unable to find for this assertion any canonical basis or any example in the age-old practice of the Church, they sought, following Rome’s example, to refer to the orders of “God Himself”. Here is what they say:
“In order to maintain and consolidate the Church’s unity,God(?) imposes upon us the obligation to keep not only the unity of the faith and the sacraments, not only the unity of love, but alsothe indissoluble unity of the holy hierarchy and of the administration of the Church as much in the whole worldas in every place where the Church exists. This is why since apostolic times (?) the Holy Church (?) our, to put it better,God Himself(?) has established a superior Bishopfirst in the entirety of the Catholic Churchand in each place or each city one sole bishop,terrestrial vicar of His Son, with a single clergy depending on him and in unanimous accord with the entire Orthodox people, even if this people is represented by members of a different origin and languages.The Holy Church does not know any other structure” ( Messenger of the Russian Church in Western Europeno. 21, 1949, p. 2, “Declaration of the Diocesan Assembly”). 6
Before continuing the exposition of the “development” of the canonical and ecclesiological idea that we are examining, we propose to compare the text cited above to another text that seems to us to be characteristic of Roman Catholic doctrine. Here, for example, is what the Catholic theologican the Rev Fr S. Tyshkevich says on this topic in his “Treatise on the Church” (Paris, 1931, in Russian, pp. 232 and 233): 7
“The Bishop of Rome possess a jurisdiction that is 1)universal: it includes all questions of the faith and the administration of all the parts of the Church and other things; 2)supreme:the Bishops of all the Churches, even those far away, appeal to the pope. He even judges the Patriarchs. Without the pope’s approval, an Orthodox Council is not possible; 3)ordinary:it includes all matters requiring an intervention from the Supreme Authority, and not only in rare and exceptional cases; 4)direct:that is to ay that it extends not only to every Episcopacy, but, in case of need, directly to all the servants of the Church and to all laypeople; 5)established by God and conferred by Christ the Head and by the Holy Spiritand not by the Episcopacy or by “the people of the faithful” (emphasis by the author, the Rev Fr Tyshkevich).
The first text cited, that of the “Declaration of the Diocesan Assembly”, ends with these words: “Those who teach otherwise do not do so in the Spirit of God, but rather they sow discord and enmity.” These words prove the degree to which the authors of this Declaration are convinced “of having found the truth.” The Rev Fr Alexander Schmemann writes in his precis “The Church and Her Structure” in response to the Rev Fr Michel Polsky:
“The partisans of the ideas of the Rev Fr Posky probably do not miss an occasion, not without irony, of the ‘tortuous path’ and the ‘jurisdictional variations’ of our Diocese. And indeed, we have no pretense of possessing infallibility (?) like the Rev Fr Polsky. In fact, our Diocese has more than once suffered commotions and acute crises. But we believe that in seeking each time the right path prudently in communion with the whole ecclesiastical organism, we have demonstrated a truespirit of the Church, more than “the Synod of the Russian Church Abroad” 8with tis prideful attitude of infallibility. Errors and failures are always possible in the life of the Church. History abounds in examples to prove it… In the tragic conditions of the life of the Russian emigration, the search for the right path sometimes presented great difficulties. Whatever the motives were that caused Metropolitan Evlogy to turn to Constantinople, whatever his own understanding of this step that he took, it is not this subjective and psychological aspect that counts. What is truly important is theobjectivesignificance of this measurein the eyes of the Church. As time passes, we we appreciate more and more to what degree this measure was in line with the truth of the Church. It has definitively broken the vicious cycle of subjective and fortuitous attitudes toward the problem of the Church’s structure: afirm canonical basiswas found” (p. 22. Emphasis by the author, the Rev Fr Schmemann).
Other representatives of that group share this perspective. We read in issue 21 of the Messenger“ Tserkovny Vestnik” among the publications of the materials of the Diocesan Assembly:
“The unity of the Church will not be reestablished so long as we have not heard from atop the Ecumenical Seethe voice of the first hierarch and supreme leader 9of the whole Orthodox Church, whose authority is formal for us, as for the Synod of Munich” (p. 7). 10
“The Universal Church is not presided over solely by the authority of the Ecumenical Councils; those only meet in extreme cases. She ispresided over permanently by the person of the supreme hierarch of the Orthodox Church. This place belonged to Rome inasmuch as it had not fallen into the Catholic heresy. 11From that moment on, the Patriarch of Constantinople took his place” (p. 16).
All these citations, as well as all the expositions of the Rev Fr Schmemann, indicated above, and of other representatives of this tendency show us clearly how they arrived at such conclusions. Having correctly understood the canonical principle of local unity by the primacy of the authority of a head-bishop, they did not notice that this personal primacy does not extend beyond the episcopal eparchy (see Apostolic Canon 34) and, faithful to their principle of “development”, they took it “to the end” 12in giving ituniversal significance. 13This is yet another similarity to Roman Catholicism.
“In the Work of Christ and in His Holy Church, Which is the fruit of this Work, there is nothing unfinished, nothing incomplete, nothing unilateral. Everything in her is developed “to the end.”Christ’s work knows no gaps, no ruptures, no stops.Thus, the logical ascension of the degrees of the ecclesiastical hierarchy do not stop at the rank of Bishop or of Patriarch, but rather goes toward the papism that is its natural conclusion, required by the Church’s theandric nature. The Church’s hierarchy of Priests and Bishops is unified “to the end.” It cannot be deprived of this essential rank, without which it could not be one hierarchy, but would rather only be a collection of several hierarchies” (Tyshkevich, op. cit. pp. 280-281).
Let us once more pause over what has been said above. We have already demonstrated that each time that Christian thought tended toward theological rationalism, it came to be incapable of contemplating the Divine Life. It then bends under the influence of logical monism, which is proper to rationalism, either toward subordinationism in the sense of the superiority of the First Person of the Holy Trinity as ontological principle to toward the Sabellian understanding of that considers the Three Persons as modes of manifestation of one sole Divine Essence. This inevitable tendency of rationalism toward logical monism has produced many heresies. In endeavoring to push “the logical ascension” “to the end”, theological rationalism falls into absurdity. Its difficulty consists of the fact that it very rightly sees one or the other aspect of the truth.
The earthly Church is not made up of members who have all attained perfection. Her members are not all filled with the fullness of Her teaching and Her life, but they are born, grow and develop though teaching. It is thus inevitable that there are teachers and students, spiritual fathers and children. Consequently, the existence of an ecclesiastical hierarchy is necessary. Taking this necessity into account, the Roman Church pressed the hierarchical principle “to the end”, having invested one sole Bishop, separating him from the whole of the Church, and attributing to him alonethe charism of infallibility. This has disfigured the face of the Roman Catholic Church, causing it to lose the resemblance to the Holy Trinity, one in Its essence and equal in Its Hypostases.
Protestantism is the opposite. Seeing in the spiritual reality proper to man one of the aspects of the truth, that of the vocation of each to the fullness of direct communion with God, it likewise pushed to the extreme and through this falls into another excess—the predomination of the subjective and the individual, which is inevitably unilateral. This is why it wound up in disunion and the loss of a an organically unified life in the image of the consubstantial life of the Holy Trinity.
The exclusivity that results from the logical development of only one aspect of the truth, which pushed “to the end”, letting it absorb all the other aspects of this same truth, such is the characteristic of numerous heresies caused by rationalism.
Let us now examine thepapism of Constantinople Constantinople PapismAccording to Patriarch Bartholomew, he is the President (head) of the Church.This is no longer a canonical question, but a dogmatic one—a formulated heretical teaching, analogous to the Roman Catholic dogma on the presidency of the Roman pope over the whole Church:, which has found its most important expression in the Encyclical of Patriarch Athenagoras addressed to the Orthodox world on the first Sunday of Lent (called the Sunday of Orthodoxy), 1950. Here we find an increasing resemblance to Rome. Constantinople’s essential idea consists of saying that given that First Rome has apostatized, it is “Second Rome” that takes its place with the same rights and the same arguments. In this encyclical, Patriarch Athenagoras, like the popes of Rome, calls his see “the pillar of luminous cloud”, “the invincible Acropolis of Orthodoxy and the high rock established by God”, “the ark of grace”, “the Ecumenical See and Center to which the eyes of all the Churches of God are turned. This center which brings together and maintains all the Autocephalous, independent Orthodox Churches in an administrative manner and by a canonical dispensation… these Churches which are only united to the Body of the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church through the Mother-Church and through union and contact with Her…” “The Mother-Church, whose entire existence was nothing but a struggle to preserve the faith and the virtues of the ancestors, for the stability of the holy Churches of God, for the salvation of the entire “pleroma” of Christians; this Church can in all justice count on the obedience and devotion of her children and on the accomplishment of their duty towards Her in a complete manner…”
This new phase of Constantinople’s papism, transposed into a dogmatic formula, can be compared to Tertullian’s subordinationism. The latter does not deny the consubstantiality of the Father and the Son, but, in its stoic understanding of substance, confesses its divisibility, and in unequal degrees “the Father being all, the Son, a part.” Likewise, Constantinople does not claim to have a different essence from the other autocephalous Churches, but rather imagines them to be diminished in relation to herself. Constantinople is everything, it is the Universal Church. 14The others are only parts which only belong to the Ecumenical Church insomuch as they are attached to Constantinople.
Is it necessary to demonstrate that this form of papism is also an ecclesiological heresy, like the papism of Rome? Is it necessary to say that, if applied to the life of the Church, it would inevitably lead to a deformation of our entire spiritual existence? After the example of First Rome, it attaches the right of authority and instruction in the Church to one place (and in the case of Constantinople, we must add here, to the Greek race) and brings us back to the time of which the Gospel speaks: “Our fathers worshiped on this mountain, and you say that in Jerusalem is the place where one ought to worship” (John 4:20).
Patriarch Athenagoras makes belonging to the Ecumenical Church depend on the tie to Constantinople. This is not the belief and confession that have been transmitted to us from the Early Church.
“The One Church is, before all else, the Holy Church. But in the proper sense of the word “Only the Lord” is holy. The Church is holy because she is sanctified by Him, because She participates in the Divine Life and because the Divine Unity and the Church’s communion with the Lord is the source of Unity in the Church. The Church is One since She possesses one sole source of holiness and can only be One by the power of this holiness. The Church is Holy in every place and not only in a certain place our by virtue of a certain place. Thus the Council of Carthage wrote to Pope Celestine, “The fullness of the grace of the Holy Spirit is not diminished in any place.” The Church is One as the branches are united to their vine, for She abides in union with Christ, the Source of Her life (John 15:1-5). The Lord prays that His disciples may be “perfect in unity” by virtue of their ascension through Him to the fullness of Divine Life (John 17:22-23). When Saint Paul speaks to us of the Unity of the Church, he does not make this unity depend on one sole administrative center, but on the communion of one sole bread and one sole cup, on the Body and Blood of Christ the Lord, Who is the Only Head of the Church (1 Corinthians 10:14-17; Ephesians 4:15-16). ( Journal of the Patriarchate of Moscow1948, issue 8, p. 68). 15
“Drawing her sanctification directly from the Spirit of God, each local Church is sufficient in Herself. 16But as this source of sanctification is one, She always remains One Church. There can be no common earthly center to which all the local Churches should submit, for the existence of such a center alongside the heavenly center would introduce a dualism into the Church and break Her unity. (Troitsky, “On Autocephaly in the Church” Journal of the Patriarchate of Moscow, 1948, issue 7, p. 34).
If the theses of Patriarch Athenagoras were applied in life, the Church would lose the truth unity proper to Her, of which the great theologian Khomiakov speaks in these terms:
“The interior unity is true, the product and manifestation of freedom; the unity based neither on a rationalist science nor on an arbitrary convention, but on the moral law of mutual love and prayer; the unity where, notwithstanding the hierarchical gradation of priestly functions, none is subservient, but where all are equally called to be participants and cooperators in the common work, so in the end unity by the grace of God and not by a human institution, such is the unity of the Church.”
Then he says: “In Romanism, properly understood, unity for Christians is uniquely the unity of obedience to a central power. It is their subservience to a doctrine in which they do not cooperate and which remains permanently exterior to them (for it resides uniquely in the one hierarchical head)… It is evidently unity in the conventional sense and not in the Christian sense” ( The Latin Church and Protestantism, pp. 301-302).
“The Chuch requires perfect unity, just as She can only give in returnperfect equality, for She knowsbrotherhoodbut does not knowsubjugation” (p. 61).
“The Mother-Church… can in all justice realy on the devotion and filial obedience of her children and on the fulfillment of their duty to Her in an exact and eager manner.” Having the pretention that Constantinople is the Mother of the Churches, Patriarch Athenagoras, in this appeal, following the example of the Popes of Rome, addresses himself directly to the Orthodox of the Universe, inviting them to submit to him. Let us pass in silence with regard to which Churches and to what degree Constantinople has been Mother. Let us allow that it can really call itself the Mother of all the Churches. Nevertheless, to derive from this the expectation for submission would be contrary to Orthodox triadology, according to which the relation between the Father and the Son does not remove the absolute equality of the hypostases. “He Who is begotten of the Substance is equal to Him Who begets.” Thus think the Holy Fathers (Gregory of Nazianzus). Even the Jews understand it. “… He said that God is is own Father, making Himself equal to God” (John 5:18).
In the life of the Church, the relation of Mother-Church and Daughter-Churches has never been recognized as a basis for superiority of authority or even of honor. This becomes clear through the example of the Church of Jerusalem, which is incontestably the Mother of all the Churches, including that of First Rome. Rome is proud of possessing the tomb of Peter. In Jerusalem, there is the luminous Sepulcher of the Lord, the Savior of the world. Rome is proud of the “red blood” of Saint Peter and Saint Paul. It was in Jerusalem that the Redeemer of the world shed His Divine Blood. Rome is proud of the glory of the “eternal city”. In Jerusalem, the Lord, the King of Glory, preached, suffered and rose again. In Jerusalem, on the Mount of Olives, He blessed the disciples and ascended to heaven in glory. In Jerusalem, in the Upper Room of Sion, the Holy Spirit came down upon the Apostles and those who were with them. That is, upon the entire Church. It was in Jerusalem that the Most Holy Mother of God spent her life. It was in Jerusalem that the first Council of the Apostles, presided over by James, the Brother of the Lord, took place. And, despite all this, in the period preceding the First Ecumenical Concil, Jerusalem even lost its independence and was placed under the Metropolitan of Caesarea in Palestine.
A tendency to discredit the principle of the equality of the local Churches seems to us to be the most essential element of Patriarch Athenagoras’ encyclical. In other words, we notice in it the start of a struggle against the principle of “autocephaly”. This idea appears, for the first time in the Voice of the Church( Ekklesiastike Phone, a journal in Athens) at the moment when the Bulgarian Schism was coming to an end (1945). Mr Sepranzas, the ex-General Procurator of the Synod of the Church of Greece of Athens, indignant at the resolution of this schism by the Patriarch of Constantinople under Moscow’s influence and without prior notice on the part of Athens, published a series of articles full of insults toward the Bulgarian Church as well as the Russian Church and all the other Slavic Orthodox Churches. At the same time, the fraternal invitation of the Patriarch of Moscow to the Patriarch of Constantinople to attend his enthronement being described by Mr Speranzas as an attempt to seek Constantinople’s authority, he raises the question of the universal importance of Byzantium’s authority and declares the principle of autocephaly to be erroneous. (Not having the issues of this journal, we cite them from memory).
Among the Russian theologians, it is especially the Rev Archpriest Basil Zenkovsky and the Rev Fr Alexander Schmemann who have expressed themselves on this subject. Confusing the idea of “autocephaly” with that of “nationalism” in order to reject both in the name of a “universalism”, they destroy the very principle of the structure of the Universal Church. The Rev Fr Zenkovsky writes, “Christianity went wrong in allowing the formation of Churches called 17national.” And again, “Christianity being confined 18in too narrow national frameworks did not appear to the eyes of men in all Her fullness.” ( Messenger of the Christian Movement of Russian Students, Munich, 1949 issues 11-12, p. 10).
It is more difficult to limit ourselves to a short citation from the precis of the Rev Fr Schmemann to summarize his ideas. He reaches the same conclusions as the Rev Fr Zenkovsky by exaggerating the role of the national moment, which is only an accidental detail in the life of the Church. But, more objective than his elders, he manages to touch upon the true reason that lies at the origin of the inflammation of national feeling in the life of certain local Churches. To wit, the narrow imperialism of the Greeks on the ecclesiastical and political levels. He writes:
“In Byzantium’s understanding, the baptism of new peoples necessarily implied their introduction into the political and religious organism of the Empire and their submission to ecumenical, Orthodox authority. But in reality, this Empire had long lost its universal and supra-national character and for these newly-converted peoples, this Byzantine ideology too often became aGreekimperialism in the ecclesiastical and political domains” (p. 11).
Further on, speaking about the “decomposition (?) of the universal consciousness within Orthodoxy”, he identifies the concept of autocephaly with that of nationalism and independence.
“The principle aim of each people-state became obtaining autocephaly, understood as the independence of a given nationalChurch from the ancient centers of the East, and above all from Constantinople… It is hard to deny that the principle cause of this unfortunate process lies, above all, in the transformation of Byzantine universalism into Greek nationalism. It is important to understand that the identification of the meaning ofautocephalywithindependenceis a characteristic symptom of this new spirit which appeared at that time in the Church and which shows that the Christian consciousness allows itself to be inspired by a statist nationalism, instead of transforming and enlightening it” (op. cit. p. 13).
Without letting ourselves be carried along into a detailed analysis of this quote, we will limit ourselves for the moment to saying that we do not agree with the author’s conclusions, forming our opinion in terms that are almost his own, but reversing the sense of his affirmations. We think that despite the national and political elements brought along by the Orthodox peoples in their quest for the constitution of their Church, it isthe very essence of the Church, a theandric organism,which imposed the forms of this constitution. We justify our conclusion opposed to that of the Rev Fr Schmemann by the incontestable fact of the existence of these forms since the beginning of the Church. These forms were not a new invention of a national and statist consciousness; they were simply transmitted to new Christian peoples.
Let us continue our examination of the principle of autocephaly. It is no surprise that Constantinople has now started a struggle against this principle: it is in the nature of every papism. Rome does not accept this principle either. Here is what the priest Tyshkevich says in his “Treatise on the Church”, cited above:
“In the universal Church, local churches are acceptable as parts of one sole organism, like branches depending on the one, central trunk, but not as completely independent, whole and autocephalous ecclesiastical formations, united only by an exterior resemblance, by a common spirit and a common faith. The “centralization” of the Church can strengthen or weaken under the influence of temporary and local conditions, but the complete autocephaly of the local churches is not admissible under and pretext. The Church would then be polycephalic, with many heads, which is impossible for her theandric nature” (p. 34).
“… the confessions that allow the carving up of the Church into sects or even into “autocephalies” completely free and independent from the center can be neither the true Church nor even a “branch”, a part of the Church. One sole hierarchy is proper to the Church; the federation of several completely independent hierarchies is in contradiction with her nature. The complete autonomy of the parts is impossible. The Church is not aunion of organisms, united only by an identical principle of spirit and belief, but a theandric organism, animated ‘by the same Spirit’, sanctified and governed by one sole uninterrupted and tightly bound hierarchy having at its head one sole supreme hierarch” (p. 152).
An extraordinary resemblance between the teaching of our neo-papists and Roman teaching, not only in spirit but also in argumentation has been picked up by the Romans with visible satisfaction. The Bulletin of the Russian Catholic parish of Paris (Rue François G érard), Our Parish, issue 7, 1950, pp. 17-19 has published long extracts from the speech given by Mr S. Verkhovsky at the “Diocesan Assembly” of the Russian Exarchate of Constantinople (Messenger “Tserkovny Vestnik”, issue 21, 1949) with the following comments:
“… We publish… some interesting excerpts from the Tserkovny Vestnik, the official organ of the Russian Exarchate in Western Europe, which clearly show that we are not fantasists in affirming that primacy that belonged to the Sovereign Pontif of Rome within the Early Church was not only a primacy of honor, but also a superiority of authority” (following an extract from p. 15 of the Tserkovny Vestnik). Further on we read:
“In the same bulletin we find ideas that we can endorse and consider as our own. There follows a long citation from the Declaration of the Diocesan Assembly (p. 2) where we find the following words particularly highlighted: “This is why since the age of the apostles, the Holy Church or, to put it better, God Himself established a superior first bishop in the whole of the Catholic Church, the earthly Vicar of His Son… Those who proclaim another teaching do not do so in the spirit of the Lord, but rather sow trouble and discorde…” 19
In another Roman Catholic newsletter, Toward Christian Unity(November 1949, issue 17), we find an article by the Rev Fr C. Dumont “Russian Orthodoxy and the Primacy of the Ecumenical See” in which the author, analyzing the decisions of the Diocesan Assembly, writes, “These declarations, the importance of which one will have no difficulty realizing, have provoked vehement condemnation on the part of two other jurisdictions. The accusation of ‘papism’ was to come very naturally under the pen of contradictors, even if to our mind this reproach is not entirely well-founded, since the message still remains far from the Roman understanding of a Primacy instituted by Christ Himself; One will have, in fact, noticed the formula: ‘since apostolic times, the Holy Church, or, to put it better, God Himself.’ It remains nonetheless that this affirmation aims to revive within Orthodoxy a principle and a practice that were progressively banished from it and whose restoration could well mark a new stage along the path of a greater understanding of the position of Roman Catholicism.”
What then is the reason why the principle of the autocephaly of the local Churches is so dear to Orthodoxy? Why does it seem to us to be not only the natural form of the Church’s life, which belongs to Her essentially, but also the indispensable condition for faithfully keeping the tradition of the truth and the ways that lead toward knowledge of that truth?
As has already been said, the term “autocephaly” is, philologically speaking, quite imperfect. It does not express the idea that it contains, which allows rationalist spirits to deform and oppose it. The true meaning of this term being the affirmation of the fact that the fullness of ecclesiastical life belongs to every place where there exists a Christian community that possesses an integral priesthood (a Council of Bishops) and which keeps dogmatic teaching incorruptible, as well as the Tradition of the Universal Orthodox Church. The canonical code of the Orthodox Church contains the famous letter of the Council of Carthage (the second addressed to Pope Celestine), which proclaims clearly and forcefully, “The fullness of the grace of the Holy Spirit is not diminished in any place.” The Fathers of Carthage base themselves on the authority of the first Council of Nicaea. Thus we see that the principle of autocephaly is the historic expression of a consciousness that is profoundly proper to the Church. To wit, that grace is not lesser in any place. The true meaning contained in the term “autocephaly” is the Orthodox understanding of the consubstantiality of the Churchcorresponding to the consubstantiality of the Persons of the Holy Trinity, which excludes Tertullian’s stoic idea of the divisibility of the Substance, and that into equal parts.
The principle of autocephaly expresses the conviction that the Catholic Church in every place appears in the fullness of the grace that is confided to Her and, through the power of this fullness of gifts, She is everywhere the One Catholic Church. The principle of autocephaly teaches us that no place, no title, no race possesses within the Church superiority of authority or teaching over other places or other peoples. It also tells us that “the Spirit blows where He wills” and His breath in the Church does not depend on the will of a hierarch.
The principle of the autocephaly of the local Churches teaches us their equality in honor in the image of the Divine Persons and in its final realization, it expresses our common hope to see not only each local Church, but also each of Her members, each human person-hypostasis as the bearer of all the catholic fullnessof the life of the Church in the image of the Holy Trinity, each Hypostasis of Which bears in Itself all the absolute fullness of Divine Being; and this is not by excluding or absorbing the other Persons-Hypostases, but by abiding in the fullness of the unity of the Substance.
The autocephaly of the local Church is neither historically nor spiritually the result of elements foreign to to the Catholic Church, such as phyletism, nationalism, statism or politics. In the early Church, each Christian community was, in fact, autocephalous. History shows us that on the territory of a single state there can coexist several autocephalous Churches. This was the case in the Roman Empire before its division, in the Byzantine Empire of the East and later in the Turkish Empire. In contemporary Russia, there exist two autocephalous Churches.
The life of the Universal Church does not require a single administrative center. But the principle of autocephaly does not exclude the possibility of founding a common center, coordinating the life of the Churches which, however, should never under any pretext take the form on an “infallible” Vatican which would transform the inner life of the Church into a State with its external authority. This would be equivalent to the loss of religion as such.
We believe that we have clearly demonstrated that outside the principle of autocephaly, which is to say, without confessing theconsubstantiality and equality in dignityof the local Churches and of the Episcopacy in general, the true catholicity of the Church, which is in the image of the Catholicity of Divine Being would disappear on account of this. In discarding thefreedom of catholicity which is consubstantial and equal in dignity, we will inevitably lose the path toward knowledge of the Trinity Who is only revealed in union in love and not in any hierarchy taken separately that places itself on the margins of this law. The great Khomiakov spoke of this in his works, but it is, unfortunately, almost forgotten at this time.
If we fight against the neo-papism that has appeared within our Holy Church, we are only fighting for the Truthas the Church confesses it, the eternal Truth. We reject any idea of “Rome”—First, Second or Third—as soon as this idea tends to introduce the principle of subordination into the life of the Church. We reject all papism, whether it is in Rome, Constantinople, Moscow, London, Paris, New York or in any other place. We denounce papism as an ecclesiological heresy that deforms Christianity.
The eternal substance of the Church is reflected in all aspects of human life on earth. The canonical structure of the Church is one of the projections of Her pure, holy spiritual nature. In being reflected in this world, the elements of the purely ecclesiastical reality are confused with conventional and relative elements of the natural order. But God’s idea and purpose—which, consequently, are those of the Church—remain inalterable even in this confusion. This purpose is the salvation of the world—so that “this corruptible must put on incorruption, and this mortal must put on immortality” (1 Corinthians 15:53) through communion with divine grace.
In the conditions of our fallen terrestrial life, the “projection” of the Church’s holy and incorruptible nature inevitably takes a certain nuance of convention. This is why the canonical constitution of the Church is not an absolute juridical norm; it bears in itself traces of imperfection of our historical existence. There are temporary elements responding to such and such a condition of the age. Certain details have undergone change more than once and such changes are not impossible in the future. Nevertheless, the canonical constitution always preserves its deep roots, its inalterable essence, which cannot be in contradiction with our dogmatic consciousness. Thus, since we confess that “it is neither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem” that the Father is worshiped, but rather “the true worshippers worship the Father in spirit and in truth”, how is it possible that the canons of the Church impose upon us a local principle as the indispensable condition of belonging to the true Church?
Here is a classic example of the papist mentality: “Let us never forget that between God and us there is a link and this link is Rome…” (The sermon of the Rev Fr Valette in the newspaper La Croix, October 7, 1949, issue 20.261).
If His Holiness Athenagoras, Patriarch of “Second Rome” addresses to us today an encyclical to preach submission to the See of Constantinople as a formal condition of belonging to the Universal Church, what true Christian, “worshipping in spirit and in truth” will accept these words?
Let us imagine that some catastrophe causes First and Second Rome to disappear. Would this disappearance leave the world deprived of true communion with God, since the “links” that connect us to Him have disappeared? Of course, that is a “voice of strangers” (John 10:5). This has never been our Christian faith.
We have attempted to demonstrate with the present overview that ecclesiological teaching cannot be in contradiction with triadological teaching: that even in its historical aspect, the Church must reflect the image of Triune Life. The canon that establishes unity between the Bishops of the local Churches in the image of the Holy Trinity and which is at the same time the closest reflection of this unity is Apostolic Canon 34. 20
It is toward a similar unity that His Holiness Patriarch Alexei of Moscow and all the Russias calls us:
“… Christ told His disciples, ‘whoever desires to become great among you, let him be your servant. 27And whoever desires to be first among you, let him be your slave’ (Matthew 20:26-27). May the Lord open the spiritual eyes of the Roman Pontiffs, that they may acquire, with God’s help, the power of the Spirit, so that they may renounce the vain pretention of establishing on earth their domination over all the heirs of the Apostles! Oh, if the Lord deigned to allow us to see the happy day of theunionof the Bishops of the Church as brothers equal in rights! This would serve as a beginning for peace in the entire world…” ( Acts of the Moscow Conference, vol. 1, p. 90; Journal of the Patriarchate of Moscow, special issue in French, 1948, p. 16).
Thus, “the Church calls to Her bosom all nations and hopefully awaits the coming of Her Savior. She sees with a tranquil eye the flow of the ages, historical storms and agitations and the currents of human passions and thoughts rolling and churning around the rock upon which She relies and which She knows to be unshaken. This rock is Christ.” (Khomiakov, The Latin Church and Protestantism, pp. 303-304).
1This creed is known to us as being by Saint Athanasius. To a great extent it does depend on the writings of this Father. But certain passages of the trinitarian exposition are of a perfection and precision that could not be attributed to such an early period. Thus this Creed is considered to be a universal confession of the Orthodox Church.
2This teaching of the Chruch on the unity of human nature in the image of the Holy Trinity is admirably expressed in the first works of Metropolitan Anthony (Khrapovitsky), “The Moral Value of the Dogma of the Holy Trinity” and “The Moral Value of the Dogma of the Church”. We advise all those who already know these works to reread them attentively and those who have not yet read them to become familiar with them. It is a masterpiece of Russian theological thought which appeared in 1892 in the journal of the Moscow Academy, the Theological Messenger( Bogoslovsky Vestnik). A second edition was published in Yugoslavia in the 1930s, in a collection of the Metropolitan’s works on the occasion of his jubilee. Unfortunately, these works have never been translated into French.
The same dogmatic doctrine is summarily but brilliantly expounded in French by Vladimir Lossky in his work The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church(see Chapter VI).
3The great Khomiakov says that “the true Church does not recognize the teaching Church” because “allthe Church, in other words: the Church in her entirety teaches.” Consequently, he says further on, “This is an incontestable dogmatic fact. The Patriarchs of the East, gathered in Council with their Bishops, have solemnly declared in their response to the encyclical of Pius IX that “infallibility resides uniquely in the universalityof the Church united by mutual love and that invariability of dogma and purity of rite were entrusted to the safekeeping not of a certain hierarchy, but of the entire people of the Church, which is the Body of Christ.” This formal declaration of all the clergy of the East, received with respect full of fraternal gratitude by the local Church of Russia, has acquired all the moral authority of an ecumenical testimony. (A. S. Khomiakov, The Latin Church and Protestantism from the Perspective of the Eastern Church, Lausanne and Vevey, pp. 48-49). “To make teaching into a prerogative is madness. To make it into a heavenly gift attached to certain offices is a heresy” ( ibid., p. 54).
4“Autocephaly” is not a philologically felicitous term. It does not express the idea that it contains, but, following the example of the Fathers, we will limit ourselves to analyzing the principles, without discussing words.
5“We are all children of the Russian Church, heirs of Her (?) tradition, which we seek to keep and to develop abroad.” “We have the awareness of bearing, of keeping, of continuing and of developing the sacred Tradition of the Russian Church” ( Messenger of the Russian Church in Western Europe, no. 21, pp. 3 and 18).
6Emphasis ours.
7All these texts from the Treatise are translated from Russian into French by us.
8This is the Synod of Munich, held by the group of Russian dissidents headed by Metropolitan Anasatasy.
9The original expression, “nachalo-vozhd”, is completely foreign to the language of the Church. Translated literally, it would be “archi-führer”.
10Emphasis ours.
11This is the first time in the history of the Church that we hear tell of the “Catholic” heresy.
12An expression taken from the Gospel of John 13:1.
13It is necessary to analyze up to the end the nature of the Church so as not to fall into this unhealthy state (that is, “nationalism in the Church”). Archpriest B. Zenkovsky in the Messenger of the Christian Movement of Russian Students, Munich, 11-12, 1949, p. 19). “We repeat, we must go up to the end of reasoning and especially avoid the expression ‘local Church’; this expression has nothing to do with such an understanding of the Church” (Rev Fr A. Schmemann, op. cit., p. 19).
14These pretentions of Constantinople are all the more strange since it is currently “diminished to an extreme degree” (this expression belongs to the Rev Fr A. Semenov-Tian-Shanksy.
See the Messenger“ Tserkovny Vestnik”, issue 23, p. 9). It is diminished and reduced to such a point that in our day it makes up only 1/20,000 of the Orthodox Church.
15So far as we know, this text belongs to Prof. S. Troitsky and had been proposed by the Russian Church to the Moscow Conference in 1948 as “the Message to the Christians of the World”. This text, however, was abandoned in favor of that proposed by Metropolitan Stephen of Bulgaria. (See “the Acts of the Conference of the Heads and Representatives of the autocephalous Orthodox Churches, held in Moscow in 1948”, vol. 2, p. 413).
16As possessing the fullness of grace.
18[ Footnote blank on Orthodox Synaxis—O.C.]
19Translated from the Russian by us.
20See the “Analysis of Apostolic Canon 34” made in French by the Rev Archpriest E. Kovalevsky in our Messengerissues 2-3, p. 67 and his article in Russian “Ecclesiological Problems” in the Messengerissue 4, p. 11.
| https://orthochristian.com/125946.html |
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14
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1.3
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5.5
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14
--
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19
14
0.5
0.3
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16
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0.2
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17
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21
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b8
1
-2-
49%
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D. Coulombe
BAL
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t8
2
-23
47%
1-2
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H. Bader
K. Kelly
TBR
Single to RF (Fly Ball to Short RF)
b8
2
123
45%
0-3
SEA
J. Crawford
R. Montero
HOU
Double to RF (Line Drive to Deep CF-RF)
b9
0
---
44%
6-7
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K. Finnegan
WSN
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[netCDF #RMQ-116404]: NETCDF install issues
[netCDF #RMQ-116404]: NETCDF install issues
Subject : [netCDF #RMQ-116404]: NETCDF install issues
> I didn't modify any files. And I have the most current version of
> automake. I just installed 4.2 on a fresh machine and got it going. I
> guess it's just 4.3 that causes issues for me. I am not using a normal
> distribution of Linux, we use a realm distribution from redhat
> specific to NC State. I have a feeling that this is the root issue and
> not netcdf. Is there a log that configure created that I can refer to?
> I want to see if any parts of the configure failed due to a lack of
> permissions. Thanks again for your help!
Yes, when you run configure it logs everything in the config.log file.
This includes lots of error messages that are expected as it tries to
determine the development environment. It would be helpful if you could
send that. Thanks!
--Russ
> Evan
>
>
>
> On Jun 12, 2013, at 5:11 PM, Unidata netCDF Support
> <address@hidden> wrote:
>
> > Evan,
> >
> > May response was wrong:
> >> Hmm, it looks like you have a newer version of automake (1.13) than the one
> >> assumed by autoconf 2.69 (automake 1.12), used in creating the configure
> >> file.
> >
> > As far as I can see, the latest version of automake that's available is
> > 1.12.6,
> > and the configure script that comes with 4.3.0 doesn't try to use any later
> > version
> > of automake than 1.12. Did you modify acinclude.m4 or configure.ac in the
> > netcdf-4.3.0
> > source directory? If so, you'll need to download it again and not do that,
> > unless
> > you use autoreconf to regenerate the configure script, and I'm not sure why
> > you'd
> > do that unless you are modifying configure.ac.
> >
> > --Russ
> >
> >> If you have a newer autoconf, try running
> >>
> >> $ autoreconf -i
> >>
> >> to create a new configure script from the configure.ac that's in the
> >> netcdf-4.3.0
> >> source directory. Plaease let me know if that doesn't fix the problem.
> >>
> >> --Russ
> >>
> >>> The error actually occurred after the ./configure; sorry for the
> >>> confusion.
> >>> It happened during the make all command.
> >>>
> >>> E
> >>>
> >>>
> >>> On Wed, Jun 12, 2013 at 10:13 AM, Evan Mahoney <address@hidden> wrote:
> >>>
> >>>> Hey Russ, I ran into another issue installing netcdf today. I am still
> >>>> installing on RHEL6 machines and this error occured after these two
> >>>> commands while in my C+ folder
> >>>> Commands:
> >>>> setenv NCDIR /tmp/nc430-nonc4
> >>>> sudo ./configure --disable-netcdf-4 --prefix=${NCDIR}
> >>>>
> >>>> Error message after ./configure
> >>>> /usr/local/netcdf-4.3.0/missing: line 81: aclocal-1.13: command not found
> >>>> WARNING: 'aclocal-1.13' is missing on your system.
> >>>> You should only need it if you modified 'acinclude.m4' or
> >>>> 'configure.ac' or m4 files included by 'configure.ac'.
> >>>> The 'aclocal' program is part of the GNU Automake package:
> >>>> <
http://www.gnu.org/software/automake
>
> >>>> It also requires GNU Autoconf, GNU m4 and Perl in order to run:
> >>>> <
http://www.gnu.org/software/autoconf
>
> >>>> <
http://www.gnu.org/software/m4/
>
> >>>> <
http://www.perl.org/
>
> >>>>
> >>>> I have checked to make sure this machine has automake. Any ideas as to
> >>>> why
> >>>> this error is occurring?
> >>>>
> >>>> Thanks for your help
> >>>> Evan
> >>>>
> >>>>
> >>>> address@hidden> wrote:
> >>>>
> >>>>> Evan,
> >>>>>
> >>>>>> Hey Russ, thanks for your help. I got everything working, I think it
> >>>>> was my
> >>>>>> setenv lines in terminal that made the difference. Just out of
> >>>>> curiosity,
> >>>>>> what does the -L and -I switches in the lines
> >>>>>>
> >>>>>> "setenv LDFLAGS -L${PATH1}/lib"
> >>>>>> and
> >>>>>> "setenv CPPFLAGS -I${PATH2}/include"
> >>>>>>
> >>>>>> mean? I think that they were the difference between the install
> >>>>> succeeding
> >>>>>> and failing.
> >>>>>
> >>>>> Those are flags for the C compiler. "-Ldir" means look in directory dir
> >>>>> for
> >>>>> libraries. "-Idir" means look in directory dir for .h header files for
> >>>>> C/C++
> >>>>> or .mod module files for Fortran.
> >>>>>
> >>>>> --Russ
> >>>>>
> >>>>>> address@hidden> wrote:
> >>>>>>
> >>>>>>> Hi Evan,
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>>> I am having some trouble installing the netcdf c and netcdf fortran
> >>>>>>>> libraries. I am trying to install to the NC State Univ distribution
> >>>>> of
> >>>>>>>> RHEL6. Basically my problem is that I am setting my CPPFLAGS,
> >>>>> LDFLAGS,
> >>>>>>> and
> >>>>>>>> LD_LIBRARY_PATH. I have extracted the C libraries to my
> >>>>>>>> /usr/local/netcdf-3.6.3 and the fortran libraries to
> >>>>>>>> /usr/local/netcdf-fortran-4.2. When I run "./configure
> >>>>> --disable-netcdf-4
> >>>>>>>> --prefix=/usr/local/netcdf-3.6.3" in my C library, I receive the
> >>>>> error
> >>>>>>> that
> >>>>>>>> the --disable-netcdf switch is unrecognized.
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>> The version of the netCDF C libraries you should be using is 4.3.0,
> >>>>>>> available
> >>>>>>> for download here:
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>>
http://www.unidata.ucar.edu/downloads/netcdf/current/
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>> The 3.6.3 version is about 5 years old, and is no longer supported or
> >>>>>>> maintained.
> >>>>>>> It didn't have a "--disable-netcdf-4" option, which was only made
> >>>>>>> available in
> >>>>>>> netCDF version 4.x releases. The 3.6.3 version included a bundled
> >>>>> Fortran
> >>>>>>> library,
> >>>>>>> but the netCDF Fortran library has been a separate distribution since
> >>>>>>> netcdf-fortran-4.2 was released.
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>> You can still build the netCDF-3 library using the --disable-netcdf-4
> >>>>>>> configure
> >>>>>>> option, as described here:
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>>
http://www.unidata.ucar.edu/netcdf/docs/build_classic.html
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>> After that library is built and installed, you can build and install
> >>>>> the
> >>>>>>> netCDF
> >>>>>>> Fortran library by following these instructions:
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>>
http://www.unidata.ucar.edu/netcdf/docs/netcdf-fortran-install.html
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>>> ... This doesnt seem like that big
> >>>>>>>> of an error so I just move onto running make all and make check
> >>>>> install.
> >>>>>>> My
> >>>>>>>> makes go on without errors. I then move on to the fortran library
> >>>>>>>> configuration. I try to set my CPPFLAGS and LD_LIBRARY_PATH but I
> >>>>> dont
> >>>>>>>> think I have them pointing to the right directories because when I
> >>>>> run
> >>>>>>>> ./configure in this directory, it tells me it cannot find netcdf.h.
> >>>>> I
> >>>>>>> only
> >>>>>>>> have one file by that name on the machine (It it in a program called
> >>>>>>>> VisIT). Could you please point me in the right direction.
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>> If you encounter problems following the steps in the documentation
> >>>>>>> referenced
> >>>>>>> above, please let us know.
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>>> I have a feeling it is not just me and there is some underlying
> >>>>> issue
> >>>>>>> with
> >>>>>>>> this. I know that KDE is a prerequisite for netcdf and KDE is not
> >>>>> meant
> >>>>>>> for
> >>>>>>>> RHEL. I worked around this by installing the KDE-devel library. But
> >>>>> it
> >>>>>>>> might not have all the modules netcdf needs.
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>> KDE is *not* a prerequisite for netCDF. If there's a web page
> >>>>> somewhere
> >>>>>>> that
> >>>>>>> says it is, please let us know, so we can correct the source of that
> >>>>>>> misinformation. Thanks.
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>> --Russ
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>>> Thanks for your time.
> >>>>>>>>
> >>>>>>>> Evan
> >>>>>>> Russ Rew UCAR Unidata Program
> >>>>>>> address@hidden
> >>>>>
http://www.unidata.ucar.edu
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>>
> >>>>>>> Ticket Details
> >>>>>>> ===================
> >>>>>>> Ticket ID: RMQ-116404
> >>>>>>> Department: Support netCDF
> >>>>>>> Priority: Normal
> >>>>>>> Status: Closed
> >>>>>
> >>>>> Russ Rew UCAR Unidata Program
> >>>>> address@hidden
http://www.unidata.ucar.edu
> >
> > Russ Rew UCAR Unidata Program
> > address@hidden
> >
> >
> >
> > Ticket Details
> > ===================
> > Ticket ID: RMQ-116404
> > Department: Support netCDF
> > Priority: Normal
> > Status: Closed
> >
>
>
Russ Rew UCAR Unidata Program
address@hidden
| http://www.unidata.ucar.edu/support/help/MailArchives/netcdf/msg11891.html |
BCM-HGSC | Eric Boerwinkle, Ph.D. | page 4
Associate Director, Baylor College of Medicine Human Genome Sequencing Center Contact information eboerwin@bcm.edu Other positions Dean, UTHealth School of Public Health M. David Low Chair in Public Health Kozmetsky Family Chair in Human Genetics Professor, Human Genetics Center and Dept. of Epidemiology Research interests The research interests of Dr. Boerwinkle encompass the
Eric Boerwinkle, Ph.D.
Associate Director, Baylor College of Medicine Human Genome Sequencing Center
Contact information
eboerwin@bcm.edu (link sends e-mail)
Other positions
Dean, UTHealth School of Public HealthM. David Low Chair in Public HealthKozmetsky Family Chair in Human GeneticsProfessor, Human Genetics Center and Dept. of Epidemiology
Research interests
The research interests of Dr. Boerwinkle encompass the genetic analysis of the common chronic diseases in humans, including coronary artery disease, hypertension, and non-insulin dependent (type II) diabetes.
Dr. Boerwinkle received his B.S. in Biology from the University of Cincinnati in 1980, an M.A. in Statistics (1984), and M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Genetics (1985) from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor where he served as Senior Research Associate in the Department of Human Genetics from 1985-1986. He joined the University of Texas-Houston Center for Demographic/ Population Genetics in 1986 as a Research Assistant and became Assistant Professor in the same year. In 1991 he joined the Department of Human Genetics at the School of Public Health, University of Texas-Houston Health Science Center as Associate Professor, in 1996 was promoted to Professor, and in 1997, Director of the Human Genetics Center. He became a faculty member of the Institute of Molecular Medicine in 1996 and became Professor and Director of the Research Center for Human Genetics.
Dr. Boerwinkle is a member of the American Diabetes Association and the American Society of Human Genetics. The research interests of Dr. Boerwinkle encompass the genetic analysis of common chronic diseases in humans, including coronary artery disease, hypertension, and non-insulin dependent (type II) diabetes. This work includes localizing genes which contribute to disease risk, identification of potentially functional mutations within these genes, testing these candidate functional mutations in experimental systems, defining the impact of gene variation on the epidemiology of disease, and determining the extent to which these genes interact with environmental factors to contribute to disease risk. Activities include both statistical analysis and laboratory work. A large part of Dr. Boerwinkle's current research effort consist of localizing genes contributing to disease risk using modern genome-wide mapping methods. Success depends on keeping up with the latest genomic technical advances. The laboratory is set-up and operating as a high through-put sequencing and genotyping facility in which speed, accuracy and efficiency are monitored continuously. However, we are constantly seeking out more efficient methods to collect and manage genetic information.
Dr. Boerwinkle and colleagues have completed the world's first genome-wide analyses for a variety of CAD risk factors, including diabetes and hypertension. These investigations have lead to the identification of novel susceptibility genes in both cases. Dr. Boerwinkle is particularly interested in methods for identifying potentially functional mutations within a gene region. This seemingly simple objective is made difficult because the functional mutations are expected to have small effects and are imbedded in a sea of silent genetic variation. Once nearly all of the variation is catalogued directly by DNA sequencing, individuals are genotyped for each variable site. Both novel and traditional statistical methods are applied to relate the array of genetic information to a wealth of phenotypic data. This algorithm generates "candidate functional mutations" that are then tested in an in vitro or mouse model system. Once a functional mutation has been identified, Dr. Boerwinkle's group evaluates the ability of the variable site to predict the onset of disease (e.g. myocardial infarction or stroke) above and beyond traditional risk factors. This work is carried out as part of multiple prospective studies of cardiovascular disease and its risk factors in tens of thousands of individuals representing the major American ethnic groups.
Finally, he is working on experimental designs for studying genotype by environment interaction in humans. In particular, we are working on the extent to which interindividual variation in lipid lowering and anti-hypertensive medications are influenced by genetic factors. The practical objective of the research is to use genetic information to identify individuals at increase risk of disease and to design more efficacious interventions. Genetic studies are defining, at the molecular level, novel mechanisms of disease risk, onset and progression. Dr. Boerwinkle and collaborators address the localization of genes which contribute to disease risk in cardiovascular diseases, hypertension and diabetes. The methodology used involves screening of families having the disease and linking the presence of disease with known markers of the human genome. In this manner, the genomic region in which relevant mutations are located can be mapped and the relevant DNA sequenced. By assessing the structural change the mutation may have caused in the gene product (protein), it is possible to infer how it may affect biological function. In order to determine experimentally whether a mutation is functional, it is necessary to introduce the mutated gene into an animal, usually a mouse, and assess its biological effects on the animal's phenotype.
Dr. Boerwinkle has participated in multiple notable discoveries since joining the Institute. Only two will be highlighted here. First, Dr. Boerwinkle's group has completed the first ever genome-wide search for genes contributing to inter-individual blood pressure levels. This initial effort has lead to the identification of an important gene (an adrenergic receptor) which influences blood pressure levels and the risk to hypertension. This is the first time that such a genome-wide approach has led to the identification of a susceptibility gene to a major cardiovascular disease risk factor. Second, Dr. Boerwinkle has participated in similar efforts to identify genes contributing to the risk of developing non-insulin dependent (type II) diabetes. In this case, however, there were no genes in the region that were suspects for the disease. A team of collaborating investigators have painstakingly characterized the genetic region and identified the mutated gene (in this case a protease). This is the first time that anyone has ever positionally cloned a gene contributing to any common chronic disease. This work is of obvious potential clinical importance. It may lead to improved prediction of those at increased risk of disease and the design of more efficacious intervention strategies. The technologies and information from the human genome project provide new tools for lessening the burden of ill-health. Dr. Boerwinkle's accomplishments in developing an internationally recognized team of investigators targeting the genetics of cardiovascular disease and its risk factors ensures a productive future and further discoveries.
Publications
2021
Sun D , Richard M , Musani SK , Sung YJu , Winkler TW , Schwander K , et al. . Multi-Ancestry Genome-wide Association Study Accounting for Gene-Psychosocial Factor Interactions Identifies Novel Loci for Blood Pressure Traits. HGG Adv. 2021;2(1). PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Lin BM , Grinde KE , Brody JA , Breeze CE , Raffield LM , Mychaleckyj JC , et al. . Whole genome sequence analyses of eGFR in 23,732 people representing multiple ancestries in the NHLBI trans-omics for precision medicine (TOPMed) consortium. EBioMedicine. 2021;63:103157. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Wang P , Castellani CA , Yao J , Huan T , Bielak LF , Zhao W , et al. . Epigenome-wide association study of mitochondrial genome copy number. Hum Mol Genet. 2021;31(2):309-319. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Bressler J , Davies G , Smith AV , Saba Y , Bis JC , Jian X , et al. . Association of low-frequency and rare coding variants with information processing speed. Transl Psychiatry. 2021;11(1):613. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Murdock DR , Venner E , Muzny DM , Metcalf GA , Murugan M , Hadley TD , et al. . Genetic testing in ambulatory cardiology clinics reveals high rate of findings with clinical management implications. Genet Med. 2021;23(12):2404-2414. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Seplyarskiy VB , Soldatov RA , Koch E , McGinty RJ , Goldmann JM , Hernandez RD , et al. . Population sequencing data reveal a compendium of mutational processes in the human germ line. Science. 2021;373(6558):1030-1035. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Cade BE , Lee J , Sofer T , Wang H , Zhang M , Chen H , et al. . Whole-genome association analyses of sleep-disordered breathing phenotypes in the NHLBI TOPMed program. Genome Med. 2021;13(1):136. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Wang H , Noordam R , Cade BE , Schwander K , Winkler TW , Lee J , et al. . Multi-ancestry genome-wide gene-sleep interactions identify novel loci for blood pressure. Mol Psychiatry. 2021;26(11):6293-6304. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Li H , Sisoudiya SD , Martin-Giacalone BA , Khayat MM , Dugan-Perez S , Marquez-Do DA , et al. . Germline Cancer Predisposition Variants in Pediatric Rhabdomyosarcoma: A Report From the Children's Oncology Group. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2021;113(7):875-883. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Fuentes Lde Las , Sung YJu , Noordam R , Winkler T , Feitosa MF , Schwander K , et al. . Gene-educational attainment interactions in a multi-ancestry genome-wide meta-analysis identify novel blood pressure loci. Mol Psychiatry. 2021;26(6):2111-2125. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Kwong AM , Blackwell TW , LeFaive J , de Andrade M , Barnard J , Barnes KC , et al. . Robust, flexible, and scalable tests for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium across diverse ancestries. Genetics. 2021;218(1). PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Schunk SJ , Kleber ME , Marz W , Pang S , Zewinger S , Triem S , et al. . Genetically determined NLRP3 inflammasome activation associates with systemic inflammation and cardiovascular mortality. Eur Heart J. 2021;42(18):1742-1756. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Xu H , Schwander K , Brown MR , Wang W , Waken RJ , Boerwinkle E , et al. . Lifestyle Risk Score: handling missingness of individual lifestyle components in meta-analysis of gene-by-lifestyle interactions. Eur J Hum Genet. 2021;29(5):839-850. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Ahluwalia TS , Prins BP , Abdollahi M , Armstrong NJ , Aslibekyan S , Bain L , et al. . Genome-wide association study of circulating interleukin 6 levels identifies novel loci. Hum Mol Genet. 2021;30(5):393-409. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Natarajan P , Pampana A , Graham SE , Ruotsalainen SE , Perry JA , de Vries PS , et al. . Chromosome Xq23 is associated with lower atherogenic lipid concentrations and favorable cardiometabolic indices. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):2182. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Yu Z , Grams ME , Ndumele CE , Wagenknecht L , Boerwinkle E , North KE , et al. . Association Between Midlife Obesity and Kidney Function Trajectories: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Am J Kidney Dis. 2021;77(3):376-385. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Taliun D , Harris DN , Kessler MD , Carlson J , Szpiech ZA , Torres R , et al. . Sequencing of 53,831 diverse genomes from the NHLBI TOPMed Program. Nature. 2021;590(7845):290-299. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Jones G , Trajanoska K , Santanasto AJ , Stringa N , Kuo C-L , Atkins JL , et al. . Genome-wide meta-analysis of muscle weakness identifies 15 susceptibility loci in older men and women. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):654. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Dyment DA , O'Donnell-Luria A , Agrawal PB , Akdemir ZCoban , Aleck KA , Antaki D , et al. . Alternative genomic diagnoses for individuals with a clinical diagnosis of Dubowitz syndrome. Am J Med Genet A. 2021;185(1):119-133. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
Xue D , Bush WS , Renton AE , Marcora EA , Bis JC , Kunkle BW , et al. . Large-scale sequencing studies expand the known genetic architecture of Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement (Amst). 2021;13(1):e12255. PubMed DOI Google Scholar Tagged
| https://www.hgsc.bcm.edu/people/boerwinkle-e?f%5Bauthor%5D=17011&page=3 |
Lipad - Gérard GIROUARD - Members of the Canadian House of Commons
Gérard GIROUARD
GIROUARD, Gérard, B.A, LL.L.
Personal Data
Party
Progressive Conservative
Constituency
Labelle (Quebec)
Birth Date
March 27, 1933
Website
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gérard_Girouard
PARLINFO
http://www.parl.gc.ca/parlinfo/Files/Parliamentarian.aspx?Item=f938c54f-331c-482c-8554-a0b07be33693&Language=E&Section=ALL
Profession
lawyer, professor of law
Parliamentary Career
April 8, 1963 - April 22, 1964
SC
Labelle (Quebec)
April 23, 1964 - September 8, 1965
PC
Labelle (Quebec)
Most Recent Speeches (Page 28 of 29)
June 10, 1963
Mr. Gerard Girouard (Labelle):
A few words only, Mr. Speaker, to congratulate the hon. member for Royal (Mr. Fairweather) for submitting such a motion to give assistance to Canadian students abroad. I believe we should spend a few minutes to consider this project, which in my opinion is more im-
University Service Overseas
portant, both for friendly relations in the world and for some agreements within NATO or the U.N.
It is true that if we want to check international communism, we must prove that in a democratic country though a capitalistic one, it is possible to seek the full development of human personality.
In the English version of the motion we read: "Where such help is needed." However, I prefer the French where we read: "un service dont on a besoin".
I noticed that many foreign teachers are now teaching in our universities, they are appreciated both in the province of Quebec and the rest of Canada. It is not because of their education, or of their academic training but mainly because of the universality of their knowledge which they are dispensing.
I believe that our students who spend some time abroad will bring back more on their return than we will have invested in their education.
This is why, Mr. Speaker, I am pleased to support this motion.
(Text):
Topic: ARTS, LETTERS AND SCIENCES CANADIAN UNIVERSITY SERVICE OVERSEAS REQUEST FOR FINANCIAL SUPPORT
Full View Permalink Report an Error
May 23, 1963
Mr. Girouard:
You can applaud, gentlemen; it seems that you have not understood the meaning of the editorial. The editorial writer blames the members from the government benches for having all voted like their leader, like a flock of sheep.
Then he blames the Social Credit members for having decided to vote according to their conscience.
This is the image of our party that our good newspapermen are trying to create in the mind of the public. I want to say once again that the newspapermen do not all fall in this category, but I blame the leaders like those I have named a moment ago, Lauren-deau, Pelletier, and Jean Louis Gagnon, as well as a few small-minded followers, who decided the new wave was worth more than the creation they could imagine.
Mr. Speaker, I should like to deal briefly with another question. We have had a vote recently on the issue of nuclear arms.
Under the circumstances, I had a clear mandate to vote in favour of the motion introduced by the N.D.P. However, I should like to add at this time that my personal convictions, those of the people of my riding and of my province, forced me to support the N.D.P. subamendment which I found ill-timed, ill-advised and ridiculous.
Topic: SPEECH FROM THE THRONE Subtopic: CONTINUATION OF DEBATE ON ADDRESS IN REPLY
May 23, 1963
Mr. Girouard:
Ill-timed, sir, because the subamendment was moved on the eve of a most important conference from which we hoped to get on that the subject the information that the former administration kept from us and which the present administration does not seem more eager to give us.
I found it ill-advised because we have called for the establishment of a defence committee and we felt that the present government would give in in that respect, thus enabling us to get a clearer picture before taking a decision. The subamendment was ridiculous because, had it carried, the Liberal government which has a clearcut policy on nuclear armaments might have been overthrown just like its predecessor which had no policy in that respect. That is why I found the subamendment most unpleasant. Yet, I voted for it because I had a clear mandate from my constituents who are strongly against nuclear weapons.
To be honest, I cannot help but feel somewhat grateful to those who voted against the motion. But that is when I realized that there 28902-5-14J
The Address-Mr. Girouard are always two sides to a major question. Some members told me that they did not wish to veto prematurely a question which the government promised to submit to the house for its approval sooner or later.
Others told me they feared that some communist influence might be behind the demonstrations staged by the C.I.N.D. and "The Voice of Women". By the way, I should like to speak about "The Voice of Women", not that I question their sincerity, but they intrigue me, those guardians of the home who of late have mothered peace. I wonder if those women, whether they be in Canada or in Rome, know exactly why they demonstrate and where they are going. I feel it would be easy to clear up the matter if the Prime Minister decided to reveal some private talk.
The only demand I have to make respecting nuclear weapons, is that I insist-and I believe all hon. members support me-that any final decision in this connection be taken by the house. I feel that if we had a free vote then, or to go even further, if we would disregard parliamentary procedure and hold a secret vote, not more than 40 or 50 members in the whole house would vote in favour of nuclear arms for Canada.
Mr. Speaker, if one day, in spite of my unimportant and dissenting opinion, the government party were to conclude such an arrangement with the United States, I ask them not to forget altogether all those years of struggle our country went through, when less than two centuries ago, Canadians were still shedding their blood to keep the freedom that our distinguished, but not too powerful neighbours, were trying to take away from them.
Mr. Speaker, I come now to the amendment moved to the address in reply to the speech from the throne.
When the former prime minister moved his amendment, I felt a great deal of indignation, because I could not help but think of the saying: "Opportunity makes the thief".
Indeed, the Leader of the Opposition thought that the government did not act quickly enough. At one time he said: "I find that the government's statement of intention is not enough to maintain or pursue the expansion launched by our government in 1962". With regard to this matter, Mr. Speaker-I do not know whether my party is involved by saying so-I say that the same chance may be given to the ministerial benches that we of the Social Credit have given to the Con-
The Address-Mr. W. D. Howe servative party in the past. Anyway, in order to soothe the Leader of the Opposition, I shall say that, though there is no great promise in the speech from the throne, after the last six years which the country spent under Conservative rule, Canada should not be too exacting.
Mr. Speaker, I shall now conclude my few remarks. I took great pleasure in being able to express my way of thinking. In concluding, I want to say that a few days ago, the Liberal party made some promises which seemed interesting from the point of view of the Canadian people. If the government carries out what the people want, it will apply what the Social Credit party always asked for, on behalf of the people. While strengthening our economy, the government promises to give us what we want in the matter of biculturalism.
I shall therefore conclude my remarks in stating that, if the government carries out the promises it made during the election campaign, it will be in absolute majority, because the 265 members of the house, in supporting such legislation, would only discharge their responsibilities, which consist in giving to the Canadian people all the happiness which political, economic and social security can mean.
(Text):
Topic: SPEECH FROM THE THRONE Subtopic: CONTINUATION OF DEBATE ON ADDRESS IN REPLY
May 23, 1963
Mr. Gerard Girouard (Labelle):
Mr. Speaker, I should like first of all to thank the Leader of the Opposition (Mr. Diefenbaker) for not having taken the floor before me; this gives me today a few minutes in which to be heard before this house. I know, of course, that under the old regime I would have had the opportunity to speak a few days ago, for if then the minority members were given a third rate treatment, that treatment is now fifth rate. I do not know if I owe this attention to my hon. friend the member for Hull (Mr. Caron); by the way, may I say that my hon. friend has won only half an election, as he ran his campaign both in his constituency and in my own.
I do not think that I have anything new to tell the house today, but I have fallen prey to that irrepressible instinct of the member of parliament which impels him, after
[Mr. Vincent.)
each election, to try and kill a few of the dangerous germs that fly around during the electoral campaign.
During the whole period, I heard exaggerated statements-so mean and pernicious that they went beyond anything that can be imagined-with regard to a party in which I am active, the Social Credit party.
Today, I take pleasure in reading an excerpt of a speech made by the Hon. Henri Bourassa in this house, at the time when he was a Liberal:
More particularly in the political field, I do not see any advantage, either for ourselves or for the true public opinion, to doubt ourselves or to teach the people to doubt the sincerity of our public men. There should be enough matter for criticism and blame in the actions of all political parties, without needing to impute unfavourable motives to any of them.
Of course, Henri Bourassa was a Liberal who later left his party to become an independent.
Mr. Speaker, I might forgive politicians to have resorted to certain means to win votes. But what terrified and astounded me was to see journalists of the province of Quebec, who are supposed to be intellectuals and boast about belonging to the elite, suffer such a loss of memory in the period from February to April. I am speaking of the few leaders of the Quebec press who, last year, were loudly and warmly cheering the hon. member for Villeneuve (Mr. Caouette) and others for causing the Conservative party a lot of trouble and defending the French fact in this house. At that time, the newspapermen were loudly cheering, while candidly admitting that they knew nothing about Social Credit but that they admired the Social Crediters. No need to list their names, everybody knows that they supported the bloc populaire policy and were fighting in the ranks of the Action nationale.
Politically speaking, they never had an outstanding record. But today those gentlemen pose as the protectors of the nation and the saviours of the people. In any case, from February to April they forgot everything. Nothing was good in their opinion either in the Social Credit or among the Social Crediters notwithstanding the fact that they had been admiring them for a year. In my own constituency of Labelle, every morning I read newspapers filled with unfriendly editorials, malicious reports and statements out of context. I do not know why, but those people of the fourth estate decided at one
point to get behind the new wave of socialism which was the fashion in their set. Those gentlemen of the press at one point rallied a whole group of students in the province of Quebec, students I was working with not more than a year ago. Those students got together at the forum a few days before the election and, in the name of freedom of speech, tried to drown the speeches of the Social Credit speakers. Those responsible for such a situation were those gentlemen, the so-called saviours of the people who, we will never know why, decided during the election campaign to lose all memory of the past.
Mr. Speaker, Messrs. Andre Laurendeau, Pelletier and Gagnon decided to throw in their chips with the new socialist wave. Newspaper owners, who are a little more materialistic, opened their purse to amass betrayal money.
I wish to tell these newspaper men whom we used to admire and who have a role to play in the province of Quebec, who were calling for Quebec leaders within the Conservative party, that the Social Credit did have leaders, but I wish to tell them also that they are the ones who took it upon themselves to destroy them in the province of Quebec. I want to impress that on the house.
Those gentlemen of the press talk of unity, friendship and respect between the two nations. Let us first of all start by having respect for ourselves in the province of Quebec. They do not even respect the Quebec people themselves. I wish to tell those gentlemen of the press that they must stop throwing mud at us.
I say to those people that I am fed up with headlines about small bombs in mail boxes, about disgusting resignations, imaginary compromises and exaggerated contradictions. I say to them: stop acting in this way.
I heard yesterday the hon. member for lles-de-la-Madeleine (Mr. Sauve) demanding once again equality on behalf of the province of Quebec. I admire him and I approve him, as do all Social Crediters. But I must tell those who direct public opinion to stop running us down in their headlines.
Mr. Speaker, I like to speak about Henri Bourassa, the man who founded Le Devoir, in Montreal, initiated all the journalistic movements, and his most ardent wish was 28902-5-14
The Address-Mr. Girouard that the Quebec press be at the service of truth. If Henri Bourassa had come back to life during the last election campaign, he would have taken hold of Caouette's whip to expel "those that bought and sold in the temple."
Mr. Speaker, there are 265 members in this house. I know that politicians make sharp distinctions between the Liberals whom I congratulate on their election, and the Conservatives who now form the opposition and who played a great role while they were in power. Distinctions are made also between the New Democratic party which gains in quality what it has lost in numbers, and the Social Credit party of which I am proud to be a member. However, in the eyes of the electorate, we form a homogeneous group, we are all members of the House of Commons. For them, we all have equal powers and our task is tremendous. That is why we will be criticized or praised according to whether or not we have shouldered our responsibilities.
Mr. Speaker, I realize that I am biased but I am sure that the Canadian people endorse the Social Credit doctrine, regardless of the political party to which their elected representative belongs. Indeed, any member who has toured his riding at least once knows how heavily unemployment and taxes bear on the Canadian people and how a handful of remorseless financiers are growing fat at the expense of the less fortunate.
Even though the Liberal party was elected to office, I am sure it has been entrusted with the mission of helping those poor people.
I am glad to see that the party in power includes economists, people for whom I have the deepest respect. I know that economists can be of great use to a government. The hon. member for Drummond-Arthabaska (Mr. Pepin) should know that. Furthermore, I realize that those economists will be able to help us give a new direction to the Canadian economy. Those eminent gentlemen use the classic economic theory taught in the universities. It is quite good and already producing results. But with all the talent I know they have, I should like to see them go a little beyond that stage and use their training to try and rise a bit higher and find modern solutions to the current problems of this modern world.
And in this connection, Mr. Speaker, I
would tell them that, even if they finally
were to put the emphasis on consumption
The Address-Mr. Girouard instead of production, they would not go much farther than Keynes and the other neo-economists who have been preaching along that line for some time.
Mr. Speaker, at the last election, the Canadian people have shown that they wanted unemployment to end. Moreover, they want further industrial development and a more significant farm policy. They also hope for an unlimited expansion of our foreign trade, and in this last field I must say a good word for the party in power, because it seems to have made some achievements in the economic field even before it was elected.
Mr. Speaker, our present trade balance with the United States must at last be more favourable, if we are to assess it on the basis of the unusual number of U.S. dollars in circulation in our ridings a few weeks prior to the election.
I should like to remind these prominent economists of the words spoken in 1900 by Mr. Henri Bourassa and I quote:
When it comes to public business, politics government and finance, I do not have much faith in logic.
And he added this:
Good governments clothe the people with a wellfitting gown, suitable for their size, their way of life and their work of the moment.
Therefore, the government must adopt active and efficient policies for the whole country.
The party in power has obtained several mandates, including one concerning bicul-turalism. I know it is ready to take a step in that direction, but with hundreds of people in Quebec, I would like to repeat to the party in power what they know already, that the province of Quebec does not like quitters. I am ready to go the whole way. Some members on the government side must fight also and, if they were to resign, as did Henri Bourassa in 1900, I would say to them: go ahead, gentlemen, the province will respect you.
As I said the other day, I wonder if the members for Lotbiniere, St. Jean-Iberville-Napierville, Drummond-Arthabaska or lles-de-la-Madeleine (Messrs. Choquette, Dupuis, Pepin, Sauve) would be ready to make that sacrifice for their fellow citizens of Quebec.
Mr. Speaker, I wish to say a few words now about federal-provincial relations. I know that the Minister without Portfolio (Mr. Lamontagne) will have a heavy task too. First he will have to clear a reputation he himself built up. He will also have to prepare new
legislation, but above all to try and understand what is now in the constitution, not only in the written act but also in the spirit of the constitution.
Mr. Speaker, we could strive for years in this house to amend the constitution, to obtain further privileges and a recognized equality, but as long as members of the Liberal party will not be convinced that there is in the spirit of the constitution something else than what we have at present, we will get nowhere and commissions of inquiry will bring nothing constructive.
It is all very well to start with inquiries, but what I ask of my hon. friends is to be ready in their minds first of all to give our small French Canadian nation the little it claims in our great country.
At this point of my remarks, Mr. Speaker,
I should like to point to the house an editorial published in this morning's Le Devoir, under the signature of Mr. Claude Ryan.
I shall quote a few excerpts of this article to show you how low one can be when one decides to write intelligent things when one is devoid of intelligence. This article relates to the vote taken Tuesday night on the question of nuclear arms. Speaking of the party in power Mr. Ryan said:
First, we can see to what a lamentable depth a party can sink through servile obedience of its members to the sole decisions of their leader.
In other words, he upbraided the members on the government side of the house for being mere sheep. And he continued:
The aristocratic methods, which still prevail in the most important of our four political parties, create a rather paradoxical situation. One cannot be sure any longer that the views legally expressed in parliament reflect the nation's true feelings.
And Mr. Ryan went on to say:
Do the Liberals in Ottawa-more particularly those from Quebec-fully understand that their spirit of conformity puts the whole nation in an extremely ambiguous position?
Up to now, I am in agreement with Mr. Ryan. Of course, when all the members of a party decide to vote because their leader has chosen that course, they do tend to look like a flock of sheep. But what is rather amazing, is that a few lines further, the same man writes in the same editorial:
Faithful to their promises, the Quebec Crediters voted like good nationalists on this question. Those from the west followed Mr. Thompson.
And this is his conclusion:
This event should not be given more importance than it really has. But it is more and more obvious that this sham party will not be able to resist the ideological disintegration of its elements.
Topic: SPEECH FROM THE THRONE Subtopic: CONTINUATION OF DEBATE ON ADDRESS IN REPLY
May 21, 1963
Mr. Gerard Girouard (Labelle):
Mr. Speaker, I wish to thank the house for giving a member of each party the opportunity to put forward his views on what is going on in this chamber.
I noticed that the Leader of the Opposition (Mr. Diefenbaker) has tried to limit my loquaciousness by forcing me to reduce my speech to some four minutes.
I shall therefore gloss over the congratulations which I intended to offer and the suggestions which I was hoping to put forward in this house in the name of the voters of the riding of Labelle who, as you no doubt know, have always been proud of the fact that they elected Henri Bourassa in 1900.
The other day, as I was listening to the junior member for Lotbiniere (Mr. Choquette), I was wondering whether he would show as much courage as Henri Bourassa who, while still young, left the ranks of the Liberal party to sit as an independent member.
Division
Mr. Speaker, the Liberal party platform has been quite interesting for the voters during the last election campaign except in one respect, where there is a lot of discussion, and, this evening, it is incumbent upon me to define the policy of my party on nuclear arms.
I believe that the Liberal party has not gained by the last election. Everybody noticed that western Canada, not altogether reluctant to accept nuclear arms, has nevertheless supported a party which was against accepting them, while the province of Quebec, opposed to nuclear arms, has nevertheless been generous towards the party in power.
But I must admit that a few days only after the election, I shuddered when I noticed the haste with which the present Prime Minister (Mr. Pearson) and the minister of defence (Mr. Hellyer) undertook to acquire nuclear arms. It came about so fast that, today, the members in this house are wondering whether they shall grant their support to a government which has made commitments so hurriedly without even consulting the house.
As far as I am concerned, I must say in my capacity as representative of La Macaza, where a Bomarc missile base is located- quite a significant fact-that even the workers of La Macaza, who helped my election, gave me the definite responsibility of opposing all acquisition of nuclear arms.
(Text):
Topic: SPEECH FROM THE THRONE Subtopic: CONTINUATION OF DEBATE ON ADDRESS IN REPLY
| https://www.lipad.ca/members/record/f938c54f-331c-482c-8554-a0b07be33693/28/ |
PostgreSQL: Re: Bug with pg_ctl -w/wait and config-only directories
From: Robert Haas <robertmhaas(at)gmail(dot)com>
To: Tom Lane <tgl(at)sss(dot)pgh(dot)pa(dot)us>
Cc: Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us>, Greg Stark <stark(at)mit(dot)edu>, Peter Eisentraut <peter_e(at)gmx(dot)net>, Andrew Dunstan <andrew(at)dunslane(dot)net>, Alvaro Herrera <alvherre(at)commandprompt(dot)com>, Fujii Masao <masao(dot)fujii(at)gmail(dot)com>, "Mr(dot) Aaron W(dot) Swenson" <titanofold(at)gentoo(dot)org>, Pg Hackers <pgsql-hackers(at)postgresql(dot)org>
Subject: Re: Bug with pg_ctl -w/wait and config-only directories
Date: 2011-10-05 14:15:01
Message-ID: CA+TgmoYUnN7SYnDw8ozRx3ntri__qpE_awtCx-yH+TQTbT5KCQ@mail.gmail.com
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Thread:
2011-10-01 18:08:33 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-01 22:21:13 from "Mr(dot) Aaron W(dot) Swenson" <titanofold(at)gentoo(dot)org> 2011-10-01 22:54:37 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 01:50:46 from Fujii Masao <masao(dot)fujii(at)gmail(dot)com> 2011-10-03 15:27:09 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 15:34:22 from Tom Lane <tgl(at)sss(dot)pgh(dot)pa(dot)us> 2011-10-03 15:40:38 from Alvaro Herrera <alvherre(at)commandprompt(dot)com> 2011-10-03 16:37:20 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 16:54:56 from Tom Lane <tgl(at)sss(dot)pgh(dot)pa(dot)us> 2011-10-03 18:14:44 from Andrew Dunstan <andrew(at)dunslane(dot)net> 2011-10-03 18:15:47 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 18:19:34 from Andrew Dunstan <andrew(at)dunslane(dot)net> 2011-10-03 18:25:53 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 18:39:25 from Andrew Dunstan <andrew(at)dunslane(dot)net> 2011-10-03 18:41:00 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 18:52:58 from Magnus Hagander <magnus(at)hagander(dot)net> 2011-10-03 19:03:47 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 19:08:16 from Alvaro Herrera <alvherre(at)commandprompt(dot)com> 2011-10-03 19:09:47 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 18:24:56 from Dave Page <dpage(at)pgadmin(dot)org> 2011-10-03 18:19:17 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 18:07:49 from Peter Eisentraut <peter_e(at)gmx(dot)net> 2011-10-03 18:11:22 from Dave Page <dpage(at)pgadmin(dot)org> 2011-10-03 20:30:56 from Peter Eisentraut <peter_e(at)gmx(dot)net> 2011-10-03 18:23:47 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 19:03:04 from Alvaro Herrera <alvherre(at)commandprompt(dot)com> 2011-10-03 19:09:08 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 19:40:12 from Robert Haas <robertmhaas(at)gmail(dot)com> 2011-10-03 19:59:31 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 20:31:36 from Robert Haas <robertmhaas(at)gmail(dot)com> 2011-10-03 19:49:21 from Alvaro Herrera <alvherre(at)commandprompt(dot)com> 2011-10-03 19:55:54 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 19:58:55 from Magnus Hagander <magnus(at)hagander(dot)net> 2011-10-03 20:06:16 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 20:22:03 from Alvaro Herrera <alvherre(at)commandprompt(dot)com> 2011-10-03 20:28:53 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 20:32:04 from Alvaro Herrera <alvherre(at)commandprompt(dot)com> 2011-10-03 22:45:16 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 23:10:07 from Andrew Dunstan <andrew(at)dunslane(dot)net> 2011-10-04 00:41:10 from Aidan Van Dyk <aidan(at)highrise(dot)ca> 2011-10-04 01:50:17 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-04 03:04:36 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 📎 2011-10-04 12:22:04 from Robert Haas <robertmhaas(at)gmail(dot)com> 2011-10-04 14:55:05 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 📎 2011-10-04 14:58:31 from Robert Haas <robertmhaas(at)gmail(dot)com> 2011-10-04 15:12:35 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-05 15:14:53 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 📎 2011-10-05 15:19:52 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 📎 2011-10-06 13:40:34 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-03 20:06:17 from Alvaro Herrera <alvherre(at)commandprompt(dot)com> 2011-10-03 20:09:43 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-04 15:00:44 from jreidthompson <jreidthompson(at)nc(dot)rr(dot)com> 2011-10-04 18:27:25 from "Mr(dot) Aaron W(dot) Swenson" <titanofold(at)gentoo(dot)org> 2011-10-03 20:41:29 from Peter Eisentraut <peter_e(at)gmx(dot)net> 2011-10-03 21:12:45 from Andrew Dunstan <andrew(at)dunslane(dot)net> 2011-10-03 22:44:05 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-04 07:43:47 from Peter Eisentraut <peter_e(at)gmx(dot)net> 2011-10-04 13:42:42 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-04 14:28:37 from Greg Stark <stark(at)mit(dot)edu> 2011-10-04 21:18:05 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-04 21:49:07 from Tom Lane <tgl(at)sss(dot)pgh(dot)pa(dot)us> 2011-10-05 00:25:04 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-05 00:32:43 from Tom Lane <tgl(at)sss(dot)pgh(dot)pa(dot)us> 2011-10-05 14:15:01 from Robert Haas <robertmhaas(at)gmail(dot)com> 2011-10-05 14:56:25 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-05 14:42:30 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-05 08:23:43 from Peter Eisentraut <peter_e(at)gmx(dot)net> 2011-10-05 14:48:21 from Tom Lane <tgl(at)sss(dot)pgh(dot)pa(dot)us> 2011-10-04 18:06:18 from "Mr(dot) Aaron W(dot) Swenson" <titanofold(at)gentoo(dot)org> 2011-10-04 07:36:12 from Peter Eisentraut <peter_e(at)gmx(dot)net> 2011-10-05 08:26:26 from Peter Eisentraut <peter_e(at)gmx(dot)net> 2011-10-05 14:44:38 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-05 21:41:29 from "Mr(dot) Aaron W(dot) Swenson" <titanofold(at)gentoo(dot)org> 2011-10-05 23:20:16 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-05 23:53:05 from "Mr(dot) Aaron W(dot) Swenson" <titanofold(at)gentoo(dot)org> 2011-10-05 23:59:07 from Bruce Momjian <bruce(at)momjian(dot)us> 2011-10-06 00:21:28 from "Mr(dot) Aaron W(dot) Swenson" <titanofold(at)gentoo(dot)org>
Lists: pgsql-hackers
On Tue, Oct 4, 2011 at 8:32 PM, Tom Lane <tgl(at)sss(dot)pgh(dot)pa(dot)us> wrote:
> I still think this is a matter for HEAD only. We haven't supported
> these cases in back branches and so there is little argument for
> back-patching.
According to Bruce's original post, there is at least one 9.1
regression here relative to 9.0:
>> What is even worse is that pre-9.1, pg_ctl start would read ports from
>> the pg_ctl -o command line, but in 9.1 we changed this to force reading
>> the postmaster.pid file to find the port number and socket directory
>> location --- meaning, new in PG 9.1, 'pg_ctl -w start' doesn't work for
>> config-only directories either.
--
Robert Haas
EnterpriseDB: http://www.enterprisedb.com
The Enterprise PostgreSQL Company
In response to
Re: Bug with pg_ctl -w/wait and config-only directories at 2011-10-05 00:32:43 from Tom Lane
Responses
Re: Bug with pg_ctl -w/wait and config-only
directories at 2011-10-05 14:56:25 from Bruce Momjian
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IJMS | Free Full-Text | The Emerging Roles of JNK Signaling in Drosophila Stem Cell Homeostasis
The Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway is an evolutionary conserved kinase cascade best known for its roles during stress-induced apoptosis and tumor progression. Recent findings, however, have identified new roles for this pleiotropic pathway in stem cells during regenerative responses and in cellular plasticity. Here, we provide an overview of recent findings about the new roles of JNK signaling in stem cell biology using two well-established Drosophila models: the testis and the intestine. We highlight the pathway’s roles in processes such as proliferation, death, self-renewal and reprogramming, and discuss the known parallels between flies and mammals.
Table of Contents
Abstract
Introduction
The Role of JNK in the Drosophila Testis during Homeostasis
The Role of JNK in the Drosophila Testis during Stress
The Roles of JNK in Recovery from Stress and in Germline Plasticity
Making Sense of JNK Versatility in Drosophila and Vertebrate Testes
JNK Signaling in Stress Responses and Aging in the Drosophila Intestine
The Emerging Roles of JNK Signaling in Drosophila Stem Cell Homeostasis
by Salvador C. Herrera 1,* and Erika A. Bach 2,3,*
1
Centro Andaluz de Biología del Desarrollo, CSIC/Universidad Pablo de Olavide/JA, Carretera de Utrera km 1, 41018 Sevilla, Spain
2
Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
3
Helen L. and Martin S. Kimmel Center for Stem Cell Biology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021 , 22 (11), 5519; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22115519
Received: 16 April 2021 / Revised: 20 May 2021 / Accepted: 21 May 2021 / Published: 24 May 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Function and Mechanisms of JNK Pathway )
Abstract
The Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway is an evolutionary conserved kinase cascade best known for its roles during stress-induced apoptosis and tumor progression. Recent findings, however, have identified new roles for this pleiotropic pathway in stem cells during regenerative responses and in cellular plasticity. Here, we provide an overview of recent findings about the new roles of JNK signaling in stem cell biology using two well-established Drosophila models: the testis and the intestine. We highlight the pathway’s roles in processes such as proliferation, death, self-renewal and reprogramming, and discuss the known parallels between flies and mammals.
Keywords:
Drosophila
;
niche
;
germline stem cells
;
somatic stem cells
;
testis
;
intestine
;
intestinal stem cells
;
enterocytes
;
proliferation
;
cell death
;
differentiation
;
inflammation
;
regeneration
;
cellular plasticity
;
cell reprogramming
1. Introduction
Stem cells are essential for the maintenance of many adult tissues, and they support tissues as a result of two key properties: (1) their capacity for self-renewal, by which they can proliferate while maintaining their stemness, and (2) their ability to produce differentiating daughter cells, which replace effete cells in tissues with a high cellular turnover. Tissue homeostasis requires the precise regulation of the balance between self-renewal and differentiation of these cells. Moreover, stem cells exhibit plasticity to cope with the stresses, insults and injuries that animals experience during their life. This plasticity allows stem cells to modify their activity, enabling tissue repair and modulating tissue function. Frequently, stem cells reside in “niches”, specialized micro-environments that regulate both self-renewal and differentiation and that are responsive to environmental and physiological alterations.
JNK is a conserved branch of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway (reviewed in [
1
,
2
]). The core JNK pathway in mammals is a very complex kinase cascade composed by two different JNK kinase kinases (MKK4 and MKK7) phosphorylating three alternative JNKs (JNK1, JNK2 and JNK3) that can be alternatively spliced into more than 10 isoforms. Downstream of JNK phosphorylation, the AP-1 transcription factor complex can be formed from two Jun (Jun, JunD) and three Fos (Fos, FosL1, FosL2) alternative proteins. By contrast, in
Drosophila
, the pathway is genetically much simpler, making flies a convenient model for its study.
The Drosophila core JNK pathway culminates in the JNK kinase (called Hemipterous (Hep)) phosphorylating and activating one JNK (termed Basket (Bsk)) ( Figure 1 ). The JNK pathway can be activated by the tumor necrosis factor TNF-superfamily ligand Eiger (Egr/TNFα) (reviewed in [ 3 ]), which activates two TNF receptors (TNFRs) Wengen (Wgn) [ 4 ] and Grindelwald (Grnd) [ 5 ]. Egr appears to activate JNK exclusively, while mammalian TNFα also activates NF-κB and MAPK pathways [ 3 ]. Downstream of TNFRs, Bsk/JNK phosphorylates AP-1 components Jun and Fos, which are represented by single orthologs in Drosophila , Jun-related antigen (Jra) and Kayak (Kay), respectively, as well as other substrates (reviewed in [ 6 ]). AP-1 transcriptionally upregulates numerous target genes. One well-established target gene is puckered ( puc ) (ortholog of dual-specificity phosphatase 10 ( DUSP10 ) [ 7 ], encoding a phosphatase that dephosphorylates Bsk/JNK in an induced-negative feedback loop. Other targets include unpaired ( upd ), encoding the Drosophila interleukin-6 (IL-6) homolog, and Matrix metalloprotease 1 ( Mmp1 ), encoding a protease that degrades the extracellular matrix (reviewed in [ 8 ]). In addition to Puc, JNK signaling is downregulated by the STRIPAK complex components Striatin interacting protein (Strip) and Connector of kinase to AP-1 (Cka), which bind to and inactivate Hep/JNKK [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. JNK signaling can also be activated intrinsically, for example, through the redox-sensitive MAPKKK Apoptotic signal-regulating kinase 1 (Ask1) [ 12 ].
Figure 1. The JNK pathway in Drosophila . Extrinsic signals such as the ligand Egr/TNFα can bind the TNFα receptors (TNFRs) Grnd and Wgn, activating a cascade of kinases: Msn/JNKKKK, dTAK1/JNKKK, Hep/JNKK and Bsk/JNK. Hep/JNKK can also be phosphorylated by intrinsic factors (outlined by the dashed line), such as Ask1. Bsk/JNK phosphorylates the AP-1 transcription factor components Kay/Fos and Jra/Jun. AP-1 target genes include puc/DUSP10 , which encodes a phosphatase that inactivates Bsk/JNK in a negative feedback loop, and upd/IL-6 , encoding an inflammatory cytokine. The STRIPAK complex that binds to Hep/JNKK, Bsk/JNK and AP-1 and inhibits the pathway.
In both Drosophila and higher organisms, JNK has pleiotropic effects, including apoptosis, proliferation, differentiation, cell migration, tumorigenesis, and cell competition (reviewed in [ 1 , 6 , 13 ]). Additionally, activation of the JNK pathway is required for epithelial regeneration in flies [ 14 ]. In wounded epithelia, JNK is activated in the damaged cells to ensure their apoptotic death and in the nearby blastema of the surviving cells to promote their cellular reprogramming and proliferation [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ]. This paradox of JNK inducing opposite responses in neighboring cells highlights the importance of the cellular context in triggering its diverse outcomes.
In mammalian stem cells, JNK has been studied primarily for its role in inducing apoptosis under stressful conditions [ 23 ]. However, recent work in Drosophila has shown that the roles of JNK in stem cells are considerably broader and include self-renewal during homeostasis, cellular plasticity during chronic stress, and pathological responses during aging. In this review, we focus on JNK function in two well-studied Drosophila stem cell models, the testis and the intestine, describing recent advances and relating these discoveries to relevant mammalian counterparts.
2. The Role of JNK in the Drosophila Testis during Homeostasis
The Drosophila testis is surrounded by smooth muscle and its underlying basal lamina, similar to the seminiferous tubules of mammalian testes [ 24 , 25 ]. The stem cell niche is anchored to basal lamina at the apical tip of the testis ( Figure 2 A). The niche supports two resident stem cell populations by secreting short-range self-renew cues such as the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) decapentaplegic (Dpp) and by providing cell–cell adhesion for germline stem cells (termed GSCs) and somatic stem cells (termed CySCs) (reviewed in [ 26 ]). GSCs divide to produce a daughter GSC that remains in contact with the niche and another daughter, the gonialblast (Gb), that differentiates after being encapsulated by somatic support cells. The Gb undergoes four transit-amplifying divisions with incomplete cytokinesis, giving rise to a 16-cell spermatogonium that enters meiosis and produces 64 individual spermatids [ 27 ]. CySCs are the functional equivalent of Sertoli cells in mammalian testes. They act as an extended niche for GSCs by secreting the self-renewal protein Dpp/BMP [ 28 , 29 ]. CySCs divide to produce somatic support cells, called cyst cells, that exit the cell cycle and encapsulate the Gb [ 30 , 31 ]. CySCs and their differentiating daughter cells, referred to as the somatic lineage, are essential for germline differentiation.
Figure 2.
Roles of the JNK pathway in the
Drosophila
testis. (
A
) Normal homeostasis. The testis is surrounded by a sheath of smooth muscle cells (brown). Niche cells (gray) are anchored to the muscle sheath and secrete self-renewal factors for GSCs (red) and CySCs (blue). A GSC divides asymmetrically to produce a GSC daughter and a differentiating daughter (termed the Gonialblast (Gb)), which undergoes transit-amplifying divisions, producing spermatogonia. A CySC divides to produce cyst cells that become quiescent and encapsulate spermatogonia and remain attached to germ cells throughout their differentiation into spermatids. During homeostasis, JNK is intrinsically activated in CySCs and promotes their self-renewal. (
B
) Pathological activation. Impairment of the STRIPAK complex or the endocytic pathway strongly induces JNK in somatic cells, which produce abnormally high levels of Dpp/BMP. Sustained secretion of Dpp/BMP into the testis lumen causes hyper-proliferation of GSCs and early spermatogonia, while concomitantly blocking spermatogonial differentiation. These effects are genetically dependent on Egr/TNFα, which is likely produced by CySCs and then acts in an autocrine manner. (
C
) Stress response. During acute stress (left), somatic JNK activity causes the non-autonomous death of spermatogonial cells, and these somatic cells endocytose and recycle the debris of the dying germ cells. This recycling is necessary for maintaining the GSC pool during stress, presumably because recycled cellular components are somehow provided to GSCs. Under chronic stress (right), the muscle sheath secretes Egr/TNFα, which is transduced by CySCs through Grnd/TNFR. This JNK activity causes hyper-proliferation of CySCs. JNK-activated CySCs secrete Dpp/BMP, which strongly induces GSC proliferation. (
D
) Recovery from stress. Upon termination of starvation (left), JNK autonomous activation in one or more cells in a spermatogonium (pink cell with starred JNK) induces dedifferentiation into GSCs. This dedifferentiated GSC (pink dividing cells at niche) is more proliferative than the wild-type (i.e., non-dedifferentiated) sibling GSC (red cell at niche). Additionally, upon termination of starvation (right), Egr/TNFα is secreted by the muscle sheath cells and is transduced by CySCs through Grnd/TNFR. JNK-activated CySCs increase their proliferation, which facilitates the quick recovery of the CySC pool.
Despite intensive investigation of numerous conserved signaling networks in the Drosophila testis, JNK was, until recently, underexplored in this tissue. Basal levels of phosphorylated Bsk/JNK and the downstream effectors Puc and Mmp1 are detected in somatic cells of the developing and adult testis but not in GSCs or differentiating germ cells ( Figure 2 A and [ 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 ]). Individual CySCs homozygous mutant for bsk / JNK cannot self-renew and instead differentiate, suggesting that JNK is required for CySC niche residency under normal conditions [ 35 ]. Consistent with this mosaic analysis, somatic downregulation of Bsk/JNK reduces the number of CySCs and cyst cells [ 35 ]. However, this result was not observed by another group [ 34 ]. Nevertheless, in CySC self-renewal, JNK is activated by as-yet unidentified intrinsic factors because testes devoid of the ligand Egr/TNFα or Grnd/TNRF do not show alterations in CySC number or in CySC self-renewal [ 32 , 35 ].
Additional insights about the role of JNK pathway in the testis have been made by studying mutations causing ectopic JNK activity (
Figure 2
B). In the developing gonad, mutations in STRIPAK complex genes lead to ectopic JNK activation in somatic cells. AP-1 activation in somatic cells induces production of Egr/TNFα, which appears to act in an autocrine manner to maintain high somatic JNK activity. Ultimately, this STRIPAK/JNK/TNFα positive feedback loop disrupts somatic morphology and differentiation. These somatic perturbations have non-autonomous effects on the germline: an increased number of spermatogonia that do not differentiate beyond the transit-amplifying stage because they are improperly encapsulated by mutant somatic cells [
32
]. Similar phenotypes were observed in the adult testis upon mis-expression of dominant-active JNK or reduction of the endocytic pathway genes in CySCs. In both cases, the ectopic autonomous JNK activation in CySCs causes increased secretion of Dpp/BMP, which in turn increases GSC proliferation and inhibits differentiation [
34
,
35
]. Taken together, these studies reveal that pathological activation of the JNK pathway disrupts morphology, cellular behavior and transcription of somatic cells in the testis.
3. The Role of JNK in the Drosophila Testis during Stress
Additional roles of the JNK pathway have been found during episodes of stress ( Figure 2 C). In many organisms, nutritional deprivation causes the reversible interruption of gametogenesis. For example, in adult C. elegans , inadequate food intake triggers diapause, in which most of the germline dies through apoptosis. However, the adult germline can be regenerated when nutrient uptake is resumed because a small group of GSCs are protected from apoptosis during diapause [ 37 ]. In the gonads of both Drosophila males and females, protein deprivation (typically referred as starvation) produces a reversible tissue involution and arrest of gametogenesis [ 38 , 39 ]. In the testis, protein starvation reduces the number of GSCs and CySCs [ 33 , 39 , 40 ]. GSC or CySC number can be restored after five or two days, respectively, of refeeding with standard food [ 33 , 39 , 41 ]. Interestingly, the maintenance of the reduced GSC pool during starvation depends upon JNK signaling. Specifically, this reduced GSC pool is thought to be maintained by recycling cellular materials from dying transient-amplifying spermatogonia, whose death is triggered non-autonomously by JNK signaling in the encapsulating somatic support cells [ 40 ]. This process resembles the induced death of pre-meiotic spermatocytes caused by JNK-dependent loss of polarity in somatic support cells [ 36 ].
In addition to protein starvation, mating is another JNK-related source of stress in the Drosophila testis [ 33 , 35 , 41 ]. Prolonged mating (occurring for more than five weeks) in aged flies induces the expression of Egr/TNFα in the muscle sheath, which then accumulates in the testis lumen, and the upregulation of Grnd/TNFR in somatic support cells ( Figure 2 C). This increased expression of ligand and receptor causes JNK activation in CySCs, inducing excessive proliferation while concomitantly inhibiting somatic differentiation. JNK-activated CySCs also augment Dpp/BMP secretion, which induces the proliferation of early germ cells. However, germline differentiation is abrogated because of improper development of somatic support cells. Both germline and somatic starvation-related phenotypes can be abolished by the somatic downregulation of Grnd/TNFR or Hep/JNKK, or of Egr/TNFα in muscle. In sum, chronic stress reduces fertility in a process similar to an inflammatory response in the muscle sheath [ 35 ].
4. The Roles of JNK in Recovery from Stress and in Germline Plasticity
The JNK pathway is critical for the recovery of somatic and germline lineages after stress ( Figure 2 D). After starvation, JNK is activated in CySCs by muscle-produced Egr/TNFα acting on Grnd/TNFR [ 41 ]. This autonomous JNK activation in CySCs is necessary for recovery of the somatic lineage after starvation and thus for continued gametogenesis. Furthermore, JNK signaling is necessary for dedifferentiation of spermatogonia into new GSCs during the recovery from chronic stress [ 33 ]. In the Drosophila testis, under certain conditions, transient-amplifying spermatogonia can fragment, migrate back to the niche, and dedifferentiate into fully functional GSCs [ 42 , 43 ]. After the chronic stresses of starvation and mating, the GSC pool significantly declines, and spermatogenesis is greatly attenuated [ 33 ]. During the recovery period from these stresses, the GSC pool can be restored if JNK-dependent spermatogonial dedifferentiation occurs. Interestingly, these JNK-induced dedifferentiated GSCs are “fitter” than their wild-type GSC siblings in the same testis as they divide significantly more often and produce more spermatogonia. These results are intriguing because JNK-dependent cellular programming is also required for regeneration of developing Drosophila epithelia after damage or irradiation [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 44 , 45 ]. Future work will be needed to determine at which stage(s) of dedifferentiation JNK acts and what signals activate JNK in reverting spermatogonia [ 33 ].
In sum, the JNK pathway underlies cellular plasticity in the testis, enabling survival of resident stem cells during stress and inducing cell reprogramming to replenish stem cell pools once the stress is terminated. By contrast, chronic activation of the pathway can be deleterious for tissue function due to an imbalance between stem cell self-renewal and differentiation.
5. Making Sense of JNK Versatility in Drosophila and Vertebrate Testes
A recurring question in the JNK field is how the same pathway can elicit a diversity of responses. The first important consideration is the duration of the stress. For instance, acute starvation of three to six days does not induce Egf/TNFα in muscle cells; the CySC pool fully recovers after the termination of stress and homeostasis is restored. By contrast, chronic starvation of more than two weeks induces Egf/TNFα in muscle, which then leads to dysregulation of the germline and soma and reduced fertility [ 41 ]. These results indicate that acute JNK is not deleterious to tissue homeostasis [ 33 , 40 , 41 ], but that chronic pathway activation perturbs tissue function [ 35 ]. The second consideration is the level of pathway activation induced by the stress. For example, JNK-dependent proliferation at the niche (i.e., self-renewal) of CySCs is intrinsic and independent of Egf/TNFα. However, these same stem cells exhibit pathological hyper-proliferation during and after stress in response to Egf/TNFα produced by muscle [ 35 , 41 ]. The third consideration is the other signaling pathways concomitantly activated in each cell type and the cell-type specific expression of JNK substrates [ 46 ].
Similar context-dependent outcomes of JNK signaling are observed in the mammalian testis. In Sertoli cells, MAPKs regulate tight junction proteins that maintain the blood–testis barrier (BTB), which isolates germ cells during spermatogenesis [ 47 ]. However, TNFα-induced JNK activation in Sertoli cells disrupts the BTB, which then causes the non-autonomous loss of germ cells [ 48 ]. However, JNK activation in Sertoli cells is not always detrimental: after treatment with the BTB-damaging agent cadmium chloride, JNK activation protects the BTB from excessive remodeling and reduces subsequent germ cell loss [ 49 ]. In the germline, MAPKs perform several functions, including proliferation of spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) (i.e., mammalian GSCs), meiotic entry of spermatocytes and sperm motility (reviewed in [ 47 , 50 ]). Recent work has shown that reactive oxygen species (ROS) activate JNK and the MAPK p38 and promote SSC self-renewal. When ROS, JNK or p38 activity is inhibited pharmacologically, SSC proliferation is reduced, as is the number of SSCs. [ 51 ]. These results are consistent with the independent observation that SSC proliferation ex vivo depends on JNK pathway activity [ 52 ]. ROS-JNK dependent proliferation in SSCs is similar to what has been reported for surviving cells during epithelial regeneration in Drosophila [ 15 ]. The relationship between ROS and JNK has not yet been examined in the Drosophila testis, but this should be addressed in the future.
6. JNK Signaling in Stress Responses and Aging in the Drosophila Intestine
Approximately 9 mm in length, the Drosophila gastrointestinal tract is divided into three regions—foregut, midgut and hindgut—which are functionally and morphologically analogous to the mammalian esophagus, small intestine and large intestine, respectively [ 53 ]. As with the small intestine, the Drosophila midgut epithelium is maintained by intestinal stem cells (ISCs) and has the capacity to regenerate after damage or infection ( Figure 3 ). Under homeostatic conditions, ISCs divide infrequently and asymmetrically to produce an ISC and an enteroblast (EB). EBs do not divide again and terminally differentiate into absorptive enterocytes (ECs). The basal division rate of ISCs allows the epithelium to turnover every two weeks. Due to functional, structural and cellular similarities to the mammalian intestine, the Drosophila digestive tract has become a useful model for studying intestinal homeostasis, aging and disease [ 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 ].
Figure 3.
The JNK pathway during homeostasis of the
Drosophila
gut. Damage or bacterial infection in the
Drosophila
midgut causes JNK activation in enterocytes (ECs). JNK induces expression of Ets21c, which then induces the secretion of inflammatory cues and mitogens such as IL-6 and EGFs. In cases of severe or chronic damage, JNK/Ets21c activity also induces apoptosis of the EC. Enteroblasts (EBs) activate JNK upon stress. This leads to the production of Hh, which acts in an autocrine manner to induce IL-6 production in EBs. In intestinal stem cells (ISCs), IL-6 and EGFs are received and integrated by the JAK/STAT and Ras/ERK pathways, respectively, to induce stem cell proliferation. Autonomous JNK pathway activation in ISCs upregulates its effectors Ets21c and Sox21a, which promote proliferation. In addition, JNK signaling induces symmetric divisions in ISCs by reorientating the mitotic spindle through its effector Wdr62 and by transcriptionally inhibiting Kif1a.
ISC self-renewal and proliferation is controlled by epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and other signaling pathways, whereas ISC differentiation is regulated by Notch and JAK/STAT (reviewed in [ 54 , 58 , 59 ]). After injury or bacterial infection, JNK is essential for intestinal regeneration. During stress, the JNK pathway is activated in ISCs, EBs, and ECs but serves distinct roles in each cell type ( Figure 3 ). In ECs, activated JNK induces the expression of Ets21c, an ETS-domain transcription factor [ 60 ], and Ets21c ensures caspase-dependent death of the damaged cells and induces secretion of growth and inflammatory factors such as EGFs and IL-6 [ 54 , 61 , 62 , 63 ]. In EBs, JNK signaling induces IL-6 secretion, but in this cell type IL-6 expression is controlled by the Hh pathway downstream of JNK activation [ 64 ]. ISCs receive EGF and IL-6 signals produced by damaged ECs and EBs. These factors activate Ras/MAPK and JAK/STAT pathways, respectively, which promotes ISC proliferation (reviewed in [ 54 , 58 ]). Additionally, JNK is activated in ISCs upon damage to the midgut, but the factors activating JNK in ISCs are not yet known. In ISCs, JNK induces the expression of downstream effectors Ets21c and Sox21a, a Sox transcription factor member [ 60 , 65 ]. Autonomous JNK activation in ISCs synergizes with self-renewal pathways such as Ras/ERK to augment their proliferation ( Figure 3 ) [ 66 , 67 , 68 ]. JNK can become activated in ISCs and induce ISC proliferation, even in the absence of EC death, by feeding animals with small amounts of opportunistic bacteria [ 68 ].
Environmental cues can cause ISCs to switch from homeostatic asymmetric stem cell division (in which one daughter cell retains stemness and the other differentiates) to symmetric division (in which both daughter cells retain stemness) [ 69 ]. This involves changing the orientation of ISC mitotic spindle relative to the plane of the epithelium from an oblique angle (asymmetric) to parallel (symmetric) [ 70 ]. In Drosophila ISCs, JNK induces symmetric cell divisions by phosphorylating and recruiting Wdr62 to the centrosome and by repressing transcription of Kif1a, a kinesin implicated in promoting asymmetric divisions [ 71 , 72 ]. This acute switch to ISC symmetric divisions is required for intestinal growth in young adults [ 69 ]. However, when symmetric divisions become chronic, for example, during stress or aging, tissue homeostasis is compromised and the lifespan is shortened (see below). While spindle reorientation favoring symmetric divisions has been observed in mouse ISCs, it is not known whether JNK regulates this process [ 70 , 73 ].
The midgut of old flies is characterized by age-related dysplasia that shortens the lifespan, and JNK signaling plays a pivotal role in this process (reviewed in [ 55 , 74 ]). As flies age, alterations in cell fate of middle midgut cells cause a reduction in acidification of the midgut lumen, and this causes dysbiosis of commensal microbiota [ 75 , 76 ]. The epithelium of the midgut then induces a chronic inflammatory response through the activation of p38 and the ROS-producing enzyme Duox. The production of ROS triggers JNK activation in ISCs, which then proliferate uncontrollably [ 63 , 67 , 77 ]. Age-related dysplasia can be prevented and the lifespan can be extended by globally abrogating the JNK pathway in hep/JNKK mutant flies or by downregulating bsk/JNK in ISCs/EBs [ 63 , 78 ]. Interestingly, the sustained proliferation of ISCs is driven by JNK-dependent symmetric divisions induced by the mitotic spindle reorientation described above. Downregulating bsk/JNK in ISCs, decreasing Wdr62 expression, or upregulating Kif1a restores the normal oblique mitotic spindles and promotes asymmetric divisions, thus reducing the number of ISCs in the epithelium and extending lifespan [ 71 ].
The JNK pathway can induce intestinal dysplasia by a different mechanism that results in multi-layered tissue architecture. In this model, damaged ECs devoid of an integrin subunit activate JNK, which induces IL-6 secretion. ISCs increase proliferation in response to IL-6 and their EB daughters differentiate into new ECs. This cycle is repeated, resulting in tissue overgrowth [
79
]. The JNK/IL-6 cascade is reutilized in other ISC tumor models. For example, high bacterial load can induce the JNK/IL-6 circuit [
67
] and, together with the expression of proto-oncogenes such as dominant-active Ras, can lead to similar multi-layered cell dysplasia [
80
]. In some cases, commensal bacteria, ISC tumors and the JNK pathway form a forward feedback loop that facilitates the tumor progression, JNK activation in ISC tumors causes them to secrete matrix metalloproteases, which disrupt the epithelial barrier and enable the overgrowth of commensal microbiota. This, in turn, fuels tumor progression and JNK activation [
81
].
Intestinal tumorigenesis in mammals can be driven by JNK activation [ 82 ]. The pathway has been implicated in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), but this is controversial and debated [ 83 , 84 ]. Nevertheless, treatments targeting the JNK pathway ligand TNFα have been in use in the clinic for the past two decades and can induce and maintain remission of moderate-to-severe IBD (reviewed in [ 85 ]). Future work will be needed to determine whether the multiple roles of JNK in the Drosophila midgut epithelium are at work in the mammalian intestine.
7. Concluding Remarks
The recent wave of discoveries presented in this review, many of them within the last three years for fly testis and the last 10 years for the fly gut, render a new perspective of the JNK pathway in adult stem cells, both as a maintenance factor and as a trigger for regenerative responses. During homeostasis, JNK signaling can act as a self-renewal factor, ensuring that “stemness” is retained in the resident stem cell populations. During regeneration, JNK can induce a myriad of cellular responses in stem cells, in addition to its traditional role of inducing apoptosis in damaged cells. These other responses include increasing proliferation, switching the mode of cell division, reprogramming cells, and recycling cellular debris. Furthermore, JNK signaling plays critical roles during pathological situations and aging. Research aimed at translating discoveries made in fruit flies to mouse models may have important implications for human health.
In closing, many questions about JNK signaling still remain. For example, in the future, it will be important to understand why some responses require extrinsic (such as TNFα) vs. intrinsic factors for pathway activation and to elucidate potentially new factors in JNK activation. It will be also critical to improve our understanding of how the diversity of target genes and protein substrates results in differential cellular responses depending on the cell context and the type of stress.
Author Contributions
Writing: E.A.B., S.C.H.; conceived: E.A.B., S.C.H.; edited: E.A.B., S.C.H.; figures: S.C.H. Both authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
Work in the Bach lab is supported by grants from the NIH and NYS Department of Health/NYSTEM. Work in the Herrera lab is supported by a grant from the Fundación Bancaria “la Caixa” (ID 100010434) with the code LCF/BQ/PI20/11760005.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
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Figure 1. The JNK pathway in Drosophila . Extrinsic signals such as the ligand Egr/TNFα can bind the TNFα receptors (TNFRs) Grnd and Wgn, activating a cascade of kinases: Msn/JNKKKK, dTAK1/JNKKK, Hep/JNKK and Bsk/JNK. Hep/JNKK can also be phosphorylated by intrinsic factors (outlined by the dashed line), such as Ask1. Bsk/JNK phosphorylates the AP-1 transcription factor components Kay/Fos and Jra/Jun. AP-1 target genes include puc/DUSP10 , which encodes a phosphatase that inactivates Bsk/JNK in a negative feedback loop, and upd/IL-6 , encoding an inflammatory cytokine. The STRIPAK complex that binds to Hep/JNKK, Bsk/JNK and AP-1 and inhibits the pathway.
Figure 2. Roles of the JNK pathway in the Drosophila testis. ( A ) Normal homeostasis. The testis is surrounded by a sheath of smooth muscle cells (brown). Niche cells (gray) are anchored to the muscle sheath and secrete self-renewal factors for GSCs (red) and CySCs (blue). A GSC divides asymmetrically to produce a GSC daughter and a differentiating daughter (termed the Gonialblast (Gb)), which undergoes transit-amplifying divisions, producing spermatogonia. A CySC divides to produce cyst cells that become quiescent and encapsulate spermatogonia and remain attached to germ cells throughout their differentiation into spermatids. During homeostasis, JNK is intrinsically activated in CySCs and promotes their self-renewal. ( B ) Pathological activation. Impairment of the STRIPAK complex or the endocytic pathway strongly induces JNK in somatic cells, which produce abnormally high levels of Dpp/BMP. Sustained secretion of Dpp/BMP into the testis lumen causes hyper-proliferation of GSCs and early spermatogonia, while concomitantly blocking spermatogonial differentiation. These effects are genetically dependent on Egr/TNFα, which is likely produced by CySCs and then acts in an autocrine manner. ( C ) Stress response. During acute stress (left), somatic JNK activity causes the non-autonomous death of spermatogonial cells, and these somatic cells endocytose and recycle the debris of the dying germ cells. This recycling is necessary for maintaining the GSC pool during stress, presumably because recycled cellular components are somehow provided to GSCs. Under chronic stress (right), the muscle sheath secretes Egr/TNFα, which is transduced by CySCs through Grnd/TNFR. This JNK activity causes hyper-proliferation of CySCs. JNK-activated CySCs secrete Dpp/BMP, which strongly induces GSC proliferation. ( D ) Recovery from stress. Upon termination of starvation (left), JNK autonomous activation in one or more cells in a spermatogonium (pink cell with starred JNK) induces dedifferentiation into GSCs. This dedifferentiated GSC (pink dividing cells at niche) is more proliferative than the wild-type (i.e., non-dedifferentiated) sibling GSC (red cell at niche). Additionally, upon termination of starvation (right), Egr/TNFα is secreted by the muscle sheath cells and is transduced by CySCs through Grnd/TNFR. JNK-activated CySCs increase their proliferation, which facilitates the quick recovery of the CySC pool.
Figure 3. The JNK pathway during homeostasis of the Drosophila gut. Damage or bacterial infection in the Drosophila midgut causes JNK activation in enterocytes (ECs). JNK induces expression of Ets21c, which then induces the secretion of inflammatory cues and mitogens such as IL-6 and EGFs. In cases of severe or chronic damage, JNK/Ets21c activity also induces apoptosis of the EC. Enteroblasts (EBs) activate JNK upon stress. This leads to the production of Hh, which acts in an autocrine manner to induce IL-6 production in EBs. In intestinal stem cells (ISCs), IL-6 and EGFs are received and integrated by the JAK/STAT and Ras/ERK pathways, respectively, to induce stem cell proliferation. Autonomous JNK pathway activation in ISCs upregulates its effectors Ets21c and Sox21a, which promote proliferation. In addition, JNK signaling induces symmetric divisions in ISCs by reorientating the mitotic spindle through its effector Wdr62 and by transcriptionally inhibiting Kif1a.
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Chicago/Turabian Style
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Herrera SC, Bach EA. The Emerging Roles of JNK Signaling in DrosophilaStem Cell Homeostasis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021; 22(11):5519.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22115519
Chicago/Turabian Style
Herrera, Salvador C., and Erika A. Bach. 2021. "The Emerging Roles of JNK Signaling in DrosophilaStem Cell Homeostasis" International Journal of Molecular Sciences22, no. 11: 5519.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22115519
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Tracheobronchomalacia in preterm infants with chronic lung disease | ADC Fetal & Neonatal Edition
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Tracheobronchomalacia in preterm infants with chronic lung disease Free
Iolo J M Doull,
Quen Mok,
Robert C Tasker
Paediatric Intensive Care Unit, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London
Dr Iolo Doull, Cystic Fibrosis Unit, Department of Child Health, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff CF4 4XW.
Abstract
Tracheobronchomalacia is a treatable cause of persisting ventilatory requirements in the preterm neonate, and warrants a high index of suspicion. Five preterm infants with persisting ventilatory requirements with evidence of tracheobronchomalacia are reported. Four were diagnosed by tracheobronchogram and one by flexible endoscopy. All were successfully managed by continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) via a tracheostomy. One infant died of unrelated causes. The oldest child in this series at the age of 2 years requires no further ventilatory support. Tracheobronchial anomalies should be considered in all preterm infants with persisting ventilatory requirements.
tracheobronchomalacia
continuous positive airway pressure
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/fn.76.3.F203
tracheobronchomalacia
continuous positive airway pressure
Tracheobronchial abnormalities are an important cause of persistent respiratory problems in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Tracheomalacia (and bronchomalacia) is a common, yet infrequently diagnosed cause for persistent ventilatory requirement in preterm and term neonates. Between 16% and 50%1-4of selected infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia have evidence of tracheobronchomalacia at endoscopy. Life threatening episodes may occur in these patients due to acute airway collapse or progressive deterioration due to dynamic hyperinflation. Once identified, treatment is continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), via either a nasopharyngeal tube or via a tracheostomy tube, with a resultant increase in dynamic compliance and a decrease in total respiratory system resistance.5
We describe our experience of five cases of tracheo(broncho)malacia referred to a tertiary referral centre over two years for investigation of continuing ventilatory requirement after preterm birth.
Methods
All five infants were referred to the paediatric intensive care unit at Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children between May 1994 and August 1996. Cases with associated airway stenosis or causes of extrinsic compression such as cardiac defects were not included. All had ventilatory requirements disproportionate to that which might be expected for their radiological evidence of chronic lung disease. As part of their diagnostic workup, all infants had structurally normal hearts on echocardiogram, normal sweat tests, and normal immune function. Gastro-oesophageal reflux was excluded or treated if confirmed.
Tracheo(broncho)malacia was diagnosed in most of the cases by tracheobronchography. Infants were investigated while intubated with the endotracheal tube maintained in the upper trachea and breathing spontaneously, using a rebreathing circuit connected to a manometer. A small bore feeding tube was passed through the endotracheal tube, and 0.5–1 ml of isotonic contrast medium (omnipaque) injected to delineate the trachea and bronchi. Airway collapse was documented by fluoroscopy (figs1and2). The airway opening pressure was measured, using the manometer, by increasing the end expiratory pressure until dynamic airway collapse no longer occurred. The children were subsequently managed using a CPAP pressure at the level of airway opening pressure.
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Figure 1
Tracheobronchogram during inspiration showing patients right and left main bronchus.
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Figure 2
Tracheobronchogram during expiration showing complete collapse of the right main bronchus and clinically significant narrowing of the left main bronchus.
Case reports
Case 1—Born at 24 weeks gestation after 48 hours of antenatal corticosteroids; his birth weight was 765 g. He was mechanically ventilated with maximal ventilation of 20/3 cm H 2O (peak inspiratory pressure/positive end expiratory pressure) with a fractional inspired oxygen concentration (FIO 2) of 0.4. This was rapidly reduced to ventilation of 12/2 cm H 2O in air until 20 days of age, and he did not receive exogenous surfactant. Subsequently he exhibited repeated failure to extubate, often in association with stridor, despite two courses of systemic corticosteroids. Flexible endoscopy at the referring hospital when aged 100 days showed laryngo-tracheobronchomalacia. Attempts at management by negative pressure ventilation were unsuccessful. At our institution rigid endoscopy showed 90% occlusion of the lower third of the trachea and 70% occlusion of the left main bronchus. After an unsuccessful aortopexy because of technical difficulties he was managed with a CPAP of 5 cm H 2O, FIO 20.21 via tracheostomy. A repeat endoscopy at 18 months of age showed no evidence of tracheobronchomalacia. At the time of writing he is aged 2 years and awaiting decannulation of his tracheostomy. Case 2—Born at 25 weeks gestation after antenatal corticosteroids; his birthweight was 772 g. His was initially mechanically ventilated at maximum pressures of 20/3 cm H 2O, FIO 20.5. The chest x-ray picture was compatible with hyaline membrane disease and he received two doses of exogenous surfactant (Curosurf). He was ventilated for six weeks, then extubated to nasal prong CPAP under systemic corticosteroid cover. The subsequent clinical course was complicated by recurrent stridor, upper airway obstruction, and periods of profound oxygen desaturation. The initial rigid endoscopy was normal, but repeat investigation revealed subglottic stenosis requiring a cricoid split. However, as his symptoms persisted despite a normal rigid endoscopy a tracheobronchogram was performed on day 160 of life and revealed complete collapse of the right main bronchus and to a lesser extent the left main bronchus (figs1and2). These were observed to have an opening pressure of 15 to 20 cm H 2O. Aged 12 months his CPAP pressures were gradually weaned to 6 cm H 2O via tracheostomy and he was transferred to his local hospital for ongoing management. Case 3—One of twins born at 28 weeks gestation, with a birthweight of 915 g, after premature rupture of membranes at 19 weeks. He was initially mechanically ventilated for 13 days maximal ventilation 34/5, FIO 21.0. At 170 days of age he was receiving endotracheal CPAP plus negative extrathoracic pressure support, using an external jacket ventilator with FIO 21.0. A tracheobronchogram on day 180 showed moderate tracheomalacia with an opening pressure of 8–10 cm H 2O. He was subsequently supported with CPAP alone via nasopharyngeal tube (10 cm H 2O), FIO 20.3, which was then changed to a tracheostomy to facilitate ease of nursing and permit stimulation for neurological development. At the age of 8 months he died of an unrelated systemic viral infection. Case 4—Born at 30 weeks gestation by elective caesarean section after antenatal corticosteroids for intrauterine growth retardation; his birthweight was 660 g. During the first week of life he was spontaneously ventilating in air. During the second week of life he required mechanical ventilation because of a clinical deterioration associated with a systemic infection, complicated by pulmonary haemorrhage. Subsequently he had repeated episodes of mechanical ventilation interspersed by periods of merely requiring oxygen through nasal cannulae. A tracheobronchogram on day 170 of life showed malacia of the left main bronchus, with an opening pressure of 12 cm H 2O. He was subsequently managed using CPAP at the level of his opening pressure. Aged 1 year he was receiving CPAP (10 cm H 2O) with FIO 20.3, via tracheostomy. Case 5—An infant of a diabetic mother, born at 34 weeks gestation, with a birthweight 1162 g and moderately severe respiratory distress, required two doses of exogenous surfactant (Curosurf) and ventilation for 21 days. Subsequently he alternated between requiring only headbox oxygen and nasopharyngeal prong CPAP because of periods of substantial oxygen desaturation. Due to repeated severe oxygen desaturation and “steroid resistance” mechanical ventilation was restarted from 1 year of age. He required sedation and muscle relaxants because of frequent episodes of cyanosis and difficulties in achieving chest movement despite mechanical ventilation. A tracheobronchogram when aged 16 months showed severe malacia of the left main bronchus with an opening pressure of 15–22 cm H 2O. Aged 17 months he still required CPAP 15 cm H 2O, FIO 20.3, via tracheostomy.
Discussion
The five preterm infants all had ventilatory requirements disproportionate to that which might be expected for their radiological evidence of chronic lung disease, as well as recurrent life threatening events that proved difficult to ventilate. Only two infants had clinical signs suggestive of upper airway obstruction. Due to the intrathoracic nature of the lesions, classic upper airway signs such as stridor would not be expected, and often the only clinical sign is episodic wheezing.6
Only one of the infants was diagnosed solely by endoscopic appearances, while four infants were diagnosed on tracheobronchogram after (at least one) normal rigid endoscopy. Endoscopic assessment is necessary to exclude vocal cord problems or obstructive lesions such as granuloma or stenosis, but rigid endoscopy may not show functional defects. Even when the infant is spontaneously ventilating the physical traction of the rigid endoscope may disrupt the appearance of the airways. This is compounded by the difficulty in accessing smaller distal airways in sick infants. Flexible endoscopy is an alternative that is superior to rigid endoscopy in the evaluation of dynamic changes in the airway because it can be performed, even in young children, under sedation, and offers non-disruptive visualisation of proximal airways. However, rigid endoscopy is used in our institution because it provides better airway control and the ability to ventilate when necessary in patients who frequently have borderline respiratory reserve. Tracheobronchography is a more sensitive investigation for diagnosing tracheobronchomalacia, and it also permits determination of the airway opening pressure, which is important for future management. Both endoscopy and tracheobronchography are therefore necessary and complementary in the management of the condition.
In all infants diagnosis led to simplification of management, with all infants eventually being managed by CPAP via a tracheostomy. Zinman5has shown that dynamic compliance is increased and total respiratory system resistance decreased with increasing CPAP in infants with tracheostomies. If the area of collapse is confined to the trachea management is possible without CPAP with either continued tracheal intubation7or a long tracheostomy tube.5Aortopexy is reported to be beneficial2but was unsuccessful in one of our cases due to technical difficulties. Negative pressure ventilation has been used successfully (Doull, personal communication) as an alternative to tracheostomy, although it is important to exclude an extrathoracic component to the tracheomalacia, as this mode of ventilation may precipitate extrathoracic airway collapse.
Chronic lung disease of prematurity requiring long term ventilation is relatively rare, and tracheobronchomalacia is probably even rarer. Given the pattern of referral to our institution we are unable to give even an approximation of the prevalence of tracheobronchomalacia in preterm infants with chronic lung disease, although the reported prevalence is as high as 50%.2The pathophysiology of tracheobronchomalacia in infants with chronic lung disease is unclear. Although all infants were preterm, it is unknown whether the tracheobronchomalacia contributed to their initial ventilatory requirement, or whether the tracheobronchomalacia was a consequence of long term mechanical ventilation. In a prospective endoscopy study of 117 preterm infants who were either ventilated for seven days or more, or who had continuing oxygen requirement at 28 days age, Downing and Kilbride4identified 16% (19/117) with evidence of tracheobronchomalacia. Significant risk factors for the presence of tracheomalacia were lower gestational age at birth and higher mean airway pressures in the first week of life.
The median age for diagnosis was 170 days of age in our group of infants. Without a clearer understanding of the pathophysiology and natural history of this condition we cannot be certain of the feasibility of earlier diagnosis. However, diagnosis of tracheobronchomalacia results in a significant change in management, with all infants requiring only CPAP to an appropriate airway opening pressure, and a potentially favourable outcome. Earlier recognition of tracheobronchomalacia could result in a shorter period of mandatory mechanical ventilation and decreased barotrauma. Consequently, early consideration and diagnosis of tracheobronchomalacia is of paramount importance in babies whose parenchymal lung disease may not fully explain ventilatory dependence. We suggest that tracheobronchial anomalies should be excluded in preterm infants with ventilatory requirements persisting for greater than two to three months. Tracheobronchial anomalies are a treatable cause of persisting ventilatory requirements in preterm neonates, and should be considered in all such infants.
References
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( 1987) Tracheobronchial abnormalities in infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J Pediatr 111: 779– 782.
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( 1987) Surgical implications of bronchopulmonary dysplasia. J Pediatr Surg 22: 1132– 1136.
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( 1992) Bronchoscopy during the first month of life. J Pediatr Surg 27: 548– 550.
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Downing GJ,
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( 1995) Evaluation of airway complications in high-risk preterm infants: application of flexible fiberoptic airway endoscopy. Pediatrics 95: 567– 572.
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Zinman R
( 1995) Tracheal stenting improves airway mechanics in infants with tracheobronchomalacia. Pediatr Pulmonol 19: 275– 281.
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( 1991) Tracheomalacia and bronchopulmonary dysplasia. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol 100: 856– 858.
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( 1995) Prolonged tracheal intubation in an infant with tracheomalacia secondary to a vascular ring. A useful adjunct to treatment? Anaesthesia 50: 341– 342.
| https://fn.bmj.com/content/76/3/F203?ijkey=49763389a50cf2bbd70ae5c476bbd32d39b326a0&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha |
Jarod Sub Post Office, Vaghodia 10, Vadodara, Gujarat
Jarod Post Office, Vaghodia
Jarod post office is located at Jarod, Vaghodia, Vadodara of Gujarat state. It is a sub office (S.O.). A Post Office (PO) / Dak Ghar is a facility in charge of sorting, processing, and delivering mail to recipients. POs are usually regulated and funded by the Government of India (GOI). Pin code of Jarod PO is391510. This Postoffice falls under Vadodara West postal division of the Gujarat postal circle. The related head P.O. for this sub office is Fateganj head post office.
Jarod dak ghar offers all the postal services like delivery of mails & parcels, money transfer, banking, insurance and retail services. It also provides other services including passport applications, P.O. Box distribution, and other delivery services in Jarod.
Types of Post Offices
Post offices are basically classified into 3 types, namely – Head Post Office, Sub-Post Office including E.D. Sub-Office and Branch Postoffice. Jarod P.O. is a Sub Post Office. So far as the public is concerned, there is basically no difference in the character of the service rendered by Sub-Post Offices and Head-Post Offices except in regard to a few Post Office Savings Bank (SB) transactions. Certain Sub Post Offices do not undertake all types of postal business. Facilities are generally provided at Branch Post Offices for the main items of postal work like delivery and dispatch of mails, booking of registered articles and parcels accepting SB deposits and effecting SB withdrawals, and issue and payment of money orders, though in a restricted manner.
Post Office Type Head Post Office Sub-Post Offices including E.D. Sub-Offices Branch Post Office
Jarod Post Office & Its Pin Code
Branch Office Information
Jarod Post Office Services
Mail Services
Parcels
Retail Services
Premium Services
Speed Post
India Post Speed Post Tracking
Tracking System
India Post Tracking Number Formats
Express Parcel Post
Media Post
Greetings Post
Logistics Post
ePost Office
Financial Services
Savings Bank (SB) Account
Recurring Deposit (RD) Account
Monthly Income Scheme (MIS)
Monthly Public Provident Fund (PPF)
Time Deposit (TD)
Senior Citizen Saving Scheme (SCSS)
National Savings Certificate (NSC)
Kisan Vikas Patra (KVP)
Sukanya Samriddhi Accounts (SSA)
Post Office Timings
India Post Tracking
Jarod Post Office Recruitment
Location Map
Contact Details
About India Post
Jarod Post Office & Its Pin Code
Often Post Offices are named after the town / village / location they serve. The Jarod Post Office has the Postal Index Number or Pin Code 391510. A Pincode is a 6 digit post code of postal numbering system used by India Post. The first digit indicates one of the regions. The first 2 digits together indicate the sub region or one of the postal circles. The first 3 digits together indicate a sorting / revenue district. The last 3 digits refer to the delivery post office type.
P.O. Name Jarod PO Pincode 391 510
The first digit of 391510 Pin Code '3' represents the region, to which this Post Office of Jarod belongs to. The first two digits of the Pin Code '39' represent the sub region, i.e, Gujarat. The first 3 digits '391' represent the post-office revenue district, i.e, Vadodara West. The last 3 digits, i.e, '510' represent the Jarod Delivery Sub Office.
Sub Office Information
The Jarod Post Office is a sub office. The Delivery Status for this PO is that it has delivery facility. Postal division name for this Dak Ghar is Vadodara West, which falls under Vadodara region. The circle name for this PO is Gujarat and it falls under Vaghodia Taluka and Vadodara District. The state in which this Dakghar is situated or located is Gujarat. The related head postoffice is Fateganj post office. The phone number of Jarod post office is 02668274220.
PO Type Sub Office Delivery Status Delivery Postal Division Vadodara West Postal Region Vadodara Postal Circle Gujarat Town / City / Tehsil / Taluka / Mandal Vaghodia District Vadodara State Gujarat Jarod Post Office Phone Number 02668274220 Related Head PO Fateganj Head Post Office
Jarod Post Office Services
Traditionally the primary function of Jarod post office was collection, processing, transmission and delivery of mails but as of today, a Post Office offers many other vital services in addition to its traditional services. The additional services provided by a Dak Ghar include – Mail Services, Financial Services, Retail Services and Premium Services.
Mail Services
Mail Services are the basic services provided by Jarod P.O. Mails and mail services include all or any postal articles whose contents are in the form of message which may include Letters, Postcards, Inland letter cards, packets or parcels, Ordinary mails etc.
Parcels
Mail Service also includes transmission and delivery of Parcels. A parcel can be anything ranging from a single written letter or anything addressed to an addressee. No parcel shall be by any chance be in a shape, way of packing or any other feature, such that it cannot be carried or transmitted by post or cause serious inconvenience or risk. Every parcel (including service parcels) that needs to be transmitted by post must be handed over at the window of the post office. Any parcel found in a letter box will be treated and charged as a registered parcel. Delivery services are provided by some selected delivery and branch post offices. This dakghar have the facility of delivery, thus the people of Jarod and nearby localities can avail all the types of mail services.
Retail Services
Post offices in India serve in various ways and Jarod Post Office offer most of the retail services. They offer the facility to accept or collect constomer bills like telephone or mobile bills, electricity bills for Government and private organizations through Retail Post. Some of the aditional agency services that Post offices offers through retail services are as follows - Telephone revenue collection, e-Ticketing for Road Transport Corporations and Airlines, Sale of UPSC forms, university applications, Sale of Passport application forms, Sale of Gold Coins, Forex Services, Sale of SIM and recharge coupons, Sale of India Telephone cards, e-Ticketing of Railway tickets etc. The postal customers of Jarod can pay their bills and avail other retail services from this Dak Ghar.
Premium Services
Most of the premium services can be availed by the Jarod peoples and nearby living people. The premium services provided by Jarod Post Office are - Speed Post, Business Post, Express Parcel Post, Media Post, Greeting Post, and Logistics Post.
Speed Post
Speed Post is a time bound service in express delivery of letters and parcels. The max weight up to which an article or parcel be sent is 35 kgs between any two specified stations in India. Speed Post delivers 'Value for money' to everyone and everywhere, delivering Speed Post upto 50 grams @ INR 35 across the country and local Speed Post upto 50 grams @ INR 15, excluding applicable Service Tax. Kindly check official website for updated Speed Post service charges.
India Post Speed Post Tracking
Speed Post offers a facility of on-line tracking and tracing that guarantees reliability, speed and customer friendly service. Using a 13 digit barcode that makes a Speed Post consignment unique and identifiable. A web-based technology (www.indiapost.gov.in/speednettracking.aspx) helps the Jarod customers track Speed Post consignments from booking to delivery.
Tracking System
Except Speed Post, India Post also allows people to track their order information for certain products like Parcels, Insured letters, Speed Post, Registered Post, Electronic Money Orders (EMO) and Electronic value payable parcel (EVPPs) etc. The tracking number is available on the receipt given at Jarod Post Office. Using the tracking number postal customers can find out the date and time of dispatch of an article at various locations. The time of booking and the time of delivery of article.
India Post Tracking Number Formats
Different types of postal service have different kinds of tracking number formats. The tracking number for Express Parcel is a 13 digit alphanumeric format. The format for Express Parcel is XX000000000XX. The tracking number for a Registered Mail is a 13 digit alphanumeric number and its format is RX123456789IN. But a Electronic Money Order (EMO) has a 18 digit tracking number and its format is 000000000000000000. For domestic Speed Post (EMS) there is a 13 digit alphanumeric tracking number with the format EE123456789IN.
Bharatiya Dak Ghar Seva Tracking Number Format Number of Digits Electronic Money Order (eMO) 000000000000000000 18 Express Parcel XX000000000XX 13 International EMS Artilces to be delivered in India EE123456789XX 13 Registered Mail RX123456789IN 13 Speed Post (EMS) Domestic EE123456789IN 13
Express Parcel Post
In Express Parcel Post, the Jarod postal customer gets time bound delivery of parcels. These parcels will be transmitted through air or any other fastest mean available at that time. Minimum chargeable weight for which Express Parcel consignments will be booked is 0.5 Kg. Maximum weight of Express Parcel consignments which shall be booked across the Post Office counter by a retail customer shall be 20 Kg and maximum weight that can be booked by corporate customer is 35 kgs.
Media Post
India Post offers a unique way or concept to help the Indian corporate organisations and the Government organizations reach potential customers through media post. Through media post people can advertise on postcards, letters, aerogramme, postal stationary etc. Customers get to see the logo or message of the respective corporate or government organizations. The Aerogramme even gives the organizations the opportunity to make their product have a global impact.
Greetings Post
Greeting Post is yet another innovative or unique step by India Post. It consists of a card with an envelope with pre-printed and pre attached postage stamp on the envelope. The stamp on the envelope is a replica of the design that appears upon the card but in miniature form. Thus there is no need affix postage stamps on the envelope implicitly saving your time of going to post offices and standing in the queue. All the rules and that are applicable for the postage dues will also be applicable to the Greeting Post.
Logistics Post
Logistics Post manages the entire transmission and distribution side of the parcels. It deals with collection of goods, storage of goods, carriage and distribution of the various parcels or goods, from order preparation to order fulfilment. And that too at the minimum possible price. Logistics Post services provides the Jarod postal customer with cost-effective and efficient distribution across the entire country.
ePost Office
The advent of internet made communication very rapid through emails. But, the internet has not yet reached most of the rural parts of India. To change this division between rural & urban life, and to get the benefit of internet technology to Jarod people's lives, Indian Postal Department has introduced e-post. e-post is a service in which personalized handwritten messages of customers are scanned and sent as email through internet. And at the destination address office, these messages are again printed, enveloped and delivered through postmen at the postal addresses. E-post centres are established in the Post Offices, covering a large geographical area including major cities and districts. These e-post centres are well equipped with internet connection, scanners, printers and other necessary hardware equipment. However, this e-post service doesn’t particularly need a e-post centre, but can this facility can be availed at any normal Post Office or you can visit www.epostoffice.gov.in to access postal services on your desktop, laptop or even on mobile. If a message is booked at Jarod post office, the post is scanned and sent to an e-post centre by e-mail and a mail received at e-post centre is printed and sent to nearby Post Office for dispatch.
A Jarod customer can also avail these services of an e-post, at his/ her home. All he/ she has do is to register as a user at www.epostoffice.gov.in website. After registration, a user can use e-post by scanning and sending messages, printing and receive messages. The message to be scanned must not be written in a paper not more A4. There is no limit for sending number of sheets of messages in e-post.
E-Post Office offers certain services like – Philately, Postal Life Insurance, Electronic Indian Postal Order, Information Services, Track & Trace and Complaints & Guidelines services.
Philately
Philately service deals with collection, sale and study of postage stamps. Philately includes lot of services Philately Information, Stamp issue Program, Stamps List and Buy Stamps service.
Postal Life Insurance (PLI)
A service offered by the Government to pay a given amount of money on the death of an individual to his prescribed nominee. The amount may also be paid to the person himself, in case he survives that maturity period. The two services offered under Postal Life Insurance are – Pay Premium service and PLI information.
Electronic Indian Postal Order
eIPO or Electronic Indian Postal Order is a facility to purchase an Indian Postal Order electronically by paying a fee on-line through e-Post Office. This service is launched by the Department of Posts, Ministry of Communications & IT, Government of India.
eIPO can now be used by Indian Citizens living in India for paying online fee, whoever seeks information under the RTI Act, 2005. eIPO offers 2 types of services – eIPO information and payment of online fees.
Information Services
This helps Jarod customers to get information regarding certain products like – Pin Code search, Speed post, Banking, Insurance, Business Post, Logistics Post, IMTS and many more other services.
Track & Trace
The track & trace service is very helpful as it aids in getting information of our valuables. Track & Trace service offers 5 different services – Pin Code search, EMO tracking, Speed Post tracking, WNX tracking and International mail service.
Complaints & Guidelines
Using e-post office service Jarod postal costumer can access services based on – complaint registration, complaint status and guidelines on complaints.
ePost Office Website www.epostoffice.gov.in
Financial Services
The customers of Jarod can enjoy the various savings schemes available in this post office that prove to be highly beneficial for the people living in Jarod area. The Financial service offered by PO includes Savings and Postal Life Insurance (PLI). There are various options available to save and invest with post-offices. The commonly used ones include - Savings account, Recurring Deposit, Monthly Income Scheme, Monthly Public Provident Fund, Time Deposit, Senior Citizen Saving Scheme, National Savings Certificate, Kisan Vikas Patra and Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana. Post Office also offers Insurance product through Postal Life Insurance (PLI) and Rural Postal Life Insurance (RPLI) schemes that offer low premium and high bonus.
Post Office Financial Services Kisan Vikas Patra (KVP) Monthly Income Scheme (MIS) Monthly Public Provident Fund (PPF) National Savings Certificate (NSC) Recurring Deposit (RD) Account Savings Bank (SB) Account Senior Citizen Saving Scheme (SCSS) Sukanya Samriddhi Accounts (SSA) Time Deposit (TD)
Savings Bank (SB) Account
A Savings bank account serves the need of regular deposits for its customers as well as withdrawals. Cheque facility is also avail by Jarod postal consumers.
Recurring Deposit (RD) Account
A post office offers a monthly investment option with handsome return at the time period with an option to extend the investment period. Insurance facility is also available with certain conditions.
Monthly Income Scheme (MIS)
MIS offers a fixed investment technique for five or more years with monthly interest payment to the account holder. There is also a facility of automatic crediting of interest to SB account of the Jarod postal customer.
Monthly Public Provident Fund (PPF)
This service offers intermittent deposits subject to a particular limit for a time period of 15 years with income tax exemptions, on the investment. It also offers loan and withdrawal facilities for the postal customers.
Time Deposit (TD)
Fixed deposit option for periods ranging from one, two, three to five years with facility to draw yearly interest offered at compounded rates. Automatic credit facility of interest to SB account.
Senior Citizen Saving Scheme (SCSS)
Offers fixed investment option for senior citizens for a period of five years, which can be extended, at a higher rate of interest that are paid in quarterly instalments.
National Savings Certificate (NSC)
NSC is offered with a fixed investment for 5 or 10 years on certificates of various denominations. Pledging facility available for availing loan from Banks.
Kisan Vikas Patra (KVP)
Kisan Vikas Patra is a saving certificate scheme in which the amount Invested doubles in 110 months (i.e. 9 years & 2 months). It is available in denominations of Rs 1,000, 5000, 10,000 and Rs 50,000. Minimum deposit is Rs 1000/- and there is no maximum limit. The KVP certificate can be purchased by any adult for himself or on the behalf of a minor. This certificate can also be transferred from one account holder to another and from one post office to another. This certificate can be en-cashed only after 2 and 1/2 years from the date of issue.
Sukanya Samriddhi Accounts (SSA)
Sukanya Samriddhi Account Yojana offers a small deposit investment for the girl children as an initiative under 'Beti Bachao Beti Padhao' campaign. This yojana is to facilitate girl children proper education and carefree marriage expenses. One of the main benefits of this scheme is that it is very affordable and offers one of the highest interest rates. Currently its interest rate is set as 8.6% per annum that is again compounded yearly. The minimum deposit allowed in a financial year is INR. 1000/-and Maximum is INR. 1,50,000/-. Subsequent deposits can be made in multiples of INR 100/-. Deposits can be made all at a time. No limit is set on number of deposits either for a month or a financial year. A legal Guardian can open an account in the name of a Girl Child. Account can be closed only after completion of 21 years of the respective child. The normal Premature closure allowed is after completion of 18 years only if that girl is getting married.
Disclaimer: All the information in this website is published for general information purpose only. Some schemes and other postal services may not be available in Jarod Post Office. Kindly verify for all India post saving schemes and other postal services with official resources.
Post Office Timings
The official working hours of Post Offices vary from one another, but the general Post Office opening time starts from 09:00 AM or 10:00 AM and the closing time is 06:00 PM or 07:00 PM respectively. The working days are from Monday to Saturday, Sunday being a holiday. This doesn't include the public holidays or the extended working hours. You can verify the working hours of Jarod Sub Post Office from the official resources.
India Post Tracking
Online tracking of India Post allowed Jarod people to access their postal article tracking information and confirm the delivery of their postal article by using the tracking number assigned to them at the time of Booking. They can find the tracking number on the Postal acknowledgement handed over to them at the Jarod Sub Post Office counter at the time of postal article booking. Following items can track through the www.indiapost.gov.in/articleTracking.aspx official website.
Business Parcel
Business Parcel COD
Electronic Money Order (e-MO)
Electronic Value Payable Parcel (eVPP)
Express Parcel
Express Parcel COD
Insured Letter
Insured Parcel
Insured Value Payable Letter
Insured Value Payable Parcel
International EMS
Registered Letter
Registered Packets
Registered Parcel
Registered Periodicals
Speed Post
Value Payable Letter
Value Payable Parcel
The India Post tracking system is updated at regular intervals to give the Jarod postal customers with the most up to date information available about the location and status of their postal article. They'll be able to find out the following:
When their postal article was booked
When their postal article was dispatched at various locations during its Journey
When their postal article was received at various locations during its Journey
When their postal article was delivered, or
When a delivery intimation notice was issued to notify the recipient that the postal article is available for delivery
Jarod Post Office Recruitment
For latest Jarod post office recruitment kindly visit www.indiapost.gov.in/recruitment.aspx.
Location Map
Jarod Sub Post Office is located in Jarod, Vaghodia, Vadodara.
Contact Details
All the queries or complaints regarding Bill Mail Service, Booking Packets, Business Post, Direct Post, Flat Rate Box, Indian Postal Orders, Inland Letters, Instant Money Orders, Insurance of Postal Articles, Insurance of Postal Parcels, Letters, Logistics Posts, MO Videsh, Money Orders, Parcels, Post Office Savings Bank, Postal Life Insurance, Postcards, Registration of Postal Articles, Registration of Postal Parcels, Rural Postal Life Insurance, Saving Certificates, Small Saving Schemes, Speed Post, Value Payable Post etc. services in Jarod Post Office, can be resolved at Jarod Sub Post Office. You can send letters to "Postmaster, Jarod Sub Post Office, Jarod, Vaghodia, Vadodara, Gujarat, India, Pincode: 391 510". You can also contact this post office on 02668274220. The official website of the Berhampur University Sub Office is www.indiapost.gov.in.
Jarod Sub Office
Address: Jarod Sub Post Office, Jarod, Vaghodia, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
Pin Code: 391510
Phone Number: 02668274220
Website: www.indiapost.gov.in
About India Post
India Post is a government-operated postal system, which is part of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology of the Government of India. It has the largest Postal Network in the India with over 154882 Post Offices. There are around 139182 Post Offices in the rural India and 15700 Post Offices in urban India. The individual post office serves an area of 21.22 Sq. Km. and a population of 8221 people. The slogan of India Post is Dak Seva Jan Seva. There are 25464 departmental post offices and 129418 extra-departmental branch post offices in India.
Jarod Post Office Summary
Dak Ghar Name Jarod Sub Post Office Pincode 391510 Dakghar Type Sub Office Post Office Delivery Status Delivery Sub Office Postal Division Vadodara West Postal Region Vadodara Postal Circle Gujarat Location Jarod Town / City / Tehsil / Taluka / Mandal Vaghodia District Vadodara State Gujarat Country India Jarod Post Office Phone Number 02668274220 Related Head Office Fateganj Head Post Office Website www.indiapost.gov.in ePost-office Web Site Address www.epostoffice.gov.in Speed Post Tracking Website www.indiapost.gov.in/speednettracking.aspx Recruitment Web Site Address www.indiapost.gov.in/recruitment.aspx
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Recent Advances in Optical Engineering of Light‐Emitting Electrochemical Cells | Request PDF
Request PDF | Recent Advances in Optical Engineering of Light‐Emitting Electrochemical Cells | Since the first demonstration of light‐emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) in 1995, much effort has been made to develop this technology for... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
August 2020 Advanced Functional Materials
30(33):1906788
DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201906788
Authors:
Zu-Po Yang
National Chiao Tung University
Hai-Ching Su
National Chiao Tung University
Read publisher preview
Request full-text Download citation Copy link Link copied
Request full-text
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To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Citations (23)
References (253)
Figures (26)
Abstract and Figures
Since the first demonstration of light‐emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) in 1995, much effort has been made to develop this technology for display and lighting. A common LEC generally contains a single emissive layer blended with a salt, which provides mobile ions under a bias. Ions accumulated at electrodes facilitate electrochemical doping such that operation voltage is low even when employing high‐work‐function inert electrodes. The superior properties of simple device architecture, low‐voltage operation, and compatibility with inert metal electrode render LECs suitable for cost‐effective light‐emitting sources. In addition to enormous progress in developing novel emissive materials for LECs, optical engineering has been shown to improve device performance of LECs in an alternative way. Light outcoupling enhancement technologies recycle the trapped light and increase the light output from LECs. Techniques to estimate emission zone position provide a powerful tool to study carrier balance of LECs and to optimize device performance. Spectral tailoring of the output emission from LECs based on microcavity effect and localized surface plasmon resonance of metal nanoparticles improves the intrinsic emission properties of emissive materials by optical means. These reported optical techniques are overviewed in this review. Light outcoupling enhancement technologies recycle trapped light and increase the light output from light‐emitting electrochemical cells (LECs). Techniques to estimate emission zone position provide a powerful tool to study carrier balance of LECs for optimizing device performance. Spectral tailoring of the output emission from LECs based on microcavity effect and localized surface plasmon resonance generates desired emission properties.
Schematic illustration of the LEC equipped with a light outcoupling film attached on the front side of glass substrate. The right micrograph image shows the hexagonal array of microlenses. Reproduced with permission.[⁷¹] Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society.
…
Calculated percentage of each optical mode in the LEC versus refractive index of substrate. The LEC device structure is substrate/ITO (120 nm)/PEDOT:PSS (40 nm)/Ru(dtb‐bpy)3(PF6)2 (200 nm)/Ag (100 nm). Adapted with permission.[⁷⁶] Copyright 2017, Elsevier B.V.
…
Device structure of the blue LEC integrated with an embedded red CCL. Schematic plot of the optical field intensity distribution of the waveguided light in ITO layer is shown to illustrate the energy down‐conversion from the evanescent wave in the red CCL (shading area). Adapted with permission.[⁷⁹] Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry.
…
Schematic diagrams of the red CCLs doped with small TiO2 NPs (25 nm) of a) 10 wt% and b) 20 wt%. The evanescent wave of the waveguide mode extending into the red CCL is depicted as the shading area. Reproduced with permission.[⁸¹] Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry.
…
+21
a) Power intensity distributions along the waveguides in a dual‐channel directional coupler. Inset: schematic structure of a dual‐channel directional coupler. b) Schematic device structure of the LEC employing waveguide coupling. Schematic drawing of the optical intensity distribution in each waveguide or waveguiding layer is depicted to illustrate waveguide coupling. Adapted with permission.[⁸³] Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry.
…
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1906788
(1 of 25)
Review
Recent Advances in Optical Engineering of Light-Emitting
Electrochemical Cells
Zu-Po Y
ang and Hai-Ching Su*
Since the first demonstration of light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) in
1995, much effort has been made to develop this technology for display and
lighting. A common LEC generally contains a single emissive layer blended
with a salt, which provides mobile ions under a bias. Ions accumulated at
electrodes facilitate electrochemical doping such that operation voltage
is low even when employing high-work-function inert electrodes. The
superior properties of simple device architecture, low-voltage operation,
and compatibility with inert metal electrode render LECs suitable for
cost-effective light-emitting sources. In addition to enormous progress in
developing novel emissive materials for LECs, optical engineering has been
shown to improve device performance of LECs in an alternative way
. Light
outcoupling enhancement technologies recycle the trapped light and increase
the light output from LECs. T
echniques to estimate emission zone position
provide a powerful tool to study carrier balance of LECs and to optimize
device performance. Spectral tailoring of the output emission from LECs
based on microcavity effect and localized surface plasmon resonance of
metal nanoparticles improves the intrinsic emission properties of emissive
materials by optical means. These reported optical techniques are overviewed
in this review
.
DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201906788
Prof. Z.-P. Y
ang
Institute of Photonic System
National Chiao T
ung University
T
ainan 71150, Taiwan
Prof. H.-C. Su
Institute of Lighting and Energy Photonics
National Chiao T
ung University
T
ainan 71150, Taiwan
E-mail: haichingsu@mail.nctu.edu.tw
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201906788.
light-emitting device by the name of light-
emitting electrochemical cell (LEC) was
first demonstrated by Pei et al. in 1995. [4]
Compared to OLEDs, several superior
advantages such as simple emissive-layer
deposition processes, low-bias opera-
tion, and compatibility with inert cathode
materials are generally achievable in
LECs. These promising properties are
attributed to different working principle
of LECs from OLEDs. The emissive layer
of an LEC is generally composed of only
a single organic layer and thus LECs can
be easily fabricated by simple solution
processes, e.g., spin coating and inkjet
printing, rendering reduced fabrication
costs. In addition, the emissive layer of
an LEC contains ionic salts that can sepa-
rate into mobile ions possessing opposite
charges under an applied electric field.
Anions accumulated at anode and cations
accumulated at cathode induce p- and
n-type electrochemical doping of the con-
ducting organic material near anode and
cathode, respectively. [5] Electrochemically
doped layers reduce carrier injection barrier and consequently
lower operating voltage. As such, balanced electron and hole
injection leads to a high quantum efficiency and accompanying
low operating voltage results in a high power efficiency
. With
electrochemically doped layers, carrier injection is insensitive
to the work function of the electrode material such that inert
metals, e.g., gold and silver, can be used as cathode materials.
Employing air-stable cathodes avoids complicated packaging
processes and improves device lifetime of LECs.
After the first LEC demonstration, [4] great efforts have been
made to develop several types of emissive materials, e.g.,
conjugated polymers, [6–8] ionic transition metal complexes
(iTMCs), [9–11] small molecules, [12] quantum dots, [12] and perov-
skite nanoparticles, [12] for use in LECs in the following quarter
century. P
olymer LECs stood in the earliest stage of the LEC
history. The emissive layer of a polymer LEC generally con-
tains a light-emitting polymer and an ionic salt to offer mobile
ions under a bias. However, to assist dissolution of the salt into
mobile ions, an ion conducting polymer, e.g.,
poly(ethylene
oxide) or similar derivative, is often incorporated into the emis-
sive layer. H
ence, the foundation of polymer LECs relies on the
judiciously managed composition of the emissive layer, i.e.,
mixing of a light-emitting polymer possessing reversible elec-
trochemical doping and a proper electrolyte set to stabilize the
doping process. [13–16] T o simplify the required components in
1. Introduction
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) based on inorganic semiconduc-
tors were well-known for their widespread applications in our
daily life. [1,2] In contrast, organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs) [3]
have shown their great potential in technical applications in
displays and solid-state lighting due to their superiority in easy
processability, good color quality and tunability
, flexibility
, and
compactness. Nevertheless, OLEDs generally suffer from some
disadvantages, such as time-consuming thermal-evaporation
steps for multilayered OLEDs and inevitable use of highly
active materials for cathodes. T
o simplify fabrication proce-
dures and to improve cathode stability, a new type of organic
Adv. F
unct. Mater. 2020 ,
30 , 1906788
Citations (23) References (253)
The Effect of the Interface Layer on the Electronic Parameters of the Light Emitting Electrochemical Cell (LEC) Device Based on Iridium (III) Complex that Calculated by Different Methods Article
Jun 2023
Mona Sunaydih Alsaeedi Ali Kemal Havare
We report a calculation of the electronic parameters and some optical measurement results of a light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC), one of the most basic forms of electroluminescent films by modifying 4-(4-methoxy-N-naphthalen-1-ylanilino) benzoic acid (MA) as a hole injection layer doped with an emissive layer that is ionic transition metal complex (Ir[dF(CF3)ppy]2(dtbpy))PF6-(Ir-iTMC). The electronic parameters of LEC device were computed using three different methods; Cheung and Cheung's, Conventional Schottky and Norde, to evaluate the ideality factor (n), the barrier height (ϕ) and the series resistance (Rs) of the LEC device. The formation on indium tin oxide (ITO) substrate was analyzed by atomic force microscopy. The HOMO-LUMO energy level and electronic charge distribution of the MA molecule were computed theoretically using Chemissian software. The MA's HOMO-LUMO energy level is determined to be EHOMO=-5.27 eV and ELUMO=-1.40 eV. The ITO surface has been modified with the self-assembled monolayers technique as an interlayer to improve the surface working function by simplifying hole injection from the ITO anode to the hole transport layer in the LEC. The Ir- iTMC complexes containing Π-conjugated bridging ligand shown better external quantum efficiency, reaching to 1.49%.
View Show abstract
Regulating energy gap in Ir-based ionic complexes to generate near-infrared emissions: Application in solid-state light-emitting electrochemical cells Article
Jun 2023
Yan-Ding Lin Pei-Wan Hsiao Wun-Yu Chen
Hai-Ching Su
View
Dendri‐LEC Family: Establishing the Bright Future for Dendrimer Emitters in Traditional and Graphene‐Based Light‐Emitting Electrochemical Cells Article Full-text available
May 2023 ADV FUNCT MATER
Luca M. Cavinato Keiko Yamaoka Sophia Lipinski Rubén D Costa
A rational implementation and optimization of thermally activated delayed fluorescent (TADF) dendrimer emitters in light‐emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) sets in the Dendri‐LEC family. They feature outstanding stabilities (90/1050 h for green/yellow devices) that are comparable to the best green/yellow Ir(III)‐complexes (450/500 h) and conjugated polymers (33/5500 h), while offering benefits of low‐cost synthesis and easy upscaling. In particular, a fundamental molecular design that capitalizes on exchanging peripheral substituents (tert‐butyl vs methoxy) to tune photophysical, electrochemical, morphological, and ion conductivity features in thin films is rationalized by temperature‐dependent steady‐state and time‐resolved emission spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, atomic force microscopy, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy techniques. Herein, a TADF mechanism associated to a reduced photoluminescence quantum yield, but an enhanced electrochemical stability and ion conductivity enables to clarify the reduced device efficiency and brightness (4.0 lm W⁻¹@110 cd m⁻² vs 3.2 lm W⁻¹@55 cd m⁻²) and increased stability (90 vs 1050 h) upon using methoxy groups. What is more, this substitution enables an excellent compatibility with biogenic electrolytes keeping device performances (1.9 lm W⁻¹@35 cd m⁻² and 1300 h), while graphene‐devices achieve on par figures to traditional indium–tin oxide‐devices. Overall, this work establishes the bright future of dendrimer emitters toward highly stable and truly sustainable lighting sources.
View Show abstract
Fluorene- and arylamine-based photo-crosslinkable hole transporting polymer for solution-processed perovskite and organic light-emitting diodes Article
Mar 2023 MACROMOL RES
Jeong Yong Park Ji Won Jang Xinyu Shen
Do-Hoon Hwang
Solution-processable techniques, including spin-coating, roll-to-roll printing, and ink-jet printing, are suitable for large-scale manufacturing and flexible displays owing to their cost-effective and simple fabrication. These techniques are widely used in the fabrication of perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) and organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs). However, the energy level modulation between different functional layers, thickness control of the deposited layer, and interlayer mixing between the deposited and subsequent layers may affect the LED performance due to the poor solvent resistance of the deposited layer. Herein, we designed a novel poly[4,4'-(2-(4-((4-hexylphenyl)(phenyl)amino)phenyl)-9H-fluorene-9,9-diyl)bis(N,N-bis(4-butylphenyl)aniline)] (PFTPA-biTPA) as a hole transport layer (HTL) to modulate the hole injection. Subsequently, we introduced the bis(4-azido-2,3,5,6-tetrafluorobenzoate) (FPA) as a photo-crosslinker into the PFTPA-biTPA to prepare the photo-crosslinked HTL for both PeLED and OLED that inhibit attack from the processing solution and suppress the interlayer mixing between the deposited and subsequent layers. Both PeLEDs and OLEDs with photo-crosslinked PFTPA-biTPA exhibited maximum luminance of 175 and 4260 cd/m2 and maximum external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 4.16 and 10.86%, respectively, thus indicating superior properties to those without and with PFTPA-biTPA as the HTLs. Moreover, the photo-crosslinked PFTPA-biTPA showed significantly improved device stability compared to the reference devices having non-photo-crosslinked HTLs in PeLEDs.Graphical abstractSchematic illustration of crosslinked hole transport polymer with enhanced hole transport and solvent resistance
View Show abstract
Biphenyl Au(III) Complexes with Phosphine Ancillary Ligands: Synthesis, Optical Properties, and Electroluminescence in Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cells Article
Mar 2023 INORG CHEM
Jeannine Yang Valerio Giuso Min-Chih Hou Benoît Bertrand
A series of ten cationic complexes of the general formula [(C^C)Au(P^P)]X, where C^C = 4,4'-di-tert-butyl-1,1'-biphenyl, P^P is a diphosphine ligand, and X is a noncoordinating counteranion, have been synthesized and fully characterized by means of chemical and X-ray structural methods. All the complexes display a remarkable switch-on of the emission properties when going from a fluid solution to a solid state. In the latter, long-lived emission with lifetime τ = 1.8-83.0 μs and maximum in the green-yellow region is achieved with moderate to high photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY). This emission is ascribed to an excited state with a mainly triplet ligand-centered (3LC) nature. This effect strongly indicates that rigidification of the environment helps to suppress nonradiative decay, which is mainly attributed to the large molecular distortion in the excited state, as supported by density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT (TD-DFT) computation. In addition, quenching intermolecular interactions of the emitter are avoided thanks to the steric hindrance of the substituents. Emissive properties are therefore restored efficiently. The influence of both diphosphine and anion has been investigated and rationalized as well. Using two complexes as examples and owing to their enhanced optical properties in the solid state, the first proof-of-concept of the use of gold(III) complexes as electroactive materials for the fabrication of light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC) devices is herein demonstrated. The LECs achieve peak external quantum efficiency, current efficiency, and power efficiency up to ca. 1%, 2.6 cd A-1, and 1.1 lm W-1 for complex 1PF6 and 0.9%, 2.5 cd A-1, and 0.7 lm W-1 for complex 3, showing the potential use of these novel emitters as electroactive compounds in LEC devices.
View Show abstract
Dinuclearization Strategy of Cationic Iridium(III) Complexes for Efficient and Stable Flexible Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cells Article
Jan 2023
Weilin Song Huiting Mao Kui-Zhan Shao
Zhong-Min Su
Light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) as simple and low-cost electroluminescent devices belong to the most promising candidate for next-generation flexible and large-area solid-state lighting applications. However, the development of efficient emissive...
View Show abstract
Deep-red and near-infrared light-emitting electrochemical cells employing perovskite color conversion layers with EQE >10% Article
Nov 2022
Yi-Hua Su Yan-Cheng Ji Yu-Ting Huang
Hai-Ching Su
Solid-state light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) exhibit high potential applications in consumer electronics due to their promising advantages of solution-processable simple device architecture, low-voltage operation and compatibility with inert metal electrodes....
View Show abstract
Long-Wavelength Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cells: Materials and Device Engineering Article
Nov 2022 CHEM-EUR J
Yan-Ding Lin Chin-Wei Lu Hai-Ching Su
Long-wavelength light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) are potential deep-red and near infrared light sources with solution-processable simple device architecture, low-voltage operation, and compatibility with inert metal electrodes. Many scientific efforts have been made to material design and device engineering of the long-wavelength LECs over the past two decades. The materials designed the for long-wavelength LECs cover ionic transition metal complexes, small molecules, conjugated polymers, and perovskites. On the other hand, device engineering techniques, including spectral modification via adjusting microcavity effect, light outcoupling enhancement, energy down-conversion from color conversion layers, and adjusting intermolecular interactions, are also helpful in improving the device performance of long-wavelength LECs. In this review, recent advances in the long-wavelength LECs are reviewed from the viewpoints of materials and device engineering. Finally, discussions on conclusion and outlook indicate possible directions for future developments of the long-wavelength LECs. This review would like to pave the way for the researchers to design materials and device engineering techniques for the long-wavelength LECs in the applications of displays, bio-imaging, telecommunication, and night-vision displays.
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Deep-red light-emitting electrochemical cells based on phosphor-sensitized thermally activated delayed fluorescence Article
Jul 2022
Yin Chen Yun-Xin Wang Chin-Wei Lu
Hai-Ching Su
Solid-state light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) show the advantages of simple fabrication process, low-voltage operation, and compatibility with inert electrodes. However, even phosphorescent deep-red LECs still suffer from limited device efficiencies....
View Show abstract
Solid‐State Iontronic Devices: Mechanisms and Applications
Article
May 2022
Tianming Li Kai Xiao
Iontronics is a newly emerging interdisciplinary concept that studies the science and technology of electronic‐ionic coupled properties/functions, endowing the devices with new functions and properties by coupling the advantages of electrons and ions. Solid‐state iontronics, one of the most important branches of iontronics, refers to the iontronic devices that work in solid‐state environments, which attracts particular attention due to its overwhelming advantages, for example, the enhanced thermal/mechanical/electrochemical stability. Herein, the interesting ion‐involved working principles of various solid‐state iontronic devices, including energy storage, electromechanics, electrochromism, electroluminescence, and conductance switching, are reviewed. Meanwhile, the perspectives on developing multifunctional integrated iontronic devices and molecular iontronic devices are also addressed, aiming to meet the growing demands for next‐generation intellectual products. We believe that this review can encourage further exploration in this exciting research field. Solid‐state iontronics that integrates electronics and ionics in all‐solid‐state devices has unparalleled advantages over its liquid‐based counterpart. In this review, the representative domains of solid‐state iontronics, including energy storage, electromechanics, electrochromism, electroluminescence, and conductance switching, are summarized along with our perspective on developing multifunctional integrated iontronic devices and molecular iontronic devices, aiming at meeting the growing demands for next‐generation intellectual products.
View Show abstract
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Recent Progress in White Light‐Emitting Electrochemical Cells Article Full-text available Aug 2020 ADV FUNCT MATER Hai-Ching Su Yi-Ru Chen Ken-Tsung Wong Solid‐state white light‐emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) exhibit the following advantages: simple device structures, low operation voltage, and compatibility with inert metal electrodes. LECs have been studied extensively since the first demonstration of white LECs in 1997, due to their potential application in solid‐state lighting. This review provides an overview of recent developments in white LECs, specifically three major aspects thereof, namely, host–guest white LECs, nondoped white LECs, and device engineering of white LECs. Host–guest strategy is widely used in white LECs. Host materials are classified into ionic transition metal complexes, conjugated polymers, and small molecules. Nondoped white LECs are based on intra‐ or intermolecular interactions of emissive and multichromophore materials. New device engineering techniques, such as modifying carrier balance, color downconversion, optical filtering based on microcavity effect and localized surface plasmon resonance, light extraction enhancement, adjusting correlated color temperature of the output electroluminescence spectrum, tandem and/or hybrid devices combining LECs with organic light‐emitting diodes, and quantum‐dot light‐emitting diodes improve the device performance of white LECs by ways other than material‐oriented approaches. Considering the results of the reviewed studies, white LECs have a bright outlook. View Show abstract A demonstration of solid-state white light-emitting electrochemical cells using the integrated on-chip plasmonic notch filters Article Jan 2016 Ya-Ju Lee Chia-Ching Lin Hsiao-Chin Lee Ken-Tsung Wong In this work, we demonstrated solid-state white light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) by employing the integrated plasmonic notch filter to tailor the electroluminescence (EL) spectrum of non-doped blue-green emissive material. The plasmonic notch filter is composed of randomly distributed silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) embedded in the anode contact of indium tin oxide (ITO). This plasmonic notch filter strongly absorbs green light due to local surface plasmon (LSP) resonances of the Ag-NPs embedded in ITO. Hence, the emission green light of the solid-state LEC is strongly suppressed, leaving the blue and red lights output to generate white EL emission. Moreover, the duration of white EL can maintain for longer time under operation, which overcomes the issue about short lifetime of white EL generated by using microcavity effect. In addition, the Ag-NPs can be readily fabricated by thermal annealing of Ag film which is compatible with current fabrication technologies typically used in light-emitting diode (LED) industry. Therefore, the solid-state white LECs using integrated on-chip plasmonic notch filter show the great potential for the application of solid-state lighting. View Show abstract Highly efficient blue and white light-emitting electrochemical cells employing substrates containing embedded diffusive layers Article Oct 2019 ORG ELECTRON Yan-Zhi Chen Dian Luo Chi-Haw Hsiang Hai-Ching Su Enhancing device efficiencies of the blue and white light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) is realized by employing substrates with embedded diffusive layers containing scattering TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs). The diffusive layers can eliminate the influence of microcavity effect on the output electroluminescence (EL) spectrum and recover the intrinsic EL spectrum of the emissive layer. The emission zone positions of the blue and white LECs are estimated by fitting the measured EL spectra with the simulated EL spectra based on precisely tuned emission zone positions. Incorporating red-emitting guest dopant in the white LEC results in shifted emission zone toward the cathode due to enhanced electron trapping. The external quantum efficiency (EQE) of the blue and white LECs employing proper diffusive substrates can be enhanced by 260 and 210%, respectively. The maximal EQE (power efficiency) of the blue and white LECs reach 35.4% (83.4 lm W⁻¹) and 22.0% (41.6 lm W⁻¹), respectively. These promising device efficiencies confirm the potential applications for the proposed diffusive substrates in enhancing light extraction from LECs. In addition, adjusting the effective refractive index of the diffusive layer has distinct effect on different EL emission color. With well confined optical field of blue EL in indium tin oxide layer, lower effective refractive index of the diffusive layer results in higher refractive index difference between the scattering TiO2 NPs and the host medium, rendering higher scattering efficiency and more light extraction. In contrast, higher effective refractive index of the diffusive layer leads to unguided red EL extending into the diffusive layer and more light can be outcoupled. These results show that the effective refractive index of the diffusive layer should be judiciously chosen according to the emission color of EL to be extracted. View Show abstract Cationic Ir III Emitters with Near-Infrared Emission Beyond 800 nm and Their Use in Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cells Article Feb 2019 CHEM-EUR J Guan-Yu Chen Bo-Ren Chang Ting-An Shih Hai-Ching Su Near‐infrared (NIR) solid‐state light‐emitting devices have recently received much attention as NIR light sources, which can penetrate deep into human tissue and are suitable for bioimaging and labeling. On the other hand, solid‐state NIR light‐emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) show several promising advantages over NIR organic light‐emitting devices (OLEDs). However, in the reported ionic transition metal complex (iTMC)‐based NIR LECs, there is currently no iridium‐based LEC that can display NIR electroluminescence (EL) peaks near or above 800 nm. In this study, we demonstrate a simple method for adjusting the energy gap between the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) with iridium‐based iTMCs to generate NIR emission. We show a series of novel ionic‐iridium complexes with very small energy gaps, namely NIR1–NIR6, in which 2,3‐diphenylbenzo[g]quinoxaline moieties mainly take charge of the HOMO energy levels, and 2,2'‐biquinoline, 2‐(quinolin‐2‐yl)quinazoline, and 2,2'‐bibenzo[d]thiazole moieties mainly control the LUMO energy levels. All complexes exhibited NIR phosphorescence, with emission maxima up to 850 nm, and are applied to the LEC components, showing a maximum external quantum efficiency (EQE) of 0.05% in EL devices. By using the host (RED)‐guest emissive system, the highest EQE of the LEC can be further enhanced to above 0.1%. View Show abstract Optimized Electrolyte Loading and Active Film Thickness for Sandwich Polymer Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cells Article Dec 2018 Matthias Diethelm Quirin Grossmann Andreas Schiller Roland Hany Effects of ion concentration and active layer thickness play a critical role on the performance of light‐emitting electrochemical cells. Expanding on a pioneering materials system comprising the super yellow (SY) polymer and the electrolyte trimethylolpropane ethoxylate (TMPE)/Li⁺CF3SO3⁻, it is reported that a slightly lowered salt concentration and layer thickness result in a substantial efficiency increase, and that this increase is confined to a narrow concentration and thickness range. For a film thickness of 70 nm, a blend ratio SY:TMPE:Li⁺CF3SO3⁻ = 1:0.075:0.0225, and a current of 7.7 mA cm⁻² the current efficacy is 11.6 cd A⁻¹, on a par with SY light‐emitting diodes. The optimized salt content can be explained by increased exciton quenching at higher concentrations and hindered carrier injection and conduction at lower concentrations, while the optical dependence on the layer thickness is due to weak microcavity effects. A comprehensive optical modeling study is presented, which includes the doping‐induced changes of the refractive indices and self‐absorption losses due the emission–absorption overlap of intrinsic and doped SY. The analysis indicates either a thickness‐independent emitter position (EP) close to the anode or a thickness‐dependent EP, shifted to the cathode for increased thicknesses. View Show abstract Design and Realization of White Quantum Dot Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cell Hybrid Devices Article Nov 2018 Julia Frohleiks Sandra Gellner Svenja Wepfer Ekaterina Nannen The simple device architecture as well as the solution-based processing makes light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) a promising device concept for large-area flexible lighting solutions. The lack of deep blue emitters, which are at the same time efficient, bright and long-term stable, complementary to the wide variety of yellow-orange emitting LECs hampers the creation of white LECs. We present a hybrid device concept for the realization of white light emission by combining blue colloidal quantum dots (QDs) and an Ir-based ionic transition metal complex (iTMC) LEC in a new type of white QD-LEC hybrid device (QLEC). By careful arrangement of the active layers, we yield light emission from both the blue QDs and the yellow iTMC emitter already at voltages below 3 V. The QLEC devices show homogeneous white light emission with high color rendering index (CRI up to 80), luminance levels above 850 cd m⁻² and a maximum external quantum efficiency greater than 0.2 %. View Show abstract Achieving Highly Saturated Single-Color and High Color-Rendering-Index White Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cells by CsPbX3 Perovskite Color Conversion Layers Article Oct 2018 Cheng-Ming Wang Yong-Ming Su Ting-An Shih Hai-Ching Su Solid-state light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) have been thought to apply for display and lighting due to their advantages of simple device architecture, low-voltage operation and compatibility with inert cathode metals. Among the emissive materials for LECs, ionic transition metal complexes (iTMCs) have relatively higher emission efficiency but they show relatively broader emission spectra, resulting in lower color saturation for display application. Here, we demonstrated that by integrating the perovskites-based color conversion layers (CCLs) with the blue iTMC-LECs, the highly saturated green, yellow, red and deep-red and the high color-rendering-index (CRI) white LECs can be obtained. The Commission Internationale de l’E´clairage (CIE) 1931 coordinates of the highly saturated single-color LECs are almost on the boundary of National Television System Committee (NTSC) color gamut, showing the potential application for display. By mixing the perovskites of different colors at an appropriate ratio in the CCLs, the white LECs show a CRI >90, which is among the highest reported values, and correlated color temperature of 2649 K. Hence the proposed technique can also be one of the good candidates for lighting applications. In addition, both the highly saturated single-color and the white LECs still have efficient emission for display and lighting applications. View Show abstract Challenging Conventional Wisdom: Finding High-Performance Electrodes for Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cells Article Sep 2018 Jin Xu Andreas Sandström Mattias Lindh Ludvig Edman View A light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC) containing a hole-blocking layer of TmPyPB Article Aug 2018 Miriam di Marcantonio Frank Vollkommer Gerd Bacher Ekaterina Nannen Light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) are attractive candidates for low-cost light-emitting devices fabricated using solution-based processes on flexible substrates. Despite promising luminance levels, their efficiency needs further improvement to reach the requirements of the lighting market. Thereby one of the reasons for the efficiency loss is the imbalance between the electrons and holes typical within such devices. Here we present a hybrid solution-based device architecture comprising a thin film of 1,3,5-tri(m-pyridin-3-ylphenyl)benzene (TmPyPB) on top of the emissive layer of an LEC, targeting to improve the charge carrier balance within the device. The hybrid LEC in constant voltage mode shows an efficiency improvement of almost a factor of 2 compared to the reference device, reaching maximum luminous and current efficacy values of 4.2 lm W⁻¹ and 5.4 cd A⁻¹, respectively. The measurements conducted using the hybrid and reference devices suggested a pronounced hole-blocking effect of the additional organic supporting layer as the origin of improvement. View Show abstract Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cells based on Inorganic Metal Halide Perovskite Nanocrystals Article Jul 2018 Meltem F. Aygüler Bianka M. D. Puscher Yu Tong Pablo Docampo All-inorganic perovskite nanocrystals (NCs), such as CsPbX3 (X = Cl, Br, I) NCs, have become particularly interesting for lighting applications due to their efficient synthesis, higher stability over hybrid organic-inorganic perovskites (HOIP) and narrow emission bands associated with high photoluminescence quantum yields (PLQYs). However, a critical aspect is how to prepare pin-hole free films using solvent-based deposition techniques and additives to avoid electrochemically-induced degradation of the perovskites under device operation conditions. Here, we have synthesized all-inorganic CsPbX3 NCs using a hot injection synthesis route and characterized their structural, morphological and photophysical properties in detail. Furthermore, we have integrated these NCs into light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs), achieving a brightness of 8 cd m⁻² for the NCs comprising a mixture of bromide and iodide at low driving currents. Additionally, we have demonstrated that the use of the salt KCF3SO3 in the active layer not only decreases the injection voltage but also prevents halide segregation in perovskite NCs due to a further stabilization of the lattice with potassium ions. Overall, we believe that all-inorganic perovskite NCs are promising emitters for lighting devices, however, further efforts towards elucidating the interplay of the components of the active layer and driving schemes are necessary. View Show abstract Show more
Recommendations Discover more
Article Full-text available
Recent Progress in White Light‐Emitting Electrochemical Cells
August 2020
· Advanced Functional Materials
Hai-Ching Su Yi-Ru Chen Ken-Tsung Wong
Solid‐state white light‐emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) exhibit the following advantages: simple device structures, low operation voltage, and compatibility with inert metal electrodes. LECs have been studied extensively since the first demonstration of white LECs in 1997, due to their potential application in solid‐state lighting. This review provides an overview of recent developments in ... [Show full abstract]
white LECs, specifically three major aspects thereof, namely, host–guest white LECs, nondoped white LECs, and device engineering of white LECs. Host–guest strategy is widely used in white LECs. Host materials are classified into ionic transition metal complexes, conjugated polymers, and small molecules. Nondoped white LECs are based on intra‐ or intermolecular interactions of emissive and multichromophore materials. New device engineering techniques, such as modifying carrier balance, color downconversion, optical filtering based on microcavity effect and localized surface plasmon resonance, light extraction enhancement, adjusting correlated color temperature of the output electroluminescence spectrum, tandem and/or hybrid devices combining LECs with organic light‐emitting diodes, and quantum‐dot light‐emitting diodes improve the device performance of white LECs by ways other than material‐oriented approaches. Considering the results of the reviewed studies, white LECs have a bright outlook.
View full-text
Article
Hybrid White Light‐Emitting Electrochemical Cells Based on a Blue Cationic Iridium(III) Complex and...
July 2020
· Chemistry - A European Journal
Dian Luo Hai-Ching Su Ya-Han Tang [...] Yi-Chan Chiu
Solid‐state white light‐emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) show promising advantages of simple solution fabrication processes, low operation voltage and compatibility with air‐stable cathode metals, which are required for lighting applications. To date, white LECs based on ionic transition metal complexes (iTMCs) have been shown higher device efficiencies than white LECs employing other types
... [Show full abstract]
of materials. However, relatively lower emission efficiencies of red iTMCs limit further improvement in device performance. Alternatively, efficient red CdZnSeS/ZnS core‐shell quantum dots are integrated with a blue iTMC to form a hybrid white LEC in this work. With achieving good carrier balance under a proper device architecture, peak external quantum efficiency and power efficiency reach 11.2% and 15.1 lm W ‐1 , respectively. Such device efficiency is indeed higher than those of the reported white LECs employing host‐guest iTMCs. Time and voltage dependent electroluminescent (EL) characteristics of the hybrid white LECs are studied with the evidence of the temporal evolution of emission zone position extracted by fitting the simulated and measured EL spectra. The working principles of the hybrid white LECs are clarified and the high device efficiency renders the proposed new white‐emitting devices suitable for solid‐state lighting technology.
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Article
Optical Techniques for Light-Emitting Electrochemical Cells
December 2017
· ChemPlusChem
Hai-Ching Su
The concept of solid-state light-emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) proposed in 1995 opened a new field in display and lighting technologies. The key advantage of this technology is based on a single emissive layer containing an emissive material and an ionic salt. Mobile ions in the emissive layer induce electrochemical doping at electrodes and thus the operation voltage can be reduced even
... [Show full abstract]
by using air-stable electrodes. Since the first demonstration of LECs, many material-oriented efforts have been made in improving device performance of LECs. However, some difficulties arising from material properties still limit further optimizing device characteristics of LECs. Recently, optical techniques have been shown to achieve better device properties without employing new materials. Light extraction techniques recycle the light trapped in layered device structure and thus enhance device light output and efficiency of LECs. Recombination zone probing technique offers direct evidence of carrier balance in LECs and is helpful in optimizing device performance. Spectral filtering based on microcavity effect and localized surface plasmon resonance from metal nanoparticles show advantages of easy fabrication and compatibility with device processing of LECs. This minireview provides a brief overview of the three categories in recent advances of optical techniques of LECs.
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Article Full-text available
Advances and Challenges in White Light‐Emitting Electrochemical Cells
August 2020
· Advanced Functional Materials
Rubén D Costa Elisa Fresta
Since the birth of light‐emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) in 1995, white LECs (WLECs) still represent a milestone. To date, over 50 contributions have been reported, presenting record WLECs with brightness of up to 10 000 cd m−2, efficiencies of >10 cd A−1, and excellent color rendering index >90 in different contributions. This is achieved following three main strategies focused on
... [Show full abstract]
modifying: i) the design of the emitters, that is, emissive aggregates, multiemissive mechanism, multifluorophoric emitters; ii) the active layer composition, that is, host–guest, multilayers, exciplex‐ and electroplex‐like emitting species systems; and iii) the device architecture, that is, tandem, photoactive filters, and microcavity/interfacial dipole effects. Herein, all of them are comprehensively discussed with respect to the above strategies in the frame of the type of emitters employed. Overall, this work highlights both the advances and challenges of the WLEC field. White light‐emitting electrochemical cells still represent one of the most important milestones in this field. Three main strategies have been pursued modifying i) the emitter design, ii) the active layer composition, and iii) the device architecture. This work comprehensively discusses them within the frame of the type of emitters, highlighting the advances and challenges.
View full-text
Article
Perovskite Light‐Emitting Electrochemical Cells Employing Electron Injection/Transport Layers of Ion...
November 2021
· Chemistry - A European Journal
Yan-Cheng Ji Hai-Ching Su Wen‐Lu Kang [...] Yi-Ting Tsai
Recently, perovskites have attracted intense attention due to their high potential in optoelectronic applications. Employing perovskites as the emissive materials of light‐emitting electrochemical cells (LECs) shows the advantages of simple fabrication process, low‐voltage operation, compatibility with inert electrodes, along with saturated electroluminescence (EL) emission. Different from ... [Show full abstract]
previously reported perovskite LECs, in which salts are incorporated in the emissive layer, we separate the ion‐transport layer from the emissive layer in this work. The layer of ionic transition metal complex (iTMC) not only provides mobile ions but also serves as an electron injection/transport layer. Orthogonal solvents are used in spin coating to prevent intermixing of stacked perovskite and iTMC layers. The blue iTMC with high ionization potential is effective in blocking holes from the emissive layer and thus ensures EL color saturation. In addition, the carrier balance of the perovskite/iTMC LECs can be optimized by adjusting the iTMC layer thickness. The optimized external quantum efficiency (EQE) of the CsPbBr3/iTMC LEC reach 6.8%, which is among the highest reported values for perovskite LECs so far. Compared with mixing all components in a single emissive layer, this work successfully demonstrates that separating the layer of ion transport, electron injection and transport from the perovskite emissive layer is more effective in adjusting device carrier balance. As such, solution‐processable perovskite/iTMC LECs open up a new way to realize efficient perovskite LECs.
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Last Updated: 12 Jun 2023
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Report of the Bank of the United States, to the Committee of Ways and Means of the House of Representatives, January 28, 1833
Report of the Commissioners of the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company
Report of the Commissioners of the Freedmans's Savings and Trust Company
Report of the Committee Appointed Pursuant to House Resolutions 429 and 504 to Investigate the Concentration of Control of Money and Credit
Report of the Committee of Conference of the Two Houses of Congress on the Bill H.R. 7837, Sixty-Third Congress, Second Session
Report of the Committee of Investigation Appointed at the Meeting of the Stockholders, Held January 4, 1841 : Made to an Adjourned Meeting, Held April 5, 1841 ; Also a Report of the Board of Directors
Report of the Committee of the Senate Upon the Relations Between Labor and Capital
Report of the Committee of Ways and Means of the Legislature of Pennsylvania, on the Currency and Finances of the Commonwealth : Mr. Keating, Chairman : Read in the House of Representatives, March 1, 1834
Report of the Committee on Federal Credit Programs to the President of the United States
Report of the Committee on Finance, Senate of the United States : Read, and Ordered to be Printed. Mr. Tyler from the Committee on Finance, Who Were Instructed by Resolutions of the Senate of the 4th of February, 5th of May, and 30th of June Last, to Investigate the Affairs and Conduct of the Bank of the United States, Made the Following Report
Report of the Committee on Financial Institutions to the President of the United States
Report of the Comptroller of the Currency upon the Condition of the Savings Banks of the District of Columbia
Report of the Industrial Council of the British Board of Trade on Its Inquiry Into Industrial Agreements : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 133
Report of the Joint Committee of Both Houses of the General Assembly of Ohio, on the Communication of the Auditor of State upon the Subject of the Proceedings of the Bank of the United States, against the Officers of State, in the United States' Circuit Court : Communicated by the Governor of Ohio, for the Consideration of the New-Hampshire Legislature
Report of the Joint Treasury-SEC-Federal Reserve Board Study of the Government-Related Securities Market
Report of the National Advisory Council on International Monetary and Financial Problems : Message from the President of the United States Transmitting Report of the National Advisory Council on International Monetary and Financial Problems for the Period of the Last 6 Months
Report of the National Conference on Equal Pay, March 31 and April 1, 1952 : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 243
Report of the National Monetary Commission
Report of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation
Report of the Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, on the Subject of a National Bank : Read in the House of Representatives Dec. 13th, 1790
Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the War Finance Corporation (In Liquidation)
Report of the Secretary of the Treasury ... Transmitting Statements in Relation to the Condition of the Bank of the United States and its Offices; Also Statements in Relation to the Situation of the Different Chartered Banks in the Different States and the District of Columbia, &c
Report of the Select Committee to Investigate the Freedman's Savings and Trust Company : United States Senate, April 2, 1880
Report of the "Union Committee" Appointed by the Meeting of the Signers of the Memorial to Congress, Held on the 11th day of February, 1834, at the Merchants' Exchange, in the City of New-York
Report on 1948 Women's Bureau Conference: The American Woman, Her Changing Role: Worker, Homemaker, Citizen : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 224
Report on Audit of Federal Home Loan Banks : Letter from the Comptroller General of the United States Transmitting a Report
Report on Progress of the WPA Program
Report on the Condition of the Bank of the United States, by the Committee of Inspection and Investigation, Appointed at a Triennial Meeting of the Stockholders, Held According to the Thirteenth Article of the Eleventh Section of the Charter, at Philadelphia, on the Second of September, 1822, and Continued by Several Adjournments to the First of October, 1822; Adopted by the Stockholders
Report on the Removal of the Deposites : Made by Mr. Webster, from the Committee on Finance of the Senate.
Report on the Status of the Community Reinvestment Act : Views and Recommendations
Report on the Work of the National Defense Mediation Board, March 19, 1941-January 12, 1942 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 714
Reports of National Woman's Liberty Loan Committee
Reports of the Committee of Inquiry Appointed March 14, 1832, by the House of Representatives at Washington, Concerning the Bank of the United States
Reports Pursuant to Section 129 of the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008
Report : To Accompany S. 3730
Report to Stockholders of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas
Report to the Congress : Liquidation of Reconstruction Finance Corporation
Report to the Congress of the Commission on the Role of Gold in the Domestic and International Monetary Systems
Report to the Congress of the Commission on the Role of Gold in the Domestic and International Monetary Systems : Contents of the Commission's Permanent Record
Report to the National Monetary Commission on the Fiscal Systems of the United States, England, France, and Germany
Report to the President by The President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity
Report to the Reserve Bank Organization Committee
Research at the Federal Reserve Banks : (A general report based on the observations made during August 1943 and submitted to the Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System)
Research Bulletin of the Works Progress Administration
Research Monographs of the Works Progress Administration
Research Papers (Federal Reserve Bank of New York)
The Research Program of the National Research Project
Research Review (Federal Reserve Bank of Boston)
Research Update
Reserve Position : Methods of Adjustment
Residential Heating Fuels, Retail Prices, 1941-48 : Data for 9 Locally Important Fuels in 55 Cities : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 950
Resolution Trust Corporation Completion Act
Resolution Trust Corporation Funding Act of 1991
Resolution Trust Corporation Refinancing, Restructuring, and Improvement Act of 1991
Restoring and Maintaining the Average Purchasing Power of the Dollar : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, United States Senate, Seventy-Second Congress, First Session, on H.R. 11499, S. 4429, May 12, 13, and 18, 1932
Rest Periods, Washup, Work Clothing, and Military Leave Provisions in Major Union Contracts : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1279
Results from the Survey of Working Women
Retail Payments Risk Forum White Papers
Retail Payments Risk Forum Working Papers
Retail Prices
Retail Prices and Cost of Living Series
Retail Prices of Food
Retail Trade - Department Stores : Summary of 1964 Sales by Departments
Retired Couple's Budget for a Moderate Living Standard, Autumn 1966 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1570-4
Retirement of $30 Billion of Government Bonds Held by the Federal Reserve Banks : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Eighty-Ninth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 7601, July 6 and 7, 1965
Reuss Proposal to Let Dollar Float Has Great Merit
Revenue Act of 1861
Revenue Act of 1862
Review (Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas)
Review (Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis)
Review of Economics and Statistics
Review of "Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression"
Review of Investor Protection and Market Oversight with the Five Commissioners of the Securities and Exchange Commission : Hearing Before the Committee on Financial Services, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, June 26, 2007
Review of Monetary Policy in 1977 : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Domestic Monetary Policy of the Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs, House of Representatives, Ninety-Fifth Congress, Second Session, January 30, 1978
Review of the Veto : Containing an Examination of the Principles of the President's Message, and His Objections to the Bill to Modify and Continue the Act Rechartering the Bank of the United States
Review of Treasury Department's Conduct of International Financial Policy : Hearing Before the Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred First Congress, Second Session, August 14, 1990
Revised Equivalence Scale for Estimating Equivalent Incomes or Budget Costs by Family Type : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1570-2
Revised Indexes of Factory Employment and Pay Rolls, 1919 to 1933 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 610
Revised Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices, 1923 to July, 1927 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 453
Revised Workweek: Results of a Pilot Study of 16 Firms : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1846
Reviving Lending to Small Businesses and Families and the Impact of the TALF : Congressional Oversight Panel May Oversight Report
Riegle Community Development and Regulatory Improvement Act of 1994
Riegle-Neal Interstate Banking and Branching Efficiency Act of 1994
The Rise in Mortgage Defaults
Risk Perspectives : Highlights of Risk Monitoring in the Seventh District
Risk, Uncertainty and Profit
Robert Hetzel Oral History Collection
Robert L. Owen Collection, 1913-1946
The Role of Credit Rating Agencies in the Structured Finance Market : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Capital Markets, Insurance, and Government Sponsored Enterprises of the Committee on Financial Services, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, September 27, 2007
Role of Public Transportation in the Nation's Energy Problems : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Housing and Urban Affairs of the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, Ninety-Sixth Congress, First Session, July 18, 1979
The Role of the Secondary Market in Subprime Mortgage Lending : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Financial Institutions and Consumer Credit of the Committee on Financial Services, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, May 8, 2007
The Role of the Securitization Process in the Expansion of Subprime Credit
The Role of Women in the Military : Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Priorities and Economy in Government of the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, Ninety-Fifth Congress, First Session, July 22 and September 1, 1977
The Romance and Tragedy of Banking : Problems and Incidents of Governmental Supervision of National Banks
Roundup
Rural Families on Relief, Research Monograph XVII
Rural Migration in the United States, Research Monograph XIX
Rural Youth On Relief, Research Monograph XI
Rural Youth : Their Situation and Prospects, Research Monograph XV
Russian Imperial Conspiracy, 1892-1914, Box 2, Item 2
S
S. 1631, A Bill to Provide for the Safer and More Effective Use of the Assets of Federal Reserve Banks and of National Banking Associations, to Regulate Interbank Control, to Prevent the Undue Diversion of Funds Into Speculative Operations, and for Other Purposes : 73d Congress, 1st Session
S. 3025, An Act to Amend Section 12B of the Federal Reserve Act so as to Extend for One Year the Temporary Plan for Deposit Insurance, and for Other Purposes : 73d Congress, 2d Session
S.31: A Bill to Amend the Federal Reserve Act, to Restore and Maintain a Stable Price Level, and for Other Purposes : 76th Congress, 1st Session, Box 1, Folder 6, Item 4
S. 3487, A Bill Relating to Direct Loans for Industrial Purposes by Federal Reserve Banks, and for Other Purposes : 73d Congress, 2d Session, Calendar No. 901
S. 3487, An Act Relating to Direct Loans for Industrial Purposes by Federal Reserve Banks, and for Other Purposes : 73d Congress, 2d Session
S. 828, A Bill to Amend the Federal Reserve Act, and for Other Purposes : 80th Congress, 1st Session
Safety Code for Forging and Hot Metal Stamping : Tentative American Standard, Approved April 8, 1927, American Engineering Standards Committee : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 451
Safety Code for Laundry Machinery and Operations : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 375
Safety Code for Mechanical Power-Transmission Apparatus : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 364
Safety Code for Mechanical Power-Transmission Apparatus : First Revision. Rules for Guarding Prime Movers, Intermediate Equipment, and Driven Machines : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 463
Safety Code for Paper and Pulp Mills : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 410
Safety Code for Power Presses and Foot and Hand Presses : American Standard, Approved November 11, 1926, American Engineering Standards Committee : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 430
Safety Code for Rubber Mills and Calenders : Recommended American Practice, Approved March, 1927, American Engineering Standards Committee : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 447
Safety Code for the Construction, Care and Use of Ladders : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 351
Safety Code for the Protection of Industrial Workers in Foundries : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 336
Safety Code for the Use, Care, and Protection of Abrasive Wheels : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 338
Safety Code for the Use, Care, and Protection of Abrasive Wheels : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 436
Safety Code for the Use, Care, and Protection of Abrasive Wheels : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 527
Safety Code for Woodworking Plants, as Revised, 1930 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 519
Safety Code for Woodworking Plants : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 378
Safety Code Series
Safety Codes for the Prevention of Dust Explosions: American Standard, Approved by the American Standards Association : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 617
Safety Codes for the Prevention of Dust Explosions : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 433
Safety Codes for the Prevention of Dust Explosions : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 562
Safety Movement in the Iron and Steel Industry, 1907 to 1917 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 234
Salaries and Hours of Labor in Municipal Fire Departments, July 1, 1938 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 684
Salaries and Hours of Labor in Municipal Police Departments, July 1, 1938 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 685
Salaries for Selected Occupations in Services for the Blind
Salaries of Members of Congress : Recent Actions and Historical Tables
Salaries of Office Workers in Large Cities, 1949 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 960
Salaries of Office Workers in Selected Large Cities : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 943
Salaries of White-Collar Workers in Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Alaska, May-June 1963 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1392
The Salary Schedule and Classification of Schools
Salary Structure Characteristics in Large Firms, 1963 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1417
Salary Trends: City Public School Teachers
Salary Trends: Federal Classified Employees, 1939-64 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1444
Salary Trends: Firemen and Policemen, 1924-64 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1445
Sale of Foreign Bonds or Securities in the United States : Hearings Before the Committee on Finance, United States Senate, Seventy-Second Congress, First Session, Pursuant to S. Res. 19 (1931-1932)
Sample Design and Estimation of Volumes and Trends in the Use of Paper Checks and Electronic Payment Methods in the United States
Sanitary Drinking Facilities: With Special Reference to Drinking Fountains : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 87
Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002
School and Early Employment Experience of Youth : A Report on Seven Communities, 1952-57 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1277
Science & Cents: Exploring the Economics of Biotechnology : Proceedings of a Conference Sponsored by the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, April 19, 2002
Scientific and Technical Personnel in Industry
Scientific Research and Development in American Industry: A Study of Manpower and Costs : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1148
The Scope of Monetary Policy Actions Authorized Under the Federal Reserve Act
The Search for Work in Philadelphia , 1932-36 : An Analysis of Records of the Philadelphia State Employment Office, Report No. P-7
Seasonal Adjustment Factors: Wholesale Price Index: Selected Series, 1948-61 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1379
Seasonal Factors, Consumer Price Index: Selected Series, June 1953-May 1961 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1366
Seasonality and Manpower in Construction : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 1642
Seasonal Variations in the Relative Demand for Money and Capital in the United States : A Statistical Study
Second Legal Tender Act
Second Meeting on the Condition of the Banking System : Hearing Before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, Ninety-Fifth Congress, Second Session, May 25, 1978
Second Meeting on the Conduct of Monetary Policy : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, Ninety-fourth Congress, First Session, November 4 and 6, 1975
The Second Year : A Study of Women's Participation in War Activities of the Federal Government
Section 16 of the Federal Farm Mortgage Corporation Act, Approved January 31, 1934, Amending Sections 13 and 14 of the Federal Reserve Act
Sections 7 and 8 of the Act Approved April 27, 1934 (Public No. 178, 73d Congress) Amending Sections 13 and 14 of the Federal Reserve Act and Authorizing the Federal Reserve Banks to Act as Depositaries, Custodians, and Fiscal Agents for the Home Owners' Loan Corporation
Securities Act of 1933
Securities Acts Amendments of 1975
Securities and Exchange Commission : Documents Relating to the Financial Crisis of 2007-2009
Securities Exchange Act of 1934
Securitization Markets and Central Banking : An Evaluation of the Term Asset-Backed Securities Loan Facility
Security and Accountability for Every Port Act of 2006 and Unlawful Internet Gambling Enforcement Act of 2006
Selected Data on Foreign Direct Investment in the United States, 1950-79
Selected List of the Publications of the Bureau of Labor Statistics
Selected List of the Publications of the Bureau of Labor Statistics: 1943 Supplement to 1940 Ed : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 747
Selected Papers of Allan Sproul
Selected References on the Health of Women in Industry : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 71
Selected Techniques of Seasonal Adjustment
Selected Techniques of Seasonal Adjustment : A Revision of Selected Techniques of Seasonal Adjustment Published June 1962
Selecting Fund Managers for the Legacy Securities Public-Private Investment Program, SIGTARP-11-001
Selective Factors in an Expanding Labor Market : Lancaster, PA. : A Study of Employment Opportunities in Four Manufacturing Plants in Lancaster, Pa., 1928-36, Report No. L-4
Select List of References on the Monetary Question
Selling the First Installment of the Liberty Loan : In the Seventh Federal Reserve District, May 4th to June 15th, 1917
Semiannual Report to Congress
The Semiannual Testimony on the Federal Reserve's Supervision and Regulation of the Financial System : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate
Semi-Annual Testimony on the Federal Reserve's Supervision and Regulation of the Financial System : Hearings Before the Committee on Financial Services, U.S. House of Representatives
Senate Concurrent Resolution on Monetary Policy : Testimony Prepared for the Senate Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs
Senate Manual Containing Standing Rules and Orders of the United States Senate : Sixty-Third Congress, Box 4, Item 1
Senate Manual Containing Standing Rules and Orders of the United States Senate. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office : Sixty-Seventh Congress, Box 4, Item 2
Series of Studies on Employment of Women in Various Defense Industries : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 192
Settlement for Accidents to American Seamen : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 466
Seven Stranded Coal Towns : A Study of an American Depressed Area, Research Monograph XXIII
The Share of Wage-Earning Women in Family Support : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 30
Sherman Silver Purchase Act
Shipyard Injuries, 1944 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 834
Shipyard Injuries and Their Causes, 1941 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 722
Shortages in Skilled Labor : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Economic Goals and Intergovernmental Policy of the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, Ninety-Seventh Congress, First Session, November 3, 1981
Short Talks About Working Women : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 59
A Short-Term Training Program in an Aircraft Engine Plant : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 245
Short-unit Courses for Wage Earners and a Factory School Experiment : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 159
Should the Federal Reserve Buy Long-Term Securities?
Sick Leave Provisions in Union Agreements : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 832
Sickness and Accident Insurance Law of Switzerland : Bulletin of the Bureau of Labor, No. 103
SIGTARP Survey Demonstrates That Banks Can Provide Meaningful Information on Their Use of TARP Funds, SIGTARP-09-001
Silver Purchase Act of 1934
Six Rural Problem Areas - Relief, Resources, Rehabilitation : An Analysis of the Human and Material Resources in Six Rural Areas with High Relief Rates, Research Monograph I
Sixth District Agriculture Since 1910 : Facilities, Output, Income, Debt
Sixth District Manufacturing Index : Technical Note and Statistical Supplement
The Size of Federal Reserve COVID-19 Programs
Small Banks in the Capital Purchase Program : Congressional Oversight Panel July Oversight Report
Small Business Administration : Documents Relating to the COVID-19 Pandemic
The Small Business Credit Crunch and the Impact of the TARP : Congressional Oversight Panel May Oversight Report
Small Businesses and COVID-19 : Relief and Assistance Resources
Small Business Investment Act of 1958
Small Business Lending : Field Hearing, Congressional Oversight Panel, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, Second Session, Hearing Held in Phoenix, Arizona, April 27, 2010
Social and Economic Character of Unemployment in Philadelphia, April, 1929 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 520
Social and Economic Character of Unemployment in Philadelphia, April, 1930 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 555
Social Security Act of 1935
Social Security in America : The Factual Background of the Social Security Act as Summarized from Staff Reports to the Committee on Economic Security
Social Service Division Staffs of the State Emergency Relief Administrations, 1935 and 1936 : Reduction Procedures, Functions, Personnel Standards, Trends, L-3
Social Work Series : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 235
Some Competitive Aspects of the Dual Banking System Evidenced By Statutory Changes and Administrative Practices
Some Effects of Legislation Limiting Hours of Work for Women : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 15
Some General Features of the Federal Reserve's Approach to Policy : A Staff Analysis
Sound Monetary Policy : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Monetary Policy and Trade of the Committee on Financial Services, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Fifteenth Congress, First Session, March 16, 2017
Source of Income of Former Urban Relief Cases, Series I, No. 22
The Southwest Economy
Special Bulletin of the Women's Bureau
The Special Master's Determinations for Executive Compensation of Companies Receiving Exceptional Assistance Under TARP, SIGTARP-12-001
Special Report from the Banks of the United States
Special Report on Unemployment Statistics : Meaning and Measurement
Special Reports (United States. Bureau of the Census)
Special Study of Wages Paid to Women and Minors in Ohio Industries Prior and Subsequent to the Ohio Minimum Wage Law for Women and Minors : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 145
Specifications of Laboratory Tests for Approval of Electric Headlighting Devices for Motor Vehicles: Illuminating Engineering Society, New York, N.Y., Sponsor. Tentative American Standard, Approved November 11, 1922 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 350
Speculation and the Reform of the New York Stock Exchange
A Speech Delivered at the Democratic Celebration by the Citizens of the Second Congressional District of Pennsylvania, of the Fifty-Eighth Anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, July 4th, 1834
Speeches Delivered by H. Clay, of Kentucky, in the Senate of the United States, on the 19th of August, 1841 : On the Message of President Tyler, Returning the Bank Bill, with his Veto, and in Reply to Mr. Rives, Defending the Message
Speeches of Hon. Joseph R. Hawley, of Connecticut, in the United States Senate, upon the Three Per Cent Funding Bill, the Anti-Chinese Bills, and upon the Bill for the Removal of Certain Disabilities : First Session, Forty-Seventh Congress
Speech of Henry Clay : Delivered at the Great Barbecue at Lexington, (Kentucky,) June 9, 1842
Speech of Henry Clay, of Kentucky, on the Bill Imposing Additional Duties, as Depositaries, in Certain Cases, on Public Officers : In Senate of the United States, September 25, 1837
Speech of Mr. Allen, of Ohio, on the Bill to Separate the Government from the Banks : Delivered in the Senate of the United States, February 20, 1838.
Speech of Mr. Barnitz, of Pennsylvania, on the Subject of the Bank of the United States, and the Removal of the Public Deposites : Delivered in the House of Representatives, 1834
Speech of Mr. Brockway, of Connecticut, on the Sub-treasury Bill : Delivered in the House of Representatives, in Committee of the Whole on the State of the Union
Speech of Mr. Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, on the Power of the Bank of the United States, under Its Pennsylvania Charter; in Support of the Bill to Prevent It from Re-issuing and Circulating the Notes of the Old Bank ... in the Senate of the United States. Also, His Reply to Mr. Clay, of Kentucky, on the Same Day
Speech of Mr. Calhoun, of South Carolina, on the Sub-treasury Bill : Delivered in the Senate of the United States, February 15, 1838
Speech of Mr. Chittenden, of New York on the Sub-Treasury Bill : Delivered in the House of Representatives of the United States, in Committee of the Whole on the State of the Union, June 27, 1840
Speech of Mr. Collier of New-York, upon Mr. Clayton's Resolution, that a Committee be Appointed to Examine into the Affairs of the United States Bank : Delivered in the House of Representatives U.S., 13th March, 1832.
Speech of Mr. Davis of Pennsylvania, on the Independent Treasury Bill : In the House of Representatives, June 27, 1840
Speech of Mr. Floyd of New York, on the Independent Treasury Bill. House of Representatives. Tuesday, June 11, 1840
Speech of Mr. Garland, of Virginia, in Opposition to the Sub-Treasury Scheme : Delivered in the House of Representatives, September 25, 1837
Speech of Mr. Hill of New Hampshire, on the Subject of the Removal of the Deposites from the Bank of the United States : In the Senate of the United States, March 3 & 4, 1834
Speech of Mr. Huntington of Connecticut, on the Amendment to the Bill to Incorporate the Subscribers to the Fiscal Bank of the United States... : Delivered in the Senate of the United States, July 3, 1841
Speech of Mr. Huntington, of Connecticut, on the Subject of the Removal of the Deposites : Delivered in the House of Representatives, January 1834
Speech of Mr. Leet of Pennsylvania, on the Independent Treasury Bill : Delivered in Committee of the Whole, in the House of Representatives, June 2, 1840
Speech of Mr. M'Duffie : On the Subject of the Removal of the Deposites, December 19, 1833
Speech of Mr. Niles, of Connecticut, in Senate, January 5, 1839, in Reply to the Remarks of Mr. Rives : On the Resolution Submitted by Him Calling on the President for Additional Information Relative to the Transactions between the Government and the Bank of the United States, Growing out of the Sales of the Bonds of Said Bank
Speech of Mr. Rayner, of N. Carolina, on the Sub-Treasury Bill : Made in Committee of the Whole, in the House of Representatives, June 22, 1840
Speech of Mr. Rives, of Virginia in Opposition to the Subtreasury Bill and in Support of His Substitute : Delivered in the Senate of the U. S., Febraury 6, 7, 1838
Speech of Mr. Southard, on the Removal of the Deposites : Delivered in the Senate of the United States, January, 1834
Speech of Mr. Wall, of New Jersey, on the Bill to Separate the Government from the Banks : Delivered in the Senate of the United States, March 23, 1838.
Speech of Mr. Woodbury, of New Hampshire, on the Capital of the Fiscal Bank : Delivered in the Senate of the United States, July 10, 1841
Speech of Samuel McDowell Moore, on the Deposite Question : Delivered in the House of Representatives U.S.
Speech of the Hon. Daniel Webster, on the Sub-Treasury Bill : Delivered in the Senate of the United States, January 31, 1838
Speech of the Hon. Henry Clay, on the Subject of the Removal of the Deposites : Delivered in the Senate of the United States, December 26, 30, 1833
Speech of the Hon. Horace Binney, on the Question of the Removal of the Deposites : Delivered in the House of Representatives, January, 1834
Speech of the Hon. James K. Polk, of Tennessee, on his Motion to Re-commit to the Committee of Ways and Means the Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the Removal of the Deposits; and the Amendment Offered by Mr. [George] McDuffie, Instructing Said Committee to Report a Bill for Their Restoration : Delivered in the House of Representatives December 30, 1833, and January 2, 1834
Speech of the Hon. William C. Rives, on the Subject of the Removal of the Deposites : Delivered in the Senate of the United States, January 17, 1834
Speech of the Hon. William Wilkins, on the Subject of the Removal of the Deposites : Delivered in the Senate of the United States, February, 1834
Speech of William H. Seward : On the Resolutions Concerning the Removal of the Covernment Deposites. In the Senate of New-York, January, 1834
Speech (Suppressed by the Previous Question) of Mr. John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, on the Removal of the Public Deposites, and Its Reasons
Speech the Hon. Henry Clay, of Kentucky: Establishing a Deliberate Design, on the Part of the Late and Present Executive of the United States, to Break Down the Whole Banking System of the United States, Commencing with the Bank of the United States and Terminating with the State Banks, and to Create on their Ruins a Government Treasury Bank, under Exclusive Control of the Executive, and in Reply to the Speech of the Hon. J.C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, Supporting that Treasury Bank : Delivered in the Senate of the United States, February 19, 1838
Spendable Earnings of Factory Workers, 1941-43 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 769
Spending and Saving of the Nation's Families in Wartime : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 723
Spotlight on Women in the United States, 1956-1957
Stabilization : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Seventieth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 11806, March 19, 20, 21; April 30; May 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 15, 16, 17, 18, 23, 24, 28, 29, 1928
Stabilization : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, Sixty-Ninth Congress, First Session, on H.R. 7895 (1926-1927)
Stabilization of Commodity Prices : Hearings Before the Subcommittee of the Committee on Banking and Currency, House of Representatives, March 16-18, 21-22, 28-29, April 13-14, 1932
Stabilization of Purchasing Power of Money : Hearings Before the Committee on Banking and Currency of the House of Representatives, Sixty-Seventh Congress, Fourth Session, on H.R. 11788 (1922-1923)
Stabilization Policies: Lessons from the '70s and Implications for the '80s : Proceedings of a Conference Cosponsored by Center for the Study of American Business and Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, October 29 and 30, 1979
Stabilizing the Dollar : A Plan to Stabilize the General Price Level Without Fixing Individual Prices
Staff Investigation Relating to the Nomination of G. William Miller to Be Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System
Staff Report on Employment, Growth, and Price Levels : Prepared for Consideration by the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States
Stagflation : Hearings Before the Special Study on Economic Change of the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States, Ninety-Sixth Congress, First Session, April 30, and May 7 and 9, 1979
Standard and Scheduled Hours of Work for Women in Industry: A Study Based on Hour Data From 13 States : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 43
Standardization of Industrial Accident Statistics: Reports of the Committee on Statistics and Compensation Insurance Cost of the International Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commission, 1915-1919 : Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, No. 276
Standards for Employment of Women in Industry: Recommended by the Women's Bureau : Women's Bureau Bulletin, No. 173
Standards for Guiding Monetary Action : Report of the Joint Economic Committee, Congress of the United States
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Mitochondrial fusion supports increased oxidative phosphorylation during cell proliferation | eLife
In addition to increasing glycolysis, some proliferating cells exhibiting the Warburg effect also increase oxidative phosphorylation through mitochondrial fusion.
Mitochondrial fusion supports increased oxidative phosphorylation during cell proliferation
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351
Version of Record
Accepted for publication after peer review and revision.
Cong-Hui Yao
Rencheng Wang
Yahui Wang
Che-Pei Kung
(2019)
Mitochondrial fusion supports increased oxidative phosphorylation during cell proliferation
eLife 8 :e41351.
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351
Cong-Hui Yao
Rencheng Wang
Yahui Wang
Che-Pei Kung
Jason D Weber
Gary J Patti
(2019)
Mitochondrial fusion supports increased oxidative phosphorylation during cell proliferation
eLife 8 :e41351.
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351
Abstract
Proliferating cells often have increased glucose consumption and lactate excretion relative to the same cells in the quiescent state, a phenomenon known as the Warburg effect. Despite an increase in glycolysis, however, here we show that non-transformed mouse fibroblasts also increase oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) by nearly two-fold and mitochondrial coupling efficiency by ~30% during proliferation. Both increases are supported by mitochondrial fusion. Impairing mitochondrial fusion by knocking down mitofusion-2 (Mfn2) was sufficient to attenuate proliferation, while overexpressing Mfn2 increased proliferation. Interestingly, impairing mitochondrial fusion decreased OXPHOS but did not deplete ATP levels. Instead, inhibition caused cells to transition from excreting aspartate to consuming it. Transforming fibroblasts with the Rasoncogene induced mitochondrial biogenesis, which further elevated OXPHOS. Notably, transformed fibroblasts continued to have elongated mitochondria and their proliferation remained sensitive to inhibition of Mfn2. Our results suggest that cell proliferation requires increased OXPHOS as supported by mitochondrial fusion.
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.001
eLife digest
Most cells in the body contain many small compartments called mitochondria. These tiny powerhouses can use oxygen to break down molecules of glucose (a type of sugar) and release the energy that fuels many life processes. Mitochondria can also use oxygen to build certain compounds essential for the cell.
Rapidly dividing cells, such as the ones found in tumors, need a lot of energy. Yet, they often ‘choose’ to burn much of their glucose through fermentation, a less efficient process that does not require oxygen or mitochondria. In fact, many theories suggest that cells which divide a lot decrease the quantity of oxygen their mitochondria consume. It is still unclear what role mitochondria have during phases of intense growth, and if they act differently in cancerous and healthy cells.
Here, Yao et al. use a cell system where division can be turned on or off, and find that when cells quickly multiply, their mitochondria actually consume more oxygen. Further experiments then reveal that, in both cancerous and healthy cells, the different mitochondria inside a cell merge during periods of intense division. This mechanism allows the compartment to better use oxygen. Yao et al. go on to show that adjusting the fusion process through genetic manipulation helps to control division. When mitochondria cannot combine, cells divide less well; when the compartments can merge more easily, cells multiply faster.
If growing cells do not rely on their mitochondria for their energy demands during multiplication, why do these compartments seem to be essential for division? The reason might be that the mitochondria produce aspartate, a molecule that cells use to replicate.
The work by Yao et al. suggests that at least certain cancer cells may increase their consumption of oxygen to sustain their mitochondria; armed with this knowledge, it may be possible to design new diagnostic tests and new treatments to identify, and potentially target these oxygen-dependent tumor cells.
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.002
Introduction
Depending on cell type and microenvironment, various adaptations in metabolism have been associated with cellular proliferation. The metabolic adaptation that has received the most attention is a phenomenon known as aerobic glycolysis or the Warburg effect, which is characterized by a high level of glucose consumption and a high rate of glucose fermentation to lactate irrespective of oxygen availability (Liberti and Locasale, 2016;Vander Heiden et al., 2009). Although the Warburg effect is recognized as a typical feature of dividing cancer cells and is the basis for imaging many tumors in the clinic with fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (Hanahan and Weinberg, 2011;Zhu et al., 2011), it is also found in normal proliferating cells such as non-transformed fibroblasts, lymphocytes, macrophages, thymocytes, endothelial cells, and embryonic stem cells (Brand, 1985;Hedeskov, 1968;Hume et al., 1978;Munyon and Merchant, 1959;Wang et al., 1976). Accordingly, even in non-cancerous contexts, the Warburg effect has been classified as a hallmark of rapid proliferation (Abdel-Haleem et al., 2017).
Although there is a general consensus that glycolytic flux increases in proliferating cells, the extent to which oxidative metabolism is altered has been historically complicated (DeBerardinis et al., 2007;Seyfried, 2015). Warburg originally proposed that cancer cells rely on enhanced glycolysis because of defects in mitochondria (Warburg, 1956). Some cancers do have defective mitochondrial enzymes (e.g. succinate dehydrogenase and fumarase), but it is now well established that most proliferating cells (including cancer) have functional mitochondria (Ahn and Metallo, 2015;Vyas et al., 2016). Indeed, functional mitochondria are essential to the proliferation of some cell types. Studies have shown that oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) may provide the majority of ATP during proliferation and function to support the synthesis of important molecular building blocks such as aspartate (Birsoy et al., 2015;Fan et al., 2013;Rodríguez-Enríquez et al., 2010;Sullivan et al., 2015;Zu and Guppy, 2004). Elevated levels of OXPHOS, however, may not necessarily be required to fulfill such functions. To the contrary, many reports have suggested that proliferating cells suppress mitochondrial respiration and statements that glycolysis is preferred over OXPHOS during proliferation are prevalent in the literature (Whitaker-Menezes et al., 2011). Certain cancers of the bladder, breast, and kidney are depleted of mitochondrial DNA and have decreased expression of respiratory genes (Reznik et al., 2016). Some cancer cells exhibit high levels of mitochondrial fission and have associated decreases in respiratory capacity as mediated by an imbalance of dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) and mitofusin-2 (Mfn2) (Chen and Chan, 2017;Rehman et al., 2012;Serasinghe et al., 2015;Xie et al., 2015). In other cases, increasing glucose oxidation by inhibiting pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase has been shown to slow the proliferation of transformed cells (Bonnet et al., 2007).
A challenge of quantitating changes in OXPHOS as a function of proliferation has been the confounding experimental factors that are often associated with cancer studies. Tumors contain non-proliferating cell types that may shift the average of metabolic measurements from bulk tissues. Additionally, cancer cells from tumors often have restricted access to oxygen (Brahimi-Horn et al., 2007). Although oxygen limitation can similarly lead to an enhanced glycolytic phenotype, this metabolic program is distinct from the Warburg effect. Finally, many studies have focused on the proliferative state of cancer cells without having an appropriately matched non-proliferating comparison with the same genetic background tested under the same conditions (Zu and Guppy, 2004).
In this study, to directly compare oxidative metabolism in the same cells of the quiescent and proliferative state, we exploited the cell-density-dependent phenotype of non-transformed fibroblasts. We find that even though proliferating fibroblasts exhibit enhanced glycolysis that is consistent with a Warburg phenotype, they also increase OXPHOS by nearly two-fold and increase their mitochondrial coupling efficiency by ~30%. Interestingly, both increases are supported by mitochondrial fusion. Although transformation with the Rasoncogene further elevated OXPHOS, the additional increase was supported by mitochondrial biogenesis rather than changes in mitochondrial dynamics. Blocking mitochondrial fusion slowed proliferation in both non-transformed and transformed cells. Taken together, our results indicate that proliferation of fibroblasts requires an increase in OXPHOS supported by mitochondrial fusion.
Results
Proliferation increases oxidative phosphorylation and mitochondrial coupling efficiency
Mouse 3T3-L1 fibroblasts are immortalized, non-transformed cells that retain sensitivity to contact inhibition (Green and Kehinde, 1975). They provide a simple, well-controlled model to compare metabolism in the proliferative and quiescent states, as has been demonstrated previously (Yao et al., 2016a). The first step in our analysis was to verify that proliferating fibroblasts exhibit the Warburg effect. Relative to quiescent fibroblasts in the contact-inhibited state, proliferating cells had increased glucose consumption and lactate excretion (Figure 1A). As expected, proliferating cells excreted a greater percentage of glucose as lactate (47%) compared to quiescent cells (32%) (Figure 1—source data 1). Of note, the absolute amount of glucose having a non-lactate fate was also increased by over two-fold in the proliferative state (0.38 pmol/cell/hr) relative to the quiescent state (0.16 pmol/cell/hr) (Figure 1—source data 1). Glucose carbon that is not excreted as lactate is potentially available to support an increased rate of oxidative metabolism, which we next aimed to quantify.
Figure 1 with 2 supplements see all
In addition to increasing glucose consumption and lactate excretion, proliferating fibroblasts also increase mitochondrial respiration and mitochondrial coupling efficiency.
( A) Glucose consumption and lactate excretion rates for quiescent and proliferating fibroblasts (n = 4). As expected, proliferating cells exhibit an enhanced glycolytic phenotype that is consistent … see more
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.003
Figure 1—source data 1
Total accounting of glucose utilization in quiescent and proliferating cells.
Data are presented as mean ±SEM (n = 4).
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.006
Download elife-41351-fig1-data1-v1.pptx
Figure 1—source data 2
Labeling percentages of 13C-enriched precursors forFigure 1.
Data are presented as mean ±SEM (n = 3).
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.007
Download elife-41351-fig1-data2-v1.pptx
Figure 1—source data 3
Mass isotopologue distributions for all metabolites analyzed by LC-MS inFigure 1F–H.
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.008
Strikingly, on a per cell basis, we found that the basal respiration rate was ~81% higher during proliferation compared to quiescence (Figure 1—figure supplement 1). Given that proliferating cells are larger in size relative to quiescent cells, we also independently normalized the oxygen-consumption data by protein content instead of cell number. Even when normalized by protein content, the respiration rate of proliferating cells was ~59% higher than quiescent cells (Figure 1B–C). Intriguingly, proliferating cells also exhibited a decrease in proton leak and a ~ 112% increase in ATP production (Figure 1B–C). Taken together, the coupling efficiency of proliferating cells was determined to be 34% higher than quiescent cells. We note that the coupling efficiency was calculated as the ratio of the ATP production rate and the basal respiration rate, which is therefore independent of sample normalization method. These data suggest that proliferating fibroblasts with Warburg metabolism not only have increased OXPHOS, but also that they respire more efficiently.
Glutamine is the major carbon source for fueling the TCA cycle and mitochondrial respiration
We next aimed to investigate which carbon sources fuel mitochondrial respiration by analyzing the utilization of glucose, glutamine, and fatty acids. In addition to increasing glucose consumption and lactate excretion (Figure 1A), proliferating fibroblasts take up two-fold more glutamine compared to quiescent fibroblasts (Figure 1D). Since the rate of glutamate excretion was unchanged, more glutamine carbon was being used for anaplerosis. We also found that the consumption rates of palmitate and oleate were increased in proliferation by 194% and 98%, respectively (Figure 1E).
Since proliferating fibroblasts showed increased utilization of all three nutrients we examined, we next applied stable isotope tracing and metabolomics to access the relative contribution of each carbon source to the TCA cycle. In three separate experiments, cells were fed either uniformly 13C-labeled glucose (U- 13C glucose), uniformly 13C-labeled glutamine (U- 13C glutamine), or uniformly 13C-labeled palmitate (U- 13C palmitate) for 6 hr. The isotope enrichments in citrate, a representative TCA cycle intermediate, were evaluated to infer the relative contribution of each carbon source to the TCA cycle and mitochondrial respiration. Even though proliferating cells consumed more glucose and more fatty acids, citrate labeling from these two carbon sources was significantly decreased in the proliferative state (Figure 1F;Figure 1G). In contrast, labeling of citrate by glutamine was substantial and significantly increased in proliferating cells relative to quiescent cells, suggesting that glutamine is a major energy source to fuel mitochondrial respiration (Figure 1H). This result is consistent with reports from other cells (Fan et al., 2013). Given that previous studies have shown that glutamine dependence is correlated with cystine uptake through the cystine/glutamate antiporter SLC7A11 (Muir et al., 2017), we examined whether these metabolite changes were enabled by transporter expression. Even though the level of SLC7A11 protein was unchanged, we observed more than a two-fold increase in cystine comsumption for proliferating fibroblasts compared to quiescent fibroblasts (Figure 1—figure supplement 2). Increased influx of cystine may drive the export of glutamate, thereby depleting the pool of intracellular glutamate/αKG and promoting glutamine anaplerosis (Muir et al., 2017).
Increased oxidative phosphorylation during proliferation is supported by mitochondrial fusion
We next sought to understand how fibroblasts support increased OXPHOS during proliferation. We reasoned that one mechanism might be by increasing mitochondrial mass in the proliferative state. We used RT-PCR to determine the relative copy number of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to genomic DNA (gDNA), from which we inferred mitochondrial mass. The mtDNA to gDNA ratio was unchanged between quiescent and proliferating cells (Figure 2A). Consistent with these data, we also observed no change in expression of respiratory enzymes, as determined by immunoblotting of electron transport chain (ETC) subunits (SDHA for complex II, cytochrome c for complex III, COX IV for complex IV, and ATP5A for complex V) (Figure 2B). Our results indicate that proliferating fibroblasts do not support elevated levels of OXPHOS by increasing mitochondrial mass or by increasing the expression of respiratory enzymes.
Figure 2 with 5 supplements see all
Proliferating fibroblasts regulate respiration by mitochondrial fusion.
( A) Mitochondrial mass remains the same for quiescent (Q) and proliferating (P) fibroblasts as estimated by the ratio of mtDNA to gDNA (n = 3). ( B) Proliferating fibroblasts have similar protein … see more
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.009
As an alternative, we then considered the possibility that fibroblasts regulate OXPHOS during proliferation by mitochondrial dynamics. Previous studies have shown that mitochondrial fusion is associated with an increased respiration rate in addition to an improved coupling efficiency (Legros et al., 2002;Westermann, 2012). To assess mitochondrial morphology, we applied electron microscopy (EM) imaging (Figure 2C) and fluorescence imaging (Figure 2—figure supplement 1). Both techniques showed that proliferating cells have elongated mitochondria, while mitochondria in quiescent cells were relatively short and fragmented. Quantitative analysis of 100 random mitochondria in each condition showed a statistically significant increase in the mitochondrial length of proliferating cells compared to quiescent cells (Figure 2D). In addition, we found that mitochondria in proliferating cells had a significantly higher level of mitochondrial fusion proteins (Mfn1, Mfn2, and OPA1) compared to mitochondria in quiescent cells (Figure 2—figure supplement 2). When we inhibited mitochondrial fusion by knocking down Mfn2, a protein required for the fusion of the outer mitochondrial membrane, the elongated mitochondrial phenotype in proliferating fibroblasts was suppressed (Figure 2C–D,Figure 2—figure supplement 3). To determine whether mitochondrial fusion is required for increased OXPHOS during proliferation, we compared the oxygen consumption rates of proliferating scrambled siRNA controls (SSC) to Mfn2 knockdowns (Mfn2 KD). We point out that these comparisons were conducted when cells were in the proliferating exponential growth phase. Notably, Mfn2 knockdowns had a statistically significant decrease in respiration rate, ATP production, and mitochondrial coupling efficiency (Figure 2E–F). Given that mitochondria in quiescent fibroblasts are already largely fragmented, as expected, the effect of Mfn2 knockdown on basal mitochondrial respiration was minimal in quiescent cells (Figure 2—figure supplement 4).
Independent of contact inhibition, cellular quiescence can also be achieved by serum starvation (Yao, 2014). By using serum starvation, we sought to extend our comparison of the proliferative and quiescent states to other cells. Consistent with our contact-inhibition results, we found that serum starved 3T3-L1 and HCT116 cells had fragmented mitochondria relative to the same cells in the non-starved state (Figure 2—figure supplement 5). Mitochondrial elongation occurred as soon as 3 hr after reintroducing serum and continued as cells exited the quiescent state (Figure 2—figure supplement 5B).
Inhibiting mitochondrial fusion decreases proliferation by limiting aspartate synthesis
Having established that mitochondrial fusion increased in dividing cells, we wished to consider its effects on proliferation. Upon Mfn2 knockdown, we observed a ~ 30% decrease in proliferation rate compared to scrambled siRNA controls (Figure 3A). Re-expressing siRNA-resistant Mfn2 (Mfn2 res) in Mfn2 knockdowns restored Mfn2 protein level, mitochondrial respiration, and cellular proliferation (Figure 3—figure supplement 1). When we overexpressed Mfn2 in wildtype 3T3-L1 fibroblasts, we observed a significant increase in both mitochondrial respiration and proliferation (Figure 3—figure supplement 2). These data suggest that promoting mitochondrial fusion is sufficient to drive proliferation. We also observed considerable changes in nutrient utilization between Mfn2 knockdowns and scrambled siRNA controls that were consistent with decreased proliferation and reduced OXPHOS (Figure 3B). Mfn2 knockdowns decreased their glucose uptake by 15% and decreased their lactate excretion by 10%. More notably, knocking down Mfn2 caused cells to decrease glutamine consumption by 40%. Given the reduced rate of OXPHOS in Mfn2 knockdowns, these data are consistent with glutamine serving as a major carbon source for the TCA cycle. Tracing experiments confirmed a significant decrease in labeling of TCA cycle intermediates from U- 13C glutamine in Mfn2 knockdowns (Figure 3—figure supplement 3A–C). Consistent with decreased glutamine anaplerosis, Mfn2 knockdowns had a 40% decrease in cystine consumption (Figure 3—figure supplement 3D).
Figure 3 with 3 supplements see all
Download asset Open asset
Inhibition of mitochondrial fusion by Mfn2 knockdown slows proliferation by limiting aspartate synthesis.
( A) Proliferation was assessed by using a CyQUANT assay after cells were treated with scrambled siRNA control (SSC) or Mfn2 siRNA for 72 hr (n = 5). ( B) Mfn2 knockdown alters nutrient utilization (n … see more
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.015
Figure 3—source data 1
Sequences for dicer-substrate short interfering RNA (DsiRNA) and siRNA-resistant Mfn2 res.
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.019
Download elife-41351-fig3-data1-v1.docx
Our results show that mitochondrial fusion supports a high level of OXPHOS, which is needed to sustain rapid cellular proliferation. We speculated that the decrease in proliferation rate upon Mfn2 knockdown might be due to a shortage of energy from the decreased rate of OXPHOS. Surprisingly, however, we found that intracellular levels of ATP actually increased slightly in Mfn2 knockdowns relative to scrambled siRNA control cells (Figure 3C). This result suggested that cells could compensate for a reduced energy yield from OXPHOS, but that OXPHOS may serve another indispensable function in our knockdowns. Previous studies have shown that an essential role of OXPHOS in proliferating cells is to regenerate reducing equivalents in support of aspartate synthesis (Birsoy et al., 2015;Sullivan et al., 2015). Through reactions in the malate-aspartate shuttle, increased oxygen consumption may support a higher rate of aspartate generation. Although we did not observe a difference in the intracellular pool of aspartate between scrambled siRNA controls and Mfn2 knockdowns (Figure 3D), we did find a striking change in aspartate uptake. While the control cells excreted aspartate, the Mfn2 knockdown cells consumed aspartate from the media (Figure 3E). Moreover, the proliferation of Mfn2 knockdowns could be partially rescued by supplementing cell-culture media with aspartate (Figure 3F).
H- Ras transformed fibroblasts exhibit higher mitochondrial respiration
Although 3T3-L1 fibroblasts are immortalized, unlike transformed cells, they remain sensitive to contact inhibition and retain the ability to differentiate. To evaluate whether transformed cells similarly rely on OXPHOS and mitochondrial fusion, we generated stable transfected 3T3-L1 cells expressing the oncogene H- Ras(G12V), a constitutively active mutant (Figure 4A). H- Rastransfected fibroblasts assumed a transformed morphology and their growth was no longer contact inhibited, with high-density cultures forming multiple layers of cells (Figure 4B–C). It was confirmed that the transformed cells did not undergo oncogene-induced senescence (Figure 4—figure supplement 1).
Figure 4 with 4 supplements see all
H- Ras transformed fibroblasts (Ras) have elongated mitochondria and increased OXPHOS that is supported by mitochondrial biogenesis.
( A) Immunoblotting of whole-cell lysates shows H- Rasexpression in transformed fibroblasts, but not in empty vector (EV) controls. ( B) Growth curve shows the loss of contact inhibition in H- Ras… see more
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.020
To study the effect of H- Rastransformation on mitochondrial metabolism, we compared the oxygen consumption rates of proliferating empty vector (EV) control cells in the exponential growth phase to H- Rastransformed (Ras) cells. Surprisingly, we found that Ras cells had a ~ 73% increase in basal respiration and a ~ 72% increase in ATP production compared to EV cells (Figure 4D–E). It is interesting to note that we found no difference in the mitochondrial coupling efficiencies between conditions (Figure 4E). This result is consistent with the observation that mitochondria are not further fused in Ras cells relative to proliferating EV controls (Figure 4F). Given that Ras cell mitochondria remain elongated to the same extent as EV controls, we next evaluated increased mitochondrial mass as a possible mechanism to support elevated levels of OXPHOS. For Ras cells, we observed a > 20-fold increase in the mRNA level of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor coactivator ( PGC1α), a master regulator for mitochondrial biogenesis (LeBleu et al., 2014;Scarpulla, 2011) (Figure 4G). Ras cells had more mitochondrial mass and increased protein expression levels of ETC subunits (Figure 4H–I), suggesting that increased OXPHOS in Ras cells is driven by mitochondrial biogenesis. Activation of mitochondrial biogenesis upon Rastransformation did not change protein levels of components in the ERK/AMPK pathway or the KSR1 pathway, as has been previously suggested for other cells (Figure 4—figure supplement 2) (Dard et al., 2018;Weinberg et al., 2010). We wish to emphasize that even though Ras cell mitochondria are not further elongated, they remain fused to the same level as proliferating non-transformed fibroblasts. Therefore, when mitochondrial fusion was inhibited by knocking down Mfn2, the proliferation rates and OXPHOS of both EV cells and Ras cells were significantly attenuated (Figure 4J,Figure 4—figure supplement 3). In addition, the proliferation of various cancer cell lines also proved sensitive to Mfn2 knockdown (Figure 4K). We conclude that mitochondrial fusion is important to sustain cellular proliferation, independent of oncogenic transformation.
Transformation with H- Ras increases oxidative stress and DNA damage
We speculated that constitute activation of Ras might enhance metabolic phenotypes we associated with proliferation in non-transformed cells. Indeed, in addition to elevated OXPHOS, Ras cells consumed more glucose, glutamine, and fatty acids relative to EV controls (Figure 4—figure supplement 4A). Given that Ras cells do not proliferate faster than EV cells (Figure 4B), the increase in metabolic activity is unlikely due to proliferative demand but rather associated with Ras signaling activation. Consistent with the notion that energy is not limiting during proliferation (Locasale and Cantley, 2011), we found that Ras cells had a higher intracellular level of ATP compared to EV controls (Figure 4—figure supplement 4B). In addition to increased ATP production, elevated OXPHOS activity in Ras cells also contributed to higher levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Figure 4—figure supplement 4C). The associated oxidative stress could be buffered by treating Ras cells with the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine (NAC). Alternatively, oxidative stress could be further induced by treating Ras cells with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU), a thymidine analog (Figure 4—figure supplement 4C). We suspected that the elevated levels of ROS in Ras cells may lead to increased DNA damage. We verified this to be the case by showing that Ras cells had increased phosphorylation on histone H2A.X (Ser139), which has been suggested as a sensitive marker for DNA damage (Sharma et al., 2012) (Figure 4—figure supplement 4D). These findings suggest that the increase in OXPHOS upon constitutive Ras activation leads to elevated oxidative stress and DNA damage, while not directly contributing to the anabolic demands of proliferation. Given the pleiotropic effects of Rasand other oncogenes, the generality of these findings to additional cell types will require further investigation.
Discussion
Most proliferating cells assume a metabolic phenotype known as the Warburg effect (Lunt and Vander Heiden, 2011). Although the enhanced glycolytic characteristics of the Warburg effect are generally well established, metabolic changes associated with mitochondria have proven more challenging to interrogate. In part, this is because proliferation has largely been studied in the context of cancer where some experimental factors are complicated to control (e.g. tumor microenvironment, oxygen availability, genetics, proliferation, etc.). Here, we applied a well-controlled fibroblast model to quantify changes in mitochondrial respiration that occur in quiescent cells, non-transformed proliferating cells, and transformed proliferating cells.
Strikingly, despite the frequent assumption that increased glycolysis in cells exhibiting the Warburg effect is associated with decreased OXPHOS, we found that mitochondrial respiration increased by nearly two-fold in non-transformed proliferating cells relative to quiescent cells. Moreover, mitochondrial respiration increased by nearly another factor of two when the cells were transformed with H- Ras. We wish to point out that the regulatory mechanism for increasing respiration between quiescent and non-transformed proliferating cells was different from that between non-transformed and transformed cells. The quiescent to proliferating transition was supported by mitochondrial fusion without any increase in mitochondrial mass, whereas the non-transformed to transformed transition was supported by mitochondrial biogenesis without any further increase in mitochondrial elongation. Similar increases in mitochondrial biogenesis and OXPHOS upon Ras activation have been reported in other cell lines (Funes et al., 2007;Moiseeva et al., 2009;Telang et al., 2007). In addition to Ras, various other signaling pathways that regulate cellular proliferation (e.g. c-Myc and mTOR) have also been found to activate mitochondrial biogenesis (Vyas et al., 2016). Notably, however, our data suggest that the proliferation rate of both non-transformed and transformed fibroblasts is dependent on mitochondrial fusion.
It is interesting to consider why OXPHOS is increased by mitochondrial fusion in proliferating cells. Since ATP levels actually increased when OXPHOS was impaired by Mfn2 knockdown, mitochondrial fusion does not seem to be required to support energetic demands. Instead, increased respiration during proliferation seems to be needed to recycle reducing equivalents in support of aspartate synthesis. Only after mitochondrial fusion was inhibited did cells start consuming aspartate from the media. Moreover, proliferation could be partially restored in Mfn2 knockdowns by supplementing cell media with aspartate. Building on previous studies (Birsoy et al., 2015;Sullivan et al., 2015), these data suggest not only that respiration is required to meet aspartate demands, but that a high level of OXPHOS may be necessary to fulfill this role. On the other hand, too much OXPHOS may be detrimental to cells. Increasing OXPHOS beyond the level observed in non-transformed proliferating fibroblasts with the H- Rasoncogene did not increase the rate of proliferation. Instead, the considerably higher levels of OXPHOS induced by mitochondrial biogenesis resulted in oxidative stress and DNA damage. These results suggest that, unlike the mechanisms that increase mitochondrial respiration in normal proliferating cells, Ras activation may promote additional malignant transformations by creating genomic instability (Tubbs and Nussenzweig, 2017).
Despite the association between the Warburg effect and rapid proliferation, a rationalization for the preference of glycolysis over OXPHOS has proven elusive (Liberti and Locasale, 2016). A challenge has been explaining how the switch to a metabolic program that is less energetically efficient supports the synthetic burden of cell replication. Transformation of glucose to lactate yields only two moles of ATP per mole of glucose, whereas complete oxidation of glucose by the TCA cycle yields ~ 32 moles of ATP per mole of glucose. Hypotheses have emerged that proliferating cells sacrifice ATP yield from glucose for other advantages such as a high rate of ATP production, decreased volume of enzymatic machinery, or increased concentrations of macromolecular precursors (Lunt and Vander Heiden, 2011;Slavov et al., 2014;Vazquez et al., 2010). Yet, to date, the benefits of using glycolysis over OXPHOS for proliferation have remained controversial. In this study, we provide evidence that the Warburg effect does not necessitate decreased OXPHOS. Rather, in the cells we examined here, glycolysis and OXPHOS are both elevated by significant levels during proliferation (Figure 5). Thus, the need to rationalize a preference for glycolysis over OXPHOS during proliferation may be unnecessary.
Figure 5
Schematic representation of the metabolic differences between quiescent and proliferating fibroblasts.
Compared to quiescent fibroblasts, proliferating cells increase both glycolysis and OXPHOS. The increase in OXPHOS is supported by mitochondrial fusion.
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.025
Materials and methods
Key resources table
Reagent type (species) or resource Designation Source or reference Identifiers Additional information Cell line ( M. musculus ) 3T3-L1 American Type Culture Collection RRID: CVCL_0123 Recombinant DNA reagent Mfn2 res this study codon-optimized cDNA of Mfn2 in pcDNA3.1(+) vector (siRNA-resistant) Recombinant DNA reagent GFP Genscript pcDNA3.1_N-eGFP Recombinant DNA reagent pCMV-VSV-G Washington University Addgene plasmid # 8454 Recombinant DNA reagent pCMVDR8.2 Washington University Addgene plasmid # 12263 Recombinant DNA reagent pLVX-HRasV12- hygromycin Washington University Antibody Rabbit anti-Mfn2, monoclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 9482, RRID: AB_2716838 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti-OPA1, monoclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 80471 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti-COXIV, monoclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 4850, RRID: AB_2085424 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti-Ras (G12V), monoclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 14412, RRID: AB_2714031 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti- phospho-H2A.X, monoclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 9718, RRID: AB_2118009 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti-AMPKα, monoclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 5831, RRID: AB_10622186 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti-KSR1,, polyclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 4640 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti- p44/42 MAPK (Erk1/2), monoclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 4695 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti- Phospho-p44/42 MAPK (Erk1/2), monoclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 4370 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti-EAAT1, monoclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 5684 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti-EAAT2, polyclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 3838 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti-EAAT3, monoclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 14501 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti-β-tubulin (HRP conjugated), monoclonal Cell Signaling Cat.#: 5346 WB (1:1000) Antibody Mouse anti-SDHA, monoclonal Santa Cruz Biotechnology Cat.#: sc-166909, RRID: AB_10611174 WB (1:500) Antibody Mouse anti- Cytochrome c, monoclonal Santa Cruz Biotechnology Cat.#: sc-13156, RRID: AB_627381 WB (1:1000) Antibody Mouse anti-ATP5A, monoclonal Santa Cruz Biotechnology Cat.#: sc-136178 WB (1:500) Antibody Mouse anti-Mfn1, monoclonal Invitrogen Cat.#: MA5-24789, RRID: AB_2717262 WB (1:1000) Antibody Rabbit anti-SLC7A11, polyclonal Invitrogen Cat.#: PA1-16893, RRID: AB_2286208 WB (1:1000) Antibody Mouse anti-PDH, monoclonal Invitrogen Cat.#: 459400, RRID: AB_2532238 WB (1:1000) Antibody Goat anti-Rabbit LiCor Cat.#: 926–80011, RRID: AB_2721264 WB (1:5000) Antibody Goat anti-Mouse LiCor Cat.#: 926–80010 WB (1:5000) Sequence-based reagent Mfn2 siRNA Intergrated DNA Technologies TriFECTa DsiRNA Kit Commercial assay or kit CyQUANT proliferation assay Thermo Fisher Cat.#: C7026 Commercial assay or kit BCA protein assay Thermo Fisher Cat.#: 23225 Commercial assay or kit NovaQUANT mouse mitochondrial to nuclear DNA ratio kit Millipore Sigma Cat.#: 72621 Commercial assay or kit ATP luminescence detection assay kit Cayman Chemical Cat.#: 700410 Commercial assay or kit DCFDA assay Cayman Chemical Cat.#: 601520
Cell culture, growth curve, and proliferation assays
3T3-L1 cells were obtained from ATCC. H460, Hela, BT549, and MCF7 cells were obtained from Washington University. All cells were found to be negative for mycoplasma contamination. All cells were cultured in high-glucose DMEM (Life Technologies) containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) (Life Technologies) and 1% penicillin/streptomycin (Life Technologies) at 37°C with 5% CO 2. To establish a growth curve, cells were collected every 12–24 hr and counted in trypan blue with an automated cell counter (Nexcelom). For assessing proliferation, cells were grown under various experimental conditions for 48–72 hr, and proliferation was determined by manual cell counting or by using a CyQUANT proliferation assay (Thermo) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. For serum starvation, cells were cultured in DMEM (without FBS) for 48 hr. Proliferation was induced by transferring cells to media containing serum (20% FBS).
Oxygen consumption assays
The oxygen consumption rate (OCR) of whole cells was determined by using the Seahorse XFp Extracellular Flux Analyzer (Seahorse Bioscience). Cells were trypsinized and plated on a miniplate 24 hr prior to the Seahorse assay. For Mfn2 knockdowns, cells were treated with scrambled siRNA as a control or Mfn2 siRNA for 48 hr prior to seeding. The assay medium consisted of 25 mM glucose, 4 mM glutamine, 50 μM palmitate-BSA, and 50 μM oleate-BSA in Seahorse base medium. The OCR was monitored upon serial injections of oligomycin (oligo, 2 μM), FCCP (1 μM), and a rotenone/antimycin A mixture (rot/AA, 1 μM). A concentration of 1 μM FCCP was determined to be optimal in separate experiments. OCR was normalized to the final cell number or total protein amount as determined by manual cell counting or by using a BCA assay, respectively. Data presented have been corrected for non-mitochondrial respiration.
Palmitate, glucose, and glutamine labeling experiments and pool-size measurements
3T3-L1 fibroblasts were plated at ~20% confluence or 100% confluence to establish the proliferating or quiescent condition, respectively. EV controls and H- Rastransformed fibroblasts were plated at ~40% confluence. Then, 24 hr later, the medium was changed to medium in which natural-abundance glucose was replaced with U- 13C glucose or natural-abundance glutamine was replaced with U- 13C glutamine. For palmitate labeling, after 24 hr the medium was changed to medium containing 100 μM U- 13C palmitate-BSA and 100 μM natural abundance oleate-BSA. After labeling for 6 hr, cells were harvested, extracted, and analyzed as previously described (Yao et al., 2018). The polar portion of the extract was separated by using a Luna aminopropyl column (Phenomenex) coupled to an Agilent 1260 capillary HPLC system. The Luna column was used with the following buffers and linear gradient: A = 95% water, 5% acetonitrile (ACN), 10 mM ammonium hydroxide, 10 mM ammonium acetate; B = 95% ACN, 5% water. Mass spectrometry detection was carried out on an Agilent 6540 or 6545 Q-TOF coupled with an ESI source operated in negative mode. The identity of each metabolite was confirmed by comparing retention times and MS/MS data with standard compounds. The isotopologue distribution pattern was calculated by normalizing the sum of all isotopologues to 100%. The labeling percentages of tracers at the end of the experiments are presented inFigure 1—source data 2. Data shown have been corrected for natural abundance and isotope impurity (seeFigure 1—source data 3for raw data). Pool sizes were calculated as the sum of all isotopologues and normalized to dry cell mass (measured by using an analytical balance) as well as a D8-phenylalanine internal standard.
Nutrient-uptake analysis
After incubating cells in fresh media for 24 hr, the spent media were collected and analyzed. Known concentrations of isotope-labeled internal standards (glucose, lactate, glutamine, glutamate, palmitate, and aspartic acid; Cambridge Isotopes) were spiked into media samples before extraction. Extraction was performed with glass as previously reported (Yao et al., 2016b). Samples were measured by LC/MS analysis, with the method described above. The absolute concentration of each compound was determined by calculating the ratio between the fully unlabeled peak from samples and the fully labeled peak from standards. The consumption rates ( x) were normalized by cell growth over the experimental time period by using the following equation where N 0represents the starting cell number, trepresents incubation time, DTrepresents doubling time, and Yrepresents nutrient utilization.
Y = ∫ 0 t x ∙ N 0 ∙ 2 t / D T ∙ d t
Real-time PCR analysis of mtDNA/gDNA and PGC1α−1 expression
DNA was extracted by using QuickExtract DNA extraction solution (Epicentre) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The ratio of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) to genomic DNA (gDNA) was measured by using a NovaQUANT mouse mitochondrial to nuclear DNA ratio kit (Millipore) with RT-PCR (Applied Biosystems). We applied the following expressions: ΔC T= C T MitochondrialC T Nucleicand mtDNA/gDNA = 2 -ΔCT. For measuring PGC1α−1 expression levels, RNA was extracted using Trizol (Invitrogen). cDNA was synthesized using Super-Script III First-Strand Synthesis SuperMix (Invitrogen). Amplifications were run with RT-PCR by using premade primers (IDT). The results were normalized to a housekeeping gene, RPL27. The following expressions were applied: ΔΔC T= ΔC T PGC1α-1– ΔC T RPL27and fold change = 2 -ΔΔCT.
Knockdown and overexpression of Mfn2
Mfn2 silencing was achieved by using a validated pool of siRNA duplexes directed against mouse Mfn2 (TriFECTa Kit, IDT) and Lipofectamine RNAiMAX Transfection Reagents (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's instructions (seeFigure 3—source data 1for the dicer-substrate short interfering RNA, DsiRNA, sequence). Cells given scrambled siRNA were used as a negative control. To rescue siRNA knockdowns, a siRNA-resistant cDNA that expresses wildtype Mfn2 was cloned in the pcDNA3.1+vector (GenScript) under a constitutive CMV promoter. The codon was optimized to be resistant to the siRNA added (seeFigure 3—source data 1for cDNA sequence). The control vector was pcDNA3.1+N eGFP (GenScript), which expresses GFP instead of Mfn2. For rescue experiments, cells were first knocked down with siRNA for 12 hr and then transfected with plasmids using Lipofectamine 3000 (Invitrogen) for 36–48 hr. For overexpression, wildtype cells were transfected with plasmids for 36–48 hr.
Immunoblot analysis
Cells or isolated mitochondria were lysed with RIPA buffer (Thermo Fisher Scientific) in the presence of a protease inhibitor and a phosphatase inhibitor cocktail (Thermo Fisher Scientific). Lysates were separated by SDS–PAGE under reducing conditions, transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane, and analyzed by immunoblotting. For primary and secondary antibodies, please refer to the Key Resources Table. β-tubulin was used as a loading control. Signal was detected with a WesternSure premium chemiluminescent substrate and the C-Digit Blot Scanner (LI-COR) according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
Mitochondrial length measurements with transmission electron microscopy
Samples were fixed in 2% paraformaldehyde/2.5% glutaraldehyde (Polysciences) in 100 mM sodium cacodylate buffer, pH 7.2 for 1 hr at room temperature. Samples were washed in sodium cacodylate buffer and postfixed in 1% osmium tetroxide (Polysciences) for 1 hr. Next, samples were rinsed in dH 2O prior to en bloc staining with 1% aqueous uranyl acetate (Ted Pella) for 1 hr. Following several rinses in dH 2O, samples were dehydrated in a graded series of ethanol and embedded in Eponate 12 resin (Ted Pella). Sections of 95 nm were cut with a Leica Ultracut UCT ultramicrotome (Leica Microsystems), stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate, and viewed on a JEOL 1200 EX transmission electron microscope (JEOL USA) equipped with an AMT eight megapixel digital camera and AMT Image Capture Engine V602 software (Advanced Microscopy Techniques). The length of 100 random mitochondria for each condition were measured and plotted.
Confocal fluorescence microscopy
After removing the media, cells were incubated with 100 nM MitoTracker Red CMXRos (Thermo Fisher Scientific) dissolved in complete medium at 37°C for 30 min. Nuclei were stained with Hoechst 33342 (Thermo Fisher Scientific). Cells were imaged alive using a Zeiss LSM 880 confocal microscope equipped with Airyscan. Images were acquired with a Zeiss 20x, 40x, 63x/1.4 NA objective by using the ZEN Black acquisition software. Samples were excited with 405 and 543 nm laser lines. Images were processed and prepared with the ZEN Black software.
Lentivirus production and Ras transformation
To generate lentivirus carrying oncogenic Ras(HRAS V12), HEK293T cells were co-transfected with pCMV-VSV-G (a gift from Bob Weinberg; Addgene plasmid # 8454), pCMVΔR8.2 (a gift from Didier Trono; Addgene plasmid # 12263), and pLVX-HRas V12-hygromycin (a gift from David Piwnica-Worms) constructs with Lipofectamine 2000 reagent (Invitrogen). Cell media were replaced with fresh growth media 24 hr after transfection. Supernatants with lentivirus were collected after a 24-hr incubation period. Collected lentivirus (5 mL) was used to infect 10 63T3-L1 fibroblast cells in the presence of 10 µg/ml protamine sulfate overnight for ~16 hr. Selection of HRAS V12-expressing 3T3-L1 cells was achieved by 100 µg/ml hygromycin. Rasexpression was verified by immunoblotting. Senescence was tested by using the β-galactosidase staining kit (Cell Signaling) according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
Intracellular ATP measurements
Intracellular ATP was measured by using an ATP luminescence detection assay kit (Cayman) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The signal was normalized by protein amount as determined by using a BCA assay (Pierce).
Intracellular ROS measurements
Request a detailed protocol
Cells were treated with 5 mM N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) or 5-bromo-2’-deoxyuridine (BrdU) for 48 hr. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured by using a DCFDA assay (Cayman) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The signal was normalized by protein amount as determined by using a BCA assay (Pierce).
Data availability
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in the manuscript and supporting files. Source data files have been provided for Figure 1F-H and sequences of DsiRNA as well as siRNA resistant Mfn2.
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Decision letter
Ralph DeBerardinis
Reviewing Editor; UT Southwestern Medical Center, United States
Andrea Musacchio
Senior Editor; Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Germany
In the interests of transparency, eLife includes the editorial decision letter and accompanying author responses. A lightly edited version of the letter sent to the authors after peer review is shown, indicating the most substantive concerns; minor comments are not usually included.
Thank you for submitting your article "Mitochondrial Fusion Supports Increased Oxidative Phosphorylation during Cell Proliferation" for consideration by eLife. Your article has been reviewed by three peer reviewers, including Ralph DeBerardinis as the Reviewing Editor and Reviewer #1, and the evaluation has been overseen by a Reviewing Editor and Andrea Musacchio as the Senior Editor.
The reviewers have discussed the reviews with one another and the Reviewing Editor has drafted this decision to help you prepare a revised submission.
Summary:
This paper compares mitochondrial function and dynamics between proliferating and non-proliferating fibroblasts. The authors find that proliferation activates glycolysis and respiration concurrently. The gain in respiration is associated with enhanced glutamine-dependent labeling of TCA cycle intermediates and enhanced mitochondrial fusion and is reversed by silencing the fusion factor Mfn2. Blocking Mfn2 also reduces cell proliferation, and a compound reported to induce mitochondrial fusion modestly increases respiration. Expressing an oncogenic allele of HRAS induces both cell proliferation and respiration, with the latter effect being related to an increase in mitochondrial mass rather than a specific effect of fusion. The authors conclude that enhanced mitochondrial function, via mitochondrial fusion, supports fibroblast proliferation. Although some of these points have been made elsewhere in the literature, overall the paper provides a clear and convincing view of the metabolic transitions that accompany and enable mammalian cell proliferation, at least in this system.
Essential revisions:
1) Perhaps the most interesting question is how proliferating cells induce mitochondrial fusion. Can the authors provide an explanation for this switch, or at least better characterize how quickly this switch occurs when cells begin to proliferate?
2) One could argue that Mfn2 loss decreases OXPHOS overall rather than specifically preventing OXPHOS gain during cell proliferation. Can the authors show whether Mfn2 loss also decreases OXPHOS in quiescent cells?
3) Because the main readout of Mfn2 silencing is reduced proliferation (i.e. loss of fitness), the key experiments need to be controlled for off-target toxicity by re-expressing an siRNA-resistant cDNA of Mfn2.
4) The M1 experiment is important because it would indicate that mitochondrial fusion is sufficient to drive proliferation. But more data are needed. Does this dose enhance fusion in these cells? Does it cause metabolic changes consistent with enhanced fusion? Is the effect on cell proliferation dose-dependent?
5) Any insights into how HRAS induces PGC1α would improve the paper. The authors should also cite Weinberg et al. (2010) which first reported the role of oncogenic HRAS and KRAS on ROS and respiration.
6) Are some of these metabolic changes enabled by changes in membrane transporter expression? Assessing the levels of SLC7A11 (cystine-driven glutamine anaplerosis) and SLC1A2/3 (glutamate/aspartate uptake) in the quiescent and proliferating states with and without Mfn2 expression might help explain some of these changes.
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.031
Author response
Essential revisions:
1) Perhaps the most interesting question is how proliferating cells induce mitochondrial fusion. Can the authors provide an explanation for this switch, or at least better characterize how quickly this switch occurs when cells begin to proliferate?
We have performed experiments to better understand how proliferating cells support mitochondrial fusion and to understand how quickly the switch occurs as cells begin to proliferate. Our results are consistent with mitochondrial fusion being supported by increased protein levels. The process occurs as fast as 3 hours after proliferation begins. We elaborate below.
The mechanisms underlying mitochondrial dynamics remain incompletely understood (Salazar-Roa et al., 2017). However, emerging evidence indicates that mitochondrial fusion is regulated (at least in part) by protein levels. Specifically, it has been suggested that OPA1 is regulated by proteolysis and Mfn1 and Mfn2 by ubiquitin-mediated degradation (van der Bliek et al., 2013). Accordingly, we examined the protein levels of Mfn1, Mfn2, and OPA1 in our quiescent and proliferating fibroblasts. Indeed, we observed that mitochondria in proliferating cells have significantly higher levels of Mfn1, Mfn2, and OPA1 compared to mitochondria in quiescent cells. These data are now presented in Figure 2—figure supplement 2 of the revised manuscript. These data support that mitochondrial fusion involves increasing protein levels.
To assess how quickly mitochondrial fusion begins after cells start to proliferate, we needed to switch models. Our contact-inhibition system is well suited to study the transition from proliferation to quiescence upon contact inhibition at 100% confluence. It is not possible, however, to study the reverse transition from quiescence to proliferation by using contact inhibition. As such, to address the reviewers’ question, we established quiescence in 3T3 fibroblasts by serum starvation. We then induced proliferation by re-introducing serum and quantified mitochondrial elongation at three different time points (3 hours, 16 hours, and 30 hours). As expected, we observed that serum-starved quiescent cells have significantly shorter mitochondria. Notably, in as fast as 3 hours after serum was reintroduced to induce proliferation, there was a statistically significant increase in mitochondrial length. Mitochondrial length continued to increase with time. These data were added as Figure 2—figure supplement 5B.
2) One could argue that Mfn2 loss decreases OXPHOS overall rather than specifically preventing OXPHOS gain during cell proliferation. Can the authors show whether Mfn2 loss also decreases OXPHOS in quiescent cells?
We agree with this suggestion and performed the recommended experiment. Knocking down Mfn2 in quiescent cells led to only a minimal decrease in OXPHOS (~5%) compared to the substantial decrease in OXPHOS we observed upon knocking down Mfn2 in proliferating cells (~30%) (Author response image 1).
Author response image 1
Comparison of Mfn2 knockdown on basal respiration in quiescent ( Q ) and proliferating ( P ) fibroblasts.
Loss of Mfn2 had only minimal effects on oxygen consumption rate (OCR) in quiescent cells but had a substantial impact on proliferating cells. This plot is derived from data shown in Figure 2E and … see more
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.028
Since mitochondria in quiescent fibroblasts are already extensively fragmented (Figure 2D), we predicted that loss of Mfn2 would have little to no effect on OXPHOS. When we measured the oxygen consumption rates of scrambled siRNA controls (SSC) and Mfn2 knockdowns in the quiescent state, we found only a small difference. This contrasts to the substantial differences observed for proliferating cells (Figure 2E-F). These new data, which support that Mfn2 loss prevents gain of OXPHOS during proliferation rather than merely decreasing OXPHOS overall, are presented in Figure 2—figure supplement 4 of the revised manuscript.
3) Because the main readout of Mfn2 silencing is reduced proliferation (i.e. loss of fitness), the key experiments need to be controlled for off-target toxicity by re-expressing an siRNA-resistant cDNA of Mfn2.
As the reviewers suggested, we constructed a codon-modified cDNA that expresses wildtype Mfn2 but is resistant to the siRNA added (please see source file for sequences for siRNA and siRNA-resistant Mfn2). Expression of this siRNA-resistant Mfn2 (Mfn2 res) in Mfn2 knockdowns restored Mfn2 protein level, mitochondrial respiration, and cellular proliferation. These data, which control for off-target toxicity, are presented in Figure 3—figure supplement 1 of the revised manuscript.
4) The M1 experiment is important because it would indicate that mitochondrial fusion is sufficient to drive proliferation. But more data are needed. Does this dose enhance fusion in these cells? Does it cause metabolic changes consistent with enhanced fusion? Is the effect on cell proliferation dose-dependent?
We agree with the reviewers that it is important to test whether increased mitochondrial fusion is sufficient to drive proliferation. In the original manuscript, we attempted to increase mitochondrial fusion pharmacologically with a drug known as M1. The reviewers suggested that we perform three M1-related experiments: (i) dose-response analysis for M1, (ii) quantify change in mitochondria length after M1 treatment, and (iii) analyze metabolic changes due to M1 treatment. We did these experiments but determined that M1 was not the best approach to test our predictions. Instead of using a drug to increase mitochondrial fusion, we found it to be more effective to overexpress Mfn2 in our wildtype 3T3 fibroblasts. As mentioned in response to point 1 above, previous studies have suggested that mitochondrial dynamics may be regulated by protein levels. Increasing levels of Mfn2 protein in fibroblasts increased mitochondrial respiration and cellular proliferation. Our results support that increased fusion is sufficient to drive proliferation.
First, we performed the three suggested experiments related to M1. Since we decided to remove M1 from the study (specifically Figure 3A in the original manuscript), we did not include these data in the revised manuscript.
We used EM imaging on DMSO controls and cells treated with M1. We did not observe a statistically significant difference between controls and M1-treated cells. Similarly, we did not observe a statistically significant difference in respiration between control cells and M1-treated cells.
Based on these data, M1 treatment did not induce enough mitochondrial fusion in our system to test whether an increase in mitochondrial fusion is sufficient to drive proliferation with the M1 drug. As an alternative strategy to test this prediction, we overexpressed wildtype Mfn2 (Mfn2 res) in wildtype 3T3 fibroblasts. The overexpression resulted in a ~2-fold increase in protein level from whole-cell lysate (Figure 3—figure supplement 2A). The increase in protein led to a significant increase in mitochondrial respiration (Figure 3—figure supplement 2B) and a significant increase in proliferation rate (Figure 3—figure supplement 2C). These data are presented in Figure 3—figure supplement 2 of the revised manuscript.
5) Any insights into how HRAS induces PGC1α would improve the paper. The authors should also cite Weinberg et al. (2010) which first reported the role of oncogenic HRAS and KRAS on ROS and respiration.
We thank the reviewers for providing this reference, which we now cite. In terms of how HRAS induces PGC1α, the exact signaling cascade is not well defined (Dard et al., 2018). To the best of our knowledge, two pathways have been suggested as a potential link: the ERK/AMPK pathway (López-Cotarelo et al., 2015; Weinberg et al., 2010) and the KSR1 pathway (Fisher et al., 2011).
Based on these previous studies, we analyzed the expression levels and phosphorylation levels of ERK, AMPK, and KSR1. Phosphorylated AMPK and phosphorylated KSR1 were not detected. AMPK and KSR1 were not changed between empty vector controls (EV) and Ras transformed fibroblasts (Ras). We also did not observe any difference in Erk1/2 and phospho-Erk1/2 levels. These data are presented in Figure 4—figure supplement 2. They suggest that the mechanism for how Ras induces PGC1α in our fibroblast system may not involve a change in the ERK/AMPK or KSR1 pathways as has been suggested for other cells.
6) Are some of these metabolic changes enabled by changes in membrane transporter expression? Assessing the levels of SLC7A11 (cystine-driven glutamine anaplerosis) and SLC1A2/3 (glutamate/aspartate uptake) in the quiescent and proliferating states with and without Mfn2 expression might help explain some of these changes.
The metabolic changes that we observe do not seem to be enabled by changes in expression of the SLC7A11 or SLC1A2/3 membrane transporters between proliferating and quiescent cells. Consistent with this idea, however, we did find that cystine uptake was elevated by over 2-fold in wildtype proliferating cells compared to wildtype quiescent cells. In contrast, when Mfn2 was knocked down, cystine uptake was decreased by ~40%. Thus, while the observed metabolic changes may not be enabled by differential expression of membrane transporters, they do seem to be enabled by differential activity of the transporters.
We first analyzed the protein level of the cystine/glutamate transporter, SLC7A11, in quiescent and proliferating fibroblasts, with and without Mfn2 expression. We did not observe any differences in protein expression. In the revised manuscript, these data are shown in Figure 1—figure supplement 2A and Figure 3—figure supplement 3D. We combine the data here for convenience in Author response image 2.
Author response image 2
Immunoblot of SLC7A11 from whole-cell lysates for scrambled siRNA control cells in the quiescent state (SSC_Q), siRNA control cells in the proliferating state (SSC_P), Mfn2 knockdown cells in the quiescent state (Mfn2 KD _Q), and Mfn2 knockdown cells in the proliferating state (Mfn2 KD _P).
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.029
To test whether the metabolic changes observed could be enabled by changes in transporter activity (independent of expression level), we evaluated the consumption rate of cystine. Strikingly, we found that cystine uptake was elevated by over two-fold in proliferating fibroblasts compared to quiescent fibroblasts. In contrast, when Mfn2 was knocked down, cystine uptake decreased by ~40%. These data were added as Figure 1—figure supplement 2 and Figure 3—figure supplement 3D.
As the reviewers suggested, we also assessed the protein levels of the glutamate/aspartate transporter SLC1A2/3 (Excitatory Amino Acid Transporter, EAAT2/1). In addition, we assessed the protein level of another glutamate/aspartate transporter SLC1A1 (EAAT3). Proliferation did not affect the protein expression of any of these transporters, while Mfn2 knockdown seemed to decrease the expression of SLC1A3 but not SLC1A1/2 (see Author response image 3). Since these transporters can carry amino acids in either direction (i.e., in or out of a cell), it is difficult to interpret whether this change in transporter expression is the cause of the change in uptake or excretion rates observed in Figure 3B,3E.
Author response image 3
Immunoblot of SLC1A1/2/3 transporters from whole-cell lysates for scrambled siRNA control cells in the quiescent state (SSC_Q), siRNA control cells in the proliferating state (SSC_P), Mfn2 knockdown cells in the quiescent state (Mfn2 KD _Q), and Mfn2 knockdown cells in the proliferating state (Mfn2 KD _P).
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.030
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.41351.032
Article and author information
Author details
Cong-Hui Yao
Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, United States
Contribution
Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—original draft, Project administration, Writing—review and editing
Competing interests
No competing interests declared
"This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0003-3922-1874
Rencheng Wang
Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, United States
Contribution
Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing—review and editing
Competing interests
No competing interests declared
Yahui Wang
Department of Chemistry, Washington University, St. Louis, United States
Contribution
Project administration, Writing—review and editing
Competing interests
No competing interests declared
Che-Pei Kung
Division of Molecular Oncology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
Contribution
Resources, Methodology, Project administration, Writing—review and editing
Competing interests
No competing interests declared
"This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0002-1150-4998
Jason D Weber
Division of Molecular Oncology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
Contribution
Resources, Supervision, Writing—review and editing
Competing interests
No competing interests declared
Gary J Patti
Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, United States
Contribution
Conceptualization, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—original draft, Writing—review and editing
For correspondence
gjpattij@wustl.edu
Competing interests
GJP is a scientific advisory board member for Cambridge Isotope Laboratories and a recipient of the Agilent Early Career Professor Award.
"This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0002-3748-6193
Funding
National Institutes of Health (R35ES028365)
Gary J Patti
National Institutes of Health (R24OD024624)
Gary J Patti
National Institutes of Health (U01CA235482)
Gary J Patti
Pew Charitable Trusts
Gary J Patti
Edward Mallinckrodt, Jr. Foundation
Gary J Patti
The funders had no role in study design, data collection and interpretation, or the decision to submit the work for publication.
Acknowledgements
We thank Wandy Beatty and the Molecular Microbiology Core at Washington University for their support in imaging cells and mitochondria. We thank Gao-Yuan Liu for his discussion in experimental design. We thank Xiangfeng Niu for preparing the mitochondrial isolation solution.
Senior Editor
Andrea Musacchio, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Germany
Reviewing Editor
Ralph DeBerardinis, UT Southwestern Medical Center, United States
Publication history
Received: August 23, 2018
Accepted: December 21, 2018
Version of Record published: January 29, 2019 (version 1)
Copyright
© 2019, Yao et al.
This article is distributed under the terms of theCreative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use and redistribution provided that the original author and source are credited.
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Categories and tags
Research Article
Cancer Biology
Cell Biology
oxidative phosphorylation
mitochondrial fusion
cell proliferation
warburg effect
metabolism
cancer
Research organisms
Human
Mouse
| https://elifesciences.org/articles/41351 |
Administración intravesical de fármacos electromotrices para el cáncer de vejiga sin invasión muscular - Jung, JH - 2017 | Cochrane Library
Administration, Intravesical; Antibiotics, Antineoplastic [*administration & dosage]; BCG Vaccine [administration & dosage]; Carcinoma in Situ [*drug therapy, mortality, pathology]; Carcinoma, Transitional Cell [*drug therapy, mortality, pathology]; Disease Progression; Electrochemotherapy [adverse effects, *methods]; Mitomycin [*administration & dosage]; Neoplasm Recurrence, Local; Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; Time Factors; Urinary Bladder Neoplasms [*drug therapy, mortality, pathology]
Administración intravesical de fármacos electromotrices para el cáncer de vejiga sin invasión muscular
Information
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011864.pub2 Copy DOI
Database:
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
Version published:
12 September 2017 see what's new
Type:
Intervention
Stage:
Review
Cochrane Editorial Group:
Cochrane Urology Group
Copyright:
Article metrics
Altmetric:
Authors
Jae Hung Jung
Correspondence to:Department of Urology, Yonsei University Wonju College of Medicine, Wonju, Korea, South
geneuro95@yonsei.ac.kr
Department of Urology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
Urology Section, Minneapolis VA Health Care System, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
Contributions of authors
JHJ: study selection, extracting data, assessing risk of bias, performing data analysis, interpretation of data and drafting review.
AG: drafting the protocol and review, searching for trials, study selection and extracting data.
HK: searching for trials and study selection.
GMK: creating search strategies and search for trials.
AM: assessing risk of bias, providing general advice on the review, critical content review and final approval.
BK: providing critical content review and final approval.
PD: assessing risk of bias, interpretation of data, methodological/clinical advice on the review and final approval.
Sources of support
Internal sources
Minneapolis VA Health Care System, USA.
University of Minnesota Department of Urology, USA.
External sources
No sources of support supplied
Declarations of interest
JHJ: none known.
AG: none known.
HK: none known.
GMK: none known.
AM: none known.
BK: none known.
PD: none known.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the work of Molly M. Neuberger as former Managing Editor of Cochrane Urology in the preparation of the protocol. We are very grateful to Maximilian Burger, Sam Chang and Robert Siemens for their critical appraisal of this review as part of the peer review process. We thank Cochrane Urology and its current Managing Editor Alea Miller for supporting this title.
Version history
Published
Title
Stage
Authors
Version
2017 Sep 12
Intravesical electromotive drug administration for non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer
Review
Jae Hung Jung, Ahmet Gudeloglu, Halil Kiziloz, Gretchen M Kuntz, Alea Miller, Badrinath R Konety, Philipp Dahm
https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011864.pub2
2015 Sep 09
Intravesical electromotive drug administration for non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer
Protocol
Ahmet Gudeloglu, Halil Kiziloz, Molly M Neuberger, Gretchen M Kuntz, Philipp Dahm
https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011864
Differences between protocol and review
Types of interventions: we added TURBT without intravesical instillation as a comparator.
Types of outcome measures: we renamed primary and secondary outcomes and added details in the 'Methods' section to describe the measurement of all outcomes.
Selection of studies, data extraction and management, assessment of risk of bias in included studies, dealing with missing data, assessment of heterogeneity, data synthesis, summary of findings table for each comparison: we updated these sections to use the current standard template language of Cochrane Urology.
Data extraction and management: we added a section 'Dealing with duplicate and companion publications.'
Assessment of risk of bias in included studies: we redefined subjective and objective outcomes according to current methodological expectations by Cochrane Urology.
We rated the QoE for all outcomes (not only those included in the SoF)
Keywords
MeSH
Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) Keywords
Administration, Intravesical;
Antibiotics, Antineoplastic [*administration & dosage];
BCG Vaccine [administration & dosage];
Carcinoma in Situ [*drug therapy, mortality, pathology];
Carcinoma, Transitional Cell [*drug therapy, mortality, pathology];
Disease Progression;
Electrochemotherapy [adverse effects, *methods];
Mitomycin [*administration & dosage];
Neoplasm Recurrence, Local;
Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic;
Time Factors;
Urinary Bladder Neoplasms [*drug therapy, mortality, pathology];
Medical Subject Headings Check Words
Humans;
PICOs
PICOs
Population
Intervention
Comparison
Outcome
The PICO model is widely used and taught in evidence-based health care as a strategy for formulating questions and search strategies and for characterizing clinical studies or meta-analyses. PICO stands for four different potential components of a clinical question: Patient, Population or Problem; Intervention; Comparison; Outcome.
Figures and Tables -
Figure 1
Study flow diagram.
Figures and Tables -
Figure 2
Risk of bias graph: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item presented as percentages across all included studies.
Figures and Tables -
Figure 3
Risk of bias summary: review authors' judgements about each risk of bias item for each included study.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 1.1
Comparison 1 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus postoperative BCG induction (short term), Outcome 1 Time to recurrence.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 1.2
Comparison 1 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus postoperative BCG induction (short term), Outcome 2 Time to progression.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 1.3
Comparison 1 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus postoperative BCG induction (short term), Outcome 3 Serious adverse events.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 1.4
Comparison 1 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus postoperative BCG induction (short term), Outcome 4 Disease‐specific survival.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 1.5
Comparison 1 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus postoperative BCG induction (short term), Outcome 5 Time to death.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 2.1
Comparison 2 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus MMC‐PD induction (short term), Outcome 1 Time to recurrence.
Navigate to figure in Review Print figure Open in new tab
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 2.2
Comparison 2 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus MMC‐PD induction (short term), Outcome 2 Time to progression.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 2.3
Comparison 2 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus MMC‐PD induction (short term), Outcome 3 Serious adverse events.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 2.4
Comparison 2 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus MMC‐PD induction (short term), Outcome 4 Disease‐specific survival.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 2.5
Comparison 2 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus MMC‐PD induction (short term), Outcome 5 Time to death.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 3.1
Comparison 3 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA with sequential BCG induction and maintenance versus postoperative BCG induction and maintenance (long term), Outcome 1 Time to recurrence.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 3.2
Comparison 3 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA with sequential BCG induction and maintenance versus postoperative BCG induction and maintenance (long term), Outcome 2 Time to progression.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 3.3
Comparison 3 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA with sequential BCG induction and maintenance versus postoperative BCG induction and maintenance (long term), Outcome 3 Serious adverse events.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 3.4
Comparison 3 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA with sequential BCG induction and maintenance versus postoperative BCG induction and maintenance (long term), Outcome 4 Disease‐specific survival.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 3.5
Comparison 3 Postoperative MMC‐EMDA with sequential BCG induction and maintenance versus postoperative BCG induction and maintenance (long term), Outcome 5 Time to death.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 4.1
Comparison 4 Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus single‐dose, postoperative MMC‐PD (long term), Outcome 1 Time to recurrence.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 4.2
Comparison 4 Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus single‐dose, postoperative MMC‐PD (long term), Outcome 2 Time to progression.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 4.3
Comparison 4 Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus single‐dose, postoperative MMC‐PD (long term), Outcome 3 Serious adverse events.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 4.4
Comparison 4 Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus single‐dose, postoperative MMC‐PD (long term), Outcome 4 Disease‐specific survival.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 4.5
Comparison 4 Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus single‐dose, postoperative MMC‐PD (long term), Outcome 5 Time to death.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 4.6
Comparison 4 Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus single‐dose, postoperative MMC‐PD (long term), Outcome 6 Minor adverse events.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 5.1
Comparison 5 Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus TURBT alone (long term), Outcome 1 Time to recurrence.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 5.2
Comparison 5 Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus TURBT alone (long term), Outcome 2 Time to progression.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 5.3
Comparison 5 Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus TURBT alone (long term), Outcome 3 Serious adverse events.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 5.4
Comparison 5 Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus TURBT alone (long term), Outcome 4 Disease‐specific survival.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 5.5
Comparison 5 Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus TURBT alone (long term), Outcome 5 Time to death.
Figures and Tables -
Analysis 5.6
Comparison 5 Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus TURBT alone (long term), Outcome 6 Minor adverse events.
Summary of findings for the main comparison. Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus postoperative BCG induction therapy for non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer
Participants:people with non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer (multifocal carcinoma in situ or concurrent pT1, or both)
Setting:multicentre study in Italy (all comparisons in the review stemmed from same study group)
Intervention:initial 6 MMC‐EMDA intravesical instillations at weekly interval about 3 weeks after TURBT
Control:initial 6 BCG intravesical instillations at weekly interval about 3 weeks after TURBT
Outcomes
No of participants (studies)
Quality of the evidence (GRADE)
Relative effect (95% CI)
Anticipated absolute effects* (95% CI)
Risk with BCG
Risk difference with postoperative MMC‐EMDA
Time to recurrence
Follow‐up: mean 3 months
72(1 RCT)
⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low 1,2
RR 1.06(0.64 to 1.76)
Study population
444 per 1000
27 more per 1000(160 fewer to 338 more)
Moderate
500 per 1000 3
30 more per 1000(180 fewer to 380 more)
Time to progression
Follow‐up: mean 3 months
72(1 RCT)
⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low 1,4
Not estimable
Study population
‐
‐
Serious adverse events
Follow‐up: mean 3 months
72(1 RCT)
⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low 1,2
RR 0.75(0.18 to 3.11)
Study population
111 per 1000
28 fewer per 1000(91 fewer to 234 more)
High
60 per 1000 5
15 fewer per 1000(49 fewer to 127 more)
Disease‐specific survival
Follow‐up: mean 3 months
72(1 RCT)
⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low 1,4
Not estimable
Study population
‐
‐
Disease‐specific quality of life‐ not reported
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
* The risk in the intervention group(and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effectof the intervention (and its 95% CI).
BCG:Bacillus Calmette‐Guérin; CI:confidence interval; MMC‐EMDA:electromotive drug administration of mitomycin C; RCT:randomised controlled trial; RR:risk ratio; TURBT:transurethral resection of bladder tumour.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High quality:We are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate quality:We are moderately confident in the effect estimate: The true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low quality:Our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: The true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low quality:We have very little confidence in the effect estimate: The true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
1Downgraded by one level for study limitations: unclear risk of selection bias and high risk of performance, detection and other bias.
2Downgraded by two level for imprecision: confidence interval was wide and crossed assumed clinically meaningful threshold.
3Gontero 2016: recurrence rate of bladder cancer after TURBT with postoperative six induction instillations of BCG was 50.7% on median follow‐up of 5.2 years.
4Downgraded by one level for imprecision: no event.
5Witjes 1998: incidence of systemic adverse events after TURBT with postoperative BCG instillations for 6 consecutive weeks was 6% on a long‐term median follow‐up of more than 7 years.
Figures and Tables -
Summary of findings for the main comparison. Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus postoperative BCG induction therapy for non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer
Navigate to table in Review
Summary of findings 2. Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus MMC‐PD induction therapy for non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer
Participants:people with non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer (carcinoma in situ or concurrent pT1, or both)
Setting:multicentre study in Italy (all comparisons in the review stemmed from same study group)
Intervention:initial 6 MMC‐EMDA intravesical instillations at weekly interval about 3 weeks after TURBT
Control:initial 6 MMC‐PD intravesical instillations at weekly interval about 3 weeks after TURBT
Outcomes
No of participants (studies)
Quality of the evidence (GRADE)
Relative effect (95% CI)
Anticipated absolute effects* (95% CI)
Risk with MMC‐PD
Risk difference with postoperative MMC‐EMDA
Time to recurrence
Follow‐up: mean 3 months
72(1 RCT)
⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low 1,2
RR 0.65(0.44 to 0.98)
Study population
722 per 1000
253 fewer per 1000(404 fewer to 14 fewer)
Moderate
420 per 1000 3
147 fewer per 1000(235 fewer to 8 fewer)
Time to progression
Follow‐up: mean 3 months
72(1 RCT)
⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low 1,4
Not estimable
Study population
‐
‐
Serious adverse events
Follow‐up: mean 3 months
72(1 RCT)
⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low 1,5
RR 1.50(0.27 to 8.45)
Study population
56 per 1000
28 more per 1000(41 fewer to 414 more)
High
30 per 1000 3
15 more per 1000(22 fewer to 223 more)
Disease‐specific survival
Follow‐up: mean 3 months
72(1 RCT)
⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low 1,4
Not estimable
Study population
‐
‐
Disease‐specific quality of life‐ not reported
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
* The risk in the intervention group(and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effectof the intervention (and its 95% CI).
CI:confidence interval; MMC‐EMDA:electromotive drug administration of mitomycin C; MMC‐PD:passive diffusion of mitomycin C; RCT:randomised controlled trial; RR:risk ratio; TURBT:transurethral resection of bladder tumour.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High quality:We are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate quality:We are moderately confident in the effect estimate: The true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low quality:Our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: The true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low quality:We have very little confidence in the effect estimate: The true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
1Downgraded by one level for study limitations: unclear risk of selection bias, high risk of performance, detection and other bias.
2Downgraded by one level for imprecision: confidence interval crossed assumed clinically meaningful threshold.
3Witjes 1998: recurrence rate of bladder cancer after TURBT with postoperative MMC‐PD instillations (total 5 instillations) was 42.8% and incidence of systemic adverse events was 3% based on a long‐term median follow‐up of more than 7 years.
4Downgraded by one level for imprecision: no event.
5Downgraded by two level for imprecision: confidence interval was wide and crossed assumed clinically meaningful threshold.
Figures and Tables -
Summary of findings 2. Postoperative MMC‐EMDA induction versus MMC‐PD induction therapy for non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer
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Summary of findings 3. Postoperative MMC‐EMDA with sequential BCG induction and maintenance versus postoperative BCG induction and maintenance therapy for non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer
Participants:people with non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer (pT1 or carcinoma in situ of the bladder, or both)
Setting:multicentre study in Italy (all comparisons in the review stemmed from same study group)
Intervention:initial 3 cycles of MMC‐EMDA with BCG intravesical instillation (cycle: 2 BCG followed by 1 MMC‐EMDA) at weekly interval about 3 weeks after TURBT, and 3 cycles of MMC‐EMDA with BCG intravesical instillations (monthly instillation, cycle: 2 MMC‐EMDA followed by 1 BCG) for 9 months
Control:initial 6 BCG intravesical instillations at weekly interval about 3 weeks after TURBT, and BCG monthly instillation for 10 months
Outcomes
No of participants (studies)
Quality of the evidence (GRADE)
Relative effect (95% CI)
Anticipated absolute effects* (95% CI)
Risk with BCG
Risk difference with postoperative MMC‐EMDA with BCG
Time to recurrence
Follow‐up: median 88 months
212(1 RCT)
⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low 1,2
HR 0.51(0.34 to 0.77)
Study population
581 per 1000
223 fewer per 1000(325 fewer to 93 fewer)
Moderate
430 per 1000 3
181 fewer per 1000(256 fewer to 79 fewer)
Time to progression
Follow‐up: median 88 months
212(1 RCT)
⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low 1,2
HR 0.36(0.17 to 0.75)
Study population
215 per 1000
132 fewer per 1000(175 fewer to 49 fewer)
Moderate
100 per 1000 3
63 fewer per 1000(82 fewer to 24 fewer)
Serious adverse events
Follow‐up: median 88 months
212(1 RCT)
⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low 4,5
RR 1.02(0.21 to 4.94)
Study population
28 per 1000
1 more per 1000(22 fewer to 110 more)
High
70 per 1000 3
1 more per 1000(55 fewer to 276 more)
Disease‐specific survival
Follow‐up: median 88 months
212(1 RCT)
⊕⊕⊝⊝ Low 1,2
HR 0.31(0.12 to 0.80)
Study population
159 per 1000
107 fewer per 1000(138 fewer to 30 fewer)
Moderate
60 per 1000 3
41 fewer per 1000(53 fewer to 12 fewer)
Disease‐specific quality of life‐ not reported
‐
4Witjes 1998: incidence of systemic adverse events after TURBT with postoperative MMC‐PD instillations (total 5 instillations) was 3% based on a long‐term median follow‐up of more than 7 years.
Figures and Tables -
Summary of findings 4. Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus single‐dose, postoperative MMC‐PD for non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer
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Summary of findings 5. Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus TURBT alone for non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer
Participants:people with non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer (primary pTa and pT1 urothelial carcinoma)
Setting:multicentre study in Italy (all comparisons in the review stemmed from same study group)
Intervention:single MMC‐EMDA intravesical instillation about 30 minutes before spinal or general anaesthesia for TURBT
Control:TURBT alone
Outcomes
No of participants (studies)
Quality of the evidence (GRADE)
Relative effect (95% CI)
Anticipated absolute effects* (95% CI)
Risk with TURBT alone
Risk difference with preoperative MMC‐EMDA
Time to recurrence
Follow‐up: median 86 months
233(1 RCT)
HR 0.40(0.28 to 0.57)
Study population
638 per 1000
304 fewer per 1000(390 fewer to 198 fewer)
400 per 1000
215 fewer per 1000(267 fewer to 147 fewer)
High 2
700 per 1000
318 fewer per 1000(414 fewer to 203 fewer)
Time to progression
Follow‐up: median 86 months
233(1 RCT)
⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low 1,3
HR 0.74(0.00 to 247.93)
Study population
207 per 1000
20 per 1000
High 2
100 per 1000
Serious adverse events
Follow‐up: median 86 months
233(1 RCT)
⊕⊝⊝⊝ Very low 1,3
RR 1.74(0.52 to 5.77)
Study population
34 per 1000
26 more per 1000(17 fewer to 164 more)
30 per 1000
Disease‐specific survival
Follow‐up: median 86 months
233(1 RCT)
HR 1.06(0.80 to 1.40)
Study population
129 per 1000
20 per 1000
6 more per 1000(19 fewer to 37 more)
Disease‐specific quality of life‐ not reported
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
* The risk in the intervention group(and its 95% confidence interval) is based on the assumed risk in the comparison group and the relative effectof the intervention (and its 95% CI).
CI:confidence interval; HR:hazard ratio; MMC‐EMDA:electromotive drug administration of mitomycin C; RCT:randomised controlled trial; RR:risk ratio; TURBT:transurethral resection of bladder tumour.
GRADE Working Group grades of evidence High quality:We are very confident that the true effect lies close to that of the estimate of the effect. Moderate quality:We are moderately confident in the effect estimate: The true effect is likely to be close to the estimate of the effect, but there is a possibility that it is substantially different. Low quality:Our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: The true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect. Very low quality:We have very little confidence in the effect estimate: The true effect is likely to be substantially different from the estimate of effect.
1Downgraded by one level for study limitations: high risk of performance bias.
2Sylvester 2016: baseline risks of time to recurrence and progression, and disease‐specific survival were estimated from included studies in a systematic review and meta‐analysis of RCTs comparing the efficacy of a single instillation of MMC after TURBT with TURBT alone.
3Downgraded by two level for imprecision: confidence interval was wide and crossed assumed clinically meaningful threshold.
4Matulewicz 2015: rates of death and overall adverse events rate after TURBT were 2.8% and 5.8%.
5Downgraded by one level for imprecision: confidence interval crossed assumed clinically meaningful threshold.
Figures and Tables -
Summary of findings 5. Single‐dose, preoperative MMC‐EMDA versus TURBT alone for non‐muscle invasive bladder cancer
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Table 1. Baseline characteristics of included studies
Study name
Trial period (year to year)
Setting
Participants
Intervention(s) and comparator(s)
Description of intervention
Median age (years, interquartile range)
Disease characteristics (n)
Median follow‐up (months, interquartile range)
Di Stasi 2003
June 1994 to March 2001
Multicentre/Italy
People with histologically confirmed multifocal CIS of the bladder and most had concurrent pT1 papillary transitional‐cell carcinoma (all primary disease).
MMC‐EMDA induction after TURBT
6 intravesical instillation at weekly intervals.
64.5 (not reported)
Ta/T1: 0/32
Grade: not reported
CIS: 36
43 (not reported)
MMC‐PD induction after TURBT
68.5 (not reported)
Ta/T1: 0/33
Grade: not reported
CIS: 36
BCG induction after TURBT
66.5 (not reported)
Ta/T1: 0/33
Grade: not reported
CIS: 36
Di Stasi 2006
1 January 1994 to 30 June 2002
Multicentre/Italy
People with histologically confirmed stage pT1 transitional‐cell carcinoma of the bladder were regarded as being at high risk for tumour recurrence and at moderate to high risk for progression because of: multifocal pT1, primary or recurrent, grade 2 transitional‐cell carcinoma; primary or recurrent pT1, multifocal or solitary, grade 3 transitional‐cell carcinoma; or pT1 with CIS.
MMC‐EMDA with sequential BCG induction and maintenance after TURBT
Induction: 3 cycles of treatment per week for 9 weeks for which 1 cycle consisted of 2 BCG infusions and 1 MMC infusion
Maintenance: 1 infusion per month for 9 months: 3 cycles of MMC, MMC and BCG.
66.0 (56.0‐73.0)
Ta/T1: all T1 disease
Grade: 0/65/42
CIS: 29
88 (63‐110)
BCG induction and maintenance after TURBT
Induction: 6 intravesical treatments at weekly intervals
Maintenance: monthly infusion of BCG for 10 months.
67.0 (61.0‐73.0)
Ta/T1: all T1 disease
Grade: 0/64/41
CIS: 28
Di Stasi 2011
1 January 1994 to 31 December 2003
Multicentre/Italy
People with pTa and pT1 urothelial carcinoma.
Single‐dose, MMC‐EMDA before TURBT
Single intravesical instillation about 30 minutes before spinal or general anaesthesia.
67.0 (63.0‐74.0)
Ta/T1: 63/54
Grade: 22/62/33
CIS: not reported
86 (57‐125)
Single‐dose, MMC‐PD immediately after TURBT
Single intravesical instillation within 6 hours of TURBT.
67.0 (61.0‐72.0)
Ta/T1: 64/55
Grade: 23/64/32
CIS: not reported
TURBT alone
No intravesical instillation.
66.5 (60.0‐73.0)
Ta/T1: 63/53
Grade: 21/63/32
CIS: not reported
BCG: Bacillus Calmette‐Guérin; CIS: carcinoma in situ; MMC‐EMDA: electromotive drug administration of mitomycin C; MMC‐PD: passive diffusion of mitomycin C; TURBT: transurethral resection of bladder tumour.
Figures and Tables -
Table 1. Baseline characteristics of included studies
Navigate to table in Review
Table 2. Participants' disposition of included studies
Study name
Intervention(s) and comparator(s)
Screened/eligible (n)
Randomised (n)
Treatment completion (n (%))
Analysed (n (%))
Di Stasi 2003
MMC‐EMDA induction after TURBT
36 (100)
MMC‐PD induction after TURBT
36
36 (100)
BCG induction after TURBT
36 (100)
36 (100)
| https://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD011864.pub2/information/es |
Appendix B: Overview of the CNA Analyses | Strengthening Post-Hurricane Supply Chain Resilience: Observations from Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria |The National Academies Press
Read chapter Appendix B: Overview of the CNA Analyses: Resilient supply chains are crucial to maintaining the consistent delivery of goods and services to...
Chapter: Appendix B: Overview of the CNA Analyses
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix B: Overview of the CNA Analyses." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020.
Strengthening Post-Hurricane Supply Chain Resilience: Observations from Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria
. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25490.
Appendix B Overview of the CNA Analyses
The information gathering and analyses carried out by the CNA investigators is presented in the following references, also shared directly online athttps://www.cna.org/research/hurricane-supply-chain.
Palin, P. J. 2018. Learning from H.I.M. (Harvey, Irma, Maria): Preliminary impressions for supply chain resilience. Homeland Security Affairs 14, Article 7. https://www.hsaj.org/articles/14598 (accessed November 21, 2019)
Palin, P. J., L. S. Hanson, D. Barton, and A. Frohwein. 2018. Supply Chains and the 2017 Hurricane Season: A collection of case studies about Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria and their impact on supply chain resilience . Arlington, VA: CNA Analysis and Solutions
This work includes a detailed time line of the three hurricanes and their impacts in each of the main study areas, and a helpful overview of the basic supply chain dynamics for motor fuels, public water supply, and retail food (seeFigure B.1). Based on investigations and on-site field research in Texas (Houston and the Coastal Bend), Florida (Jacksonville, Orlando, and South Florida), Puerto Rico (San Juan, Comerio, and Yabucoa), and the U.S. Virgin Islands (Saint Croix), the CNA team then presents a series of case studies about key supply chains of interest (summarized inTable B.1). These include:
Case study 1, “Retail Resilience in Puerto Rico,” which examines the surprising resilience of the retail sector supplying food and fuel after Hurricane Maria.
Case study 2, “Static on the Relief Channel,” which investigates how food deliveries from the federal government created both real and perceived impacts on the retail food sector in Puerto Rico and caused spillover effects into other supply chains.
Case study 3, “Resupplying Metro Miami,” which examines Florida during Hurricane Irma, specifically, how fuel availability affected the transportation of food and other goods before, during, and after the hurricane.
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix B: Overview of the CNA Analyses." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020.
Strengthening Post-Hurricane Supply Chain Resilience: Observations from Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria
. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25490.
FIGURE B.1 Generalized supply chains schematics for motor fuels (top), food products (middle), and public water systems (bottom). SOURCE: Palin et al., 2018 .
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix B: Overview of the CNA Analyses." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020.
Strengthening Post-Hurricane Supply Chain Resilience: Observations from Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria
. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25490.
TABLE B.1CNA Case Studies’ Subjects, Hurricanes Involved, Affected Areas, and Supply Chains of Concern
Case Study Subject Storm Area Supply Chains Retail resilience Maria Puerto Rico Food, fuel Static on the relief channel Maria Puerto Rico Food Resupplying metro Miami Irma Florida Fuel, food Water networks after Harvey Harvey Texas Water Box: Irma and the Florida Keys Irma Florida Keys Water Constraints in optimized networks Retail cross-dock Irma Florida Food Fuel networks Irma Florida Fuel Ports Irma, Maria Puerto Rico General Manufacturing of intravenous fluids Irma, Maria Puerto Rico Medical
Case study 4, “Harvey Turns On (and Then Turns Off) the Tap,” which looks at how Hurricane Harvey affected water suppliers, and what hindered and helped their ability to recover.
Case study 5, “Constraints in Optimized Networks,” which looks at bottlenecks in supply chains in a variety of forms, using four examples from Florida and Puerto Rico.
An additional Case study 6, “External Factors—Debris and Donations,” is online only (not in the full report) and examines how specific local factors (post-storm debris management, unrequested donations) can influence the resilience of lifeline supply chains by changing the response environment and imposing burdens on local resources needed for disaster response.
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix B: Overview of the CNA Analyses." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020.
Strengthening Post-Hurricane Supply Chain Resilience: Observations from Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria
. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25490.
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix B: Overview of the CNA Analyses." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020.
Strengthening Post-Hurricane Supply Chain Resilience: Observations from Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria
. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25490.
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix B: Overview of the CNA Analyses." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020.
Strengthening Post-Hurricane Supply Chain Resilience: Observations from Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria
. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25490.
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix B: Overview of the CNA Analyses." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020.
Strengthening Post-Hurricane Supply Chain Resilience: Observations from Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria
. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25490.
Suggested Citation:
"Appendix B: Overview of the CNA Analyses." National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2020.
Strengthening Post-Hurricane Supply Chain Resilience: Observations from Hurricanes Harvey, Irma, and Maria
. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/25490.
Resilient supply chains are crucial to maintaining the consistent delivery of goods and services to the American people. The modern economy has made supply chains more interconnected than ever, while also expanding both their range and fragility. In the third quarter of 2017, Hurricanes Harvey, Irma and Maria revealed some significant vulnerabilities in the national and regional supply chains of Texas, Florida, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico. The broad impacts and quick succession of these three hurricanes also shed light on the effectiveness of the nation's disaster logistics efforts during response through recovery.
Drawing on lessons learned during the 2017 hurricanes, this report explores future strategies to improve supply chain management in disaster situations. This report makes recommendations to strengthen the roles of continuity planning, partnerships between civic leaders with small businesses, and infrastructure investment to ensure that essential supply chains will remain operational in the next major disaster. Focusing on the supply chains food, fuel, water, pharmaceutical, and medical supplies, the recommendations of this report will assist the Federal Emergency Management Agency as well as state and local officials, private sector decision makers, civic leaders, and others who can help ensure that supply chains remain robust and resilient in the face of natural disasters.
| https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/25490/chapter/10 |
Malsian Bajan Branch Post Office, Ludhiana 33, Punjab
Get Malsian Bajan post office address, pincode, phone number, Malsian Bajan speed post tracking, saving scheme and location map.
Malsian Bajan Post Office, Ludhiana
Malsian Bajan Post Officeis located at Malsian Bajan, Ludhianaof Punjab state. It is a branch office (B.O.). A Post Office (PO) / Dak Ghar is a facility in charge of sorting, processing, and delivering mail to recipients. POs are usually regulated and funded by the Government of India (GOI). Pin code of Malsian Bajan POis 142033. This Postoffice falls under Ludhiana Moffusil postal division of the Punjab postal circle. The related head P.O. for this branch office is Jagraon head post office and the related sub-post office (S.O.) for this branch office is Sidhwan Bet post office.
Malsian Bajan dak ghar offers all the postal services like delivery of mails & parcels, money transfer, banking, insurance and retail services. It also provides other services including passport applications, P.O. Box distribution, and other delivery services in Malsian Bajan. The official website fo this PO is http://www.indiapost.gov.in.
Types of Post Offices
are basically classified into 3 types, namely – Head Post Office, Sub-Post Office including E.D. Sub-Office and Branch Postoffice. Malsian Bajan P.O. is a Branch Post Office. So far as the public is concerned, there is basically no difference in the character of the service rendered by Sub-Post Offices and Head-Post Offices except in regard to a few Post Office Savings Bank (SB) transactions. Certain Sub Post Offices do not undertake all types of postal business. Facilities are generally provided at Branch Post Offices for the main items of postal work like delivery and dispatch of mails, booking of registered articles and parcels accepting SB deposits and effecting SB withdrawals, and issue and payment of money orders, though in a restricted manner.
Post Office Type Head Post Office Sub-Post Offices including E.D. Sub-Offices Branch Post Office
Malsian Bajan Post Office & Its Pin Code
Branch Office Information
Malsian Bajan Post Office Services
Mail Services
Parcels
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Speed Post
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Savings Bank (SB) Account
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Monthly Income Scheme (MIS)
Monthly Public Provident Fund (PPF)
Time Deposit (TD)
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About India Post
Malsian Bajan Post Office & Its Pin Code
Often Post Offices are named after the town / village / location they serve. The Malsian Bajan Post Office has the Postal Index Number or Pin Code 142033. A Pincode is a 6 digit post code of postal numbering system used by India Post. The first digit indicates one of the regions. The first 2 digits together indicate the sub region or one of the postal circles. The first 3 digits together indicate a sorting / revenue district. The last 3 digits refer to the delivery post office type.
P.O. Name Malsian Bajan PO Pincode 142 033
The first digit of 142033 Pin Code '1' represents the region, to which this Post Office of Malsian Bajan belongs to. The first two digits of the Pincode '14' represent the sub region, i.e, Punjab. The first 3 digits '142' represent the post-office revenue district, i.e, Ludhiana Moffusil. The last 3 digits, i.e, '033' represent the Malsian Bajan Delivery Branch Office.
Branch Office Information
The Malsian Bajan Post Office is a branch office. The Delivery Status for this PO is that it has delivery facility. Postal division name for this Dak Ghar is Ludhiana Moffusil, which falls under Chandigarh Hq region. The circle name for this PO is Punjab and it falls under Ludhiana Taluka and Ludhiana District. The state in which this Dakghar is situated or located is Punjab. The related head postoffice is Jagraon post office and the related sub post office is Sidhwan Bet post-office. The phone number of Malsian Bajan post office is unavailable at present.
PO Type Branch Office Delivery Status Delivery Postal Division Ludhiana Moffusil Postal Region Chandigarh Hq Postal Circle Punjab Town / City / Tehsil / Taluka / Mandal Ludhiana District Ludhiana State Punjab Related Sub PO Sidhwan Bet Sub Office Related Head PO Jagraon Head Post Office
Malsian Bajan Post Office Services
Traditionally the primary function of Malsian Bajan post office was collection, processing, transmission and delivery of mails but as of today, a Post Office offers many other vital services in addition to its traditional services. The additional services provided by a Dak Ghar include – Mail Services, Financial Services, Retail Services and Premium Services.
Mail Services
Mail Services are the basic services provided by Malsian Bajan P.O. Mails and mail services include all or any postal articles whose contents are in the form of message which may include Letters, Postcards, Inland letter cards, packets or parcels, Ordinary mails etc.
Parcels
Mail Service also includes transmission and delivery of Parcels. A parcel can be anything ranging from a single written letter or anything addressed to an addressee. No parcel shall be by any chance be in a shape, way of packing or any other feature, such that it cannot be carried or transmitted by post or cause serious inconvenience or risk. Every parcel (including service parcels) that needs to be transmitted by post must be handed over at the window of the post office. Any parcel found in a letter box will be treated and charged as a registered parcel. Delivery services are provided by some selected delivery and branch post offices. This dakghar have the facility of delivery, thus the people of Malsian Bajan and nearby localities can avail all the types of mail services.
Retail Services
Post offices in India serve in various ways and Malsian Bajan Post Office offer most of the retail services. They offer the facility to accept or collect constomer bills like telephone or mobile bills, electricity bills for Government and private organizations through Retail Post. Some of the aditional agency services that Post offices offers through retail services are as follows - Telephone revenue collection, e-Ticketing for Road Transport Corporations and Airlines, Sale of UPSC forms, university applications, Sale of Passport application forms, Sale of Gold Coins, Forex Services, Sale of SIM and recharge coupons, Sale of India Telephone cards, e-Ticketing of Railway tickets etc. The postal customers of Malsian Bajan can pay their bills and avail other retail services from this Dak Ghar.
Premium Services
Most of the premium services can be availed by the Malsian Bajan peoples and nearby living people. The premium services provided by Malsian Bajan Post Office are - Speed Post, Business Post, Express Parcel Post, Media Post, Greeting Post, and Logistics Post.
Speed Post
Speed Post is a time bound service in express delivery of letters and parcels. The max weight up to which an article or parcel be sent is 35 kgs between any two specified stations in India. Speed Post delivers 'Value for money' to everyone and everywhere, delivering Speed Post upto 50 grams @ INR 35 across the country and local Speed Post upto 50 grams @ INR 15, excluding applicable Service Tax. Kindly check official website for updated Speed Post service charges.
India Post Speed Post Tracking
Speed Post offers a facility of on-line tracking and tracing that guarantees reliability, speed and customer friendly service. Using a 13 digit barcode that makes a Speed Post consignment unique and identifiable. A web-based technology (www.indiapost.gov.in/speednettracking.aspx) helps the Malsian Bajan customers track Speed Post consignments from booking to delivery.
Tracking System
Except Speed Post, India Post also allows people to track their order information for certain products like Parcels, Insured letters, Speed Post, Registered Post, Electronic Money Orders (EMO) and Electronic value payable parcel (EVPPs) etc. The tracking number is available on the receipt given at Malsian Bajan Post Office. Using the tracking number postal customers can find out the date and time of dispatch of an article at various locations. The time of booking and the time of delivery of article.
India Post Tracking Number Formats
Different types of postal service have different kinds of tracking number formats. The tracking number for Express Parcel is a 13 digit alphanumeric format. The format for Express Parcel is XX000000000XX. The tracking number for a Registered Mail is a 13 digit alphanumeric number and its format is RX123456789IN. But a Electronic Money Order (EMO) has a 18 digit tracking number and its format is 000000000000000000. For domestic Speed Post (EMS) there is a 13 digit alphanumeric tracking number with the format EE123456789IN.
Bharatiya Dak Ghar Seva Tracking Number Format Number of Digits Electronic Money Order (eMO) 000000000000000000 18 Express Parcel XX000000000XX 13 International EMS Artilces to be delivered in India EE123456789XX 13 Registered Mail RX123456789IN 13 Speed Post (EMS) Domestic EE123456789IN 13
Express Parcel Post
In Express Parcel Post, the Malsian Bajan postal customer gets time bound delivery of parcels. These parcels will be transmitted through air or any other fastest mean available at that time. Minimum chargeable weight for which Express Parcel consignments will be booked is 0.5 Kg. Maximum weight of Express Parcel consignments which shall be booked across the Post Office counter by a retail customer shall be 20 Kg and maximum weight that can be booked by corporate customer is 35 kgs.
Media Post
India Post offers a unique way or concept to help the Indian corporate organisations and the Government organizations reach potential customers through media post. Through media post people can advertise on postcards, letters, aerogramme, postal stationary etc. Customers get to see the logo or message of the respective corporate or government organizations. The Aerogramme even gives the organizations the opportunity to make their product have a global impact.
Greetings Post
Greeting Post is yet another innovative or unique step by India Post. It consists of a card with an envelope with pre-printed and pre attached postage stamp on the envelope. The stamp on the envelope is a replica of the design that appears upon the card but in miniature form. Thus there is no need affix postage stamps on the envelope implicitly saving your time of going to post offices and standing in the queue. All the rules and that are applicable for the postage dues will also be applicable to the Greeting Post.
Logistics Post
Logistics Post manages the entire transmission and distribution side of the parcels. It deals with collection of goods, storage of goods, carriage and distribution of the various parcels or goods, from order preparation to order fulfilment. And that too at the minimum possible price. Logistics Post services provides the Malsian Bajan postal customer with cost-effective and efficient distribution across the entire country.
ePost Office
The advent of internet made communication very rapid through emails. But, the internet has not yet reached most of the rural parts of India. To change this division between rural & urban life, and to get the benefit of internet technology to Malsian Bajan people's lives, Indian Postal Department has introduced e-post. e-post is a service in which personalized handwritten messages of customers are scanned and sent as email through internet. And at the destination address office, these messages are again printed, enveloped and delivered through postmen at the postal addresses. E-post centres are established in the Post Offices, covering a large geographical area including major cities and districts. These e-post centres are well equipped with internet connection, scanners, printers and other necessary hardware equipment. However, this e-post service doesn’t particularly need a e-post centre, but can this facility can be availed at any normal Post Office or you can visit www.epostoffice.gov.in to access postal services on your desktop, laptop or even on mobile. If a message is booked at Malsian Bajan post office, the post is scanned and sent to an e-post centre by e-mail and a mail received at e-post centre is printed and sent to nearby Post Office for dispatch.
A Malsian Bajan customer can also avail these services of an e-post, at his/ her home. All he/ she has do is to register as a user at www.epostoffice.gov.in website. After registration, a user can use e-post by scanning and sending messages, printing and receive messages. The message to be scanned must not be written in a paper not more A4. There is no limit for sending number of sheets of messages in e-post.
E-Post Office offers certain services like – Philately, Postal Life Insurance, Electronic Indian Postal Order, Information Services, Track & Trace and Complaints & Guidelines services.
Philately
Philately service deals with collection, sale and study of postage stamps. Philately includes lot of services Philately Information, Stamp issue Program, Stamps List and Buy Stamps service.
Postal Life Insurance (PLI)
A service offered by the Government to pay a given amount of money on the death of an individual to his prescribed nominee. The amount may also be paid to the person himself, in case he survives that maturity period. The two services offered under Postal Life Insurance are – Pay Premium service and PLI information.
Electronic Indian Postal Order
eIPO or Electronic Indian Postal Order is a facility to purchase an Indian Postal Order electronically by paying a fee on-line through e-Post Office. This service is launched by the Department of Posts, Ministry of Communications & IT, Government of India.
eIPO can now be used by Indian Citizens living in India for paying online fee, whoever seeks information under the RTI Act, 2005. eIPO offers 2 types of services – eIPO information and payment of online fees.
Information Services
This helps Malsian Bajan customers to get information regarding certain products like – Pin Code search, Speed post, Banking, Insurance, Business Post, Logistics Post, IMTS and many more other services.
Track & Trace
The track & trace service is very helpful as it aids in getting information of our valuables. Track & Trace service offers 5 different services – Pin Code search, EMO tracking, Speed Post tracking, WNX tracking and International mail service.
Complaints & Guidelines
Using e-post office service Malsian Bajan postal costumer can access services based on – complaint registration, complaint status and guidelines on complaints.
ePost Office Website www.epostoffice.gov.in
Financial Services
The customers of Malsian Bajan can enjoy the various savings schemes available in this post office that prove to be highly beneficial for the people living in Malsian Bajan area. The Financial service offered by PO includes Savings and Postal Life Insurance (PLI). There are various options available to save and invest with post-offices. The commonly used ones include - Savings account, Recurring Deposit, Monthly Income Scheme, Monthly Public Provident Fund, Time Deposit, Senior Citizen Saving Scheme, National Savings Certificate, Kisan Vikas Patra and Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana. Post Office also offers Insurance product through Postal Life Insurance (PLI) and Rural Postal Life Insurance (RPLI) schemes that offer low premium and high bonus.
Post Office Financial Services Kisan Vikas Patra (KVP) Monthly Income Scheme (MIS) Monthly Public Provident Fund (PPF) National Savings Certificate (NSC) Recurring Deposit (RD) Account Savings Bank (SB) Account Senior Citizen Saving Scheme (SCSS) Sukanya Samriddhi Accounts (SSA) Time Deposit (TD)
Savings Bank (SB) Account
A Savings bank account serves the need of regular deposits for its customers as well as withdrawals. Cheque facility is also avail by Malsian Bajan postal consumers.
Recurring Deposit (RD) Account
A post office offers a monthly investment option with handsome return at the time period with an option to extend the investment period. Insurance facility is also available with certain conditions.
Monthly Income Scheme (MIS)
MIS offers a fixed investment technique for five or more years with monthly interest payment to the account holder. There is also a facility of automatic crediting of interest to SB account of the Malsian Bajan postal customer.
Monthly Public Provident Fund (PPF)
This service offers intermittent deposits subject to a particular limit for a time period of 15 years with income tax exemptions, on the investment. It also offers loan and withdrawal facilities for the postal customers.
Time Deposit (TD)
Fixed deposit option for periods ranging from one, two, three to five years with facility to draw yearly interest offered at compounded rates. Automatic credit facility of interest to SB account.
Senior Citizen Saving Scheme (SCSS)
Offers fixed investment option for senior citizens for a period of five years, which can be extended, at a higher rate of interest that are paid in quarterly instalments.
National Savings Certificate (NSC)
NSC is offered with a fixed investment for 5 or 10 years on certificates of various denominations. Pledging facility available for availing loan from Banks.
Kisan Vikas Patra (KVP)
Kisan Vikas Patra is a saving certificate scheme in which the amount Invested doubles in 110 months (i.e. 9 years & 2 months). It is available in denominations of Rs 1,000, 5000, 10,000 and Rs 50,000. Minimum deposit is Rs 1000/- and there is no maximum limit. The KVP certificate can be purchased by any adult for himself or on the behalf of a minor. This certificate can also be transferred from one account holder to another and from one post office to another. This certificate can be en-cashed only after 2 and 1/2 years from the date of issue.
Sukanya Samriddhi Accounts (SSA)
Sukanya Samriddhi Account Yojana offers a small deposit investment for the girl children as an initiative under 'Beti Bachao Beti Padhao' campaign. This yojana is to facilitate girl children proper education and carefree marriage expenses. One of the main benefits of this scheme is that it is very affordable and offers one of the highest interest rates. Currently its interest rate is set as 8.6% per annum that is again compounded yearly. The minimum deposit allowed in a financial year is INR. 1000/- and Maximum is INR. 1,50,000/-. Subsequent deposits can be made in multiples of INR 100/-. Deposits can be made all at a time. No limit is set on number of deposits either for a month or a financial year. A legal Guardian can open an account in the name of a Girl Child. Account can be closed only after completion of 21 years of the respective child. The normal Premature closure allowed is after completion of 18 years only if that girl is getting married.
Post Office Timings
The official working hours of Post Offices vary from one another, but the general Post Office opening time starts from 08:00 AM or 09:00 AM or 10:00 AM and the closing time is 04:00 PM or 05:00 PM or 06:00 PM respectively. The working days are from Monday to Saturday, Sunday being a holiday. This doesn't include the public holidays or the extended working hours. You can verify the working hours of Malsian Bajan Branch Post Office from the official resources.
India Post Tracking
Online tracking of India Post allowed Malsian Bajan people to access their postal article tracking information and confirm the delivery of their postal article by using the tracking number assigned to them at the time of Booking. They can find the tracking number on the Postal acknowledgement handed over to them at the Malsian Bajan Branch Post Office counter at the time of postal article booking. Following items can track through the www.indiapost.gov.in/articleTracking.aspx official website.
Business Parcel
Business Parcel COD
Electronic Money Order (e-MO)
Electronic Value Payable Parcel (eVPP)
Express Parcel
Express Parcel COD
Insured Letter
Insured Parcel
Insured Value Payable Letter
Insured Value Payable Parcel
International EMS
Registered Letter
Registered Packets
Registered Parcel
Registered Periodicals
Speed Post
Value Payable Letter
Value Payable Parcel
The India Post tracking system is updated at regular intervals to give the Malsian Bajan postal customers with the most up to date information available about the location and status of their postal article. They'll be able to find out the following:
When their postal article was booked
When their postal article was dispatched at various locations during its Journey
When their postal article was received at various locations during its Journey
When their postal article was delivered, or
When a delivery intimation notice was issued to notify the recipient that the postal article is available for delivery
Malsian Bajan Post Office Recruitment
For latest Malsian Bajan post office recruitment kindly visit www.indiapost.gov.in/recruitment.aspx.
Location Map
Malsian Bajan Branch Post Office is located in Malsian Bajan, Ludhiana.
Contact Details
All the queries or complaints regarding Bill Mail Service, Booking Packets, Business Post, Direct Post, Flat Rate Box, Indian Postal Orders, Inland Letters, Instant Money Orders, Insurance of Postal Articles, Insurance of Postal Parcels, Letters, Logistics Posts, MO Videsh, Money Orders, Parcels, Post Office Savings Bank, Postal Life Insurance, Postcards, Registration of Postal Articles, Registration of Postal Parcels, Rural Postal Life Insurance, Saving Certificates, Small Saving Schemes, Speed Post, Value Payable Post etc.services in Malsian Bajan Post Office, can be resolved at Malsian Bajan Branch Post Office. You can send letters to "Postmaster, Malsian Bajan Branch Post Office, Malsian Bajan, Ludhiana, Punjab, India, Pincode: 142 033". The official website of the Berhampur University Sub Office is http://www.indiapost.gov.in.
Malsian Bajan Branch Office
Address: Malsian Bajan Branch Post Office, Malsian Bajan, Ludhiana , Punjab , India
Pin Code: 142033
Website: www.indiapost.gov.in
About India Post
India Postis a government-operated postal system, which is part of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology of the Government of India. It has the largest Postal Network in the Indiawith over 154882 Post Offices. There are around 139182 Post Offices in the rural India and 15700 Post Offices in urban India. The individual post office serves an area of 21.22 Sq. Km. and a population of 8221 people. The slogan of India Post is Dak Seva Jan Seva. There are 25464 departmental post offices and 129418 extra-departmental branch post offices in India.
Malsian Bajan Post Office Summary
Dak Ghar Name Malsian Bajan Branch Post Office Pincode 142033 Dakghar Type Branch Office Post Office Delivery Status Delivery Branch Office Postal Division Ludhiana Moffusil Postal Region Chandigarh Hq Postal Circle Punjab Location Malsian Bajan Town / City / Tehsil / Taluka / Mandal Ludhiana District Ludhiana State Punjab Country India Related Sub Office Sidhwan Bet Sub Office Related Head Office Jagraon Head Post Office Website www.indiapost.gov.in ePost-office Web Site Address www.epostoffice.gov.in Speed Post Tracking Website www.indiapost.gov.in/speednettracking.aspx Recruitment Web Site Address www.indiapost.gov.in/recruitment.aspx
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(PDF) Do age and education predict performance of older adults on the d2 Test?
PDF | The objective of this study was to investigate the association of age and education in the performance of cognitively preserved older adults in... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
Do age and education predict performance of older adults on the d2 Test?
DOI: 10.15448/1980-8623.2018.2.27046
Abstract and Figures
The objective of this study was to investigate the association of age and education in the performance of cognitively preserved older adults in the d2 Sustained-Attention Test, and to compare the results of different age groups and levels of schooling in this instrument. The sample was composed of 211 adults, 60 years of age or older, who were not institutionalized, and who completed a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Mini Mental State Examination, the Geriatric Depression Scale (short form), and the d2 Test. Data analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics, partial correlations, multiple linear regression and one-way ANOVA. The results of partial correlations and multiple linear regression showed that age and years of schooling demonstrated significant associations with all d2 Test scores, with age being the predictive variable that showed the greatest influence on the performance of the older adults. Comparison of performance in the d2 Test among the six groups according to the distribution by age group (60-69 years and 70 years or more) and by levels of schooling (primary, secondary and higher) showed that younger adults with a higher level of schooling scored better on the d2 Test, suggesting the need for normative data studies for this population.
d2 Test Normative Data for the Elderly Population according to Age and Level of Education …
Figures - uploaded by
Do age and education predict performance of older adults
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate the association of age and education in the performance of cognitively preserved
older adults in the d2 Sustained-Attention T est, and to compare the results of different age groups and levels of schooling in this
instrument. The sample was composed of 211 adults, 60 years of age or older , who were not institutionalized, and who completed
a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Mini Mental State Examination, the Geriatric Depression Scale (short form), and the d2
Test. Data analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics, partial correlations, multiple linear regression and one-way ANOV A.
The results of partial correlations and multiple linear regression showed that age and years of schooling demonstrated signicant
associations with all d2 Test scores, with age being the predictive variable that showed the greatest inuence on the performance
of the older adults. Comparison of performance in the d2 T est among the six groups according to the distribution by age group
higher level of schooling scored better on the d2 T est, suggesting the need for normative data studies for this population.
Keywords: Elderly; Performance; d2 Test; Sustained Attention.
Idade e escolaridade são preditoras de desempenho de adultos idosos no T este d2?
Resumo
O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a associação da idade e da escolaridade com o desempenho de idosos cognitivamente
preservados no T este d2 de Atenção Concentrada, além de comparar os resultados de diferentes grupos etários e de níveis de
escolaridade nesse instrumento. Participaram 211 adultos com idade igual ou superior a 60 anos, não institucionalizados, que
responderam a uma cha de dados sociodemográcos, ao Mini Exame do Estado Mental, à Escala de Depressão Geriátrica (versão
reduzida), e ao T este d2. A análise dos dados foi conduzida por meio de estatística descritiva, correlações parciais, regressão linear
múltipla e ANOV A de uma via ( one-way ANOV A). Os resultados das correlações parciais e da regressão linear múltipla revelaram
que a idade e os anos de escolaridade demonstraram associações signicativas com todos os escores do T este d2, sendo a idade a
variável preditora que demonstrou maior inuência no desempenho dos idosos. A comparação de desempenho no teste d2 entre
os seis grupos conforme distribuição por faixa etária (60-69 anos e 70 anos ou mais) e por níveis de escolaridade (fundamental,
médio e superior) demonstrou que os idosos mais jovens e com maior nível de escolaridade apresentam melhores pontuações no
Teste d2, sugerindo a necessidade de estudos de dados normativos para essa população.
Palavras-chave: Idosos; Desempenho; Teste d2 - Atenção concentrada; Atenção sustentada.
Edad y escolaridad son preditoras de rendimiento de adultos mayores en la T est d2?
Resumen
El objetivo de este estudio fue investigar la asociación de la edad y la escolaridad con el rendimiento de ancianos cognitivamente
preservados en el T est de Atención Sostenida d2, y comparar los resultados de diferentes grupos etarios y de niveles de escolaridad
en ese instrumento. La muestra fue compuesta por 211 adultos con edad igual o superior a 60 años, no institucionalizados, que
respondieron a una cha de datos sociodemográcos, al Mini Examen del Estado Mental, a la Escala de Depresión Geriátrica
(versión reducida), y al T est d2. El análisis de los datos fue conducido por medio de estadística descriptiva, correlaciones parciales,
regresión lineal múltiple y ANOV A de una vía ( one-way ANOV A). Los resultados de las correlaciones parciales y de la regresión
lineal múltiple revelaron que la edad y los años de escolaridad demostraron asociaciones signicativas con todos las puntuaciones
del Test d2, siendo la edad la variable predictora que demostró mayor inuencia en el rendimiento de los adultos mayores. La
comparación de desempeño en el T est d2 entre los seis grupos según distribución por grupo de edad (60-69 años y 70 años o más) y
por niveles de escolaridad (fundamental, media y superior) demostró que los ancianos más jóvenes y con mayor nivel de escolaridad
presentan mejores puntuaciones en el T est d2, sugiriendo la necesidad de estudios de datos normativos para esa población.
Palabras clave: Ancianos; Rendimiento; T est d2; Atención sostenida.
Paloski, L. H. et al.
|
Do age and education predict performance of older adults on the d2 Test? 120
Psico (Porto Alegre), 2018; 49 (2), 119-126
Introduction
Attention is a cognitive function that allows an
individual to process a limited amount of information
obtained and made available through the sensory
organs, memory and other cognitive and physiological
processes (Sternberg, 2006). There are different types
of attention. One of them is sustained attention, dened
as the ability of an individual to keep focus exclusively
on only one stimulus and eliminate all others (Rueda
& Monteiro, 2013).
Sustained attention has a proven, direct relationship
to other cognitive functions, such as memory ,
orientation, perception and executive functions (Lezak,
Howieson, Bigler, & T ranel, 2013; Lopes, Ziemnczak,
Nascimento, & Ar gimon, 2015; Strauss, Sherman,
& Spreen, 2006; Sohlberg & Mateer, 2009). Despite
its relevance, this function has been the subject of
relatively little scientic research (Lezak et al., 2013),
especially in the elderly population.
Elderly people experience cognitive alterations
as part of the typical aging process. Reductions in
processing speed and in the ability to keep and focus
attention are frequent (Fernandes & Santos, 2015;
Lezak et al., 2013; Pesce, Guidetti, Baldari, T essitore,
& Capranica, 2005; Rueda, Noronha, Sisto, &
Bartholomeu, 2008; Rueda & Monteiro, 2013; Paula,
Silva, Fuentes, & Malloy-Diniz, 2013). This reduction
is probably due to aging of the brain, which initially
affects the prefrontal cortex, the main area responsible
for attention (Lezak et al., 2013; Lopes, Ziemnczak,
Nascimento, & Ar gimon, 2015; Paula, Silva, Fuentes,
& Malloy-Diniz, 2013). Decreased attention in the
elderly may also be inuenced by the presence of mood
disorders, such as depression, which often occurs in
this population (Lezak et al., 2013; Mattos & Junior,
2010; Paula et al., 2013; Sohlberg & Mateer, 2009).
Sustained attention may affect the memory
performance of older adults (Parente & T aussik, 2002).
Considering that sustained attention is directly related
to memory performance (Kim et al., 2011), assessment
of this function in a suitable manner, with relevant
normative data for this population, is particularly
relevant to (Fernandes & Santos, 2015; Neri & Y assuda,
2008). The literature supports this assumption (Carreiro
et al., 2015; Rueda, 2010; W erlang, 2012). Therefore,
this study aimed to investigate the association of age
and education level with performance of older adults
on the d2 T est, and to compare the performance of
different age and educational groups.
Method
Design
Cross-sectional study.
Participants
Participants were 211 older adults, recruited for
convenience, from a metropolitan region in the South
of Brazil, aged between 60 and 94 years ( M = 69.83;
SD = 6.77), with 1 to 24 years of formal schooling
( M = 11.02; SD = 5.11); 87% were women ( n = 183).
The inclusion criteria were age 60 years or older, not
being illiterate, and not being a resident of a long-term
care facility. The exclusion criteria were: 1) scores
suggestive of cognitive decline on the Mini Mental
State Examination – MMSE (Folstein, Folstein, &
McHugh, 1975, adapted by Chaves & Izquierdo, 1992)
according to cutoff points for education suggested by
Kochhann, V arela, Lisboa and Chaves (2010) for older
adults from Southern Brazil (<22 for 1-5 years of study,
<23 for 6-11, and <24 for 12 or more); 2) scores ≥6 on
the Geriatric Depression Scale, short form – GDS-15
(Y esavage et al., 1982-1983, adapted by Almeida &
Almeida, 1999); 3) presence of uncorrected primary
sensory problems at the time of the evaluation (use
of glasses or hearing aids, for example); 4) history of
neurological and/or psychiatric disorders, investigated
through self-report; and 5) failure to complete all study
instruments.
Instruments
Sociodemographic Data . The sociodemographic
data form collected the following variables: age, gender,
marital status, education, and economic classication
criteria (Associação Brasileira de Empresas de
Pesquisa, 2015). It also investigated residential
conditions, occupation, leisure activities, physical and
mental health, medications used, smoking and drinking
habits, physical activities and participation in social
groups.
Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) . The
MMSE is a cognitive screening instrument (Folstein,
Folstein, & McHugh, 1975; Bertolucci et al., 1994).
It was used with the purpose of excluding potential
participants with scores that suggested dementia.
Geriatric Depression Scale, short form (GDS-15) .
The GDS-15 is a measure used to identify and quantify
depressive symptoms in the elderly. Fifteen items
compose the short version in Portuguese (Y esavage et
al., 1982-1983). This scale was used with the purpose
of excluding potential participants with depressive
symptoms, with a cutoff of 6 points (Paradela,
Lourenço, & V eras, 2005).
d2 T est. The d2 is a cancellation test which
measures the level of concentrated visual attention.
It may be applied in individual or collective form
(Brickenkamp,1962; 2002; Mattos & Júnior, 2010;
Michels & Gonçalves, 2014; Rueda, 2011). This
instrument is used in different contexts, such as driving
Paloski, L. H. et al.
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Do age and education predict performance of older adults on the d2 Test? 121
Psico (Porto Alegre), 2018; 49 (2), 119-126
school tests, organizations and in the clinical setting
(Brickenkamp, 2002, Rueda, 2011). It is composed of
14 lines, each one with 47 symbols. The respondent
has 20 seconds to nd and mark three dened symbols
among mixed symbols in each line (Brickenkamp,
2002; Michels & Gonçalves, 2014). Results of the
d2 Test are mainly veried via ve scores: 1) Total
Number of Characters Processed (TN), which indicates
the quantitative performance of the examinee and
may indicate speed in activities that require attention;
2) T otal Errors (E), which comprises the sum of
omitted signs and wrong signs ticked, and evaluates
sustained attention,; 3) Percentage of Errors (E%),
dened by the formula (100 x E/TN), which indicates
the association between speed and accuracy; 4) T otal
Correctly Processed (TN-E), the total number of
correct answers (raw score minus total errors), which
gives the overall performance; and 5) Fluctuation Rate
(FR), which demonstrates uctuation in the work rate
of concentration capacity. This is checked on the line
in which the respondent examined the highest number
of items and on the line in which they examined the
lowest number; the lowest number is then subtracted
from from the highest. The distribution of errors (DE)
committed in the rst lines (1 to 4), in the middle lines
(5 to 10) and in the nal lines (11 to 14) can be analyzed
(Brickenkamp, 2002).
Data Collection Procedure
The relevant institutional Ethics Committee
approved the study (CAAE: 14769713.1.0000. 5336 ).
Social groups for older adults in the Porto Alegre
Metropolitan Area (universities or community centers,
for example) were contacted. Participants were assessed
individually in meetings that lasted approximately one
hour, conducted between the years 2012 and 2013
at the social centers, in rooms free of visual and/or
auditory distracting stimuli. Trained psychologists and
psychology students conducted the interviews for data
collection. The tests were corrected and analyzed by
trained psychologists; d2 T est correction and analysis
was computer-based.
Data Analysis Procedure
Descriptive statistics such as average scores,
standard deviation, median and percentages were
calculated. Data distribution was analyzed using the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Associations between the
d2 T est scores (TN, E, E%, TN-E, and FR), age and
years of study were investigated by partial correlations,
controlling for education (years) and age (years). The
strength of the associations was interpreted based on
Cohen’s 1988 classication, which denes values ≤ .2
as a small effect size, ≤ .5 as an medium effect size
and ≥ .6 as a large effect size. T o investigate potential
predictive variables for performance in d2 T est scores
(dependent variable), multiple linear regression
analysis with the stepwise method was used. Age and
years of study were dened as the predictor variables
(independent variables). The presence of residues and
collinearity was veried by the Durbin-Watson test.
One-way analysis of variance (ANOV A) with Scheffe’s
post-hoc test was performed to verify differences in
performance in the d2 T est between two age groups
(60-69 years and 70 years or more), further subdivided
into three levels of education: primary (1-9 years of
study), secondary (10-12 years of study) and higher (13
years or more of study). This classication was dened
based on the Brazilian education system. Results with
p < .05 were considered signicant. Analyses were
conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows,
V ersion 22.0.
Results
T able 1 presents means, standard deviations,
medians and ranges for MMSE, the GDS-15, and
d2 T est scores in the overall sample. Results for the
association and comparative analyses will be presented
separately.
Analysis of association between d2 T est scores,
age and education
The results of partial correlations correlation
analysis are shown in T able 2 . Age and education
variables showed signicant associations with all d2
T est scores, although the strength of the associations
ranged from weak to moderate. Regarding age, results
showed weak, negative correlations with d2 TN score
and TN-E score. Associations with other d2 scores
(E, E%, FR and distribution of errors) were weakly
positive. Regarding education, results showed a
moderate, negative association with the E% score.
All other correlations were weak, some negative
(E, FR and distribution of errors) and some positive
(TN and TN-E).
T able 3 presents the multiple linear regression
models for each of the d2 T est scores. The lowest
variance explained was obtained by the TN score
model (6%), and the highest was obtained by the E%
score model (20%). Although age and years of study
contributed to all d2 T est scores, the standardized
scores suggest that age was a predictor of greater
inuence on TN, E and FR performance, while years
of study were more inuential predictors of E% and
TN-E performance.
Paloski, L. H. et al.
|
Do age and education predict performance of older adults on the d2 Test? 122
Psico (Porto Alegre), 2018; 49 (2), 119-126
Comparison analyzes among age groups
stratied by educational levels
T able 4 presents the results of univariate analysis
to compare performance on the d2 test scores in the
six study groups, divided by age (60-69 and 70+)
and educational level (primary, secondary or higher
education). The group aged 60-69 with higher
education obtained signicantly higher TN scores than
the groups aged 70+ with primary ( p post hoc = .050) and
secondary ( p post hoc = .008) education. Regarding the E%
score, the group aged 70+ with primary education alone
obtained signicantly lower scores than the groups
aged 60-69 with secondary ( p post hoc ≤ .001) and higher
( p post hoc = .050) education and the group aged 70+ with
higher education ( p post hoc = .037).
T ABLE 1
Descriptive Statistics for MMSE, GDS-15, and d2 T est Scores
Participants
(n = 211)
M SD Median Range
GDS-15 (score) 2.26 1.26 6.00 0-5
MMSE (score) 27.63 1.97 28.00 22-30
d2 Test (scores)
Total number of characters processed (TN) 290.99 103.57 280.00 70-608
Total errors (E) 35.45 42.00 20.00 0-244
Percentage of errors (E%) 12.05 11.33 7.43 0.00-43.64
Total correctly processed (TN-E) 254.64 94.26 253.00 22-499
Fluctuation rate (FR) 16.44 8.43 14.00 6-46
Error distribution (lines 1 to 4) 8.98 10.32 6.00 0-71
Error distribution (lines 5 to 10) 15.37 18.50 9.00 0-102
Error distribution (lines 11 to 14) 11.03 14.81 6.00 0-83
GDS-15: Geriatric Depression Scale, short form; MMSE: Mini Mental State Examination.
T ABLE 2
Partial Correlations between Age, Education, and
the d2 T est Scores
Participants (n = 211)
Age
(years) a
Education
(years) b
Total number of characters
processed (TN) -.184** .160*
Total errors (E) .154* -.198**
Percentage of errors (E%) .287*** -.328***
Total correctly processed (TN-E) -.281*** .286***
Fluctuation rate (FR) .278*** -.241***
Error distribution (lines 1 to 4) .160* -.174**
Error distribution (lines 5 to 10) .140* -.196**
Error distribution (lines 11 to 14) .145* -.192**
a Partial correlation controlling for education (years) variable; b Partial correlation
controlling for age (years) variable. * p ≤ .05; ** p ≤ .01; *** p ≤ .001.
T ABLE 3
Multiple Linear Regression Models for d2 T est Main Scores
R 2 a F b t p
Total number of characters processed (TN)
Age (years) .060 7.736 -.184 -2.700 .008
Education (years) .158 2.330 .021
Total errors (E)
Age (years) .073 8.180 .152 -2.909 .004
Education (years) -.197 2.244 .026
Percentage of errors (E%)
Age (years) .196 26.561 .272 4.319 ≤ .001
Education (years) -.315 -5.002 ≤ .001
Total correctly processed (TN-E)
Age (years) .168 22.152 -.270 -4.223 ≤ .001
Education (years) .275 4.305 ≤ .001
Fluctuation Rate (FR)
Age (years) .142 18.432 .272 4.181 ≤ .001
Education (years) -.233 -3.582 ≤ .001
R 2 a : R 2 adjusted.
Paloski, L. H. et al.
Psico (Porto Alegre), 2018; 49 (2), 119-126
In the TN-E score, the group aged 60-69 with higher
education scored signicantly higher than the same age
group with primary education alone ( p post hoc = .004) and
than the groups aged 70+ with primary ( p post hoc ≤ .001)
and secondary ( p post hoc ≤ .001) education. Finally , in the
FR score, the group aged 70+ with primary education
alone obtained signicantly lower scores than the
groups aged 60-69 with secondary ( p post hoc ≤ .005) and
higher ( p post hoc ≤ .001) education and than the group
aged 70+ with higher education ( p post hoc = .011). There
were no signicant differences in performance between
groups in the E and error distribution scores.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the
association of age and education with performance
on the d2 Sustained-Attention T est in older adults,
and to compare the performance of different age
groups, divided by schooling, in this population.
The main nding was that age and education showed
signicant associations with all d2 Test scores. Thus,
one can conclude that sustained- attention performance
decreases as age increases, and that older adults with a
higher level of education perform better.
There was a negative correlation between age and d2
T est net score, which suggests that, the more advanced
the age, the worse the level of sustained attention .
This nding is corroborated by previous studies which
identied that, as age increases, processing speed slows
down and the quality of responses may also decrease
(Fernandes & Santos, 2015; Rueda et al., 2008; Rueda,
Javier & Monteiro, 2013; Pesce et al., 2005), which
probably leads to lower levels of attention.
Therefore, age had the highest inuence on the
performance of older adults in the d2 T est (TN, E, and
FR). As age increases, there is a decrease in attention
level due to natural aging of the brain, especially in the
prefrontal cortex, which is the main area responsible for
the attentional process (Custódio, Malaquias Júnior, &
V oos, 2010). Thus, one may infer that, as age increases,
the sustained attention level declines even in healthy
older people.
Furthermore, it has been observed that education
level is a protective factor for sustained attention.
Participants with a higher level of education obtained
higher scores in the d2 T est, corroborating these
previous studies (Cecato, Fiorese, Bartholomeu,
& Martinelli, 2011; Fernandes & Santos, 2015). In
addition, education correlated positively with the
net score. It is believed that people with more years
of education perform better on this cancellation test
because they are literate and familiar with letters
(Brewster et al., 2014; Silva, Cardoso, & Fonseca,
2012). Other studies have observed that education
works as a protective factor for cognitive capacities
during the aging process (Argimon, 2002; Oliveira
et al., 2015). Previous research demonstrated that the
lower the level of education, the worse the cognitive
performance, including on attention (Mello, Haddad,
T ABLE 4
d2 T est Normative Data for the Elderly Population according to Age and Level of Education
Age group 60-69 70+
F p
Education group
Elementary
(n = 39)
Middle
(n = 29)
Higher
(n = 41)
Elementary
(n = 46)
Middle
(n = 24)
Higher
(n = 32)
M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
Age (years) 64.74 3.02 64.52 2.76 64.37 2.84 76.20 5.32 77.04 5.25 73.31 3.08
Education (years) 6.23 1.91 11.07 .65 16.98 2.63 5.70 2.22 11.17 .38 16.75 1.98
d2 Test (scores)
TN 275.03 96.73 306.03 103.24 343.27 88.21 271.24 91.98 240.17 91.78 296.31 127.44 4.202 ≤ .001
E 37.36 39.08 26.59 41.71 23.41 39.23 52.26 40.57 32.29 42.36 34.78 45.82 2.541 .300
E% 13.11 10.35 8.01 10.52 6.40 7.63 19.45 12.90 12.01 9.97 11.06 10.30 7.956 ≤ .001
TN-E 237.74 79.52 279.59 89.37 319.88 79.94 214.67 87.73 207.88 69.98 261.53 107.21 8.847 ≤ .001
FR 16.13 8.94 13.86 6.14 13.59 5.31 21.76 9.98 17.13 8.76 14.63 6.96 6.162 ≤ .001
ED 1-4 8.54 7.10 8.03 12.11 6.27 11.42 13.02 8.54 9.04 9.70 7.97 12.10 2.161 .060
ED 5-10 16.90 18.97 10.97 17.07 9.95 16.74 22.57 19.90 13.42 16.56 15.59 18.33 2.628 .250
ED 11-14 11.69 14.54 7.59 13.30 7.15 11.99 16.43 15.75 10.88 17.20 10.69 15.08 2.181 .058
TN: Total number of characters processed; E: Total errors; E%: Percentage of errors; TN-E: Total correctly processed; FR: Fluctuation rate; ED: Error distribution.
Educational groups correspond to primary (1 to 9 years of formal study), secondary (10 to 12 years of formal study), and higher (13 years or more of formal study)
education.
Paloski, L. H. et al.
|
Do age and education predict performance of older adults on the d2 Test? 124
Psico (Porto Alegre), 2018; 49 (2), 119-126
& Dellaroza, 2011). A lower level of education is also
associated with greater cognitive impairment (Argimon
& Stein, 2005; Oliveira, et al., 2015).
In other way, re sults pointed out that higher age
and fewer years of education were associated to worse
performance in sustained attention. These results
suggest there is a need for better understanding of the
inuence of these variables on other cognitive abilities,
since sustained attention, when altered, may impair
memory and learning. The variables age and education
may interfere signicantly with attentional tasks,
which is supported by the literature. The decrease of
sustained attention with advancing age may be related
to alterations that occur in the prefrontal cortex, which
is one of the structures involved in the attentional
process (Lezak et al., 2013).
The inuence of education on healthy cognitive
abilities in the elderly has been noted in several studies
(Meijer, V an Boxtel, V an Gerven, Va n Hooren, & Jolles,
2009; Strout & Howard, 2012), suggesting that years of
education may be one of the components of the cognitive
reserve (Stern, 2009, 2012). Therefore, older adults who
have completed more years of education may have lower
odds of cognitive deterioration compared to those with
fewer years of education (Contador, Bermejo-Pareja,
Del Ser, & Benito-León, 2015).
Investigation of the inuence of age and education
on older adults’ performance in the d2 Sustained-
Attention T est and the gathering of normative
data for this population showed how relevant and
adequate this instrument was to assess sustained
attention in the elderly, as its sensitivity is able to
detect neurodevelopmental aspects and educational
characteristics. The ndings presented herein may
contribute to the professional practice of psychological
assessment by ensuring the adequacy and precision of
this instrument for clinical use in the elderly population.
It is known that studies investigating normative data
for psychological instruments aim at increasing the
evidence of validity and reliability for a determined
population, as they consider the cultural, social and
economic reality (Alchieri & Cruz, 2014; Fachel &
Camey, 2000; Hutz, Bandeira, & Trentini, 2015).
W e suggest that additional studies be conducted
to obtain normative data about the performance of
older adults in sustained attention tests, as the lack
of studies focusing on the population over 60 is
evident. Limitations of the present study include the
small number of men in the sample and the fact that
all participants were from Rio Grande do Sul, which
limits the generalizability of data for other regions of
the country.
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| https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327214547_Do_age_and_education_predict_performance_of_older_adults_on_the_d2_Test |
(PDF) Evaluating Habitat Compensation in Insular Newfoundland Rivers: What have we Learned?
PDF | Habitat compensation is necessitated when a development project is expected to negatively impact fish habitat. The main goal of any compensation... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
Technical Report
PDF Available
Evaluating Habitat Compensation in Insular Newfoundland Rivers: What have we Learned?
August 2016
Report number: DFO Can. Sci. Advis. Sec. Res. Doc. 2016/069
Affiliation: Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Authors:
<here is a image 99143d918f0f2346-bc66d507225aeb22>
K. D. Clarke
Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Abstract and Figures
Habitat compensation is necessitated when a development project is expected to negatively impact fish habitat. The main goal of any compensation program is to offset the lost ‘productive capacity’ which stems from the ‘no net loss’ guiding principle outlined in the Policy for the Management of Fish Habitat. In Newfoundland, a number of compensation programs have been the subject to detailed scientific evaluations. An overview of these results will be presented and discussed with respect to the ‘no net loss’ principle. The lessons learned from these projects, as well as other habitat related research, have led to some generalizations about habitat population linkages within the freshwater habitats of Newfoundland. These will be outlined to allow a discussion on moving habitat compensation from a purely ‘physical habitat’ perspective to one that focuses more on ‘production’. The change in focus will be necessary as compensation plans become more complicated.
<here is a image be119a9d61a48307-f5c05d3bd2f74a16>
Brook trout size frequencies in Seal Cove River in the destroyed habitat and control station pre-compensation and in the new habitat and the same control stations during 2007. …
<here is a image 159f4f96f9115176-89de92477319d7e7>
Productive capacity (measured as average biomass) in Seal Cove River before compensation (1988/89) and during post compensation monitoring that roughly equates to three generations of the native salmoinids. …
<here is a image 855b46dd311833f8-582ac511d910c279>
Age distribution of brook trout and Atlantic salmon using the compensatory habitat in August during the three years of monitoring (2000-2002) and a pooled control sample for the adjacent mainstem habitat. …
<here is a image 0c88ba1d409d5d57-329cc2e0226e8ff0>
'No net loss' calculation comparing the production (biomass produced) in the Rose Blanche compensation habitat in years 2, 3 and 4 of operation with estimated production from the destroyed habitat (after Scruton et al 2005). …
<here is a image 1dba562612089b34-ec0c372bcff32c8b>
+1
Average salmonid biomass in the restored (below) habitats of Pamehac Brook and the area above (control) the original diversion (see Clarke and Scruton 2002). …
Figures - uploaded by
K. D. Clarke
Author content
Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat (CSAS)
Research Document 2016/069
Newfoundland and Labrador Region
August 2016
Evaluating Habitat Compensation in Insular Newfoundland Rivers:
What have we Learned?
Keith D. Clarke
Science Branch
Fisheries and Oceans Canada
PO Box 5667
St. John’s, NL A1C 5X1
Foreword
This series documents the scientific basis for the evaluation of aquatic resources and
ecosystems in Canada.As such, it addresses the issues of the day in thetime frames required
and the documents it contains are not intended as definitive statements on the subjects
addressed but rather as progress reports on ongoing investigations.
Research documents are produced in the official language in which they are provided to the
Secretariat.
Published by :
Fisheries and Oceans Canada
Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat
200 Kent Street
Ottawa ON K1A 0E6
http://www.dfo - mpo.gc.ca/csas -sccs/
csas-sccs@dfo- mpo.gc.ca
© Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada , 2016
ISSN 1919 - 5044
Correct citation for this publication:
Clarke, K. D. 2016.Evaluating Habitat Compensation in Insular Newfoundland Rivers: What
have we Learned? DFO Can. Sci.Advis. Sec. Res. Doc. 2016 /069 . v +18p.
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... IV
RÉSUMÉ ...................................................................................................................................V
PREAMBLE ................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................1
METHODS .................................................................................................................................. 2
SEAL COVE RIVER ............................................................................................................... 2
ROSE BLANCHE COMPENS ATION .....................................................................................2
PAMEHAC BROOK ...............................................................................................................3
COMPENSATION CREEK ( GRANITE CANAL HYDRO DEVELOPMENT) ............................ 3
RESULTS ................................................................................................................................... 3
SEAL COVE RIVER ............................................................................................................... 4
ROSE BLANCHE C OMPENSATION .....................................................................................4
PAMEHAC BROOK ...............................................................................................................5
COMPENSATION CREEK ( GRANITE CANAL HYDRO DEVELOPMENT) ............................ 5
DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................................. 6
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................................. 7
REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................................8
TABLES .................................................................................................................................... 12
FIGURES .................................................................................................................................. 13
iv
ABSTRACT
Habitat compensation is necessitated when a development project is expected to negatively
impact fish habitat. The main goal of any compensation program is to offset the lost ‘productive
capacity’ which stems from the ‘no net loss’ guiding principle outlined in the Policy for the
Management of Fish Habitat. In Newfoundland, a number of compensation programs have been
the subject to detailed scientific evaluations. An overview of these results will be presented and
discussed with respect to the ‘no net loss’principle. The lessons learned from these projects, as
well as other habitat related research, have led to some generalizations about habitat population
linkages within the freshwater habitats of Newfoundland. These will be outlined to allow a
discussion on moving habitat compensation from a purely ‘physical habitat’ perspective to one
that focuses more on ‘production’. The change in focus will be necessary as compensation
plans become more complicated.
v
Évaluation des activités de compensation de l'habitat dans les rivières de
l'île de Terre - Neuve : qu'avons -nous appris?
RÉSUMÉ
Des activités de compensation de l'habitat sont nécessaires lorsqu'on s'attend à ce qu'un projet
de développement affecte négativement l'habitat du poisson. Le principal objectif de toute
activité de compensation est de compenser la perte de la «capacité de production » qui
découle du principe directeur d'«aucune perte nette» énoncé dans la Politique degestion de
l'habitat du poisson. À Terre -Neuve, uncertain nombre de programmes de compensation ont
fait l'objet d'évaluations scientifiques détaillées. Un aperçu de ces résultats sera présenté et fera
l'objet d'une discussion en ce qui concerne le principe d'«aucune perte nette». Les leçons
retenues deces projets et d'autres recherches menées sur l'habitat ont conduit à certaines
généralisations en ce qui concerne les liens entre l'habitat et les populations au sein des
habitats d'eau douce de Terre -Neuve. Celles -ci seront soulignées afin de permettre une
discussion sur l'évolution de la compensation de l'habitat d'un point de vue de l'« habitat
physique » uniquement vers un point de vue plus axé sur la «production ». Il sera nécessaire
de changer de point de vue à mesure que les plans de compensation se compliqueront.
1
PREAMBLE
The information in this report was presented at a review meeting on habitat compensation
effectiveness that was held in late 2011 (DFO 2012). Therefore the terminology used in this
report is consistent with that used prior to the changes to the Fisheries A ctthat were introduced
in 2012. Despite the change in terminology ,habitat restoration and creation remain viable
options for offsetting of productivity (DFO 2014; Loughlin and Clarke 2014) thus the ‘lessons
learned’ in the examples outlined in this report are still of interest to the fisheries protection
program.
INTRODUCTION
Freshwater systems in Newfoundland are usually dilute with low nutrient concentrations and a
low primary productionpotential (Kerekes1974, Knoechel and Campbell 1988,Ryan and
Wake ham 1 984). The fish communities themselves are simple with only hyposaline species
recolonating the freshwaters of insular Newfoundland after the Wisconsian Glaciation (Scott and
Crossman 1964). The most abundant and widespread of these are the Atlantic sa lmon ( Salmo
salar ) and the brook trout ( Salvelinus fontinalis). This low species diversity has been
hypothesized to promote an expansion of useable habitat for these species (Gibson etal. 1993)
which has created interesting ecosystems in which to study habitat population linkages.
A number of studies have described the unique aspects of salmonid habitat use within
Newfoundland and how this might be important to the overall production in Newfoundland
systems (Ryan 1986; Hutchings 1986; O’Connell et al. 1990; Ryan et al. 1993; Erkinaro and
Gibson 1997; Dempson etal. 1996 , Cote2007, Cote et al.2011). Coupled with these
descriptive accounts there have been many directed habitat related research projects conducted
in Newfoundland. A large number of these projects have focused on the biotic effects induced
by manipulating habitat to ‘improve’ conditions for salmonid production (Clarke and Scruton
2002a). The habitat related projects have tended to focus on physical habitat alterations
( Bourgeois et al. 1993; Clarke et al. 2001; Mitchell et al. 1998; Scruton et al. 1997; 1998; Van
Zyll de Jong etal. 1997) although research on nutrient additions have also been conducted
( Clarke et al. 1997, Knoechel et al 1998). Together the descriptive work and the evaluations of
habitat manipulations form a significant body of knowledge on the functionality and effectiveness
of habitat within insular Newfoundland.
A great deal of this knowledge has informed habitat compensation options under the
Department of Fisheries and Oceans’ “Policy for the Management of Fish Habitat” ( Department
of Fisheries and Oceans ( DFO ) 1986). Under this policy any development that encroaches on
fish habitat and harmfully reduces that habitat’s ‘productive capacity’ must supply a
compensation plan. These plans try to adhere to the ‘no net lost’ guiding principle ofthe policy
and thus the proposed compensation should, in theory, replace or exceed the productive
capacity lost due to the alteration or destruction of habitat by the development (DFO 1986,
DFO 1998). Several of these compensation projects have been the subject of detailed scientific
investigation.
The main objective of this report is thus to provide an overview of these
compensation/restoration projects conducted in stream habitats of Newfoundland. The main
purpose of all the projects reviewed was to either offset losses or to increase productive
ca pacity within systems studied. The surrogate measure of productive capacity used in this
evaluation is salmonid biomass except in cases where this metricdoesnot provide a good
measurement against the projects stated objectives (e.g.Compensation Creek se e main text ).
This review highlights the lessons learned in these intensively studied projects to both inform
future compensation / offsetting projects and their monitoring programs.
2
METHODS
This paper is an overview of past work conducted within rivers of insular Newfoundland and
most of the detailed methods can be found within the individual reports. The projects used inthis
analysis are well distributed throughout Newfoundland (Figure1) representing a wide variety of
ecological conditions. Three of the projects were compensation projects conducted as a result of
HADD determinations, Seal Cove River, Compensation Creek and Rose Blanche River. The
fourth project, Pamehac Brook, was a major restoration effort aimed at rehabilitating habitat that
was destroyed as a result of dewatering associated with log driving activities during forestry
operations in the 197 0s. Three of the projects used changes in biomass as the productive
capacity metric which can be considered a population level surrogate (see Minns etal. 2011)
while research in the other project focused on the functionally of the habitat as designed.
SEAL COVE RIVER
Seal Cove River was one of the first compensation projects conducted unde r DFO’s habitat
policy (Scruton1996; Clarke and Scruton 2002b).It was necessitated due to the destruction of
162 m reach of river for highway construction. The destroyed section of river was replaced with
195 m of compensatory habitat that was directed at producing older salmonids, specifically large
brook trout. Thi s directed approach involved the construction of fourlarge pools with
interspersed riffle sections, two of the pools had ‘lunker’ structures installed on the outside bend
of the river channel to supply overhead cover.
Salmonid biomass estimates were determined via successive removal with a backpack
electrofisher. These estimates were conducted in August of each year with baseline data being
collected from the original stream reach and three upstream control sites in 1988 and 1989 . P ost
construction estimates were conducted at9 stations within the new habitat and the three original
control s stations. Post construction sampling was conducted in consecutive years from 1991 to
1994, and then re -sampled in1999 and 2007 to cover approximately threegenerations of the
resident fish species. Population estimates ( absolutedensity and biomass; # 100 m -2 and g 100
m -2 respectively ) were calculated via the Microfish 3.0 program developed by Van Deventer and
Platts (1989), which employs a maximum likelihood (ML) estimator (Burnham formula, Van
Deventer and Platts 1983).
ROSE BLANCHE COMPENSATION
A compensation project was required on the Rose Blanche River due to a hydroelectric
development which resulted in the dewatering of a part of the river post reservoir creation . As
part of the compensation plan, a habitat channel with controlled flow was created (modified) to
compensate for the habitat loss(Scruton et al .2005). This channel had existed prior to the
project but was only wetted during high flow periods, primarily in the spring during snow melt
events. Further more, this high flow channel was extensively scoured and contained primarily
coarse substrates. The compensation works involved excavation and installation of a controlled
flow culvert to ensure a constant flow over a suitable range of discharge, installation of dykes to
protect the channel during high flow events, and the addition of an extensive amount of gravels
to provide high quality spawning habitat within the channel.
Monitoring of the project began in the summer of 2000 two years after the opening ofthe
compensation channel. Resident salmonids, Atlantic Salmon and B rookTrout were not
introduced to the channel but were expected to stray from the mainstem populations. Biological
monitoring consisted of quantitative electrofishing in eightstations in the compensation channel
and threeadditional sites within the mainstem. Sampling was conducted in the summer (late
July) and fall (October) from 2000 to 2003. A ‘no net loss’ calculation was conducted by
comparing the estimated fish biomass being produced in the compensation habitats during each
of the monitoring years with that estimated for the destroyed habitat before project construction.
3
PAMEHAC BRO OK
The restoration of Pamehac Brook entailed the re -watering of 11km of river that was cut off
from the mainstem to facilitate log driving activities in the early 1970s (Scruton etal. 1997,
1998). The project was conceived in 1989 as a partnership arrangement between the
Environmental Resources Management Association (a local conservation group), Abitibi - Price
Inc. (a pulp and paper company), the Environmental Partners Fund (of Environment Canada),
and DFO.
The project underwent a scientific evaluation which included a quantitative assessment of
juvenile fish populations before and after the project.Fish populations were sampled by
quantitative electrofishing in 1990 (pre -project) and in 1991, 1992, and 1996 (post - project). A
total of eight stations were electrofished, two above the diversion and six below the diversion in
the newly restored habitat. Population estimates ( absolutedensity and biomass; # 100 m -2 and g
100 m -2 respectively ) wer e developed using the MicroFish 3.0 program.
COMPENSATION CREEK ( GRANITE CANAL HYDRO DEVELOPMENT)
The construction of the Granite Canal Hydroelectric Development resulted in the destruction of
salmonid habitat utilized primarily by land locked Atlantic salmon (ouanainche) and, to a lesser
extent, brook trout. Pre - development surveys suggested that the habitat destroyed was used
extensively for spawning, particularly by salmon. To compensate for habitat losses,
Newfoundland and Labrador Hydro (now Nalcor Energy) constructed an engineered stream
complex, subsequently namedCompensation Creek, which consists of a main channel that is
15 m wide and 1 ,600 m long and two side channels, the east side channel is 4.5 m wide and
400 m long and the west side channel which is 4.5 m wide and 570 mlong. The main channel
was designed to primarily provide spawning and rearing habitat for salmon while the side
channels were designed for brook trout.
This project differs from the others used in this review as the investigations to date havefocused
on evaluating the functionality of the engineered habitats. Investigations have included an early
evaluation of salmonid habitat use within the newlyconstructed habitat (Enders etal. 2007) and
colonization of the engineered habitat by benthic macroinvertebrates (Gabriel et al .2010). More
recently, efforts have focused on evaluating the importance of the engineered habitat as a
spawning site for the salmon population using Maelpeg Lake, which is the adjacentreservoir, as
this was an important function of the destroyed habitat(Loughlin et al .2016) .
The portion of spawning fish using the compensatory habitat and from which areas ofthe lake
these fish where coming from was evaluated from 2006 to 201 2 . In the summer orlate fall of
each year Atlantic salmon were captured by Fyke netsfrom various locations throughout
Meelpaeg Lakeand implanted with a 23.1mm passive integrated transponder (PIT) tag (Texas
Instruments Model RI - TRP -WRHP). PIT readers/data loggers (Model series 2000, Texas
Instruments Inc.) were installed at the inlet weir and outlet of Compensation Creek to record
tagged fish moving into or out of the creek during spawning season . PIT systems were in
operation from September to December each year.
RESULTS
Three of the projects reviewed here monitored salmonid biomass before and after habitat
alterations. Two of these projects, Seal Cove River and Pamehac Brook, conducted before/after
assessments in situ , i.e., the evaluation used the same area beforethe habitat alteration as
after. The other project that evaluatedbiomass changes, Rose Blanche River, compared the
biomass observed in the destroyed habitat with that being produced in the compensatory habitat
that was physically located in a different part of the watershed. Table1 provides an overview of
the change in habitat area in these projects and the resultant change in biomass. All three
4
projects resulted in a higher biomass after the habitat alteration. Two of the projects achieved
this higher biomass with relatively small increases in overall habitat area, an d the third actually
achieved a higher biomass with a smaller habitat area (Table 1). Thefollowing sections discuss
how these increases in biomass were achieved in each of the projects.
SEAL COVE RIVER
A fisheries management objective of increasing habitat for larger salmonids was made at the
outset of the Seal Cove River compensation project. The main wayin which this was to be
achieved was to design the compensatory habitat with a higher pool to riffle ratio than the
habitat that was being replace d. The original design aimed to change the habitat froman area
with ap proximately 1pool unit (1 unit= 100 2 ) for ever y 6.7units of riff le habitat to an area that had
one pool unit for ever y3 units of riffle habitat. Early monitoring results presented inScruton
(1996) show that this objective was met and longer term monitoring has indicated that this
attribute of the compensatory habitat has remained relatively stable over time,being 1 pool unit
to 2.7 units of riffle habitat in 2007, the last year a full habitat survey has been conducted in the
stream (Table 2). Also, since larger brook trout where the targeted species for the new habitat,
half of the new pools (2 of 4) had “lunker” structures installed to provide overhanging cover, an
attribute preferred by larger brook trout. Pools with ‘lunkers’ were shown to average 2.6 times
the biomass of large brook trout than those without ‘lunkers’ over the post construction period
(1993 to 1999; Clarke and Scruton 2002b).
Before compensation approximately 10% ofthe trout population using the contro l sites were
above 150 mm in length. This proportion was even lower for the habitat to be destroyed and no
fish above 200mm in length were observed in this area of the stream (Figure2). In2007, almost
25% of the tro ut using the new habitat were above 15 0mm in length while the size distributions
observed in the control sites were largely unchanged (Figure2). These larger trout were the
individuals that were targeted by the new habitat designed into the compensation.These larger
trout would have a large impact on the overall biomass estimates of a small stream such asSeal
Cove River. Since the designed habitat attributes have remained largely intact over time, the
compensatory habitat remains functional and continues to produce more fish biomass than was
observed in the destroyed habitat. This has been monitored for approximately three trout
generations in Seal Cove River (Figure 3).
ROSE BLANCHE COMPENSATION
The compensatory habitat in Rose Blanche River was designed to provide high quality spawning
habitat with a lesser amount of rearing habitat for older individuals. The habitat in the high flow
channel was modified from an area that was heavily scoured by peak flows to an area where
flow was provided constantly and gravels where added to provide spawning habitats (Scruton
etal . 2005). While this design was initially observed to be completed asintended there was
enough spring flow from the channels small catchment to flush and move some of the gravels.
This resul ted in a channel that had a more diverse habitat with isolated areas of spawning
habitat interspersed with rearing and overwintering habitats (See Scruton et al . 2005 for details).
This movement of substrate appeared to have stabilized by the third year of operation.
Both brook trout and Atlantic salmon were utilizing the compensatory habitat in the first year of
monitoring, which was the second year of channel operation (Figure4). Young - of - the - year
(YOY) brook trout were the most abundant cohort in the channel and therewas some indication
from the October sampling that spawning fish were entering the lower parts of the compensation
habitat from the mainstem (unpub data). As the habitat stabilized, brook trout YOY production
remained strong but larger individuals were also observed to be using the habitat (Figure 4).
This was in some contrast to observations in the mainstem where brook trout were always
5
observed in low numbers. This indicates that the compensatory habitat was a more preferred
habitat for brook trout than the existing main stem habitats.
Atlantic salmon were slower to utilize the compensatory habitat than brook trout, with relatively
few being observed in August 2000 (Figure4). By 2001, however, reasonable numbers of
salmon were observed withall size classes being represented in the compensatory habitat
(Figure 4). The age class distribution of salmon in the compensation habitat during the final two
years of monitoring was similar to that observed in the mainstem (Figure 4).
As can be seen from the age class analysis the habitat and fish community was changing in the
compensation habitat during our monitoring period. This was also evident when the amount of
fish biomass being produced by the compensatoryhabitat was calculated (Figure 5). It was not
until 2002, the fourth year of channel operation, that the biomass being produced by the
compensation habitat exceeded that estimated fo r the destroyed habitat (Figure5). Incidentally
because biomass estimates are so heavily weighed by larger fish (> 2+) it is questionable if the
original habitat design would have been able to achieve ‘no net loss’.
PAMEHAC BROOK
While the Pamehac Brook project was not a compensation project it is another good example of
how altering habitat quality can affect fish biomass. The habitat surveys and fish population data
collected allowed an estimation of the 'habitat gain' and the increase in productive capacity
associated with this project. Pre -restoration fish biomass and available habitat suggested a
production pote ntial for the fluvial habitat in the watershed (for 1990) of 18.01kg excluding
standing waters and steadies (Figure6). The average fish biomass and available habitat in
1992, two years after restoration, indicated a potential production of 51.46 kg, a 2. 9 fold
increase and by 1996 the production potential was 263.94 kg, a 14.7 fold increase from pre -
restoration levels (Figure6; see Scruton 1998, Clarke and Scruton 2002 afor more details). It is
also important to note that the biomass estimates of the restored sites did not seem to increase
very quickly in the immediate period after restoration indicating a lag time was required for fish
to fully exploit the new habitats.
COMPENSATION CREEK (GRANITE CANAL HYDRO DEVELOPMENT)
The evaluations of habitat functionality in Compensation Creek have generally confirmed that
the habitat is functioning as designed. Enders et al.(2007) investigated habitat use and
swimming speed of adult brook trout and Atlantic salmon using the compensatory habitat. They
found that trout selected habitats as expected by preferring areas with undercut banks and log
debris structures while avoiding faster habitats such as runs and riffles. Atlantic salmon however
used riffles, runs and pools in the same proportion as available (i.e.no obvious preference) but
avoided areas with undercut banks and log debris structures.
Gabriel et al .(2010) evaluated how the benthic macroinvertebrate community, a main fish food,
was establishing in the side channel habitats during 2006/07, three to four years after the
compensatory habitat was opened. This was conducted by comparing the benthic communities
to a nearby reference stream. They found that the benthic community was well established by
2006/07 with most of the major taxa being present in the compensatory habitats (Gabriel et al .
2010).
A total of 1811 salmon were tagged with Passive Integrated Transmitte rs (PIT Tags) over the
course of the spawning study with greater than 4 8%, on average, of these fish entering
Compensation Creek for spawning during the year of tagging (range 3 4- 63 % yr -1 ). This is most
likely a minimum estimate as some fish have been observed to spawn in alternate years
( Loughlin et al . 2016) . Salmon from all areas of Maelpeg Lake that were successfully sampled
migrated to Compensation Creek (Figure7). Thus, it appears that Compensation Creek is
6
functioning as designed and is providing spawning habitatfor a large proportion of the land
locked salmon id population s.
DISCUSSION
The habitat compensation/restoration projects reviewed in this paper have, for the most part,
attained their main objective of increasing salmonid productive capacit y. This supports the idea
that the ‘no net loss’ guiding principle of DFO’s habitat policy (DFO1986) is an achievable goal.
In two of the projects, Rose Blanche River and Seal Cove River, the testing of this concept was
a major objective. In both cases ‘no net loss’ was deemed to have beenmeet within a
rea sonable amount of time (Scruton1998, Clarke and Scruton 2002a, Scruton etal. 2005).
Continued monitoring in Seal Cove River has also shown that the habitat changes have
persisted through time and are still functioning as designed, providing enhanced areas for larger
salmonids and thus an increased biomass. This observation is relatively unique in the literature
as long term studies on the effectiveness of habitat manipulations are rare (Roni etal. 2008 ,
White et al . 2011).
These projects had many similarities which can inform future compensation efforts in the rivers
of Newfoundland and elsewhere. It was apparent that habitat quality was very important to the
overall success of these habitat compensation/restoration projects. This was most evident in the
Rose Blanche example where a relative small area of high quality habitat was able to offset a
larger area of low quality habitat. Habitat quality maybe easier to ascertain in Newfoundland
than in areas with a diverse fish assemblage as its waters are dominatedby the relatively well
studied salmonids (Gibson 1987, EFW paper). One potential way to include habitat quality into
compensation planning in areas with diverse fish communities m aybe to target the larger
species within the community. These species have a tendency to be better studied, be important
from a fisheries management perspective and the proportion of large fish in a community is a
good indicator of ecosystem health (see Greenstreet etal. 2011) and production (Randall 2002).
Another important aspect of the examples reviewed relates to site selection. The projects all
maintained connectivity within their respective watersheds to the maximum extent possible
allowing free movement between the compensation habitats and the rest of the watershed. For
the most part the projects were conducted within natural channels ,and even in Compensation
Creek which was completely man - made ,the project was used to connect two parts of the
watershed that would have otherwise been disconnected by the Hydro development.
Connectivity has been shown to be an important component of successful restoration projects
as well (Roni et al .2008). It is important to note that the project that had the single largest
increase in biomass was the restoration of Pamehac Brook (Table 1). This observation points to
the need to have a good overall understanding of the watershed in which the compensation is
required. There may be areas outside the generally narro w project area that are degraded and
would provide more benefit to the fish communities by conducting relatively ‘simple’ process
based restorative activities (Beechie et al. 2010).
While restoration may provide the most benefit from an ecosystem perspec tive , these
opportunities may not always exist in the affected ecosystem. As seen in the Newfoundland
examples , habitat creation can also be effective to offset losses.When creating engineered
habitats local hydrological and geomorphological conditions must be taken into account
(Newbury and Gaboury 1993). The failure of engineered structures has most often been
attributed to the failure to consider hydraulic principles and the need to consider long term
stability under hydraulic extremes (H unt 1988 ; Frissell and Nawa 1992). The projects reviewed
here all had hydraulic controls built into their design. In both Compensation Creek and Rose
Blanche these controlswere physical control structures built by the hydro projects, in Seal Cove
the compensation habitat was developed in a low gradient river se ction just 0.5 km from a pond
that reduced hydraulic extremes. Even with these controls habitat changes can and will happen
7
in some projects (e.g.Rose Blanche) and it may take additional time for fish populations to
respond to these conditions. Thus, evaluation and monitoring of habitat projects must consider
this temporal aspect and design assessments accordingly (Everest etal. 1991) and should also
allow for adaption until the habitat stabilizes. This becomes even more important in large
complex projects where uncertainty is high (Bradford etal. 201 1; Minns etal. 2011).
Research conducted on habitat compensation effectiveness is still relatively rare in Canada
despite the habitat policy being releasedin 1986 ( DFO1986). Including the examples listed
here, there have only been a handful of directed compensation projects reported on in the
literature (see Jones etal. 2008, and Minns etal. 2011). Additionally, evaluations conducted on
the compensation program within habitat management program have not been overly
encouraging (Harper and Quigley 2005). Thus, the single biggest opportunity to gain knowledge
on the effects of habitat compensation lies with the monitoring programs that are associated with
the HADD au thorizations.
Monitoring in the Newfoundland stream examples relied heavily on before/after assessments or
in the case of Compensation Creek investigated the functionality of the designed habitat.
Before/after assessments while desirable in some cases areusually problematic in proponent
driven monitoring programs and may only be possible in association with the largest
development projects. Testing design functionality, however, is usually easier to achieve and if
the compensation design targets one of th emain rates of production (i.e. , recruitment, growth or
mortality) then the program should be consistent with the overall guiding principle of ‘no net
loss’. Ideally the data generated by these monitoring programs would be available for additional
purpose s such as meta - analysis which could inform both managers and proponents.
In conclusion, the biological effects of habitat manipulations either t hrough restoration or habitat
creation are usually easier to detect when the habitat provided by the project sup plies areas for
all size classes within the target population(s). This has been observed in Newfoundland (Clarke
and Scruton2002a) as well as globally (Roni et al.2008). Even when one subcomponent of
production is targeted (e.g. recruitment) as in the Rose Blanche and Compensation Creek
examples the overall functioning of the compensation habitat from a population perspective
benefitted from the addition of rearing and overwintering habitats. This again points to the need
for detailed information on the existing ecosystem to both supply information with respect to
compensation options and to inform on the functionality of habitats in the unperturbed
ecosystem.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This paper is a review of several detailed research projects in which many peoplehave played
an important role. Foremost among these is Dave Scruton under whose guidance many of these
projects had their beginning. We have also had the pleasure of having manydedicated staff
from industry, university and DFO work on these projects (Curtis Pennell, Neil Ollerhead, Craig
Kelly, Lloyd Cole, Brent Sellars, Kim Housten, Eva Enders, Karen Smokorowski, Celina Gabriel,
Christine Campbell, Leon King, Michelle Roberge, Mary Dawe, Jason Kelly and numerous
students). Through the course of this rese arch we have enjoyed excellent working relationships
with many partners from industry and NGO’s (Habitat Management Division NL, NL Hydro
(Nalcor), NF Light and Power, Abitibi Ltd, Dept of Transportation, Environmental Resources
Management Association) andof course none of this is possible without funding (Environmental
Sciences Strategic Fund (DFO), NR Can’s Panel for Energy Research and Development, DFO’s
Center for Hydroelectric Impacts onFish and Fish Habitat (CHIF) and DFO’s Center for Aquatic
Habita t Research (CAHR).
8
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12
TABLES
Table 1: Overview of habitat changes and resultant biomass changes in three projectsthat conducted
before/after assessmentsof habitat compensation/restoration in Newfoundland Rivers.
Project Change in habitat area (%)
Change in biomass by end of
monitoring (%)
Seal Cove River
+ 12 %
+ 200 %
Pamehac Brook
+ 30 %
+ 1467 %
Rose Blanche River
- 82 %
+ 28 %
Table 2: Habitat characteristics in Seal Cove River before compensation (1987) and afterrestoration
(1993 and 2007).
-
1987
1993
2007
Total length (m)
162
195.2
194
Mean width (m)
3.42
3.51
3.21
Total Area (units)
5.54
6.85
6.23
Total pool area
(units)
0.73
1.69
1.66
Total riffle area
(units)
4.81
5.16
4.57
Pool - riffle ratio
1:6.7
1:3.0
1:2.7
13
FIGURES
Figure 1: Location of the projects used in this analysis.
14
Figure 2: Brook trout size frequencies in Seal Cove River in the destroyed habitat and control station pre -compensation and in the new habitat and the
same control stations during 2007.
15
Figure 3: Productive capacity (measured asaverage biomass) inSeal Cove River before compensation
(1988/89) and during post compensation monitoring that roughly equates to three generations of the
native salmoinids.
16
Figure 4: Age dis tribution of brooktrout and Atlantic salmon using the compensatory habitat inAugust
during the three years ofmonitoring (2000 -2002) and a pooled control sample for the adjacent mainstem
habitat.
17
Figure 5: ‘No net loss’ calculation comparing the production (biomass produced) in the Rose Blanche
compensation habitat in years 2, 3 and 4 of operation with estimated production from the destroyed
habitat (after Scruton et al 2005).
18
Figure 6: Average salmonid biomass in the restored (below) habitats of Pamehac Brookand the area
above (control) the original diversion (see Clarke and Scruton 2002).
19
Figure 7: Map of Maelpeg Lake with insert of Compensation Creek entrance and net areas shownby the
boxes.
... The main channel (designed for Atlantic salmon spawning and rearing) is 15 m wide and 1.6 km long with two smaller side channels (designed for brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis). Importantly, compensation plans were informed by extensive pre-development surveys, and there was also an extensive program of post-implementation assessment and research (summarized in
Clarke, 2016)
to evaluate effectiveness-one of the first such projects in Canada to do so from a 'function' perspective. Monitoring indicated that a large proportion of the salmonid population (>48%) entered the constructed habitat to spawn (Enders et al., 2007;Loughlin et al., 2016) and that the habitat was colonized by benthic macroinvertebrates (needed to support fish populations; Gabriel et al., 2010). ...
Bright spots for inland fish and fisheries to guide future hydropower development
Article
Jan 2022
<here is a image 14c3a08647ccd79d-69fa3e07672eaa81> William Twardek
<here is a image cdcab82ad668e184-f0f73ed05ac5fef1> Ian G Cowx
Nicolas W. R. Lapointe
<here is a image 3425ad30376361ca-e6674a3e70859b77> Steven Cooke
Hydropower production is one of the greatest threats to fluvial ecosystems and freshwater biodiversity. Now that we have entered the Anthropocene, there is an opportunity to reflect on what might constitute a ‘sustainable’ Anthropocene in the context of hydropower and riverine fish populations. Considering elements of existing practices that promote favorable social-ecological outcomes (i.e., ‘bright spots’) is timely given that there are plans to expand hydropower capacity in previously undammed rivers, intensify dam development in some of the world’s largest river systems, and re-license existing facilities. We approach this from a pragmatic perspective: for the foreseeable future, hydropower will likely remain an important source of renewable electricity. To offer support for moving toward a more ‘sustainable’ Anthropocene, we provide syntheses of best practices during the siting, design, construction, operation, and compensation phases of hydropower development to minimize impacts on inland fish. For each phase, we offer positive examples (or what might be considered ‘bright spots’) pertaining to some of the approaches described within our syntheses, acknowledging that these projects may not be viewed as without ecological and (or) societal detriment by all stakeholders. Our findings underscore the importance of protecting critical habitat and free-flowing river reaches through careful site selection and basin-scale planning, infrastructure designs that minimize reservoir effects and facilitate safe passage of fish, construction of hydropower plants using best practices that minimize long-term damage, operating guidelines that mimic natural flow conditions, and compensation that is lasting, effective, inclusive, and locally relevant. Learning from these ‘bright spots’ may require engagement of diverse stakeholders, professionals, and governments at scales that extend well beyond a given site, river, or even basin. Indeed environmental planning that integrates hydropower development into broader discussions is important for conserving regional biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Performance of constructed fish spawning and rearing channels – development of the Imatra City Brook in Finland
Article
Full-text available
Jul 2022
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Jukka Jormola
Antti Haapala
Kirsti Leinonen
<here is a image 1683a1aeaa8d6ea7-7a70e55c7b3a3d4b> Saija Koljonen
Freshwater habitats and species have been lost because of river constructions, particularly regarding hydropower plants. Such losses may be mitigated, for example, by providing compensatory habitats. We present a case which had the objective to promote reproduction of a key species. Imatra City Brook in Finland was constructed in 2014 at a hydropower dam as a new reproduction area for brown trout (Salmo trutta L.). In the planning phase, the objective was to maximize suitable habitat types and areas with limited discharge. Monitoring shows promising densities of brown trout juveniles within only three years, inspiring hope for high smolt production in the main river. The increase in total macroinvertebrate abundances and taxa numbers in the second year of monitoring showed that species richness was comparable to that in natural rivers, and the brook was in a good ecological state. This case confirms the expected high potential of spawning and rearing channels to improve migratory fish stocks and compensate for lost habitats in constructed rivers.
Evaluating efforts to increase salmonid productive capacity through habitat enhancement in the low diversity/production systems of Newfoundland, Canada
Article
Jun 2002
<here is a image 99143d918f0f2346-bc66d507225aeb22> K. D. Clarke
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> D. A. Scruton
Habitat enhancement through the improvement of natural habitat and the restoration of degraded habitats has formed a significant component of salmonid management strategies in Newfoundland, Canada over the past 15 years. Projects have taken many forms with most being conducted on a small scale through local non-government organisations, mostly utilising methodologies developed in other jurisdictions, and with limited scientific evaluation. A small proportion of these projects have been conducted in conjunction with habitat researchers at the Canadian Department of Fisheries and Oceans. This sub-sample of projects, as well as directed research studies, and a few major restoration initiatives, form a substantial body of knowledge on habitat manipulations for our geographical area. These projects are reviewed under three broad categories: 1) Projects using instream structures for habitat enhancement in degraded streams; 2) Habitat improvement initiatives in natural systems, including targeted habitat manipulations and chemical additions; and 3) Major restoration or compensation projects conducted to offset habitat loses due to anthropogenic development. Each habitat enhancement methodology is discussed with respect to it=s ability to increase the productive capacity of salmonid habitat under the low production conditions of Newfoundland systems.
Response of Trout Populations in Five Colorado Streams Two Decades after Habitat Manipulation
Article
Full-text available
Dec 2011
<here is a image d8052fb2653eed76-a7c83cb244084b92> Shannon L White
<here is a image 1937ee36a50dd27a-fa33d150fae83bfe> Charles Gowan
<here is a image 81bb70b44ea2c729-6ba83dc7c36f7d81> Kurt Fausch
<here is a image bee2c1402f4fc884-b9b66e6a6325a615> W. Carl Saunders
| https://www.researchgate.net/publication/306077640_Evaluating_Habitat_Compensation_in_Insular_Newfoundland_Rivers_What_have_we_Learned |
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579, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:07.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:07.972, 0.484, 0.000000, -0.000000551265, -0.000000195771, -0.000000671167, 0.4329837560653687, 0.4205604195594788, -0.7684049010276794, 0.2126214802265167, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733603728810
580, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:07.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:08.074, 0.586, 0.000000, -0.000000551271, -0.000000195766, -0.000000671164, 0.4329850077629089, 0.420564591884613, -0.768402636051178, 0.2126189917325974, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733603735466
581, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:07.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:08.172, 0.684, 0.000000, -0.000000551271, -0.000000195764, -0.000000671164, 0.4329853355884552, 0.4205656349658966, -0.7684018611907959, 0.2126190215349197, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733603741865
582, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:07.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:08.273, 0.785, 0.000000, -0.000000551274, -0.000000195761, -0.000000671163, 0.4329863786697388, 0.4205677807331085, -0.7684003710746765, 0.2126179933547974, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733603748521
583, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:07.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:08.371, 0.883, 0.000000, -0.000000551274, -0.000000195761, -0.000000671162, 0.4329854846000671, 0.4205698072910309, -0.7683996558189392, 0.2126183956861496, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733603754921
584, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:07.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:08.472, 0.984, 0.000000, 0.000001680465, -0.000000189424, 0.000002061891, 0.4329829514026642, 0.4205742180347443, -0.7683987021446228, 0.2126182913780212, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 18, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 25, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733603761577
585, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:07.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:14.172, 6.684, 0.000000, -0.000000551283, -0.000000195834, -0.000000671134, 0.4329380989074707, 0.4205970168113708, -0.7684125900268555, 0.2126141935586929, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733604135081
586, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:13.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:14.273, 0.785, 0.000000, -0.000000551288, -0.000000195823, -0.000000671133, 0.4329437017440796, 0.420598030090332, -0.7684095501899719, 0.2126118540763855, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733604141737
587, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:13.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:14.371, 0.883, 0.000000, -0.000000551292, -0.000000195813, -0.000000671133, 0.432948112487793, 0.420600026845932, -0.7684063911437988, 0.2126103341579437, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733604148137
588, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:13.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:14.472, 0.984, 0.000000, -0.000000551295, -0.000000195806, -0.000000671132, 0.4329506158828735, 0.4206022918224335, -0.7684040665626526, 0.2126090824604034, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733604154793
589, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:13.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:14.570, 1.082, 0.000000, -0.000000551296, -0.000000195805, -0.000000671132, 0.4329510629177094, 0.4206025302410126, -0.7684037089347839, 0.2126089632511139, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733604161194
590, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:14.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:14.676, 0.188, 0.000000, -0.000000551295, -0.000000195803, -0.000000671133, 0.4329527914524078, 0.4206010699272156, -0.7684034705162048, 0.212609276175499, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733604168106
591, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:14.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:14.773, 0.285, 0.000000, -0.000000551295, -0.000000195800, -0.000000671134, 0.4329547882080078, 0.4206002950668335, -0.7684027552604675, 0.2126093357801437, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733604174506
592, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-05 21:21:14.488, 2017-10-05 21:21:14.871, 0.383, 0.000000, 0.000001684643, -0.000000185996, 0.000002062042, 0.4329550862312317, 0.4206005930900574, -0.7684023976325989, 0.2126094549894333, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 17, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 24, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36733604180905
593, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:01:16.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:23.005, 126.461, 0.000000, -0.000000897916, -0.000000231518, -0.000000717729, -0.4324015974998474, -0.4211992025375366, 0.7703448534011841, -0.2053994238376617, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 100, 0, 100, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737780664234
594, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:22.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:23.106, 0.562, 0.000000, -0.000000561598, -0.000000198597, -0.000000663625, -0.4324022829532623, -0.4211980700492859, 0.7703452706336975, -0.2053986936807632, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737780670889
595, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:22.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:23.204, 0.660, 0.000000, -0.000000561597, -0.000000198597, -0.000000663626, -0.4324025213718414, -0.4211980998516083, 0.7703449130058289, -0.2053994834423065, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737780677290
596, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:22.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:23.306, 0.762, 0.000000, -0.000000561595, -0.000000198598, -0.000000663627, -0.4324029088020325, -0.4211950302124023, 0.7703462839126587, -0.2053997963666916, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737780683945
597, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:22.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:23.403, 0.859, 0.000000, -0.000000561592, -0.000000198601, -0.000000663628, -0.432402491569519, -0.4211917221546173, 0.7703481316566467, -0.2054004073143005, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737780690345
598, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:22.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:23.505, 0.961, 0.000000, -0.000000561587, -0.000000198606, -0.000000663631, -0.432401031255722, -0.42118901014328, 0.7703497409820557, -0.205403134226799, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737780697001
599, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:22.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:23.602, 1.059, 0.000000, -0.000000561583, -0.000000198611, -0.000000663633, -0.4323984980583191, -0.4211878180503845, 0.7703511714935303, -0.205405592918396, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737780703402
600, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:23.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:23.704, 0.160, 0.000000, 0.000001746773, -0.000000155297, 0.000002050741, -0.4323956370353699, -0.4211842119693756, 0.7703537940979004, -0.2054091393947601, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 10, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 17, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737780710058
601, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:23.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:29.403, 5.859, 0.000000, -0.000000897739, -0.000000231929, -0.000000717817, -0.4322642982006073, -0.4211057126522064, 0.770455539226532, -0.2054649293422699, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 100, 0, 100, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781083561
602, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:28.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:29.505, 0.961, 0.000000, -0.000000561440, -0.000000198915, -0.000000663663, -0.4322676956653595, -0.4211085438728333, 0.7704523205757141, -0.2054640352725983, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781090217
603, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:28.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:29.602, 1.059, 0.000000, -0.000000561444, -0.000000198910, -0.000000663661, -0.432269811630249, -0.4211103916168213, 0.7704506516456604, -0.2054619789123535, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781096618
604, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:29.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:29.704, 0.160, 0.000000, -0.000000561448, -0.000000198902, -0.000000663660, -0.4322731196880341, -0.4211128056049347, 0.770447850227356, -0.2054606825113297, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781103274
605, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:29.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:29.806, 0.262, 0.000000, -0.000000561448, -0.000000198898, -0.000000663662, -0.4322764873504639, -0.4211099743843079, 0.7704475522041321, -0.2054604142904282, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781109930
606, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:29.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:29.903, 0.359, 0.000000, -0.000000561447, -0.000000198895, -0.000000663663, -0.4322777390480042, -0.4211096465587616, 0.7704468369483948, -0.2054610997438431, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781116330
607, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:29.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:30.005, 0.461, 0.000000, -0.000000561445, -0.000000198894, -0.000000663665, -0.4322779774665833, -0.4211104214191437, 0.7704458832740784, -0.2054626792669296, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781122986
608, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:29.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:30.106, 0.562, 0.000000, 0.000001754695, -0.000000147814, 0.000002051347, -0.432278037071228, -0.4211106300354004, 0.7704453468322754, -0.2054641097784042, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 8, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 15, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781129641
609, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:29.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:35.806, 6.262, 0.000000, -0.000000897750, -0.000000231899, -0.000000717813, -0.432273656129837, -0.4211147427558899, 0.7704460620880127, -0.2054622769355774, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 100, 0, 100, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781503146
610, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:35.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:35.907, 0.363, 0.000000, -0.000000561453, -0.000000198890, -0.000000663660, -0.4322767555713654, -0.4211190640926361, 0.770442545413971, -0.2054601013660431, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781509802
611, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:35.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:36.005, 0.461, 0.000000, -0.000000561457, -0.000000198880, -0.000000663659, -0.432280033826828, -0.4211236834526062, 0.7704384326934814, -0.2054590731859207, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781516202
612, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:35.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:36.106, 0.562, 0.000000, -0.000000561462, -0.000000198871, -0.000000663657, -0.4322839677333832, -0.4211262166500092, 0.7704354524612427, -0.2054567486047745, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781522857
613, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:35.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:36.204, 0.660, 0.000000, -0.000000561462, -0.000000198866, -0.000000663659, -0.432287722826004, -0.4211236238479614, 0.7704349160194397, -0.2054562270641327, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781529258
614, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:35.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:36.306, 0.762, 0.000000, -0.000000561460, -0.000000198861, -0.000000663662, -0.4322909712791443, -0.4211220741271973, 0.7704335451126099, -0.2054577022790909, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781535913
615, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:35.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:36.403, 0.859, 0.000000, -0.000000561461, -0.000000198856, -0.000000663663, -0.4322925508022308, -0.4211233556270599, 0.7704318761825562, -0.2054579257965088, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781542313
616, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:35.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:36.505, 0.961, 0.000000, 0.000001750635, -0.000000151251, 0.000002051151, -0.4322924613952637, -0.4211256206035614, 0.7704301476478577, -0.2054600417613983, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 9, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 16, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781548969
617, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:35.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:42.204, 6.660, 0.000000, -0.000000897769, -0.000000231832, -0.000000717811, -0.4322953820228577, -0.4211323857307434, 0.7704249620437622, -0.2054594308137894, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 100, 0, 100, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781922474
618, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:41.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:42.306, 0.762, 0.000000, -0.000000561473, -0.000000198832, -0.000000663660, -0.4322996139526367, -0.4211374521255493, 0.7704208493232727, -0.2054554671049118, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781929129
619, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:41.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:42.403, 0.859, 0.000000, -0.000000561478, -0.000000198824, -0.000000663658, -0.4323020577430725, -0.4211420118808746, 0.7704176306724548, -0.2054531425237656, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781935529
620, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:41.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:42.505, 0.961, 0.000000, -0.000000561479, -0.000000198814, -0.000000663660, -0.4323066174983978, -0.4211435317993164, 0.7704140543937683, -0.2054538130760193, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781942185
621, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:41.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:42.606, 1.063, 0.000000, -0.000000561480, -0.000000198809, -0.000000663661, -0.4323106408119202, -0.4211408793926239, 0.7704135179519653, -0.2054528594017029, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781948842
622, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:42.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:42.704, 0.160, 0.000000, -0.000000561480, -0.000000198807, -0.000000663662, -0.4323126673698425, -0.4211384952068329, 0.7704138159751892, -0.2054522782564163, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781955242
623, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:42.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:42.806, 0.262, 0.000000, -0.000000561481, -0.000000198802, -0.000000663662, -0.4323140680789948, -0.4211404919624329, 0.7704117894172668, -0.2054528594017029, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781961898
624, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:42.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:42.907, 0.363, 0.000000, 0.000001754770, -0.000000148101, 0.000002051261, -0.4323146343231201, -0.4211404025554657, 0.7704111337661743, -0.2054543048143387, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 8, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 15, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737781968554
625, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:42.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:48.606, 6.063, 0.000000, -0.000000897798, -0.000000231775, -0.000000717794, -0.432314544916153, -0.4211457371711731, 0.7704100608825684, -0.2054476290941238, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 100, 0, 100, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782342058
626, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:48.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:48.708, 0.164, 0.000000, -0.000000561495, -0.000000198784, -0.000000663655, -0.4323210418224335, -0.4211480915546417, 0.7704057097434998, -0.2054454833269119, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782348714
627, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:48.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:48.806, 0.262, 0.000000, -0.000000561500, -0.000000198776, -0.000000663654, -0.432323694229126, -0.4211521744728088, 0.7704024314880371, -0.2054437547922134, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782355114
628, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:48.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:48.907, 0.363, 0.000000, -0.000000561504, -0.000000198767, -0.000000663653, -0.4323273599147797, -0.4211554527282715, 0.7703988552093506, -0.2054428607225418, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782361770
629, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:48.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:49.005, 0.461, 0.000000, -0.000000561504, -0.000000198761, -0.000000663655, -0.4323311448097229, -0.4211530387401581, 0.7703981995582581, -0.2054422497749329, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782368170
630, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:48.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:49.106, 0.562, 0.000000, -0.000000561505, -0.000000198758, -0.000000663655, -0.432333379983902, -0.4211515486240387, 0.7703979015350342, -0.2054416388273239, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782374825
631, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:48.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:49.204, 0.660, 0.000000, -0.000000561503, -0.000000198754, -0.000000663658, -0.4323351979255676, -0.4211514294147491, 0.7703965902328491, -0.2054430842399597, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782381226
632, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:48.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:49.306, 0.762, 0.000000, 0.000001738426, -0.000000161519, 0.000002050591, -0.4323366284370422, -0.4211523234844208, 0.770395040512085, -0.2054439336061478, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 12, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 19, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782387881
633, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:48.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:55.005, 6.461, 0.000000, -0.000000561507, -0.000000198749, -0.000000663656, -0.4323363304138184, -0.4211557805538177, 0.7703939080238342, -0.2054418176412582, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782761386
634, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:54.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:55.106, 0.562, 0.000000, -0.000000561512, -0.000000198737, -0.000000663655, -0.4323410093784332, -0.4211597442626953, 0.7703895568847656, -0.2054401040077209, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782768041
635, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:54.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:55.204, 0.660, 0.000000, -0.000000561518, -0.000000198729, -0.000000663653, -0.4323439598083496, -0.4211636185646057, 0.7703863978385925, -0.2054377943277359, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782774442
636, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:54.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:55.306, 0.762, 0.000000, -0.000000561522, -0.000000198723, -0.000000663651, -0.432346910238266, -0.4211651086807251, 0.7703844904899597, -0.2054357081651688, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782781097
637, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:54.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:55.403, 0.859, 0.000000, -0.000000561523, -0.000000198719, -0.000000663652, -0.4323482811450958, -0.4211661219596863, 0.7703831195831299, -0.2054358124732971, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782787497
638, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:54.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:55.505, 0.961, 0.000000, -0.000000561524, -0.000000198718, -0.000000663651, -0.4323492646217346, -0.4211657345294952, 0.7703831195831299, -0.205434575676918, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782794153
639, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:54.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:55.606, 1.063, 0.000000, -0.000000561526, -0.000000198717, -0.000000663650, -0.4323495030403137, -0.421166867017746, 0.7703825831413269, -0.2054337114095688, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782800810
640, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:55.544, 2017-10-06 15:03:55.708, 0.164, 0.000000, 0.000001746686, -0.000000154997, 0.000002050838, -0.4323486983776093, -0.4211702644824982, 0.770380973815918, -0.2054344713687897, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 10, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 17, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737782807466
641, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:03:55.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:01.407, 5.863, 0.000000, -0.000000561546, -0.000000198756, -0.000000663621, -0.432321161031723, -0.4211914837360382, 0.7703878879547119, -0.2054231017827988, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783180969
642, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:00.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:01.505, 0.961, 0.000000, -0.000000561551, -0.000000198743, -0.000000663621, -0.4323281049728394, -0.4211919009685516, 0.7703844904899597, -0.2054204642772675, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783187369
643, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:00.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:01.606, 1.063, 0.000000, -0.000000561555, -0.000000198734, -0.000000663620, -0.4323316216468811, -0.4211945533752441, 0.7703813910484314, -0.20541912317276, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783194026
644, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:01.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:01.708, 0.164, 0.000000, -0.000000561558, -0.000000198726, -0.000000663620, -0.4323347806930542, -0.4211971163749695, 0.770378589630127, -0.2054178267717361, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783200682
645, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:01.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:01.806, 0.262, 0.000000, -0.000000561559, -0.000000198722, -0.000000663620, -0.4323364794254303, -0.4211976528167725, 0.7703773975372314, -0.2054174691438675, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783207082
646, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:01.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:01.907, 0.363, 0.000000, -0.000000561560, -0.000000198720, -0.000000663620, -0.4323387444019318, -0.4211958944797516, 0.7703773975372314, -0.2054164409637451, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783213738
647, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:01.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:02.005, 0.461, 0.000000, -0.000000561560, -0.000000198716, -0.000000663621, -0.4323410391807556, -0.4211950600147247, 0.7703765034675598, -0.205416664481163, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783220138
648, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:01.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:02.106, 0.562, 0.000000, 0.000001730413, -0.000000168251, 0.000002050120, -0.4323391914367676, -0.4211962223052979, 0.7703765034675598, -0.2054181694984436, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 14, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 21, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783226793
649, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:01.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:07.806, 6.262, 0.000000, -0.000000561561, -0.000000198721, -0.000000663619, -0.4323356449604034, -0.4212013185024261, 0.7703759074211121, -0.2054173350334167, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783600298
650, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:07.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:07.907, 0.363, 0.000000, -0.000000561565, -0.000000198709, -0.000000663619, -0.432341992855072, -0.421201229095459, 0.7703729867935181, -0.205415204167366, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783606954
651, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:07.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:08.005, 0.461, 0.000000, -0.000000561570, -0.000000198700, -0.000000663618, -0.4323462843894958, -0.4212028384208679, 0.7703703045845032, -0.2054130136966705, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783613354
652, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:07.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:08.106, 0.562, 0.000000, -0.000000561574, -0.000000198692, -0.000000663616, -0.4323495328426361, -0.4212058782577515, 0.7703672647476196, -0.2054111808538437, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783620009
653, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:07.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:08.204, 0.660, 0.000000, -0.000000561576, -0.000000198688, -0.000000663616, -0.4323506951332092, -0.4212079048156738, 0.7703655958175659, -0.2054107487201691, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783626410
654, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:07.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:08.306, 0.762, 0.000000, -0.000000561575, -0.000000198684, -0.000000663618, -0.4323535859584808, -0.4212061166763306, 0.7703648209571838, -0.2054113298654556, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783633065
655, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:07.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:08.407, 0.863, 0.000000, -0.000000561574, -0.000000198681, -0.000000663619, -0.4323552250862122, -0.4212051331996918, 0.7703643441200256, -0.205411821603775, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783639721
656, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:07.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:08.505, 0.961, 0.000000, 0.000001742736, -0.000000158424, 0.000002050549, -0.4323560297489166, -0.4212054312229156, 0.7703635692596436, -0.205412432551384, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 11, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 18, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737783646121
657, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:07.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:14.204, 6.660, 0.000000, -0.000000897885, -0.000000231644, -0.000000717727, -0.4323543310165405, -0.4211938083171844, 0.7703713774681091, -0.2054104208946228, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 100, 0, 100, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784019626
658, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:13.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:14.306, 0.762, 0.000000, -0.000000561574, -0.000000198679, -0.000000663620, -0.4323618710041046, -0.421191930770874, 0.7703688740730286, -0.2054078429937363, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784026281
659, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:13.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:14.407, 0.863, 0.000000, -0.000000561578, -0.000000198669, -0.000000663619, -0.4323672652244568, -0.4211923182010651, 0.7703662514686584, -0.20540551841259, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784032937
660, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:13.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:14.509, 0.965, 0.000000, -0.000000561580, -0.000000198660, -0.000000663621, -0.4323722720146179, -0.4211917519569397, 0.7703638076782227, -0.2054052501916885, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784039593
661, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:13.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:14.606, 1.063, 0.000000, -0.000000561579, -0.000000198653, -0.000000663623, -0.4323756992816925, -0.4211909770965576, 0.7703621983528137, -0.2054056525230408, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784045994
662, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:14.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:14.708, 0.164, 0.000000, -0.000000561579, -0.000000198649, -0.000000663625, -0.4323783218860626, -0.4211898148059845, 0.7703612446784973, -0.2054062336683273, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784052650
663, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:14.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:14.806, 0.262, 0.000000, -0.000000561578, -0.000000198643, -0.000000663628, -0.432382196187973, -0.4211873114109039, 0.7703602910041809, -0.2054067403078079, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784059050
664, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:14.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:14.907, 0.363, 0.000000, 0.000001734492, -0.000000165181, 0.000002050271, -0.4323853850364685, -0.4211848378181458, 0.7703596353530884, -0.2054076045751572, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 13, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 20, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784065706
665, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:14.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:20.606, 6.063, 0.000000, -0.000000897917, -0.000000231543, -0.000000717824, -0.4324050843715668, -0.4211611747741699, 0.7703582048416138, -0.2054198533296585, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 100, 0, 100, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784439210
666, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:20.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:20.708, 0.164, 0.000000, -0.000000561589, -0.000000198615, -0.000000663692, -0.4324105978012085, -0.4211624264717102, 0.7703552842140198, -0.205416664481163, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784445866
667, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:20.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:20.806, 0.262, 0.000000, -0.000000561592, -0.000000198605, -0.000000663692, -0.4324150383472443, -0.4211641848087311, 0.7703521251678467, -0.205415666103363, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784452266
668, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:20.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:20.907, 0.363, 0.000000, -0.000000561597, -0.000000198596, -0.000000663690, -0.4324186444282532, -0.4211669564247131, 0.7703491449356079, -0.2054134905338287, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784458922
669, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:20.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:21.005, 0.461, 0.000000, -0.000000561599, -0.000000198590, -0.000000663691, -0.4324221014976501, -0.4211666584014893, 0.7703475952148438, -0.2054126858711243, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784465322
670, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:20.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:21.110, 0.566, 0.000000, -0.000000561598, -0.000000198588, -0.000000663692, -0.4324238896369934, -0.4211648404598236, 0.7703474760055542, -0.2054130733013153, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784472234
671, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:20.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:21.208, 0.664, 0.000000, -0.000000561596, -0.000000198583, -0.000000663695, -0.4324260056018829, -0.4211646914482117, 0.7703459858894348, -0.2054143697023392, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784478633
672, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:20.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:21.306, 0.762, 0.000000, 0.000001746929, -0.000000155450, 0.000002051100, -0.432426780462265, -0.4211637675762177, 0.7703453302383423, -0.2054171413183212, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 10, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 17, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784485033
673, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:20.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:27.005, 6.461, 0.000000, -0.000000561587, -0.000000198611, -0.000000663695, -0.4324105381965637, -0.4211665987968445, 0.7703521847724915, -0.2054199576377869, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784858538
674, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:26.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:27.110, 0.566, 0.000000, -0.000000561592, -0.000000198599, -0.000000663694, -0.4324153661727905, -0.4211702942848206, 0.7703479528427124, -0.2054180353879929, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784865450
675, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:26.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:27.208, 0.664, 0.000000, -0.000000561597, -0.000000198589, -0.000000663693, -0.4324195981025696, -0.4211732447147369, 0.7703444361686707, -0.2054163068532944, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784871849
676, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:26.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:27.306, 0.762, 0.000000, -0.000000561601, -0.000000198582, -0.000000663691, -0.4324223399162292, -0.4211763143539429, 0.7703416347503662, -0.205414667725563, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784878249
677, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:26.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:27.407, 0.863, 0.000000, -0.000000561602, -0.000000198579, -0.000000663691, -0.4324229657649994, -0.4211778938770294, 0.7703405022621155, -0.205414354801178, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784884905
678, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:26.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:27.509, 0.965, 0.000000, -0.000000561603, -0.000000198579, -0.000000663691, -0.4324228167533875, -0.4211783409118652, 0.7703403830528259, -0.2054141461849213, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784891561
679, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:26.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:27.606, 1.063, 0.000000, -0.000000561605, -0.000000198578, -0.000000663689, -0.4324230551719666, -0.4211800694465637, 0.7703396081924438, -0.2054130584001541, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784897962
680, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:27.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:27.708, 0.164, 0.000000, 0.000001726495, -0.000000172039, 0.000002050274, -0.4324218034744263, -0.4211830198764801, 0.7703388333320618, -0.2054126858711243, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 15, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 22, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737784904618
681, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:27.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:33.407, 5.863, 0.000000, -0.000000561620, -0.000000198635, -0.000000663660, -0.4323795735836029, -0.4212174117565155, 0.7703447341918945, -0.2054088711738586, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785278121
682, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:32.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:33.509, 0.965, 0.000000, -0.000000561624, -0.000000198624, -0.000000663659, -0.4323856830596924, -0.4212174415588379, 0.7703419923782349, -0.2054063379764557, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785284777
683, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:32.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:33.606, 1.063, 0.000000, -0.000000561629, -0.000000198614, -0.000000663658, -0.4323907494544983, -0.4212185442447662, 0.7703391909599304, -0.2054038643836975, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785291178
684, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:33.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:33.708, 0.164, 0.000000, -0.000000561633, -0.000000198606, -0.000000663657, -0.4323944747447968, -0.4212200045585632, 0.7703367471694946, -0.2054021954536438, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785297834
685, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:33.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:33.806, 0.262, 0.000000, -0.000000561633, -0.000000198602, -0.000000663659, -0.4323962032794952, -0.4212205111980438, 0.77033531665802, -0.2054028213024139, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785304234
686, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:33.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:33.907, 0.363, 0.000000, -0.000000561633, -0.000000198598, -0.000000663660, -0.4323989450931549, -0.421218603849411, 0.
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687, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:33.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:34.005, 0.461, 0.000000, -0.000000561634, -0.000000198595, -0.000000663660, -0.4324004352092743, -0.4212181568145752, 0.7703344821929932, -0.2054019123315811, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785317290
688, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:33.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:34.110, 0.566, 0.000000, 0.000001738919, -0.000000162040, 0.000002050634, -0.4324004352092743, -0.4212185740470886, 0.7703341245651245, -0.2054023742675781, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 12, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 19, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785324202
689, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:33.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:39.806, 6.262, 0.000000, -0.000000561629, -0.000000198622, -0.000000663656, -0.4323911368846893, -0.4212081730365753, 0.7703456282615662, -0.205400139093399, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785697450
690, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:39.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:39.907, 0.363, 0.000000, -0.000000561633, -0.000000198610, -0.000000663656, -0.4323974251747131, -0.4212086200714111, 0.7703424096107483, -0.2053979635238647, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785704106
691, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:39.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:40.005, 0.461, 0.000000, -0.000000561637, -0.000000198598, -0.000000663656, -0.4324027001857758, -0.4212102890014648, 0.7703388929367065, -0.205396756529808, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785710506
692, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:39.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:40.110, 0.566, 0.000000, -0.000000561640, -0.000000198591, -0.000000663656, -0.4324054419994354, -0.4212128520011902, 0.7703361511230469, -0.2053958773612976, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785717418
693, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:39.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:40.208, 0.664, 0.000000, -0.000000561641, -0.000000198589, -0.000000663655, -0.4324063062667847, -0.4212137162685394, 0.7703353762626648, -0.2053953409194946, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785723817
694, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:39.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:40.310, 0.766, 0.000000, -0.000000561640, -0.000000198586, -0.000000663658, -0.4324084520339966, -0.4212117493152618, 0.7703350186347961, -0.2053961157798767, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785730474
695, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:39.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:40.407, 0.863, 0.000000, -0.000000561640, -0.000000198583, -0.000000663658, -0.4324100613594055, -0.4212121963500977, 0.7703338861465454, -0.2053960263729095, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785736873
696, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:39.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:40.509, 0.965, 0.000000, 0.000001730720, -0.000000168709, 0.000002050324, -0.4324101507663727, -0.4212116003036499, 0.770334005355835, -0.2053966224193573, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 14, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 21, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737785743529
697, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:39.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:46.208, 6.664, 0.000000, -0.000000897958, -0.000000231550, -0.000000717770, -0.4323937594890594, -0.421201080083847, 0.7703471779823303, -0.2054032683372498, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 100, 0, 100, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786117033
698, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:45.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:46.310, 0.766, 0.000000, -0.000000561624, -0.000000198608, -0.000000663664, -0.4324005544185638, -0.4212013781070709, 0.7703434228897095, -0.2054025679826736, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786123690
699, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:45.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:46.407, 0.863, 0.000000, -0.000000561629, -0.000000198597, -0.000000663663, -0.4324058890342712, -0.4212023913860321, 0.7703405022621155, -0.2054000794887543, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786130089
700, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:45.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:46.509, 0.965, 0.000000, -0.000000561632, -0.000000198587, -0.000000663664, -0.4324108064174652, -0.4212035834789276, 0.7703372240066528, -0.2053995579481125, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786136745
701, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:45.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:46.606, 1.063, 0.000000, -0.000000561632, -0.000000198580, -0.000000663666, -0.4324148595333099, -0.4212020933628082, 0.770335853099823, -0.2053993493318558, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786143146
702, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:46.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:46.708, 0.164, 0.000000, -0.000000561630, -0.000000198577, -0.000000663668, -0.4324175715446472, -0.4211984276771545, 0.7703361511230469, -0.2053999602794647, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786149802
703, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:46.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:46.806, 0.262, 0.000000, -0.000000561627, -0.000000198572, -0.000000663673, -0.4324212074279785, -0.4211961328983307, 0.770334780216217, -0.2054020911455154, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786156202
704, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:46.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:46.907, 0.363, 0.000000, 0.000001734753, -0.000000165446, 0.000002050529, -0.4324246942996979, -0.4211949706077576, 0.770333468914032, -0.2054021060466766, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 13, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 20, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786162858
705, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:46.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:52.606, 6.063, 0.000000, -0.000000897929, -0.000000231452, -0.000000717837, -0.4324385225772858, -0.4211656153202057, 0.7703372836112976, -0.2054188996553421, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 100, 0, 100, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786536362
706, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:52.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:52.708, 0.164, 0.000000, -0.000000561598, -0.000000198548, -0.000000663704, -0.4324423670768738, -0.4211677312850952, 0.7703344225883484, -0.2054171562194824, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786543018
707, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:52.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:52.806, 0.262, 0.000000, -0.000000561602, -0.000000198541, -0.000000663703, -0.4324453473091125, -0.4211702346801758, 0.7703317999839783, -0.2054156959056854, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786549418
708, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:52.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:52.907, 0.363, 0.000000, -0.000000561605, -0.000000198533, -0.000000663702, -0.4324486255645752, -0.4211719632148743, 0.7703294157981873, -0.2054141312837601, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786556074
709, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:52.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:53.009, 0.465, 0.000000, -0.000000561607, -0.000000198529, -0.000000663703, -0.4324512779712677, -0.4211710393428802, 0.7703286409378052, -0.2054132670164108, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786562729
710, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:52.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:53.110, 0.566, 0.000000, -0.000000561606, -0.000000198524, -0.000000663705, -0.4324546456336975, -0.4211692214012146, 0.770327627658844, -0.2054137587547302, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786569386
711, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:52.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:53.208, 0.664, 0.000000, -0.000000561605, -0.000000198520, -0.000000663707, -0.4324559271335602, -0.4211701154708862, 0.7703260183334351, -0.2054151445627213, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786575785
712, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:52.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:53.310, 0.766, 0.000000, 0.000001726429, -0.000000172226, 0.000002050314, -0.4324580132961273, -0.4211682975292206, 0.770325779914856, -0.2054155021905899, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 15, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 22, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786582442
713, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:52.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:59.009, 6.465, 0.000000, -0.000000561598, -0.000000198549, -0.000000663704, -0.432437926530838, -0.4211772382259369, 0.7703309655189514, -0.2054201066493988, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786955945
714, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:58.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:59.110, 0.566, 0.000000, -0.000000561604, -0.000000198538, -0.000000663702, -0.432443380355835, -0.421178936958313, 0.7703277468681335, -0.2054170370101929, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786962602
715, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:58.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:59.208, 0.664, 0.000000, -0.000000561609, -0.000000198529, -0.000000663700, -0.4324465394020081, -0.4211829006671906, 0.7703244090080261, -0.2054149955511093, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786969001
716, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:58.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:59.310, 0.766, 0.000000, -0.000000561611, -0.000000198524, -0.000000663700, -0.4324482679367065, -0.4211850166320801, 0.7703223824501038, -0.2054145038127899, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786975658
717, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:58.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:59.407, 0.863, 0.000000, -0.000000561612, -0.000000198523, -0.000000663700, -0.432448536157608, -0.4211860001087189, 0.770321786403656, -0.2054142355918884, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786982057
718, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:58.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:59.509, 0.965, 0.000000, -0.000000561615, -0.000000198520, -0.000000663698, -0.4324492514133453, -0.4211878478527069, 0.77032071352005, -0.205412819981575, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786988713
719, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:58.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:59.606, 1.063, 0.000000, -0.000000561615, -0.000000198517, -0.000000663699, -0.432450145483017, -0.4211894273757935, 0.7703191637992859, -0.2054134756326675, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737786995114
720, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:59.544, 2017-10-06 15:04:59.708, 0.164, 0.000000, 0.000001726494, -0.000000172226, 0.000002050259, -0.4324482977390289, -0.4211933016777039, 0.770317792892456, -0.2054145485162735, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 15, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 22, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787001770
721, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:04:59.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:05.407, 5.863, 0.000000, -0.000000561628, -0.000000198593, -0.000000663665, -0.4324007332324982, -0.4212188124656677, 0.7703326344490051, -0.2054067403078079, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787375273
722, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:04.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:05.509, 0.965, 0.000000, -0.000000561632, -0.000000198582, -0.000000663665, -0.4324055314064026, -0.4212211072444916, 0.7703291773796082, -0.2054050415754318, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787381929
723, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:04.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:05.606, 1.063, 0.000000, -0.000000561636, -0.000000198572, -0.000000663665, -0.4324104189872742, -0.4212228655815125, 0.7703258991241455, -0.2054034322500229, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787388330
724, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:05.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:05.708, 0.164, 0.000000, -0.000000561639, -0.000000198566, -0.000000663664, -0.4324137568473816, -0.4212228655815125, 0.7703244686126709, -0.2054016590118408, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787394986
725, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:05.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:05.810, 0.266, 0.000000, -0.000000561640, -0.000000198562, -0.000000663664, -0.4324153065681458, -0.4212232828140259, 0.7703235149383545, -0.2054011821746826, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787401642
726, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:05.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:05.907, 0.363, 0.000000, -0.000000561640, -0.000000198561, -0.000000663665, -0.4324169158935547, -0.421220451593399, 0.7703242301940918, -0.2054009139537811, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787408042
727, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:05.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:06.009, 0.465, 0.000000, -0.000000561640, -0.000000198558, -0.000000663666, -0.4324188232421875, -0.4212205410003662, 0.7703229784965515, -0.2054013162851334, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787414697
728, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:05.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:06.110, 0.566, 0.000000, 0.000001702029, -0.000000191997, 0.000002049234, -0.4324186444282532, -0.4212214648723602, 0.7703226208686829, -0.2054011076688766, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 21, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 28, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787421354
729, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:05.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:11.810, 6.266, 0.000000, -0.000000561631, -0.000000198588, -0.000000663665, -0.4324031472206116, -0.4212194383144379, 0.7703313231468201, -0.2054053097963333, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787794858
730, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:11.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:11.911, 0.367, 0.000000, -0.000000561635, -0.000000198576, -0.000000663665, -0.4324101209640503, -0.4212185442447662, 0.7703285813331604, -0.2054027616977692, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787801514
731, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:11.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:12.009, 0.465, 0.000000, -0.000000561639, -0.000000198564, -0.000000663665, -0.4324158132076263, -0.4212195873260498, 0.7703253030776978, -0.2054010182619095, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787807913
732, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:11.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:12.110, 0.566, 0.000000, -0.000000561641, -0.000000198558, -0.000000663665, -0.4324186146259308, -0.421220988035202, 0.7703231573104858, -0.2054002285003662, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787814570
733, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:11.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:12.208, 0.664, 0.000000, -0.000000561641, -0.000000198556, -0.000000663666, -0.432419091463089, -0.4212222397327423, 0.7703219652175903, -0.2054011672735214, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787820969
734, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:11.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:12.310, 0.766, 0.000000, -0.000000561641, -0.000000198552, -0.000000663667, -0.4324211776256561, -0.4212213754653931, 0.770321249961853, -0.2054010629653931, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787827626
735, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:11.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:12.407, 0.863, 0.000000, -0.000000561642, -0.000000198549, -0.000000663666, -0.4324229061603546, -0.4212211072444916, 0.77032071352005, -0.2054001986980438, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787834025
736, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:11.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:12.509, 0.965, 0.000000, 0.000001722520, -0.000000175443, 0.000002050008, -0.4324227869510651, -0.4212211072444916, 0.7703205943107605, -0.2054008394479752, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 16, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 23, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737787840681
737, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:11.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:18.208, 6.664, 0.000000, -0.000000897969, -0.000000231508, -0.000000717770, -0.4324069619178772, -0.4212126135826111, 0.7703337073326111, -0.2054023742675781, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 100, 0, 100, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788214185
738, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:17.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:18.310, 0.766, 0.000000, -0.000000561636, -0.000000198575, -0.000000663664, -0.432413786649704, -0.4212116003036499, 0.7703311443328857, -0.2053996473550797, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788220842
739, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:17.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:18.407, 0.863, 0.000000, -0.000000561639, -0.000000198565, -0.000000663664, -0.4324183762073517, -0.4212135672569275, 0.7703278064727783, -0.2053986340761185, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788227241
740, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:17.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:18.509, 0.965, 0.000000, -0.000000561642, -0.000000198555, -0.000000663665, -0.4324235320091248, -0.4212127327919006, 0.770325779914856, -0.2053970694541931, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788233897
741, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:17.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:18.610, 1.066, 0.000000, -0.000000561643, -0.000000198550, -0.000000663666, -0.4324270188808441, -0.4212107956409454, 0.7703250050544739, -0.2053965032100677, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788240554
742, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:18.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:18.708, 0.164, 0.000000, -0.000000561641, -0.000000198546, -0.000000663668, -0.4324301481246948, -0.4212083220481873, 0.7703244686126709, -0.2053970545530319, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788246954
743, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:18.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:18.810, 0.266, 0.000000, -0.000000561639, -0.000000198540, -0.000000663672, -0.432433694601059, -0.4212059676647186, 0.7703233957290649, -0.205398365855217, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788253610
744, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:18.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:18.911, 0.367, 0.000000, 0.000001706086, -0.000000188739, 0.000002049418, -0.4324350655078888, -0.4212049245834351, 0.7703229784965515, -0.2053992450237274, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 20, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 27, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788260266
745, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:18.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:24.610, 6.066, 0.000000, -0.000000897941, -0.000000231430, -0.000000717830, -0.4324453175067902, -0.4211735725402832, 0.7703301906585693, -0.2054149657487869, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 100, 0, 100, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788633770
746, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:24.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:24.708, 0.164, 0.000000, -0.000000561610, -0.000000198528, -0.000000663700, -0.4324500262737274, -0.4211760759353638, 0.7703267931938171, -0.2054124921560287, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788640170
747, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:24.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:24.810, 0.266, 0.000000, -0.000000561614, -0.000000198519, -0.000000663699, -0.4324536025524139, -0.4211784899234772, 0.7703239321708679, -0.2054107040166855, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788646826
748, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:24.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:24.911, 0.367, 0.000000, -0.000000561619, -0.000000198510, -0.000000663698, -0.4324576258659363, -0.4211806058883667, 0.7703210711479187, -0.2054086029529572, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788653482
749, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:24.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:25.009, 0.465, 0.000000, -0.000000561618, -0.000000198506, -0.000000663700, -0.4324606955051422, -0.4211789667606354, 0.7703202366828918, -0.2054087817668915, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788659881
750, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:24.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:25.110, 0.566, 0.000000, -0.000000561619, -0.000000198500, -0.000000663701, -0.4324632883071899, -0.4211791157722473, 0.7703186869621277, -0.2054088413715363, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788666538
751, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:24.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:25.208, 0.664, 0.000000, -0.000000561618, -0.000000198497, -0.000000663703, -0.4324651658535004, -0.4211784899234772, 0.7703176736831665, -0.2054098844528198, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788672937
752, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:24.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:25.310, 0.766, 0.000000, 0.000001722363, -0.000000175617, 0.000002050125, -0.4324676692485809, -0.4211774468421936, 0.7703168392181396, -0.2054098546504974, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 16, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 23, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737788679594
753, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:24.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:31.009, 6.465, 0.000000, -0.000000561605, -0.000000198535, -0.000000663702, -0.4324465095996857, -0.4211753904819489, 0.7703284621238708, -0.2054150700569153, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789053097
754, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:30.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:31.110, 0.566, 0.000000, -0.000000561611, -0.000000198523, -0.000000663701, -0.4324513077735901, -0.4211784601211548, 0.77032470703125, -0.2054128348827362, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789059754
755, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:30.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:31.208, 0.664, 0.000000, -0.000000561616, -0.000000198514, -0.000000663699, -0.4324550032615662, -0.4211814403533936, 0.7703215479850769, -0.2054107934236526, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789066153
756, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:30.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:31.310, 0.766, 0.000000, -0.000000561618, -0.000000198508, -0.000000663699, -0.4324576258659363, -0.4211830794811249, 0.770319402217865, -0.2054098546504974, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789072810
757, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:30.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:31.407, 0.863, 0.000000, -0.000000561618, -0.000000198506, -0.000000663700, -0.4324581027030945, -0.4211841225624084, 0.7703183889389038, -0.2054105550050735, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789079209
758, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:30.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:31.509, 0.965, 0.000000, -0.000000561621, -0.000000198504, -0.000000663698, -0.4324578940868378, -0.4211872518062592, 0.7703170776367188, -0.2054095864295959, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789085865
759, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:30.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:31.610, 1.066, 0.000000, -0.000000561623, -0.000000198502, -0.000000663697, -0.4324585795402527, -0.4211888611316681, 0.7703160643577576, -0.20540851354599, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789092522
760, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:31.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:31.712, 0.168, 0.000000, 0.000001706011, -0.000000188848, 0.000002049470, -0.4324562847614288, -0.4211938381195068, 0.7703143358230591, -0.2054096162319183, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 20, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 27, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789099178
761, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:31.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:37.411, 5.867, 0.000000, -0.000000561624, -0.000000198576, -0.000000663674, -0.4324071705341339, -0.4212231338024139, 0.7703250646591187, -0.2054126411676407, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789472681
762, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:36.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:37.509, 0.965, 0.000000, -0.000000561628, -0.000000198564, -0.000000663674, -0.4324133098125458, -0.4212235808372498, 0.7703218460083008, -0.2054110020399094, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789479081
763, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:36.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:37.610, 1.066, 0.000000, -0.000000561632, -0.000000198553, -0.000000663674, -0.4324181377887726, -0.4212260544300079, 0.7703182697296143, -0.2054091244935989, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789485738
764, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:37.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:37.712, 0.168, 0.000000, -0.000000561637, -0.000000198546, -0.000000663672, -0.4324212968349457, -0.4212276637554169, 0.7703161835670471, -0.2054069340229034, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789492394
765, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:37.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:37.810, 0.266, 0.000000, -0.000000561638, -0.000000198543, -0.000000663672, -0.4324226081371307, -0.421227753162384, 0.7703157067298889, -0.2054059654474258, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789498794
766, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:37.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:37.911, 0.367, 0.000000, -0.000000561637, -0.000000198543, -0.000000663672, -0.4324235618114471, -0.4212256968021393, 0.7703162431716919, -0.2054060399532318, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789505450
767, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:37.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:38.009, 0.465, 0.000000, -0.000000561638, -0.000000198540, -0.000000663673, -0.4324254095554352, -0.4212254881858826, 0.7703153491020203, -0.2054058909416199, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789511849
768, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:37.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:38.110, 0.566, 0.000000, 0.000001677422, -0.000000211945, 0.000002048312, -0.4324250817298889, -0.4212258756160736, 0.7703150510787964, -0.2054069638252258, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 27, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 34, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789518506
769, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:37.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:43.810, 6.266, 0.000000, -0.000000561619, -0.000000198580, -0.000000663677, -0.4324090778827667, -0.4212125837802887, 0.7703297734260559, -0.2054126113653183, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789892010
770, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:43.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:43.911, 0.367, 0.000000, -0.000000561624, -0.000000198567, -0.000000663677, -0.432415246963501, -0.4212148189544678, 0.7703256607055664, -0.2054106146097183, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789898666
771, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:43.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:44.009, 0.465, 0.000000, -0.000000561628, -0.000000198557, -0.000000663676, -0.4324198961257935, -0.4212166965007782, 0.7703225016593933, -0.2054087519645691, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789905065
772, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:43.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:44.110, 0.566, 0.000000, -0.000000561632, -0.000000198550, -0.000000663674, -0.4324230849742889, -0.4212177991867065, 0.77032071352005, -0.205406591296196, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789911722
773, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:43.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:44.208, 0.664, 0.000000, -0.000000561633, -0.000000198548, -0.000000663675, -0.4324234127998352, -0.421219527721405, 0.770319402217865, -0.2054071873426437, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789918121
774, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:43.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:44.310, 0.766, 0.000000, -0.000000561634, -0.000000198546, -0.000000663675, -0.4324244558811188, -0.4212194979190826, 0.7703190445899963, -0.2054064720869064, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789924778
775, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:43.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:44.411, 0.867, 0.000000, -0.000000561635, -0.000000198542, -0.000000663675, -0.4324268996715546, -0.4212182760238647, 0.7703185677528381, -0.2054055482149124, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789931433
776, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:43.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:44.509, 0.965, 0.000000, 0.000001689709, -0.000000201990, 0.000002048785, -0.4324262738227844, -0.4212199449539185, 0.7703179717063904, -0.2054056227207184, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 24, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 31, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737789937833
777, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:43.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:50.208, 6.664, 0.000000, -0.000000897968, -0.000000231496, -0.000000717775, -0.432409942150116, -0.4212198853492737, 0.7703269720077515, -0.2054064720869064, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 100, 0, 100, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790311337
778, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:49.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:50.310, 0.766, 0.000000, -0.000000561636, -0.000000198564, -0.000000663667, -0.4324164688587189, -0.4212183952331543, 0.7703251242637634, -0.2054027765989304, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790317994
779, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:49.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:50.411, 0.867, 0.000000, -0.000000561641, -0.000000198554, -0.000000663666, -0.4324212372303009, -0.4212198853492737, 0.7703222632408142, -0.2054004073143005, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790324649
780, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:49.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:50.513, 0.969, 0.000000, -0.000000561642, -0.000000198542, -0.000000663669, -0.4324272274971008, -0.4212193489074707, 0.7703191637992859, -0.2054004520177841, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790331305
781, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:49.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:50.610, 1.066, 0.000000, -0.000000561641, -0.000000198538, -0.000000663671, -0.4324299693107605, -0.4212173223495483, 0.7703185677528381, -0.2054010629653931, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790337706
782, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:50.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:50.712, 0.168, 0.000000, -0.000000561639, -0.000000198536, -0.000000663673, -0.4324325919151306, -0.4212140440940857, 0.770318865776062, -0.2054011970758438, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790344362
783, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:50.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:50.810, 0.266, 0.000000, -0.000000561639, -0.000000198529, -0.000000663675, -0.4324365854263306, -0.4212119579315186, 0.7703176736831665, -0.2054014801979065, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790350762
784, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:50.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:50.911, 0.367, 0.000000, 0.000002077967, -0.000000036871, 0.000001868853, -0.4324394166469574, -0.4212111234664917, 0.7703165411949158, -0.2054015398025513, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 27, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 35, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790357418
785, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:50.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:56.610, 6.066, 0.000000, -0.000000561596, -0.000000198535, -0.000000663710, -0.4324464201927185, -0.4211731553077698, 0.7703279256820679, -0.2054218649864197, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790730922
786, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:56.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:56.712, 0.168, 0.000000, -0.000000561602, -0.000000198521, -0.000000663709, -0.4324526488780975, -0.4211757481098175, 0.7703238129615784, -0.2054189294576645, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790737578
787, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:56.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:56.810, 0.266, 0.000000, -0.000000561606, -0.000000198513, -0.000000663708, -0.4324558675289154, -0.4211783409118652, 0.7703210115432739, -0.2054173350334167, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790743978
788, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:56.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:56.911, 0.367, 0.000000, -0.000000561610, -0.000000198506, -0.000000663706, -0.4324586987495422, -0.4211809635162354, 0.7703185081481934, -0.2054153382778168, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790750634
789, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:56.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:57.009, 0.465, 0.000000, -0.000000561612, -0.000000198503, -0.000000663706, -0.4324595034122467, -0.4211830794811249, 0.7703169584274292, -0.2054150700569153, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790757033
790, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:56.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:57.114, 0.570, 0.000000, -0.000000561611, -0.000000198503, -0.000000663706, -0.4324594736099243, -0.4211836457252502, 0.770316481590271, -0.2054158747196198, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790763945
791, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:56.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:57.212, 0.668, 0.000000, -0.000000561613, -0.000000198501, -0.000000663705, -0.4324599206447601, -0.421185165643692, 0.7703155875205994, -0.2054150551557541, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 100, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790770345
792, R, 2017-10-07 08:10:23, 2017-10-06 15:05:56.544, 2017-10-06 15:05:57.310, 0.766, 0.000000, 0.000002049176, -0.000000060164, 0.000001867875, -0.4324584901332855, -0.4211878478527069, 0.7703147530555725, -0.2054158449172974, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 34, 91, 0, 0, 0, 0, 42, 100, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 36737790776746 | https://lasp.colorado.edu/maven/sdc/public/data/sites/site-20210320T203935/anc/eng/sff/mvn_rec_171004_171007_v03.sff |
Medscape | Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis - Content Listing
app-id=321367289
Prostate Cancer and Prostatic Diseases
(ISSN: 1365-7852, 1476-5608)
This journal no longer participates in Medscape Publishers' Circle Program. No new articles will be republished.
Table of Contents
2021 -
24
(1)
Response to the Letter to the Editor: "Association between metformin medication, genetic variation and prostate cancer risk"-genotyping and patient categorization, do they matter?
[ MEDLINE Abstract ]
Survival following upfront chemotherapy for treatment-naïve metastatic prostate cancer: a real-world retrospective cohort study.
External beam radiation therapy improves survival in low-volume metastatic prostate cancer patients: a North American population-based study.
Animal models of benign prostatic hyperplasia.
Immortalization of human primary prostate epithelial cells via CRISPR inactivation of the CDKN2A locus and expression of telomerase.
Abiraterone and enzalutamide had different adverse effects on the cardiovascular system: a systematic review with pairwise and network meta-analyses.
The effect of exercise training on cardiometabolic health in men with prostate cancer receiving androgen deprivation therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Diagnostic ability of Ga-68 PSMA PET to detect dominant and non-dominant tumors, upgrading and adverse pathology in patients with PIRADS 4-5 index lesions undergoing radical prostatectomy.
A novel method for detection of exfoliated prostate cancer cells in urine by RNA in situ hybridization.
Treatment of metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer with radium-223: a retrospective study at a US tertiary oncology center.
Quantifying observational evidence for risk of dementia following androgen deprivation therapy for prostate cancer: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis.
Association of neurovascular bundle preservation with oncological outcomes in patients with high-risk prostate cancer.
Long-term outcomes of two ablation techniques for treatment of radio-recurrent prostate cancer.
Letter to the Editor: "Association between metformin medication, genetic variation and prostate cancer risk"-genotyping and patient categorizations, do they matter?
Risk of prostate cancer in men with HIV/AIDS: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Transrectal versus transperineal prostate biopsy under intravenous anaesthesia: a clinical, microbiological and cost analysis of 2048 cases over 11 years at a tertiary institution.
Cardiac biomarkers in patients with prostate cancer and cardiovascular disease receiving gonadotrophin releasing hormone agonist vs antagonist.
Effects of high-intensity interval training compared with resistance training in prostate cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy: a randomized controlled trial.
Febrile neutropenia (FN) rates in metastatic hormone sensitive prostate cancer: the role of antibiotics as primary prophylaxis.
BRD4 regulates key transcription factors that drive epithelial-mesenchymal transition in castration-resistant prostate cancer.
Public interest in dietary supplements for prostate cancer prevention.
PI-RADS score v.2 in predicting malignancy in patients undergoing 5α-reductase inhibitor therapy.
Proof-of-principle Phase I results of combining nivolumab with brachytherapy and external beam radiation therapy for Grade Group 5 prostate cancer: safety, feasibility, and exploratory analysis.
The intraprostatic immune environment after stereotactic body radiotherapy is dominated by myeloid cells.
Risk of erectile dysfunction after modern radiotherapy for intact prostate cancer.
Ethnic variation in prostate cancer detection: a feasibility study for use of the Stockholm3 test in a multiethnic U.S. cohort.
Early oncological control following partial gland cryo-ablation: a prospective experience specifying reflex MRI guided biopsy of the ablation zone.
Exercise modulation of tumour perfusion and hypoxia to improve radiotherapy response in prostate cancer.
Evidence-based analysis of online consumer information about prostate artery embolization for benign prostatic hyperplasia.
Association between metformin medication, genetic variation and prostate cancer risk.
Telomere-based risk models for the early diagnosis of clinically significant prostate cancer.
Shared decision making and prostate-specific antigen based prostate cancer screening following the 2018 update of USPSTF screening guideline.
Clinical and genomic characterization of Low PSA Secretors: a unique subset of metastatic castration resistant prostate cancer.
Long-term use of 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors is safe and effective in men on active surveillance for prostate cancer.
Phase 2 trial of monoamine oxidase inhibitor phenelzine in biochemical recurrent prostate cancer.
| https://www.medscape.com/viewpublication/19054_11 |
Popponesset CDP Massachusetts Education data and school information
Popponesset CDP Massachusetts Education data with local analysis and research
Popponesset CDP Massachusetts Education Attainment Charts
This section of charts contains education data for Popponesset CDP Massachusetts based mainly on the latest year 2022 Census data using the American Community Survey but also the survey from Common Core Data available for Public Elementary through Secondary Schools. In
Figure 1
, the percent of all people aged 25 years or older, who have either graduated from high school or completed the Graduate Equivalency Degree (GED) or some equivalent certification/credential.
Popponesset CDP
depicts it has a High School Grad or higher of 100% which is ranked #1 of all places in the metro area.
In
Figure 2
, the percentage of people aged 25 years or older who have graduated from college/university with at least a bachelor's degree is provided. Note that the bachelor's degree is also called a four-year degree because it normally takes four years of full-time study to finish the course curriculum required to obtain the degree. This chart portrays the proportion of the population in this region who are college graduates with at least a bachelor degree or higher. In many ways, this analysis alongside the prior chart are very quick measures of the level of education in any particular area. Popponesset CDP depicts it has a Bachelors Degree or higher of 59% which is the third most percent with a bachelors degree or higher of all other places in the greater Popponesset CDP region. The place with the highest percent with a bachelors degree or higher in the area is
New Seabury CDP
which depicts a percent with a bachelors degree of 74% (24.4% larger).
Figure 5
provides a more detailed look at the educational attainment for Popponesset CDP Massachusetts. This chart provides the proportion of people aged 25 years of age or older and what was their level of educational attainment. The chart provides 5 broad categories including: No Education/No School, Some High School, High School or equivalent, Some college or Associates Degree, and Bachelors Degree or higher. Popponesset CDP has one of the largest proportions of percent of people with less than a high school education at 23% of the total and is ranked #3. Only #2
Seabrook CDP
(27%), and #1
Monomoscoy Island CDP
(28%) are larger.
The next chart shows a break down of people who have received a bachelor's degree or higher advanced degree generally in a campus learning environment. In particular,
Figure 6
, provides the proportional breakdown of all the people who have received a postsecondary education along with what the level of advanced degree that was obtained. Note that these categories do not include any type professional development type activities such as those related to maintaining professional credentials in workshop lessons. Note Professional Degree includes medical, dental, lawyers, etc. Popponesset CDP has the smallest proportion of percent of people with an associate degree at 32% of the total. Second, it has the largest proportion of percent of people with a bachelors degree at 56% of the total and is ranked #1.
The chart in
Figure 7
shows the broad area of academic concentration or the discipline for people who have received a bachelors degree. This high level classification is essentially the field of study for which a degree was obtained. Popponesset CDP has the largest proportion of percent of people with a science or engineering degree at 5.5% of the total and is ranked #1. Second, it has the second smallest when sorted by percent of people with a science or engineering degree of all the other places in the area when ranked by percent of people with a degree in a science or engineering related at 5.5% of the total. Third, it has less than most other places in the greater region in order of percent of people with an arts, humanities, or other degree at 23.7% of the total.
The next chart (
Figure 8
) provides a more detailed deep dive on the category of major degree obtained for people aged 25 years or older who earned a bachelor's degree or higher. Specifically, this frequency distribution details out what the major field of study was the degree obtained. Popponesset CDP has the largest proportion of percent of people with a degree in psychology at 29.2% of the total and is ranked #1. Second, it has the largest proportion of percent of people with a degree in multidisciplinary studies at 5.5% of the total and is ranked #1. Third, it has less than most other places in the local area in terms of percent of people with a degree in science and engineering related fields at 23.7% of the total. Also, it has the largest proportion of percent of people with a degree in communications at 5.5% of the total and is ranked #1.
Figure 9
provides comparative data between the places in the greater Popponesset CDP Massachusetts region for broad educational attainment. This analysis uses provides five broad education attainment categories including: No Education/No School, Some High School, High School or equivalent, Some college or Associates Degree, and Bachelors Degree or higher. Popponesset CDP has one of the largest proportions of percent of people with less than a high school degree at 22.6% of the total and is ranked #3. Only #2
Seabrook CDP
(27.0%), and #1
Monomoscoy Island CDP
(28.2%) are larger. Second, it has less than most other places in the greater region in terms of percent of people with high school (or ged) at 17.9% of the total.
A more detailed frequency distribution of educational attainment is provided in
Figure 10
. In particular this illustration breaks out the highest levels of university educational opportunities beyond the four year college degree. Included in the breakout are the relative proportion of masters degrees, PhD/Doctorate/Doctorial holders, and professional degrees such as medicine, dentistry, lawyers, etc. Popponesset CDP has one of the largest proportions of percent of people with less than high school at 22.6% of the total and is ranked #3. Only #2
Seabrook CDP
(27.0%), and #1
Monomoscoy Island CDP
(28.2%) are larger. Second, it has the largest proportion of percent of people with a bachelors degree at 38.0% of the total and is ranked #1. The next exhibit (
Figure 11
) provides detailed cross tabulation analysis that provides education success data broken out or cross tabulated by age group. Please note that the columns add to 100% and you must use the pagination buttons at the bottom of the table to see all the rows.
Figure 12
is a cross tabulation analysis that shows large educational success categories and is broken out or cross tabulated by racial group. Please note that the columns add to 100% and you must use the pagination buttons at the bottom of the table to see all the rows.The final cross tabulation analysis is provided in
Figure 13
and shows education success broken out by gender. Please note that the columns add to 100% and you must use the pagination buttons at the bottom of the table to see all the rows.
Popponesset CDP Massachusetts School Enrollment Charts
The next section of chart resources look at school enrollment by a variety of educational institutions and are categorized into a number of other groupings.
Figure 14
provides the overall school enrollment by broad range of school age/level groupings. Popponesset CDP has one of the largest proportions of percent of children in kindergarten at 17.9% of the total and is ranked #3. Only #2
New Seabury CDP
(22.4%), and #1
Monomoscoy Island CDP
(52.9%) are larger. Second, it has one of the largest proportions of percent of children in grade 1 to 4 at 14.3% of the total and is ranked #3. Only #2
Mashpee Neck CDP
(23.7%), and #1
Seabrook CDP
(40.0%) are larger. Third, it has the largest proportion of percent of children in grades 9 to 12 at 44.6% of the total and is ranked #1. Also, it has the largest proportion of percent of people in undergraduate colleges at 23.2% of the total and is ranked #1.
Figure 15
provides a simple high level comparison of the proportion of students that are enrolled in public schools versus students enrolled in private schools in the Popponesset CDP Massachusetts region. Popponesset CDP shows percent enrolled in public schools approximately half the size as the percent enrolled in private schools.
The next chart in this series of resources shown in
Figure 20
looks at the total number of students enrolled in any educational institution for each place in the greater Popponesset CDP region. (Total enrollment in this case includes all students from preschool all the way through students enrolled in graduate school.) Popponesset CDP shows it has a Total Enrolled of 56 which is in the mid range of other places in the surrounding region. The place with the highest total population enrolled in school in the area is
Mashpee Neck CDP
which indicates a total population enrolled in school of 413 ( very much bigger). Comparing total population enrolled in school to the
United States
average of 81,076,829, Popponesset CDP is only about 0.0% the size. Also, measured against the state of
Massachusetts
, total population enrolled in school of 1,720,058, Popponesset CDP is only about 0.0% the size.
Popponesset CDP Massachusetts Area Schools Charts
Figure 23
lists all the schools in the area along with the school district, county location and other program information/credential such as if they are a public charter school or private charter school or magnet school. Some of the Area Schools are: Mashpee High, Mashpee Middle School, Quashnet School, Kenneth Coombs School, and East Falmouth Elementary. The next illustration in
Figure 24
shows the total child school enrollment for all grades (through 12th grade) at the school shown using NCES data (Common Core of Data, Public Elementary-Secondary School Universe Survey.) Looking at Enrollment for Area Schools we find that Barnstable High ranks the largest with a value of 1,944 enrolled students. The next largest values are for: Falmouth High (855), Forestdale (734), Morse Pond School (594), and Quashnet School (565). The difference between the highest value (Barnstable High) and the next highest (Falmouth High) is that the enrolled students is about approximately 2.3 times bigger.
Figure 25
show the ratio of the number of students to the number of teachers in the classroom. A good student to teacher ratio should be low because it indicates that there are less students for any one teacher to educate in a class and generally a better learning environment, better success and optimal teaching excellence. Teachers includes all educational staff such as special education teachers and any other educator. Note that distance learning (online learning/remote learning) is not included in these values. Looking at Student to Teacher Ratio for Area Schools we find that Lawrence ranks the largest with a value of 9.8 student to teacher ratio. The next largest values are for: Mashpee High (10.7), Teaticket (11.3), Hyannis West Elementary (11.8), and Falmouth High (12.7). The difference between the lowest value (Lawrence) and the next lowest (Mashpee High) is that the student to teacher ratio is 9.2% larger.
The next chart,
Figure 26
, shows the racial mix of students at each location in this district of the state of Massachusetts department of education.
Popponesset CDP, Massachusetts Education Data
Demographics
Housing
Economy
Figure 1: Popponesset CDP, MA At least High School Education Figure 2: Popponesset CDP, MA Bachelors Degree or Better Education 0% 50% 100% United States Massachusetts Boston-Worcester- Providence Monomoscoy Island CDP Seabrook CDP Mashpee Neck CDP Popponesset CDP Popponesset Island CDP New Seabury CDP Seconsett Island CDP Place High School Grad or higher United States 89% Massachusetts 91% Boston-Worcester-Providence 91% Monomoscoy Island CDP 94% Seabrook CDP 96% Mashpee Neck CDP 97% Popponesset CDP 100% Popponesset Island CDP 100% New Seabury CDP 100% Seconsett Island CDP 100% Providence 0% 50% 100% Monomoscoy Island CDP United States Boston-Worcester- Providence Massachusetts Mashpee Neck CDP Seabrook CDP Popponesset Island CDP Popponesset CDP Seconsett Island CDP New Seabury CDP Place Bachelors Degree or higher Monomoscoy Island CDP 27% United States 34% Boston-Worcester-Providence 44% Massachusetts 45% Mashpee Neck CDP 51% Seabrook CDP 52% Popponesset Island CDP 59% Popponesset CDP 60% Seconsett Island CDP 63% New Seabury CDP 74% Providence
Figure 3: Advertisement Figure 4: Popponesset CDP, MA School Dropout Rate 0% 10% 20% Popponesset CDP Popponesset Island CDP New Seabury CDP Seconsett Island CDP Mashpee Neck CDP Seabrook CDP Monomoscoy Island CDP Boston-Worcester- Providence Massachusetts United States Place School Dropout Rate Popponesset CDP 0% Popponesset Island CDP 0% New Seabury CDP 0% Seconsett Island CDP 0% Mashpee Neck CDP 3% Seabrook CDP 4% Monomoscoy Island CDP 7% Boston-Worcester-Providence 9% Massachusetts 9% United States 11% Providence
Figure 5: Popponesset CDP, MA Education Attainment Breakdown Figure 6: Higher Education Attainment (100%=All People with Bachelor or better) Bachelors Degree or higher High School or GED Some college or Associates Degree 17.9% 22.6% 59.5% Place Popponesset CDP Bachelors Degree or higher 0.595 High School or GED 0.226 Some college or Associates Degree 0.179 No schooling 0 Less than High School 0 or Associates Masters degree % Bachelors degree % Associate degree % 11.9% 31.9% 56.2% Place Popponesset CDP Masters degree % 0.562 Bachelors degree % 0.319 Associate degree % 0.119 Professional school degree % 0 Doctorate degree % 0 Associate degree
Figure 7: Popponesset CDP, MA Bachelors Degrees Field of Study Science & Engineering Science and Engineeri… Arts, Humanities, Other Business Education Popponesset CDP Popponesset Island CDP New Seabury CDP Monomoscoy Island CDP Seabrook CDP Seconsett Island CDP Mashpee Neck CDP United States Massachusetts Boston-Worcester-Provi… 0% 50% 100% Place Science & Engineering Science and Engineering Related Arts, Humanities, Other Business Education Popponesset CDP 65.3% 5.5% 5.5% 23.7% 0% Popponesset Island CDP 58.7% 0% 0% 41.3% 0% New Seabury CDP 50.1% 2.6% 15.8% 10.9% 20.6% Monomoscoy Island CDP 45.5% 0% 27.3% 27.3% 0% Seabrook CDP 32.1% 1.8% 17.3% 18.1% 30.6% Seconsett Island CDP 21.6% 0% 37.8% 40.5% 0% Mashpee Neck CDP 37% 1.5% 11.3% 42.5% 7.8% United States 35.8% 9.7% 23.7% 19.6% 11.2% Massachusetts 41.2% 8.5% 25.1% 16.9% 8.3% Boston-Worcester-Providence 40.6% 8.6% 24.6% 17.6% 8.5% Science and Engineerin…
Figure 8: Popponesset CDP, MA Bachelors Degree Obtained Computers, Mathemat… Biological, Agricultura… Physical and Related S… Psychology Social Sciences Engineering Multidisciplinary Studies Science and Engineering Related Business Education Literature and Languages Liberal Arts and History 1/2 Popponesset CDP 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% Place Computers, Mathematics and Statistics Biological, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences Physical and Related Sciences Psychology Social Sciences Engineering Multidisciplinary Studies Science and Engineering Related Business Education Literature and Languages Liberal Arts and History Visual and Performing Arts Communications Other Popponesset CDP 36% 0% 0% 0% 29.2% 0% 0% 5.5% 23.7% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 5.5% 0/0
Figure 9: Popponesset CDP, MA Education Attainment by Level Comparison (Age 25+) No schooling Less than High School High School or GED Some college or Associates Degree Bachelors Degree or higher Popponesset CDP Popponesset Island CDP New Seabury CDP Monomoscoy Island CDP Seabrook CDP Seconsett Island CDP Mashpee Neck CDP United States Massachusetts Boston-Worcester-Provi… 0% 50% 100% Place No schooling Less than High School High School or GED Some college or Associates Degree Bachelors Degree or higher Popponesset CDP 0% 0% 22.6% 17.9% 59.5% Popponesset Island CDP 0% 0% 0% 41.3% 58.7% New Seabury CDP 0% 0% 8.4% 17.6% 74% Monomoscoy Island CDP 0% 6.5% 28.2% 38.7% 26.6% Seabrook CDP 0% 4.1% 27% 16.6% 52.3% Seconsett Island CDP 0% 0% 6.8% 30.5% 62.7% Mashpee Neck CDP 0% 2.8% 18.6% 27.3% 51.3% United States 1.6% 9.5% 26.5% 28.7% 33.7% Massachusetts 1.6% 7.2% 23.2% 22.8% 45.2% Boston-Worcester-Providence 1.5% 7.1% 23.9% 23.6% 43.9% Bachelors Degree or higher
Figure 10: Popponesset CDP, MA Education Attainment Detailed Comparison (Age 25+) No schooling Less than High School High School or GED Some college Not Graduate Associate degree Bachelors degree Masters degree Professional school degree Doctorate degree Popponesset CDP 0% 20% 40% Place No schooling Less than High School High School or GED Some college Not Graduate Associate degree Bachelors degree Masters degree Professional school degree Doctorate degree Popponesset CDP 0% 0% 22.6% 9.9% 8% 21.5% 38% 0% 0% Doctorate degree
Figure 11: Popponesset CDP, MA Detailed Education Attainment Breakout by Age Group (Age 18+) Education 18 to 24 years 25 to 34 years 35 to 44 years 45 to 64 years 65 years and over Associates degree 0% 15% 0% 0% 14.5% Bachelors degree 76% 44% 0% 28% 0% Graduate or professional degree 0% 41% 100% 25% 0% High school graduate, GED, or alternative 0% 0% 0% 36% 56.5% 1 2
Figure 12: Popponesset CDP, MA Detailed Education Attainment Breakout by Race (Age 25+) Education White Black American Indian Asian Native Hawaiian Hispanic Bachelors degree or higher 60% 0% 0% 100% 0% 0% High school graduate or GED 20% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% Some college or associates degree 20% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
Figure 13: Popponesset CDP, MA Detailed Male and Female breakdown of Educational Attainment Education Total Male Female Associates Degree 8% 17% 0% Bachelors Degree 22% 36% 8.9% High school/GED 23% 13% 31.5% Masters degree 38% 27% 47.3% Some college-No Degree 10% 7% 12.3% Total 100% 47% 53.3%
Figure 14: Popponesset CDP, MA School Enrollment by Aggregate Categories Kindergarten Grade 1 to 4 Grade 5 to 8 Grade 9 to 12 College, undergraduate Graduate or prof school Popponesset CDP New Seabury CDP Monomoscoy Island CDP Seabrook CDP Seconsett Island CDP Mashpee Neck CDP United States Massachusetts Boston-Worcester-Provi… 0% 50% 100% Place Kindergarten Grade 1 to 4 Grade 5 to 8 Grade 9 to 12 College, undergraduate Graduate or prof school Popponesset CDP 0% 17.9% 14.3% 0% 44.6% 23.2% New Seabury CDP 22.4% 22.4% 0% 22.4% 32.8% 0% Monomoscoy Island CDP 47.1% 52.9% 0% 0% 0% 0% Seabrook CDP 0% 0% 40% 22.9% 37.1% 0% Seconsett Island CDP 0% 0% 0% 100% 0% 0% Mashpee Neck CDP 0% 7% 23.7% 27.4% 41.9% 0% United States 5.3% 21.1% 22.3% 22.6% 23% 5.8% Massachusetts 4.7% 18.2% 19.8% 21.4% 26.9% 9% Boston-Worcester-Providence 4.7% 18.6% 20.2% 21.6% 26.3% 8.6% Graduate or prof school
Figure 15: Popponesset CDP, MA Overall Public vs. Private School Enrollment Figure 16: Popponesset CDP, MA Public vs. Private K-8 School Enrollment Public Sc… Private S… 0% 50% 100% Popponesset CDP New Seabury CDP Monomoscoy Island CDP Seabrook CDP Seconsett Island CDP Mashpee Neck CDP United States Massachusetts Boston-Worcester- Providence Place Public School Enrollment Private School Enrollment Popponesset CDP 32% 68% New Seabury CDP 55% 45% Monomoscoy Island CDP 100% 0% Seabrook CDP 83% 17% Seconsett Island CDP 100% 0% Mashpee Neck CDP 92% 8% United States 83% 17% Massachusetts 73% 28% Boston-Worcester-Providence 73% 27% Private Sc… Public K-… Private K… 0% 50% 100% Popponesset CDP New Seabury CDP Monomoscoy Island CDP Seabrook CDP Mashpee Neck CDP United States Massachusetts Boston-Worcester- Providence Place Public K-8 Enrollment Private K-8 Enrollment Popponesset CDP 100% 0% New Seabury CDP 100% 0% Monomoscoy Island CDP 100% 0% Seabrook CDP 100% 0% Mashpee Neck CDP 100% 0% United States 88% 12% Massachusetts 91% 9% Boston-Worcester-Providence 90% 10% Private K-…
Figure 17: Popponesset CDP, MA Public vs. Private High School Enrollment Figure 18: Popponesset CDP, MA Public vs. Private College Enrollment Public Hi… Private… 0% 50% 100% New Seabury CDP Seabrook CDP Seconsett Island CDP Mashpee Neck CDP United States Massachusetts Boston-Worcester- Providence Place Public High School Enrollment Private High School Enrollment New Seabury CDP 46% 54% Seabrook CDP 100% 0% Seconsett Island CDP 100% 0% Mashpee Neck CDP 89% 11% United States 89% 11% Massachusetts 88% 12% Boston-Worcester-Providence 88% 13% Private H… Public C… Private C… 0% 50% 100% Popponesset CDP New Seabury CDP Seabrook CDP Mashpee Neck CDP United States Massachusetts Boston-Worcester- Providence Place Public College Enrollment Private College Enrollment Popponesset CDP 0% 100% New Seabury CDP 0% 100% Seabrook CDP 42% 58% Mashpee Neck CDP 88% 12% United States 78% 22% Massachusetts 50% 50% Boston-Worcester-Providence 51% 49% Private Co…
Figure 19: Popponesset CDP, MA Public vs. Private Graduate or Professional School Enrollment Figure 20: Popponesset CDP, MA Total Enrolled in Schools Public Gr… Private… 0% 50% 100% Popponesset CDP United States Massachusetts Boston-Worcester- Providence Place Public Gradudate or Pro school enrollment Private Gradudate or Pro school enrollment Popponesset CDP 0% 100% United States 60% 40% Massachusetts 32% 68% Boston-Worcester-Providence 33% 68% Private G… 0 500 1,000 Seconsett Island CDP Monomoscoy Island CDP Popponesset CDP New Seabury CDP Seabrook CDP Mashpee Neck CDP Place Total Enrolled Seconsett Island CDP 10 Monomoscoy Island CDP 17 Popponesset CDP 56 New Seabury CDP 58 Seabrook CDP 87 Mashpee Neck CDP 413 ...
Figure 21: Advertisement Figure 22: Popponesset CDP, MA Public vs. Private Preschool Public pr… Private p… 0% 50% 100% Seabrook CDP United States Massachusetts Boston-Worcester- Providence Place Public preschool enrollment Private preschool enrollment Seabrook CDP 100% 0% United States 59% 41% Massachusetts 50% 50% Boston-Worcester-Providence 49% 51% Private pr…
Figure 23: List of Schools in the Popponesset CDP, MA Area (2013) School Name School District School Level Grade Range Magnet School Charter School West Villages Elementary School Barnstable Primary School K to 3 Yes No Teaticket Falmouth Primary School PK to 4 Yes No Quashnet School Mashpee Primary School 3 to 6 Yes No Mullen-Hall Falmouth Primary School K to 4 Yes No Morse Pond School Falmouth Middle School 5 to 6 Yes No Mashpee Middle School Mashpee Middle School 7 to 8 Yes No Mashpee High Mashpee High School 9 to 12 Yes No Lawrence Falmouth Middle School 7 to 8 Yes No Kenneth Coombs School Mashpee Primary School PK to 2 Yes No Hyannis West Elementary Barnstable Primary School K to 3 Yes No 1 2
Figure 25: Student to Teacher Ratios (2013) - Low Scores Are Better Student to Teacher Ratio Lawrence Mashpee High Teaticket Hyannis West Elementary Falmouth High Mullen-Hall Barnstable High Morse Pond School Mashpee Middle School East Falmouth Elementary Quashnet School Centerville Elementary Forestdale West Villages Elementary School Kenneth Coombs School 0 10 20 School Name Student to Teacher Ratio Lawrence 9.8 Mashpee High 10.7 Teaticket 11.3 Hyannis West Elementary 11.8 Falmouth High 12.7 Mullen-Hall 12.7 Barnstable High 13 Morse Pond School 13.4 Mashpee Middle School 13.5 East Falmouth Elementary 13.8 Quashnet School 13.8 Centerville Elementary 14.8 Forestdale 14.9 West Villages Elementary School 15.3 Kenneth Coombs School 15.7 Student to Teacher Ratio
Figure 26: Popponesset CDP, MA School Racial Mix (2013) White Black Hispanic Asian Pacific Islander American Indian Two or More Races Hyannis West Elementary Kenneth Coombs School Teaticket East Falmouth Elementary Barnstable High Mashpee High Quashnet School Mullen-Hall Mashpee Middle School Falmouth High Morse Pond School Centerville Elementary Lawrence West Villages Elementary School Forestdale 0% 50% 100% School Name White Black Hispanic Asian Pacific Islander American Indian Two or More Races Hyannis West Elementary 49.5% 16.6% 16.9% 1.2% 0.9% 1.2% 13.6% Kenneth Coombs School 78.7% 2.9% 3.5% 2.9% 0.2% 6.1% 5.7% Teaticket 80.1% 4.1% 4.4% 2.3% 0% 1.2% 7.9% East Falmouth Elementary 80.3% 8.2% 1.8% 2.1% 0.3% 4.2% 3.2% Barnstable High 80.8% 5.3% 6.1% 2.8% 0.2% 1% 3.8% Mashpee High 81.1% 4.6% 3.9% 1.4% 0.5% 6.4% 2.3% Quashnet School 81.4% 3.4% 3.5% 2.7% 0.2% 5.8% 3% Mullen-Hall 84% 3.6% 4.6% 2.3% 0% 0% 5.5% Mashpee Middle School 84.2% 1.9% 3% 1.1% 0% 5.3% 4.5% Falmouth High 84.3% 4.4% 3% 3.7% 0.2% 1.8% 2.5% Morse Pond School 84.3% 4.5% 2.9% 2.7% 0% 0.8% 4.7% Centerville Elementary 84.8% 2.7% 6.1% 3.2% 0.3% 0.3% 2.7% Lawrence 86.6% 2.9% 2.5% 1.9% 0.2% 1% 5% West Villages Elementary School 90.4% 1.3% 4.5% 1.6% 0% 0% 2.2% Forestdale 96.5% 0.5% 1.2% 1.1% 0% 0.7% 0% Two or More Races
Cities marked with an asterisk ("*") should resemble a city or town but do not have their own government (i.e. Mayor, City Council, etc.) These places should be recognizable by the local community but their boundaries have no legal status. Technically these include both Census Designated Places (CDP) and Census County Divisions (CCD) which are defined by the Census Bureau along with local authorities. (For more information, see: Census Designated Place or "CDP") and Census County Division "CCD".) For comparison purposes, the US national average and the state average value are provided. Additionally, the "Combined Statistical Area" or CSA is shown that is closest to the city, county, or zip code shown. A CSA is a large grouping of adjacent metropolitan areas that identified by the Census Bureau based on social and economic ties. (See: Combined Statistical Area ) Data sources - Mouse over icon in upper right corner of each chart for information.
| https://www.towncharts.com/Massachusetts/Education/Popponesset-CDP-MA-Education-data.html |
Molecules | Free Full-Text | Riboflavin Accumulation and Molecular Characterization of cDNAs Encoding Bifunctional GTP Cyclohydrolase II/3,4-Dihydroxy-2-Butanone 4-Phosphate Synthase, Lumazine Synthase, and Riboflavin Synthase in Different Organs of Lycium chinense Plant
Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is the precursor of flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide—essential cofactors for a wide variety of enzymes involving in numerous metabolic processes. In this study, a partial-length cDNA encoding bifunctional GTP cyclohydrolase II/3,4-dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-phosphate synthase (LcRIBA), 2 full-length cDNAs encoding lumazine synthase (LcLS1 and LcLS2), and a full-length cDNA encoding riboflavin synthase (LcRS) were isolated from Lycium chinense, an important traditional medicinal plant. Sequence analyses showed that these genes exhibited high identities with their orthologous genes as well as having the same common features related to plant riboflavin biosynthetic genes. LcRIBA, like other plant RIBAs, contained a DHBPS region in its N terminus and a GCHII region in its C-terminal part. LcLSs and LcRS carried an N-terminal extension found in plant riboflavin biosynthetic genes unlike the orthologous microbial genes. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that 4 riboflavin biosynthetic genes were constitutively expressed in all organs examined of L. chinense plants with the highest expression levels found in the leaves or red fruits. LcRIBA, which catalyzes 2 initial reactions in riboflavin biosynthetic pathway, was the highest transcript in the leaves, and hence, the richest content of riboflavin was detected in this organ. Our study might provide the basis for investigating the contribution of riboflavin in diverse biological activities of L. chinense and may facilitate the metabolic engineering of vitamin B2 in crop plants.
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Riboflavin Accumulation and Molecular Characterization of cDNAs Encoding Bifunctional GTP Cyclohydrolase II/3,4-Dihydroxy-2-Butanone 4-Phosphate Synthase, Lumazine Synthase, and Riboflavin Synthase in Different Organs of Lycium chinense Plant
by
Pham Anh Tuan 1 ,
Shicheng Zhao 1 ,
Jae Kwang Kim 2 ,
Yeon Bok Kim 1 ,
Jingli Yang 3 ,
Cheng Hao Li 3 ,
Sun-Ju Kim 4 ,
Mariadhas Valan Arasu 5 ,
Naif Abdullah Al-Dhabi 5,* and
Sang Un Park 1,6,*
1
Department of Crop Science, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-Ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-764, Korea
2
State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
4
Department of Bio-Environmental Chemistry, Chungnam National University, 99 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 305-764, Korea
5
Department of Botany and Microbiology, Addiriyah Chair for Environmental Studies, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
6
Visiting Professor Program (VPP), King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Molecules 2014 , 19 (11), 17141-17153; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules191117141
Received: 25 July 2014 / Revised: 16 October 2014 / Accepted: 17 October 2014 / Published: 24 October 2014
(This article belongs to the Section Natural Products Chemistry )
Versions Notes
Abstract
:
Riboflavin (vitamin B2) is the precursor of flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide—essential cofactors for a wide variety of enzymes involving in numerous metabolic processes. In this study, a partial-length cDNA encoding bifunctional GTP cyclohydrolase II/3,4-dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-phosphate synthase (LcRIBA), 2 full-length cDNAs encoding lumazine synthase (LcLS1 and LcLS2), and a full-length cDNA encoding riboflavin synthase (LcRS) were isolated from
Lycium chinense
, an important traditional medicinal plant. Sequence analyses showed that these genes exhibited high identities with their orthologous genes as well as having the same common features related to plant riboflavin biosynthetic genes. LcRIBA, like other plant RIBAs, contained a DHBPS region in its N terminus and a GCHII region in its C-terminal part. LcLSs and LcRS carried an N-terminal extension found in plant riboflavin biosynthetic genes unlike the orthologous microbial genes. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis showed that 4 riboflavin biosynthetic genes were constitutively expressed in all organs examined of
L. chinense
plants with the highest expression levels found in the leaves or red fruits. LcRIBA, which catalyzes 2 initial reactions in riboflavin biosynthetic pathway, was the highest transcript in the leaves, and hence, the richest content of riboflavin was detected in this organ. Our study might provide the basis for investigating the contribution of riboflavin in diverse biological activities of
L. chinense
and may facilitate the metabolic engineering of vitamin B2 in crop plants.
Keywords:
GTP cyclohydrolase II/3,4-dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-phosphate synthase
;
lumazine synthase
;
riboflavin synthase
;
Lycium chinense
;
riboflavin
Graphical Abstract
1. Introduction
Riboflavin is an indispensable vitamin (vitamin B2) for humans and has been reported to play roles in protecting against cataract, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. It is the precursor of the coenzymes flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide, and is also involved in numerous physiological processes involving light sensing, bioluminescence, and DNA repair [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. In all organisms, the biosynthesis of 1 riboflavin molecule requires 1 molecule of GTP and 2 molecules of ribulose 5-phosphate ( Scheme 1 ) [ 7 , 8 ]. The imidazole ring of GTP is hydrolytically cleaved by GTP cyclohydrolase II (GCHYII) to form 2,5-diamino-6-ribosylamino-4(3 H )-pyrimidinone-5'-phosphate, which is then converted to 5-amino-6-ribitylamino-2,4(1 H ,3 H )-pyrimidinedione by several reactions involving deamination, side chain reduction, and dephosphorylation [ 9 ]. Subsequently, lumazine synthase (LS) catalyzes the condensation of 5-amino-6-ribitylamino-2,4(1 H ,3 H )-pyrimidinedione with 3,4-dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-phosphate, which is obtained from ribulose 5-phosphate by 3,4-dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-phosphate synthase (DHBPS), yielding 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine [ 10 ]. The final step of the riboflavin biosynthetic pathway is mediated by riboflavin synthase (RS), which catalyzes the disproportionation of 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine, affording riboflavin and 5-amino-6-ribitylamino-2,4(1 H ,3 H )-pyrimidinedione, which is recycled in the biosynthetic pathway [ 11 ]. Over the past 15 years, several researchers have investigated riboflavin biosynthesis by cloning a bifunctional protein with GCHYII and DHBP in Arabidopsis [ 9 ]; characterization of LS and RS has been conducted in spinach, tobacco, and bitter melon [ 12 , 13 ]. Recently, the availability of next-generation sequencing technologies has allowed the extensive investigation of the genes related to the riboflavin biosynthetic pathway in plants.
Scheme 1. The proposed riboflavin biosynthetic pathway in plants.
Scheme 1. The proposed riboflavin biosynthetic pathway in plants.
1: GTP; 2: 2,5-diamino-6-ribosylamino-4(3 H )-pyrimidinone-5'-phosphate; 3: 5-amino-6-ribitylamino-2,4 (1 H ,3 H )-pyrimidinedione; 4: ribulose-5-phosphate; 5: 3,4-dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-phosphate; 6: 6,7-dimethyl-8-ribityllumazine; 7: riboflavin; GCHYII: GTP cyclohydrolase II; DHBPS: 3,4-dihydroxy-2-butanone-4-phosphate synthase; LS: lumazine synthase; RS: riboflavin synthase.
Lycium chinense , belonging to the family Solanaceae, has been used for more than 2000 years in traditional Chinese medicine as a medical herb for anti-aging purposes and as a nourishing ingredient to reduce the risk of arteriosclerosis and arterial hypertension [ 14 , 15 ]. L. chinense contains a wide range of functional components that have beneficial effects on health, such as betain, ascorbic acid, flavonoids, carotenoids, and alkaloids [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Therefore, it is known to possess many biological activities, including antioxidant, antiallergic, and anti-inflammatory activities [ 17 , 20 , 21 ]. In addition, L. chinense fruits were reported to reduce myofibroblast-like cell proliferation and to induce hepatic fibrosis [ 19 , 22 ].
Information on genes related to the riboflavin biosynthetic pathway in planta was obtained by isolating a partial-length cDNA encoding bifunctional GCHYII/DHBP (LcRIBA), two full-length cDNAs encoding LS (LcLS1 and LcLS2), and a full-length cDNA encoding RS (LcRS) from
L. chinense
. In addition, the transcript levels of four riboflavin biosynthetic genes and accumulation of riboflavin were investigated in the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, green fruits, and red fruits of
L. chinense
.
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Sequence Analyses of Riboflavin Biosynthetic Genes from L. chinense
In
Escherichia coli
, the two initial reactions in riboflavin biosynthesis are catalyzed by monofunctional GCHII and DHBPS proteins [
23
,
24
]. Interestingly, a bifunctional RibA gene that has both GCHII and DHBPS activities was found in
Arabidopsis
[
9
]. In this study, a bifunctional GCHII/DHBPS was also found in
L. chinense
(LcRIBA), which consisted of 846 bps encoding a partial open reading frame (ORF) of 281 amino acids. A BLAST search at the amino acid level showed that LcRIBA shared high homology with other plant RIBAs. Specifically, LcRIBA shared 93% identity and 97% similarity with
Nicotiana benthamiana
RIBA, 90% identity and 93% similarity with
Solanum lycopersicum
RIBA, 90% identity and 96% similarity with
Fragaria vesca
RIBA, and 88% identity and 96% similarity with
Arabidopsis thaliana
RIBA. The alignment of plant RIBAs and
E. coli
monofunctional GCHII and DHBPS revealed that (
Figure 1
) plant RIBAs encode a bifunctional protein containing DHBPS and GCHII regions in their N- and C-terminal parts, respectively.
LcLS1 consisted of 702 bp encoding a protein of 233 amino acids (predicted molecular mass (MM), 25.07 kDa) and LcLS2 consisted of 714 bp encoding a protein of 237 amino acids (predicted MM, 25.41 kDa). LcLS1 and LcLS2 shared 83% and 76% identity with
Nicotiana tabacum
LS; 82% and 73% with
Solanum chacoense
LS; 82%and 74% with
S. lycopersicum
LS; and 68% and 74% with
Vitis vinifera
LS, respectively. Similar to other plant LSs, LcLS1 and LcLS2 also carried N-terminal extensions having a length of 73 amino acids and 78 amino acids, respectively, compared to the microbial LSs from
E. coli
and
Bacillus subtilis
(Black boxes;
Figure 2
) [
12
,
25
].
Figure 1. Multiple alignments of the amino acid sequences of LcRIBA with other RIBAs.
Figure 1. Multiple alignments of the amino acid sequences of LcRIBA with other RIBAs.
Identical residues are indicated by a black background, and similar residues are shaded with a gray background. NtRIBA, Nicotiana benthamiana RIBA (AB538870); SlRIBA, Solanum lycopersicum RIBA (NM_001247847); FvRIBA, Fragaria vesca RIBA (XM_004288112); AtRIBA, Arabidopsis thaliana RIBA (AJ000053); EcoGCHYII, Escherichia coli GCHYII (CCJ43810), EcoDHBP, Escherichia coli DHBP (CCJ45664).
Figure 2. Multiple alignments of the amino acid sequences of LcLS1 and LcLS2 with other LSs.
Figure 2. Multiple alignments of the amino acid sequences of LcLS1 and LcLS2 with other LSs.
The black box shows the N-terminal extension found in plant riboflavin biosynthetic genes compared with that found in the homologous microbial enzymes. Identical residues are indicated by a black background, and similar residues are shaded with a gray background. NtLS, Nicotiana tabacum LS (AF422802); ScLS, Solanum chacoense LS (EU526014); SlLS, Solanum lycopersicum LS (XM_004252996); VvLS, Vitis vinifera LS (XM_002280391); EcoLS, Escherichia coli LS (YP_001729321); BsuLS, Bacillus subtilis LS (WP_003223915).
Figure 3. Multiple alignments of amino acid sequences ( A ) or the N- and C-terminal domains ( B ) of LcRS with other RSs.
Figure 3. Multiple alignments of amino acid sequences ( A ) or the N- and C-terminal domains ( B ) of LcRS with other RSs.
The black box shows the N-terminal extension found in the plant riboflavin biosynthetic genes compared with that found in the homologous microbial enzymes. Residues proposed to interact with the substrate of RS are marked by asterisks. Identical residues are indicated by a black background, and similar residues are shaded with a gray background. N, N-terminal domain; C, C-terminal domain. SlRS, Solanum lycopersicum RS (XM_004243294); VvRS, Vitis vinifera RS (XM_002273993); RcRS, Ricinus communis RS (XM_002517874); FvRS, Fragaria vesca RS (XM_004301399); EcoRS, Escherichia coli RS (CAA48861); SpoRS, Schizosaccharomyces pombe RS (AAM28201).
LcRS was 858-bp long encoding a protein of 285 amino acids with a predicted MM of 31.32 kDa. LcRS shared 84% identity and 89% similarity with S. lycopersicum RS, 66% identity and 74% similarity with V. vinifera RS, 63% identity and 73% similarity with Ricinus communis RS, and 68% identity and 78% similarity with F. vesca RS. LcRS contained a 76-amino-acid N-terminal extension—found in plant riboflavin biosynthetic genes—unlike in E. coli RS and Schizosaccharomyces pombe RS (Black box; Figure 3 A).
Moreover, there was a close similarity between N- and C-terminal domains of RS genes ( Figure 3 B). Each domain was thought to bind one substrate molecule in a shallow cavity [ 12 ]. Residues proposed to interact with the substrate of RS are marked by asterisks in Figure 3 B [ 26 ].
2.2. Expression Levels of LcRIBA, LcLS1, LcLS2, and LcRS in Different Organs of L. chinense
Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis results of the expression patterns of
LcRIBA, LcLS1, LcLS2,
and
LcRS
in the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, green fruits, and red fruits of
L. chinense
are shown in
Figure 4
. These genes were constitutively expressed in all organs examined with different expression patterns. Transcription of
LcRIBA
was the highest in the leaves; moderate in the roots, stem, and flowers; and weak in the green and red fruits.
LcLS1
and
LcLS2
were differentially expressed in
L. chinense
plants. The highest mRNA level of
LcLS1
was found in the leaves, followed by that in the red fruits, while only low levels were detected in the roots, stems, flowers, and green fruits.
LcLS2
exhibited the highest transcription level in the red fruits, moderate levels in the stems and leaves, and only low levels in the roots and red fruits. A substantially higher level of
LcRS
mRNA was detected in the red fruits than in the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and green fruits.
Figure 4. Expression levels of LcRIBA , LcLS1 , LcLS2 , and LcRS in different organs of L. chinense .
Figure 4. Expression levels of LcRIBA , LcLS1 , LcLS2 , and LcRS in different organs of L. chinense .
The height of each bar and the error bars show the mean and standard errors, respectively, from three independent measurements. The letters a, b, c, d, and e indicate significant differences at the 5% level by Duncan’s multiple range test.
2.3. Anaysis of Riboflavin Content in Different Organs of L. chinense
The same plant materials as those used for qRT-PCR were used for HPLC analysis of riboflavin in L. chinense ( Figure 5 ). The richest content of riboflavin (13.91 μg/g dry weight) was found in the leaves. The flower also contained a high content of riboflavin (8.14 μg/g), while only small amounts of riboflavin were found in the roots (1.45 μg/g) and stem (1.03 μg/g). Statistical analysis suggested that there was no significant difference in riboflavin accumulation between green and red fruits (4.36 μg/g and 3.66 μg/g, respectively).
Figure 5. Riboflavin content in different organs of L. chinense .
Figure 5. Riboflavin content in different organs of L. chinense .
The height of each bar and the error bars show the mean and standard errors, respectively, from three independent measurements. The letters a, b, c, and d indicate significant differences at the 5% level by Duncan’s multiple range test.
In this study, four genes related to the riboflavin biosynthetic pathway, LcRIBA, LcLS1, LcLS2, and LcRS , were identified and characterized in L. chinense . They shared high identities with their orthologous genes as well as shared common features related to plant riboflavin biosynthetic genes. LcRIBA, like other plant RIBAs, contains a DHBPS region in its N-terminal region and a GCHII region in its C-terminal part. It suggests that the enzymes specified by the plant gene are able to catalyze both the initial steps of the riboflavin biosynthetic pathway. LcLS1 was only 70% identical to the other isoform of the LS family in L. chinense , LcLS2. To our knowledge, isoforms in the same family of secondary metabolite biosynthetic genes normally share more than 80% similarity to each other. The divergence of LcLS1 and LcLS2 may be explained by the hypothesis that LS genes are synthesized in the cytosol with the N-terminal plastid-targeting sequences and then imported into plastids, where the N-terminal extension is removed to form the mature proteins [ 8 , 12 , 27 ]. As shown in Figure 2 , the N-terminal extension of LcLS1 (amino acids 1–73) was only 30% identical to that of LcLS2 (aa 1–78), whereas the predicted mature part of LcLS1 (aa 74–233) shared high identity of 90% to that of LcLS2 (aa 79–237). LcRS also carried an N-terminal extension, which was believed to be a plastid-targeting sequence, that had low identity to the corresponding genes [ 8 , 28 ]. In addition, the N- and C-terminal domains of LcRS shared 23.7% identity and were found to have important implications in the disproportionation function [ 12 ].
QRT-PCR analysis showed that four riboflavin biosynthetic genes were constitutively expressed in all tissues examined of
L. chinense
, with the highest expression levels found in the leaves or red fruits. Starting from the beginning of the riboflavin biosynthetic pathway,
LcRIBA
was found at the highest levels in the leaves, which had the richest content of riboflavin. The expression level of
LcLS1
was strongest in the chloroplast organ (leaves), while that of
LcLS2
was highest in the chromoplast organ (red fruits). Similar to
LcLS2
,
LcRS
showed significantly higher expression in the red fruits compared to that in the other organs, while only a small amount of riboflavin was found in the red fruits. In addition, the four riboflavin biosynthetic genes showed significantly higher expression in the red fruits than in the green fruits; however, red fruits did not show higher accumulation of riboflavin content than green fruits. In our previous study, we also found that the transcription levels of riboflavin biosynthetic genes were not correlated with the accumulation of riboflavin in different tissues of
Momordica charantia
[
13
]. We hypothesize that there are several isoforms of riboflavin biosynthetic genes which have tissue-specific expression in plants. In addition, riboflavin in red fruits of
L. chinense
probably can be used as a substrate to synthesize its derivatives such as flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide, causing the low content found in this organ. Further researches on the post-transcriptional processing or the accumulation of riboflavin derivatives are needed to explain why riboflavin accumulation is low in the red fruits of
L. chinense
.
3. Experimental Section
3.1. Plant Materials
L. chinense , cultivar Cheongmyeong, was grown in the experimental farm of Chungnam National University (Daejeon, Korea). After 6 months, the roots; stems; leaves; flowers; and fruits at two different stages, green fruits (immature) and red fruits (mature), were excised. All the samples were immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −80 °C and/or freeze-dried for RNA isolation and/or HPLC analysis.
3.2. RNA Isolation and cDNA Synthesis
The samples were ground into a powder using a mortar and liquid nitrogen, and total RNA was isolated separately using a Plant Total RNA Mini Kit (Geneaid, New Taipei City, Taiwan) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. For first-strand cDNA synthesis, 1 μg of high-quality total RNA was used for reverse transcription (RT) by using a ReverTra Ace-R kit using oligo(dT) 20 primer (Toyobo Co. Ltd., Osaka, Japan). A 20-fold dilution of 20 μL of the resulting cDNA was used as a template for quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
3.3. Isolation of cDNAs Encoding Enzymes Involved in Riboflavin Biosynthetic Pathway
A total of 56,526 non-redundant cDNAs were obtained from L. chinense by using Illumina/Solexa HiSeq2000 DNA sequencing platforms in another study [ 29 ]. Of these, a partial-length cDNA encoding bifunctional GCHYII/DHBP, two full-length cDNAs encoding LS, and a full-length cDNA encoding RS were identified. These genes were then analyzed for homologies with known sequences and designated as LcRIBA, LcLS1, LcLS2, and LcRS (GenBank accession numbers: KF280343, KF280344, KF280345, and KF280346, respectively).
3.4. Sequence Analysis
The deduced amino acid sequences of LcRIBA, LcLS1, LcLS2, and LcRS were analyzed for homology by using the BLAST program at the NCBI GenBank database. Sequence alignments were performed using BioEdit Sequence Alignment Editor, version 5.0.9 (Department of Microbiology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA). The predicted molecular mass of proteins was calculated by using a program available online [ 30 ].
3.5. Quantitative Real-Time PCR
On the basis of the sequences of LcRIBA, LcLS1, LcLS2, and LcRS, we designed qRT-PCR primers using the Primer3 website [
31
] (
Table 1
). Real-time PCR products were tested for specificity of fragment sizes, melting curves, and sequences by PCR, real-time PCR, and cloning into a T-Blunt vector for sequencing, respectively. The expression of these genes was analyzed by the method of relative quantification by using the
L. chinense
actin housekeeping gene (KC810889) as a reference. For quantification of the standard, the PCR products that were amplified from cDNAs were purified, and the concentration of these products was measured to calculate the number of cDNA copies. The copy number of the Qrt-PCR standard was calculated as follows: concentration of PCR product (g/μL) × 10 − 9/[PCR product length in bp × 660] × 6.022 × 1023. Real-time PCR was conducted using a 20-μL reaction mix that contained 5 μL of template cDNA, 10 μL of 1× SYBR Green Real-time PCR Master Mix (Toyobo Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan), 0.5 μL of each primer (10 μM), and diethylpyrocarbonate water. Thermal cycling conditions were as follows: 95 °C for 5 min, and 40 cycles of 95 °C for 15 s, 56 °C for 15 s, and 72 °C for 20 s. Each run contained a series of standards and a negative control (containing water instead of cDNA). PCR products were analyzed using Bio-Rad CFX Manager 2.0 software (Bio-Rad, Hercules, CA, USA). Three replications for each sample were used for the real-time analysis.
Table 1. Primers used for real-time PCR.
Table 1. Primers used for real-time PCR. Primer Sequence (5' to 3') Amplicon (Base Pairs) LcRIBA F CTGGCTTAGACCCTGTTGGAGTAAT 169 LcRIBA R GAAGCATGCTCTACCAACTGATCTC LcLS1 F CAACTGTAATAAATCCTACGCAACG 157 LcLS1 R CATGTTGTAAACCGGTTTAGATCCT LcLS2 F CAATCCTTCACAGTTGCAACATTT 180 LcLS2 R ACAGCTGATGTTTGAACTAAATCCC LcRS F TTGAGCTTAAAACTGAAGGGGATTC 165 LcRS R AAGCCACCAACATGAAGTTAAAACA LcActin F ACCACTTGTTTGTGACAATGGAACT 198 LcActin R TCAATTGGGTATTTCAAGGTCAAGA
3.6. Riboflavin Extraction and Analysis
Riboflavin was extracted according to the method of Esteve
et al.
[
32
], with a slight modification. Briefly, vitamin B2 was released from the
L. chinense
samples (0.1 g) by adding 0.5 mL of 0.1 N hydrochloric acid, vortex mixing for 20 s, and placing in a water bath at 80 °C for 30 min. After cooling, the pH was adjusted to 4–4.5 using 2 M sodium acetate, and then, 0.1 mL of freshly prepared 10% (w/v) takadiastase solution in water was added. The mixtures were placed in a water bath at 50 °C for 3 h and then heated at 80 °C for 5 min. After cooling, 0.3 mL of water was added, and the extracts were filtered. Riboflavin was separated on a C18 column (250 × 4.6 mm, 5 μm; Symmetry RP18; Waters) by using an HPLC instrument (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) equipped with a fluorometric detector (RF-10A; Shimadzu). The compound was detected on the basis of the λex/λem at 422/515 nm. Elution was performed using a binary gradient of 0.1% formic acid in water (mobile phase A) and 0.1% formic acid in acetonitrile (mobile phase B), according to the following program: 0 min, 95% A/5% B; 25 min, 65% A/35% B; 27 min, 5% A/95% B; 37 min, 5% A/95% B; 41 min, 95% A/5% B; and 51 min, 95% A/5% B. The flow rate was 1.0 mL/min, and the column temperature was 40 °C.
3.7. Statistical Analysis
The data for gene expression and riboflavin content were analyzed using the computer software Statistical Analysis System (SAS version 9.2, SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Treatment means were compared using Duncan’s multiple range test.
4. Conclusions
To date, riboflavin is mainly produced by biotechnological fermentation using bacteria or yeasts for over-production [ 33 , 34 ]; there are no reports on means of increasing riboflavin content in crop plants, the natural source of riboflavin for humans and animals. Thus, our finding may extend the understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in the riboflavin biosynthesis, which will be helpful to identify key regulators controlling riboflavin accumulation in plants, leading to the successful metabolic engineering of vitamin B2 in crops in the near future.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Addiriyah Chair for Environmental Studies, Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia for the support. The author Sang Un Park thanks the visiting professor program, Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
Author Contributions
S.U. Park designed the experiments and analyzed the data. P.A. Tuan, S. Zhao, J.K. Kim, Y.B. Kim, J. Yang, C.H. Li, S.-J. Kim, M.V. Arasu, and N.A. Al-Dhabi wrote the manuscript, performed the experiments, and analyzed the data.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Sample Availability : In general, samples of the compounds analyzed herein are unavailable from the authors due to their isolation on a small scale. They are readily analyzed using the procedures described.
MDPI and ACS Style
Tuan, P.A.; Zhao, S.; Kim, J.K.; Kim, Y.B.; Yang, J.; Li, C.H.; Kim, S.-J.; Arasu, M.V.; Al-Dhabi, N.A.; Park, S.U. Riboflavin Accumulation and Molecular Characterization of cDNAs Encoding Bifunctional GTP Cyclohydrolase II/3,4-Dihydroxy-2-Butanone 4-Phosphate Synthase, Lumazine Synthase, and Riboflavin Synthase in Different Organs of Lycium chinensePlant. Molecules 2014, 19, 17141-17153.
https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules191117141
AMA Style
Tuan PA, Zhao S, Kim JK, Kim YB, Yang J, Li CH, Kim S-J, Arasu MV, Al-Dhabi NA, Park SU. Riboflavin Accumulation and Molecular Characterization of cDNAs Encoding Bifunctional GTP Cyclohydrolase II/3,4-Dihydroxy-2-Butanone 4-Phosphate Synthase, Lumazine Synthase, and Riboflavin Synthase in Different Organs of Lycium chinensePlant. Molecules. 2014; 19(11):17141-17153.
https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules191117141
Chicago/Turabian Style
Tuan, Pham Anh, Shicheng Zhao, Jae Kwang Kim, Yeon Bok Kim, Jingli Yang, Cheng Hao Li, Sun-Ju Kim, Mariadhas Valan Arasu, Naif Abdullah Al-Dhabi, and Sang Un Park. 2014. "Riboflavin Accumulation and Molecular Characterization of cDNAs Encoding Bifunctional GTP Cyclohydrolase II/3,4-Dihydroxy-2-Butanone 4-Phosphate Synthase, Lumazine Synthase, and Riboflavin Synthase in Different Organs of Lycium chinensePlant" Molecules19, no. 11: 17141-17153.
https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules191117141
| https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/19/11/17141 |
Spirituality in general practice: a qualitative evidence synthesis | British Journal of General Practice
Research
Spirituality in general practice: a qualitative evidence synthesis
Mieke Vermandere , Jan De Lepeleire , Liesbeth Smeets , Karin Hannes , Wouter Van Mechelen , Franca Warmenhoven , Eric van Rijswijk and Bert Aertgeerts
British Journal of General Practice 2011; 61 (592): e749-e760. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp11X606663
Mieke Vermandere
Roles: research assistant
Jan De Lepeleire
Roles: professor
Liesbeth Smeets
Roles: GP
Karin Hannes
Roles: doctor assistant
Wouter Van Mechelen
Roles: research assistant
Franca Warmenhoven
Roles: research assistant
Eric van Rijswijk
Roles: professor
Bert Aertgeerts
Roles: professor
Article
Abstract
BackgroundAlthough it is now common to see spirituality as an integral part of health care, little is known about how to deal with this topic in daily practice.
AimTo investigate the literature about GPs' views on their role in spiritual care, and about their perceived barriers and facilitating factors in assessing spiritual needs.
DesignQualitative evidence synthesis.
MethodThe primary data sources searched were MEDLINE, Web of Science, CINAHL, Embase, and ATLA Religion Database. Qualitative studies that described the views of GPs on their role in providing spiritual care, or that described the barriers and facilitating factors they experience in doing so, were included. Quantitative studies, descriptive papers, editorials, and opinion papers were excluded.
ResultsMost GPs see it as their role to identify and assess patients' spiritual needs, despite perceived barriers such as lack of time and specific training. However, they struggle with spiritual language and experience feelings of discomfort and fear that patients will refuse to engage in the discussion. Communicating willingness to engage in spiritual care, using a non-judgemental approach, facilitates spiritual conversations.
ConclusionThe results of the studies included here were mostly congruent, affirming that many GPs see themselves as supporters of patients' spiritual wellbeing, but lack specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes to perform a spiritual assessment and to provide spiritual care. Spirituality may be of special consequence at the end of life, with an increased search for meaning. Actively addressing spiritual issues fits into the biopsychosocial-spiritual model of care. Further research is needed to clarify the role of the GP as a spiritual care giver.
general practitioners
primary health care
spirituality
INTRODUCTION
The World Health Organization, in defining palliative care, combines control of pain and other symptoms with psychological, social, and spiritual care.1Research into spirituality and health has developed into a thriving field over the last 20 years, as is evident from the more than 5000 citations that appear when the MeSH term ‘spirituality’ is entered in CINAHL or MEDLINE.2It is now common to see attention to spirituality cited as an ethical obligation of professional care.3,4The professional literature in medicine,5,6nursing,7,8psychology,9and social work10affirms this obligation.
To identify points of agreement about spirituality as it applies to health care, and to make recommendations to advance the delivery of qualified spiritual care in palliative care, a consensus conference was held on 17-18 February 2009, in Pasadena, California. The conference was based on the belief that spiritual care is a fundamental component of quality palliative care. The participants agreed upon the following definition:
‘Spirituality is the aspect of humanity that refers to the way individuals seek and express meaning and purpose and the way they experience their connectedness to the moment, to self, to others, to nature, and to the significant or sacred.’11
There is little guidance, however, on how to deal with spirituality in daily practice. In the medical literature, there is considerable interest in and debate about how patients' religion and spirituality should be addressed.12–17Regardless of religious background, patients' willingness to discuss spiritual health issues may depend on the qualities of physicians, such as openness, a non-judgmental nature, respect for the spiritual views of others, and attitudes towards spiritual health. Patients' views of how physicians should address spiritual issues may favour a direct, principle-based, patient-centred approach in the context of ‘getting to know the patient’, rather than more structured approaches such as using spiritual-assessment tools.18
There are well-defined recommendations on providing spiritual care in hospitals or hospices, including collaboration among the members of multidisciplinary teams.11In the outpatient setting, having a multidisciplinary team is more challenging. There are no generally accepted guidelines or practices for spiritual care in this arena. GPs often coordinate patient-centred care in outpatient settings. It is therefore reasonable to assume that it is the GP's role to organise and provide spiritual care for their patients as well. Perhaps in more complex situations, GPs should collaborate with a multidisciplinary team that contains professional spiritual-care providers.
The aim of this article is to provide a solid overview of GPs' views about their role in spiritual care, and the barriers and facilitating factors they experience in providing this care. Good qualitative research in this field has already been done, but there is no reviewarticle to organise and summarise these studies. In this qualitative evidence synthesis, the authors searched for an answer to the following questions: (a) What are the barriers and the facilitating factors that GPs experience in assessing the need for spiritual care and in providing spiritual care? (b) What are the views of GPs about their role in spiritual care?
How this fits in
Research into spirituality and health has developed into a thriving field over the last 20 years. There is little guidance, however, on how to deal with spirituality in general practice. This qualitative evidence synthesis is the first to collect and summarise the existing qualitative research about GPs' views on their role as spiritual care givers, and their perceived barriers and facilitating factors in assessing spiritual needs.
METHOD
Design
A qualitative evidence synthesis was conducted using thematic analysis. The strength of thematic analysis lies in its potential to draw conclusions based on common elements across otherwise heterogeneous studies.19Conclusions from thematic analysis fulfil an important research aim of qualitative research in generating hypotheses, an area to which traditional systematic reviews are poorly suited.20
Databases
The search was performed in five databases (MEDLINE, Web of Science, CINAHL, Embase, and ATLA Religion Database), with various combinations of search terms, and without date restrictions, in order to make the search strategy as sensitive as possible (Table 1). The authors decided not to include psychological or sociological databases, because they were convinced that these domains would not contribute to the answer to the research questions. After selection of the relevant full-text articles, a cited reference search was made (in the database Web of Knowledge) from each article, in order to complete the list of relevant articles. For the search strategy, seeBox 1.
Table 1
Characteristics of the included qualitative studies
Database Search strategy MEDLINE (PubMed) “Spirituality”[Mesh] AND “Physicians, Family”[Mesh] “Spirituality”[Mesh] AND “Primary Health Care”[Mesh] “Holistic Health”[Mesh] AND “Physicians, Family”[Mesh] “Holistic Health”[Mesh] AND “Primary Health Care”[Mesh] Web of Science (ISI Web of Knowledge) “Spiritual*” AND “Family Physician*” “Spiritual*” AND “General Practic*” “Spiritual*” AND “Primary Care” “Holistic” AND “Family Physician*” “Holistic” AND “General Practic*” “Holistic” AND “Primary Care CINAHL “Spiritual*” AND “Family Physician*” “Spiritual*” AND “General Practic*” “Spiritual*” AND “Primary Care” “Holistic” AND “Family Physician*” “Holistic” AND “General Practic*” “Holistic” AND “Primary Care Embase “Spiritual care” AND “Primary Health Care” “Spiritual care” AND “Primary Medical Care” “Spiritual care” AND “General Practitioner” ATLA Religion Database “Spiritual*” AND “Family Physician*” “Spiritual*” AND “Physician*” “Spiritual*” AND “Primary Care” “Holistic” AND “Family Physician*” “Holistic” AND “Physician*” “Holistic” AND “Primary Care”
Box 1
Search strategy—July 2010
Inclusion and exclusion criteria
In the articles that were found, a first selection was made by reading the title and abstract. This selection was made by two independent authors, who compared and discussed their results until agreement was reached. The selection of relevant publications was based on the following inclusion criteria: the article had to describe the views of GPs on their role in addressing or providing spiritual care, or the barriers and facilitating factors that GPs experience in addressing or providing spiritual care. Only those articles in which spirituality was understood in the same sense as the following definition were taken into account:
‘Spirituality is the aspect of humanity that refers to the way individuals seek and express meaning and purpose and the way they experience their connectedness to the moment, to self, to others, to nature, and to the significant or sacred.’11
Publications with interpretations of spirituality other than the definition presented earlier were excluded, such as complementary and alternative medicine or spiritual healing. Articles about holistic health were also excluded if the spiritual component was not investigated separately from the physical, psychological, and social component. Studies that described views of multiple groups of professional care givers (for example, nurses, GPs, and chaplains) were included if the findings of the views of the GPs were described separately from the other professional groups. Only qualitative research published in English was included. No article was excluded on the basis of setting. Outpatient settings were included, as well as hospital or hospice settings. The authors did not exclude studies on the basis of origin or religion.
According to the guidance of the Cochrane Qualitative Research Methods Group, where critical appraisal is viewed as a technical and paradigmatic exercise, it is worth considering limiting the type of qualitative studies to be included in a systematic review. The authors suggests restricting included qualitative research reports to empirical studies with a description of the sampling strategy, data-collection procedures, and the type of data analysis used.
These empirical studies should include the methodology chosen and the methods or research techniques opted for, since this facilitates the systematic use of critical appraisal, as well as a more paradigmatic appraisal process. Therefore, descriptive papers, editorials, and opinion papers were excluded.21
Critical appraisal
Critical-appraisal instruments should be regarded as technical tools to assist in the appraisal of qualitative studies, looking for indications in the methods or discussion section that add to the level of methodological soundness of the study. This judgement determines the extent to which the reviewers may have confidence in the researcher's competence in being able to conduct research that follows established norms,22and is a minimum requirement for critical assessment of qualitative studies.21The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) tool was selected for this qualitative evidence synthesis because, according to a recent study from Hannes et al,23it appears to be the most coherent instrument in evaluating the validity of qualitative research.
Analysis
Thematic analysis was used as a method for analysis and synthesis of the selected papers. Thematic analysis is a tried and tested method that preserves an explicit and transparent link between the conclusions and text of the primary studies; as such, it preserves principles that have traditionally been important to systematic reviewing.24Thematic analysis has three stages: line-by-line coding of the text, development of ‘descriptive themes’, and generation of ‘analytical themes’. While the development of descriptive themes remains ‘close’ to the primary studies, the analytical themes represent a stage of interpretation whereby the reviewers ‘go beyond’ the primary studies and generate new interpretive constructs, explanations, or hypotheses.24After careful inductive coding (both descriptive and interpretive), recurring themes were located. The qualitative software program ATLAS.ti 6.2 was used to code, sort, and assist in data analysis.
RESULTS
Results of the searches in the five databases
The flow diagram of the study-selection process is presented inFigure 1.
Figure 1
Flow diagram of the study-selection process.
In MEDLINE, 533 publications were retrieved. In Web of Science, the search yielded 333 articles. The search in CINAHL resulted in 264 articles, and in Embase, 24 articles were identified with the combination of search terms. Finally, in the ATLA Religion Database, another 66 articles were found.
Seventy-two possible relevant articles were selected after reading titles and abstracts. The full texts of those articles were read carefully, and a second selection was made, based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria as described above. Twenty full-text articles with relevant content remained. A cited reference search (in Web of Knowledge) was done from these 20 articles, to see if other relevant publications could be added to the list. The 20 articles were cited 256 times. Of these cited articles, eight were already included. After reading the other 248 articles, two relevant publications were added, bringing the total count to 22 relevant full-text articles. One more relevant publication was recommended by an expert. Eleven of the 23 articles were excluded because they contained quantitative research (all self-administered surveys with closed-ended questions), and five more were excluded because they were opinion or descriptive papers. The other seven articles with qualitative research were used for further assimilation.
Critical appraisal
The JBI tool was used for critical appraisal of the seven selected papers.25This tool consists of 10 criteria (Appendix 1). No additional exclusions were made after technical appraisal, in view of the high quality of the seven articles.Table 1summarises the demographic and methodological characteristics of the included qualitative studies.26–32
Analysis
Table 2shows a thematic matrix summarising the study results; role of the GP as spiritual carer, barriers perceived by GPs in assessing and providing spiritual care, and facilitating factors perceived by GPs in assessing and providing spiritual care.
Table 2
Thematic matrix: role of the GP in spiritual care, and barriers and facilitating factors in spiritual care giving
Role of the GP as spiritual care giver
What is the perceived role of a GP in spiritual care?
Most of the GPs expressed the belief that it was their responsibility to identify and assess patients' spiritual needs:26–29
‘That's a silly question, isn't it? If I saw myself as dealing just with the physical problems I wouldn't get anywhere. I couldn't do the job. You would just push the button and get one answer. That's not what I do.’28
Despite the fact that most GPs were convinced that it is their task to identify their patients' spiritual resources and goals,26,27a minority of physicians were opposed to addressing spiritual issues with patients, especially if they felt that this referred specifically to ‘religion’, because they felt that discussing religion was not part of their role as a doctor.30However, the GPs who accepted the importance of conducting a spiritual assessment suggested that it often meant struggling with the unanswerable nature of spiritual concerns, questions, and dilemmas:31
‘A lot of times … You want a solution for A and B, A + B = D. But a lot of the times you never get that answer It's a journey and a process, not just a patient with a disease. This is a person who's married; they go to church or whatever beliefs they have. It's about trying to get to know a patient and understand how their life is “outside” of their disease, “outside” of our clinic.’31
GPs viewed themselves as facilitators and encouragers of patients' spiritual values, and as resources rather than as spiritual counsellors.26They noted that encouraging patients to use spiritual practices that had helped them in the past to manage difficult circumstances was a method by which they provided spiritual care:29,32
‘If the patient says … “I don't go to church, I don't pray”; then I will encourage them to look at, and to think about what gives them strength and hope because we all have that spiritual aspect of ourselves …’29
In general, however, participants noted that they would only encourage what they personally judged to be positive spirituality:
‘If it's some ritual and I think there's something bizarre about it, then I am not going to encourage that… Don't stop your lisinopril and don't stop your Prozac.’29
After spiritual assessment has been carried out, most GPs perceived that they may also have a role in providing spiritual care, by offering therapies (answers, suggestions, or exercises) related to patients' questions and appropriate to patients' beliefs and values.26,28
Why should GPs provide spiritual care?
Physicians who regularly discussed spirituality believed that the scientific evidence linking spirituality and positive health outcomes justified their actions:26,29
‘Every physician ought to be dealing with [patients']spiritual issues. [For example,]how can you justify not talking about spirituality to a patient with depression when you can prove scientifically that strengthening faith commitment helps them? It really comes down to a quality-of-care issue.’26
Besides the scientific evidence, the GPs who overtly discussed spiritual issues in spite of perceived barriers did so because of its relevance to their patients; they perceived spiritual care to be an important aspect of patient care:29,31,32
‘The advantages [of integrating spirituality in medicine]are to improve how people heal… [second], I think you develop a closer bond with the patient and better understanding of them and their family and what they go through with pain and ultimately that leads you to take better care of them.’31
When should GPs provide spiritual care?
Most GPs reported that they would leave it to their patients to raise the topic of spiritual beliefs:26,28,30,31
‘It's one of those areas where you need a small amount of the patient's permission to get started and a lot more of the patient's permission to finish.’26
In general, GPs accepted that if spiritual issues or questions were raised, they should be responded to.26,28–32Spiritual issues can be discussed if the patient raises the topic but, generally, GPs address patients' spirituality during critical points of clinical care (for example, terminal diagnosis), with a few addressing it throughout the continuum of care:26,29,31,32
‘… certainly chronic conditions … when it gets to these potentially mortal, morbid sorts of situations in health care, you do see a lot more of “Why me? Why is this happening? What have I done?”.’29
How should GPs provide spiritual care?
GPs universally viewed themselves as sources of support for patients through listening, validating spiritual beliefs, and remaining with patients during times of need:26,29
‘I don't have to be a spiritual master. I can be a human being, trying to connect with another human being. That is a healing experience.’26
Several GPs expressed concern about being respectful of patients' beliefs without imposing their own beliefs and values:26,31
‘I can't even describe how negative it [would be]for me to impose my spiritual beliefs on [my]patients.26
GPs emphasised that they provided spiritual care to their patients by exhibiting a positive caring demeanour that was genuine and non-judgemental.29They found it very important to approach spiritual discussions with gentleness, reverence, sensitivity, and integrity.26Participants in one study expressed the view that the mere act of ‘being present’ with the patient for a few minutes can be a powerful spiritual intervention.29
’I think I try to do it by keeping high moral standards with my interactions with patients and ethical standards … I do this by trying to remain … nonjudgmental… and open to whatever it is their concerns are. I think I imply this with body language and good eye contact.’29
The physicians who regularly address spiritual issues use screening questions that they tend to ask in response to a patient's cues or crisis. They follow principles of spiritual assessment, but none reported the routine use of a currently available spiritual-assessment tool.26Responders who reported conducting spiritual assessment described using both structured (that is, following a sequence of questions to prompt discussion) and unstructured (for example, following up on a comment or phrase from a patient that might indicate spiritual life) forms of spiritual assessment.31
Barriers perceived by GPs in assessing and providing spiritual care
Physician barriers
GPs often feel uncertain about initiating spiritual discussions. They have a fear of alienating or causing discomfort in their patients.26,29The following comment reflects some of the dissonance that exists for many GPs. They generally feel that addressing spirituality is important, but are uncertain about how to do so appropriately:
‘The barrier would be myself, because I'm a little hesitant on approaching some issues [spirituality], especially for someone who's here for ankle twisting. But it's my own personal belief not to try to infringe on other people's personal beliefs and judge them, but just try and find out about them.’31
GPs not only feel discomfort about initiating spiritual discussions, but they also struggle with the language describing such existential and spiritual suffering.31They feel reticence about approaching the subject directly, because of fears that patients will refuse to discuss it or consider their raising spiritual questions inappropriate.26,29They also fear that patients will misinterpret discussion of spirituality as pushing religion.26,27,29
One GP strongly opposed the initiation of spiritual discussions, out of concern about role definition and invasion of patients' privacy. This physician felt that spiritual matters were ‘no more in the physician's domain than questions regarding patients' finances or their most evil thoughts’.26In other studies, some GPs also felt that it would be inappropriate to raise such intimate issues.29,32
GPs reporting infrequent spiritual assessment expressed the view that spiritual issues have lower priority than other medical concerns.26Almost all GPs noted that physicians and patients whose views about the importance of spirituality differ experience such barriers.27Another barrier reported by GPs is the belief that spiritual discussions will not influence patients' illnesses or lives.26
An important barrier perceived by GPs is their own spirituality. Lack of spiritual awareness or inclination on the part of physicians may be a barrier to addressing spiritual issues. Many GPs identified the theme of physicians' own ‘spiritual place’ or ‘centre’ as among the most influential factors determining whether they addressed spirituality in clinical care:26,31
‘ [The barrier]is physicians' own belief system. That either it's inappropriate for them to talk about it or it's not a “medical” problem so they shouldn't be addressing it. There are people who just don't think it's really what they should be doing. They should be talking about diabetes and hypertension and taking care of those things, and letting the priest or the family or whoever talk about these other things. Those physicians I find are usually people who are not very spiritually in-tune themselves. Therefore they don't think it's important to other people.’31
Almost all GPs commented that different belief systems may create barriers to spiritual discussions. They noted that physicians and patients whose views about the importance of spirituality differ, or who differ in their belief in a higher power or God, experience such barriers.26,27,31,32Olson and colleagues observed that the few GPs who did not report that they assessed patients' spirituality in clinical care all similarly related that they themselves were not religious or spiritual:31
I'm not very religious. However, I think I'm a very spiritual person. One of the hardest questions I've had to answer, a patient asked me if I was a Christian. If I told her the truth, that I am not, would she still be as open and interactive ?I told her the truth and that if she felt like Christianity was an important part of her life I would understand.’31
However, in another study by Kelly and colleagues, in response to probes regarding exploration of spiritual issues, reference to the practitioner's own particular religious or spiritual beliefs did not emerge.30
Patient barriers
In response to the question ‘What factors constrain discussion of spiritual needs?’ a theme emerged about patients being the ‘wrong sort of person’.28Some GPs described patients in significant spiritual need as ‘unreachable’, ‘vulnerable’, ‘difficult to get in touch with’ patients, who often displayed a strong facade of coping, covering a refusal to accept their mortality:32
‘I certainly do see these as part of my role and am keen to do more. But it's not possible with everyone. Some people are very open to it and others are like a brick wall. You can't make people talk to you about death and dying. The same with relatives too. Sometimes you can involve them and sometimes you can't.’28
Contextual barriers
A lot of GPs feel uncomfortable with discussions of spirituality with patients because of lack of formal training and appropriate strategies. They feel they lack the skill to ‘do spiritual care’.26,29,32
Time was mentioned almost unanimously as a limiting factor.26,28,29,31,32Some of the GPs admitted though that time was not a major problem compared with the perceived importance of spiritual care to the providers' practice.29
But, yes, I mean, I think it is part of our job, you know, we try and … well most of us try and practise [a]fairly holistic type of approach (laughing)and it's difficult, it's frustrating when we can't spend time with people but you have to realise that, you know, you're a limited resource and, you know, if we spend three-quarters of an hour with one patient, you're spending 5minutes with the other three (laughing).’28
The setting can also be a barrier, for example, an examination room, where the patient does not feel at ease.26Finally, some organisational factors were also identified as barriers, such as lack of discussion of the role of spirituality among care providers,29and lack of continuity of managed care.26
Facilitating factors perceived by GPs in assessing and providing spiritual care
Physician factors
Responders noted that characteristics facilitating patients' discussions of sexuality and other sensitive issues also facilitate conversations about spirituality. These characteristics include communicating a willingness to engage in (and having the time for) such discussions, and assuring patients that spiritual confidences will be received in a non-judgemental fashion. One said that ‘bringing [spirituality] to the table’ along with other sensitive issues helps patients know ‘what you're interested in and gives them the option of deciding to pursue it or not’.26All responders supported a patient-centred approach to spiritual assessment, in which physicians act with integrity and take care not to abuse their position.26,27
A diplomatic approach by the physician facilitates spiritual discussions when the spiritual beliefs of physician and patient differ.27Some communication techniques serve as facilitating factors in addressing spiritual issues, such as paying active attention to patient cues or questions, asking clarifying questions to ensure accurate identification of spiritual issues, friendly body language, and good eye contact.26,29Generalising words away from their religious context may also be a facilitating factor.27
Just as GPs' own spirituality can be a barrier to spiritual discussions, it can also be a very powerful facilitating factor Physicians who are more spiritually inclined are more likely to address spiritual issues with patients.26,31
‘When I have conversations about spiritual issues, it's usually been at my initiation … because I'm more concerned about religious sorts of things than many physicians.’26
Patient factors
Just as GPs said that there are ‘wrong sorts of patients’ to have spiritual discussions with, they also identify ‘right sorts of patients’, who facilitate the provision of spiritual care:28
She's a particularly nice lady, a very stoic, insightful, intelligent lady, and has quite a positive outlook on life, so she has made it remarkably easy for the health professionals who encounter her to help her28
When patients visit the practice frequently, this can also facilitate the provision of spiritual care.29
Most GPs viewed a high degree of physician-patient cultural concordance as an important facilitator of spiritual interactions. Cultural concordance may denote similarity in backgrounds, life experiences, and spiritual/religious orientation. Responders said that shared spiritual viewpoints allow spiritual interventions that would not otherwise occur in physician-patient relationships:27
‘If I see a patient from my culture and I have a similar background and [similar life]experiences, if I know their children and they [share my religious background]… I can refer to something I know about that they almost certainly heard in their childhood — like a scripture quotation — that addresses their specific issue right now; that will be very powerful.’27
Contextual factors
Visiting patients at the bedside or at home can facilitate spiritual discussions, because patients feel more at ease.26Coworkers can also reinforce the GP's role in providing spiritual care.26
DISCUSSION
Summary
Many GPs see it as their role to identify and assess patients' spiritual needs, despite perceived barriers such as lack of time and specific training. However, they struggle with spiritual language and experience feelings of discomfort and fear that patients will refuse to engage in the discussion. Communicating willingness to engage in spiritual care, using a non-judgemental approach, facilitates spiritual conversations. Although GPs sometimes fear that patients will reject a spiritual discussion, many patients would like to be able to address spiritual concerns with their physicians if they become gravely ill,34and seriously ill patients report wanting to be treated as ‘whole persons’ inclusive of spirituality.35,36
Strengths and limitations
This qualitative evidence synthesis is the first to collect and summarise the existing qualitative research about GPs' views on their role as spiritual care givers.
Although the number of publications reporting syntheses of qualitative research is rapidly increasing, little is known about which methods for synthesis are used and with what frequency, and how such syntheses deal with key challenges of review methodology, including methods for searching and appraisal.37Elliott stated that a move towards improved explicitness about reporting of syntheses of qualitative research could take place ahead of a consensus emerging on methods for synthesis.38The authors have therefore documented their methods carefully, and shown explicitness about the methods used for searching, appraisal, and synthesis.
It could be argued that ‘critical appraisals’ of the type used in quantitative syntheses are less appropriate for syntheses of qualitative evidence, where the purpose of the synthesis is more likely to be oriented towards maximising the conceptual yield of included papers rather than determining the robustness of the study design so that sensitivity analyses can be conducted.37However, it was decided to perform a critical appraisal to avoid the possibility that studies of poor quality would influence the results of the synthesis.
After the line-by-line coding of the text, themes were identified based on their significance related to answering the research questions. Since this significance is a subjective interpretation of the authors, this could be a limitation of the study. It is not possible to guarantee that all aspects mentioned by GPs have entered the final results section.
Comparison with existing literature
Most GPs said that they indirectly provide spiritual care by actively listening to their patients' needs and being present with them. The question arises as to whether this is really spiritual care, or rather good communication skills. It is evident that spiritual care is grounded in the patient-centred care theoretical framework, in which the focus of care is on the patient and their experience of illness, as opposed to a sole focus on the disease. However, this is not the only dimension of spiritual care. Another model in which spiritual care is grounded is the biopsychosocial-spiritual model of care,39,40based on a philosophical anthropology, a cornerstone of which is the concept of the person as a being-in-relationship. Disease can be understood as a disturbance in the right relationships that constitute the unity and integrity of what we know to be a human being. Humans are intrinsically spiritual since all persons are in relationship with themselves, others, nature, and the significant or sacred.11The authors believe that a spiritual care giver should thus not only listen to the patient and be present with him or her, but also explore the dimension of the patient's relationships, and any disturbances in them.
Implications for research and practice
According to recent guidelines, and in line with the biopsychosocial-spiritual model of care, all trained healthcare professionals should carry out spiritual screening and history-taking.11Spiritual screening or triage is a quick determination of whether a person is experiencing a serious spiritual crisis and therefore needs an immediate referral to a professional spiritual care giver Spiritual history-taking is the process of interviewing a patient in order to come to a better understanding of their spiritual needs and resources.11Spiritual issues may be of special consequence at the end of life, with an increased questioning and search for meaning.41Despite these recommendations, it may be too early for many GPs to implement them in practice.
Formal education in spirituality and health has only recently started to develop, so that most GPs have not yet received any spiritual education.
Research is needed to clarify the role of the GP as a spiritual care giver, and to evaluate the implementation of the existing outpatient spiritual care models. Research is also needed to evaluate formal education programmes in spirituality and health in the healthcare professions, as well as postgraduate education programmes.
This qualitative evidence synthesis has summarised GPs' views about spiritual care. The results of the studies included here were mostly congruent, affirming that many GPs see themselves as supporters of patients' spiritual wellbeing, especially in end-of-life care. However, they lack specific knowledge, skills, and attitudes to respond to the spiritual needs of their patients. Future research is needed to develop and implement a model of spiritual care in general practice that supports the GP in this delicate task, and that leads to improvements in the spiritual wellbeing of the patient.
Acknowledgments
Thank you to Scott Murray, MD, FRCGP, FRCPEd, University of Edinburgh, for the recommendation of some relevant publications.
Appendix
Appendix 1
The Joanna Briggs Institute (jbi) tool
Notes
Funding
The authors of the End-of-Life Research Group from the Academic Center of General Practice, KU Leuven, Belgium, are deeply grateful to the Chair Constant van De Wiel for the financial support that made this project possible.
Provenance
Freely submitted; externally peer reviewed.
Competing interests
The authors have support from KU Leuven and Radboud University Nijmegen for the submitted work; the authors have no relationships with companies that might have an interest in the submitted work in the previous 3 years; their spouses, partners, or children have no financial relationships that may be relevant to the submitted work; and the authors have no non-financial interests that may be relevant to the submitted work.
Received January 17, 2011.
Revision received February 21, 2011.
Accepted March 21, 2011.
© British Journal of General Practice 2011
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(PDF) Form and function of the feeding apparatus in Eutardigrada (Tardigrada)
PDF | Tardigrade feeding apparatus is a complex structure with considerable taxonomic significance that can be schematically divided into four parts:... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
June 2012 Zoomorphology 131(2)
DOI: 10.1007/s00435-012-0149-0
Authors:
Roberto Guidetti
Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia
Tiziana Altiero
Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia
Trevor Marchioro
Università degli Studi di Modena e Reggio Emilia
Luca Sarzi Amade
Luca Sarzi Amade
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Citations (67)
References (49)
Figures (12)
Abstract and Figures
Tardigrade feeding apparatus is a complex structure with considerable taxonomic significance that can be schematically divided into four parts: buccal ring, buccal tube, stylet system, and pharynx. We analyzed the fine morphology and the tridimensional organization of the tardigrade buccal–pharyngeal apparatus in order to clarify the relationships between form and function and to identify new characters for systematic and phylogenetic studies. We conducted a comparative analysis of the cuticular structures of the buccal–pharyngeal apparatuses of twelve eutardigrade species, integrating data obtained by SEM and LM observations. Morphological diversity was observed and new cuticular structures such as the stylet coat of the stylet system were identified. The synthesis of the buccal–pharyngeal apparatus during molting was also analyzed obtaining a clear developmental sequence of its resynthesis. These findings lead us to redefine the previous interpretations of the functioning mechanisms of the buccal–pharyngeal apparatus and provide a more specific relationship between tardigrade diet and the anatomy of their feeding apparatuses. In addition, the detection by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy of calcium in the stylets, buccal tube, and placoids of eutardigrade species (i.e., Milnesium tardigradum, Paramacrobiotus richtersi) indicates that CaCO3 incrustations are not an exclusive feature of heterotardigrades and lead to suppose that this trait was present in the ancestors of both classes.
Schematic drawings of (a) an eutardigrade buccal–pharyngeal apparatus and (b, c) stylet system of Milnesium, formed by stylet coat, piercing stylet, and stylet support. a Stylet coat and buccal crown are drawn in transparency to show the piercing stylet and the buccal armature; b stylet system when the stylet protractor muscles are relaxed; c stylet system when the stylet protractor muscles are contracted (arrow heads folds of the stylet coat). aba anterior band of the buccal armature; bc buccal crown; bl buccal lamellae; br buccal ring; bt buccal tube; cf condyle of the furca; cp caudal process; fc flange of cuticle; fi cuticular filament developing from furca condyle; es esophagus; ma macroplacoids; mi microplacoids; pa pharyngeal apophyses; pb pharyngeal bar; pba posterior band of the buccal armature; ph pharynx; ps piercing stylet; rt rod-shaped thickening; sc stylet coat; sf stylet furca; ss stylet sheaths; su stylet support; tc transversal crests; vl ventral lamina
…
Analyzed species, the substrate from which they have been extracted and sampling sites
…
Milnesium cf. tardigradum, buccal– pharyngeal apparatus (DIC). a apparatus in toto of a live specimen; b–g apparatuses of fixed specimens. b pits (white arrow) on buccal ring, semilunar structures with striations (black arrow); c stylet system (enlargement of g) showing fold in stylet coat (black arrow) and hole in stylet coat (white arrow); d, e trabecular structures (arrows) inside buccal tube wall: d lateral view showing the stylet elbow (asterisk), e dorsal view; f stylet furca (lateral view); g apparatus in toto showing laminar flaps (arrow). fi cuticular filament developing from furca condyle; bt buccal tube; ph pharynx; ps piercing stylet; sf stylet furca; su stylet support
…
Paramacrobiotus richtersi, buccal–pharyngeal apparatus (SEM). a in toto apparatus naturally discharged during molting, ventro-lateral view; b ventral view of in toto apparatus showing pharyngeal bar (white arrow) and invagination (black arrow) between buccal crown and ventral lamina; c buccal ring with buccal lamellae, fine string of cuticle (white arrow) and line of pits (black arrow); d ventral lamina and stylet sheaths. aba anterior band of the buccal armature; bc buccal crown; bl buccal lamellae; br buccal ring; ss stylet sheaths; vl ventral lamina
…
+7
Macrobiotus islandicus, buccal–pharyngeal apparatus (SEM). a apparatus in toto, dorsal view; b apparatus in toto, ventral view (arrow proximal apophyses); c stylet sheaths and ventral lamina with invagination (arrow); d posterior portion of the buccal tube, apophyses and macroplacoids in the pharynx. br buccal ring; bt buccal tube; ma macroplacoids; pa pharyngeal apophyses; ss stylet sheaths; vl ventral lamina
…
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Form and function of the feeding apparatus in Eutardigrada
(Tardigrada)
Roberto Guidetti • Tiziana Altiero • Trevor Marchioro • Luca Sarzi Amade
` •
Alexandra M. Avdonina • Roberto Bertolani • Lorena Rebecchi
Received: 8 November 2011
/
Revised: 23 January 2012
/
Accepted: 31 January 2012
/
Published online: 6 March 2012
Ó Springer-Verlag 2012
Abstract Tardigrade feeding apparatus is a complex
structure with considerable taxonomic significance that can
be schematically divided into four parts: buccal ring, buccal
tube, stylet system, and pharynx. We analyzed the fine
morphology and the tridimensional organization of the
tardigrade buccal–pharyngeal apparatus in order to clarify
the relationships between form and function and to identify
new characters for systematic and phylogenetic studies. We
conducted a comparative analysis of the cuticular structures
of the buccal–pharyngeal apparatuses of twelve eutardi-
grade species, integrating data obtained by SEM and LM
observations. Morphological diversity was observed and
new cuticular structures such as the stylet coat of the stylet
system were identified. The synthesis of the buccal–pha-
ryngeal apparatus during molting was also analyzed
obtaining a clear developmental sequence of its resynthe
sis.
These findings lead us to redefine the previous interpreta-
tions of the functioning mechanisms of the buccal–pha-
ryngeal apparatus and provide a more specific relationship
between tardigrade diet and the anatomy of their feeding
apparatuses. In addition, the detection by energy-dispersive
X-ray spectroscopy of calcium in the stylets, buccal tube,
and placoids of eutardigrade species (i.e., Milnesium tar-
digradum, Paramacrobiotus richtersi ) indicates that CaCO
3
incrustations are not an exclusive feature of heterotardi-
grades and lead to suppose that this trait was present in the
ancestors of both classes.
Keywords Buccal–pharyngeal apparatus Calcium
carbonate Evolution Foregut Molting X-ray
spectroscopy
Introduction
Tardigrades, or water bears, are microscopic metazoans
(100–1,000 l m in length), whose terrestrial species can be
desiccation-tolerant (Rebecchi et al. 2007 ; Guidetti et al.
2011 ). Tardigrades are divided into Eutardigrada and Het-
erotardigrada. Within eutardigrades, there are two mono-
phyletic taxa, Apochela and Parachela (Sands et al. 2008
;
Guil and Giribet 2011 ), whereas the relationships within
heterotardigrades (Arthrotardigrada and Echiniscoidea) are
still debated (Jørgensen et al. 2010 ). Tardigrada have been
included in the clade Ecdysozoa together with nematodes
and other molting animals (Aguinaldo et al. 1997 ). A recent
phylogenomics analysis places tardigrades within Panar-
thropoda suggesting a sister group relationship between
Arthropoda and Onychophora (Campbell et al. 2011
).
Tardigrades colonize a wide range of environments (sea,
freshwater, soil) in which they represent an important
component of the meiofaunal communities. They can be
predators, prey or primary consumers in food webs. More
specifically, some species prey on other micrometazoans,
Communicated by A. Schmidt-Rhaesa.
R. Guidetti T. Marchioro L. Sarzi Amade
`
R. Bertolani ( & )
L. Rebecchi
Department of Biology, University of Modena and Reggio
Emilia, Via Campi 213/D, 41125 Modena, Italy
e-mail: roberto.bertolani@unimore.it
T. Altiero
Department of Education and Human Sciences,
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Allegri 9,
42121 Reggio Emilia, Italy
A. M. Avdonina
The Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy
and Public Administration, Vladimir Branch,
Gorkogo St. 59A, 600017 Vladimir, Russia
123
Zoomorphology (2012) 131:127–148
DOI 10.1007/s00435-012-0149-0 | https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257425423_Form_and_function_of_the_feeding_apparatus_in_Eutardigrada_Tardigrada |
'Pep talk' can revive immune cells exhausted by chronic viral infection | EurekAlert! Science News
Chronic infections by viruses such as HIV or hepatitis C eventually take hold because they wear the immune system out, a phenomenon immunologists describe as exhaustion. Yet exhausted immune cells can be revived after the introduction of fresh cells that act like coaches giving a pep talk, researchers at Emory Vaccine Center have found.
'Pep talk' can revive immune cells exhausted by chronic viral infection
Chronic infections by viruses such as HIV or hepatitis C eventually take hold because they wear the immune system out, a phenomenon immunologists describe as exhaustion.
Yet exhausted immune cells can be revived after the introduction of fresh cells that act like coaches giving a pep talk, researchers at Emory Vaccine Center have found. Their findings provide support for an emerging strategy for treating chronic infections: infusing immune cells back into patients after a period of conditioning.
The results are published this week in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Early Edition.
The first author of the paper is Rachael Aubert, a student in Emory's Immunology and Molecular Pathogenesis program who completed her doctorate in 2009. Senior author Rafi Ahmed, PhD, is director of the Emory Vaccine Center and a Georgia Research Alliance Eminent Scholar.
Ahmed's laboratory has extensive experience studying mice infected with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). Immune responses against LCMV are driven by CD8 or "killer" T cells, which destroy virus-infected cells in the body. But a few weeks after exposure to LCMV, the mice develop a chronic infection that their immune systems cannot shake off, similar to when humans are infected by viruses like HIV and hepatitis C.
Aubert and her co-workers examined what happened to mice chronically infected with LCMV when they infused CD4 or "helper" T cells from uninfected mice. After the infusion, the CD8 cells in the infected mice revived and the levels of virus in their bodies decreased by a factor of four after a month. Like coaches encouraging a tired athlete, the helper cells drove the killer cells that were already in the infected mice to emerge from exhaustion and re-engage.
The cell-based treatment was especially effective when combined with an antibody that blocks the molecule PD-1, which appears on exhausted T cells and inhibits their functioning. The antibody against PD-1 helps the exhausted T cells to revive, and enhances the function of the helper cells as well: the combination reduced viral levels by roughly ten-fold, and made the virus undetectable in some mice.
"We have not seen this sharp of a reduction in viral levels in this system before," says co-author Alice Kamphorst, a postdoctoral fellow.
The helper cells were all genetically engineered to recognize LCMV, a difference between mouse experiments and potential clinical application. However, it may be possible to remove helper T cells from a human patient and stimulate them so that all the cells that recognize a given virus grow, Kamphorst says.
"This is an active area of research and several laboratories are looking at how best to stimulate T cells and re-introduce them," she says.
In addition, she and her co-workers are examining what types of hormones or signaling molecules the helper cells provide the killer cells. That way, that molecule could be provided directly, instead of cell therapy, she says.
The molecule PD-1 was previously identified by Ahmed and colleagues as a target for therapy designed to re-activate exhausted immune cells. Antibodies against PD-1 have been undergoing tests in clinical studies against hepatitis C and several forms of cancer.
###
Collaborators from Harvard Medical School/Dana Farber Cancer Institute contributed to the paper. The research was supported by the National Institutes of Health and the Cancer Research Institute.
Reference: R.D. Aubert et al. Antigen-specific CD4 T-cell help rescues exhausted CD8 T cells during chronic viral infection. PNAS Early Edition (2011).
Keywords
| https://archive.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2011-12/eu-tc121311.php |
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EWG's Food Scores | Not a Branded Item Vanilla Yogurt With Strawberry, Vanilla
Check out the food score for Not a Branded Item Vanilla Yogurt With Strawberry, Vanilla from EWG's Food Scores! EWG's Food Scores rates more than 80,000 foods in a simple, searchable online format to empower you to shop smarter and eat healthier.
Not a Branded Item Vanilla Yogurt With Strawberry, Vanilla
Lower scores accompany better foods.
Product Images
Image source: Brand Logo
EWG Overall Score Breakdown
The product score is based on weighted scores for nutrition, ingredient and processing concerns. Generally, nutrition counts most, ingredient concerns next and degree of processing least. The weighted scores are added together to determine the final score.Read more about scores here.
EWG Overall Score Breakdown
EWG scored on three factors: nutrition, ingredient concerns, and the degree of processing.Read the full scoring methodology.
Lower concern
N
I
P
Higher concern
Lower concern
Higher concern
N Nutrition Concern
I Ingredient Concern
P Processing Concern
Nutrition Concern Details
Considers calories, saturated fat, trans fat, sugar, sodium, protein, fiber and fruit, vegetable and nut content to differentiate between healthful and less healthful foods. For more information on nutrition concerns,read our full methodology.
Contains ingredients that may contribute small amounts of unhealthy artificial trans fats: Canola Oil [read more]
EWG calculates that this product contains 9 teaspoons of added and natural sugar per serving [read more]
Excellent source of naturally occurring calcium [read more]
The nutrition factors used for scoring Not a Branded Item Vanilla Yogurt With Strawberry, Vanilla*
Positive factors
Fruit, vegetable, bean or nut content
Protein content
Fiber content
Omega-3 fatty acids
Negative factors
Calorie density
Sugar/low-calorie sweetener content
Sodium content
Trans fat content
* Calculated based 100 grams & a single serving.
Ingredient Concern Details
Considers food additives, pesticides, hormones, antibiotics and contaminants like mercury and BPA, which can affect human health and the environment. For more information on ingredient concerns,read methodology.
This product is not certified organic [read more]
Rice-based ingredients may contain arsenic [read more]
This product has 4 ingredients with concerns as well as some contamination concerns:
Arsenic Contamination from Rice This contaminant is of lower concern in food. Learn why.
TRICALCIUM PHOSPHATE This additive is of moderate concern in food. Learn why.
Natural Flavor This additive is of lower concern in food. Learn why.
RIBOFLAVIN This additive is of lower concern in food. Learn why.
Gellan Gum This additive is of lower concern in food. Learn why.
Processing Concern Details
Estimates how much the food has been processed. Considers many factors, chief among them, modification of individual ingredients from whole foods and number of artificial ingredients. For more information on processing concerns,read our full methodology.
Product has been classified as having high processing concerns
Products with moderate and high processing concerns generally have more artificial ingredients, more ingredients that have been significantly modified from whole foods, and more ingredients overall.
EWG's Top Findings
This product is not certified organic [read more]
This product is not certified organic
Products bearing the USDA certified organic seal must contain at least 95 percent organic ingredient, and must be produced without the use of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers and free of genetically engineered ingredients.
Contains food additives of moderate concern
Contains ingredients that may contribute small amounts of unhealthy artificial trans fats: Canola Oil [read more]
Both refined oils and fully hydrogenated oils contain small amounts of unhealthy artificial trans fats and contribute to the total intake of trans fat in the diet (Biofortis 2014). Artificial trans fats are generated in refined oils when they are processed at high temperatures from the crude oil into a bland, odorless, colorless oil (Greyt 1999). A 2012 study conducted by FDA scientists estimated that refined oil contributes an average 0.6 grams of trans fat a day (Doell 2012). The World Health Organization recommends limits on trans fat of less than 1 to 2 grams a day—in this context, it’s easy to see that 0.6 grams is not an insignificant contribution. In the case of fully hydrogenated oils, they should theoretically be free of trans fat, but since no hydrogenation process is 100 percent efficient, trans fats are often found in fully hydrogenated oils at low levels (FDA 2013). The United States Department of Agriculture National Nutrition Database has tested refined, partially hydrogenated and fully hydrogenated oils and found trans fats in all of them (USDA 2013).
Textbooks for food scientists reveal that the mono and di-glycerides and other emulsifiers are often made from hydrogenated fats (Hasenhuettl and Hartel 2008) and at temperatures above 220°C (Sikorski and Kolakowka 2011). Emulsifiers produced from hydrogenated fats “contain measurable concentrations" of trans fats (Hasenhuettl and Hartel 2008).
Unfortunately, due to lack of label disclosure and the trans fat labeling loophole, only the food scientists will ever know just how much trans fat these refined oils and emulsifiers are contributing to foods and the American diet.
EWG calculates that this product contains 9 teaspoons of added and natural sugar per serving [read more]
EWG calculates that this product contains 9 tea...
Eating too much of any type of sugar can lead to tooth decay. Added sugars like high fructose corn syrup, honey, sugar and dextrose are more concerning than natural sugars like raisins because they can lead to obesity by adding calories without being accompanied by important nutrients like potassium, vitamin C or fiber. Americans average 22 teaspoons of added sugar a day (NCI 2010; USDA and DHHS 2010). The World Health Organization recommends no more than 6 to 12 teaspoons of added sugar a day for adults, children should eat even less (WHO 2002; WHO 2014).
Contains the non-specific ingredient "flavor" [read more]
Contains the non-specific ingredient "flavor"
Added "flavors" are secret and often complex mixtures of chemicals that modify and manipulate the taste and smell of food. The lack of disclosure is a public right to know issue and especially concerning to people with unusual food allergies or on restricted diets.
Excellent source of naturally occurring calcium [read more]
Excellent source of naturally occurring calcium
Calcium is necessary for strong bones and decreasing the risk of osteoporosis and bone fracture. Calcium is also important for healthy muscles and nervous system function.
Rice-based ingredients may contain arsenic [read more]
Rice-based ingredients may contain arsenic
Rice plant naturally takes up arsenic from the water in the soil. The concentration of arsenic in this product will depend on the amount of rice-based ingredient used. http://www.ewg.org/foodscores/content/arsenic-contamination-in-rice
Product has been classified as having high processing concerns
EWG Food Reports
EWG's Shopper's Guide to Pesticide in Produce
Ingredient List
From the Package
VANILLA YOGURT (CULTURED PASTEURIZED GRADE A NONFAT MILK, SUGAR, WATER, MODIFIED CORN STARCH, WHEY, NATURAL FLAVORS, TRICALCIUM PHOSPHATE, GELLAN GUM, POTASSIUM SORBATE [FOR FRESHNESS], CITRIC ACID, VITAMIN D3), GRANOLA (WHOLE GRAIN ROLLED OATS, SUGAR, WHOLE GRAIN WHEAT FLAKES, RICE, CORN SYRUP, ALMONDS, SALT, MODIFIED CORN STARCH, CANOLA OIL, MOLASSES, CINNAMON, NONFAT DRY MILK, MALTED BARLEY EXTRACT VITAMINS AND MINERALS [ALPHA TOCOPHEROL ACETATE {VITAMIN E}, FERRIC OTHOPHOSPHATE {IRON}, NIACINAMIDE, ZINC OXIDE, PYRIDOXINE HYDROCHLORIDE {VITAMIN B6}, RIBOFLAVIN {VITAMIN B2}, FOLIC ACID, THIAMIN MONONITRATE {VITAMIN B1}, VITAMIN A PALMITATE, VITAMIN B12, VITAMIN D, SODIUM ASCORBATE {VITAMIN C}), STRAWBERRY
* Older Product
Products remain in the database for two years after their label information is recorded in stores. A product with label information last recorded more than a year ago is marked with an * identifying it as an older product.
* Discontinued Product
Product Images
Please note that EWG obtains the displayed images of products from third parties and that the product's manufacturer or packager may change the product's packaging at any point in time. Therefore, EWG assumes no responsibility for the accuracy of images presented.
Other Information
This product contains the following ingredient(s) that may be genetically engineered or derived from GE crops: Corn Syrup, Canola Oil, Sugars, Modified Starch (Corn), and Citric Acid [read more]
This product contains the following ingredient(...
Scientists have not determined whether GE food poses risks to human health. Still, consumers have many good reasons to avoid eating genetically engineered ingredients, including limited safety studies, the development of "superweeds" and increased pesticide use. For more information on the topic visit: http://www.ewg.org/research/shoppers-guide-to-avoiding-ge-food
Note: The presence or absence of genetically engineered ingredients or ingredients derived from GE crops does not affect a product's overall score.
Contains ingredients derived from milk and wheat - these are considered major food allergens according to the FDA [read more]
Contains ingredients derived from milk and whea...
While over 160 food ingredients may cause allergic reactions current Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulations stipulate that 8 major food allergens must be labeled on products. These allergens include; milk, eggs, fish, crustacean shellfish, tree nuts, peanuts, wheat and soybeans.
Note: The presence of potential allergens does not affect the overall product score.
Nutrition Facts
1.0 servings per containerServing Size1 CONTAINER Amount Per Calories 260 % Daily Value (based on a 2,000 calorie diet and adult bodyweight) Update the values for someone: -age- 1-3 years 4-8 years 9-13 years 14-18 years 19-30 years 31-50 years 51-70 years over 70 years -gender/life stage- male female pregnant female lactating female goQUICK FACTS: 2.0 2.0 % Total Fat 1 g 20.0 20.0 % Total Carbs 56 g % Protein 7 gAVOID TOO MUCH: 0.0 0.0 % Saturated Fat 0 g Trans Fat 0.0g 1.0 1.0 % Cholesterol 5 mg 9.0 9.0 % Sodium 200 mg Added Sugar Ingredients: Corn Syrup, Sugars, and MolassesNUTRIENTS: 9.0 9.0 % Dietary Fiber 3 g 30.0 30.0 % Vitamin D 45.0 45.0 % Calcium 6.0 6.0 % Iron Potassium (no value on present label)† Institute of Medicine. 2010. "Dietary Reference Intakes Tables and Application." Accessed April 8, 2014:link
| https://www.ewg.org/foodscores/products/081851277582-NotaBrandedItemVanillaYogurtWithStrawberryVanilla/ |
High bloods after exercise | Diabetes Forum • The Global Diabetes Community
I have just started having 5 injections rather than 4. I have 3 fast acting humalog and 2 split doses of levemir. I have been doing this over 2 weeks now...
High bloods after exercise
I have just started having 5 injections rather than 4. I have 3 fast acting humalog and 2 split doses of levemir. I have been doing this over 2 weeks now and after exercise on an evening my bloods have started shooting through the roof even though my blood sugars are fine before I exercise! This used to happen which is why I changed onto 5 injections but if anything has got worse! Does anyone else experience the same? X
Sent from the Diabetes Forum App
Re: High bloods after exercise
Yeah,happens with me too.
Rite now I'm taking a medication of humalog mix25.
I experienced the same,and when I consulted my doctor she told me that this happens in the very beginning when you start exercising.
Eventually,the level of sugar will start decreasing as days will pass and you're more habitual to it. Bit this will happen at a decreasing rate.
Patience is required.
Re: High bloods after exercise
This happens me too. I take two split doses of levimer and novo rapid with meals. My bs always shoots up after a walk. Hoping it settles soon though xx
Sent from the Diabetes Forum App
Re: High bloods after exercise
Hi, I'm t2 and just begun to go to the gym and this also happens to me<here is a image >
Re: High bloods after exercise
Happens to me too. I take insulin when I exercise to avoid the highs. It happens because some exercise exerts stress on your body, your liver reacts to this by producing cortisol which raises your glucose levels.
From an evolutionary perspective this makes sense as in stressful life-or-death situations an extra boost of energy has obviously helped in the past.
I need 2 units of Novorapid when I go to the gym.
Re: High bloods after exercise
Thanks for all your replies! My nurse has mentioned maybe having to inject to exercise but I exercise every day and this would mean 6 injections a day!
Just feels such a fight sometimes, I have had diabetes since I was 18 months old and I am 21 now and just when I start to think I understand how it works everything goes haywire<here is a image >
Sent from the Diabetes Forum App
Re: High bloods after exercise
Hi guys,
I'm the same, just starting back at the gym after a while out & my sugars were 17! Got home & had dinner. Do you correct for the high bs or will it drop again on its own? I did some cardio & then weights.
Sent from the Diabetes Forum App
Re: High bloods after exercise
I used to experience this when I exercised, after speaking to my doctor found it was down to the type of exercise I was doing.
Aerobic exercise will decrees your levels and anaerobic will increase.
This explained a lot for me as I was doing a long run with a sprint at the end and not understanding why my sugars were going up!
Sent from the Diabetes Forum App
Re: High bloods after exercise
My nurse has said the reason for my bloods going up is that I don't have enough insulin in my system so no matter what exercise I do my blood sugars will increase. I'm hoping by increasing my background insulin this should cover my exercise and stop my highs.
If i am very high after exercise then I inject some fast acting to bring me back down
Re: High bloods after exercise
When you exercise you will need less basal as exercise produces another hormone that makes your cells more absorbant. Ever noticed hypos after exercise? Well thats why. The effects of exercise last up to about 48 hours. I reduce my Lantus by 20% during this period.
You most certainly do not need to increase Lantus because of exercise as this will cause hypos.
Here's my routine: 2u Novorapid before gym to cover rising BGs. 1u less Novorapid for my next meal and 20% less Lantus that evening to avoid hypos. I put the Lantus dose back to what it was after 48 hours. If I exercise in the meantime I'll need to drop my Lantus by another 20% until I plateau at 6u.
I'd recommended Gary Scheiner's Think Like A Pancreas book as that is where I learned thus technique.
Ok thanks for that Sam
Re: High bloods after exercise
Sam, does that extra 2u stop the spike afterwards for you then? & not cause a hypo as the liver releases the glucose?
Sent from the Diabetes Forum App
Re: High bloods after exercise
Yep, stops the spike and dont go hypo after as I reduce the Novorapid by one unit for my next meal (I usually have a meal after exercise as I do it before breakfast or dinner).
Best way to find out what works for you is to experiment. Write down your sugar levels and keep the exercise routine consistent until you have things figured things. Probably best to be conservative as you dont want any big hypos.
| https://www.diabetes.co.uk/forum/threads/high-bloods-after-exercise.38454/ |
Series Document — BODC Document 386328
Series Document — BODC Document 386328
Metadata Report for BODC Series Reference Number 386328
Metadata Summary
Problem Reports
Data Access Policy
Narrative Documents
Project Information
Data Activity or Cruise Information
Fixed Station Information
BODC Quality Flags
SeaDataNet Quality Flags
Metadata Summary
The oxygen data collected on this cruise have not been calibrated against sample data and should be used with great caution.
Data Access Policy
Open Data supplied by Natural Environment Research Council (NERC)
You must always use the following attribution statement to acknowledge the source of the information: "Contains data supplied by Natural Environment Research Council."
Narrative Documents
Sea Bird Electronics SBE13 Dissolved Oxygen Sensor
The SBE 13 was designed as an auxiliary sensor for Sea Bird SBE 9plus, but can fitted in custom instrumentation applications. When used with the SBE 9 Underwater Unit, a flow-through plenum improves the data quality, as the pumping water over the sensor membrane reduces the errors caused by oxygen depletion during the periods of slow or intermittent flushing and also reduces exposure to biofouling.
The output voltage is proportional to membrane current (oxygen current) and to the sensor element's membrane temperature (oxygen temperature), which is used for internal temperature compensation.
Two versions of the SBE 13 are available: the SBE 13Y uses a YSI polarographic element with replaceable membranes to provide in situ measurements up to 2000 m depth and the SBE 13B uses a Beckman polarographic element to provide in situ measurements up to 10500 m depth, depending on the sensor casing. This sensor includes a replaceable sealed electrolyte membrane cartridge.
The SBE 13 instrument has been out of production since 2001 and has been superseded by the SBE 43.
Specifications
Measurement range 0 to 15 mL L -1 Accuracy 0.1 mL L -1 Time response2 s at 25°C5 s at 0°C Depth range2000 m (SBE 13Y- housing in anodized aluminum)6800 m (SBE 13B- housing in anodized aluminum)105000 m (SBE 13B- housing in titanium)
Further details can be found in the manufacturer'sspecification sheet.
Sea-Bird Electronics SBE 911 and SBE 917 series CTD profilers
The SBE 911 and SBE 917 series of conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) units are used to collect hydrographic profiles, including temperature, conductivity and pressure as standard. Each profiler consists of an underwater unit and deck unit or SEARAM. Auxiliary sensors, such as fluorometers, dissolved oxygen sensors and transmissometers, and carousel water samplers are commonly added to the underwater unit.
Underwater unit
The CTD underwater unit (SBE 9 or SBE 9 plus) comprises a protective cage (usually with a carousel water sampler), including a main pressure housing containing power supplies, acquisition electronics, telemetry circuitry, and a suite of modular sensors. The original SBE 9 incorporated Sea-Bird's standard modular SBE 3 temperature sensor and SBE 4 conductivity sensor, and a Paroscientific Digiquartz pressure sensor. The conductivity cell was connected to a pump-fed plastic tubing circuit that could include auxiliary sensors. Each SBE 9 unit was custom built to individual specification. The SBE 9 was replaced in 1997 by an off-the-shelf version, termed the SBE 9 plus, that incorporated the SBE 3 plus(or SBE 3P) temperature sensor, SBE 4C conductivity sensor and a Paroscientific Digiquartz pressure sensor. Sensors could be connected to a pump-fed plastic tubing circuit or stand-alone.
Temperature, conductivity and pressure sensors
The conductivity, temperature, and pressure sensors supplied with Sea-Bird CTD systems have outputs in the form of variable frequencies, which are measured using high-speed parallel counters. The resulting count totals are converted to numeric representations of the original frequencies, which bear a direct relationship to temperature, conductivity or pressure. Sampling frequencies for these sensors are typically set at 24 Hz.
The temperature sensing element is a glass-coated thermistor bead, pressure-protected inside a stainless steel tube, while the conductivity sensing element is a cylindrical, flow-through, borosilicate glass cell with three internal platinum electrodes. Thermistor resistance or conductivity cell resistance, respectively, is the controlling element in an optimized Wien Bridge oscillator circuit, which produces a frequency output that can be converted to a temperature or conductivity reading. These sensors are available with depth ratings of 6800 m (aluminium housing) or 10500 m (titanium housing). The Paroscientific Digiquartz pressure sensor comprises a quartz crystal resonator that responds to pressure-induced stress, and temperature is measured for thermal compensation of the calculated pressure.
Additional sensors
Optional sensors for dissolved oxygen, pH, light transmission, fluorescence and others do not require the very high levels of resolution needed in the primary CTD channels, nor do these sensors generally offer variable frequency outputs. Accordingly, signals from the auxiliary sensors are acquired using a conventional voltage-input multiplexed A/D converter (optional). Some Sea-Bird CTDs use a strain gauge pressure sensor (Senso-Metrics) in which case their pressure output data is in the same form as that from the auxiliary sensors as described above.
Deck unit or SEARAM
Each underwater unit is connected to a power supply and data logging system: the SBE 11 (or SBE 11 plus) deck unit allows real-time interfacing between the deck and the underwater unit via a conductive wire, while the submersible SBE 17 (or SBE 17 plus) SEARAM plugs directly into the underwater unit and data are downloaded on recovery of the CTD. The combination of SBE 9 and SBE 17 or SBE 11 are termed SBE 917 or SBE 911, respectively, while the combinations of SBE 9 plusand SBE 17 plusor SBE 11 plusare termed SBE 917 plusor SBE 911 plus.
Specifications
Specifications for the SBE 9 plusunderwater unit are listed below:
Parameter Range Initial accuracy Resolution at 24 Hz Response time Temperature -5 to 35°C 0.001°C 0.0002°C 0.065 sec Conductivity 0 to 7 S m -1 0.0003 S m -1 0.00004 S m -1 0.065 sec (pumped) Pressure 0 to full scale (1400, 2000, 4200, 6800 or 10500 m) 0.015% of full scale 0.001% of full scale 0.015 sec
Further details can be found in the manufacturer'sspecification sheet.
RRS Challenger Cruise 103 CTD Data Documentation
Introduction
Documentation for the CTD data collected on RRS Challenger 103 (May 1993) by the Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory, Oban, Argyll, Scotland, UK, under the direction of D. J. Ellett.
Instrumentation and Processing
The instrument used was a Seabird 9/11 CTD, and the data were processed using the Seabird software. The manufacturer's calibrations were used. Data have been averaged to 1 decibar values.
Project Information
No Project Information held for the Series
Data Activity or Cruise Information
Cruise
Cruise Name CH103 Departure Date 1993-05-12 Arrival Date 1993-05-24 Principal Scientist(s) David J Ellett (Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory) Ship RRS Challenger
Complete Cruise Metadata Report is availablehere
Fixed Station Information
No Fixed Station Information held for the Series
BODC Quality Control Flags
The following single character qualifying flags may be associated with one or more individual parameters with a data cycle:
Flag Description Blank Unqualified < Below detection limit > In excess of quoted value A Taxonomic flag for affinis (aff.) B Beginning of CTD Down/Up Cast C Taxonomic flag for confer (cf.) D Thermometric depth E End of CTD Down/Up Cast G Non-taxonomic biological characteristic uncertainty H Extrapolated value I Taxonomic flag for single species (sp.) K Improbable value - unknown quality control source L Improbable value - originator's quality control M Improbable value - BODC quality control N Null value O Improbable value - user quality control P Trace/calm Q Indeterminate R Replacement value S Estimated value T Interpolated value U Uncalibrated W Control value X Excessive difference
SeaDataNet Quality Control Flags
The following single character qualifying flags may be associated with one or more individual parameters with a data cycle:
Flag Description 0 no quality control 1 good value 2 probably good value 3 probably bad value 4 bad value 5 changed value 6 value below detection 7 value in excess 8 interpolated value 9 missing value A value phenomenon uncertain B nominal value Q value below limit of quantification
© National Oceanography Centre 2023
| https://www.bodc.ac.uk/data/documents/series/386328/ |
EACTS
Education
24-28 Oct
Windsor, UK
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Fundamentals in Cardiac Surgery: Part III
Basic principles of cardiac surgery part II. A new format has been introduced for these highly popular courses which are a must for cardiac surgical trainees. The course will encompass two 2.5 day modules: Aorta and Congenital and Heart and Lung Failure and Mechanical Circulatory Support. The middle day of the course will offer expert ‘hands-on’ wetlab training covering both modules.
Location
Windsor, UK
Target Audience
Cardiac and cardio-thoracic surgeons; Residents and fellows in cardiac surgical training programmes.
Course Director
J Pepper, London
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3-5 Nov
Berlin, Germany
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11th European Mechanical Circulatory Support Summit
Location
Bad Oeynhausen, Germany
Target Audience
Cardiologists, heart failure cardiologists, emergency and ICU specialists (ECLS), cardiac surgeons, perfusionists, heart failure nurses and VAD coordinators, medical industry (cardiac device including ECMO development and production). Pediatric cardiologists and congenital heart disease surgeons
Chairmen
J Gummert, Bad Oeynhausen, P Leprince, Paris and V Falk, Berlin
LEARN MORE >
7-9 Nov
Leiden, The Netherlands
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Mitral Valve Surgery
A highly interactive course focusing on the technical aspects of mitral surgery and interventions, emphasising the success of teamwork through challenging live cases. The programme will feature lectures where our keynote faculty will share their experience and tips and tricks, live surgeries from the Leiden University Medical Centre and a hands on wetlab.
Location
Leiden, The Netherlands
Target Audience
Cardiac surgeons and residents, interested in advancing their mitral reconstruction techniques.
Course Director
R Klautz, Leiden
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15-18 Nov
Windsor, UK
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Congenital Heart Disease
A course on surgical anatomy, physiology and principles of surgical and non-surgical treatment of congenital heart diseases for advanced residents and junior congenital heart surgeons.
Location
Windsor, UK
Target Audience
Surgeons specifically in training for congenital surgery.
Course Directors
E Belli, Le Plessis-Robinson
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24-25 Nov
Nancy, France
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Aortic Valve Surgery
The course will run from 24-25 November 2016
Location
Nancy, France
Target Audience
TBC
Course Directors
T Folliguet, Nancy
LEARN MORE >
24-25 Nov
Windsor, UK
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Modern Perspectives on Atrial Fibrillation Surgery
This course will expose the recent developments in minimal invasive technology and describe the latest results that can be achieved with modern surgical approaches.
Location
Windsor, UK
Target Audience
Senior trainees and consultants who wish to specialise in this exciting and rapidly developing area.
Course Directors
S Benussi, Zürich
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28-29 Nov
Windsor, UK
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Professional Leadership: Head, Heart and Values
This is a two day highly interactive course with the objective of increasing self-awareness and developing leadership skills for the benefit of the individual, the team, and most importantly, the patient.
Location
Windsor, UK
Target Audience
Consultant cardiac and thoracic surgeons in post for approximately 10 years who are now taking on leadership roles.
Course Directors
Rebecca Stephens MBE & Roger Delves
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15-16 Dec
Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Endoscopic Port-Access Mitral Valve Repair Drylab Training
*SOLD OUT
Location
Maastricht, The Netherlands
Target Audience
TBC
Course Director
Peyman Sardari Nia, MD, PhD Maastricht Netherlands
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6-10 Feb
Windsor, UK
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Fundamentals in Cardiac Surgery: Part I
SOLD OUT
Basic principles of cardiac surgery part I. The course will encompass two 2.5 day modules: Essentials in Coronary Surgery and Essentials of Aortic Valve Intervention.
The middle day of the course will offer expert ‘hands-on’ wetlab training covering both modules.
Location
Windsor, UK
Target Audience
Cardiac and cardio-thoracic surgeons; Residents and fellows in cardiac surgical training programmes.
Course Director
S Livesey, Southampton
LEARN MORE >
6-10 Feb
Fundamentals in Cardiac Surgery: Part I
Monday 06 February
09:30Welcome and introductionSteven Livesey
10:00History of coronary surgeryJohn Pepper
10:30Coronary anatomy: Arteries and veinsHoria Muresian
11:00Coronary physiologySimon Davies
11:30What do the coronary trials tell us?Simon Davies
12:00Coronary multi-disciplinary teamSimon Davies
Location
Windsor, UK
Target Audience
Course Director
Simon Davies
LEARN MORE >
23-24 Feb
Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Endoscopic Port-Access Mitral Valve Repair Drylab Training
For each course in 2017 we have invited a ‘giant’ in Minimally Invasive Mitral Valve Surgery. We are pleased to announce that for the course in February, Professor Friedrich Mohr will be our honoured faculty member.
True simulated physical model of endoscopic port-access set-up whereby the operator can train from the basic technique to full complex repairs
*Please note that we a require a minimum of 4 participants for this course to proceed.
Location
Maastricht, The Netherlands
Course Director
Peyman Sardari Nia, MD, PhD Maastricht Netherlands
LEARN MORE >
16-18 Mar
Windsor, UK
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Introduction to Aortic Surgery
Covering the major aspects of aortic surgery, from the aortic valve to the descending aorta. Special attention will be devoted to the various options in sparing the aortic valve and on the modern approach to aortic arch surgery. The programme will include a wetlab demonstrating various surgical techniques on the aortic root.
Location
Windsor, UK
Target Audience
This course is aimed at residents in their last year and surgeons willing to broaden their expertise in major aortic valve and aortic pathologies.
Course Director
R De Paulis, Rome
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16-18 Mar
Introduction to Aortic Surgery
Thursday 16 March
09:15Welcome and introductionRuggero De Paulis
09:20PROXIMAL THORACIC AORTIC SURGERY
09:20The physiology and the hemodynamic of the aortic rootDenis Berdajs
09:40Guidelines for a timely surgical indicationAlessandro Della Corte
10:00The bicuspid aortopathy: Classification and prognosisAlessandro Della Corte
10:20A practical guide to the extent of resection in bicuspid aortopathyRuggero De Paulis
Location
Windsor, UK
Target Audience
Course Director
Ruggero De Paulis
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27-31 Mar
Thoracic Surgery: Part I
Monday 27 March
08:30Radiology and nuclear imaging for surgeonsNicholas Hughes
10:00BREAK
10:15The Tumour Node Metastasis (TNM) staging systemRamon Rami-Porta
11:15The rationale for stagingRamon Rami-Porta
12:15LUNCH
13:00How staging is performedRamon Rami-Porta
Location
Windsor, UK
Target Audience
Course Director
Ramon Rami-Porta
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30Mar-1 Apr
Windsor, UK
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Thoracic Surgery: Part I
To gain more insight and up-to-date knowledge on different aspects of thoracic surgery related to lung diseases with emphasis on lung cancer, infectious diseases, lung resection and transplantation.
Location
Windsor, UK
Target Audience
Those with the intention of becoming a thoracic and/or cardiac surgeon and working as a surgeon in training in a thoracic and/or cardiac department
Course Director
M. Dusmet, London
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11-12 May
Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Endoscopic Port-Access Mitral Valve Repair Drylab Training
True simulated physical model of endoscopic port-access set-up whereby the operator can train from the basic technique to full complex repairs
*Please note that we a require a minimum of 4 participants for this course to proceed.
Location
Maastricht, The Netherlands
Course Director
Peyman Sardari Nia, MD, PhD Maastricht Netherlands
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18-19 May
Berlin, Germany
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Video-Assisted Thoracoscopic Surgery (VATS)
SOLD OUT– This specialist course will be held at the Medizin im Grünen facility in Wendisch Rietz, just outside Berlin. A medical centre of excellence where delegates will receive intensive simulator learning and training in different patient simulations in an extremely modern operative environment.
Location
Wendisch Rietz, Germany (just outside Berlin)
Target Audience
Thoracic surgeons working as a surgeon in training in a thoracic and/or cardiac department with a specific interest in VATS lobectomy.
Course Director
P Rajesh, Birmingham
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5-9 Jun
Windsor, UK
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Fundamentals in Cardiac Surgery: Part II
Basic principles of cardiac surgery part II. A new format has been introduced for these highly popular courses which are a must for cardiac surgical trainees. The course will encompass two 2.5 day modules: Aorta and Congenital and Heart and Lung Failure and Mechanical Circulatory Support.
The middle day of the course will offer expert ‘hands-on’ wetlab training covering both modules.
Location
Windsor, UK
Target Audience
Cardiac and cardio-thoracic surgeons; Residents and fellows in cardiac surgical training programmes
Course Director
S. Livesey, Southampton
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15-17 Jun
Windsor, UK
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Thoracic Surgery: Part II
To gain more insight and up-to-date knowledge on different aspects of thoracic surgery related to the chest wall, mesothelioma, techniques for metastasectomy and tumors of the medisatinum. Didactic presentations with interactive discussions, case scenario sessions and two wetlabs on chest wall reconstruction and energy and lasers in surgery.
Location
Windsor, UK
Target Audience
Thoracic surgeons working as a surgeon in training in a thoracic and/or cardiac department (intermediate level).
Course Director
E. Roessner, Mannheim
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15-17 Jun
Berlin, Germany
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Ventricular Assist Device (VAD) Co-ordinators Training Course
Lectures, video clips and practical demonstrations. All sessions will be highly interactive.
Location
Berlin, Germany
Target Audience
Ventricular assist device co-ordinators.
Course Director
V. Falk, Berlin
LEARN MORE > | http://www.eacts.org/educational-events/programme/?ajaxCalendar=1&id=901535987&long_events=1&mo=5&yr=2023 |
-only injection of artificial IMI-CCAP into LG prolonged both phases of the gastric mill rhythm. Note prolonged retractor phase, evident by comparison to the black bar, which indicates the control duration of retraction. All panels are from the same LG recording. Most hyperpolarized Vm: LG, \u0026#x2212;68 mV.\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-images-1048600887\u0022 data-figure-caption=\u0022\u0026lt;div class=\u0026quot;highwire-markup\u0026quot;\u0026gt;Limiting the influence of artificial IMI-CCAP in LG to the protractor phase does not mimic the action of bath-applied CCAP on the gastric mill rhythm in the biological preparation. A, The MCN1-gastric mill rhythm during saline superfusion. The black bar represents the retractor phase duration. B, Continual injection of artificial IMI-CCAP into LG via the dynamic clamp selectively prolonged the protractor phase. The black bar represents the retraction duration during saline superfusion. C, Protraction-only injection of artificial IMI-CCAP into LG prolonged both phases of the gastric mill rhythm. Note prolonged retractor phase, evident by comparison to the black bar, which indicates the control duration of retraction. All panels are from the same LG recording. Most hyperpolarized Vm: LG, \u0026#x2212;68 mV.\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022hw-responsive-img\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 8.\u0022 src=\u0022data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\u0022 data-src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F8.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022359\u0022 height=\u0022440\u0022\/\u003E\u003Cnoscript\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 8.\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F8.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022359\u0022 height=\u0022440\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/noscript\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022highwire-figure-links inline\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-fig first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F8.large.jpg?download=true\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download\u0022 title=\u0022Download Figure 8.\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload figure\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022new-tab\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F8.large.jpg\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab\u0022 target=\u0022_blank\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EOpen in new tab\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-ppt last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/powerpoint\/511025\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload powerpoint\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-caption\u0022 xmlns:xhtml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022fig-label\u0022\u003EFigure 8.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cp id=\u0022p-53\u0022\u003ELimiting the influence of artificial \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-CCAP\u003C\/sub\u003E in LG to the protractor phase does not mimic the action of bath-applied CCAP on the gastric mill rhythm in the biological preparation. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003EA\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, The MCN1-gastric mill rhythm during saline superfusion. The black bar represents the retractor phase duration. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003EB\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, Continual injection of artificial \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-CCAP\u003C\/sub\u003E into LG via the dynamic clamp selectively prolonged the protractor phase. The black bar represents the retraction duration during saline superfusion. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003EC\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, Protraction-only injection of artificial \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-CCAP\u003C\/sub\u003E into LG prolonged both phases of the gastric mill rhythm. Note prolonged retractor phase, evident by comparison to the black bar, which indicates the control duration of retraction. All panels are from the same LG recording. Most hyperpolarized \u003Cem\u003EV\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Em\u003C\/sub\u003E: LG, \u221268 mV.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-end\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022related-urls\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022element-fig-data clearfix figure-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-markup\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv xmlns=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022 class=\u0022content-block-markup\u0022 xmlns:xhtml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-expansion\u0022 id=\u0022F9\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-start\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-figure\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img-wrapper\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F9.large.jpg?width=800\u0026amp;height=600\u0026amp;carousel=1\u0022 title=\u0022The presence of IMI-CCAP in LG lowers the threshold MCN1 firing frequency for activating the gastric mill rhythm in a computational model. A, Modest MCN1 stimulation in the absence of CCAP did not activate the gastric mill rhythm. Note the small effect of GMI-MCN1 on the LG membrane potential. B, A slightly faster MCN1 stimulation frequency, without CCAP present, did elicit the gastric mill rhythm. C, The previously subthreshold MCN1 stimulation frequency did drive the gastric mill rhythm when IMI-CCAP was present in LG. Most hyperpolarized Vm (A\u0026#x2013;C): LG, \u0026#x2212;73 mV.\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-images-1048600887\u0022 data-figure-caption=\u0022\u0026lt;div class=\u0026quot;highwire-markup\u0026quot;\u0026gt;The presence of IMI-CCAP in LG lowers the threshold MCN1 firing frequency for activating the gastric mill rhythm in a computational model. A, Modest MCN1 stimulation in the absence of CCAP did not activate the gastric mill rhythm. Note the small effect of GMI-MCN1 on the LG membrane potential. B, A slightly faster MCN1 stimulation frequency, without CCAP present, did elicit the gastric mill rhythm. C, The previously subthreshold MCN1 stimulation frequency did drive the gastric mill rhythm when IMI-CCAP was present in LG. Most hyperpolarized Vm (A\u0026#x2013;C): LG, \u0026#x2212;73 mV.\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022hw-responsive-img\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 9.\u0022 src=\u0022data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\u0022 data-src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F9.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022428\u0022\/\u003E\u003Cnoscript\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 9.\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F9.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022440\u0022 height=\u0022428\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/noscript\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022highwire-figure-links inline\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-fig first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F9.large.jpg?download=true\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download\u0022 title=\u0022Download Figure 9.\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload figure\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022new-tab\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F9.large.jpg\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab\u0022 target=\u0022_blank\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EOpen in new tab\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-ppt last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/powerpoint\/511026\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload powerpoint\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-caption\u0022 xmlns:xhtml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022fig-label\u0022\u003EFigure 9.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cp id=\u0022p-56\u0022\u003EThe presence of \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-CCAP\u003C\/sub\u003E in LG lowers the threshold MCN1 firing frequency for activating the gastric mill rhythm in a computational model. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003EA\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, Modest MCN1 stimulation in the absence of CCAP did not activate the gastric mill rhythm. Note the small effect of \u003Cem\u003EG\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-MCN1\u003C\/sub\u003E on the LG membrane potential. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003EB\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, A slightly faster MCN1 stimulation frequency, without CCAP present, did elicit the gastric mill rhythm. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003EC\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, The previously subthreshold MCN1 stimulation frequency did drive the gastric mill rhythm when \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-CCAP\u003C\/sub\u003E was present in LG. Most hyperpolarized \u003Cem\u003EV\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Em\u003C\/sub\u003E (\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003EA\u2013C\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E): LG, \u221273 mV.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-end\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022related-urls\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022last\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022element-fig-data clearfix figure-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-markup\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv xmlns=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022 class=\u0022content-block-markup\u0022 xmlns:xhtml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-expansion\u0022 id=\u0022F10\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-start\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-figure\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img-wrapper\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-inline-img\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F10.large.jpg?width=800\u0026amp;height=600\u0026amp;carousel=1\u0022 title=\u0022Injection of artificial IMI-CCAP into LG lowers the threshold MCN1 firing frequency for activating the gastric mill rhythm in the biological preparation. A, Modest MCN1 stimulation in the absence of IMI-CCAP did not activate the gastric mill rhythm, but did elicit unitary EPSPs and action potentials in LG. Most hyperpolarized Vm: LG, \u0026#x2212;60 mV. B, A slightly faster MCN1 stimulation frequency, without IMI-CCAP injection, did elicit the gastric mill rhythm. Most hyperpolarized Vm: LG, \u0026#x2212;64 mV. C, The previously subthreshold MCN1 stimulation frequency did drive the gastric mill rhythm when artificial IMI-CCAP was injected into LG. Most hyperpolarized Vm: LG, \u0026#x2212;64 mV.\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-images colorbox-load\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-images-1048600887\u0022 data-figure-caption=\u0022\u0026lt;div class=\u0026quot;highwire-markup\u0026quot;\u0026gt;Injection of artificial IMI-CCAP into LG lowers the threshold MCN1 firing frequency for activating the gastric mill rhythm in the biological preparation. A, Modest MCN1 stimulation in the absence of IMI-CCAP did not activate the gastric mill rhythm, but did elicit unitary EPSPs and action potentials in LG. Most hyperpolarized Vm: LG, \u0026#x2212;60 mV. B, A slightly faster MCN1 stimulation frequency, without IMI-CCAP injection, did elicit the gastric mill rhythm. Most hyperpolarized Vm: LG, \u0026#x2212;64 mV. C, The previously subthreshold MCN1 stimulation frequency did drive the gastric mill rhythm when artificial IMI-CCAP was injected into LG. Most hyperpolarized Vm: LG, \u0026#x2212;64 mV.\u0026lt;\/div\u0026gt;\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022hw-responsive-img\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image lazyload\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 10.\u0022 src=\u0022data:image\/gif;base64,R0lGODlhAQABAIAAAAAAAP\/\/\/yH5BAEAAAAALAAAAAABAAEAAAIBRAA7\u0022 data-src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F10.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022430\u0022 height=\u0022440\u0022\/\u003E\u003Cnoscript\u003E\u003Cimg class=\u0022highwire-fragment fragment-image\u0022 alt=\u0022Figure 10.\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F10.medium.gif\u0022 width=\u0022430\u0022 height=\u0022440\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/noscript\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022highwire-figure-links inline\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-fig first\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F10.large.jpg?download=true\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-download\u0022 title=\u0022Download Figure 10.\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload figure\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022new-tab\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/content\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/F10.large.jpg\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-newtab\u0022 target=\u0022_blank\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EOpen in new tab\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022download-ppt last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/powerpoint\/511009\u0022 class=\u0022highwire-figure-link highwire-figure-link-ppt\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EDownload powerpoint\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-caption\u0022 xmlns:xhtml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022fig-label\u0022\u003EFigure 10.\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cp id=\u0022p-58\u0022\u003EInjection of artificial \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-CCAP\u003C\/sub\u003E into LG lowers the threshold MCN1 firing frequency for activating the gastric mill rhythm in the biological preparation. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003EA\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, Modest MCN1 stimulation in the absence of \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-CCAP\u003C\/sub\u003E did not activate the gastric mill rhythm, but did elicit unitary EPSPs and action potentials in LG. Most hyperpolarized \u003Cem\u003EV\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Em\u003C\/sub\u003E: LG, \u221260 mV. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003EB\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, A slightly faster MCN1 stimulation frequency, without \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-CCAP\u003C\/sub\u003E injection, did elicit the gastric mill rhythm. Most hyperpolarized \u003Cem\u003EV\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Em\u003C\/sub\u003E: LG, \u221264 mV. \u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cem\u003EC\u003C\/em\u003E\u003C\/strong\u003E, The previously subthreshold MCN1 stimulation frequency did drive the gastric mill rhythm when artificial \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-CCAP\u003C\/sub\u003E was injected into LG. Most hyperpolarized \u003Cem\u003EV\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Em\u003C\/sub\u003E: LG, \u221264 mV.\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-end\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022related-urls\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv id=\u0022fig-data-tables\u0022 class=\u0022group frag-table\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-data-title-jump clearfix\u0022\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\u0022fig-data-group-title\u0022\u003ETables\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022fig-data-jump-links\u0022\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022fig-data-jump-links-list links inline\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022figure first last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022#fig-data-figures\u0022 class=\u0022fig-data-jump-link fig-data-jump-link-figure link-icon\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022icon-caret-up\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E \u003Cspan class=\u0022title\u0022\u003EFigures\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022item-list\u0022\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022fig-data-list clearfix\u0022 id=\u0022fragments-table\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022first last\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022element-fig-data clearfix table-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022highwire-markup\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv xmlns=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022 class=\u0022content-block-markup\u0022 xmlns:xhtml=\u0022http:\/\/www.w3.org\/1999\/xhtml\u0022\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-expansion\u0022 id=\u0022T1\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-start\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-caption\u0022\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022inline table-expansion-links\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022view-popup first last\u0022\u003E\u003Ca href=\u0022\/highwire\/markup\/511028\/expansion?width=1000\u0026amp;height=500\u0026amp;iframe=true\u0026amp;postprocessors=highwire_tables%2Chighwire_reclass%2Chighwire_figures%2Chighwire_math%2Chighwire_inline_linked_media%2Chighwire_embed\u0022 class=\u0022colorbox colorbox-load table-expand-popup\u0022 rel=\u0022gallery-fragment-tables-813001667\u0022 data-icon-position=\u0022\u0022 data-hide-link-title=\u00220\u0022\u003EView popup\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022table-label\u0022\u003ETable 1.\u003C\/span\u003E \n\u003Cp id=\u0022p-20\u0022\u003EGastric mill rhythm model parameters for \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-MCN1\u003C\/sub\u003E and \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-CCAP\u003C\/sub\u003E\u003C\/p\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022sb-div caption-clear\u0022\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Ctable frame=\u0022hsides\u0022 id=\u0022table-1\u0022\u003E\u003Cthead valign=\u0022bottom\u0022 id=\u0022thead-1\u0022 class=\u0022table-vbottom\u0022\u003E\u003Ctr id=\u0022tr-1\u0022\u003E\u003Cth align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022th-1\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003ECurrent\u003C\/th\u003E\u003Cth align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022th-2\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cem\u003EG\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Emax\u003C\/sub\u003E\u003C\/th\u003E\u003Cth align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022th-3\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cem\u003EE\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Erev\u003C\/sub\u003E\u003C\/th\u003E\u003Cth align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022th-4\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cem\u003Em\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Einf\u003C\/sub\u003E\u003C\/th\u003E\u003Cth align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022th-5\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cem\u003Em\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Etau\u003C\/sub\u003E\u003C\/th\u003E\u003Cth align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022th-6\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cem\u003Em\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Epostinf\u003C\/sub\u003E\u003C\/th\u003E\u003Cth align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022th-7\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cem\u003Em\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Eposttau\u003C\/sub\u003E\u003C\/th\u003E\u003Cth align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022th-8\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cem\u003Em\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Epower\u003C\/sub\u003E\u003C\/th\u003E\u003C\/tr\u003E\u003C\/thead\u003E\u003Ctbody valign=\u0022top\u0022 id=\u0022tbody-1\u0022 class=\u0022table-vtop\u0022\u003E\u003Ctr id=\u0022tr-2\u0022\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-1\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-MCN1\u003C\/sub\u003E\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022char\u0022 char=\u0022.\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-2\u0022 class=\u0022table-char\u0022\u003E10\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022char\u0022 char=\u0022.\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-3\u0022 class=\u0022table-char\u0022\u003E0\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-4\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022disp-formula\u0022 id=\u0022disp-formula-5\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg xmlns:l=\u0022http:\/\/schema.highwire.org\/Linking\u0022 xmlns:hwp=\u0022http:\/\/schema.highwire.org\/Journal\u0022 l:ref-type=\u0022journal\u0022 hwp:journal=\u0022jneuro\u0022 hwp:volume=\u002229\u0022 hwp:issue=\u002239\u0022 hwp:article=\u002212355\u0022 hwp:fragment=\u0022T1\u0022 l:sub-ref=\u0022graphic-5\u0022 l:type=\u0022image\/*\u0022 class=\u0022graphic\u0022 alt=\u0022Formula\u0022 src=\u0022T1\/embed\/graphic-5.gif\u0022 apath=\u0022\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/T1\/T1\/embed\/graphic-5.gif\u0022 frag-type=\u0022embed\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-5\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022disp-formula\u0022 id=\u0022disp-formula-6\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg xmlns:l=\u0022http:\/\/schema.highwire.org\/Linking\u0022 xmlns:hwp=\u0022http:\/\/schema.highwire.org\/Journal\u0022 l:ref-type=\u0022journal\u0022 hwp:journal=\u0022jneuro\u0022 hwp:volume=\u002229\u0022 hwp:issue=\u002239\u0022 hwp:article=\u002212355\u0022 hwp:fragment=\u0022T1\u0022 l:sub-ref=\u0022graphic-6\u0022 l:type=\u0022image\/*\u0022 class=\u0022graphic\u0022 alt=\u0022Formula\u0022 src=\u0022T1\/embed\/graphic-6.gif\u0022 apath=\u0022\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/T1\/T1\/embed\/graphic-6.gif\u0022 frag-type=\u0022embed\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-6\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022disp-formula\u0022 id=\u0022disp-formula-7\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg xmlns:l=\u0022http:\/\/schema.highwire.org\/Linking\u0022 xmlns:hwp=\u0022http:\/\/schema.highwire.org\/Journal\u0022 l:ref-type=\u0022journal\u0022 hwp:journal=\u0022jneuro\u0022 hwp:volume=\u002229\u0022 hwp:issue=\u002239\u0022 hwp:article=\u002212355\u0022 hwp:fragment=\u0022T1\u0022 l:sub-ref=\u0022graphic-7\u0022 l:type=\u0022image\/*\u0022 class=\u0022graphic\u0022 alt=\u0022Formula\u0022 src=\u0022T1\/embed\/graphic-7.gif\u0022 apath=\u0022\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/T1\/T1\/embed\/graphic-7.gif\u0022 frag-type=\u0022embed\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-7\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E50\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-8\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003En\/a\u003C\/td\u003E\u003C\/tr\u003E\u003Ctr id=\u0022tr-3\u0022\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-9\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-CCAP\u003C\/sub\u003E\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022char\u0022 char=\u0022.\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-10\u0022 class=\u0022table-char\u0022\u003E0.2\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022char\u0022 char=\u0022.\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-11\u0022 class=\u0022table-char\u0022\u003E0\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-12\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022disp-formula\u0022 id=\u0022disp-formula-8\u0022\u003E\u003Cimg xmlns:l=\u0022http:\/\/schema.highwire.org\/Linking\u0022 xmlns:hwp=\u0022http:\/\/schema.highwire.org\/Journal\u0022 l:ref-type=\u0022journal\u0022 hwp:journal=\u0022jneuro\u0022 hwp:volume=\u002229\u0022 hwp:issue=\u002239\u0022 hwp:article=\u002212355\u0022 hwp:fragment=\u0022T1\u0022 l:sub-ref=\u0022graphic-8\u0022 l:type=\u0022image\/*\u0022 class=\u0022graphic\u0022 alt=\u0022Formula\u0022 src=\u0022T1\/embed\/graphic-8.gif\u0022 apath=\u0022\/jneuro\/29\/39\/12355\/T1\/T1\/embed\/graphic-8.gif\u0022 frag-type=\u0022embed\u0022\/\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-13\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E50\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-14\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003En\/a\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-15\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003En\/a\u003C\/td\u003E\u003Ctd align=\u0022left\u0022 rowspan=\u00221\u0022 colspan=\u00221\u0022 id=\u0022td-16\u0022 class=\u0022table-left\u0022\u003E1\u003C\/td\u003E\u003C\/tr\u003E\u003C\/tbody\u003E\u003C\/table\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\u0022table-foot\u0022\u003E\u003Cul class=\u0022table-footnotes\u0022\u003E\u003Cli class=\u0022fn\u0022 id=\u0022fn-2\u0022\u003E\u003Cp id=\u0022p-21\u0022\u003EThe values used for \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-MCN1\u003C\/sub\u003E and \u003Cem\u003EI\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003EMI-CCAP\u003C\/sub\u003E in the computational model of the MCN1-elicited gastric mill rhythm. The other model parameters were unchanged from previous studies (\u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-39-2\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022\u003ENadim et al., 1998\u003C\/a\u003E; \u003Ca id=\u0022xref-ref-6-3\u0022 class=\u0022xref-bibr\u0022\u003EBeenhakker et al., 2005\u003C\/a\u003E). \u003Cem\u003EG\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Emax\u003C\/sub\u003E, Conductance value at maximum activation; \u003Cem\u003EE\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Erev\u003C\/sub\u003E, reversal potential; \u003Cem\u003Em\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Einf\u003C\/sub\u003E, steady-state activation curve; \u003Cem\u003Em\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Etau\u003C\/sub\u003E, activation time constant; \u003Cem\u003Em\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Epostinf\u003C\/sub\u003E, steady-state activation curve for the postsynaptic voltage dependence; \u003Cem\u003Em\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Eposttau\u003C\/sub\u003E, activation time constant for the postsynaptic voltage dependence; \u003Cem\u003Em\u003C\/em\u003E\u003Csub\u003Epower\u003C\/sub\u003E, integer power of the activation variable \u003Cem\u003Em\u003C\/em\u003E; n\/a, not relevant to computation. Parameter names are derived from the nomenclature used in the Network modeling software, which was used to perform all simulations (\u003Ca href=\u0022http:\/\/stg.rutgers.edu\/software\/network.htm\u0022\u003Ehttp:\/\/stg.rutgers.edu\/software\/network.htm\u003C\/a\u003E).\u003C\/p\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022highwire-journal-article-marker-end\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cspan class=\u0022related-urls\u0022\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E\u003C\/div\u003E \u003C\/div\u003E\n\n \n \u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E\n \u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E\n\u003C\/div\u003E\u003Cscript type=\u0022text\/javascript\u0022 src=\u0022https:\/\/www.jneurosci.org\/sites\/default\/files\/js\/js_hZg96SP9gBcOluDp2mGc57d8sP8uJ7g8P_JYsCISOgQ.js\u0022\u003E\u003C\/script\u003E\n\u003C\/body\u003E\u003C\/html\u003E"}
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Health agencies deny reports of US-funded monkeypox 'biolabs' in Nigeria – and (still) no Russian request for WHO investigation - Africa Check
“Four US biolabs operate in Nigeria, where monkeypox came from,” reads a headline on the Tass website, in an article dated 27 May 2022. It credits the infor...
Health agencies deny reports of US-funded monkeypox 'biolabs' in Nigeria – and (still) no Russian request for WHO investigation
“Four US biolabs operate in Nigeria, where monkeypox came from,” reads a headline on the Tass website, in an article dated 27 May 2022. It credits the information to Igor Kirillov, head of the Russian defence ministry’s “Nuclear, Chemical and Biological Protection troops”.
Tass is a news agency owned by the Russian state . Since Russia’s 24 February invasion of Ukraine, most independent news sources inside Russia have been shut down . This has left news reporting in the hands of state-owned or state-controlled outlets such as Tass.
“According to the WHO, the monkeypox pathogen strain was imported from Nigeria, where the US deployed its biological infrastructure,” the article reads . The WHO is the World Health Organization .
Tass quotes Kirillov as saying: “According to the available information, at least four US-controlled biolaboratories operate in Nigeria.” He adds that this is a “strange coincidence that requires additional inspection by specialists”.
In another Tass article posted on the same day , Kirillov says the US-funded biolabs are in the Nigerian cities of Abuja, Zaria and Lagos.
Russia has called on the WHO to investigate the labs, he says, “against the background of numerous cases of US violations of biosafety requirements and facts of negligent storage of pathogenic biomaterials”.
The claims were reportedly also published by Sputnik News , another state-owned Russian news agency. But Africa Check has been unable to access its website.
What is monkeypox?
Monkeypox is a disease endemic – mainly found – in the tropical rainforest areas of central and west Africa. It is a viral disease, and zoonotic . This means it is caused by a virus that can be passed from animals, such as rodents, to people.
Symptoms of monkeypox include a fever, headache and aches in the muscles and back, swollen lymph nodes, shivering, and tiredness.
A few days after the fever, a rash appears on the face, hands and feet. The rash can then spread to other parts of the body. It eventually forms scabs, which then drop off. The disease can last for two to four weeks. In areas where it’s endemic, monkeypox is said to be fatal in one in 10 cases.
In May, several cases of monkeypox were found in 12 countries – including the USA, UK and Australia – where it isn’t endemic. By 21 May, 92 laboratory confirmed cases, and 28 suspected cases with ongoing investigations, had been reported to the WHO from the 12 countries.
And from 1 January to 29 May a total of 21 confirmed cases with one death were reported in Nigeria, one of the countries where monkeypox is endemic.
But are there really “ at least four US-controlled biolaboratories” producing monkeypox in Nigeria? And has Russia asked the WHO to investigate the labs?
Nigeria’s disease control centre responds
Four days after the Tass articles, on 31 May, Nigeria Centre for Disease Control director-general Ifedayo Adetifa released a statement debunking Russia’s claims.
“ Nigeria has no laboratories where monkeypox virus is generated,” he says in the statement , adding that the claims are “not backed by any evidence”.
“The designation and activities of Nigerian public health laboratories are known to the supervising authorities.” Most of the labs were funded and set up by the federal government “for diagnostic purposes, in response to the Covid-19 pandemic and other infectious diseases”.
He says Nigeria “welcomes scientific cooperation with all foreign countries”, and has “ received material support from the United Kingdom, Germany, Japan etc, and also discussed vaccine production with Russia”.
As for US funding, Adetifa says collaboration between Nigeria and the US has “provided opportunities for technical assistance, capacity building and provision of equipment and field hospitals at the peak of the Covid-19 pandemic”. The US has also funded health programmes for HIV and Aids, and malaria elimination.
‘Falsehoods’ detract from public health work – US consulate
On 30 May the US consulate in Nigeria also issued a statement , dismissing Russia’s claims as “ pure fabrication”.
“ These falsehoods detract from the work that the United States, in close coordination with Nigerian and multilateral partners, accomplish together on public health, including in disease surveillance, diagnosis, prevention, and control,” it reads.
The statement points out that monkeypox “is not a new disease, nor is it unique to Nigeria or this region”.
It says US government agencies working in Nigeria – such as the CDC and USAid – have “supported both national and state laboratories with technical assistance and funding”.
But the labs “are Nigerian, and US support enables them to provide essential services for the public good and the health of Nigeria’s citizens”.
WHO hasn’t received any request from Russia
And in a press briefing on 2 June, the WHO said the organisation hadn’t received any request from Russia to investigate “ US biolabs ” in Nigeria.
“We are aware of media reports on this question,” Matshidiso Moeti, WHO regional director for Africa, told journalists .
“We are not aware of WHO having received any request from the Russian government to investigate monkeypox and other laboratories in Nigeria.”
She added that US institutions and their international partners “have really supported the building up of laboratories in the African region”, especially during the Covid pandemic.
“So far, as far as I know, we have not received such a request from Russia. And I’m certain that when and if it is received, it will be given its proper attention.”
| https://africacheck.org/fact-checks/meta-programme-fact-checks/health-agencies-deny-reports-us-funded-monkeypox-biolabs |
Facts about "Casablanca" : Classic Movie Hub (CMH)
Browse Fun Facts and Trivia about at Classic Movie Hub (CMH).
Casablanca
"As Time Goes By" was written by lifelong bachelor Herman Hupfeld and debuted in 1931's Broadway show "Everybody's Welcome", sung by Frances Williams , It had been a personal favorite of playwright and high school teacher Murray Burnett who, seven years later, visited Vienna just after the Nazis had entered. Later, after visiting a café in south France where a black pianist had entertained a mixed crowd of Nazis, French and refugees, Burnett was inspired to write the melodrama "Everybody Comes to Rick's", which was optioned for production by Martin Gabel and Carly Wharton , and later, Warners. After the film's release, "As Time Goes By" stayed on radio's "Hit Parade" for 21 weeks. However, because of the coincidental musicians' union recording ban, the 1931 Rudy Vallee version became the smash hit. (It contains the rarely-sung introductory verse, not heard in the film.) Max Steiner , in a 1943 interview, admitted that the song "must have had something to attract so much attention".
"Here's looking at you, kid" was improvised by
Humphrey Bogart
in the Parisian scenes and worked so well that it was used later on again in the film. He originally used the same line in
Midnight
. It is also rumored that during breaks,
Ingrid Bergman
"Rick's Café Américain" was modeled after Hotel El Minzah in Tangiers.
Humphrey Bogart had to wear platform shoes to play alongside Ingrid Bergman .
Humphrey Bogart
,
Ingrid Bergman
and
Paul Henreid
later reprised their roles for a radio performance of on the CBS radio program "The Screen Guild Players", a war benefit show on April 26, 1943.
Humphrey Bogart
's wife
Mayo Methot
continually accused him of having an affair with
Ingrid Bergman
, often confronting him in his dressing room before a shot. Bogart would come onto the set in a rage. In fact, despite the undeniable on-screen chemistry between Bogart and Bergman, they hardly spoke, and the only time they bonded was when the two had lunch with
Geraldine Fitzgerald
. According to Fitzgerald, "the whole subject at lunch was how they could get out of that movie. They thought the dialogue was ridiculous and the situations were unbelievable... I knew Bogart very well, and I think he wanted to join forces with Bergman, to make sure they both said the same things." For whatever reasons, Bogart and Bergman rarely spoke after that.
S.Z. Sakall , who plays the maitre d' at Rick's Cafe, actually has more screen time than Peter Lorre or Sydney Greenstreet .
Madeleine Lebeau
, who plays Yvonne, and
Marcel Dalio
, who plays croupier Emil, were husband and wife at the time of filming. They had not long before escaped the Nazis by fleeing their native France.
Dooley Wilson
(Sam) was a professional drummer who faked playing the piano. As the music was recorded at the same time as the film, the piano playing was actually a recording of a performance by
Elliot Carpenter
who was playing behind a curtain but who was positioned such that Dooley could watch, and copy, his hand movements.
Dooley Wilson was borrowed from Paramount at $500 a week.
Dooley Wilson was, in fact, the only member of the cast to have ever actually visited the city of Casablanca.
Joy Page
, who played the young Bulgarian wife, was the stepdaughter of studio head
Jack L. Warner
. She,
Humphrey Bogart
and
Dooley Wilson
were the only American-born people in the credited cast. This film was her debut.
Hal B. Wallis didn't want Humphrey Bogart wearing a hat too often in the film, as he thought it made Bogart look like a gangster.
Hal B. Wallis 's first choice for director was William Wyler .
Sydney Greenstreet
wanted to wear something more ethnic to show that his character had assimilated into the Moroccan lifestyle. This idea was nixed by producer
Hal B. Wallis
who insisted that he wear his now-iconic white suit.
Ingrid Bergman and Paul Henreid make their first appearance 24 minutes into the film.
Ingrid Bergman
considered her left side as her better side, and to the extent possible that was the side photographed throughout the film, so she is almost always on the right side of the screen looking towards the left regardless of who is in the shot with her. However, there are several shots where she is to the left and
Humphrey Bogart
is on the right, including the flashbacks to the street scene in Paris (0:41:50) and the scene at the window (0:43:40). There are also several scenes where Bergman is centered between
Paul Henreid
and Bogart, suggesting the triangle nature of their relationship; in these shots Henreid is usually to the left and Bogart is usually on the right, including the scene where she and Henreid enter the café at just before the famous "Battle of the Anthems" (1:07:40); the scene where Captain Renault arrests Victor Laszlo (1:34:00); and at the end of the final airport scene (1:39:00).
Ingrid Bergman 's contract was owned by producer David O. Selznick , and producer Hal B. Wallis sent the film's writers, Philip G. Epstein and Julius J. Epstein , to persuade Selznick to loan her to Warner Bros. for the picture. After 20 minutes of describing the plot to Selznick, Julius gave up and said, "Oh, what the hell! It's a lot of shit like Algiers !" Selznick nodded and agreed to the loan.
Ingrid Bergman
's line "Victor Laszlo is my husband, and was, even when I knew you in Paris" was almost cut from the film because during that time it was deemed inappropriate for a film to depict or suggest a woman romancing with another man if she were already married. However, it was pointed out that later in the film she explains that she had thought Laszlo was dead at the time, and the censors allowed the line to stay in.
Howard Hawks
had said in interviews that he was supposed to direct
Casablanca
and
Michael Curtiz
was supposed to direct
Sergeant York
. The directors had lunch together, where Hawks said he didn't know how to make this "musical comedy", while Curtiz didn't know anything about "those hill people." They switched projects. Hawks struggled on how to direct the scenes that involved singing, namely the "La Marseillaise" scene. It is ironic to note that most of his other films involved at least one singing scene.
error
| https://www.classicmoviehub.com/facts-and-trivia/film/casablanca-1942/?lv=true%2Fpage%2F5%2F%2Fpage%2F1%2F%2Fpage%2F6%2F%2Fpage%2F1%2F%2Fpage%2F5%2F%2Fpage%2F5%2F |
BYRD v. SAND CANYON CORPO | No. CIV. S-10-1914... | 20101008721| Leagle.com
ORDER GREGORY G. HOLLOWS Magistrate Judge. Plaintiff proceeding in this action pro se has requested leave to proceed...20101008721
BYRD v. SAND CANYON CORPORATION
No. CIV. S-10-1914 MCE GGH PS.
View Case
Cited Cases
MONICA L. BYRD, Plaintiff,
v.
SAND CANYON CORPORATION, et al., Defendants.
United States District Court, E.D. California. https://leagle.com/images/logo.png
October 7, 2010.
October 7, 2010.
United States District Court, E.D. California.
ORDER
GREGORY G. HOLLOWS, Magistrate Judge.
Plaintiff, proceeding in this action pro se, has requested leave to proceed in forma pauperis pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1915. This proceeding was referred to this court by Local Rule 72-302(21), pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 636(b)(1).
Plaintiff has submitted an affidavit making the showing required by 28 U.S.C. § 1915(a)(1). Accordingly, the request to proceed in forma pauperis will be granted.
The determination that plaintiff may proceed in forma pauperis does not complete the required inquiry. Pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1915(e)(2), the court is directed to dismiss the case at any time if it determines the allegation of poverty is untrue, or if the action is frivolous or malicious, fails to state a claim on which relief may be granted, or seeks monetary relief against an immune defendant.
A claim is legally frivolous when it lacks an arguable basis either in law or in fact.
Neitzke v. Williams
,
490 U.S. 319
, 325 (1989);
Franklin v. Murphy
,
745 F.2d 1221
, 1227-28 (9th Cir. 1984). The court may, therefore, dismiss a claim as frivolous where it is based on an indisputably meritless legal theory or where the factual contentions are clearly baseless.
Neitzke
, 490 U.S. at 327. The critical inquiry is whether a constitutional claim, however inartfully pleaded, has an arguable legal and factual basis.
See
Jackson v. Arizona
,
885 F.2d 639
, 640 (9th Cir. 1989);
Franklin
, 745 F.2d at 1227.
A complaint must contain more than a "formulaic recitation of the elements of a cause of action;" it must contain factual allegations sufficient to "raise a right to relief above the speculative level."
Bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly
, 550 U.S. 544,
127 S.Ct. 1955
, 1965 (2007). "The pleading must contain something more...than...a statement of facts that merely creates a suspicion [of] a legally cognizable right of action."
Id.
, quoting 5 C. Wright & A. Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure 1216, pp. 235-235 (3d ed. 2004). "[A] complaint must contain sufficient factual matter, accepted as true, to `state a claim to relief that is plausible on its face.'"
Ashcroft v. Iqbal
, ___ U.S.___,
129 S.Ct. 1937
, 1949 (2009) (quoting
Twombly
, 550 U.S. at 570,
127 S.Ct. 1955
). "A claim has facial plausibility when the plaintiff pleads factual content that allows the court to draw the reasonable inference that the defendant is liable for the misconduct alleged."
Id.
Pro se pleadings are liberally construed.
See
Haines v. Kerner
,
404 U.S. 519
, 520-21, 92 S.Ct. 594, 595-96 (1972);
Balistreri v. Pacifica Police Dep't.
,
901 F.2d 696
, 699 (9th Cir. 1988). Unless it is clear that no amendment can cure the defects of a complaint, a pro se plaintiff proceeding in forma pauperis is entitled to notice and an opportunity to amend before dismissal.
See
Noll v. Carlson
,
809 F.2d 1446
, 1448 (9th Cir. 1987);
Franklin
, 745 F.2d at 1230.
Plaintiff alleges, in part, claims under the Truth in Lending Act ("TILA") and the Real Estate Settlement Procedures Act ("RESPA") arising out of plaintiff's refinancing of her mortgage. The complaint alleges that plaintiff "was solicited around May 2005 by Viking Mortgage with a convincing offer through Option One Mortgage to reduce the mortgage payment." Plaintiff refers to the closing of that refinancing agreement but does not state when it occurred. (Compl. ¶ 23.) This action was filed July 20, 2010.
It appears plaintiff's claims may be barred by the statute of limitations if the refinancing referred to was effectuated near the time that plaintiff was solicited. The TILA cause of action would be barred by the one year statute of limitation (15 U.S.C. § 1640(e)) and any claim for rescission would be similarly barred by the three year statute (15 U.S.C. § 1635(f)). The claims under RESPA would be barred by the one year statute of limitation provided under 12 U.S.C. § 2614. Because it appears plaintiff's claims are time barred and she has not alleged the date that the mortgage at issue was refinanced, the amended complaint will be dismissed. However, leave to amend will be granted. If plaintiff can allege a claim that is not time barred, consonant with her obligations under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 11, then she may file an amended complaint.
Plaintiff's claims for breach of trust under 18 U.S.C. § 1033 and for "false public recordings," (procuring or offering false or forged instrument for record), under Cal. Penal Code § 115 must fail because criminal statutes do not provide a private right of action.
See
, e.g.,
Ellis v. City of San Diego
,
176 F.3d 1183
, 1189 (9th Cir.1999) (district court properly dismissed claims brought under the California Penal Code because the statutes do not create enforceable individual rights). It is also well established that private actions are maintainable under federal criminal statutes in only very limited circumstances.
Cort v. Ash
,
422 U.S. 66
, 79, 95 S.Ct. 2080, 2088 (1975);
Bass Angler Sportsman Soc. v. United States Steel Corp.
,
324 F.Supp. 412
, 415 (S.D.Ala.1971),
citing
United States v. Claflin
,
97 U.S. 546
, 24 L.Ed. 1082 (1878);
United States v. Jourden
, 193 F. 986 (9th Cir.1912). If plaintiff chooses to amend her complaint, she must eliminate these criminal statutes which do not provide a private right of action, or these claims will be dismissed.
In regard to the claim for "U.S. mail fraud" under 39 U.S.C. § 3005(a), there appears to be no private right of action under this statute which provides for the Postal Service to intercept and return mail.
Rhodes v. Consumers' Buyline, Inc.
,
868 F.Supp. 368
, 378-79 (D. Mass. 1993). Furthermore, proceedings under this statute must first be brought before administrative agencies, not this court.
Top Choice Distributors, Inc. v. U.S. Postal Service
, 138 F.3d 463, 465 (2
nd
Cir. 1998);
857 F.2d 989
, 992 (5
th
Cir. 1988). If plaintiff continues to raise this claim in her amended complaint, it will most likely be dismissed.
Plaintiff is informed that the court cannot refer to a prior pleading in order to make plaintiff's amended complaint complete. Local Rule 220 requires that an amended complaint be complete in itself without reference to any prior pleading. This is because, as a general rule, an amended complaint supersedes the original complaint.
See
Loux v. Rhay
,
375 F.2d 55
, 57 (9th Cir. 1967). Once plaintiff files an amended complaint, the original pleading no longer serves any function in the case. Therefore, in an amended complaint, as in an original complaint, each claim and the involvement of each defendant must be sufficiently alleged.
Good cause appearing, IT IS ORDERED that:
1. Plaintiff's request for leave to proceed in forma pauperis is granted.
2. Plaintiff's complaint is dismissed for the reasons discussed above, with leave to file an amended complaint within twenty-eight (28) days from the date of service of this Order. Failure to file an amended complaint will result in a recommendation that this action be dismissed.
3. Upon filing an amended complaint or expiration of the time allowed therefor, the court will make further orders for service of process upon some or all of the defendants.
| https://www.leagle.com/decision/infdco20101008721 |
Lipoma Arborescens of the Peroneus Longus and Peroneus Brevis Tendon Sheath in: Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association Volume 99 Issue 2 (2009)
Lipoma arborescens is an uncommon pseudotumoral synovial lesion usually located in the suprapatellar pouch of the knee. Lipoma arborescens involving the synovial sheaths of the tendons is exceedingly rare. This diagnosis should be considered, particularly in patients with chronic joint effusion. We report a case with lipoma arborescens affecting the synovial sheaths of the peroneal tendons without involvement of the adjacent ankle joint. To our knowledge, this is the second reported case of lipoma arborescens involving tenosynovial sheaths of tendons arround the ankle joint without ankle joint involvment. (J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 99(2): 153–156, 2009)
ISSN:
8750-7315
References
1
Hallel T, Lew S, Bansal M: Villous lipomatous proliferation of the synovial membrane (lipoma arborescens) . . J Bone Joint Surg Am 70 :: 264 . , 1988 . .
Hallel T, Lew S, Bansal M: Villous lipomatous proliferation of the synovial membrane (lipoma arborescens)
. .
J Bone Joint Surg Am
70
::
264
. ,
1988
. .
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2
Martinez D, Millner PA, Coral A, et al: Case report: synovial lipoma arborescens . . Skeletal Radiol 21 :: 393 . , 1992 . .
Martinez D, Millner PA, Coral A, et al: Case report: synovial lipoma arborescens
. .
17901145
16
Murphey MD, Carroll JF, Flemming DJ, et al: From the archives of the AFIP: benign musculoskeletal lipomatous lesions . . Radiographics 24 :: 1433 . , 2004 . .
Murphey MD, Carroll JF, Flemming DJ, et al: From the archives of the AFIP: benign musculoskeletal lipomatous lesions
. .
Radiographics
24
17
Marui T, Yamamoto T, Kimura T, et al: A true intra-articular lipoma of the knee in a girl . . Arthroscopy 18 :: E24 . , 2002 . .
18
Armstrong SJ, Watt I: Lipoma arborescens of the knee . . Br J Radiol 62 :: 178 . , 1989 . .
Armstrong SJ, Watt I: Lipoma arborescens of the knee
. .
Br J Radiol
62
1989
. .
19
Feller JF, Rishi M, Hughes EC: Lipoma arborescens of the knee: MR demonstration . . Am J Roentgenol 163 :: 162 . , 1994 . .
Feller JF, Rishi M, Hughes EC: Lipoma arborescens of the knee: MR demonstration
. .
Am J Roentgenol
163
::
20
Vilanova JC, Barcelo J, Villalon M, et al: MR imaging of lipoma arborescens and the associated lesions . . Skeletal Radiol 32 :: 504 . , 2003 . .
Vilanova JC, Barcelo J, Villalon M, et al: MR imaging of lipoma arborescens and the associated lesions
[5] Gupta, Pushpender, Potti, Tommy A., Wuertzer, Scott D., Lenchik, Leon, and Pacholke, David A., 2016, "Spectrum of Fat-containing Soft-Tissue Masses at MR Imaging: The Common, the Uncommon, the Characteristic, and the Sometimes Confusing" RadioGraphics Vol. 36, No. 3, pp 753, 1527-1323 Crossref
[6] Wang, Wilbur, Linda, Dorota D., Fliszar, Evelyne, Kulidjian, Anna A., and Huang, Brady K., 2017, "Isolated peroneal tenosynovial lipoma arborescens: multimodality imaging features" Skeletal Radiology Vol. 46, No. 10, pp 1441, 1432-2161 Crossref
[7] Minami, Shinji, Miyake, Yusuke, and Kinoshita, Hirofumi, 2016, "Lipoma arborescens arising in the extra-articular bursa of the knee joint" SICOT-J Vol. 2, pp 28, 2426-8887 Crossref
[9] De Vleeschhouwer, M., Van Den Steen, E., Vanderstraeten, G., Huysse, W., De Neve, J., and Vanden Bossche, L., 2016, "Lipoma Arborescens: Review of an Uncommon Cause for Swelling of the Knee" Case Reports in Orthopedics Vol. 2016, pp 1, 2090-6757 Crossref
[10] Mohey, Nesreen and Hassan, Tamir A., 2020, "Feasibility of MRI in diagnosis and characterization of intra-articular synovial masses and mass-like lesions" Egyptian Journal of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine Vol. 51, No. 1, 2090-4762 Crossref
Article Type:
Clinically Speaking
Online Publication Date:
Lipoma Arborescens of the Peroneus Longus and Peroneus Brevis Tendon Sheath
Case Report
Yunus Dogramaci
Yunus Dogramaci Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Mustafa Kemal University, Tayfur Atasokmen tip Fakultesi, Antakya, Hatay, Turkey.
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MD
,
Aydiner Kalaci
Aydiner Kalaci Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Mustafa Kemal University, Tayfur Atasokmen tip Fakultesi, Antakya, Hatay, Turkey.
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Teoman Toni Sevinç
Teoman Toni Sevinç Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Mustafa Kemal University, Tayfur Atasokmen tip Fakultesi, Antakya, Hatay, Turkey.
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Esin Atik
Esin Atik Department of Pathology, Mustafa Kemal University, Faculty of Medicine, Antakya, Hatay, Turkey.
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,
Erdinc Esen
Erdinc Esen Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Gazi University Faculty of Medicine, Bahcelievler, Ankara, Turkey.
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, and
Ahmet Nedim Yanat
Ahmet Nedim Yanat Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Mustafa Kemal University, Tayfur Atasokmen tip Fakultesi, Antakya, Hatay, Turkey.
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DOI:
https://doi.org/10.7547/0980153
USD$35.00
Lipoma arborescens is an uncommon pseudotumoral synovial lesion usually located in the suprapatellar pouch of the knee. Lipoma arborescens involving the synovial sheaths of the tendons is exceedingly rare. This diagnosis should be considered, particularly in patients with chronic joint effusion. We report a case with lipoma arborescens affecting the synovial sheaths of the peroneal tendons without involvement of the adjacent ankle joint. To our knowledge, this is the second reported case of lipoma arborescens involving tenosynovial sheaths of tendons arround the ankle joint without ankle joint involvment. (J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 99(2): 153–156, 2009)
Corresponding author:Yunus Dogramaci, MD, Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Mustafa Kemal University, Tayfur Atasokmen tip Fakultesi, Antakya, Hatay 31100, Turkey. (E-mail:yunus_latif@yahoo.com)
| https://japmaonline.org/view/journals/apms/99/2/0980153.xml |
Minton v. Cavaney - California - Case Law - VLEX 888058733
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Minton v. Cavaney
Court United States State Supreme Court (California) Writing for the Court TRAYNOR; SCHAUER; McCOMB Citation 15 Cal.Rptr. 641,56 Cal.2d 576,364 P.2d 473 Parties , 364 P.2d 473 William MINTON et al., Plaintiffs and Respondents, v. Maude N. CAVANEY, as Executrix, etc., Defendant and Appellant. * L. A. 25881. Decision Date 05 September 1961
Page 641
15 Cal.Rptr. 641
56 Cal.2d 576, 364 P.2d 473
William MINTON et al., Plaintiffs and Respondents, v. Maude N. CAVANEY, as Executrix, etc., Defendant and Appellant. *
L. A. 25881.
Supreme Court of California, In Bank.
Page 642
[364 P.2d 474] [56 Cal.2d 578] William E. McIntyre, Los Angeles, for defendant and appellant.
William M. Cavaney, in pro. per., as amicus curiae on behalf of defendant and appellant.
Charles H. Manaugh and Michael K. Lanning, Beverly Hills, for plaintiffs and respondents.
TRAYNOR, Justice.
The Seminole Hot Springs Corporation, hereinafter referred to as Seminole, was duly incorporated in California on March 8, 1954. It conducted a public swimming pool that it leased from its owner. On June 24, 1954 plaintiffs' daughter drowned in the pool, and plaintiffs recovered a judgment for $10,000 against Seminole for her wrongful death. The judgment remains unsatisfied.
On January 30, 1957, plaintiffs brought the present action to hold defendant Cavaney personally liable for the judgment against Seminole. Cavaney died on May 28, 1958 and his widow, the executrix of his estate, was substituted as defendant. The trial court entered judgment for plaintiffs for $10,000.Defendant appeals.
Plaintiffs introduced evidence that Cavaney was a director and secretary and treasurer of Seminole and that on November 15, 1954, about five months after the drowning, Cavaney as secretary of Seminole and Edwin A. Kraft as president of Seminole applied for permission to issue three shares of Seminole stock, one share to be issued to Kraft, another to F. J. Wettrick and the third to Cavaney. The commissioner of corporations refused permission to issue these shares unless additional information was furnished. The application was then abandoned and no shares were ever issued. There was also evidence that for a time Seminole used Cavaney's office to keep records and to receive mail. Before his death Cavaney answered certain interrogatories. He was asked if Seminole 'ever had any assets?' He stated that 'insofar as my own personal knowledge and belief is concerned said corporation did not have any assets.' Cavaney also stated in the return [56 Cal.2d 579] to an attempted execution that '(I)nsofar as I know, this corporation had no assets of any kind or character. The corporation was duly organized but never functioned as a corporation.'
Defendant introduced evidence that Cavaney was an attorney at law, that he was approached by Kraft and Wettrick to form Seminole, and that he was the attorney for Seminole. Plaintiffs introduced Cavaney's answer to several interroga
Page 643
tories [364 P.2d 475] that he held the post of secretary and treasurer and director in a temporary capacity and as an accommodation to his client.
Defendant contends that the evidence does not support the court's determination 1 that Cavaney is personally liable for Seminole's debts and that the 'alter ego' doctrine is inapplicable because plaintiffs failed to show that there was " (1) * * * such unity of interest and ownership that the separate personalities of the corporation and the individual no longer exist and (2) that, if the acts are treated as those of the corporation alone, an inequitable result will follow." Riddle v. Leuschner, 51 Cal.2d 574 , 580, 335 P.2d 107 , 110; Automotriz Del Golfo De California S. A. De C. V. v. Resnick, 47 Cal.2d 792 , 796, 306 P.2d 1 , 63 A.L.R.2d 1042 ; Minifie v. Rowley, 187 Cal. 481, 487, 202 P. 673.
The figurative terminology 'alter ego' and 'disregard of the corporate entity' is generally used to refer to the various situations that are an abuse of the corporate privilege. Ballantine, Corporations (rev. ed. 1946) § 122, pp. 292-293; Lattin, Corporations, p. 66; Latty, The Corporate Entity as a Solvent of Legal Problems, 34 Mich.L.Rev.597 (1936). The equitable owners of a corporation, for example, are personally liable when they treat the assets of the corporation as their own and add or withdraw capital from the corporation at will (see Riddle v. Leuschner, 51 Cal.2d 574 , 577-581, 335 P.2d 107 ; Thomson v. L. C. Roney & Co., 112 Cal.App.2d 420 , 429, 246 P.2d 1017 ); when they hold themselves out as being personally liable for the debts of the corporation (Stark v. Coker, 20 Cal.2d 839, 847, 129 P.2d 390); or when they provide inadequate capitalization and actively participate in the conduct of corporate affairs. [56 Cal.2d 580] Automotriz Del Golfo De California S. A. De C. V. v. Resnick, supra, 47 Cal.2d 792 , 796, 797, 306 P.2d 1 ; Riddle v. Leuschner, supra, 51 Cal.2d at page 580, 335 P.2d 107 ; Stark v. Coker, 20 Cal.2d 839, 846-849, 129 P.2d 390; Shafford v. Otto Sales Co. Inc., 149 Cal.App.2d 428 , 432, 308 P.2d 428 ; see Carlesimo v. Schwebel, 87 Cal.App.2d 482, 492-493, 197 P.2d 167; Ballantine, Corporations (rev. ed. 1946) § 129, pp. 302-303; Lattin, Corporations, pp. 68-72; Fuller, The Incorporated Individual: A Study of the One-Man Company, 51 Harv.L.Rev....
172 practice notes
Kerner v. Superior Court of L.A. Cnty., Nos. B233918 United States California Court of Appeals May 21, 2012 ...of law with reference to the same subject matter or transaction....” (Code Civ. Proc., § 1908, subd. (b); see Minton v. Cavaney (1961) 56 Cal.2d 576 , 581, 15 Cal.Rptr. 641, 364 P.2d 473.)b. The Existence of an Attorney–Client Relationship Does Not Establish Privity for Purposes of Collatera......
Adams v. Paul, No. S041623 United States United States State Supreme Court (California) November 22, 1995 ...is an affirmative defense that is forfeited if not appropriately invoked by the defendant. (See, e.g., Minton v. Cavaney (1961) 56 Cal.2d 576 , 581, 15 Cal.Rptr. 641, 364 P.2d 473; 5 Witkin, op. cit. supra, Pleading, § 1039, pp. 453-455.) Thus, unless the defendant properly invokes the statu......
Salton Bay Marina, Inc. v. Imperial IrrIGAtion Dist. United States California Court of Appeals September 30, 1985 ...the statute of limitations is a personal privilege and must be affirmatively asserted or it is deemed waived. (Minton v. Cavaney, (1961) 56 Cal.2d 576 , 581, 15 Cal.Rptr. 641, 364 P.2d 473; Getz v. Wallace (1965) 236 Cal.App.2d 212, 213, 45 Cal.Rptr. 910.) Since the District failed to assert......
Kerner v. Superior Court of L.A. Cnty., Nos. B233918 United States California Court of Appeals August 15, 2012 ...of law with reference to the same subject matter or transaction....” (Code Civ. Proc., § 1908, subd. (b); see Minton v. Cavaney (1961) 56 Cal.2d 576 , 581, 15 Cal.Rptr. 641, 364 P.2d 473.)b. The Existence of an Attorney–Client Relationship Does Not Establish Privity for Purposes of Collatera......
171 cases
Kerner v. Superior Court of L.A. Cnty., Nos. B233918 United States California Court of Appeals May 21, 2012 ...of law with reference to the same subject matter or transaction....” (Code Civ. Proc., § 1908, subd. (b); see Minton v. Cavaney (1961) 56 Cal.2d 576 , 581, 15 Cal.Rptr. 641, 364 P.2d 473.)b. The Existence of an Attorney–Client Relationship Does Not Establish Privity for Purposes of Collatera......
Adams v. Paul, No. S041623 United States United States State Supreme Court (California) November 22, 1995 ...is an affirmative defense that is forfeited if not appropriately invoked by the defendant. (See, e.g., Minton v. Cavaney (1961) 56 Cal.2d 576 , 581, 15 Cal.Rptr. 641, 364 P.2d 473; 5 Witkin, op. cit. supra, Pleading, § 1039, pp. 453-455.) Thus, unless the defendant properly invokes the statu......
Salton Bay Marina, Inc. v. Imperial IrrIGAtion Dist. United States California Court of Appeals September 30, 1985 ...the statute of limitations is a personal privilege and must be affirmatively asserted or it is deemed waived. (Minton v. Cavaney, (1961) 56 Cal.2d 576 , 581, 15 Cal.Rptr. 641, 364 P.2d 473; Getz v. Wallace (1965) 236 Cal.App.2d 212, 213, 45 Cal.Rptr. 910.) Since the District failed to assert......
Kerner v. Superior Court of L.A. Cnty., Nos. B233918 United States California Court of Appeals August 15, 2012 ...of law with reference to the same subject matter or transaction....” (Code Civ. Proc., § 1908, subd. (b); see Minton v. Cavaney (1961) 56 Cal.2d 576 , 581, 15 Cal.Rptr. 641, 364 P.2d 473.)b. The Existence of an Attorney–Client Relationship Does Not Establish Privity for Purposes of Collatera......
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Heart Of Darkness: The Original Edition As Published In "youth: A Narrative, And Two Other Stories" (includes The Author's Note + Youth: A Narrative + Heart Of Darkness + The End Of The Tether) [en5z1rrjqpno]
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Author: Joseph Conrad
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Joseph Conrad
Heart of Darkness: The Original Edition as published in “Youth: a Narrative, and Two Other Stories” (Includes the Author’s Note + Youth: a Narrative + Heart of Darkness + The End of the Tether)
e-artnow, 2021 EAN 4064066497934
Table of Contents
Youth: a Narrative, and Two Other Stories Author’s Note Youth Heart of Darkness Heart of Darkness/Section I Heart of Darkness/Section II Heart of Darkness/Section III The End of the Tether The End of the Tether/I The End of the Tether/II The End of the Tether/III The End of the Tether/IV The End of the Tether/V The End of the Tether/VI The End of the Tether/VII The End of the Tether/VIII The End of the Tether/IX The End of the Tether/X
The End of the Tether/XI The End of the Tether/XII The End of the Tether/XIII The End of the Tether/XIV
Youth: a Narrative, and Two Other Stories
Table of Contents
Author’s Note
The three stories in this volume lay no claim to unity of artistic purpose. The only bond between them is that of the time in which they were written. They belong to the period immediately following the publication of The Nigger of the “Narcissus,” and preceding the first conception of Nostromo, two books which it seems to me, stand apart and by themselves in the body of my work. It is also the period during which I contributed to “Maga”; a period dominated by Lord Jim and associated in my grateful memory with the late Mr William Blackwood’s encouraging and helpful kindness. “Youth” was not my first contribution to “Maga.” It was the second. But that story marks the first appearance in the world of the man Marlow, with whom my relations have grown very intimate in the course of years. The origins of that gentleman (nobody so far as I know had ever hinted that he was anything but that)—his origins have been the subject of some literary speculation of, I am glad to say, a friendly nature. One would think that I am the proper person to throw a light on the matter; but in truth I find that it isn’t so easy. It is pleasant to remember that nobody had charged him with fraudulent purposes or looked down on him as a charlatan; but apart from that he was supposed to be all sorts of things: a clever screen, a mere device, “a personator,” a familiar spirit, a whispering “dæmon.” I myself have been suspected of a meditated plan for his capture. That is not so. I made no plans. The man Marlow and I came together in the casual manner of those health-resort acquaintances which sometimes ripen into friendships. This one has ripened. For all his assertiveness in matters of opinion he is not an intrusive person. He haunts my hours of solitude, when, in silence, we lay our heads together in great comfort and harmony; but as we part at the end of a tale I am never sure that it may not be for the last time. Yet I don’t think that either of us would care much to survive the other. In his case, at any rate, his occupation would be gone and he would suffer from that extinction, because I suspect him of some vanity. I don’t mean vanity in the Solomonian sense. Of all my people he’s the one that has never been a vexation to my spirit. A most
discreet, understanding man…. Even before appearing in book-form “Youth” was very well received. It lies on me to confess at last, and this is as good a place for it as another, that I have been all my life—all my two lives—the spoiled adopted child of Great Britain and even of the Empire; for it was Australia that gave me my first command. I break out into this declaration not because of a lurking tendency to megalomania, but, on the contrary, as a man who has no very notable illusions about himself. I follow the instincts of vain-glory and humility natural to all mankind. For it can hardly be denied that it is not their own deserts that men are most proud of, but rather of their prodigious luck, of their marvellous fortune: of that in their lives for which thanks and sacrifices must be offered on the altars of the inscrutable gods. “Heart of Darkness” also received a certain amount of notice from the first; and of its origins this much may be said: it is well known that curious men go prying into all sorts of places (where they have no business) and come out of them with all kinds of spoil. This story, and one other, not in this volume, are all the spoil I brought out from the centre of Africa, where, really, I had no sort of business. More ambitious in its scope and longer in the telling, “Heart of Darkness” is quite as authentic in fundamentals as “Youth.” It is, obviously, written in another mood. I won’t characterise the mood precisely, but anybody can see that it is anything but the mood of wistful regret, of reminiscent tenderness. One more remark may be added. “Youth” is a feat of memory. It is a record of experience; but that experience, in its facts, in its inwardness and in its outward colouring, begins and ends in myself. “Heart of Darkness” is experience too; but it is experience pushed a little (and only very little) beyond the actual facts of the case for the perfectly legitimate, I believe, purpose of bringing it home to the minds and bosoms of the readers. There it was no longer a matter of sincere colouring. It was like another art altogether. That sombre theme had to be given a sinister resonance, a tonality of its own, a continued vibration that, I hoped, would hang in the air and dwell on the ear after the last note had been struck. After saying so much there remains the last tale of the book, still untouched. “The End of the Tether” is a story of sea-life in a rather special way; and the most intimate thing I can say of it is this: that having lived that life fully, amongst its men, its thoughts and sensations, I have found it possible, without the slightest misgiving, in all sincerity of heart and peace of conscience, to
conceive the existence of Captain Whalley’s personality and to relate the manner of his end. This statement acquires some force from the circumstance that the pages of that story—a fair half of the book—are also the product of experience. That experience belongs (like “Youth“‘s) to the time before I ever thought of putting pen to paper. As to its “reality,” that is for the readers to determine. One had to pick up one’s facts here and there. More skill would have made them more real and the whole composition more interesting. But here we are approaching the veiled region of artistic values which it would be improper and indeed dangerous for me to enter. I have looked over the proofs, have corrected a misprint or two, have changed a word or two—and that’s all. It is not very likely that I shall ever read “The End of the Tether” again. No more need be said. It accords best with my feelings to part from Captain Whalley in affectionate silence.
J. C. 1917.
Youth
Table of Contents “… But the Dwarf answered: No; something human is dearer to me than the wealth of all the world.” GRIMM’S TALES.
TO MY WIFE
This could have occurred nowhere but in England, where men and sea interpenetrate, so to speak—the sea entering into the life of most men, and the men knowing something or everything about the sea, in the way of amusement, of travel, or of bread-winning. We were sitting round a mahogany table that reflected the bottle, the claretglasses, and our faces as we leaned on our elbows. There was a director of companies, an accountant, a lawyer, Marlow, and myself. The director had been a Conway boy, the accountant had served four years at sea, the lawyer—a fine crusted Tory, High Churchman, the best of old fellows, the soul of honour—had been chief officer in the P. & O. service in the good old days when mail-boats were square-rigged at least on two masts, and used to come down the China Sea before a fair monsoon with stun’-sails set alow and aloft. We all began life in the merchant service. Between the five of us there was the strong bond of the sea, and also the fellowship of the craft, which no amount of enthusiasm for yachting, cruising, and so on can give, since one is only the amusement of life and the other is life itself. Marlow (at least I think that is how he spelt his name) told the story, or rather the chronicle, of a voyage: “Yes, I have seen a little of the Eastern seas; but what I remember best is my first
voyage there. You fellows know there are those voyages that seem ordered for the illustration of life, that might stand for a symbol of existence. You fight, work, sweat, nearly kill yourself, sometimes do kill yourself, trying to accomplish something—and you can’t. Not from any fault of yours. You simply can do nothing, neither great nor little—not a thing in the world—not even marry an old maid, or get a wretched 600-ton cargo of coal to its port of destination. “It was altogether a memorable affair. It was my first voyage to the East, and my first voyage as second mate; it was also my skipper’s first command. You’ll admit it was time. He was sixty if a day; a little man, with a broad, not very straight back, with bowed shoulders and one leg more bandy than the other, he had that queer twisted-about appearance you see so often in men who work in the fields. He had a nut-cracker face—chin and nose trying to come together over a sunken mouth—and it was framed in iron-grey fluffy hair, that looked like a chin strap of cotton-wool sprinkled with coal-dust. And he had blue eyes in that old face of his, which were amazingly like a boy’s, with that candid expression some quite common men preserve to the end of their days by a rare internal gift of simplicity of heart and rectitude of soul. What induced him to accept me was a wonder. I had come out of a crack Australian clipper, where I had been third officer, and he seemed to have a prejudice against crack clippers as aristocratic and high-toned. He said to me, ‘You know, in this ship you will have to work.’ I said I had to work in every ship I had ever been in. ‘Ah, but this is different, and you gentlemen out of them big ships; … but there! I dare say you will do. Join to-morrow.’ “I joined to-morrow. It was twenty-two years ago; and I was just twenty. How time passes! It was one of the happiest days of my life. Fancy! Second mate for the first time—a really responsible officer! I wouldn’t have thrown up my new billet for a fortune. The mate looked me over carefully. He was also an old chap, but of another stamp. He had a Roman nose, a snow-white, long beard, and his name was Mahon, but he insisted that it should be pronounced Mann. He was well connected; yet there was something wrong with his luck, and he had never got on. “As to the captain, he had been for years in coasters, then in the Mediterranean, and last in the West Indian trade. He had never been round the Capes. He could just write a kind of sketchy hand, and didn’t care for writing at all. Both were thorough good seamen of course, and between those two old chaps I felt like a
small boy between two grandfathers. “The ship also was old. Her name was the Judea. Queer name, isn’t it? She belonged to a man Wilmer, Wilcox—some name like that; but he has been bankrupt and dead these twenty years or more, and his name don’t matter. She had been laid up in Shadwell basin for ever so long. You may imagine her state. She was all rust, dust, grime—soot aloft, dirt on deck. To me it was like coming out of a palace into a ruined cottage. She was about 400 tons, had a primitive windlass, wooden latches to the doors, not a bit of brass about her, and a big square stern. There was on it, below her name in big letters, a lot of scroll work, with the gilt off, and some sort of a coat of arms, with the motto ‘Do or Die’ underneath. I remember it took my fancy immensely. There was a touch of romance in it, something that made me love the old thing—something that appealed to my youth! “We left London in ballast —sand ballast—to load a cargo of coal in a northern port for Bankok. Bankok! I thrilled. I had been six years at sea, but had only seen Melbourne and Sydney, very good places, charming places in their way— but Bankok! “We worked out of the Thames under canvas, with a North Sea pilot on board. His name was Jermyn, and he dodged all day long about the galley drying his handkerchief before the stove. Apparently he never slept. He was a dismal man, with a perpetual tear sparkling at the end of his nose, who either had been in trouble, or was in trouble, or expected to be in trouble—couldn’t be happy unless something went wrong. He mistrusted my youth, my common-sense, and my seamanship, and made a point of showing it in a hundred little ways. I dare say he was right. It seems to me I knew very little then, and I know not much more now; but I cherish a hate for that Jermyn to this day. “We were a week working up as far as Yarmouth Roads, and then we got into a gale—the famous October gale of twenty-two years ago. It was wind, lightning, sleet, snow, and a terrific sea. We were flying light, and you may imagine how bad it was when I tell you we had smashed bulwarks and a flooded deck. On the second night she shifted her ballast into the lee bow, and by that time we had been blown off somewhere on the Dogger Bank. There was nothing for it but go below with shovels and try to right her, and there we were in that vast hold, gloomy like a cavern, the tallow dips stuck and flickering on the beams, the gale howling above, the ship tossing about like mad on her side; there we all were,
Jermyn, the captain, everyone, hardly able to keep our feet, engaged on that gravedigger’s work, and trying to toss shovelfuls of wet sand up to windward. At every tumble of the ship you could see vaguely in the dim light men falling down with a great flourish of shovels. One of the ship’s boys (we had two), impressed by the weirdness of the scene, wept as if his heart would break. We could hear him blubbering somewhere in the shadows. “On the third day the gale died out, and by-and-by a north-country tug picked us up. We took sixteen days in all to get from London to the Tyne! When we got into dock we had lost our turn for loading, and they hauled us off to a tier where we remained for a month. Mrs. Beard (the captain’s name was Beard) came from Colchester to see the old man. She lived on board. The crew of runners had left, and there remained only the officers, one boy, and the steward, a mulatto who answered to the name of Abraham. Mrs. Beard was an old woman, with a face all wrinkled and ruddy like a winter apple, and the figure of a young girl. She caught sight of me once, sewing on a button, and insisted on having my shirts to repair. This was something different from the captains’ wives I had known on board crack clippers. When I brought her the shirts, she said: ‘And the socks? They want mending, I am sure, and John’s—Captain Beard’s—things are all in order now. I would be glad of something to do.’ Bless the old woman! She overhauled my outfit for me, and meantime I read for the first time Sartor Resartus and Burnaby‘s Ride to Khiva. I didn’t understand much of the first then; but I remember I preferred the soldier to the philosopher at the time; a preference which life has only confirmed. One was a man, and the other was either more—or less. However, they are both dead, and Mrs. Beard is dead, and youth, strength, genius, thoughts, achievements, simple hearts—all dies … . No matter. “They loaded us at last. We shipped a crew. Eight able seamen and two boys. We hauled off one evening to the buoys at the dock-gates, ready to go out, and with a fair prospect of beginning the voyage next day. Mrs. Beard was to start for home by a late train. When the ship was fast we went to tea. We sat rather silent through the meal—Mahon, the old couple, and I. I finished first, and slipped away for a smoke, my cabin being in a deck-house just against the poop. It was high water, blowing fresh with a drizzle; the double dock-gates were opened, and the steam colliers were going in and out in the darkness with their lights burning bright, a great plashing of propellers, rattling of winches, and a lot of hailing on the pier-heads. I watched the procession of head-lights gliding high and of green lights gliding low in the night, when suddenly a red gleam flashed at me,
vanished, came into view again, and remained. The fore-end of a steamer loomed up close. I shouted down the cabin, ‘Come up, quick!’ and then heard a startled voice saying afar in the dark, ‘Stop her, sir.’ A bell jingled. Another voice cried warningly, ‘We are going right into that barque, sir.’ The answer to this was a gruff ‘All right,’ and the next thing was a heavy crash as the steamer struck a glancing blow with the bluff of her bow about our fore-rigging. There was a moment of confusion, yelling, and running about. Steam roared. Then somebody was heard saying, ‘All clear, sir.’ … ‘Are you all right?’ asked the gruff voice. I had jumped forward to see the damage, and hailed back, ‘I think so.’ ‘Easy astern,’ said the gruff voice. A bell jingled. ‘What steamer is that?’ screamed Mahon. By that time she was no more to us than a bulky shadow maneuvering a little way off. They shouted at us some name—a woman’s name, Miranda or Melissa—or some such thing. ‘This means another month in this beastly hole,’ said Mahon to me, as we peered with lamps about the splintered bulwarks and broken braces. ‘But where’s the captain?’ “We had not heard or seen anything of him all that time. We went aft to look. A doleful voice arose hailing somewhere in the middle of the dock, ‘Judea ahoy!’… How the devil did he get there? … ‘Hallo!’ we shouted. ‘I am adrift in our boat without oars,’ he cried. A belated waterman offered his services, and Mahon struck a bargain with him for half-a-crown to tow our skipper alongside; but it was Mrs. Beard that came up the ladder first. They had been floating about the dock in that mizzly cold rain for nearly an hour. I was never so surprised in my life. “It appears that when he heard my shout ‘Come up,’ he understood at once what was the matter, caught up his wife, ran on deck, and across, and down into our boat, which was fast to the ladder. Not bad for a sixty-year-old. Just imagine that old fellow saving heroically in his arms that old woman—the woman of his life. He set her down on a thwart, and was ready to climb back on board when the painter came adrift somehow, and away they went together. Of course in the confusion we did not hear him shouting. He looked abashed. She said cheerfully, ‘I suppose it does not matter my losing the train now?’ ‘No, Jenny—you go below and get warm,’ he growled. Then to us: ‘A sailor has no business with a wife—I say. There I was, out of the ship. Well, no harm done this time. Let’s go and look at what that fool of a steamer smashed.’ “It wasn’t much, but it delayed us three weeks. At the end of that time, the captain being engaged with his agents, I carried Mrs. Beard’s bag to the railway-
station and put her all comfy into a third-class carriage. She lowered the window to say, ‘You are a good young man. If you see John—Captain Beard—without his muffler at night, just remind him from me to keep his throat well wrapped up.’ ‘Certainly, Mrs. Beard,’ I said. ‘You are a good young man; I noticed how attentive you are to John—to Captain—’ The train pulled out suddenly; I took my cap off to the old woman: I never saw her again … Pass the bottle. “We went to sea next day. When we made that start for Bankok we had been already three months out of London. We had expected to be a fortnight or so—at the outside. “It was January, and the weather was beautiful—the beautiful sunny winter weather that has more charm than in the summer-time, because it is unexpected, and crisp, and you know it won’t, it can’t, last long. It’s like a windfall, like a godsend, like an unexpected piece of luck. “It lasted all down the North Sea, all down Channel; and it lasted till we were three hundred miles or so to the westward of the Lizards: then the wind went round to the sou’west and began to pipe up. In two days it blew a gale. The Judea, hove to, wallowed on the Atlantic like an old candlebox. It blew day after day: it blew with spite, without interval, without mercy, without rest. The world was nothing but an immensity of great foaming waves rushing at us, under a sky low enough to touch with the hand and dirty like a smoked ceiling. In the stormy space surrounding us there was as much flying spray as air. Day after day and night after night there was nothing round the ship but the howl of the wind, the tumult of the sea, the noise of water pouring over her deck. There was no rest for her and no rest for us. She tossed, she pitched, she stood on her head, she sat on her tail, she rolled, she groaned, and we had to hold on while on deck and cling to our bunks when below, in a constant effort of body and worry of mind. “One night Mahon spoke through the small window of my berth. It opened right into my very bed, and I was lying there sleepless, in my boots, feeling as though I had not slept for years, and could not if I tried. He said excitedly— “‘You got the sounding-rod in here, Marlow? I can’t get the pumps to suck. By God! it’s no child’s play.’ “I gave him the sounding-rod and lay down again, trying to think of various things—but I thought only of the pumps. When I came on deck they were still at
it, and my watch relieved at the pumps. By the light of the lantern brought on deck to examine the sounding-rod I caught a glimpse of their weary, serious faces. We pumped all the four hours. We pumped all night, all day, all the week, —watch and watch. She was working herself loose, and leaked badly—not enough to drown us at once, but enough to kill us with the work at the pumps. And while we pumped the ship was going from us piecemeal: the bulwarks went, the stanchions were torn out, the ventilators smashed, the cabin-door burst in. There was not a dry spot in the ship. She was being gutted bit by bit. The long-boat changed, as if by magic, into matchwood where she stood in her gripes. I had lashed her myself, and was rather proud of my handiwork, which had withstood so long the malice of the sea. And we pumped. And there was no break in the weather. The sea was white like a sheet of foam, like a caldron of boiling milk; there was not a break in the clouds, no—not the size of a man’s hand—no, not for so much as ten seconds. There was for us no sky, there were for us no stars, no sun, no universe—nothing but angry clouds and an infuriated sea. We pumped watch and watch, for dear life; and it seemed to last for months, for years, for all eternity, as though we had been dead and gone to a hell for sailors. We forgot the day of the week, the name of the month, what year it was, and whether we had ever been ashore. The sails blew away, she lay broadside on under a weather-cloth, the ocean poured over her, and we did not care. We turned those handles, and had the eyes of idiots. As soon as we had crawled on deck I used to take a round turn with a rope about the men, the pumps, and the mainmast, and we turned, we turned incessantly, with the water to our waists, to our necks, over our heads. It was all one. We had forgotten how it felt to be dry. “And there was somewhere in me the thought: By Jove! this is the deuce of an adventure—something you read about; and it is my first voyage as second mate —and I am only twenty—and here I am lasting it out as well as any of these men, and keeping my chaps up to the mark. I was pleased. I would not have given up the experience for worlds. I had moments of exultation. Whenever the old dismantled craft pitched heavily with her counter high in the air, she seemed to me to throw up, like an appeal, like a defiance, like a cry to the clouds without mercy, the words written on her stern: ‘Judea, London. Do or Die.’ “O youth! The strength of it, the faith of it, the imagination of it! To me she was not an old rattle-trap carting about the world a lot of coal for a freight—to me she was the endeavour, the test, the trial of life. I think of her with pleasure, with affection, with regret—as you would think of someone dead you have loved. I shall never forget her… . Pass the bottle.
“One night when tied to the mast, as I explained, we were pumping on, deafened with the wind, and without spirit enough in us to wish ourselves dead, a heavy sea crashed aboard and swept clean over us. As soon as I got my breath I shouted, as in duty bound, ‘Keep on, boys!’ when suddenly I felt something hard floating on deck strike the calf of my leg. I made a grab at it and missed. It was so dark we could not see each other’s faces within a foot—you understand. “After that thump the ship kept quiet for a while, and the thing, whatever it was, struck my leg again. This time I caught it—and it was a saucepan. At first, being stupid with fatigue and thinking of nothing but the pumps, I did not understand what I had in my hand. Suddenly it dawned upon me, and I shouted, ‘Boys, the house on deck is gone. Leave this, and let’s look for the cook.’ “There was a deck-house forward, which contained the galley, the cook’s berth, and the quarters of the crew. As we had expected for days to see it swept away, the hands had been ordered to sleep in the cabin—the only safe place in the ship. The steward, Abraham, however, persisted in clinging to his berth, stupidly, like a mule—from sheer fright I believe, like an animal that won’t leave a stable falling in an earthquake. So we went to look for him. It was chancing death, since once out of our lashings we were as exposed as if on a raft. But we went. The house was shattered as if a shell had exploded inside. Most of it had gone overboard—stove, men’s quarters, and their property, all was gone; but two posts, holding a portion of the bulkhead to which Abraham’s bunk was attached, remained as if by a miracle. We groped in the ruins and came upon this, and there he was, sitting in his bunk, surrounded by foam and wreckage, jabbering cheerfully to himself. He was out of his mind; completely and for ever mad, with this sudden shock coming upon the fag-end of his endurance. We snatched him up, lugged him aft, and pitched him head-first down the cabin companion. You understand there was no time to carry him down with infinite precautions and wait to see how he got on. Those below would pick him up at the bottom of the stairs all right. We were in a hurry to go back to the pumps. That business could not wait. A bad leak is an inhuman thing. “One would think that the sole purpose of that fiendish gale had been to make a lunatic of that poor devil of a mulatto. It eased before morning, and next day the sky cleared, and as the sea went down the leak took up. When it came to bending a fresh set of sails the crew demanded to put back—and really there was nothing else to do. Boats gone, decks swept clean, cabin gutted, men without a stitch but what they stood in, stores spoiled, ship strained. We put her head for home, and
—would you believe it? The wind came east right in our teeth. It blew fresh, it blew continuously. We had to beat up every inch of the way, but she did not leak so badly, the water keeping comparatively smooth. Two hours’ pumping in every four is no joke—but it kept her afloat as far as Falmouth. “The good people there live on casualties of the sea, and no doubt were glad to see us. A hungry crowd of shipwrights sharpened their chisels at the sight of that carcass of a ship. And, by Jove! they had pretty pickings off us before they were done. I fancy the owner was already in a tight place. There were delays. Then it was decided to take part of the cargo out and calk her topsides. This was done, the repairs finished, cargo re-shipped; a new crew came on board, and we went out—for Bankok. At the end of a week we were back again. The crew said they weren’t going to Bankok—a hundred and fifty days’ passage—in a something hooker that wanted pumping eight hours out of the twenty-four; and the nautical papers inserted again the little paragraph: ‘Judea. Barque. Tyne to Bankok; coals; put back to Falmouth leaky and with crew refusing duty.’ “There were more delays—more tinkering. The owner came down for a day, and said she was as right as a little fiddle. Poor old Captain Beard looked like the ghost of a Geordie skipper—through the worry and humiliation of it. Remember he was sixty, and it was his first command. Mahon said it was a foolish business, and would end badly. I loved the ship more than ever, and wanted awfully to get to Bankok. To Bankok! Magic name, blessed name. Mesopotamia wasn’t a patch on it. Remember I was twenty, and it was my first second mate’s billet, and the East was waiting for me. “We went out and anchored in the outer roads with a fresh crew—the third. She leaked worse than ever. It was as if those confounded shipwrights had actually made a hole in her. This time we did not even go outside. The crew simply refused to man the windlass. “They towed us back to the inner harbour, and we became a fixture, a feature, an institution of the place. People pointed us out to visitors as ‘That ‘ere bark that’s going to Bankok—has been here six months—put back three times.’ On holidays the small boys pulling about in boats would hail, ‘Judea, ahoy!’ and if a head showed above the rail shouted, ‘Where you bound to?—Bankok?’ and jeered. We were only three on board. The poor old skipper mooned in the cabin. Mahon undertook the cooking, and unexpectedly developed all a Frenchman’s genius for preparing nice little messes. I looked languidly after the rigging. We became
citizens of Falmouth. Every shopkeeper knew us. At the barber’s or tobacconist’s they asked familiarly, ‘Do you think you will ever get to Bankok?’ Meantime the owner, the underwriters, and the charterers squabbled amongst themselves in London, and our pay went on.… Pass the bottle. “It was horrid. Morally it was worse than pumping for life. It seemed as though we had been forgotten by the world, belonged to nobody, would get nowhere; it seemed that, as if bewitched, we would have to live for ever and ever in that inner harbour, a derision and a by-word to generations of long-shore loafers and dishonest boatmen. I obtained three months’ pay and a five days’ leave, and made a rush for London. It took me a day to get there and pretty well another to come back—but three months’ pay went all the same. I don’t know what I did with it. I went to a music-hall, I believe, lunched, dined, and supped in a swell place in Regent Street, and was back to time, with nothing but a complete set of Byron’s works and a new railway rug to show for three months’ work. The boatman who pulled me off to the ship said: ‘Hallo! I thought you had left the old thing. She will never get to Bankok.’ ‘That’s all you know about it,’ I said scornfully—but I didn’t like that prophecy at all. “Suddenly a man, some kind of agent to somebody, appeared with full powers. He had grog-blossoms all over his face, an indomitable energy, and was a jolly soul. We leaped into life again. A hulk came alongside, took our cargo, and then we went into dry dock to get our copper stripped. No wonder she leaked. The poor thing, strained beyond endurance by the gale, had, as if in disgust, spat out all the oakum of her lower seams. She was recalked, new coppered, and made as tight as a bottle. We went back to the hulk and re-shipped our cargo. “Then on a fine moonlight night, all the rats left the ship. “We had been infested with them. They had destroyed our sails, consumed more stores than the crew, affably shared our beds and our dangers, and now, when the ship was made seaworthy, concluded to clear out. I called Mahon to enjoy the spectacle. Rat after rat appeared on our rail, took a last look over his shoulder, and leaped with a hollow thud into the empty hulk. We tried to count them, but soon lost the tale. Mahon said: ‘Well, well! don’t talk to me about the intelligence of rats. They ought to have left before, when we had that narrow squeak from foundering. There you have the proof how silly is the superstition about them. They leave a good ship for an old rotten hulk, where there is nothing to eat, too, the fools! … I don’t believe they know what is safe or what is good
for them, any more than you or I.’ “And after some more talk we agreed that the wisdom of rats had been grossly overrated, being in fact no greater than that of men. “The story of the ship was known, by this, all up the Channel from Land’s End to the Forelands, and we could get no crew on the south coast. They sent us one all complete from Liverpool, and we left once more—for Bankok. “We had fair breezes, smooth water right into the tropics, and the old Judea lumbered along in the sunshine. When she went eight knots everything cracked aloft, and we tied our caps to our heads; but mostly she strolled on at the rate of three miles an hour. What could you expect? She was tired—that old ship. Her youth was where mine is—where yours is—you fellows who listen to this yarn; and what friend would throw your years and your weariness in your face? We didn’t grumble at her. To us aft, at least, it seemed as though we had been born in her, reared in her, had lived in her for ages, had never known any other ship. I would just as soon have abused the old village church at home for not being a cathedral. “And for me there was also my youth to make me patient. There was all the East before me, and all life, and the thought that I had been tried in that ship and had come out pretty well. And I thought of men of old who, centuries ago, went that road in ships that sailed no better, to the land of palms, and spices, and yellow sands, and of brown nations ruled by kings more cruel than Nero the Roman and more splendid than Solomon the Jew. The old bark lumbered on, heavy with her age and the burden of her cargo, while I lived the life of youth in ignorance and hope. She lumbered on through an interminable procession of days; and the fresh gilding flashed back at the setting sun, seemed to cry out over the darkening sea the words painted on her stern, ‘Judea, London. Do or Die.’ “Then we entered the Indian Ocean and steered northerly for Java Head. The winds were light. Weeks slipped by. She crawled on, do or die, and people at home began to think of posting us as overdue. “One Saturday evening, I being off duty, the men asked me to give them an extra bucket of water or so—for washing clothes. As I did not wish to screw on the fresh-water pump so late, I went forward whistling, and with a key in my hand to unlock the forepeak scuttle, intending to serve the water out of a spare tank we
kept there. “The smell down below was as unexpected as it was frightful. One would have thought hundreds of paraffin-lamps had been flaring and smoking in that hole for days. I was glad to get out. The man with me coughed and said, ‘Funny smell, sir.’ I answered negligently, ‘It’s good for the health, they say,’ and walked aft. “The first thing I did was to put my head down the square of the midship ventilator. As I lifted the lid a visible breath, something like a thin fog, a puff of faint haze, rose from the opening. The ascending air was hot, and had a heavy, sooty, paraffiny smell. I gave one sniff, and put down the lid gently. It was no use choking myself. The cargo was on fire. “Next day she began to smoke in earnest. You see it was to be expected, for though the coal was of a safe kind, that cargo had been so handled, so broken up with handling, that it looked more like smithy coal than anything else. Then it had been wetted—more than once. It rained all the time we were taking it back from the hulk, and now with this long passage it got heated, and there was another case of spontaneous combustion. “The captain called us into the cabin. He had a chart spread on the table, and looked unhappy. He said, ‘The coast of West Australia is near, but I mean to proceed to our destination. It is the hurricane month too; but we will just keep her head for Bankok, and fight the fire. No more putting back anywhere, if we all get roasted. We will try first to stifle this ‘ere damned combustion by want of air.’ “We tried. We battened down everything, and still she smoked. The smoke kept coming out through imperceptible crevices; it forced itself through bulkheads and covers; it oozed here and there and everywhere in slender threads, in an invisible film, in an incomprehensible manner. It made its way into the cabin, into the forecastle; it poisoned the sheltered places on the deck, it could be sniffed as high as the main-yard. It was clear that if the smoke came out the air came in. This was disheartening. This combustion refused to be stifled. “We resolved to try water, and took the hatches off. Enormous volumes of smoke, whitish, yellowish, thick, greasy, misty, choking, ascended as high as the trucks. All hands cleared out aft. Then the poisonous cloud blew away, and we went back to work in a smoke that was no thicker now than that of an ordinary
factory chimney. “We rigged the force pump, got the hose along, and by-and-by it burst. Well, it was as old as the ship—a prehistoric hose, and past repair. Then we pumped with the feeble head-pump, drew water with buckets, and in this way managed in time to pour lots of Indian Ocean into the main hatch. The bright stream flashed in sunshine, fell into a layer of white crawling smoke, and vanished on the black surface of coal. Steam ascended mingling with the smoke. We poured salt water as into a barrel without a bottom. It was our fate to pump in that ship, to pump out of her, to pump into her; and after keeping water out of her to save ourselves from being drowned, we frantically poured water into her to save ourselves from being burnt. “And she crawled on, do or die, in the serene weather. The sky was a miracle of purity, a miracle of azure. The sea was polished, was blue, was pellucid, was sparkling like a precious stone, extending on all sides, all round to the horizon— as if the whole terrestrial globe had been one jewel, one colossal sapphire, a single gem fashioned into a planet. And on the luster of the great calm waters the Judea glided imperceptibly, enveloped in languid and unclean vapours, in a lazy cloud that drifted to leeward, light and slow: a pestiferous cloud defiling the splendour of sea and sky. “All this time of course we saw no fire. The cargo smoldered at the bottom somewhere. Once Mahon, as we were working side by side, said to me with a queer smile: ‘Now, if she only would spring a tidy leak—like that time when we first left the Channel—it would put a stopper on this fire. Wouldn’t it?’ I remarked irrelevantly, ‘Do you remember the rats?’ “We fought the fire and sailed the ship too as carefully as though nothing had been the matter. The steward cooked and attended on us. Of the other twelve men, eight worked while four rested. Everyone took his turn, captain included. There was equality, and if not exactly fraternity, then a deal of good feeling. Sometimes a man, as he dashed a bucketful of water down the hatchway, would yell out, ‘Hurrah for Bankok!’ and the rest laughed. But generally we were taciturn and serious—and thirsty. Oh! how thirsty! And we had to be careful with the water. Strict allowance. The ship smoked, the sun blazed… . Pass the bottle. “We tried everything. We even made an attempt to dig down to the fire. No
good, of course. No man could remain more than a minute below. Mahon, who went first, fainted there, and the man who went to fetch him out did likewise. We lugged them out on deck. Then I leaped down to show how easily it could be done. They had learned wisdom by that time, and contented themselves by fishing for me with a chain-hook tied to a broom-handle, I believe. I did not offer to go and fetch up my shovel, which was left down below. “Things began to look bad. We put the long-boat into the water. The second boat was ready to swing out. We had also another, a fourteen-foot thing, on davits aft, where it was quite safe. “Then behold, the smoke suddenly decreased. We re-doubled our efforts to flood the bottom of the ship. In two days there was no smoke at all. Everybody was on the broad grin. This was on a Friday. On Saturday no work, but sailing the ship of course was done. The men washed their clothes and their faces for the first time in a fortnight, and had a special dinner given them. They spoke of spontaneous combustion with contempt, and implied they were the boys to put out combustions. Somehow we all felt as though we each had inherited a large fortune. But a beastly smell of burning hung about the ship. Captain Beard had hollow eyes and sunken cheeks. I had never noticed so much before how twisted and bowed he was. He and Mahon prowled soberly about hatches and ventilators, sniffing. It struck me suddenly poor Mahon was a very, very old chap. As to me, I was as pleased and proud as though I had helped to win a great naval battle. O! Youth! “The night was fine. In the morning a homeward-bound ship passed us hull down,—the first we had seen for months; but we were nearing the land at last, Java Head being about 190 miles off, and nearly due north. “Next day it was my watch on deck from eight to twelve. At breakfast the captain observed, ‘It’s wonderful how that smell hangs about the cabin.’ About ten, the mate being on the poop, I stepped down on the main-deck for a moment. The carpenter’s bench stood abaft the mainmast: I leaned against it sucking at my pipe, and the carpenter, a young chap, came to talk to me. He remarked, ‘I think we have done very well, haven’t we?’ and then I perceived with annoyance the fool was trying to tilt the bench. I said curtly, ‘Don’t, Chips,’ and immediately became aware of a queer sensation, of an absurd delusion,—I seemed somehow to be in the air. I heard all round me like a pent-up breath released—as if a thousand giants simultaneously had said Phoo!—and felt a dull
concussion which made my ribs ache suddenly. No doubt about it—I was in the air, and my body was describing a short parabola. But short as it was, I had the time to think several thoughts in, as far as I can remember, the following order: ‘This can’t be the carpenter—What is it?—Some accident—Submarine volcano? —Coals, gas!—By Jove! we are being blown up—Everybody’s dead—I am falling into the after-hatch—I see fire in it.’ “The coal-dust suspended in the air of the hold had glowed dull-red at the moment of the explosion. In the twinkling of an eye, in an infinitesimal fraction of a second since the first tilt of the bench, I was sprawling full length on the cargo. I picked myself up and scrambled out. It was quick like a rebound. The deck was a wilderness of smashed timber, lying crosswise like trees in a wood after a hurricane; an immense curtain of soiled rags waved gently before me—it was the mainsail blown to strips. I thought, The masts will be toppling over directly; and to get out of the way bolted on all-fours towards the poop-ladder. The first person I saw was Mahon, with eyes like saucers, his mouth open, and the long white hair standing straight on end round his head like a silver halo. He was just about to go down when the sight of the main-deck stirring, heaving up, and changing into splinters before his eyes, petrified him on the top step. I stared at him in unbelief, and he stared at me with a queer kind of shocked curiosity. I did not know that I had no hair, no eyebrows, no eyelashes, that my young moustache was burnt off, that my face was black, one cheek laid open, my nose cut, and my chin bleeding. I had lost my cap, one of my slippers, and my shirt was torn to rags. Of all this I was not aware. I was amazed to see the ship still afloat, the poop-deck whole—and, most of all, to see anybody alive. Also the peace of the sky and the serenity of the sea were distinctly surprising. I suppose I expected to see them convulsed with horror … . Pass the bottle. “There was a voice hailing the ship from somewhere—in the air, in the sky—I couldn’t tell. Presently I saw the captain—and he was mad. He asked me eagerly, ‘Where’s the cabin-table?’ and to hear such a question was a frightful shock. I had just been blown up, you understand, and vibrated with that experience,—I wasn’t quite sure whether I was alive. Mahon began to stamp with both feet and yelled at him, ‘Good God! don’t you see the deck’s blown out of her?’ I found my voice, and stammered out as if conscious of some gross neglect of duty, ‘I don’t know where the cabin-table is.’ It was like an absurd dream. “Do you know what he wanted next? Well, he wanted to trim the yards. Very
placidly, and as if lost in thought, he insisted on having the foreyard squared. ‘I don’t know if there’s anybody alive,’ said Mahon, almost tearfully. ‘Surely,’ he said gently, ‘there will be enough left to square the foreyard.’ “The old chap, it seems, was in his own berth, winding up the chronometers, when the shock sent him spinning. Immediately it occurred to him—as he said afterwards—that the ship had struck something, and he ran out into the cabin. There, he saw, the cabin-table had vanished somewhere. The deck being blown up, it had fallen down into the lazarette of course. Where we had our breakfast that morning he saw only a great hole in the floor. This appeared to him so awfully mysterious, and impressed him so immensely, that what he saw and heard after he got on deck were mere trifles in comparison. And, mark, he noticed directly the wheel deserted and his barque off her course—and his only thought was to get that miserable, stripped, undecked, smouldering shell of a ship back again with her head pointing at her port of destination. Bankok! That’s what he was after. I tell you this quiet, bowed, bandy-legged, almost deformed little man was immense in the singleness of his idea and in his placid ignorance of our agitation. He motioned us forward with a commanding gesture, and went to take the wheel himself. “Yes; that was the first thing we did—trim the yards of that wreck! No one was killed, or even disabled, but everyone was more or less hurt. You should have seen them! Some were in rags, with black faces, like coal-heavers, like sweeps, and had bullet heads that seemed closely cropped, but were in fact singed to the skin. Others, of the watch below, awakened by being shot out from their collapsing bunks, shivered incessantly, and kept on groaning even as we went about our work. But they all worked. That crew of Liverpool hard cases had in them the right stuff. It’s my experience they always have. It is the sea that gives it—the vastness, the loneliness surrounding their dark stolid souls. Ah! Well! we stumbled, we crept, we fell, we barked our shins on the wreckage, we hauled. The masts stood, but we did not know how much they might be charred down below. It was nearly calm, but a long swell ran from the west and made her roll. They might go at any moment. We looked at them with apprehension. One could not foresee which way they would fall. “Then we retreated aft and looked about us. The deck was a tangle of planks on edge, of planks on end, of splinters, of ruined woodwork. The masts rose from that chaos like big trees above a matted undergrowth. The interstices of that mass of wreckage were full of something whitish, sluggish, stirring—of
something that was like a greasy fog. The smoke of the invisible fire was coming up again, was trailing, like a poisonous thick mist in some valley choked with dead wood. Already lazy wisps were beginning to curl upwards amongst the mass of splinters. Here and there a piece of timber, stuck upright, resembled a post. Half of a fife-rail had been shot through the foresail, and the sky made a patch of glorious blue in the ignobly soiled canvas. A portion of several boards holding together had fallen across the rail, and one end protruded overboard, like a gangway leading upon nothing, like a gangway leading over the deep sea, leading to death—as if inviting us to walk the plank at once and be done with our ridiculous troubles. And still the air, the sky—a ghost, something invisible was hailing the ship. “Someone had the sense to look over, and there was the helmsman, who had impulsively jumped overboard, anxious to come back. He yelled and swam lustily like a merman, keeping up with the ship. We threw him a rope, and presently he stood amongst us streaming with water and very crestfallen. The captain had surrendered the wheel, and apart, elbow on rail and chin in hand, gazed at the sea wistfully. We asked ourselves, What next? I thought, Now, this is something like. This is great. I wonder what will happen. O youth! “Suddenly Mahon sighted a steamer far astern. Captain Beard said, ‘We may do something with her yet.’ We hoisted two flags, which said in the international language of the sea, ‘On fire. Want immediate assistance.’ The steamer grew bigger rapidly, and by-and-by spoke with two flags on her foremast, ‘I am coming to your assistance.’ “In half an hour she was abreast, to windward, within hail, and rolling slightly, with her engines stopped. We lost our composure, and yelled all together with excitement, ‘We’ve been blown up.’ A man in a white helmet, on the bridge, cried, ‘Yes! All right! all right!’ and he nodded his head, and smiled, and made soothing motions with his hand as though at a lot of frightened children. One of the boats dropped in the water, and walked towards us upon the sea with her long oars. Four Calashes pulled a swinging stroke. This was my first sight of Malay seamen. I’ve known them since, but what struck me then was their unconcern: they came alongside, and even the bowman standing up and holding to our mainchains with the boat-hook did not deign to lift his head for a glance. I thought people who had been blown up deserved more attention. “A little man, dry like a chip and agile like a monkey, clambered up. It was the
mate of the steamer. He gave one look, and cried, ‘O boys—you had better quit.’ “We were silent. He talked apart with the captain for a time,—seemed to argue with him. Then they went away together to the steamer. “When our skipper came back we learned that the steamer was the Sommerville, Captain Nash, from West Australia to Singapore via Batavia with mails, and that the agreement was she should tow us to Anjer or Batavia, if possible, where we could extinguish the fire by scuttling, and then proceed on our voyage—to Bankok! The old man seemed excited. ‘We will do it yet,’ he said to Mahon, fiercely. He shook his fist at the sky. Nobody else said a word. “At noon the steamer began to tow. She went ahead slim and high, and what was left of the Judea followed at the end of seventy fathom of tow-rope,—followed her swiftly like a cloud of smoke with mastheads protruding above. We went aloft to furl the sails. We coughed on the yards, and were careful about the bunts. Do you see the lot of us there, putting a neat furl on the sails of that ship doomed to arrive nowhere? There was not a man who didn’t think that at any moment the masts would topple over. From aloft we could not see the ship for smoke, and they worked carefully, passing the gaskets with even turns. ‘Harbour furl—aloft there!’ cried Mahon from below. “You understand this? I don’t think one of those chaps expected to get down in the usual way. When we did I heard them saying to each other, ‘Well, I thought we would come down overboard, in a lump—sticks and all—blame me if I didn’t.’ ‘That’s what I was thinking to myself,’ would answer wearily another battered and bandaged scarecrow. And, mind, these were men without the drilled-in habit of obedience. To an onlooker they would be a lot of profane scallywags without a redeeming point. What made them do it—what made them obey me when I, thinking consciously how fine it was, made them drop the bunt of the foresail twice to try and do it better? What? They had no professional reputation—no examples, no praise. It wasn’t a sense of duty; they all knew well enough how to shirk, and laze, and dodge—when they had a mind to it—and mostly they had. Was it the two pounds ten a month that sent them there? They didn’t think their pay half good enough. No; it was something in them, something inborn and subtle and everlasting. I don’t say positively that the crew of a French or German merchantman wouldn’t have done it, but I doubt whether it would have been done in the same way. There was a completeness in it, something solid like a principle, and masterful like an instinct—a disclosure of
something secret—of that hidden something, that gift, of good or evil that makes racial difference, that shapes the fate of nations. “It was that night at ten that, for the first time since we had been fighting it, we saw the fire. The speed of the towing had fanned the smoldering destruction. A blue gleam appeared forward, shining below the wreck of the deck. It wavered in patches, it seemed to stir and creep like the light of a glowworm. I saw it first, and told Mahon. ‘Then the game’s up,’ he said. ‘We had better stop this towing, or she will burst out suddenly fore and aft before we can clear out.’ We set up a yell; rang bells to attract their attention; they towed on. At last Mahon and I had to crawl forward and cut the rope with an ax. There was no time to cast off the lashings. Red tongues could be seen licking the wilderness of splinters under our feet as we made our way back to the poop. “Of course they very soon found out in the steamer that the rope was gone. She gave a loud blast of her whistle, her lights were seen sweeping in a wide circle, she came up ranging close alongside, and stopped. We were all in a tight group on the poop looking at her. Every man had saved a little bundle or a bag. Suddenly a conical flame with a twisted top shot up forward and threw upon the black sea a circle of light, with the two vessels side by side and heaving gently in its center. Captain Beard had been sitting on the gratings still and mute for hours, but now he rose slowly and advanced in front of us, to the mizzen-shrouds. Captain Nash hailed: ‘Come along! Look sharp. I have mail-bags on board. I will take you and your boats to Singapore.’ “‘Thank you! No!’ said our skipper. ‘We must see the last of the ship.’ “‘I can’t stand by any longer,’ shouted the other. ‘Mails—you know.’ “‘Ay! ay! We are all right.’ “‘Very well! I’ll report you in Singapore… . Good-bye!’ “He waved his hand. Our men dropped their bundles quietly. The steamer moved ahead, and passing out of the circle of light, vanished at once from our sight, dazzled by the fire which burned fiercely. And then I knew that I would see the East first as commander of a small boat. I thought it fine; and the fidelity to the old ship was fine. We should see the last of her. Oh the glamour of youth! Oh the fire of it, more dazzling than the flames of the burning ship, throwing a magic light on the wide earth, leaping audaciously to the sky, presently to be quenched
by time, more cruel, more pitiless, more bitter than the sea—and like the flames of the burning ship surrounded by an impenetrable night.” “The old man warned us in his gentle and inflexible way that it was part of our duty to save for the underwriters as much as we could of the ship’s gear. According we went to work aft, while she blazed forward to give us plenty of light. We lugged out a lot of rubbish. What didn’t we save? An old barometer fixed with an absurd quantity of screws nearly cost me my life: a sudden rush of smoke came upon me, and I just got away in time. There were various stores, bolts of canvas, coils of rope; the poop looked like a marine bazaar, and the boats were lumbered to the gunwales. One would have thought the old man wanted to take as much as he could of his first command with him. He was very very quiet, but off his balance evidently. Would you believe it? He wanted to take a length of old stream-cable and a kedge-anchor with him in the long-boat. We said, ‘Ay, ay, sir,’ deferentially, and on the quiet let the thing slip overboard. The heavy medicine-chest went that way, two bags of green coffee, tins of paint —fancy, paint!—a whole lot of things. Then I was ordered with two hands into the boats to make a stowage and get them ready against the time it would be proper for us to leave the ship. “We put everything straight, stepped the long-boat’s mast for our skipper, who was in charge of her, and I was not sorry to sit down for a moment. My face felt raw, every limb ached as if broken, I was aware of all my ribs, and would have sworn to a twist in the back-bone. The boats, fast astern, lay in a deep shadow, and all around I could see the circle of the sea lighted by the fire. A gigantic flame arose forward straight and clear. It flared there, with noises like the whir of wings, with rumbles as of thunder. There were cracks, detonations, and from the cone of flame the sparks flew upwards, as man is born to trouble, to leaky ships, and to ships that burn. “What bothered me was that the ship, lying broadside to the swell and to such wind as there was—a mere breath—the boats would not keep astern where they were safe, but persisted, in a pig-headed way boats have, in getting under the counter and then swinging alongside. They were knocking about dangerously and coming near the flame, while the ship rolled on them, and, of course, there was always the danger of the masts going over the side at any moment. I and my two boat-keepers kept them off as best we could with oars and boat-hooks; but to be constantly at it became exasperating, since there was no reason why we should not leave at once. We could not see those on board, nor could we imagine
what caused the delay. The boat-keepers were swearing feebly, and I had not only my share of the work, but also had to keep at it two men who showed a constant inclination to lay themselves down and let things slide. “At last I hailed ‘On deck there,’ and someone looked over. ‘We’re ready here,’ I said. The head disappeared, and very soon popped up again. ‘The captain says, All right, sir, and to keep the boats well clear of the ship.’ “Half an hour passed. Suddenly there was a frightful racket, rattle, clanking of chain, hiss of water, and millions of sparks flew up into the shivering column of smoke that stood leaning slightly above the ship. The cat-heads had burned away, and the two red-hot anchors had gone to the bottom, tearing out after them two hundred fathom of red-hot chain. The ship trembled, the mass of flame swayed as if ready to collapse, and the fore top-gallant-mast fell. It darted down like an arrow of fire, shot under, and instantly leaping up within an oar’s-length of the boats, floated quietly, very black on the luminous sea. I hailed the deck again. After some time a man in an unexpectedly cheerful but also muffled tone, as though he had been trying to speak with his mouth shut, informed me, ‘Coming directly, sir,’ and vanished. For a long time I heard nothing but the whir and roar of the fire. There were also whistling sounds. The boats jumped, tugged at the painters, ran at each other playfully, knocked their sides together, or, do what we would, swung in a bunch against the ship’s side. I couldn’t stand it any longer, and swarming up a rope, clambered aboard over the stern. “It was as bright as day. Coming up like this, the sheet of fire facing me, was a terrifying sight, and the heat seemed hardly bearable at first. On a settee cushion dragged out of the cabin, Captain Beard, with his legs drawn up and one arm under his head, slept with the light playing on him. Do you know what the rest were busy about? They were sitting on deck right aft, round an open case, eating bread and cheese and drinking bottled stout. “On the background of flames twisting in fierce tongues above their heads they seemed at home like salamanders, and looked like a band of desperate pirates. The fire sparkled in the whites of their eyes, gleamed on patches of white skin seen through the torn shirts. Each had the marks as of a battle about him— bandaged heads, tied-up arms, a strip of dirty rag round a knee—and each man had a bottle between his legs and a chunk of cheese in his hand. Mahon got up. With his handsome and disreputable head, his hooked profile, his long white beard, and with an uncorked bottle in his hand, he resembled one of those
reckless sea-robbers of old making merry amidst violence and disaster. ‘The last meal on board,’ he explained solemnly. ‘We had nothing to eat all day, and it was no use leaving all this.’ He flourished the bottle and indicated the sleeping skipper. ‘He said he couldn’t swallow anything, so I got him to lie down,’ he went on; and as I stared, ‘I don’t know whether you are aware, young fellow, the man had no sleep to speak of for days—and there will be dam’ little sleep in the boats.’ ‘There will be no boats by-and-by if you fool about much longer,’ I said, indignantly. I walked up to the skipper and shook him by the shoulder. At last he opened his eyes, but did not move. ‘Time to leave her, sir,’ I said, quietly. “He got up painfully, looked at the flames, at the sea sparkling round the ship, and black, black as ink farther away; he looked at the stars shining dim through a thin veil of smoke in a sky black, black as Erebus. “‘Youngest first,’ he said. “And the ordinary seaman, wiping his mouth with the back of his hand, got up, clambered over the taffrail, and vanished. Others followed. One, on the point of going over, stopped short to drain his bottle, and with a great swing of his arm flung it at the fire. ‘Take this!’ he cried. “The skipper lingered disconsolately, and we left him to commune alone for awhile with his first command. Then I went up again and brought him away at last. It was time. The ironwork on the poop was hot to the touch. “Then the painter of the long-boat was cut, and the three boats, tied together, drifted clear of the ship. It was just sixteen hours after the explosion when we abandoned her. Mahon had charge of the second boat, and I had the smallest— the 14-foot thing. The long-boat would have taken the lot of us; but the skipper said we must save as much property as we could—for the underwriters—and so I got my first command. I had two men with me, a bag of biscuits, a few tins of meat, and a breaker of water. I was ordered to keep close to the long-boat, that in case of bad weather we might be taken into her. “And do you know what I thought? I thought I would part company as soon as I could. I wanted to have my first command all to myself. I wasn’t going to sail in a squadron if there were a chance for independent cruising. I would make land by myself. I would beat the other boats. Youth! All youth! The silly, charming, beautiful youth.
“But we did not make a start at once. We must see the last of the ship. And so the boats drifted about that night, heaving and setting on the swell. The men dozed, waked, sighed, groaned. I looked at the burning ship. “Between the darkness of earth and heaven she was burning fiercely upon a disc of purple sea shot by the blood-red play of gleams; upon a disc of water glittering and sinister. A high, clear flame, an immense and lonely flame, ascended from the ocean, and from its summit the black smoke poured continuously at the sky. She burned furiously, mournful and imposing like a funeral pile kindled in the night, surrounded by the sea, watched over by the stars. A magnificent death had come like a grace, like a gift, like a reward to that old ship at the end of her laborious days. The surrender of her weary ghost to the keeping of stars and sea was stirring like the sight of a glorious triumph. The masts fell just before daybreak, and for a moment there was a burst and turmoil of sparks that seemed to fill with flying fire the night patient and watchful, the vast night lying silent upon the sea. At daylight she was only a charred shell, floating still under a cloud of smoke and bearing a glowing mass of coal within. “Then the oars were got out, and the boats forming in a line moved round her remains as if in procession—the long-boat leading. As we pulled across her stern a slim dart of fire shot out viciously at us, and suddenly she went down, head first, in a great hiss of steam. The unconsumed stern was the last to sink; but the paint had gone, had cracked, had peeled off, and there were no letters, there was no word, no stubborn device that was like her soul, to flash at the rising sun her creed and her name. “We made our way north. A breeze sprang up, and about noon all the boats came together for the last time. I had no mast or sail in mine, but I made a mast out of a spare oar and hoisted a boat-awning for a sail, with a boat-hook for a yard. She was certainly over-masted, but I had the satisfaction of knowing that with the wind aft I could beat the other two. I had to wait for them. Then we all had a look at the captain’s chart, and, after a sociable meal of hard bread and water, got our last instructions. These were simple: steer north, and keep together as much as possible. ‘Be careful with that jury rig, Marlow,’ said the captain; and Mahon, as I sailed proudly past his boat, wrinkled his curved nose and hailed, ‘You will sail that ship of yours under water, if you don’t look out, young fellow.’ He was a malicious old man—and may the deep sea where he sleeps now rock him gently, rock him tenderly to the end of time!
“Before sunset a thick rain-squall passed over the two boats, which were far astern, and that was the last I saw of them for a time. Next day I sat steering my cockle-shell—my first command—with nothing but water and sky around me. I did sight in the afternoon the upper sails of a ship far away, but said nothing, and my men did not notice her. You see I was afraid she might be homeward bound, and I had no mind to turn back from the portals of the East. I was steering for Java—another blessed name—like Bankok, you know. I steered many days. “I need not tell you what it is to be knocking about in an open boat. I remember nights and days of calm when we pulled, we pulled, and the boat seemed to stand still, as if bewitched within the circle of the sea horizon. I remember the heat, the deluge of rain-squalls that kept us baling for dear life (but filled our water-cask), and I remember sixteen hours on end with a mouth dry as a cinder and a steering-oar over the stern to keep my first command head on to a breaking sea. I did not know how good a man I was till then. I remember the drawn faces, the dejected figures of my two men, and I remember my youth and the feeling that will never come back any more—the feeling that I could last for ever, outlast the sea, the earth, and all men; the deceitful feeling that lures us on to joys, to perils, to love, to vain effort—to death; the triumphant conviction of strength, the heat of life in the handful of dust, the glow in the heart that with every year grows dim, grows cold, grows small, and expires—and expires, too soon—before life itself. “And this is how I see the East. I have seen its secret places and have looked into its very soul; but now I see it always from a small boat, a high outline of mountains, blue and afar in the morning; like faint mist at noon; a jagged wall of purple at sunset. I have the feel of the oar in my hand, the vision of a scorching blue sea in my eyes. And I see a bay, a wide bay, smooth as glass and polished like ice, shimmering in the dark. A red light burns far off upon the gloom of the land, and the night is soft and warm. We drag at the oars with aching arms, and suddenly a puff of wind, a puff faint and tepid and laden with strange odors of blossoms, of aromatic wood, comes out of the still night—the first sigh of the East on my face. That I can never forget. It was impalpable and enslaving, like a charm, like a whispered promise of mysterious delight. “We had been pulling this finishing spell for eleven hours. Two pulled, and he whose turn it was to rest sat at the tiller. We had made out the red light in that bay and steered for it, guessing it must mark some small coasting port. We passed two vessels, outlandish and high-sterned, sleeping at anchor, and,
approaching the light, now very dim, ran the boat’s nose against the end of a jutting wharf. We were blind with fatigue. My men dropped the oars and fell off the thwarts as if dead. I made fast to a pile. A current rippled softly. The scented obscurity of the shore was grouped into vast masses, a density of colossal clumps of vegetation, probably—mute and fantastic shapes. And at their foot the semicircle of a beach gleamed faintly, like an illusion. There was not a light, not a stir, not a sound. The mysterious East faced me, perfumed like a flower, silent like death, dark like a grave. “And I sat weary beyond expression, exulting like a conqueror, sleepless and entranced as if before a profound, a fateful enigma. “A splashing of oars, a measured dip reverberating on the level of water, intensified by the silence of the shore into loud claps, made me jump up. A boat, a European boat, was coming in. I invoked the name of the dead; I hailed: Judea ahoy! A thin shout answered. “It was the captain. I had beaten the flagship by three hours, and I was glad to hear the old man’s voice, tremulous and tired. ‘Is it you, Marlow?’ ‘Mind the end of that jetty, sir,’ I cried. “He approached cautiously, and brought up with the deep-sea lead-line which we had saved—for the underwriters. I eased my painter and fell alongside. He sat, a broken figure at the stern, wet with dew, his hands clasped in his lap. His men were asleep already. ‘I had a terrible time of it,’ he murmured. ‘Mahon is behind —not very far.’ We conversed in whispers, in low whispers, as if afraid to wake up the land. Guns, thunder, earthquakes would not have awakened the men just then. “Looking around as we talked, I saw away at sea a bright light traveling in the night. ‘There’s a steamer passing the bay,’ I said. She was not passing, she was entering, and she even came close and anchored. ‘I wish,’ said the old man, ‘you would find out whether she is English. Perhaps they could give us a passage somewhere.’ He seemed nervously anxious. So by dint of punching and kicking I started one of my men into a state of somnambulism, and giving him an oar, took another and pulled towards the lights of the steamer. “There was a murmur of voices in her, metallic hollow clangs of the engineroom, footsteps on the deck. Her ports shone, round like dilated eyes. Shapes
moved about, and there was a shadowy man high up on the bridge. He heard my oars. “And then, before I could open my lips, the East spoke to me, but it was in a Western voice. A torrent of words was poured into the enigmatical, the fateful silence; outlandish, angry words, mixed with words and even whole sentences of good English, less strange but even more surprising. The voice swore and cursed violently; it riddled the solemn peace of the bay by a volley of abuse. It began by calling me Pig, and from that went crescendo into unmentionable adjectives—in English. The man up there raged aloud in two languages, and with a sincerity in his fury that almost convinced me I had, in some way, sinned against the harmony of the universe. I could hardly see him, but began to think he would work himself into a fit. “Suddenly he ceased, and I could hear him snorting and blowing like a porpoise. I said— “‘What steamer is this, pray?’ “‘Eh? What’s this? And who are you?’ “‘Castaway crew of an English barque burnt at sea. We came here to-night. I am the second mate. The captain is in the long-boat, and wishes to know if you would give us a passage somewhere.’ “‘Oh, my goodness! I say … This is the Celestial from Singapore on her return trip. I’ll arrange with your captain in the morning … and, … I say … did you hear me just now?’ “‘I should think the whole bay heard you.’ “‘I thought you were a shore-boat. Now, look here—this infernal lazy scoundrel of a caretaker has gone to sleep again—curse him. The light is out, and I nearly ran foul of the end of this damned jetty. This is the third time he plays me this trick. Now, I ask you, can anybody stand this kind of thing? It’s enough to drive a man out of his mind. I’ll report him… . I’ll get the Assistant Resident to give him the sack, by … See—there’s no light. It’s out, isn’t it? I take you to witness the light’s out. There should be a light, you know. A red light on the—’ “‘There was a light,’ I said, mildly.
“‘But it’s out, man! What’s the use of talking like this? You can see for yourself it’s out—don’t you? If you had to take a valuable steamer along this Godforsaken coast you would want a light too. I’ll kick him from end to end of his miserable wharf. You’ll see if I don’t. I will—’ “‘So I may tell my captain you’ll take us?’ I broke in. “‘Yes, I’ll take you. Good night,’ he said, brusquely. “I pulled back, made fast again to the jetty, and then went to sleep at last. I had faced the silence of the East. I had heard some of its languages. But when I opened my eyes again the silence was as complete as though it had never been broken. I was lying in a flood of light, and the sky had never looked so far, so high, before. I opened my eyes and lay without moving. “And then I saw the men of the East—they were looking at me. The whole length of the jetty was full of people. I saw brown, bronze, yellow faces, the black eyes, the glitter, the colour of an Eastern crowd. And all these beings stared without a murmur, without a sigh, without a movement. They stared down at the boats, at the sleeping men who at night had come to them from the sea. Nothing moved. The fronds of palms stood still against the sky. Not a branch stirred along the shore, and the brown roofs of hidden houses peeped through the green foliage, through the big leaves that hung shining and still like leaves forged of heavy metal. This was the East of the ancient navigators, so old, so mysterious, resplendent and somber, living and unchanged, full of danger and promise. And these were the men. I sat up suddenly. A wave of movement passed through the crowd from end to end, passed along the heads, swayed the bodies, ran along the jetty like a ripple on the water, like a breath of wind on a field—and all was still again. I see it now—the wide sweep of the bay, the glittering sands, the wealth of green infinite and varied, the sea blue like the sea of a dream, the crowd of attentive faces, the blaze of vivid colour—the water reflecting it all, the curve of the shore, the jetty, the high-sterned outlandish craft floating still, and the three boats with tired men from the West sleeping unconscious of the land and the people and of the violence of sunshine. They slept thrown across the thwarts, curled on bottom-boards, in the careless attitudes of death. The head of the old skipper, leaning back in the stern of the long-boat, had fallen on his breast, and he looked as though he would never wake. Farther out old Mahon’s face was upturned to the sky, with the long white beard spread out on his breast, as though he had been shot where he sat at the
tiller; and a man, all in a heap in the bows of the boat, slept with both arms embracing the stem-head and with his cheek laid on the gunwale. The East looked at them without a sound. “I have known its fascination since: I have seen the mysterious shores, the still water, the lands of brown nations, where a stealthy Nemesis lies in wait, pursues, overtakes so many of the conquering race, who are proud of their wisdom, of their knowledge, of their strength. But for me all the East is contained in that vision of my youth. It is all in that moment when I opened my young eyes on it. I came upon it from a tussle with the sea—and I was young—and I saw it looking at me. And this is all that is left of it! Only a moment; a moment of strength, of romance, of glamour—of youth! … A flick of sunshine upon a strange shore, the time to remember, the time for a sigh, and—good-bye!—Night—Good-bye …!” He drank. “Ah! The good old time—the good old time. Youth and the sea. Glamour and the sea! The good, strong sea, the salt, bitter sea, that could whisper to you and roar at you and knock your breath out of you.” He drank again. “By all that’s wonderful, it is the sea, I believe, the sea itself—or is it youth alone? Who can tell? But you here—you all had something out of life: money, love—whatever one gets on shore—and, tell me, wasn’t that the best time, that time when we were young at sea; young and had nothing, on the sea that gives nothing, except hard knocks—and sometimes a chance to feel your strength— that only—what you all regret?” And we all nodded at him: the man of finance, the man of accounts, the man of law, we all nodded at him over the polished table that like a still sheet of brown water reflected our faces, lined, wrinkled; our faces marked by toil, by deceptions, by success, by love; our weary eyes looking still, looking always, looking anxiously for something out of life, that while it is expected is already gone—has passed unseen, in a sigh, in a flash—together with the youth, with the strength, with the romance of illusions.
Heart of Darkness
Table of Contents Heart of Darkness/Section I Heart of Darkness/Section II Heart of Darkness/Section III
Heart of Darkness/Section I
The Nellie, a cruising yawl, swung to her anchor without a flutter of the sails, and was at rest. The flood had made, the wind was nearly calm, and being bound down the river, the only thing for it was to come to and wait for the turn of the tide. The sea–reach of the Thames stretched before us like the beginning of an interminable waterway. In the offing the sea and the sky were welded together without a joint, and in the luminous space the tanned sails of the barges drifting up with the tide seemed to stand still in red clusters of canvas sharply peaked, with gleams of varnished sprits. A haze rested on the low shores that ran out to sea in vanishing flatness. The air was dark above Gravesend, and farther back still seemed condensed into a mournful gloom, brooding motionless over the biggest, and the greatest, town on earth. The Director of Companies was our captain and our host. We four affectionately watched his back as he stood in the bows looking to seaward. On the whole river there was nothing that looked half so nautical. He resembled a pilot, which to a seaman is trustworthiness personified. It was difficult to realize his work was not out there in the luminous estuary, but behind him, within the brooding gloom. Between us there was, as I have already said somewhere, the bond of the sea. Besides holding our hearts together through long periods of separation, it had the effect of making us tolerant of each other’s yarns—and even convictions. The Lawyer—the best of old fellows—had, because of his many years and many virtues, the only cushion on deck, and was lying on the only rug. The Accountant had brought out already a box of dominoes, and was toying architecturally with the bones. Marlow sat cross–legged right aft, leaning against the mizzen–mast. He had sunken cheeks, a yellow complexion, a straight back, an ascetic aspect, and, with his arms dropped, the palms of hands outwards, resembled an idol. The director, satisfied the anchor had good hold, made his way aft and sat down amongst us. We exchanged a few words lazily. Afterwards there was silence on board the yacht. For some reason or other we did not begin that game of dominoes. We felt meditative, and fit for nothing but placid staring.
The day was ending in a serenity of still and exquisite brilliance. The water shone pacifically; the sky, without a speck, was a benign immensity of unstained light; the very mist on the Essex marsh was like a gauzy and radiant fabric, hung from the wooded rises inland, and draping the low shores in diaphanous folds. Only the gloom to the west, brooding over the upper reaches, became more sombre every minute, as if angered by the approach of the sun. And at last, in its curved and imperceptible fall, the sun sank low, and from glowing white changed to a dull red without rays and without heat, as if about to go out suddenly, stricken to death by the touch of that gloom brooding over a crowd of men. Forthwith a change came over the waters, and the serenity became less brilliant but more profound. The old river in its broad reach rested unruffled at the decline of day, after ages of good service done to the race that peopled its banks, spread out in the tranquil dignity of a waterway leading to the uttermost ends of the earth. We looked at the venerable stream not in the vivid flush of a short day that comes and departs for ever, but in the august light of abiding memories. And indeed nothing is easier for a man who has, as the phrase goes, “followed the sea” with reverence and affection, than to evoke the great spirit of the past upon the lower reaches of the Thames. The tidal current runs to and fro in its unceasing service, crowded with memories of men and ships it had borne to the rest of home or to the battles of the sea. It had known and served all the men of whom the nation is proud, from Sir Francis Drake to Sir John Franklin, knights all, titled and untitled—the great knights–errant of the sea. It had borne all the ships whose names are like jewels flashing in the night of time, from the Golden Hind returning with her rotund flanks full of treasure, to be visited by the Queen’s Highness and thus pass out of the gigantic tale, to the Erebus and Terror, bound on other conquests—and that never returned. It had known the ships and the men. They had sailed from Deptford, from Greenwich, from Erith—the adventurers and the settlers; kings’ ships and the ships of men on ’Change; captains, admirals, the dark “interlopers” of the Eastern trade, and the commissioned “generals” of East India fleets. Hunters for gold or pursuers of fame, they all had gone out on that stream, bearing the sword, and often the torch, messengers of the might within the land, bearers of a spark from the sacred fire. What greatness had not floated on the ebb of that river into the mystery of an unknown earth! … The dreams of men, the seed of commonwealths, the germs of empires.
The sun set; the dusk fell on the stream, and lights began to appear along the shore. The Chapman light–house, a three–legged thing erect on a mud–flat, shone strongly. Lights of ships moved in the fairway—a great stir of lights going up and going down. And farther west on the upper reaches the place of the monstrous town was still marked ominously on the sky, a brooding gloom in sunshine, a lurid glare under the stars. “And this also,” said Marlow suddenly, “has been one of the dark places of the earth.” He was the only man of us who still “followed the sea.” The worst that could be said of him was that he did not represent his class. He was a seaman, but he was a wanderer, too, while most seamen lead, if one may so express it, a sedentary life. Their minds are of the stay–at–home order, and their home is always with them—the ship; and so is their country—the sea. One ship is very much like another, and the sea is always the same. In the immutability of their surroundings the foreign shores, the foreign faces, the changing immensity of life, glide past, veiled not by a sense of mystery but by a slightly disdainful ignorance; for there is nothing mysterious to a seaman unless it be the sea itself, which is the mistress of his existence and as inscrutable as Destiny. For the rest, after his hours of work, a casual stroll or a casual spree on shore suffices to unfold for him the secret of a whole continent, and generally he finds the secret not worth knowing. The yarns of seamen have a direct simplicity, the whole meaning of which lies within the shell of a cracked nut. But Marlow was not typical (if his propensity to spin yarns be excepted), and to him the meaning of an episode was not inside like a kernel but outside, enveloping the tale which brought it out only as a glow brings out a haze, in the likeness of one of these misty halos that sometimes are made visible by the spectral illumination of moonshine. His remark did not seem at all surprising. It was just like Marlow. It was accepted in silence. No one took the trouble to grunt even; and presently he said, very slow—“I was thinking of very old times, when the Romans first came here, nineteen hundred years ago—the other day… . Light came out of this river since —you say Knights? Yes; but it is like a running blaze on a plain, like a flash of lightning in the clouds. We live in the flicker—may it last as long as the old earth keeps rolling! But darkness was here yesterday. Imagine the feelings of a commander of a fine—what d’ye call ’em?—trireme in the Mediterranean, ordered suddenly to the north; run overland across the Gauls in a hurry; put in charge of one of these craft the legionaries—a wonderful lot of handy men they
must have been, too—used to build, apparently by the hundred, in a month or two, if we may believe what we read. Imagine him here—the very end of the world, a sea the colour of lead, a sky the colour of smoke, a kind of ship about as rigid as a concertina—and going up this river with stores, or orders, or what you like. Sand–banks, marshes, forests, savages,—precious little to eat fit for a civilized man, nothing but Thames water to drink. No Falernian wine here, no going ashore. Here and there a military camp lost in a wilderness, like a needle in a bundle of hay—cold, fog, tempests, disease, exile, and death—death skulking in the air, in the water, in the bush. They must have been dying like flies here. Oh, yes—he did it. Did it very well, too, no doubt, and without thinking much about it either, except afterwards to brag of what he had gone through in his time, perhaps. They were men enough to face the darkness. And perhaps he was cheered by keeping his eye on a chance of promotion to the fleet at Ravenna by and by, if he had good friends in Rome and survived the awful climate. Or think of a decent young citizen in a toga—perhaps too much dice, you know—coming out here in the train of some prefect, or tax–gatherer, or trader even, to mend his fortunes. Land in a swamp, march through the woods, and in some inland post feel the savagery, the utter savagery, had closed round him—all that mysterious life of the wilderness that stirs in the forest, in the jungles, in the hearts of wild men. There’s no initiation either into such mysteries. He has to live in the midst of the incomprehensible, which is also detestable. And it has a fascination, too, that goes to work upon him. The fascination of the abomination—you know, imagine the growing regrets, the longing to escape, the powerless disgust, the surrender, the hate.” He paused. “Mind,” he began again, lifting one arm from the elbow, the palm of the hand outwards, so that, with his legs folded before him, he had the pose of a Buddha preaching in European clothes and without a lotus–flower—“Mind, none of us would feel exactly like this. What saves us is efficiency—the devotion to efficiency. But these chaps were not much account, really. They were no colonists; their administration was merely a squeeze, and nothing more, I suspect. They were conquerors, and for that you want only brute force—nothing to boast of, when you have it, since your strength is just an accident arising from the weakness of others. They grabbed what they could get for the sake of what was to be got. It was just robbery with violence, aggravated murder on a great scale, and men going at it blind—as is very proper for those who tackle a darkness. The conquest of the earth, which mostly means the taking it away from
those who have a different complexion or slightly flatter noses than ourselves, is not a pretty thing when you look into it too much. What redeems it is the idea only. An idea at the back of it; not a sentimental pretence but an idea; and an unselfish belief in the idea—something you can set up, and bow down before, and offer a sacrifice to… .” He broke off. Flames glided in the river, small green flames, red flames, white flames, pursuing, overtaking, joining, crossing each other—then separating slowly or hastily. The traffic of the great city went on in the deepening night upon the sleepless river. We looked on, waiting patiently—there was nothing else to do till the end of the flood; but it was only after a long silence, when he said, in a hesitating voice, “I suppose you fellows remember I did once turn fresh–water sailor for a bit,” that we knew we were fated, before the ebb began to run, to hear about one of Marlow’s inconclusive experiences. “I don’t want to bother you much with what happened to me personally,” he began, showing in this remark the weakness of many tellers of tales who seem so often unaware of what their audience would like best to hear; “yet to understand the effect of it on me you ought to know how I got out there, what I saw, how I went up that river to the place where I first met the poor chap. It was the farthest point of navigation and the culminating point of my experience. It seemed somehow to throw a kind of light on everything about me—and into my thoughts. It was sombre enough, too—and pitiful—not extraordinary in any way —not very clear either. No, not very clear. And yet it seemed to throw a kind of light. “I had then, as you remember, just returned to London after a lot of Indian Ocean, Pacific, China Seas—a regular dose of the East—six years or so, and I was loafing about, hindering you fellows in your work and invading your homes, just as though I had got a heavenly mission to civilize you. It was very fine for a time, but after a bit I did get tired of resting. Then I began to look for a ship—I should think the hardest work on earth. But the ships wouldn’t even look at me. And I got tired of that game, too. “Now when I was a little chap I had a passion for maps. I would look for hours at South America, or Africa, or Australia, and lose myself in all the glories of exploration. At that time there were many blank spaces on the earth, and when I saw one that looked particularly inviting on a map (but they all look that) I would put my finger on it and say, ‘When I grow up I will go there.’ The North
Pole was one of these places, I remember. Well, I haven’t been there yet, and shall not try now. The glamour’s off. Other places were scattered about the hemispheres. I have been in some of them, and … well, we won’t talk about that. But there was one yet—the biggest, the most blank, so to speak—that I had a hankering after. “True, by this time it was not a blank space any more. It had got filled since my boyhood with rivers and lakes and names. It had ceased to be a blank space of delightful mystery—a white patch for a boy to dream gloriously over. It had become a place of darkness. But there was in it one river especially, a mighty big river, that you could see on the map, resembling an immense snake uncoiled, with its head in the sea, its body at rest curving afar over a vast country, and its tail lost in the depths of the land. And as I looked at the map of it in a shop– window, it fascinated me as a snake would a bird—a silly little bird. Then I remembered there was a big concern, a Company for trade on that river. Dash it all! I thought to myself, they can’t trade without using some kind of craft on that lot of fresh water—steamboats! Why shouldn’t I try to get charge of one? I went on along Fleet Street, but could not shake off the idea. The snake had charmed me. “You understand it was a Continental concern, that Trading society; but I have a lot of relations living on the Continent, because it’s cheap and not so nasty as it looks, they say. “I am sorry to own I began to worry them. This was already a fresh departure for me. I was not used to get things that way, you know. I always went my own road and on my own legs where I had a mind to go. I wouldn’t have believed it of myself; but, then—you see—I felt somehow I must get there by hook or by crook. So I worried them. The men said ‘My dear fellow,’ and did nothing. Then —would you believe it?—I tried the women. I, Charlie Marlow, set the women to work—to get a job. Heavens! Well, you see, the notion drove me. I had an aunt, a dear enthusiastic soul. She wrote: ‘It will be delightful. I am ready to do anything, anything for you. It is a glorious idea. I know the wife of a very high personage in the Administration, and also a man who has lots of influence with,’ etc. She was determined to make no end of fuss to get me appointed skipper of a river steamboat, if such was my fancy. “I got my appointment—of course; and I got it very quick. It appears the Company had received news that one of their captains had been killed in a
scuffle with the natives. This was my chance, and it made me the more anxious to go. It was only months and months afterwards, when I made the attempt to recover what was left of the body, that I heard the original quarrel arose from a misunderstanding about some hens. Yes, two black hens. Fresleven—that was the fellow’s name, a Dane—thought himself wronged somehow in the bargain, so he went ashore and started to hammer the chief of the village with a stick. Oh, it didn’t surprise me in the least to hear this, and at the same time to be told that Fresleven was the gentlest, quietest creature that ever walked on two legs. No doubt he was; but he had been a couple of years already out there engaged in the noble cause, you know, and he probably felt the need at last of asserting his self– respect in some way. Therefore he whacked the old nigger mercilessly, while a big crowd of his people watched him, thunderstruck, till some man—I was told the chief’s son—in desperation at hearing the old chap yell, made a tentative jab with a spear at the white man—and of course it went quite easy between the shoulder–blades. Then the whole population cleared into the forest, expecting all kinds of calamities to happen, while, on the other hand, the steamer Fresleven commanded left also in a bad panic, in charge of the engineer, I believe. Afterwards nobody seemed to trouble much about Fresleven’s remains, till I got out and stepped into his shoes. I couldn’t let it rest, though; but when an opportunity offered at last to meet my predecessor, the grass growing through his ribs was tall enough to hide his bones. They were all there. The supernatural being had not been touched after he fell. And the village was deserted, the huts gaped black, rotting, all askew within the fallen enclosures. A calamity had come to it, sure enough. The people had vanished. Mad terror had scattered them, men, women, and children, through the bush, and they had never returned. What became of the hens I don’t know either. I should think the cause of progress got them, anyhow. However, through this glorious affair I got my appointment, before I had fairly begun to hope for it. “I flew around like mad to get ready, and before forty–eight hours I was crossing the Channel to show myself to my employers, and sign the contract. In a very few hours I arrived in a city that always makes me think of a whited sepulchre. Prejudice no doubt. I had no difficulty in finding the Company’s offices. It was the biggest thing in the town, and everybody I met was full of it. They were going to run an over–sea empire, and make no end of coin by trade. “A narrow and deserted street in deep shadow, high houses, innumerable windows with venetian blinds, a dead silence, grass sprouting right and left, immense double doors standing ponderously ajar. I slipped through one of these
cracks, went up a swept and ungarnished staircase, as arid as a desert, and opened the first door I came to. Two women, one fat and the other slim, sat on straw–bottomed chairs, knitting black wool. The slim one got up and walked straight at me—still knitting with downcast eyes—and only just as I began to think of getting out of her way, as you would for a somnambulist, stood still, and looked up. Her dress was as plain as an umbrella–cover, and she turned round without a word and preceded me into a waiting–room. I gave my name, and looked about. Deal table in the middle, plain chairs all round the walls, on one end a large shining map, marked with all the colours of a rainbow. There was a vast amount of red—good to see at any time, because one knows that some real work is done in there, a deuce of a lot of blue, a little green, smears of orange, and, on the East Coast, a purple patch, to show where the jolly pioneers of progress drink the jolly lager–beer. However, I wasn’t going into any of these. I was going into the yellow. Dead in the centre. And the river was there— fascinating—deadly—like a snake. Ough! A door opened, a white–haired secretarial head, but wearing a compassionate expression, appeared, and a skinny forefinger beckoned me into the sanctuary. Its light was dim, and a heavy writing–desk squatted in the middle. From behind that structure came out an impression of pale plumpness in a frock–coat. The great man himself. He was five feet six, I should judge, and had his grip on the handle–end of ever so many millions. He shook hands, I fancy, murmured vaguely, was satisfied with my French. BON VOYAGE. “In about forty–five seconds I found myself again in the waiting–room with the compassionate secretary, who, full of desolation and sympathy, made me sign some document. I believe I undertook amongst other things not to disclose any trade secrets. Well, I am not going to. “I began to feel slightly uneasy. You know I am not used to such ceremonies, and there was something ominous in the atmosphere. It was just as though I had been let into some conspiracy—I don’t know—something not quite right; and I was glad to get out. In the outer room the two women knitted black wool feverishly. People were arriving, and the younger one was walking back and forth introducing them. The old one sat on her chair. Her flat cloth slippers were propped up on a foot–warmer, and a cat reposed on her lap. She wore a starched white affair on her head, had a wart on one cheek, and silver–rimmed spectacles hung on the tip of her nose. She glanced at me above the glasses. The swift and indifferent placidity of that look troubled me. Two youths with foolish and cheery countenances were being piloted over, and she threw at them the same
quick glance of unconcerned wisdom. She seemed to know all about them and about me, too. An eerie feeling came over me. She seemed uncanny and fateful. Often far away there I thought of these two, guarding the door of Darkness, knitting black wool as for a warm pall, one introducing, introducing continuously to the unknown, the other scrutinizing the cheery and foolish faces with unconcerned old eyes. AVE! Old knitter of black wool. MORITURI TE SALUTANT. Not many of those she looked at ever saw her again—not half, by a long way. “There was yet a visit to the doctor. ‘A simple formality,’ assured me the secretary, with an air of taking an immense part in all my sorrows. Accordingly a young chap wearing his hat over the left eyebrow, some clerk I suppose—there must have been clerks in the business, though the house was as still as a house in a city of the dead—came from somewhere up–stairs, and led me forth. He was shabby and careless, with inkstains on the sleeves of his jacket, and his cravat was large and billowy, under a chin shaped like the toe of an old boot. It was a little too early for the doctor, so I proposed a drink, and thereupon he developed a vein of joviality. As we sat over our vermouths he glorified the Company’s business, and by and by I expressed casually my surprise at him not going out there. He became very cool and collected all at once. ‘I am not such a fool as I look, quoth Plato to his disciples,’ he said sententiously, emptied his glass with great resolution, and we rose. “The old doctor felt my pulse, evidently thinking of something else the while. ‘Good, good for there,’ he mumbled, and then with a certain eagerness asked me whether I would let him measure my head. Rather surprised, I said Yes, when he produced a thing like calipers and got the dimensions back and front and every way, taking notes carefully. He was an unshaven little man in a threadbare coat like a gaberdine, with his feet in slippers, and I thought him a harmless fool. ‘I always ask leave, in the interests of science, to measure the crania of those going out there,’ he said. ‘And when they come back, too?’ I asked. ‘Oh, I never see them,’ he remarked; ‘and, moreover, the changes take place inside, you know.’ He smiled, as if at some quiet joke. ‘So you are going out there. Famous. Interesting, too.’ He gave me a searching glance, and made another note. ‘Ever any madness in your family?’ he asked, in a matter–of–fact tone. I felt very annoyed. ‘Is that question in the interests of science, too?’ ‘It would be,’ he said, without taking notice of my irritation, ‘interesting for science to watch the mental changes of individuals, on the spot, but …’ ‘Are you an alienist?’ I interrupted. ‘Every doctor should be—a little,’ answered that original,
imperturbably. ‘I have a little theory which you messieurs who go out there must help me to prove. This is my share in the advantages my country shall reap from the possession of such a magnificent dependency. The mere wealth I leave to others. Pardon my questions, but you are the first Englishman coming under my observation …’ I hastened to assure him I was not in the least typical. ‘If I were,’ said I, ‘I wouldn’t be talking like this with you.’ ‘What you say is rather profound, and probably erroneous,’ he said, with a laugh. ‘Avoid irritation more than exposure to the sun. Adieu. How do you English say, eh? Good–bye. Ah! Good–bye. Adieu. In the tropics one must before everything keep calm.’ … He lifted a warning forefinger… . ‘DU CALME, DU CALME. ADIEU.’ “One thing more remained to do—say good–bye to my excellent aunt. I found her triumphant. I had a cup of tea—the last decent cup of tea for many days— and in a room that most soothingly looked just as you would expect a lady’s drawing–room to look, we had a long quiet chat by the fireside. In the course of these confidences it became quite plain to me I had been represented to the wife of the high dignitary, and goodness knows to how many more people besides, as an exceptional and gifted creature—a piece of good fortune for the Company—a man you don’t get hold of every day. Good heavens! and I was going to take charge of a two–penny–half–penny river–steamboat with a penny whistle attached! It appeared, however, I was also one of the Workers, with a capital— you know. Something like an emissary of light, something like a lower sort of apostle. There had been a lot of such rot let loose in print and talk just about that time, and the excellent woman, living right in the rush of all that humbug, got carried off her feet. She talked about ‘weaning those ignorant millions from their horrid ways,’ till, upon my word, she made me quite uncomfortable. I ventured to hint that the Company was run for profit. “‘You forget, dear Charlie, that the labourer is worthy of his hire,’ she said, brightly. It’s queer how out of touch with truth women are. They live in a world of their own, and there has never been anything like it, and never can be. It is too beautiful altogether, and if they were to set it up it would go to pieces before the first sunset. Some confounded fact we men have been living contentedly with ever since the day of creation would start up and knock the whole thing over. “After this I got embraced, told to wear flannel, be sure to write often, and so on —and I left. In the street—I don’t know why—a queer feeling came to me that I was an imposter. Odd thing that I, who used to clear out for any part of the world at twenty–four hours’ notice, with less thought than most men give to the
crossing of a street, had a moment—I won’t say of hesitation, but of startled pause, before this commonplace affair. The best way I can explain it to you is by saying that, for a second or two, I felt as though, instead of going to the centre of a continent, I were about to set off for the centre of the earth. “I left in a French steamer, and she called in every blamed port they have out there, for, as far as I could see, the sole purpose of landing soldiers and custom– house officers. I watched the coast. Watching a coast as it slips by the ship is like thinking about an enigma. There it is before you— smiling, frowning, inviting, grand, mean, insipid, or savage, and always mute with an air of whispering, ‘Come and find out.’ This one was almost featureless, as if still in the making, with an aspect of monotonous grimness. The edge of a colossal jungle, so dark– green as to be almost black, fringed with white surf, ran straight, like a ruled line, far, far away along a blue sea whose glitter was blurred by a creeping mist. The sun was fierce, the land seemed to glisten and drip with steam. Here and there greyish–whitish specks showed up clustered inside the white surf, with a flag flying above them perhaps. Settlements some centuries old, and still no bigger than pinheads on the untouched expanse of their background. We pounded along, stopped, landed soldiers; went on, landed custom–house clerks to levy toll in what looked like a God–forsaken wilderness, with a tin shed and a flag–pole lost in it; landed more soldiers—to take care of the custom–house clerks, presumably. Some, I heard, got drowned in the surf; but whether they did or not, nobody seemed particularly to care. They were just flung out there, and on we went. Every day the coast looked the same, as though we had not moved; but we passed various places—trading places—with names like Gran’ Bassam, Little Popo; names that seemed to belong to some sordid farce acted in front of a sinister back–cloth. The idleness of a passenger, my isolation amongst all these men with whom I had no point of contact, the oily and languid sea, the uniform sombreness of the coast, seemed to keep me away from the truth of things, within the toil of a mournful and senseless delusion. The voice of the surf heard now and then was a positive pleasure, like the speech of a brother. It was something natural, that had its reason, that had a meaning. Now and then a boat from the shore gave one a momentary contact with reality. It was paddled by black fellows. You could see from afar the white of their eyeballs glistening. They shouted, sang; their bodies streamed with perspiration; they had faces like grotesque masks—these chaps; but they had bone, muscle, a wild vitality, an intense energy of movement, that was as natural and true as the surf along their coast. They wanted no excuse for being there. They were a great comfort to look at. For a time I would feel I belonged still to a world of straightforward facts; but
the feeling would not last long. Something would turn up to scare it away. Once, I remember, we came upon a man–of–war anchored off the coast. There wasn’t even a shed there, and she was shelling the bush. It appears the French had one of their wars going on thereabouts. Her ensign dropped limp like a rag; the muzzles of the long six–inch guns stuck out all over the low hull; the greasy, slimy swell swung her up lazily and let her down, swaying her thin masts. In the empty immensity of earth, sky, and water, there she was, incomprehensible, firing into a continent. Pop, would go one of the six–inch guns; a small flame would dart and vanish, a little white smoke would disappear, a tiny projectile would give a feeble screech—and nothing happened. Nothing could happen. There was a touch of insanity in the proceeding, a sense of lugubrious drollery in the sight; and it was not dissipated by somebody on board assuring me earnestly there was a camp of natives—he called them enemies!—hidden out of sight somewhere. “We gave her her letters (I heard the men in that lonely ship were dying of fever at the rate of three a day) and went on. We called at some more places with farcical names, where the merry dance of death and trade goes on in a still and earthy atmosphere as of an overheated catacomb; all along the formless coast bordered by dangerous surf, as if Nature herself had tried to ward off intruders; in and out of rivers, streams of death in life, whose banks were rotting into mud, whose waters, thickened into slime, invaded the contorted mangroves, that seemed to writhe at us in the extremity of an impotent despair. Nowhere did we stop long enough to get a particularized impression, but the general sense of vague and oppressive wonder grew upon me. It was like a weary pilgrimage amongst hints for nightmares. “It was upward of thirty days before I saw the mouth of the big river. We anchored off the seat of the government. But my work would not begin till some two hundred miles farther on. So as soon as I could I made a start for a place thirty miles higher up. “I had my passage on a little sea–going steamer. Her captain was a Swede, and knowing me for a seaman, invited me on the bridge. He was a young man, lean, fair, and morose, with lanky hair and a shuffling gait. As we left the miserable little wharf, he tossed his head contemptuously at the shore. ‘Been living there?’ he asked. I said, ‘Yes.’ ‘Fine lot these government chaps—are they not?’ he went on, speaking English with great precision and considerable bitterness. ‘It is funny what some people will do for a few francs a month. I wonder what
becomes of that kind when it goes upcountry?’ I said to him I expected to see that soon. ‘So–o–o!’ he exclaimed. He shuffled athwart, keeping one eye ahead vigilantly. ‘Don’t be too sure,’ he continued. ‘The other day I took up a man who hanged himself on the road. He was a Swede, too.’ ‘Hanged himself! Why, in God’s name?’ I cried. He kept on looking out watchfully. ‘Who knows? The sun too much for him, or the country perhaps.’ “At last we opened a reach. A rocky cliff appeared, mounds of turned–up earth by the shore, houses on a hill, others with iron roofs, amongst a waste of excavations, or hanging to the declivity. A continuous noise of the rapids above hovered over this scene of inhabited devastation. A lot of people, mostly black and naked, moved about like ants. A jetty projected into the river. A blinding sunlight drowned all this at times in a sudden recrudescence of glare. ‘There’s your Company’s station,’ said the Swede, pointing to three wooden barrack–like structures on the rocky slope. ‘I will send your things up. Four boxes did you say? So. Farewell.’ “I came upon a boiler wallowing in the grass, then found a path leading up the hill. It turned aside for the boulders, and also for an undersized railway–truck lying there on its back with its wheels in the air. One was off. The thing looked as dead as the carcass of some animal. I came upon more pieces of decaying machinery, a stack of rusty rails. To the left a clump of trees made a shady spot, where dark things seemed to stir feebly. I blinked, the path was steep. A horn tooted to the right, and I saw the black people run. A heavy and dull detonation shook the ground, a puff of smoke came out of the cliff, and that was all. No change appeared on the face of the rock. They were building a railway. The cliff was not in the way or anything; but this objectless blasting was all the work going on. “A slight clinking behind me made me turn my head. Six black men advanced in a file, toiling up the path. They walked erect and slow, balancing small baskets full of earth on their heads, and the clink kept time with their footsteps. Black rags were wound round their loins, and the short ends behind waggled to and fro like tails. I could see every rib, the joints of their limbs were like knots in a rope; each had an iron collar on his neck, and all were connected together with a chain whose bights swung between them, rhythmically clinking. Another report from the cliff made me think suddenly of that ship of war I had seen firing into a continent. It was the same kind of ominous voice; but these men could by no stretch of imagination be called enemies. They were called criminals, and the
outraged law, like the bursting shells, had come to them, an insoluble mystery from the sea. All their meagre breasts panted together, the violently dilated nostrils quivered, the eyes stared stonily uphill. They passed me within six inches, without a glance, with that complete, deathlike indifference of unhappy savages. Behind this raw matter one of the reclaimed, the product of the new forces at work, strolled despondently, carrying a rifle by its middle. He had a uniform jacket with one button off, and seeing a white man on the path, hoisted his weapon to his shoulder with alacrity. This was simple prudence, white men being so much alike at a distance that he could not tell who I might be. He was speedily reassured, and with a large, white, rascally grin, and a glance at his charge, seemed to take me into partnership in his exalted trust. After all, I also was a part of the great cause of these high and just proceedings. “Instead of going up, I turned and descended to the left. My idea was to let that chain–gang get out of sight before I climbed the hill. You know I am not particularly tender; I’ve had to strike and to fend off. I’ve had to resist and to attack sometimes—that’s only one way of resisting—without counting the exact cost, according to the demands of such sort of life as I had blundered into. I’ve seen the devil of violence, and the devil of greed, and the devil of hot desire; but, by all the stars! these were strong, lusty, red–eyed devils, that swayed and drove men—men, I tell you. But as I stood on this hillside, I foresaw that in the blinding sunshine of that land I would become acquainted with a flabby, pretending, weak–eyed devil of a rapacious and pitiless folly. How insidious he could be, too, I was only to find out several months later and a thousand miles farther. For a moment I stood appalled, as though by a warning. Finally I descended the hill, obliquely, towards the trees I had seen. “I avoided a vast artificial hole somebody had been digging on the slope, the purpose of which I found it impossible to divine. It wasn’t a quarry or a sandpit, anyhow. It was just a hole. It might have been connected with the philanthropic desire of giving the criminals something to do. I don’t know. Then I nearly fell into a very narrow ravine, almost no more than a scar in the hillside. I discovered that a lot of imported drainage–pipes for the settlement had been tumbled in there. There wasn’t one that was not broken. It was a wanton smash–up. At last I got under the trees. My purpose was to stroll into the shade for a moment; but no sooner within than it seemed to me I had stepped into the gloomy circle of some Inferno. The rapids were near, and an uninterrupted, uniform, headlong, rushing noise filled the mournful stillness of the grove, where not a breath stirred, not a leaf moved, with a mysterious sound—as though the tearing pace of the
launched earth had suddenly become audible. “Black shapes crouched, lay, sat between the trees leaning against the trunks, clinging to the earth, half coming out, half effaced within the dim light, in all the attitudes of pain, abandonment, and despair. Another mine on the cliff went off, followed by a slight shudder of the soil under my feet. The work was going on. The work! And this was the place where some of the helpers had withdrawn to die. “They were dying slowly—it was very clear. They were not enemies, they were not criminals, they were nothing earthly now—nothing but black shadows of disease and starvation, lying confusedly in the greenish gloom. Brought from all the recesses of the coast in all the legality of time contracts, lost in uncongenial surroundings, fed on unfamiliar food, they sickened, became inefficient, and were then allowed to crawl away and rest. These moribund shapes were free as air—and nearly as thin. I began to distinguish the gleam of the eyes under the trees. Then, glancing down, I saw a face near my hand. The black bones reclined at full length with one shoulder against the tree, and slowly the eyelids rose and the sunken eyes looked up at me, enormous and vacant, a kind of blind, white flicker in the depths of the orbs, which died out slowly. The man seemed young —almost a boy—but you know with them it’s hard to tell. I found nothing else to do but to offer him one of my good Swede’s ship’s biscuits I had in my pocket. The fingers closed slowly on it and held—there was no other movement and no other glance. He had tied a bit of white worsted round his neck—Why? Where did he get it? Was it a badge—an ornament—a charm—a propitiatory act? Was there any idea at all connected with it? It looked startling round his black neck, this bit of white thread from beyond the seas. “Near the same tree two more bundles of acute angles sat with their legs drawn up. One, with his chin propped on his knees, stared at nothing, in an intolerable and appalling manner: his brother phantom rested its forehead, as if overcome with a great weariness; and all about others were scattered in every pose of contorted collapse, as in some picture of a massacre or a pestilence. While I stood horror–struck, one of these creatures rose to his hands and knees, and went off on all–fours towards the river to drink. He lapped out of his hand, then sat up in the sunlight, crossing his shins in front of him, and after a time let his woolly head fall on his breastbone. “I didn’t want any more loitering in the shade, and I made haste towards the
station. When near the buildings I met a white man, in such an unexpected elegance of get–up that in the first moment I took him for a sort of vision. I saw a high starched collar, white cuffs, a light alpaca jacket, snowy trousers, a clean necktie, and varnished boots. No hat. Hair parted, brushed, oiled, under a green– lined parasol held in a big white hand. He was amazing, and had a penholder behind his ear. “I shook hands with this miracle, and I learned he was the Company’s chief accountant, and that all the book–keeping was done at this station. He had come out for a moment, he said, ‘to get a breath of fresh air. The expression sounded wonderfully odd, with its suggestion of sedentary desk–life. I wouldn’t have mentioned the fellow to you at all, only it was from his lips that I first heard the name of the man who is so indissolubly connected with the memories of that time. Moreover, I respected the fellow. Yes; I respected his collars, his vast cuffs, his brushed hair. His appearance was certainly that of a hairdresser’s dummy; but in the great demoralization of the land he kept up his appearance. That’s backbone. His starched collars and got–up shirt–fronts were achievements of character. He had been out nearly three years; and, later, I could not help asking him how he managed to sport such linen. He had just the faintest blush, and said modestly, ‘I’ve been teaching one of the native women about the station. It was difficult. She had a distaste for the work.’ Thus this man had verily accomplished something. And he was devoted to his books, which were in apple–pie order. “Everything else in the station was in a muddle—heads, things, buildings. Strings of dusty niggers with splay feet arrived and departed; a stream of manufactured goods, rubbishy cottons, beads, and brass–wire set into the depths of darkness, and in return came a precious trickle of ivory. “I had to wait in the station for ten days—an eternity. I lived in a hut in the yard, but to be out of the chaos I would sometimes get into the accountant’s office. It was built of horizontal planks, and so badly put together that, as he bent over his high desk, he was barred from neck to heels with narrow strips of sunlight. There was no need to open the big shutter to see. It was hot there, too; big flies buzzed fiendishly, and did not sting, but stabbed. I sat generally on the floor, while, of faultless appearance (and even slightly scented), perching on a high stool, he wrote, he wrote. Sometimes he stood up for exercise. When a truckle–bed with a sick man (some invalid agent from upcountry) was put in there, he exhibited a gentle annoyance. ‘The groans of this sick person,’ he said, ‘distract my attention. And without that it is extremely difficult to guard against clerical
errors in this climate.’ “One day he remarked, without lifting his head, ‘In the interior you will no doubt meet Mr. Kurtz.’ On my asking who Mr. Kurtz was, he said he was a first–class agent; and seeing my disappointment at this information, he added slowly, laying down his pen, ‘He is a very remarkable person.’ Further questions elicited from him that Mr. Kurtz was at present in charge of a trading–post, a very important one, in the true ivory–country, at ‘the very bottom of there. Sends in as much ivory as all the others put together …’ He began to write again. The sick man was too ill to groan. The flies buzzed in a great peace. “Suddenly there was a growing murmur of voices and a great tramping of feet. A caravan had come in. A violent babble of uncouth sounds burst out on the other side of the planks. All the carriers were speaking together, and in the midst of the uproar the lamentable voice of the chief agent was heard ‘giving it up’ tearfully for the twentieth time that day… . He rose slowly. ‘What a frightful row,’ he said. He crossed the room gently to look at the sick man, and returning, said to me, ‘He does not hear.’ ‘What! Dead?’ I asked, startled. ‘No, not yet,’ he answered, with great composure. Then, alluding with a toss of the head to the tumult in the station–yard, ‘When one has got to make correct entries, one comes to hate those savages—hate them to the death.’ He remained thoughtful for a moment. ‘When you see Mr. Kurtz’ he went on, ‘tell him from me that everything here’—he glanced at the deck—’ is very satisfactory. I don’t like to write to him—with those messengers of ours you never know who may get hold of your letter—at that Central Station.’ He stared at me for a moment with his mild, bulging eyes. ‘Oh, he will go far, very far,’ he began again. ‘He will be a somebody in the Administration before long. They, above—the Council in Europe, you know—mean him to be.’ “He turned to his work. The noise outside had ceased, and presently in going out I stopped at the door. In the steady buzz of flies the homeward–bound agent was lying finished and insensible; the other, bent over his books, was making correct entries of perfectly correct transactions; and fifty feet below the doorstep I could see the still tree–tops of the grove of death. “Next day I left that station at last, with a caravan of sixty men, for a two– hundred–mile tramp. “No use telling you much about that. Paths, paths, everywhere; a stamped–in
network of paths spreading over the empty land, through the long grass, through burnt grass, through thickets, down and up chilly ravines, up and down stony hills ablaze with heat; and a solitude, a solitude, nobody, not a hut. The population had cleared out a long time ago. Well, if a lot of mysterious niggers armed with all kinds of fearful weapons suddenly took to travelling on the road between Deal and Gravesend, catching the yokels right and left to carry heavy loads for them, I fancy every farm and cottage thereabouts would get empty very soon. Only here the dwellings were gone, too. Still I passed through several abandoned villages. There’s something pathetically childish in the ruins of grass walls. Day after day, with the stamp and shuffle of sixty pair of bare feet behind me, each pair under a 60–lb. load. Camp, cook, sleep, strike camp, march. Now and then a carrier dead in harness, at rest in the long grass near the path, with an empty water–gourd and his long staff lying by his side. A great silence around and above. Perhaps on some quiet night the tremor of far–off drums, sinking, swelling, a tremor vast, faint; a sound weird, appealing, suggestive, and wild— and perhaps with as profound a meaning as the sound of bells in a Christian country. Once a white man in an unbuttoned uniform, camping on the path with an armed escort of lank Zanzibaris, very hospitable and festive—not to say drunk. Was looking after the upkeep of the road, he declared. Can’t say I saw any road or any upkeep, unless the body of a middle–aged negro, with a bullet– hole in the forehead, upon which I absolutely stumbled three miles farther on, may be considered as a permanent improvement. I had a white companion, too, not a bad chap, but rather too fleshy and with the exasperating habit of fainting on the hot hillsides, miles away from the least bit of shade and water. Annoying, you know, to hold your own coat like a parasol over a man’s head while he is coming to. I couldn’t help asking him once what he meant by coming there at all. ‘To make money, of course. What do you think?’ he said, scornfully. Then he got fever, and had to be carried in a hammock slung under a pole. As he weighed sixteen stone I had no end of rows with the carriers. They jibbed, ran away, sneaked off with their loads in the night—quite a mutiny. So, one evening, I made a speech in English with gestures, not one of which was lost to the sixty pairs of eyes before me, and the next morning I started the hammock off in front all right. An hour afterwards I came upon the whole concern wrecked in a bush —man, hammock, groans, blankets, horrors. The heavy pole had skinned his poor nose. He was very anxious for me to kill somebody, but there wasn’t the shadow of a carrier near. I remembered the old doctor—‘It would be interesting for science to watch the mental changes of individuals, on the spot.’ I felt I was becoming scientifically interesting. However, all that is to no purpose. On the fifteenth day I came in sight of the big river again, and hobbled into the Central
Station. It was on a back water surrounded by scrub and forest, with a pretty border of smelly mud on one side, and on the three others enclosed by a crazy fence of rushes. A neglected gap was all the gate it had, and the first glance at the place was enough to let you see the flabby devil was running that show. White men with long staves in their hands appeared languidly from amongst the buildings, strolling up to take a look at me, and then retired out of sight somewhere. One of them, a stout, excitable chap with black moustaches, informed me with great volubility and many digressions, as soon as I told him who I was, that my steamer was at the bottom of the river. I was thunderstruck. What, how, why? Oh, it was ‘all right.’ The ‘manager himself’ was there. All quite correct. ‘Everybody had behaved splendidly! splendidly!’—‘you must,’ he said in agitation, ‘go and see the general manager at once. He is waiting!’ “I did not see the real significance of that wreck at once. I fancy I see it now, but I am not sure—not at all. Certainly the affair was too stupid—when I think of it —to be altogether natural. Still … But at the moment it presented itself simply as a confounded nuisance. The steamer was sunk. They had started two days before in a sudden hurry up the river with the manager on board, in charge of some volunteer skipper, and before they had been out three hours they tore the bottom out of her on stones, and she sank near the south bank. I asked myself what I was to do there, now my boat was lost. As a matter of fact, I had plenty to do in fishing my command out of the river. I had to set about it the very next day. That, and the repairs when I brought the pieces to the station, took some months. “My first interview with the manager was curious. He did not ask me to sit down after my twenty–mile walk that morning. He was commonplace in complexion, in features, in manners, and in voice. He was of middle size and of ordinary build. His eyes, of the usual blue, were perhaps remarkably cold, and he certainly could make his glance fall on one as trenchant and heavy as an axe. But even at these times the rest of his person seemed to disclaim the intention. Otherwise there was only an indefinable, faint expression of his lips, something stealthy— a smile—not a smile—I remember it, but I can’t explain. It was unconscious, this smile was, though just after he had said something it got intensified for an instant. It came at the end of his speeches like a seal applied on the words to make the meaning of the commonest phrase appear absolutely inscrutable. He was a common trader, from his youth up employed in these parts —nothing more. He was obeyed, yet he inspired neither love nor fear, nor even respect. He inspired uneasiness. That was it! Uneasiness. Not a definite mistrust —just uneasiness—nothing more. You have no idea how effective such a … a…
. faculty can be. He had no genius for organizing, for initiative, or for order even. That was evident in such things as the deplorable state of the station. He had no learning, and no intelligence. His position had come to him—why? Perhaps because he was never ill … He had served three terms of three years out there … Because triumphant health in the general rout of constitutions is a kind of power in itself. When he went home on leave he rioted on a large scale—pompously. Jack ashore—with a difference—in externals only. This one could gather from his casual talk. He originated nothing, he could keep the routine going—that’s all. But he was great. He was great by this little thing that it was impossible to tell what could control such a man. He never gave that secret away. Perhaps there was nothing within him. Such a suspicion made one pause—for out there there were no external checks. Once when various tropical diseases had laid low almost every ‘agent’ in the station, he was heard to say, ‘Men who come out here should have no entrails.’ He sealed the utterance with that smile of his, as though it had been a door opening into a darkness he had in his keeping. You fancied you had seen things—but the seal was on. When annoyed at meal–times by the constant quarrels of the white men about precedence, he ordered an immense round table to be made, for which a special house had to be built. This was the station’s mess–room. Where he sat was the first place—the rest were nowhere. One felt this to be his unalterable conviction. He was neither civil nor uncivil. He was quiet. He allowed his ‘boy’—an overfed young negro from the coast—to treat the white men, under his very eyes, with provoking insolence. “He began to speak as soon as he saw me. I had been very long on the road. He could not wait. Had to start without me. The up–river stations had to be relieved. There had been so many delays already that he did not know who was dead and who was alive, and how they got on—and so on, and so on. He paid no attention to my explanations, and, playing with a stick of sealing–wax, repeated several times that the situation was ‘very grave, very grave.’ There were rumours that a very important station was in jeopardy, and its chief, Mr. Kurtz, was ill. Hoped it was not true. Mr. Kurtz was … I felt weary and irritable. Hang Kurtz, I thought. I interrupted him by saying I had heard of Mr. Kurtz on the coast. ‘Ah! So they talk of him down there,’ he murmured to himself. Then he began again, assuring me Mr. Kurtz was the best agent he had, an exceptional man, of the greatest importance to the Company; therefore I could understand his anxiety. He was, he said, ‘very, very uneasy.’ Certainly he fidgeted on his chair a good deal, exclaimed, ‘Ah, Mr. Kurtz!’ broke the stick of sealing–wax and seemed dumfounded by the accident. Next thing he wanted to know ‘how long it would take to’ … I interrupted him again. Being hungry, you know, and kept on my feet
too. I was getting savage. ‘How can I tell?’ I said. ‘I haven’t even seen the wreck yet—some months, no doubt.’ All this talk seemed to me so futile. ‘Some months,’ he said. ‘Well, let us say three months before we can make a start. Yes. That ought to do the affair.’ I flung out of his hut (he lived all alone in a clay hut with a sort of verandah) muttering to myself my opinion of him. He was a chattering idiot. Afterwards I took it back when it was borne in upon me startlingly with what extreme nicety he had estimated the time requisite for the ‘affair.’ “I went to work the next day, turning, so to speak, my back on that station. In that way only it seemed to me I could keep my hold on the redeeming facts of life. Still, one must look about sometimes; and then I saw this station, these men strolling aimlessly about in the sunshine of the yard. I asked myself sometimes what it all meant. They wandered here and there with their absurd long staves in their hands, like a lot of faithless pilgrims bewitched inside a rotten fence. The word ‘ivory’ rang in the air, was whispered, was sighed. You would think they were praying to it. A taint of imbecile rapacity blew through it all, like a whiff from some corpse. By Jove! I’ve never seen anything so unreal in my life. And outside, the silent wilderness surrounding this cleared speck on the earth struck me as something great and invincible, like evil or truth, waiting patiently for the passing away of this fantastic invasion. “Oh, these months! Well, never mind. Various things happened. One evening a grass shed full of calico, cotton prints, beads, and I don’t know what else, burst into a blaze so suddenly that you would have thought the earth had opened to let an avenging fire consume all that trash. I was smoking my pipe quietly by my dismantled steamer, and saw them all cutting capers in the light, with their arms lifted high, when the stout man with moustaches came tearing down to the river, a tin pail in his hand, assured me that everybody was ‘behaving splendidly, splendidly,’ dipped about a quart of water and tore back again. I noticed there was a hole in the bottom of his pail. “I strolled up. There was no hurry. You see the thing had gone off like a box of matches. It had been hopeless from the very first. The flame had leaped high, driven everybody back, lighted up everything—and collapsed. The shed was already a heap of embers glowing fiercely. A nigger was being beaten near by. They said he had caused the fire in some way; be that as it may, he was screeching most horribly. I saw him, later, for several days, sitting in a bit of shade looking very sick and trying to recover himself; afterwards he arose and
went out— and the wilderness without a sound took him into its bosom again. As I approached the glow from the dark I found myself at the back of two men, talking. I heard the name of Kurtz pronounced, then the words, ‘take advantage of this unfortunate accident.’ One of the men was the manager. I wished him a good evening. ‘Did you ever see anything like it—eh? it is incredible,’ he said, and walked off. The other man remained. He was a first–class agent, young, gentlemanly, a bit reserved, with a forked little beard and a hooked nose. He was stand–offish with the other agents, and they on their side said he was the manager’s spy upon them. As to me, I had hardly ever spoken to him before. We got into talk, and by and by we strolled away from the hissing ruins. Then he asked me to his room, which was in the main building of the station. He struck a match, and I perceived that this young aristocrat had not only a silver–mounted dressing–case but also a whole candle all to himself. Just at that time the manager was the only man supposed to have any right to candles. Native mats covered the clay walls; a collection of spears, assegais, shields, knives was hung up in trophies. The business intrusted to this fellow was the making of bricks— so I had been informed; but there wasn’t a fragment of a brick anywhere in the station, and he had been there more than a year—waiting. It seems he could not make bricks without something, I don’t know what—straw maybe. Anyway, it could not be found there and as it was not likely to be sent from Europe, it did not appear clear to me what he was waiting for. An act of special creation perhaps. However, they were all waiting—all the sixteen or twenty pilgrims of them—for something; and upon my word it did not seem an uncongenial occupation, from the way they took it, though the only thing that ever came to them was disease—as far as I could see. They beguiled the time by back–biting and intriguing against each other in a foolish kind of way. There was an air of plotting about that station, but nothing came of it, of course. It was as unreal as everything else—as the philanthropic pretence of the whole concern, as their talk, as their government, as their show of work. The only real feeling was a desire to get appointed to a trading–post where ivory was to be had, so that they could earn percentages. They intrigued and slandered and hated each other only on that account—but as to effectually lifting a little finger—oh, no. By heavens! there is something after all in the world allowing one man to steal a horse while another must not look at a halter. Steal a horse straight out. Very well. He has done it. Perhaps he can ride. But there is a way of looking at a halter that would provoke the most charitable of saints into a kick. “I had no idea why he wanted to be sociable, but as we chatted in there it suddenly occurred to me the fellow was trying to get at something—in fact,
pumping me. He alluded constantly to Europe, to the people I was supposed to know there—putting leading questions as to my acquaintances in the sepulchral city, and so on. His little eyes glittered like mica discs—with curiosity—though he tried to keep up a bit of superciliousness. At first I was astonished, but very soon I became awfully curious to see what he would find out from me. I couldn’t possibly imagine what I had in me to make it worth his while. It was very pretty to see how he baffled himself, for in truth my body was full only of chills, and my head had nothing in it but that wretched steamboat business. It was evident he took me for a perfectly shameless prevaricator. At last he got angry, and, to conceal a movement of furious annoyance, he yawned. I rose. Then I noticed a small sketch in oils, on a panel, representing a woman, draped and blindfolded, carrying a lighted torch. The background was sombre—almost black. The movement of the woman was stately, and the effect of the torchlight on the face was sinister. “It arrested me, and he stood by civilly, holding an empty half–pint champagne bottle (medical comforts) with the candle stuck in it. To my question he said Mr. Kurtz had painted this—in this very station more than a year ago—while waiting for means to go to his trading post. ‘Tell me, pray,’ said I, ‘who is this Mr. Kurtz?’ “‘The chief of the Inner Station,’ he answered in a short tone, looking away. ‘Much obliged,’ I said, laughing. ‘And you are the brickmaker of the Central Station. Every one knows that.’ He was silent for a while. ‘He is a prodigy,’ he said at last. ‘He is an emissary of pity and science and progress, and devil knows what else. We want,’ he began to declaim suddenly, ‘for the guidance of the cause intrusted to us by Europe, so to speak, higher intelligence, wide sympathies, a singleness of purpose.’ ‘Who says that?’ I asked. ‘Lots of them,’ he replied. ‘Some even write that; and so HE comes here, a special being, as you ought to know.’ ‘Why ought I to know?’ I interrupted, really surprised. He paid no attention. ‘Yes. Today he is chief of the best station, next year he will be assistant–manager, two years more and … but I dare–say you know what he will be in two years’ time. You are of the new gang—the gang of virtue. The same people who sent him specially also recommended you. Oh, don’t say no. I’ve my own eyes to trust.’ Light dawned upon me. My dear aunt’s influential acquaintances were producing an unexpected effect upon that young man. I nearly burst into a laugh. ‘Do you read the Company’s confidential correspondence?’ I asked. He hadn’t a word to say. It was great fun. ‘When Mr. Kurtz,’ I continued, severely, ‘is General Manager, you won’t have the
opportunity.’ “He blew the candle out suddenly, and we went outside. The moon had risen. Black figures strolled about listlessly, pouring water on the glow, whence proceeded a sound of hissing; steam ascended in the moonlight, the beaten nigger groaned somewhere. ‘What a row the brute makes!’ said the indefatigable man with the moustaches, appearing near us. ‘Serve him right. Transgression— punishment—bang! Pitiless, pitiless. That’s the only way. This will prevent all conflagrations for the future. I was just telling the manager …’ He noticed my companion, and became crestfallen all at once. ‘Not in bed yet,’ he said, with a kind of servile heartiness; ‘it’s so natural. Ha! Danger—agitation.’ He vanished. I went on to the riverside, and the other followed me. I heard a scathing murmur at my ear, ‘Heap of muffs—go to.’ The pilgrims could be seen in knots gesticulating, discussing. Several had still their staves in their hands. I verily believe they took these sticks to bed with them. Beyond the fence the forest stood up spectrally in the moonlight, and through that dim stir, through the faint sounds of that lamentable courtyard, the silence of the land went home to one’s very heart—its mystery, its greatness, the amazing reality of its concealed life. The hurt nigger moaned feebly somewhere near by, and then fetched a deep sigh that made me mend my pace away from there. I felt a hand introducing itself under my arm. ‘My dear sir,’ said the fellow, ‘I don’t want to be misunderstood, and especially by you, who will see Mr. Kurtz long before I can have that pleasure. I wouldn’t like him to get a false idea of my disposition… .’ “I let him run on, this papier–mache Mephistopheles, and it seemed to me that if I tried I could poke my forefinger through him, and would find nothing inside but a little loose dirt, maybe. He, don’t you see, had been planning to be assistant–manager by and by under the present man, and I could see that the coming of that Kurtz had upset them both not a little. He talked precipitately, and I did not try to stop him. I had my shoulders against the wreck of my steamer, hauled up on the slope like a carcass of some big river animal. The smell of mud, of primeval mud, by Jove! was in my nostrils, the high stillness of primeval forest was before my eyes; there were shiny patches on the black creek. The moon had spread over everything a thin layer of silver—over the rank grass, over the mud, upon the wall of matted vegetation standing higher than the wall of a temple, over the great river I could see through a sombre gap glittering, glittering, as it flowed broadly by without a murmur. All this was great, expectant, mute, while the man jabbered about himself. I wondered whether the stillness on the face of the immensity looking at us two were meant as an appeal
or as a menace. What were we who had strayed in here? Could we handle that dumb thing, or would it handle us? I felt how big, how confoundedly big, was that thing that couldn’t talk, and perhaps was deaf as well. What was in there? I could see a little ivory coming out from there, and I had heard Mr. Kurtz was in there. I had heard enough about it, too—God knows! Yet somehow it didn’t bring any image with it—no more than if I had been told an angel or a fiend was in there. I believed it in the same way one of you might believe there are inhabitants in the planet Mars. I knew once a Scotch sailmaker who was certain, dead sure, there were people in Mars. If you asked him for some idea how they looked and behaved, he would get shy and mutter something about ‘walking on all–fours.’ If you as much as smiled, he would—though a man of sixty— offer to fight you. I would not have gone so far as to fight for Kurtz, but I went for him near enough to a lie. You know I hate, detest, and can’t bear a lie, not because I am straighter than the rest of us, but simply because it appalls me. There is a taint of death, a flavour of mortality in lies—which is exactly what I hate and detest in the world—what I want to forget. It makes me miserable and sick, like biting something rotten would do. Temperament, I suppose. Well, I went near enough to it by letting the young fool there believe anything he liked to imagine as to my influence in Europe. I became in an instant as much of a pretence as the rest of the bewitched pilgrims. This simply because I had a notion it somehow would be of help to that Kurtz whom at the time I did not see—you understand. He was just a word for me. I did not see the man in the name any more than you do. Do you see him? Do you see the story? Do you see anything? It seems to me I am trying to tell you a dream—making a vain attempt, because no relation of a dream can convey the dream–sensation, that commingling of absurdity, surprise, and bewilderment in a tremor of struggling revolt, that notion of being captured by the incredible which is of the very essence of dreams… .” He was silent for a while. “… No, it is impossible; it is impossible to convey the life–sensation of any given epoch of one’s existence—that which makes its truth, its meaning—its subtle and penetrating essence. It is impossible. We live, as we dream—alone… .” He paused again as if reflecting, then added: “Of course in this you fellows see more than I could then. You see me, whom you know… .”
It had become so pitch dark that we listeners could hardly see one another. For a long time already he, sitting apart, had been no more to us than a voice. There was not a word from anybody. The others might have been asleep, but I was awake. I listened, I listened on the watch for the sentence, for the word, that would give me the clue to the faint uneasiness inspired by this narrative that seemed to shape itself without human lips in the heavy night–air of the river. “… Yes—I let him run on,” Marlow began again, “and think what he pleased about the powers that were behind me. I did! And there was nothing behind me! There was nothing but that wretched, old, mangled steamboat I was leaning against, while he talked fluently about ‘the necessity for every man to get on.’ ‘And when one comes out here, you conceive, it is not to gaze at the moon.’ Mr. Kurtz was a ‘universal genius,’ but even a genius would find it easier to work with ‘adequate tools—intelligent men.’ He did not make bricks—why, there was a physical impossibility in the way—as I was well aware; and if he did secretarial work for the manager, it was because ‘no sensible man rejects wantonly the confidence of his superiors.’ Did I see it? I saw it. What more did I want? What I really wanted was rivets, by heaven! Rivets. To get on with the work—to stop the hole. Rivets I wanted. There were cases of them down at the coast—cases—piled up—burst—split! You kicked a loose rivet at every second step in that station–yard on the hillside. Rivets had rolled into the grove of death. You could fill your pockets with rivets for the trouble of stooping down—and there wasn’t one rivet to be found where it was wanted. We had plates that would do, but nothing to fasten them with. And every week the messenger, a long negro, letter–bag on shoulder and staff in hand, left our station for the coast. And several times a week a coast caravan came in with trade goods—ghastly glazed calico that made you shudder only to look at it, glass beads value about a penny a quart, confounded spotted cotton handkerchiefs. And no rivets. Three carriers could have brought all that was wanted to set that steamboat afloat. “He was becoming confidential now, but I fancy my unresponsive attitude must have exasperated him at last, for he judged it necessary to inform me he feared neither God nor devil, let alone any mere man. I said I could see that very well, but what I wanted was a certain quantity of rivets—and rivets were what really Mr. Kurtz wanted, if he had only known it. Now letters went to the coast every week… . ‘My dear sir,’ he cried, ‘I write from dictation.’ I demanded rivets. There was a way—for an intelligent man. He changed his manner; became very cold, and suddenly began to talk about a hippopotamus; wondered whether sleeping on board the steamer (I stuck to my salvage night and day) I wasn’t
disturbed. There was an old hippo that had the bad habit of getting out on the bank and roaming at night over the station grounds. The pilgrims used to turn out in a body and empty every rifle they could lay hands on at him. Some even had sat up o’ nights for him. All this energy was wasted, though. ‘That animal has a charmed life,’ he said; ‘but you can say this only of brutes in this country. No man—you apprehend me?—no man here bears a charmed life.’ He stood there for a moment in the moonlight with his delicate hooked nose set a little askew, and his mica eyes glittering without a wink, then, with a curt Good–night, he strode off. I could see he was disturbed and considerably puzzled, which made me feel more hopeful than I had been for days. It was a great comfort to turn from that chap to my influential friend, the battered, twisted, ruined, tin–pot steamboat. I clambered on board. She rang under my feet like an empty Huntley & Palmer biscuit–tin kicked along a gutter; she was nothing so solid in make, and rather less pretty in shape, but I had expended enough hard work on her to make me love her. No influential friend would have served me better. She had given me a chance to come out a bit—to find out what I could do. No, I don’t like work. I had rather laze about and think of all the fine things that can be done. I don’t like work—no man does—but I like what is in the work—the chance to find yourself. Your own reality—for yourself, not for others—what no other man can ever know. They can only see the mere show, and never can tell what it really means. “I was not surprised to see somebody sitting aft, on the deck, with his legs dangling over the mud. You see I rather chummed with the few mechanics there were in that station, whom the other pilgrims naturally despised—on account of their imperfect manners, I suppose. This was the foreman—a boiler–maker by trade—a good worker. He was a lank, bony, yellow–faced man, with big intense eyes. His aspect was worried, and his head was as bald as the palm of my hand; but his hair in falling seemed to have stuck to his chin, and had prospered in the new locality, for his beard hung down to his waist. He was a widower with six young children (he had left them in charge of a sister of his to come out there), and the passion of his life was pigeon–flying. He was an enthusiast and a connoisseur. He would rave about pigeons. After work hours he used sometimes to come over from his hut for a talk about his children and his pigeons; at work, when he had to crawl in the mud under the bottom of the steamboat, he would tie up that beard of his in a kind of white serviette he brought for the purpose. It had loops to go over his ears. In the evening he could be seen squatted on the bank rinsing that wrapper in the creek with great care, then spreading it solemnly on a bush to dry.
“I slapped him on the back and shouted, ‘We shall have rivets!’ He scrambled to his feet exclaiming, ‘No! Rivets!’ as though he couldn’t believe his ears. Then in a low voice, ‘You … eh?’ I don’t know why we behaved like lunatics. I put my finger to the side of my nose and nodded mysteriously. ‘Good for you!’ he cried, snapped his fingers above his head, lifting one foot. I tried a jig. We capered on the iron deck. A frightful clatter came out of that hulk, and the virgin forest on the other bank of the creek sent it back in a thundering roll upon the sleeping station. It must have made some of the pilgrims sit up in their hovels. A dark figure obscured the lighted doorway of the manager’s hut, vanished, then, a second or so after, the doorway itself vanished, too. We stopped, and the silence driven away by the stamping of our feet flowed back again from the recesses of the land. The great wall of vegetation, an exuberant and entangled mass of trunks, branches, leaves, boughs, festoons, motionless in the moonlight, was like a rioting invasion of soundless life, a rolling wave of plants, piled up, crested, ready to topple over the creek, to sweep every little man of us out of his little existence. And it moved not. A deadened burst of mighty splashes and snorts reached us from afar, as though an icthyosaurus had been taking a bath of glitter in the great river. ‘After all,’ said the boiler–maker in a reasonable tone, ‘why shouldn’t we get the rivets?’ Why not, indeed! I did not know of any reason why we shouldn’t. ‘They’ll come in three weeks,’ I said confidently. “But they didn’t. Instead of rivets there came an invasion, an infliction, a visitation. It came in sections during the next three weeks, each section headed by a donkey carrying a white man in new clothes and tan shoes, bowing from that elevation right and left to the impressed pilgrims. A quarrelsome band of footsore sulky niggers trod on the heels of the donkey; a lot of tents, camp– stools, tin boxes, white cases, brown bales would be shot down in the courtyard, and the air of mystery would deepen a little over the muddle of the station. Five such instalments came, with their absurd air of disorderly flight with the loot of innumerable outfit shops and provision stores, that, one would think, they were lugging, after a raid, into the wilderness for equitable division. It was an inextricable mess of things decent in themselves but that human folly made look like the spoils of thieving. “This devoted band called itself the Eldorado Exploring Expedition, and I believe they were sworn to secrecy. Their talk, however, was the talk of sordid buccaneers: it was reckless without hardihood, greedy without audacity, and cruel without courage; there was not an atom of foresight or of serious intention in the whole batch of them, and they did not seem aware these things are wanted
for the work of the world. To tear treasure out of the bowels of the land was their desire, with no more moral purpose at the back of it than there is in burglars breaking into a safe. Who paid the expenses of the noble enterprise I don’t know; but the uncle of our manager was leader of that lot. “In exterior he resembled a butcher in a poor neighbourhood, and his eyes had a look of sleepy cunning. He carried his fat paunch with ostentation on his short legs, and during the time his gang infested the station spoke to no one but his nephew. You could see these two roaming about all day long with their heads close together in an everlasting confab. “I had given up worrying myself about the rivets. One’s capacity for that kind of folly is more limited than you would suppose. I said Hang!—and let things slide. I had plenty of time for meditation, and now and then I would give some thought to Kurtz. I wasn’t very interested in him. No. Still, I was curious to see whether this man, who had come out equipped with moral ideas of some sort, would climb to the top after all and how he would set about his work when there.”
Heart of Darkness/Section II
“One evening as I was lying flat on the deck of my steamboat, I heard voices approaching—and there were the nephew and the uncle strolling along the bank. I laid my head on my arm again, and had nearly lost myself in a doze, when somebody said in my ear, as it were: ‘I am as harmless as a little child, but I don’t like to be dictated to. Am I the manager—or am I not? I was ordered to send him there. It’s incredible.’ … I became aware that the two were standing on the shore alongside the forepart of the steamboat, just below my head. I did not move; it did not occur to me to move: I was sleepy. ‘It IS unpleasant,’ grunted the uncle. ‘He has asked the Administration to be sent there,’ said the other, ‘with the idea of showing what he could do; and I was instructed accordingly. Look at the influence that man must have. Is it not frightful?’ They both agreed it was frightful, then made several bizarre remarks: ‘Make rain and fine weather— one man—the Council—by the nose’—bits of absurd sentences that got the better of my drowsiness, so that I had pretty near the whole of my wits about me when the uncle said, ‘The climate may do away with this difficulty for you. Is he alone there?’ ‘Yes,’ answered the manager; ‘he sent his assistant down the river with a note to me in these terms: “Clear this poor devil out of the country, and don’t bother sending more of that sort. I had rather be alone than have the kind of men you can dispose of with me.” It was more than a year ago. Can you imagine such impudence!’ ‘Anything since then?’ asked the other hoarsely. ‘Ivory,’ jerked the nephew; ‘lots of it—prime sort—lots—most annoying, from him.’ ‘And with that?’ questioned the heavy rumble. ‘Invoice,’ was the reply fired out, so to speak. Then silence. They had been talking about Kurtz. “I was broad awake by this time, but, lying perfectly at ease, remained still, having no inducement to change my position. ‘How did that ivory come all this way?’ growled the elder man, who seemed very vexed. The other explained that it had come with a fleet of canoes in charge of an English half–caste clerk Kurtz had with him; that Kurtz had apparently intended to return himself, the station being by that time bare of goods and stores, but after coming three hundred miles, had suddenly decided to go back, which he started to do alone in a small dugout with four paddlers, leaving the half–caste to continue down the river with the ivory. The two fellows there seemed astounded at anybody attempting such a
thing. They were at a loss for an adequate motive. As to me, I seemed to see Kurtz for the first time. It was a distinct glimpse: the dugout, four paddling savages, and the lone white man turning his back suddenly on the headquarters, on relief, on thoughts of home—perhaps; setting his face towards the depths of the wilderness, towards his empty and desolate station. I did not know the motive. Perhaps he was just simply a fine fellow who stuck to his work for its own sake. His name, you understand, had not been pronounced once. He was ‘that man.’ The half–caste, who, as far as I could see, had conducted a difficult trip with great prudence and pluck, was invariably alluded to as ‘that scoundrel.’ The ‘scoundrel’ had reported that the ‘man’ had been very ill—had recovered imperfectly… . The two below me moved away then a few paces, and strolled back and forth at some little distance. I heard: ‘Military post—doctor—two hundred miles—quite alone now—unavoidable delays—nine months—no news —strange rumours.’ They approached again, just as the manager was saying, ‘No one, as far as I know, unless a species of wandering trader—a pestilential fellow, snapping ivory from the natives.’ Who was it they were talking about now? I gathered in snatches that this was some man supposed to be in Kurtz’s district, and of whom the manager did not approve. ‘We will not be free from unfair competition till one of these fellows is hanged for an example,’ he said. ‘Certainly,’ grunted the other; ‘get him hanged! Why not? Anything—anything can be done in this country. That’s what I say; nobody here, you understand, HERE, can endanger your position. And why? You stand the climate—you outlast them all. The danger is in Europe; but there before I left I took care to—’ They moved off and whispered, then their voices rose again. ‘The extraordinary series of delays is not my fault. I did my best.’ The fat man sighed. ‘Very sad.’ ‘And the pestiferous absurdity of his talk,’ continued the other; ‘he bothered me enough when he was here. “Each station should be like a beacon on the road towards better things, a centre for trade of course, but also for humanizing, improving, instructing.” Conceive you—that ass! And he wants to be manager! No, it’s—’ Here he got choked by excessive indignation, and I lifted my head the least bit. I was surprised to see how near they were—right under me. I could have spat upon their hats. They were looking on the ground, absorbed in thought. The manager was switching his leg with a slender twig: his sagacious relative lifted his head. ‘You have been well since you came out this time?’ he asked. The other gave a start. ‘Who? I? Oh! Like a charm—like a charm. But the rest—oh, my goodness! All sick. They die so quick, too, that I haven’t the time to send them out of the country—it’s incredible!’ ‘Hm’m. Just so,’ grunted the uncle. ‘Ah! my boy, trust to this—I say, trust to this.’ I saw him extend his short flipper of an arm for a gesture that took in the forest, the creek, the mud, the river—
seemed to beckon with a dishonouring flourish before the sunlit face of the land a treacherous appeal to the lurking death, to the hidden evil, to the profound darkness of its heart. It was so startling that I leaped to my feet and looked back at the edge of the forest, as though I had expected an answer of some sort to that black display of confidence. You know the foolish notions that come to one sometimes. The high stillness confronted these two figures with its ominous patience, waiting for the passing away of a fantastic invasion. “They swore aloud together—out of sheer fright, I believe—then pretending not to know anything of my existence, turned back to the station. The sun was low; and leaning forward side by side, they seemed to be tugging painfully uphill their two ridiculous shadows of unequal length, that trailed behind them slowly over the tall grass without bending a single blade. “In a few days the Eldorado Expedition went into the patient wilderness, that closed upon it as the sea closes over a diver. Long afterwards the news came that all the donkeys were dead. I know nothing as to the fate of the less valuable animals. They, no doubt, like the rest of us, found what they deserved. I did not inquire. I was then rather excited at the prospect of meeting Kurtz very soon. When I say very soon I mean it comparatively. It was just two months from the day we left the creek when we came to the bank below Kurtz’s station. “Going up that river was like traveling back to the earliest beginnings of the world, when vegetation rioted on the earth and the big trees were kings. An empty stream, a great silence, an impenetrable forest. The air was warm, thick, heavy, sluggish. There was no joy in the brilliance of sunshine. The long stretches of the waterway ran on, deserted, into the gloom of overshadowed distances. On silvery sand–banks hippos and alligators sunned themselves side by side. The broadening waters flowed through a mob of wooded islands; you lost your way on that river as you would in a desert, and butted all day long against shoals, trying to find the channel, till you thought yourself bewitched and cut off for ever from everything you had known once—somewhere—far away— in another existence perhaps. There were moments when one’s past came back to one, as it will sometimes when you have not a moment to spare for yourself; but it came in the shape of an unrestful and noisy dream, remembered with wonder amongst the overwhelming realities of this strange world of plants, and water, and silence. And this stillness of life did not in the least resemble a peace. It was the stillness of an implacable force brooding over an inscrutable intention. It looked at you with a vengeful aspect. I got used to it afterwards; I did not see it
any more; I had no time. I had to keep guessing at the channel; I had to discern, mostly by inspiration, the signs of hidden banks; I watched for sunken stones; I was learning to clap my teeth smartly before my heart flew out, when I shaved by a fluke some infernal sly old snag that would have ripped the life out of the tin–pot steamboat and drowned all the pilgrims; I had to keep a lookout for the signs of dead wood we could cut up in the night for next day’s steaming. When you have to attend to things of that sort, to the mere incidents of the surface, the reality—the reality, I tell you—fades. The inner truth is hidden—luckily, luckily. But I felt it all the same; I felt often its mysterious stillness watching me at my monkey tricks, just as it watches you fellows performing on your respective tight–ropes for—what is it? half–a–crown a tumble—” “Try to be civil, Marlow,” growled a voice, and I knew there was at least one listener awake besides myself. “I beg your pardon. I forgot the heartache which makes up the rest of the price. And indeed what does the price matter, if the trick be well done? You do your tricks very well. And I didn’t do badly either, since I managed not to sink that steamboat on my first trip. It’s a wonder to me yet. Imagine a blindfolded man set to drive a van over a bad road. I sweated and shivered over that business considerably, I can tell you. After all, for a seaman, to scrape the bottom of the thing that’s supposed to float all the time under his care is the unpardonable sin. No one may know of it, but you never forget the thump—eh? A blow on the very heart. You remember it, you dream of it, you wake up at night and think of it— years after—and go hot and cold all over. I don’t pretend to say that steamboat floated all the time. More than once she had to wade for a bit, with twenty cannibals splashing around and pushing. We had enlisted some of these chaps on the way for a crew. Fine fellows—cannibals—in their place. They were men one could work with, and I am grateful to them. And, after all, they did not eat each other before my face: they had brought along a provision of hippo–meat which went rotten, and made the mystery of the wilderness stink in my nostrils. Phoo! I can sniff it now. I had the manager on board and three or four pilgrims with their staves—all complete. Sometimes we came upon a station close by the bank, clinging to the skirts of the unknown, and the white men rushing out of a tumble–down hovel, with great gestures of joy and surprise and welcome, seemed very strange—had the appearance of being held there captive by a spell. The word ivory would ring in the air for a while—and on we went again into the silence, along empty reaches, round the still bends, between the high walls of our winding way, reverberating in hollow claps the ponderous beat of the stern–
wheel. Trees, trees, millions of trees, massive, immense, running up high; and at their foot, hugging the bank against the stream, crept the little begrimed steamboat, like a sluggish beetle crawling on the floor of a lofty portico. It made you feel very small, very lost, and yet it was not altogether depressing, that feeling. After all, if you were small, the grimy beetle crawled on—which was just what you wanted it to do. Where the pilgrims imagined it crawled to I don’t know. To some place where they expected to get something. I bet! For me it crawled towards Kurtz—exclusively; but when the steam–pipes started leaking we crawled very slow. The reaches opened before us and closed behind, as if the forest had stepped leisurely across the water to bar the way for our return. We penetrated deeper and deeper into the heart of darkness. It was very quiet there. At night sometimes the roll of drums behind the curtain of trees would run up the river and remain sustained faintly, as if hovering in the air high over our heads, till the first break of day. Whether it meant war, peace, or prayer we could not tell. The dawns were heralded by the descent of a chill stillness; the wood– cutters slept, their fires burned low; the snapping of a twig would make you start. We were wanderers on a prehistoric earth, on an earth that wore the aspect of an unknown planet. We could have fancied ourselves the first of men taking possession of an accursed inheritance, to be subdued at the cost of profound anguish and of excessive toil. But suddenly, as we struggled round a bend, there would be a glimpse of rush walls, of peaked grass–roofs, a burst of yells, a whirl of black limbs, a mass of hands clapping. of feet stamping, of bodies swaying, of eyes rolling, under the droop of heavy and motionless foliage. The steamer toiled along slowly on the edge of a black and incomprehensible frenzy. The prehistoric man was cursing us, praying to us, welcoming us—who could tell? We were cut off from the comprehension of our surroundings; we glided past like phantoms, wondering and secretly appalled, as sane men would be before an enthusiastic outbreak in a madhouse. We could not understand because we were too far and could not remember because we were travelling in the night of first ages, of those ages that are gone, leaving hardly a sign—and no memories. “The earth seemed unearthly. We are accustomed to look upon the shackled form of a conquered monster, but there—there you could look at a thing monstrous and free. It was unearthly, and the men were—No, they were not inhuman. Well, you know, that was the worst of it—this suspicion of their not being inhuman. It would come slowly to one. They howled and leaped, and spun, and made horrid faces; but what thrilled you was just the thought of their humanity—like yours— the thought of your remote kinship with this wild and passionate uproar. Ugly. Yes, it was ugly enough; but if you were man enough you would admit to
yourself that there was in you just the faintest trace of a response to the terrible frankness of that noise, a dim suspicion of there being a meaning in it which you —you so remote from the night of first ages—could comprehend. And why not? The mind of man is capable of anything—because everything is in it, all the past as well as all the future. What was there after all? Joy, fear, sorrow, devotion, valour, rage—who can tell?—but truth—truth stripped of its cloak of time. Let the fool gape and shudder—the man knows, and can look on without a wink. But he must at least be as much of a man as these on the shore. He must meet that truth with his own true stuff—with his own inborn strength. Principles won’t do. Acquisitions, clothes, pretty rags—rags that would fly off at the first good shake. No; you want a deliberate belief. An appeal to me in this fiendish row—is there? Very well; I hear; I admit, but I have a voice, too, and for good or evil mine is the speech that cannot be silenced. Of course, a fool, what with sheer fright and fine sentiments, is always safe. Who’s that grunting? You wonder I didn’t go ashore for a howl and a dance? Well, no—I didn’t. Fine sentiments, you say? Fine sentiments, be hanged! I had no time. I had to mess about with white–lead and strips of woolen blanket helping to put bandages on those leaky steam–pipes —I tell you. I had to watch the steering, and circumvent those snags, and get the tin–pot along by hook or by crook. There was surface–truth enough in these things to save a wiser man. And between whiles I had to look after the savage who was fireman. He was an improved specimen; he could fire up a vertical boiler. He was there below me, and, upon my word, to look at him was as edifying as seeing a dog in a parody of breeches and a feather hat, walking on his hind–legs. A few months of training had done for that really fine chap. He squinted at the steam–gauge and at the water–gauge with an evident effort of intrepidity—and he had filed teeth, too, the poor devil, and the wool of his pate shaved into queer patterns, and three ornamental scars on each of his cheeks. He ought to have been clapping his hands and stamping his feet on the bank, instead of which he was hard at work, a thrall to strange witchcraft, full of improving knowledge. He was useful because he had been instructed; and what he knew was this—that should the water in that transparent thing disappear, the evil spirit inside the boiler would get angry through the greatness of his thirst, and take a terrible vengeance. So he sweated and fired up and watched the glass fearfully (with an impromptu charm, made of rags, tied to his arm, and a piece of polished bone, as big as a watch, stuck flatways through his lower lip), while the wooded banks slipped past us slowly, the short noise was left behind, the interminable miles of silence—and we crept on, towards Kurtz. But the snags were thick, the water was treacherous and shallow, the boiler seemed indeed to have a sulky devil in it, and thus neither that fireman nor I had any time to peer into our
creepy thoughts. “Some fifty miles below the Inner Station we came upon a hut of reeds, an inclined and melancholy pole, with the unrecognizable tatters of what had been a flag of some sort flying from it, and a neatly stacked wood–pile. This was unexpected. We came to the bank, and on the stack of firewood found a flat piece of board with some faded pencil–writing on it. When deciphered it said: ‘Wood for you. Hurry up. Approach cautiously.’ There was a signature, but it was illegible—not Kurtz—a much longer word. ‘Hurry up.’ Where? Up the river? ‘Approach cautiously.’ We had not done so. But the warning could not have been meant for the place where it could be only found after approach. Something was wrong above. But what—and how much? That was the question. We commented adversely upon the imbecility of that telegraphic style. The bush around said nothing, and would not let us look very far, either. A torn curtain of red twill hung in the doorway of the hut, and flapped sadly in our faces. The dwelling was dismantled; but we could see a white man had lived there not very long ago. There remained a rude table—a plank on two posts; a heap of rubbish reposed in a dark corner, and by the door I picked up a book. It had lost its covers, and the pages had been thumbed into a state of extremely dirty softness; but the back had been lovingly stitched afresh with white cotton thread, which looked clean yet. It was an extraordinary find. Its title was, AN INQUIRY INTO SOME POINTS OF SEAMANSHIP, by a man Towser, Towson—some such name—Master in his Majesty’s Navy. The matter looked dreary reading enough, with illustrative diagrams and repulsive tables of figures, and the copy was sixty years old. I handled this amazing antiquity with the greatest possible tenderness, lest it should dissolve in my hands. Within, Towson or Towser was inquiring earnestly into the breaking strain of ships’ chains and tackle, and other such matters. Not a very enthralling book; but at the first glance you could see there a singleness of intention, an honest concern for the right way of going to work, which made these humble pages, thought out so many years ago, luminous with another than a professional light. The simple old sailor, with his talk of chains and purchases, made me forget the jungle and the pilgrims in a delicious sensation of having come upon something unmistakably real. Such a book being there was wonderful enough; but still more astounding were the notes pencilled in the margin, and plainly referring to the text. I couldn’t believe my eyes! They were in cipher! Yes, it looked like cipher. Fancy a man lugging with him a book of that description into this nowhere and studying it—and making notes—in cipher at that! It was an extravagant mystery.
“I had been dimly aware for some time of a worrying noise, and when I lifted my eyes I saw the wood–pile was gone, and the manager, aided by all the pilgrims, was shouting at me from the riverside. I slipped the book into my pocket. I assure you to leave off reading was like tearing myself away from the shelter of an old and solid friendship. “I started the lame engine ahead. ‘It must be this miserable trader–this intruder,’ exclaimed the manager, looking back malevolently at the place we had left. ‘He must be English,’ I said. ‘It will not save him from getting into trouble if he is not careful,’ muttered the manager darkly. I observed with assumed innocence that no man was safe from trouble in this world. “The current was more rapid now, the steamer seemed at her last gasp, the stern– wheel flopped languidly, and I caught myself listening on tiptoe for the next beat of the boat, for in sober truth I expected the wretched thing to give up every moment. It was like watching the last flickers of a life. But still we crawled. Sometimes I would pick out a tree a little way ahead to measure our progress towards Kurtz by, but I lost it invariably before we got abreast. To keep the eyes so long on one thing was too much for human patience. The manager displayed a beautiful resignation. I fretted and fumed and took to arguing with myself whether or no I would talk openly with Kurtz; but before I could come to any conclusion it occurred to me that my speech or my silence, indeed any action of mine, would be a mere futility. What did it matter what any one knew or ignored? What did it matter who was manager? One gets sometimes such a flash of insight. The essentials of this affair lay deep under the surface, beyond my reach, and beyond my power of meddling. “Towards the evening of the second day we judged ourselves about eight miles from Kurtz’s station. I wanted to push on; but the manager looked grave, and told me the navigation up there was so dangerous that it would be advisable, the sun being very low already, to wait where we were till next morning. Moreover, he pointed out that if the warning to approach cautiously were to be followed, we must approach in daylight—not at dusk or in the dark. This was sensible enough. Eight miles meant nearly three hours’ steaming for us, and I could also see suspicious ripples at the upper end of the reach. Nevertheless, I was annoyed beyond expression at the delay, and most unreasonably, too, since one night more could not matter much after so many months. As we had plenty of wood, and caution was the word, I brought up in the middle of the stream. The reach was narrow, straight, with high sides like a railway cutting. The dusk came
gliding into it long before the sun had set. The current ran smooth and swift, but a dumb immobility sat on the banks. The living trees, lashed together by the creepers and every living bush of the undergrowth, might have been changed into stone, even to the slenderest twig, to the lightest leaf. It was not sleep—it seemed unnatural, like a state of trance. Not the faintest sound of any kind could be heard. You looked on amazed, and began to suspect yourself of being deaf— then the night came suddenly, and struck you blind as well. About three in the morning some large fish leaped, and the loud splash made me jump as though a gun had been fired. When the sun rose there was a white fog, very warm and clammy, and more blinding than the night. It did not shift or drive; it was just there, standing all round you like something solid. At eight or nine, perhaps, it lifted as a shutter lifts. We had a glimpse of the towering multitude of trees, of the immense matted jungle, with the blazing little ball of the sun hanging over it —all perfectly still—and then the white shutter came down again, smoothly, as if sliding in greased grooves. I ordered the chain, which we had begun to heave in, to be paid out again. Before it stopped running with a muffled rattle, a cry, a very loud cry, as of infinite desolation, soared slowly in the opaque air. It ceased. A complaining clamour, modulated in savage discords, filled our ears. The sheer unexpectedness of it made my hair stir under my cap. I don’t know how it struck the others: to me it seemed as though the mist itself had screamed, so suddenly, and apparently from all sides at once, did this tumultuous and mournful uproar arise. It culminated in a hurried outbreak of almost intolerably excessive shrieking, which stopped short, leaving us stiffened in a variety of silly attitudes, and obstinately listening to the nearly as appalling and excessive silence. ‘Good God! What is the meaning—’ stammered at my elbow one of the pilgrims—a little fat man, with sandy hair and red whiskers, who wore sidespring boots, and pink pyjamas tucked into his socks. Two others remained open–mouthed a while minute, then dashed into the little cabin, to rush out incontinently and stand darting scared glances, with Winchesters at ‘ready’ in their hands. What we could see was just the steamer we were on, her outlines blurred as though she had been on the point of dissolving, and a misty strip of water, perhaps two feet broad, around her—and that was all. The rest of the world was nowhere, as far as our eyes and ears were concerned. Just nowhere. Gone, disappeared; swept off without leaving a whisper or a shadow behind. “I went forward, and ordered the chain to be hauled in short, so as to be ready to trip the anchor and move the steamboat at once if necessary. ‘Will they attack?’ whispered an awed voice. ‘We will be all butchered in this fog,’ murmured another. The faces twitched with the strain, the hands trembled slightly, the eyes
forgot to wink. It was very curious to see the contrast of expressions of the white men and of the black fellows of our crew, who were as much strangers to that part of the river as we, though their homes were only eight hundred miles away. The whites, of course greatly discomposed, had besides a curious look of being painfully shocked by such an outrageous row. The others had an alert, naturally interested expression; but their faces were essentially quiet, even those of the one or two who grinned as they hauled at the chain. Several exchanged short, grunting phrases, which seemed to settle the matter to their satisfaction. Their headman, a young, broad–chested black, severely draped in dark–blue fringed cloths, with fierce nostrils and his hair all done up artfully in oily ringlets, stood near me. ‘Aha!’ I said, just for good fellowship’s sake. ‘Catch ’im,’ he snapped, with a bloodshot widening of his eyes and a flash of sharp teeth—‘catch ’im. Give ’im to us.’ ‘To you, eh?’ I asked; ‘what would you do with them?’ ‘Eat ’im!’ he said curtly, and, leaning his elbow on the rail, looked out into the fog in a dignified and profoundly pensive attitude. I would no doubt have been properly horrified, had it not occurred to me that he and his chaps must be very hungry: that they must have been growing increasingly hungry for at least this month past. They had been engaged for six months (I don’t think a single one of them had any clear idea of time, as we at the end of countless ages have. They still belonged to the beginnings of time—had no inherited experience to teach them as it were), and of course, as long as there was a piece of paper written over in accordance with some farcical law or other made down the river, it didn’t enter anybody’s head to trouble how they would live. Certainly they had brought with them some rotten hippo–meat, which couldn’t have lasted very long, anyway, even if the pilgrims hadn’t, in the midst of a shocking hullabaloo, thrown a considerable quantity of it overboard. It looked like a high–handed proceeding; but it was really a case of legitimate self–defence. You can’t breathe dead hippo waking, sleeping, and eating, and at the same time keep your precarious grip on existence. Besides that, they had given them every week three pieces of brass wire, each about nine inches long; and the theory was they were to buy their provisions with that currency in riverside villages. You can see how THAT worked. There were either no villages, or the people were hostile, or the director, who like the rest of us fed out of tins, with an occasional old he–goat thrown in, didn’t want to stop the steamer for some more or less recondite reason. So, unless they swallowed the wire itself, or made loops of it to snare the fishes with, I don’t see what good their extravagant salary could be to them. I must say it was paid with a regularity worthy of a large and honourable trading company. For the rest, the only thing to eat—though it didn’t look eatable in the least—I saw in their possession was a few lumps of some stuff like half–cooked
dough, of a dirty lavender colour, they kept wrapped in leaves, and now and then swallowed a piece of, but so small that it seemed done more for the looks of the thing than for any serious purpose of sustenance. Why in the name of all the gnawing devils of hunger they didn’t go for us—they were thirty to five—and have a good tuck–in for once, amazes me now when I think of it. They were big powerful men, with not much capacity to weigh the consequences, with courage, with strength, even yet, though their skins were no longer glossy and their muscles no longer hard. And I saw that something restraining, one of those human secrets that baffle probability, had come into play there. I looked at them with a swift quickening of interest—not because it occurred to me I might be eaten by them before very long, though I own to you that just then I perceived— in a new light, as it were—how unwholesome the pilgrims looked, and I hoped, yes, I positively hoped, that my aspect was not so—what shall I say?—so— unappetizing: a touch of fantastic vanity which fitted well with the dream– sensation that pervaded all my days at that time. Perhaps I had a little fever, too. One can’t live with one’s finger everlastingly on one’s pulse. I had often ‘a little fever,’ or a little touch of other things—the playful paw–strokes of the wilderness, the preliminary trifling before the more serious onslaught which came in due course. Yes; I looked at them as you would on any human being, with a curiosity of their impulses, motives, capacities, weaknesses, when brought to the test of an inexorable physical necessity. Restraint! What possible restraint? Was it superstition, disgust, patience, fear—or some kind of primitive honour? No fear can stand up to hunger, no patience can wear it out, disgust simply does not exist where hunger is; and as to superstition, beliefs, and what you may call principles, they are less than chaff in a breeze. Don’t you know the devilry of lingering starvation, its exasperating torment, its black thoughts, its sombre and brooding ferocity? Well, I do. It takes a man all his inborn strength to fight hunger properly. It’s really easier to face bereavement, dishonour, and the perdition of one’s soul—than this kind of prolonged hunger. Sad, but true. And these chaps, too, had no earthly reason for any kind of scruple. Restraint! I would just as soon have expected restraint from a hyena prowling amongst the corpses of a battlefield. But there was the fact facing me—the fact dazzling, to be seen, like the foam on the depths of the sea, like a ripple on an unfathomable enigma, a mystery greater—when I thought of it—than the curious, inexplicable note of desperate grief in this savage clamour that had swept by us on the river– bank, behind the blind whiteness of the fog. “Two pilgrims were quarrelling in hurried whispers as to which bank. ‘Left.’ “no, no; how can you? Right, right, of course.’ ‘It is very serious,’ said the
manager’s voice behind me; ‘I would be desolated if anything should happen to Mr. Kurtz before we came up.’ I looked at him, and had not the slightest doubt he was sincere. He was just the kind of man who would wish to preserve appearances. That was his restraint. But when he muttered something about going on at once, I did not even take the trouble to answer him. I knew, and he knew, that it was impossible. Were we to let go our hold of the bottom, we would be absolutely in the air—in space. We wouldn’t be able to tell where we were going to—whether up or down stream, or across—till we fetched against one bank or the other—and then we wouldn’t know at first which it was. Of course I made no move. I had no mind for a smash–up. You couldn’t imagine a more deadly place for a shipwreck. Whether we drowned at once or not, we were sure to perish speedily in one way or another. ‘I authorize you to take all the risks,’ he said, after a short silence. ‘I refuse to take any,’ I said shortly; which was just the answer he expected, though its tone might have surprised him. ‘Well, I must defer to your judgment. You are captain,’ he said with marked civility. I turned my shoulder to him in sign of my appreciation, and looked into the fog. How long would it last? It was the most hopeless lookout. The approach to this Kurtz grubbing for ivory in the wretched bush was beset by as many dangers as though he had been an enchanted princess sleeping in a fabulous castle. ‘Will they attack, do you think?’ asked the manager, in a confidential tone. “I did not think they would attack, for several obvious reasons. The thick fog was one. If they left the bank in their canoes they would get lost in it, as we would be if we attempted to move. Still, I had also judged the jungle of both banks quite impenetrable—and yet eyes were in it, eyes that had seen us. The riverside bushes were certainly very thick; but the undergrowth behind was evidently penetrable. However, during the short lift I had seen no canoes anywhere in the reach—certainly not abreast of the steamer. But what made the idea of attack inconceivable to me was the nature of the noise—of the cries we had heard. They had not the fierce character boding immediate hostile intention. Unexpected, wild, and violent as they had been, they had given me an irresistible impression of sorrow. The glimpse of the steamboat had for some reason filled those savages with unrestrained grief. The danger, if any, I expounded, was from our proximity to a great human passion let loose. Even extreme grief may ultimately vent itself in violence—but more generally takes the form of apathy… . “You should have seen the pilgrims stare! They had no heart to grin, or even to revile me: but I believe they thought me gone mad—with fright, maybe. I
delivered a regular lecture. My dear boys, it was no good bothering. Keep a lookout? Well, you may guess I watched the fog for the signs of lifting as a cat watches a mouse; but for anything else our eyes were of no more use to us than if we had been buried miles deep in a heap of cotton–wool. It felt like it, too— choking, warm, stifling. Besides, all I said, though it sounded extravagant, was absolutely true to fact. What we afterwards alluded to as an attack was really an attempt at repulse. The action was very far from being aggressive—it was not even defensive, in the usual sense: it was undertaken under the stress of desperation, and in its essence was purely protective. “It developed itself, I should say, two hours after the fog lifted, and its commencement was at a spot, roughly speaking, about a mile and a half below Kurtz’s station. We had just floundered and flopped round a bend, when I saw an islet, a mere grassy hummock of bright green, in the middle of the stream. It was the only thing of the kind; but as we opened the reach more, I perceived it was the head of a long sand–bank, or rather of a chain of shallow patches stretching down the middle of the river. They were discoloured, just awash, and the whole lot was seen just under the water, exactly as a man’s backbone is seen running down the middle of his back under the skin. Now, as far as I did see, I could go to the right or to the left of this. I didn’t know either channel, of course. The banks looked pretty well alike, the depth appeared the same; but as I had been informed the station was on the west side, I naturally headed for the western passage. “No sooner had we fairly entered it than I became aware it was much narrower than I had supposed. To the left of us there was the long uninterrupted shoal, and to the right a high, steep bank heavily overgrown with bushes. Above the bush the trees stood in serried ranks. The twigs overhung the current thickly, and from distance to distance a large limb of some tree projected rigidly over the stream. It was then well on in the afternoon, the face of the forest was gloomy, and a broad strip of shadow had already fallen on the water. In this shadow we steamed up— very slowly, as you may imagine. I sheered her well inshore—the water being deepest near the bank, as the sounding–pole informed me. “One of my hungry and forbearing friends was sounding in the bows just below me. This steamboat was exactly like a decked scow. On the deck, there were two little teakwood houses, with doors and windows. The boiler was in the fore–end, and the machinery right astern. Over the whole there was a light roof, supported on stanchions. The funnel projected through that roof, and in front of the funnel
a small cabin built of light planks served for a pilot–house. It contained a couch, two camp–stools, a loaded Martini–Henry leaning in one corner, a tiny table, and the steering–wheel. It had a wide door in front and a broad shutter at each side. All these were always thrown open, of course. I spent my days perched up there on the extreme fore–end of that roof, before the door. At night I slept, or tried to, on the couch. An athletic black belonging to some coast tribe and educated by my poor predecessor, was the helmsman. He sported a pair of brass earrings, wore a blue cloth wrapper from the waist to the ankles, and thought all the world of himself. He was the most unstable kind of fool I had ever seen. He steered with no end of a swagger while you were by; but if he lost sight of you, he became instantly the prey of an abject funk, and would let that cripple of a steamboat get the upper hand of him in a minute. “I was looking down at the sounding–pole, and feeling much annoyed to see at each try a little more of it stick out of that river, when I saw my poleman give up on the business suddenly, and stretch himself flat on the deck, without even taking the trouble to haul his pole in. He kept hold on it though, and it trailed in the water. At the same time the fireman, whom I could also see below me, sat down abruptly before his furnace and ducked his head. I was amazed. Then I had to look at the river mighty quick, because there was a snag in the fairway. Sticks, little sticks, were flying about—thick: they were whizzing before my nose, dropping below me, striking behind me against my pilot–house. All this time the river, the shore, the woods, were very quiet—perfectly quiet. I could only hear the heavy splashing thump of the stern–wheel and the patter of these things. We cleared the snag clumsily. Arrows, by Jove! We were being shot at! I stepped in quickly to close the shutter on the landside. That fool–helmsman, his hands on the spokes, was lifting his knees high, stamping his feet, champing his mouth, like a reined–in horse. Confound him! And we were staggering within ten feet of the bank. I had to lean right out to swing the heavy shutter, and I saw a face amongst the leaves on the level with my own, looking at me very fierce and steady; and then suddenly, as though a veil had been removed from my eyes, I made out, deep in the tangled gloom, naked breasts, arms, legs, glaring eyes— the bush was swarming with human limbs in movement, glistening. of bronze colour. The twigs shook, swayed, and rustled, the arrows flew out of them, and then the shutter came to. ‘Steer her straight,’ I said to the helmsman. He held his head rigid, face forward; but his eyes rolled, he kept on lifting and setting down his feet gently, his mouth foamed a little. ‘Keep quiet!’ I said in a fury. I might just as well have ordered a tree not to sway in the wind. I darted out. Below me there was a great scuffle of feet on the iron deck; confused exclamations; a voice
screamed, ‘Can you turn back?’ I caught sight of a V–shaped ripple on the water ahead. What? Another snag! A fusillade burst out under my feet. The pilgrims had opened with their Winchesters, and were simply squirting lead into that bush. A deuce of a lot of smoke came up and drove slowly forward. I swore at it. Now I couldn’t see the ripple or the snag either. I stood in the doorway, peering, and the arrows came in swarms. They might have been poisoned, but they looked as though they wouldn’t kill a cat. The bush began to howl. Our wood– cutters raised a warlike whoop; the report of a rifle just at my back deafened me. I glanced over my shoulder, and the pilot–house was yet full of noise and smoke when I made a dash at the wheel. The fool–nigger had dropped everything, to throw the shutter open and let off that Martini–Henry. He stood before the wide opening, glaring, and I yelled at him to come back, while I straightened the sudden twist out of that steamboat. There was no room to turn even if I had wanted to, the snag was somewhere very near ahead in that confounded smoke, there was no time to lose, so I just crowded her into the bank—right into the bank, where I knew the water was deep. “We tore slowly along the overhanging bushes in a whirl of broken twigs and flying leaves. The fusillade below stopped short, as I had foreseen it would when the squirts got empty. I threw my head back to a glinting whizz that traversed the pilot–house, in at one shutter–hole and out at the other. Looking past that mad helmsman, who was shaking the empty rifle and yelling at the shore, I saw vague forms of men running bent double, leaping, gliding, distinct, incomplete, evanescent. Something big appeared in the air before the shutter, the rifle went overboard, and the man stepped back swiftly, looked at me over his shoulder in an extraordinary, profound, familiar manner, and fell upon my feet. The side of his head hit the wheel twice, and the end of what appeared a long cane clattered round and knocked over a little camp–stool. It looked as though after wrenching that thing from somebody ashore he had lost his balance in the effort. The thin smoke had blown away, we were clear of the snag, and looking ahead I could see that in another hundred yards or so I would be free to sheer off, away from the bank; but my feet felt so very warm and wet that I had to look down. The man had rolled on his back and stared straight up at me; both his hands clutched that cane. It was the shaft of a spear that, either thrown or lunged through the opening, had caught him in the side, just below the ribs; the blade had gone in out of sight, after making a frightful gash; my shoes were full; a pool of blood lay very still, gleaming dark–red under the wheel; his eyes shone with an amazing lustre. The fusillade burst out again. He looked at me anxiously, gripping the spear like something precious, with an air of being afraid I would
try to take it away from him. I had to make an effort to free my eyes from his gaze and attend to the steering. With one hand I felt above my head for the line of the steam whistle, and jerked out screech after screech hurriedly. The tumult of angry and warlike yells was checked instantly, and then from the depths of the woods went out such a tremulous and prolonged wail of mournful fear and utter despair as may be imagined to follow the flight of the last hope from the earth. There was a great commotion in the bush; the shower of arrows stopped, a few dropping shots rang out sharply—then silence, in which the languid beat of the stern–wheel came plainly to my ears. I put the helm hard a–starboard at the moment when the pilgrim in pink pyjamas, very hot and agitated, appeared in the doorway. ‘The manager sends me—’ he began in an official tone, and stopped short. ‘Good God!’ he said, glaring at the wounded man. “We two whites stood over him, and his lustrous and inquiring glance enveloped us both. I declare it looked as though he would presently put to us some questions in an understandable language; but he died without uttering a sound, without moving a limb, without twitching a muscle. Only in the very last moment, as though in response to some sign we could not see, to some whisper we could not hear, he frowned heavily, and that frown gave to his black death– mask an inconeivably sombre, brooding, and menacing expression. The lustre of inquiring glance faded swiftly into vacant glassiness. ‘Can you steer?’ I asked the agent eagerly. He looked very dubious; but I made a grab at his arm, and he understood at once I meant him to steer whether or no. To tell you the truth, I was morbidly anxious to change my shoes and socks. ‘He is dead,’ murmured the fellow, immensely impressed. ‘No doubt about it,’ said I, tugging like mad at the shoe–laces. ‘And by the way, I suppose Mr. Kurtz is dead as well by this time.’ “For the moment that was the dominant thought. There was a sense of extreme disappointment, as though I had found out I had been striving after something altogether without a substance. I couldn’t have been more disgusted if I had travelled all this way for the sole purpose of talking with Mr. Kurtz. Talking with … I flung one shoe overboard, and became aware that that was exactly what I had been looking forward to—a talk with Kurtz. I made the strange discovery that I had never imagined him as doing, you know, but as discoursing. I didn’t say to myself, ‘Now I will never see him,’ or ‘Now I will never shake him by the hand,’ but, ‘Now I will never hear him.’ The man presented himself as a voice. Not of course that I did not connect him with some sort of action. Hadn’t I been told in all the tones of jealousy and admiration that he had collected, bartered,
swindled, or stolen more ivory than all the other agents together? That was not the point. The point was in his being a gifted creature, and that of all his gifts the one that stood out preeminently, that carried with it a sense of real presence, was his ability to talk, his words—the gift of expression, the bewildering, the illuminating, the most exalted and the most contemptible, the pulsating stream of light, or the deceitful flow from the heart of an impenetrable darkness. “The other shoe went flying unto the devil–god of that river. I thought, ‘By Jove! it’s all over. We are too late; he has vanished—the gift has vanished, by means of some spear, arrow, or club. I will never hear that chap speak after all’—and my sorrow had a startling extravagance of emotion, even such as I had noticed in the howling sorrow of these savages in the bush. I couldn’t have felt more of lonely desolation somehow, had I been robbed of a belief or had missed my destiny in life… . Why do you sigh in this beastly way, somebody? Absurd? Well, absurd. Good Lord! mustn’t a man ever—Here, give me some tobacco.” … There was a pause of profound stillness, then a match flared, and Marlow’s lean face appeared, worn, hollow, with downward folds and dropped eyelids, with an aspect of concentrated attention; and as he took vigorous draws at his pipe, it seemed to retreat and advance out of the night in the regular flicker of tiny flame. The match went out. “Absurd!” he cried. “This is the worst of trying to tell… . Here you all are, each moored with two good addresses, like a hulk with two anchors, a butcher round one corner, a policeman round another, excellent appetites, and temperature normal—you hear—normal from year’s end to year’s end. And you say, Absurd! Absurd be—exploded! Absurd! My dear boys, what can you expect from a man who out of sheer nervousness had just flung overboard a pair of new shoes! Now I think of it, it is amazing I did not shed tears. I am, upon the whole, proud of my fortitude. I was cut to the quick at the idea of having lost the inestimable privilege of listening to the gifted Kurtz. Of course I was wrong. The privilege was waiting for me. Oh, yes, I heard more than enough. And I was right, too. A voice. He was very little more than a voice. And I heard—him—it—this voice— other voices—all of them were so little more than voices—and the memory of that time itself lingers around me, impalpable, like a dying vibration of one immense jabber, silly, atrocious, sordid, savage, or simply mean, without any kind of sense. Voices, voices—even the girl herself—now—” He was silent for a long time.
“I laid the ghost of his gifts at last with a lie,” he began, suddenly. “Girl! What? Did I mention a girl? Oh, she is out of it—completely. They—the women, I mean—are out of it—should be out of it. We must help them to stay in that beautiful world of their own, lest ours gets worse. Oh, she had to be out of it. You should have heard the disinterred body of Mr. Kurtz saying, ‘My Intended.’ You would have perceived directly then how completely she was out of it. And the lofty frontal bone of Mr. Kurtz! They say the hair goes on growing sometimes, but this—ah—specimen, was impressively bald. The wilderness had patted him on the head, and, behold, it was like a ball—an ivory ball; it had caressed him, and—lo!—he had withered; it had taken him, loved him, embraced him, got into his veins, consumed his flesh, and sealed his soul to its own by the inconceivable ceremonies of some devilish initiation. He was its spoiled and pampered favourite. Ivory? I should think so. Heaps of it, stacks of it. The old mud shanty was bursting with it. You would think there was not a single tusk left either above or below the ground in the whole country. ‘Mostly fossil,’ the manager had remarked, disparagingly. It was no more fossil than I am; but they call it fossil when it is dug up. It appears these niggers do bury the tusks sometimes—but evidently they couldn’t bury this parcel deep enough to save the gifted Mr. Kurtz from his fate. We filled the steamboat with it, and had to pile a lot on the deck. Thus he could see and enjoy as long as he could see, because the appreciation of this favour had remained with him to the last. You should have heard him say, ‘My ivory.’ Oh, yes, I heard him. ‘My Intended, my ivory, my station, my river, my—’ everything belonged to him. It made me hold my breath in expectation of hearing the wilderness burst into a prodigious peal of laughter that would shake the fixed stars in their places. Everything belonged to him—but that was a trifle. The thing was to know what he belonged to, how many powers of darkness claimed him for their own. That was the reflection that made you creepy all over. It was impossible—it was not good for one either— trying to imagine. He had taken a high seat amongst the devils of the land—I mean literally. You can’t understand. How could you?—with solid pavement under your feet, surrounded by kind neighbours ready to cheer you or to fall on you, stepping delicately between the butcher and the policeman, in the holy terror of scandal and gallows and lunatic asylums—how can you imagine what particular region of the first ages a man’s untrammelled feet may take him into by the way of solitude—utter solitude without a policeman—by the way of silence—utter silence, where no warning voice of a kind neighbour can be heard whispering of public opinion? These little things make all the great difference. When they are gone you must fall back upon your own innate strength, upon your own capacity for faithfulness. Of course you may be too much of a fool to
go wrong—too dull even to know you are being assaulted by the powers of darkness. I take it, no fool ever made a bargain for his soul with the devil; the fool is too much of a fool, or the devil too much of a devil—I don’t know which. Or you may be such a thunderingly exalted creature as to be altogether deaf and blind to anything but heavenly sights and sounds. Then the earth for you is only a standing place—and whether to be like this is your loss or your gain I won’t pretend to say. But most of us are neither one nor the other. The earth for us is a place to live in, where we must put up with sights, with sounds, with smells, too, by Jove!—breathe dead hippo, so to speak, and not be contaminated. And there, don’t you see? Your strength comes in, the faith in your ability for the digging of unostentatious holes to bury the stuff in—your power of devotion, not to yourself, but to an obscure, back–breaking business. And that’s difficult enough. Mind, I am not trying to excuse or even explain—I am trying to account to myself for—for—Mr. Kurtz—for the shade of Mr. Kurtz. This initiated wraith from the back of Nowhere honoured me with its amazing confidence before it vanished altogether. This was because it could speak English to me. The original Kurtz had been educated partly in England, and—as he was good enough to say himself—his sympathies were in the right place. His mother was half–English, his father was half–French. All Europe contributed to the making of Kurtz; and by and by I learned that, most appropriately, the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs had intrusted him with the making of a report, for its future guidance. And he had written it, too. I’ve seen it. I’ve read it. It was eloquent, vibrating with eloquence, but too high–strung, I think. Seventeen pages of close writing he had found time for! But this must have been before his—let us say—nerves, went wrong, and caused him to preside at certain midnight dances ending with unspeakable rites, which—as far as I reluctantly gathered from what I heard at various times—were offered up to him—do you understand?—to Mr. Kurtz himself. But it was a beautiful piece of writing. The opening paragraph, however, in the light of later information, strikes me now as ominous. He began with the argument that we whites, from the point of development we had arrived at, ‘must necessarily appear to them [savages] in the nature of supernatural beings—we approach them with the might of a deity,’ and so on, and so on. ‘By the simple exercise of our will we can exert a power for good practically unbounded,’ etc., etc. From that point he soared and took me with him. The peroration was magnificent, though difficult to remember, you know. It gave me the notion of an exotic Immensity ruled by an august Benevolence. It made me tingle with enthusiasm. This was the unbounded power of eloquence—of words—of burning noble words. There were no practical hints to interrupt the magic current of phrases, unless a kind of note at the foot of the
last page, scrawled evidently much later, in an unsteady hand, may be regarded as the exposition of a method. It was very simple, and at the end of that moving appeal to every altruistic sentiment it blazed at you, luminous and terrifying, like a flash of lightning in a serene sky: ‘Exterminate all the brutes!’ The curious part was that he had apparently forgotten all about that valuable postscriptum, because, later on, when he in a sense came to himself, he repeatedly entreated me to take good care of ‘my pamphlet’ (he called it), as it was sure to have in the future a good influence upon his career. I had full information about all these things, and, besides, as it turned out, I was to have the care of his memory. I’ve done enough for it to give me the indisputable right to lay it, if I choose, for an everlasting rest in the dust–bin of progress, amongst all the sweepings and, figuratively speaking, all the dead cats of civilization. But then, you see, I can’t choose. He won’t be forgotten. Whatever he was, he was not common. He had the power to charm or frighten rudimentary souls into an aggravated witch– dance in his honour; he could also fill the small souls of the pilgrims with bitter misgivings: he had one devoted friend at least, and he had conquered one soul in the world that was neither rudimentary nor tainted with self–seeking. No; I can’t forget him, though I am not prepared to affirm the fellow was exactly worth the life we lost in getting to him. I missed my late helmsman awfully—I missed him even while his body was still lying in the pilot–house. Perhaps you will think it passing strange this regret for a savage who was no more account than a grain of sand in a black Sahara. Well, don’t you see, he had done something, he had steered; for months I had him at my back—a help—an instrument. It was a kind of partnership. He steered for me—I had to look after him, I worried about his deficiencies, and thus a subtle bond had been created, of which I only became aware when it was suddenly broken. And the intimate profundity of that look he gave me when he received his hurt remains to this day in my memory—like a claim of distant kinship affirmed in a supreme moment. “Poor fool! If he had only left that shutter alone. He had no restraint, no restraint —just like Kurtz—a tree swayed by the wind. As soon as I had put on a dry pair of slippers, I dragged him out, after first jerking the spear out of his side, which operation I confess I performed with my eyes shut tight. His heels leaped together over the little doorstep; his shoulders were pressed to my breast; I hugged him from behind desperately. Oh! he was heavy, heavy; heavier than any man on earth, I should imagine. Then without more ado I tipped him overboard. The current snatched him as though he had been a wisp of grass, and I saw the body roll over twice before I lost sight of it for ever. All the pilgrims and the manager were then congregated on the awning–deck about the pilot–house,
chattering at each other like a flock of excited magpies, and there was a scandalized murmur at my heartless promptitude. What they wanted to keep that body hanging about for I can’t guess. Embalm it, maybe. But I had also heard another, and a very ominous, murmur on the deck below. My friends the wood– cutters were likewise scandalized, and with a better show of reason—though I admit that the reason itself was quite inadmissible. Oh, quite! I had made up my mind that if my late helmsman was to be eaten, the fishes alone should have him. He had been a very second–rate helmsman while alive, but now he was dead he might have become a first–class temptation, and possibly cause some startling trouble. Besides, I was anxious to take the wheel, the man in pink pyjamas showing himself a hopeless duffer at the business. “This I did directly the simple funeral was over. We were going half–speed, keeping right in the middle of the stream, and I listened to the talk about me. They had given up Kurtz, they had given up the station; Kurtz was dead, and the station had been burnt—and so on—and so on. The red–haired pilgrim was beside himself with the thought that at least this poor Kurtz had been properly avenged. ‘Say! We must have made a glorious slaughter of them in the bush. Eh? What do you think? Say?’ He positively danced, the bloodthirsty little gingery beggar. And he had nearly fainted when he saw the wounded man! I could not help saying, ‘You made a glorious lot of smoke, anyhow.’ I had seen, from the way the tops of the bushes rustled and flew, that almost all the shots had gone too high. You can’t hit anything unless you take aim and fire from the shoulder; but these chaps fired from the hip with their eyes shut. The retreat, I maintained —and I was right—was caused by the screeching of the steam whistle. Upon this they forgot Kurtz, and began to howl at me with indignant protests. “The manager stood by the wheel murmuring confidentially about the necessity of getting well away down the river before dark at all events, when I saw in the distance a clearing on the riverside and the outlines of some sort of building. ‘What’s this?’ I asked. He clapped his hands in wonder. ‘The station!’ he cried. I edged in at once, still going half–speed. “Through my glasses I saw the slope of a hill interspersed with rare trees and perfectly free from undergrowth. A long decaying building on the summit was half buried in the high grass; the large holes in the peaked roof gaped black from afar; the jungle and the woods made a background. There was no enclosure or fence of any kind; but there had been one apparently, for near the house half–a– dozen slim posts remained in a row, roughly trimmed, and with their upper ends
ornamented with round carved balls. The rails, or whatever there had been between, had disappeared. Of course the forest surrounded all that. The river– bank was clear, and on the waterside I saw a white man under a hat like a cart– wheel beckoning persistently with his whole arm. Examining the edge of the forest above and below, I was almost certain I could see movements—human forms gliding here and there. I steamed past prudently, then stopped the engines and let her drift down. The man on the shore began to shout, urging us to land. ‘We have been attacked,’ screamed the manager. ‘I know—I know. It’s all right,’ yelled back the other, as cheerful as you please. ‘Come along. It’s all right. I am glad.’ “His aspect reminded me of something I had seen—something funny I had seen somewhere. As I manoeuvred to get alongside, I was asking myself, ‘What does this fellow look like?’ Suddenly I got it. He looked like a harlequin. His clothes had been made of some stuff that was brown holland probably, but it was covered with patches all over, with bright patches, blue, red, and yellow— patches on the back, patches on the front, patches on elbows, on knees; coloured binding around his jacket, scarlet edging at the bottom of his trousers; and the sunshine made him look extremely gay and wonderfully neat withal, because you could see how beautifully all this patching had been done. A beardless, boyish face, very fair, no features to speak of, nose peeling, little blue eyes, smiles and frowns chasing each other over that open countenance like sunshine and shadow on a wind–swept plain. ‘Look out, captain!’ he cried; ‘there’s a snag lodged in here last night.’ What! Another snag? I confess I swore shamefully. I had nearly holed my cripple, to finish off that charming trip. The harlequin on the bank turned his little pug–nose up to me. ‘You English?’ he asked, all smiles. ‘Are you?’ I shouted from the wheel. The smiles vanished, and he shook his head as if sorry for my disappointment. Then he brightened up. ‘Never mind!’ he cried encouragingly. ‘Are we in time?’ I asked. ‘He is up there,’ he replied, with a toss of the head up the hill, and becoming gloomy all of a sudden. His face was like the autumn sky, overcast one moment and bright the next. “When the manager, escorted by the pilgrims, all of them armed to the teeth, had gone to the house this chap came on board. ‘I say, I don’t like this. These natives are in the bush,’ I said. He assured me earnestly it was all right. ‘They are simple people,’ he added; ‘well, I am glad you came. It took me all my time to keep them off.’ ‘But you said it was all right,’ I cried. ‘Oh, they meant no harm,’ he said; and as I stared he corrected himself, ‘Not exactly.’ Then vivaciously, ‘My faith, your pilot–house wants a clean–up!’ In the next breath he advised me to
keep enough steam on the boiler to blow the whistle in case of any trouble. ‘One good screech will do more for you than all your rifles. They are simple people,’ he repeated. He rattled away at such a rate he quite overwhelmed me. He seemed to be trying to make up for lots of silence, and actually hinted, laughing, that such was the case. ‘Don’t you talk with Mr. Kurtz?’ I said. ‘You don’t talk with that man—you listen to him,’ he exclaimed with severe exaltation. ‘But now—’ He waved his arm, and in the twinkling of an eye was in the uttermost depths of despondency. In a moment he came up again with a jump, possessed himself of both my hands, shook them continuously, while he gabbled: ‘Brother sailor … honour … pleasure … delight … introduce myself … Russian … son of an arch– priest … Government of Tambov … What? Tobacco! English tobacco; the excellent English tobacco! Now, that’s brotherly. Smoke? Where’s a sailor that does not smoke?” “The pipe soothed him, and gradually I made out he had run away from school, had gone to sea in a Russian ship; ran away again; served some time in English ships; was now reconciled with the arch–priest. He made a point of that. ‘But when one is young one must see things, gather experience, ideas; enlarge the mind.’ ‘Here!’ I interrupted. ‘You can never tell! Here I met Mr. Kurtz,’ he said, youthfully solemn and reproachful. I held my tongue after that. It appears he had persuaded a Dutch trading–house on the coast to fit him out with stores and goods, and had started for the interior with a light heart and no more idea of what would happen to him than a baby. He had been wandering about that river for nearly two years alone, cut off from everybody and everything. ‘I am not so young as I look. I am twenty–five,’ he said. ‘At first old Van Shuyten would tell me to go to the devil,’ he narrated with keen enjoyment; ‘but I stuck to him, and talked and talked, till at last he got afraid I would talk the hind–leg off his favourite dog, so he gave me some cheap things and a few guns, and told me he hoped he would never see my face again. Good old Dutchman, Van Shuyten. I’ve sent him one small lot of ivory a year ago, so that he can’t call me a little thief when I get back. I hope he got it. And for the rest I don’t care. I had some wood stacked for you. That was my old house. Did you see?’ “I gave him Towson’s book. He made as though he would kiss me, but restrained himself. ‘The only book I had left, and I thought I had lost it,’ he said, looking at it ecstatically. ‘So many accidents happen to a man going about alone, you know. Canoes get upset sometimes—and sometimes you’ve got to clear out so quick when the people get angry.’ He thumbed the pages. ‘You made notes in Russian?’ I asked. He nodded. ‘I thought they were written in cipher,’ I said. He
laughed, then became serious. ‘I had lots of trouble to keep these people off,’ he said. ‘Did they want to kill you?’ I asked. ‘Oh, no!’ he cried, and checked himself. ‘Why did they attack us?’ I pursued. He hesitated, then said shamefacedly, ‘They don’t want him to go.’ ‘Don’t they?’ I said curiously. He nodded a nod full of mystery and wisdom. ‘I tell you,’ he cried, ‘this man has enlarged my mind.’ He opened his arms wide, staring at me with his little blue eyes that were perfectly round.”
Heart of Darkness byJoseph Conrad
Heart of Darkness/Section III
“I looked at him, lost in astonishment. There he was before me, in motley, as though he had absconded from a troupe of mimes, enthusiastic, fabulous. His very existence was improbable, inexplicable, and altogether bewildering. He was an insoluble problem. It was inconceivable how he had existed, how he had succeeded in getting so far, how he had managed to remain—why he did not instantly disappear. ‘I went a little farther,’ he said, ‘then still a little farther—till I had gone so far that I don’t know how I’ll ever get back. Never mind. Plenty time. I can manage. You take Kurtz away quick—quick—I tell you.’ The glamour of youth enveloped his parti–coloured rags, his destitution, his loneliness, the essential desolation of his futile wanderings. For months—for years—his life hadn’t been worth a day’s purchase; and there he was gallantly, thoughtlessly alive, to all appearances indestructible solely by the virtue of his few years and of his unreflecting audacity. I was seduced into something like admiration—like envy. Glamour urged him on, glamour kept him unscathed. He surely wanted nothing from the wilderness but space to breathe in and to push on through. His need was to exist, and to move onwards at the greatest possible risk, and with a maximum of privation. If the absolutely pure, uncalculating, unpractical spirit of adventure had ever ruled a human being, it ruled this bepatched youth. I almost envied him the possession of this modest and clear flame. It seemed to have consumed all thought of self so completely, that even while he was talking to you, you forgot that it was he—the man before your eyes —who had gone through these things. I did not envy his devotion to Kurtz, though. He had not meditated over it. It came to him, and he accepted it with a sort of eager fatalism. I must say that to me it appeared about the most dangerous thing in every way he had come upon so far. “They had come together unavoidably, like two ships becalmed near each other, and lay rubbing sides at last. I suppose Kurtz wanted an audience, because on a certain occasion, when encamped in the forest, they had talked all night, or more probably Kurtz had talked. ‘We talked of everything,’ he said, quite transported at the recollection. ‘I forgot there was such a thing as sleep. The night did not seem to last an hour. Everything! Everything! … Of love, too.’ ‘Ah, he talked to you of love!’ I said, much amused. ‘It isn’t what you think,’ he cried, almost
passionately. ‘It was in general. He made me see things—things.’ “He threw his arms up. We were on deck at the time, and the headman of my wood–cutters, lounging near by, turned upon him his heavy and glittering eyes. I looked around, and I don’t know why, but I assure you that never, never before, did this land, this river, this jungle, the very arch of this blazing sky, appear to me so hopeless and so dark, so impenetrable to human thought, so pitiless to human weakness. ‘And, ever since, you have been with him, of course?’ I said. “On the contrary. It appears their intercourse had been very much broken by various causes. He had, as he informed me proudly, managed to nurse Kurtz through two illnesses (he alluded to it as you would to some risky feat), but as a rule Kurtz wandered alone, far in the depths of the forest. ‘Very often coming to this station, I had to wait days and days before he would turn up,’ he said. ‘Ah, it was worth waiting for!—sometimes.’ ‘What was he doing? exploring or what?’ I asked. ‘Oh, yes, of course’; he had discovered lots of villages, a lake, too—he did not know exactly in what direction; it was dangerous to inquire too much— but mostly his expeditions had been for ivory. ‘But he had no goods to trade with by that time,’ I objected. ‘There’s a good lot of cartridges left even yet,’ he answered, looking away. ‘To speak plainly, he raided the country,’ I said. He nodded. ‘Not alone, surely!’ He muttered something about the villages round that lake. ‘Kurtz got the tribe to follow him, did he?’ I suggested. He fidgeted a little. ‘They adored him,’ he said. The tone of these words was so extraordinary that I looked at him searchingly. It was curious to see his mingled eagerness and reluctance to speak of Kurtz. The man filled his life, occupied his thoughts, swayed his emotions. ‘What can you expect?’ he burst out; ‘he came to them with thunder and lightning, you know—and they had never seen anything like it —and very terrible. He could be very terrible. You can’t judge Mr. Kurtz as you would an ordinary man. No, no, no! Now—just to give you an idea—I don’t mind telling you, he wanted to shoot me, too, one day—but I don’t judge him.’ ‘Shoot you!’ I cried ‘What for?’ ‘Well, I had a small lot of ivory the chief of that village near my house gave me. You see I used to shoot game for them. Well, he wanted it, and wouldn’t hear reason. He declared he would shoot me unless I gave him the ivory and then cleared out of the country, because he could do so, and had a fancy for it, and there was nothing on earth to prevent him killing whom he jolly well pleased. And it was true, too. I gave him the ivory. What did I care! But I didn’t clear out. No, no. I couldn’t leave him. I had to be careful, of course, till we got friendly again for a time. He had his second illness then. Afterwards I had to keep out of the way; but I didn’t mind. He was living for the
most part in those villages on the lake. When he came down to the river, sometimes he would take to me, and sometimes it was better for me to be careful. This man suffered too much. He hated all this, and somehow he couldn’t get away. When I had a chance I begged him to try and leave while there was time; I offered to go back with him. And he would say yes, and then he would remain; go off on another ivory hunt; disappear for weeks; forget himself amongst these people—forget himself—you know.’ ‘Why! he’s mad,’ I said. He protested indignantly. Mr. Kurtz couldn’t be mad. If I had heard him talk, only two days ago, I wouldn’t dare hint at such a thing… . I had taken up my binoculars while we talked, and was looking at the shore, sweeping the limit of the forest at each side and at the back of the house. The consciousness of there being people in that bush, so silent, so quiet—as silent and quiet as the ruined house on the hill—made me uneasy. There was no sign on the face of nature of this amazing tale that was not so much told as suggested to me in desolate exclamations, completed by shrugs, in interrupted phrases, in hints ending in deep sighs. The woods were unmoved, like a mask—heavy, like the closed door of a prison—they looked with their air of hidden knowledge, of patient expectation, of unapproachable silence. The Russian was explaining to me that it was only lately that Mr. Kurtz had come down to the river, bringing along with him all the fighting men of that lake tribe. He had been absent for several months —getting himself adored, I suppose—and had come down unexpectedly, with the intention to all appearance of making a raid either across the river or down stream. Evidently the appetite for more ivory had got the better of the—what shall I say?—less material aspirations. However he had got much worse suddenly. ‘I heard he was lying helpless, and so I came up—took my chance,’ said the Russian. ‘Oh, he is bad, very bad.’ I directed my glass to the house. There were no signs of life, but there was the ruined roof, the long mud wall peeping above the grass, with three little square window–holes, no two of the same size; all this brought within reach of my hand, as it were. And then I made a brusque movement, and one of the remaining posts of that vanished fence leaped up in the field of my glass. You remember I told you I had been struck at the distance by certain attempts at ornamentation, rather remarkable in the ruinous aspect of the place. Now I had suddenly a nearer view, and its first result was to make me throw my head back as if before a blow. Then I went carefully from post to post with my glass, and I saw my mistake. These round knobs were not ornamental but symbolic; they were expressive and puzzling, striking and disturbing—food for thought and also for vultures if there had been any looking down from the sky; but at all events for such ants as were industrious enough to ascend the pole. They would have been even more impressive, those heads on
the stakes, if their faces had not been turned to the house. Only one, the first I had made out, was facing my way. I was not so shocked as you may think. The start back I had given was really nothing but a movement of surprise. I had expected to see a knob of wood there, you know. I returned deliberately to the first I had seen—and there it was, black, dried, sunken, with closed eyelids—a head that seemed to sleep at the top of that pole, and, with the shrunken dry lips showing a narrow white line of the teeth, was smiling, too, smiling continuously at some endless and jocose dream of that eternal slumber. “I am not disclosing any trade secrets. In fact, the manager said afterwards that Mr. Kurtz’s methods had ruined the district. I have no opinion on that point, but I want you clearly to understand that there was nothing exactly profitable in these heads being there. They only showed that Mr. Kurtz lacked restraint in the gratification of his various lusts, that there was something wanting in him— some small matter which, when the pressing need arose, could not be found under his magnificent eloquence. Whether he knew of this deficiency himself I can’t say. I think the knowledge came to him at last—only at the very last. But the wilderness had found him out early, and had taken on him a terrible vengeance for the fantastic invasion. I think it had whispered to him things about himself which he did not know, things of which he had no conception till he took counsel with this great solitude—and the whisper had proved irresistibly fascinating. It echoed loudly within him because he was hollow at the core… . I put down the glass, and the head that had appeared near enough to be spoken to seemed at once to have leaped away from me into inaccessible distance. “The admirer of Mr. Kurtz was a bit crestfallen. In a hurried, indistinct voice he began to assure me he had not dared to take these—say, symbols—down. He was not afraid of the natives; they would not stir till Mr. Kurtz gave the word. His ascendancy was extraordinary. The camps of these people surrounded the place, and the chiefs came every day to see him. They would crawl… . ‘I don’t want to know anything of the ceremonies used when approaching Mr. Kurtz,’ I shouted. Curious, this feeling that came over me that such details would be more intolerable than those heads drying on the stakes under Mr. Kurtz’s windows. After all, that was only a savage sight, while I seemed at one bound to have been transported into some lightless region of subtle horrors, where pure, uncomplicated savagery was a positive relief, being something that had a right to exist—obviously—in the sunshine. The young man looked at me with surprise. I suppose it did not occur to him that Mr. Kurtz was no idol of mine. He forgot I hadn’t heard any of these splendid monologues on, what was it? on love, justice,
conduct of life—or what not. If it had come to crawling before Mr. Kurtz, he crawled as much as the veriest savage of them all. I had no idea of the conditions, he said: these heads were the heads of rebels. I shocked him excessively by laughing. Rebels! What would be the next definition I was to hear? There had been enemies, criminals, workers—and these were rebels. Those rebellious heads looked very subdued to me on their sticks. ‘You don’t know how such a life tries a man like Kurtz,’ cried Kurtz’s last disciple. ‘Well, and you?’ I said. ‘I! I! I am a simple man. I have no great thoughts. I want nothing from anybody. How can you compare me to … ?’ His feelings were too much for speech, and suddenly he broke down. ‘I don’t understand,’ he groaned. ‘I’ve been doing my best to keep him alive, and that’s enough. I had no hand in all this. I have no abilities. There hasn’t been a drop of medicine or a mouthful of invalid food for months here. He was shamefully abandoned. A man like this, with such ideas. Shamefully! Shamefully! I—I—haven’t slept for the last ten nights …’ “His voice lost itself in the calm of the evening. The long shadows of the forest had slipped downhill while we talked, had gone far beyond the ruined hovel, beyond the symbolic row of stakes. All this was in the gloom, while we down there were yet in the sunshine, and the stretch of the river abreast of the clearing glittered in a still and dazzling splendour, with a murky and overshadowed bend above and below. Not a living soul was seen on the shore. The bushes did not rustle. “Suddenly round the corner of the house a group of men appeared, as though they had come up from the ground. They waded waist–deep in the grass, in a compact body, bearing an improvised stretcher in their midst. Instantly, in the emptiness of the landscape, a cry arose whose shrillness pierced the still air like a sharp arrow flying straight to the very heart of the land; and, as if by enchantment, streams of human beings—of naked human beings—with spears in their hands, with bows, with shields, with wild glances and savage movements, were poured into the clearing by the dark–faced and pensive forest. The bushes shook, the grass swayed for a time, and then everything stood still in attentive immobility. “‘Now, if he does not say the right thing to them we are all done for,’ said the Russian at my elbow. The knot of men with the stretcher had stopped, too, halfway to the steamer, as if petrified. I saw the man on the stretcher sit up, lank and with an uplifted arm, above the shoulders of the bearers. ‘Let us hope that
the man who can talk so well of love in general will find some particular reason to spare us this time,’ I said. I resented bitterly the absurd danger of our situation, as if to be at the mercy of that atrocious phantom had been a dishonouring necessity. I could not hear a sound, but through my glasses I saw the thin arm extended commandingly, the lower jaw moving, the eyes of that apparition shining darkly far in its bony head that nodded with grotesque jerks. Kurtz— Kurtz—that means short in German—don’t it? Well, the name was as true as everything else in his life—and death. He looked at least seven feet long. His covering had fallen off, and his body emerged from it pitiful and appalling as from a winding–sheet. I could see the cage of his ribs all astir, the bones of his arm waving. It was as though an animated image of death carved out of old ivory had been shaking its hand with menaces at a motionless crowd of men made of dark and glittering bronze. I saw him open his mouth wide—it gave him a weirdly voracious aspect, as though he had wanted to swallow all the air, all the earth, all the men before him. A deep voice reached me faintly. He must have been shouting. He fell back suddenly. The stretcher shook as the bearers staggered forward again, and almost at the same time I noticed that the crowd of savages was vanishing without any perceptible movement of retreat, as if the forest that had ejected these beings so suddenly had drawn them in again as the breath is drawn in a long aspiration. “Some of the pilgrims behind the stretcher carried his arms— two shot–guns, a heavy rifle, and a light revolver–carbine—the thunderbolts of that pitiful Jupiter. The manager bent over him murmuring as he walked beside his head. They laid him down in one of the little cabins—just a room for a bed place and a camp– stool or two, you know. We had brought his belated correspondence, and a lot of torn envelopes and open letters littered his bed. His hand roamed feebly amongst these papers. I was struck by the fire of his eyes and the composed languor of his expression. It was not so much the exhaustion of disease. He did not seem in pain. This shadow looked satiated and calm, as though for the moment it had had its fill of all the emotions. “He rustled one of the letters, and looking straight in my face said, ‘I am glad.’ Somebody had been writing to him about me. These special recommendations were turning up again. The volume of tone he emitted without effort, almost without the trouble of moving his lips, amazed me. A voice! a voice! It was grave, profound, vibrating, while the man did not seem capable of a whisper. However, he had enough strength in him—factitious no doubt—to very nearly make an end of us, as you shall hear directly.
“The manager appeared silently in the doorway; I stepped out at once and he drew the curtain after me. The Russian, eyed curiously by the pilgrims, was staring at the shore. I followed the direction of his glance. “Dark human shapes could be made out in the distance, flitting indistinctly against the gloomy border of the forest, and near the river two bronze figures, leaning on tall spears, stood in the sunlight under fantastic head–dresses of spotted skins, warlike and still in statuesque repose. And from right to left along the lighted shore moved a wild and gorgeous apparition of a woman. “She walked with measured steps, draped in striped and fringed cloths, treading the earth proudly, with a slight jingle and flash of barbarous ornaments. She carried her head high; her hair was done in the shape of a helmet; she had brass leggings to the knee, brass wire gauntlets to the elbow, a crimson spot on her tawny cheek, innumerable necklaces of glass beads on her neck; bizarre things, charms, gifts of witch–men, that hung about her, glittered and trembled at every step. She must have had the value of several elephant tusks upon her. She was savage and superb, wild–eyed and magnificent; there was something ominous and stately in her deliberate progress. And in the hush that had fallen suddenly upon the whole sorrowful land, the immense wilderness, the colossal body of the fecund and mysterious life seemed to look at her, pensive, as though it had been looking at the image of its own tenebrous and passionate soul. “She came abreast of the steamer, stood still, and faced us. Her long shadow fell to the water’s edge. Her face had a tragic and fierce aspect of wild sorrow and of dumb pain mingled with the fear of some struggling, half–shaped resolve. She stood looking at us without a stir, and like the wilderness itself, with an air of brooding over an inscrutable purpose. A whole minute passed, and then she made a step forward. There was a low jingle, a glint of yellow metal, a sway of fringed draperies, and she stopped as if her heart had failed her. The young fellow by my side growled. The pilgrims murmured at my back. She looked at us all as if her life had depended upon the unswerving steadiness of her glance. Suddenly she opened her bared arms and threw them up rigid above her head, as though in an uncontrollable desire to touch the sky, and at the same time the swift shadows darted out on the earth, swept around on the river, gathering the steamer into a shadowy embrace. A formidable silence hung over the scene. “She turned away slowly, walked on, following the bank, and passed into the bushes to the left. Once only her eyes gleamed back at us in the dusk of the
thickets before she disappeared. “‘If she had offered to come aboard I really think I would have tried to shoot her,’ said the man of patches, nervously. ‘I have been risking my life every day for the last fortnight to keep her out of the house. She got in one day and kicked up a row about those miserable rags I picked up in the storeroom to mend my clothes with. I wasn’t decent. At least it must have been that, for she talked like a fury to Kurtz for an hour, pointing at me now and then. I don’t understand the dialect of this tribe. Luckily for me, I fancy Kurtz felt too ill that day to care, or there would have been mischief. I don’t understand… . No—it’s too much for me. Ah, well, it’s all over now.’ “At this moment I heard Kurtz’s deep voice behind the curtain: ‘Save me!—save the ivory, you mean. Don’t tell me. Save ME! Why, I’ve had to save you. You are interrupting my plans now. Sick! Sick! Not so sick as you would like to believe. Never mind. I’ll carry my ideas out yet—I will return. I’ll show you what can be done. You with your little peddling notions—you are interfering with me. I will return. I… .’ “The manager came out. He did me the honour to take me under the arm and lead me aside. ‘He is very low, very low,’ he said. He considered it necessary to sigh, but neglected to be consistently sorrowful. ‘We have done all we could for him—haven’t we? But there is no disguising the fact, Mr. Kurtz has done more harm than good to the Company. He did not see the time was not ripe for vigorous action. Cautiously, cautiously—that’s my principle. We must be cautious yet. The district is closed to us for a time. Deplorable! Upon the whole, the trade will suffer. I don’t deny there is a remarkable quantity of ivory—mostly fossil. We must save it, at all events—but look how precarious the position is— and why? Because the method is unsound.’ ‘Do you,’ said I, looking at the shore, ‘call it “unsound method?”’ ‘Without doubt,’ he exclaimed hotly. ‘Don’t you?’ … ‘No method at all,’ I murmured after a while. ‘Exactly,’ he exulted. ‘I anticipated this. Shows a complete want of judgment. It is my duty to point it out in the proper quarter.’ ‘Oh,’ said I, ‘that fellow—what’s his name?—the brickmaker, will make a readable report for you.’ He appeared confounded for a moment. It seemed to me I had never breathed an atmosphere so vile, and I turned mentally to Kurtz for relief—positively for relief. ‘Nevertheless I think Mr. Kurtz is a remarkable man,’ I said with emphasis. He started, dropped on me a heavy glance, said very quietly, ‘he WAS,’ and turned his back on me. My hour of favour was over; I found myself lumped along with Kurtz as a partisan of
methods for which the time was not ripe: I was unsound! Ah! but it was something to have at least a choice of nightmares. “I had turned to the wilderness really, not to Mr. Kurtz, who, I was ready to admit, was as good as buried. And for a moment it seemed to me as if I also were buried in a vast grave full of unspeakable secrets. I felt an intolerable weight oppressing my breast, the smell of the damp earth, the unseen presence of victorious corruption, the darkness of an impenetrable night… . The Russian tapped me on the shoulder. I heard him mumbling and stammering something about ‘brother seaman—couldn’t conceal—knowledge of matters that would affect Mr. Kurtz’s reputation.’ I waited. For him evidently Mr. Kurtz was not in his grave; I suspect that for him Mr. Kurtz was one of the immortals. ‘Well!’ said I at last, ‘speak out. As it happens, I am Mr. Kurtz’s friend—in a way.’ “He stated with a good deal of formality that had we not been ‘of the same profession,’ he would have kept the matter to himself without regard to consequences. ‘He suspected there was an active ill–will towards him on the part of these white men that—’ ‘You are right,’ I said, remembering a certain conversation I had overheard. ‘The manager thinks you ought to be hanged.’ He showed a concern at this intelligence which amused me at first. ‘I had better get out of the way quietly,’ he said earnestly. ‘I can do no more for Kurtz now, and they would soon find some excuse. What’s to stop them? There’s a military post three hundred miles from here.’ ‘Well, upon my word,’ said I, ‘perhaps you had better go if you have any friends amongst the savages near by.’ ‘Plenty,’ he said. ‘They are simple people—and I want nothing, you know.’ He stood biting his lip, then: ‘I don’t want any harm to happen to these whites here, but of course I was thinking of Mr. Kurtz’s reputation—but you are a brother seaman and—’ ‘All right,’ said I, after a time. ‘Mr. Kurtz’s reputation is safe with me.’ I did not know how truly I spoke. “He informed me, lowering his voice, that it was Kurtz who had ordered the attack to be made on the steamer. ‘He hated sometimes the idea of being taken away—and then again… . But I don’t understand these matters. I am a simple man. He thought it would scare you away—that you would give it up, thinking him dead. I could not stop him. Oh, I had an awful time of it this last month.’ ‘Very well,’ I said. ‘He is all right now.’ ‘Ye–e–es,’ he muttered, not very convinced apparently. ‘Thanks,’ said I; ‘I shall keep my eyes open.’ ‘But quiet– eh?’ he urged anxiously. ‘It would be awful for his reputation if anybody here—’ I promised a complete discretion with great gravity. ‘I have a canoe and three
black fellows waiting not very far. I am off. Could you give me a few Martini– Henry cartridges?’ I could, and did, with proper secrecy. He helped himself, with a wink at me, to a handful of my tobacco. ‘Between sailors—you know—good English tobacco.’ At the door of the pilot–house he turned round—‘I say, haven’t you a pair of shoes you could spare?’ He raised one leg. ‘Look.’ The soles were tied with knotted strings sandalwise under his bare feet. I rooted out an old pair, at which he looked with admiration before tucking it under his left arm. One of his pockets (bright red) was bulging with cartridges, from the other (dark blue) peeped ‘Towson’s Inquiry,’ etc., etc. He seemed to think himself excellently well equipped for a renewed encounter with the wilderness. ‘Ah! I’ll never, never meet such a man again. You ought to have heard him recite poetry—his own, too, it was, he told me. Poetry!’ He rolled his eyes at the recollection of these delights. ‘Oh, he enlarged my mind!’ ‘Good–bye,’ said I. He shook hands and vanished in the night. Sometimes I ask myself whether I had ever really seen him—whether it was possible to meet such a phenomenon! … “When I woke up shortly after midnight his warning came to my mind with its hint of danger that seemed, in the starred darkness, real enough to make me get up for the purpose of having a look round. On the hill a big fire burned, illuminating fitfully a crooked corner of the station–house. One of the agents with a picket of a few of our blacks, armed for the purpose, was keeping guard over the ivory; but deep within the forest, red gleams that wavered, that seemed to sink and rise from the ground amongst confused columnar shapes of intense blackness, showed the exact position of the camp where Mr. Kurtz’s adorers were keeping their uneasy vigil. The monotonous beating of a big drum filled the air with muffled shocks and a lingering vibration. A steady droning sound of many men chanting each to himself some weird incantation came out from the black, flat wall of the woods as the humming of bees comes out of a hive, and had a strange narcotic effect upon my half–awake senses. I believe I dozed off leaning over the rail, till an abrupt burst of yells, an overwhelming outbreak of a pent–up and mysterious frenzy, woke me up in a bewildered wonder. It was cut short all at once, and the low droning went on with an effect of audible and soothing silence. I glanced casually into the little cabin. A light was burning within, but Mr. Kurtz was not there. “I think I would have raised an outcry if I had believed my eyes. But I didn’t believe them at first—the thing seemed so impossible. The fact is I was completely unnerved by a sheer blank fright, pure abstract terror, unconnected with any distinct shape of physical danger. What made this emotion so
overpowering was—how shall I define it?—the moral shock I received, as if something altogether monstrous, intolerable to thought and odious to the soul, had been thrust upon me unexpectedly. This lasted of course the merest fraction of a second, and then the usual sense of commonplace, deadly danger, the possibility of a sudden onslaught and massacre, or something of the kind, which I saw impending, was positively welcome and composing. It pacified me, in fact, so much that I did not raise an alarm. “There was an agent buttoned up inside an ulster and sleeping on a chair on deck within three feet of me. The yells had not awakened him; he snored very slightly; I left him to his slumbers and leaped ashore. I did not betray Mr. Kurtz —it was ordered I should never betray him—it was written I should be loyal to the nightmare of my choice. I was anxious to deal with this shadow by myself alone—and to this day I don’t know why I was so jealous of sharing with any one the peculiar blackness of that experience. “As soon as I got on the bank I saw a trail—a broad trail through the grass. I remember the exultation with which I said to myself, ‘He can’t walk—he is crawling on all–fours—I’ve got him.’ The grass was wet with dew. I strode rapidly with clenched fists. I fancy I had some vague notion of falling upon him and giving him a drubbing. I don’t know. I had some imbecile thoughts. The knitting old woman with the cat obtruded herself upon my memory as a most improper person to be sitting at the other end of such an affair. I saw a row of pilgrims squirting lead in the air out of Winchesters held to the hip. I thought I would never get back to the steamer, and imagined myself living alone and unarmed in the woods to an advanced age. Such silly things—you know. And I remember I confounded the beat of the drum with the beating of my heart, and was pleased at its calm regularity. “I kept to the track though—then stopped to listen. The night was very clear; a dark blue space, sparkling with dew and starlight, in which black things stood very still. I thought I could see a kind of motion ahead of me. I was strangely cocksure of everything that night. I actually left the track and ran in a wide semicircle (I verily believe chuckling to myself) so as to get in front of that stir, of that motion I had seen—if indeed I had seen anything. I was circumventing Kurtz as though it had been a boyish game. “I came upon him, and, if he had not heard me coming, I would have fallen over him, too, but he got up in time. He rose, unsteady, long, pale, indistinct, like a
vapour exhaled by the earth, and swayed slightly, misty and silent before me; while at my back the fires loomed between the trees, and the murmur of many voices issued from the forest. I had cut him off cleverly; but when actually confronting him I seemed to come to my senses, I saw the danger in its right proportion. It was by no means over yet. Suppose he began to shout? Though he could hardly stand, there was still plenty of vigour in his voice. ‘Go away—hide yourself,’ he said, in that profound tone. It was very awful. I glanced back. We were within thirty yards from the nearest fire. A black figure stood up, strode on long black legs, waving long black arms, across the glow. It had horns—antelope horns, I think—on its head. Some sorcerer, some witch–man, no doubt: it looked fiendlike enough. ‘Do you know what you are doing?’ I whispered. ‘Perfectly,’ he answered, raising his voice for that single word: it sounded to me far off and yet loud, like a hail through a speaking–trumpet. ‘If he makes a row we are lost,’ I thought to myself. This clearly was not a case for fisticuffs, even apart from the very natural aversion I had to beat that Shadow—this wandering and tormented thing. ‘You will be lost,’ I said—‘utterly lost.’ One gets sometimes such a flash of inspiration, you know. I did say the right thing, though indeed he could not have been more irretrievably lost than he was at this very moment, when the foundations of our intimacy were being laid—to endure—to endure—even to the end—even beyond. “‘I had immense plans,’ he muttered irresolutely. ‘Yes,’ said I; ‘but if you try to shout I’ll smash your head with—’ There was not a stick or a stone near. ‘I will throttle you for good,’ I corrected myself. ‘I was on the threshold of great things,’ he pleaded, in a voice of longing, with a wistfulness of tone that made my blood run cold. ‘And now for this stupid scoundrel—’ ‘Your success in Europe is assured in any case,’ I affirmed steadily. I did not want to have the throttling of him, you understand—and indeed it would have been very little use for any practical purpose. I tried to break the spell—the heavy, mute spell of the wilderness—that seemed to draw him to its pitiless breast by the awakening of forgotten and brutal instincts, by the memory of gratified and monstrous passions. This alone, I was convinced, had driven him out to the edge of the forest, to the bush, towards the gleam of fires, the throb of drums, the drone of weird incantations; this alone had beguiled his unlawful soul beyond the bounds of permitted aspirations. And, don’t you see, the terror of the position was not in being knocked on the head—though I had a very lively sense of that danger, too —but in this, that I had to deal with a being to whom I could not appeal in the name of anything high or low. I had, even like the niggers, to invoke him— himself—his own exalted and incredible degradation. There was nothing either
above or below him, and I knew it. He had kicked himself loose of the earth. Confound the man! he had kicked the very earth to pieces. He was alone, and I before him did not know whether I stood on the ground or floated in the air. I’ve been telling you what we said—repeating the phrases we pronounced—but what’s the good? They were common everyday words—the familiar, vague sounds exchanged on every waking day of life. But what of that? They had behind them, to my mind, the terrific suggestiveness of words heard in dreams, of phrases spoken in nightmares. Soul! If anybody ever struggled with a soul, I am the man. And I wasn’t arguing with a lunatic either. Believe me or not, his intelligence was perfectly clear—concentrated, it is true, upon himself with horrible intensity, yet clear; and therein was my only chance—barring, of course, the killing him there and then, which wasn’t so good, on account of unavoidable noise. But his soul was mad. Being alone in the wilderness, it had looked within itself, and, by heavens! I tell you, it had gone mad. I had—for my sins, I suppose —to go through the ordeal of looking into it myself. No eloquence could have been so withering to one’s belief in mankind as his final burst of sincerity. He struggled with himself, too. I saw it—I heard it. I saw the inconceivable mystery of a soul that knew no restraint, no faith, and no fear, yet struggling blindly with itself. I kept my head pretty well; but when I had him at last stretched on the couch, I wiped my forehead, while my legs shook under me as though I had carried half a ton on my back down that hill. And yet I had only supported him, his bony arm clasped round my neck—and he was not much heavier than a child. “When next day we left at noon, the crowd, of whose presence behind the curtain of trees I had been acutely conscious all the time, flowed out of the woods again, filled the clearing, covered the slope with a mass of naked, breathing, quivering, bronze bodies. I steamed up a bit, then swung down stream, and two thousand eyes followed the evolutions of the splashing, thumping, fierce river–demon beating the water with its terrible tail and breathing black smoke into the air. In front of the first rank, along the river, three men, plastered with bright red earth from head to foot, strutted to and fro restlessly. When we came abreast again, they faced the river, stamped their feet, nodded their horned heads, swayed their scarlet bodies; they shook towards the fierce river–demon a bunch of black feathers, a mangy skin with a pendent tail— something that looked a dried gourd; they shouted periodically together strings of amazing words that resembled no sounds of human language; and the deep murmurs of the crowd, interrupted suddenly, were like the responses of some satanic litany.
“We had carried Kurtz into the pilot–house: there was more air there. Lying on the couch, he stared through the open shutter. There was an eddy in the mass of human bodies, and the woman with helmeted head and tawny cheeks rushed out to the very brink of the stream. She put out her hands, shouted something, and all that wild mob took up the shout in a roaring chorus of articulated, rapid, breathless utterance. “‘Do you understand this?’ I asked. “He kept on looking out past me with fiery, longing eyes, with a mingled expression of wistfulness and hate. He made no answer, but I saw a smile, a smile of indefinable meaning, appear on his colourless lips that a moment after twitched convulsively. ‘Do I not?’ he said slowly, gasping, as if the words had been torn out of him by a supernatural power. “I pulled the string of the whistle, and I did this because I saw the pilgrims on deck getting out their rifles with an air of anticipating a jolly lark. At the sudden screech there was a movement of abject terror through that wedged mass of bodies. ‘Don’t! don’t you frighten them away,’ cried some one on deck disconsolately. I pulled the string time after time. They broke and ran, they leaped, they crouched, they swerved, they dodged the flying terror of the sound. The three red chaps had fallen flat, face down on the shore, as though they had been shot dead. Only the barbarous and superb woman did not so much as flinch, and stretched tragically her bare arms after us over the sombre and glittering river. “And then that imbecile crowd down on the deck started their little fun, and I could see nothing more for smoke. “The brown current ran swiftly out of the heart of darkness, bearing us down towards the sea with twice the speed of our upward progress; and Kurtz’s life was running swiftly, too, ebbing, ebbing out of his heart into the sea of inexorable time. The manager was very placid, he had no vital anxieties now, he took us both in with a comprehensive and satisfied glance: the ‘affair’ had come off as well as could be wished. I saw the time approaching when I would be left alone of the party of ‘unsound method.’ The pilgrims looked upon me with disfavour. I was, so to speak, numbered with the dead. It is strange how I accepted this unforeseen partnership, this choice of nightmares forced upon me in the tenebrous land invaded by these mean and greedy phantoms.
“Kurtz discoursed. A voice! a voice! It rang deep to the very last. It survived his strength to hide in the magnificent folds of eloquence the barren darkness of his heart. Oh, he struggled! he struggled! The wastes of his weary brain were haunted by shadowy images now—images of wealth and fame revolving obsequiously round his unextinguishable gift of noble and lofty expression. My Intended, my station, my career, my ideas—these were the subjects for the occasional utterances of elevated sentiments. The shade of the original Kurtz frequented the bedside of the hollow sham, whose fate it was to be buried presently in the mould of primeval earth. But both the diabolic love and the unearthly hate of the mysteries it had penetrated fought for the possession of that soul satiated with primitive emotions, avid of lying fame, of sham distinction, of all the appearances of success and power. “Sometimes he was contemptibly childish. He desired to have kings meet him at railway–stations on his return from some ghastly Nowhere, where he intended to accomplish great things. ‘You show them you have in you something that is really profitable, and then there will be no limits to the recognition of your ability,’ he would say. ‘Of course you must take care of the motives—right motives—always.’ The long reaches that were like one and the same reach, monotonous bends that were exactly alike, slipped past the steamer with their multitude of secular trees looking patiently after this grimy fragment of another world, the forerunner of change, of conquest, of trade, of massacres, of blessings. I looked ahead—piloting. ‘Close the shutter,’ said Kurtz suddenly one day; ‘I can’t bear to look at this.’ I did so. There was a silence. ‘Oh, but I will wring your heart yet!’ he cried at the invisible wilderness. “We broke down—as I had expected—and had to lie up for repairs at the head of an island. This delay was the first thing that shook Kurtz’s confidence. One morning he gave me a packet of papers and a photograph—the lot tied together with a shoe–string. ‘Keep this for me,’ he said. ‘This noxious fool’ (meaning the manager) ‘is capable of prying into my boxes when I am not looking.’ In the afternoon I saw him. He was lying on his back with closed eyes, and I withdrew quietly, but I heard him mutter, ‘Live rightly, die, die …’ I listened. There was nothing more. Was he rehearsing some speech in his sleep, or was it a fragment of a phrase from some newspaper article? He had been writing for the papers and meant to do so again, ‘for the furthering of my ideas. It’s a duty.’ “His was an impenetrable darkness. I looked at him as you peer down at a man who is lying at the bottom of a precipice where the sun never shines. But I had
not much time to give him, because I was helping the engine–driver to take to pieces the leaky cylinders, to straighten a bent connecting–rod, and in other such matters. I lived in an infernal mess of rust, filings, nuts, bolts, spanners, hammers, ratchet–drills—things I abominate, because I don’t get on with them. I tended the little forge we fortunately had aboard; I toiled wearily in a wretched scrap–heap—unless I had the shakes too bad to stand. “One evening coming in with a candle I was startled to hear him say a little tremulously, ‘I am lying here in the dark waiting for death.’ The light was within a foot of his eyes. I forced myself to murmur, ‘Oh, nonsense!’ and stood over him as if transfixed. “Anything approaching the change that came over his features I have never seen before, and hope never to see again. Oh, I wasn’t touched. I was fascinated. It was as though a veil had been rent. I saw on that ivory face the expression of sombre pride, of ruthless power, of craven terror—of an intense and hopeless despair. Did he live his life again in every detail of desire, temptation, and surrender during that supreme moment of complete knowledge? He cried in a whisper at some image, at some vision—he cried out twice, a cry that was no more than a breath: “‘The horror! The horror!’ “I blew the candle out and left the cabin. The pilgrims were dining in the mess– room, and I took my place opposite the manager, who lifted his eyes to give me a questioning glance, which I successfully ignored. He leaned back, serene, with that peculiar smile of his sealing the unexpressed depths of his meanness. A continuous shower of small flies streamed upon the lamp, upon the cloth, upon our hands and faces. Suddenly the manager’s boy put his insolent black head in the doorway, and said in a tone of scathing contempt: “‘Mistah Kurtz—he dead.’ “All the pilgrims rushed out to see. I remained, and went on with my dinner. I believe I was considered brutally callous. However, I did not eat much. There was a lamp in there—light, don’t you know—and outside it was so beastly, beastly dark. I went no more near the remarkable man who had pronounced a judgment upon the adventures of his soul on this earth. The voice was gone. What else had been there? But I am of course aware that next day the pilgrims
buried something in a muddy hole. “And then they very nearly buried me. “However, as you see, I did not go to join Kurtz there and then. I did not. I remained to dream the nightmare out to the end, and to show my loyalty to Kurtz once more. Destiny. My destiny! Droll thing life is—that mysterious arrangement of merciless logic for a futile purpose. The most you can hope from it is some knowledge of yourself—that comes too late—a crop of unextinguishable regrets. I have wrestled with death. It is the most unexciting contest you can imagine. It takes place in an impalpable greyness, with nothing underfoot, with nothing around, without spectators, without clamour, without glory, without the great desire of victory, without the great fear of defeat, in a sickly atmosphere of tepid scepticism, without much belief in your own right, and still less in that of your adversary. If such is the form of ultimate wisdom, then life is a greater riddle than some of us think it to be. I was within a hair’s breadth of the last opportunity for pronouncement, and I found with humiliation that probably I would have nothing to say. This is the reason why I affirm that Kurtz was a remarkable man. He had something to say. He said it. Since I had peeped over the edge myself, I understand better the meaning of his stare, that could not see the flame of the candle, but was wide enough to embrace the whole universe, piercing enough to penetrate all the hearts that beat in the darkness. He had summed up—he had judged. ‘The horror!’ He was a remarkable man. After all, this was the expression of some sort of belief; it had candour, it had conviction, it had a vibrating note of revolt in its whisper, it had the appalling face of a glimpsed truth—the strange commingling of desire and hate. And it is not my own extremity I remember best—a vision of greyness without form filled with physical pain, and a careless contempt for the evanescence of all things— even of this pain itself. No! It is his extremity that I seem to have lived through. True, he had made that last stride, he had stepped over the edge, while I had been permitted to draw back my hesitating foot. And perhaps in this is the whole difference; perhaps all the wisdom, and all truth, and all sincerity, are just compressed into that inappreciable moment of time in which we step over the threshold of the invisible. Perhaps! I like to think my summing–up would not have been a word of careless contempt. Better his cry—much better. It was an affirmation, a moral victory paid for by innumerable defeats, by abominable terrors, by abominable satisfactions. But it was a victory! That is why I have remained loyal to Kurtz to the last, and even beyond, when a long time after I heard once more, not his own voice, but the echo of his magnificent eloquence
thrown to me from a soul as translucently pure as a cliff of crystal. “No, they did not bury me, though there is a period of time which I remember mistily, with a shuddering wonder, like a passage through some inconceivable world that had no hope in it and no desire. I found myself back in the sepulchral city resenting the sight of people hurrying through the streets to filch a little money from each other, to devour their infamous cookery, to gulp their unwholesome beer, to dream their insignificant and silly dreams. They trespassed upon my thoughts. They were intruders whose knowledge of life was to me an irritating pretence, because I felt so sure they could not possibly know the things I knew. Their bearing, which was simply the bearing of commonplace individuals going about their business in the assurance of perfect safety, was offensive to me like the outrageous flauntings of folly in the face of a danger it is unable to comprehend. I had no particular desire to enlighten them, but I had some difficulty in restraining myself from laughing in their faces so full of stupid importance. I daresay I was not very well at that time. I tottered about the streets —there were various affairs to settle—grinning bitterly at perfectly respectable persons. I admit my behaviour was inexcusable, but then my temperature was seldom normal in these days. My dear aunt’s endeavours to ‘nurse up my strength’ seemed altogether beside the mark. It was not my strength that wanted nursing, it was my imagination that wanted soothing. I kept the bundle of papers given me by Kurtz, not knowing exactly what to do with it. His mother had died lately, watched over, as I was told, by his Intended. A clean–shaved man, with an official manner and wearing gold–rimmed spectacles, called on me one day and made inquiries, at first circuitous, afterwards suavely pressing, about what he was pleased to denominate certain ‘documents.’ I was not surprised, because I had had two rows with the manager on the subject out there. I had refused to give up the smallest scrap out of that package, and I took the same attitude with the spectacled man. He became darkly menacing at last, and with much heat argued that the Company had the right to every bit of information about its ‘territories.’ And said he, ‘Mr. Kurtz’s knowledge of unexplored regions must have been necessarily extensive and peculiar—owing to his great abilities and to the deplorable circumstances in which he had been placed: therefore—’ I assured him Mr. Kurtz’s knowledge, however extensive, did not bear upon the problems of commerce or administration. He invoked then the name of science. ‘It would be an incalculable loss if,’ etc., etc. I offered him the report on the ‘Suppression of Savage Customs,’ with the postscriptum torn off. He took it up eagerly, but ended by sniffing at it with an air of contempt. ‘This is not what we had a right to expect,’ he remarked. ‘Expect nothing else,’ I said. ‘There are only private
letters.’ He withdrew upon some threat of legal proceedings, and I saw him no more; but another fellow, calling himself Kurtz’s cousin, appeared two days later, and was anxious to hear all the details about his dear relative’s last moments. Incidentally he gave me to understand that Kurtz had been essentially a great musician. ‘There was the making of an immense success,’ said the man, who was an organist, I believe, with lank grey hair flowing over a greasy coat– collar. I had no reason to doubt his statement; and to this day I am unable to say what was Kurtz’s profession, whether he ever had any—which was the greatest of his talents. I had taken him for a painter who wrote for the papers, or else for a journalist who could paint—but even the cousin (who took snuff during the interview) could not tell me what he had been—exactly. He was a universal genius—on that point I agreed with the old chap, who thereupon blew his nose noisily into a large cotton handkerchief and withdrew in senile agitation, bearing off some family letters and memoranda without importance. Ultimately a journalist anxious to know something of the fate of his ‘dear colleague’ turned up. This visitor informed me Kurtz’s proper sphere ought to have been politics ‘on the popular side.’ He had furry straight eyebrows, bristly hair cropped short, an eyeglass on a broad ribbon, and, becoming expansive, confessed his opinion that Kurtz really couldn’t write a bit—‘but heavens! how that man could talk. He electrified large meetings. He had faith—don’t you see?—he had the faith. He could get himself to believe anything—anything. He would have been a splendid leader of an extreme party.’ ‘What party?’ I asked. ‘Any party,’ answered the other. ‘He was an—an—extremist.’ Did I not think so? I assented. Did I know, he asked, with a sudden flash of curiosity, ‘what it was that had induced him to go out there?’ ‘Yes,’ said I, and forthwith handed him the famous Report for publication, if he thought fit. He glanced through it hurriedly, mumbling all the time, judged ‘it would do,’ and took himself off with this plunder. “Thus I was left at last with a slim packet of letters and the girl’s portrait. She struck me as beautiful—I mean she had a beautiful expression. I know that the sunlight can be made to lie, too, yet one felt that no manipulation of light and pose could have conveyed the delicate shade of truthfulness upon those features. She seemed ready to listen without mental reservation, without suspicion, without a thought for herself. I concluded I would go and give her back her portrait and those letters myself. Curiosity? Yes; and also some other feeling perhaps. All that had been Kurtz’s had passed out of my hands: his soul, his body, his station, his plans, his ivory, his career. There remained only his memory and his Intended—and I wanted to give that up, too, to the past, in a way—to surrender personally all that remained of him with me to that oblivion
which is the last word of our common fate. I don’t defend myself. I had no clear perception of what it was I really wanted. Perhaps it was an impulse of unconscious loyalty, or the fulfilment of one of those ironic necessities that lurk in the facts of human existence. I don’t know. I can’t tell. But I went. “I thought his memory was like the other memories of the dead that accumulate in every man’s life—a vague impress on the brain of shadows that had fallen on it in their swift and final passage; but before the high and ponderous door, between the tall houses of a street as still and decorous as a well–kept alley in a cemetery, I had a vision of him on the stretcher, opening his mouth voraciously, as if to devour all the earth with all its mankind. He lived then before me; he lived as much as he had ever lived—a shadow insatiable of splendid appearances, of frightful realities; a shadow darker than the shadow of the night, and draped nobly in the folds of a gorgeous eloquence. The vision seemed to enter the house with me—the stretcher, the phantom–bearers, the wild crowd of obedient worshippers, the gloom of the forests, the glitter of the reach between the murky bends, the beat of the drum, regular and muffled like the beating of a heart—the heart of a conquering darkness. It was a moment of triumph for the wilderness, an invading and vengeful rush which, it seemed to me, I would have to keep back alone for the salvation of another soul. And the memory of what I had heard him say afar there, with the horned shapes stirring at my back, in the glow of fires, within the patient woods, those broken phrases came back to me, were heard again in their ominous and terrifying simplicity. I remembered his abject pleading, his abject threats, the colossal scale of his vile desires, the meanness, the torment, the tempestuous anguish of his soul. And later on I seemed to see his collected languid manner, when he said one day, ‘This lot of ivory now is really mine. The Company did not pay for it. I collected it myself at a very great personal risk. I am afraid they will try to claim it as theirs though. H’m. It is a difficult case. What do you think I ought to do—resist? Eh? I want no more than justice.’ … He wanted no more than justice—no more than justice. I rang the bell before a mahogany door on the first floor, and while I waited he seemed to stare at me out of the glassy panel—stare with that wide and immense stare embracing, condemning, loathing all the universe. I seemed to hear the whispered cry, “The horror! The horror!” “The dusk was falling. I had to wait in a lofty drawing–room with three long windows from floor to ceiling that were like three luminous and bedraped columns. The bent gilt legs and backs of the furniture shone in indistinct curves. The tall marble fireplace had a cold and monumental whiteness. A grand piano
stood massively in a corner; with dark gleams on the flat surfaces like a sombre and polished sarcophagus. A high door opened—closed. I rose. “She came forward, all in black, with a pale head, floating towards me in the dusk. She was in mourning. It was more than a year since his death, more than a year since the news came; she seemed as though she would remember and mourn forever. She took both my hands in hers and murmured, ‘I had heard you were coming.’ I noticed she was not very young—I mean not girlish. She had a mature capacity for fidelity, for belief, for suffering. The room seemed to have grown darker, as if all the sad light of the cloudy evening had taken refuge on her forehead. This fair hair, this pale visage, this pure brow, seemed surrounded by an ashy halo from which the dark eyes looked out at me. Their glance was guileless, profound, confident, and trustful. She carried her sorrowful head as though she were proud of that sorrow, as though she would say, ‘I—I alone know how to mourn for him as he deserves.’ But while we were still shaking hands, such a look of awful desolation came upon her face that I perceived she was one of those creatures that are not the playthings of Time. For her he had died only yesterday. And, by Jove! the impression was so powerful that for me, too, he seemed to have died only yesterday—nay, this very minute. I saw her and him in the same instant of time—his death and her sorrow—I saw her sorrow in the very moment of his death. Do you understand? I saw them together—I heard them together. She had said, with a deep catch of the breath, ‘I have survived’ while my strained ears seemed to hear distinctly, mingled with her tone of despairing regret, the summing up whisper of his eternal condemnation. I asked myself what I was doing there, with a sensation of panic in my heart as though I had blundered into a place of cruel and absurd mysteries not fit for a human being to behold. She motioned me to a chair. We sat down. I laid the packet gently on the little table, and she put her hand over it… . ‘You knew him well,’ she murmured, after a moment of mourning silence. “‘Intimacy grows quickly out there,’ I said. ‘I knew him as well as it is possible for one man to know another.’ “‘And you admired him,’ she said. ‘It was impossible to know him and not to admire him. Was it?’ “‘He was a remarkable man,’ I said, unsteadily. Then before the appealing fixity of her gaze, that seemed to watch for more words on my lips, I went on, ‘It was impossible not to—’
“‘Love him,’ she finished eagerly, silencing me into an appalled dumbness. ‘How true! how true! But when you think that no one knew him so well as I! I had all his noble confidence. I knew him best.’ “‘You knew him best,’ I repeated. And perhaps she did. But with every word spoken the room was growing darker, and only her forehead, smooth and white, remained illumined by the inextinguishable light of belief and love. “‘You were his friend,’ she went on. ‘His friend,’ she repeated, a little louder. ‘You must have been, if he had given you this, and sent you to me. I feel I can speak to you—and oh! I must speak. I want you—you who have heard his last words—to know I have been worthy of him… . It is not pride… . Yes! I am proud to know I understood him better than any one on earth—he told me so himself. And since his mother died I have had no one—no one—to—to—’ “I listened. The darkness deepened. I was not even sure whether he had given me the right bundle. I rather suspect he wanted me to take care of another batch of his papers which, after his death, I saw the manager examining under the lamp. And the girl talked, easing her pain in the certitude of my sympathy; she talked as thirsty men drink. I had heard that her engagement with Kurtz had been disapproved by her people. He wasn’t rich enough or something. And indeed I don’t know whether he had not been a pauper all his life. He had given me some reason to infer that it was his impatience of comparative poverty that drove him out there. “‘… Who was not his friend who had heard him speak once?’ she was saying. ‘He drew men towards him by what was best in them.’ She looked at me with intensity. ‘It is the gift of the great,’ she went on, and the sound of her low voice seemed to have the accompaniment of all the other sounds, full of mystery, desolation, and sorrow, I had ever heard—the ripple of the river, the soughing of the trees swayed by the wind, the murmurs of the crowds, the faint ring of incomprehensible words cried from afar, the whisper of a voice speaking from beyond the threshold of an eternal darkness. ‘But you have heard him! You know!’ she cried. “‘Yes, I know,’ I said with something like despair in my heart, but bowing my head before the faith that was in her, before that great and saving illusion that shone with an unearthly glow in the darkness, in the triumphant darkness from which I could not have defended her—from which I could not even defend
myself. “‘What a loss to me—to us!’—she corrected herself with beautiful generosity; then added in a murmur, ‘To the world.’ By the last gleams of twilight I could see the glitter of her eyes, full of tears—of tears that would not fall. “‘I have been very happy—very fortunate—very proud,’ she went on. ‘Too fortunate. Too happy for a little while. And now I am unhappy for—for life.’ “She stood up; her fair hair seemed to catch all the remaining light in a glimmer of gold. I rose, too. “‘And of all this,’ she went on mournfully, ‘of all his promise, and of all his greatness, of his generous mind, of his noble heart, nothing remains—nothing but a memory. You and I—’ “‘We shall always remember him,’ I said hastily. “‘No!’ she cried. ‘It is impossible that all this should be lost—that such a life should be sacrificed to leave nothing—but sorrow. You know what vast plans he had. I knew of them, too—I could not perhaps understand—but others knew of them. Something must remain. His words, at least, have not died.’ “‘His words will remain,’ I said. “‘And his example,’ she whispered to herself. ‘Men looked up to him—his goodness shone in every act. His example—’ “‘True,’ I said; ‘his example, too. Yes, his example. I forgot that.’ “But I do not. I cannot—I cannot believe—not yet. I cannot believe that I shall never see him again, that nobody will see him again, never, never, never.’ “She put out her arms as if after a retreating figure, stretching them back and with clasped pale hands across the fading and narrow sheen of the window. Never see him! I saw him clearly enough then. I shall see this eloquent phantom as long as I live, and I shall see her, too, a tragic and familiar Shade, resembling in this gesture another one, tragic also, and bedecked with powerless charms, stretching bare brown arms over the glitter of the infernal stream, the stream of darkness. She said suddenly very low, ‘He died as he lived.’
“‘His end,’ said I, with dull anger stirring in me, ‘was in every way worthy of his life.’ “‘And I was not with him,’ she murmured. My anger subsided before a feeling of infinite pity. “‘Everything that could be done—’ I mumbled. “‘Ah, but I believed in him more than any one on earth—more than his own mother, more than—himself. He needed me! Me! I would have treasured every sigh, every word, every sign, every glance.’ “I felt like a chill grip on my chest. ‘Don’t,’ I said, in a muffled voice. “‘Forgive me. I—I have mourned so long in silence—in silence… . You were with him—to the last? I think of his loneliness. Nobody near to understand him as I would have understood. Perhaps no one to hear… .’ “‘To the very end,’ I said, shakily. ‘I heard his very last words… .’ I stopped in a fright. “‘Repeat them,’ she murmured in a heart–broken tone. ‘I want—I want— something—something—to—to live with.’ “I was on the point of crying at her, ‘Don’t you hear them?’ The dusk was repeating them in a persistent whisper all around us, in a whisper that seemed to swell menacingly like the first whisper of a rising wind. ‘The horror! The horror!’ “‘His last word—to live with,’ she insisted. ‘Don’t you understand I loved him— I loved him—I loved him!’ “I pulled myself together and spoke slowly. “‘The last word he pronounced was—your name.’ “I heard a light sigh and then my heart stood still, stopped dead short by an exulting and terrible cry, by the cry of inconceivable triumph and of unspeakable pain. ‘I knew it—I was sure!’ … She knew. She was sure. I heard her weeping; she had hidden her face in her hands. It seemed to me that the house would
collapse before I could escape, that the heavens would fall upon my head. But nothing happened. The heavens do not fall for such a trifle. Would they have fallen, I wonder, if I had rendered Kurtz that justice which was his due? Hadn’t he said he wanted only justice? But I couldn’t. I could not tell her. It would have been too dark—too dark altogether… .” Marlow ceased, and sat apart, indistinct and silent, in the pose of a meditating Buddha. Nobody moved for a time. “We have lost the first of the ebb,” said the Director suddenly. I raised my head. The offing was barred by a black bank of clouds, and the tranquil waterway leading to the uttermost ends of the earth flowed sombre under an overcast sky—seemed to lead into the heart of an immense darkness.
The End of the Tether
Table of Contents The End of the Tether/I The End of the Tether/II The End of the Tether/III The End of the Tether/IV The End of the Tether/V The End of the Tether/VI The End of the Tether/VII The End of the Tether/VIII The End of the Tether/IX The End of the Tether/X The End of the Tether/XI The End of the Tether/XII
The End of the Tether/I
For a long time after the course of the steamer Sofala had been altered for the land, the low swampy coast had retained its appearance of a mere smudge of darkness beyond a belt of glitter. The sunrays seemed to fall violently upon the calm sea—seemed to shatter themselves upon an adamantine surface into sparkling dust, into a dazzling vapor of light that blinded the eye and wearied the brain with its unsteady brightness. Captain Whalley did not look at it. When his Serang, approaching the roomy cane arm-chair which he filled capably, had informed him in a low voice that the course was to be altered, he had risen at once and had remained on his feet, face forward, while the head of his ship swung through a quarter of a circle. He had not uttered a single word, not even the word to steady the helm. It was the Serang, an elderly, alert, little Malay, with a very dark skin, who murmured the order to the helmsman. And then slowly Captain Whalley sat down again in the arm-chair on the bridge and fixed his eyes on the deck between his feet. He could not hope to see anything new upon this lane of the sea. He had been on these coasts for the last three years. From Low Cape to Malantan the distance was fifty miles, six hours’ steaming for the old ship with the tide, or seven against. Then you steered straight for the land, and by-and-by three palms would appear on the sky, tall and slim, and with their disheveled heads in a bunch, as if in confidential criticism of the dark mangroves. The Sofala would be headed towards the somber strip of the coast, which at a given moment, as the ship closed with it obliquely, would show several clean shining fractures—the brimful estuary of a river. Then on through a brown liquid, three parts water and one part black earth, on and on between the low shores, three parts black earth and one part brackish water, the Sofala would plow her way up-stream, as she had done once every month for these seven years or more, long before he was aware of her existence, long before he had ever thought of having anything to do with her and her invariable voyages. The old ship ought to have known the road better than her men, who had not been kept so long at it without a change; better than the faithful Serang, whom he had brought over from his last ship to keep the captain’s watch; better than he himself, who had been her captain for the last
three years only. She could always be depended upon to make her courses. Her compasses were never out. She was no trouble at all to take about, as if her great age had given her knowledge, wisdom, and steadiness. She made her landfalls to a degree of the bearing, and almost to a minute of her allowed time. At any moment, as he sat on the bridge without looking up, or lay sleepless in his bed, simply by reckoning the days and the hours he could tell where he was—the precise spot of the beat. He knew it well too, this monotonous huckster’s round, up and down the Straits; he knew its order and its sights and its people. Malacca to begin with, in at daylight and out at dusk, to cross over with a rigid phosphorescent wake this highway of the Far East. Darkness and gleams on the water, clear stars on a black sky, perhaps the lights of a home steamer keeping her unswerving course in the middle, or maybe the elusive shadow of a native craft with her mat sails flitting by silently—and the low land on the other side in sight at daylight. At noon the three palms of the next place of call, up a sluggish river. The only white man residing there was a retired young sailor, with whom he had become friendly in the course of many voyages. Sixty miles farther on there was another place of call, a deep bay with only a couple of houses on the beach. And so on, in and out, picking up coastwise cargo here and there, and finishing with a hundred miles’ steady steaming through the maze of an archipelago of small islands up to a large native town at the end of the beat. There was a three days’ rest for the old ship before he started her again in inverse order, seeing the same shores from another bearing, hearing the same voices in the same places, back again to the Sofala’s port of registry on the great highway to the East, where he would take up a berth nearly opposite the big stone pile of the harbor office till it was time to start again on the old round of 1600 miles and thirty days. Not a very enterprising life, this, for Captain Whalley, Henry Whalley, otherwise Dare-devil Harry—Whalley of the Condor, a famous clipper in her day. No. Not a very enterprising life for a man who had served famous firms, who had sailed famous ships (more than one or two of them his own); who had made famous passages, had been the pioneer of new routes and new trades; who had steered across the unsurveyed tracts of the South Seas, and had seen the sun rise on uncharted islands. Fifty years at sea, and forty out in the East (“a pretty thorough apprenticeship,” he used to remark smilingly), had made him honorably known to a generation of shipowners and merchants in all the ports from Bombay clear over to where the East merges into the West upon the coast of the two Americas. His fame remained writ, not very large but plain enough, on the Admiralty charts. Was there not somewhere between Australia and China a Whalley Island and a Condor Reef? On that dangerous coral formation the celebrated clipper had hung stranded for three days, her captain and crew
throwing her cargo overboard with one hand and with the other, as it were, keeping off her a flotilla of savage war-canoes. At that time neither the island nor the reef had any official existence. Later the officers of her Majesty’s steam vessel Fusilier, dispatched to make a survey of the route, recognized in the adoption of these two names the enterprise of the man and the solidity of the ship. Besides, as anyone who cares may see, the “General Directory,” vol. ii. p. 410, begins the description of the “Malotu or Whalley Passage” with the words: “This advantageous route, first discovered in 1850 by Captain Whalley in the ship Condor,” &c., and ends by recommending it warmly to sailing vessels leaving the China ports for the south in the months from December to April inclusive. This was the clearest gain he had out of life. Nothing could rob him of this kind of fame. The piercing of the Isthmus of Suez, like the breaking of a dam, had let in upon the East a flood of new ships, new men, new methods of trade. It had changed the face of the Eastern seas and the very spirit of their life; so that his early experiences meant nothing whatever to the new generation of seamen. In those bygone days he had handled many thousands of pounds of his employers’ money and of his own; he had attended faithfully, as by law a shipmaster is expected to do, to the conflicting interests of owners, charterers, and underwriters. He had never lost a ship or consented to a shady transaction; and he had lasted well, outlasting in the end the conditions that had gone to the making of his name. He had buried his wife (in the Gulf of Petchili), had married off his daughter to the man of her unlucky choice, and had lost more than an ample competence in the crash of the notorious Travancore and Deccan Banking Corporation, whose downfall had shaken the East like an earthquake. And he was sixty-five years old.
The End of the Tether/II
His age sat lightly enough on him; and of his ruin he was not ashamed. He had not been alone to believe in the stability of the Banking Corporation. Men whose judgment in matters of finance was as expert as his seamanship had commended the prudence of his investments, and had themselves lost much money in the great failure. The only difference between him and them was that he had lost his all. And yet not his all. There had remained to him from his lost fortune a very pretty little bark, Fair Maid, which he had bought to occupy his leisure of a retired sailor—“to play with,” as he expressed it himself. He had formally declared himself tired of the sea the year preceding his daughter’s marriage. But after the young couple had gone to settle in Melbourne he found out that he could not make himself happy on shore. He was too much of a merchant sea-captain for mere yachting to satisfy him. He wanted the illusion of affairs; and his acquisition of the Fair Maid preserved the continuity of his life. He introduced her to his acquaintances in various ports as “my last command.” When he grew too old to be trusted with a ship, he would lay her up and go ashore to be buried, leaving directions in his will to have the bark towed out and scuttled decently in deep water on the day of the funeral. His daughter would not grudge him the satisfaction of knowing that no stranger would handle his last command after him. With the fortune he was able to leave her, the value of a 500-ton bark was neither here nor there. All this would be said with a jocular twinkle in his eye: the vigorous old man had too much vitality for the sentimentalism of regret; and a little wistfully withal, because he was at home in life, taking a genuine pleasure in its feelings and its possessions; in the dignity of his reputation and his wealth, in his love for his daughter, and in his satisfaction with the ship—the plaything of his lonely leisure. He had the cabin arranged in accordance with his simple ideal of comfort at sea. A big bookcase (he was a great reader) occupied one side of his stateroom; the portrait of his late wife, a flat bituminous oil-painting representing the profile and one long black ringlet of a young woman, faced his bed-place. Three chronometers ticked him to sleep and greeted him on waking with the tiny competition of their beats. He rose at five every day. The officer of the morning
watch, drinking his early cup of coffee aft by the wheel, would hear through the wide orifice of the copper ventilators all the splashings, blowings, and splutterings of his captain’s toilet. These noises would be followed by a sustained deep murmur of the Lord’s Prayer recited in a loud earnest voice. Five minutes afterwards the head and shoulders of Captain Whalley emerged out of the companion-hatchway. Invariably he paused for a while on the stairs, looking all round at the horizon; upwards at the trim of the sails; inhaling deep draughts of the fresh air. Only then he would step out on the poop, acknowledging the hand raised to the peak of the cap with a majestic and benign “Good morning to you.” He walked the deck till eight scrupulously. Sometimes, not above twice a year, he had to use a thick cudgel-like stick on account of a stiffness in the hip— a slight touch of rheumatism, he supposed. Otherwise he knew nothing of the ills of the flesh. At the ringing of the breakfast bell he went below to feed his canaries, wind up the chronometers, and take the head of the table. From there he had before his eyes the big carbon photographs of his daughter, her husband, and two fat-legged babies —his grandchildren—set in black frames into the maplewood bulkheads of the cuddy. After breakfast he dusted the glass over these portraits himself with a cloth, and brushed the oil painting of his wife with a plumate kept suspended from a small brass hook by the side of the heavy gold frame. Then with the door of his stateroom shut, he would sit down on the couch under the portrait to read a chapter out of a thick pocket Bible—her Bible. But on some days he only sat there for half an hour with his finger between the leaves and the closed book resting on his knees. Perhaps he had remembered suddenly how fond of boat-sailing she used to be. She had been a real shipmate and a true woman too. It was like an article of faith with him that there never had been, and never could be, a brighter, cheerier home anywhere afloat or ashore than his home under the poop-deck of the Condor, with the big main cabin all white and gold, garlanded as if for a perpetual festival with an unfading wreath. She had decorated the center of every panel with a cluster of home flowers. It took her a twelvemonth to go round the cuddy with this labor of love. To him it had remained a marvel of painting, the highest achievement of taste and skill; and as to old Swinburne, his mate, every time he came down to his meals he stood transfixed with admiration before the progress of the work. You could almost smell these roses, he declared, sniffing the faint flavor of turpentine which at that time pervaded the saloon, and (as he confessed afterwards) made him somewhat less hearty than usual in tackling his food. But there was nothing of the sort to interfere with his enjoyment of her singing. “Mrs. Whalley is a regular out-and-out nightingale, sir,” he would pronounce
with a judicial air after listening profoundly over the skylight to the very end of the piece. In fine weather, in the second dog-watch, the two men could hear her trills and roulades going on to the accompaniment of the piano in the cabin. On the very day they got engaged he had written to London for the instrument; but they had been married for over a year before it reached them, coming out round the Cape. The big case made part of the first direct general cargo landed in Hong-kong harbor—an event that to the men who walked the busy quays of today seemed as hazily remote as the dark ages of history. But Captain Whalley could in a half hour of solitude live again all his life, with its romance, its idyl, and its sorrow. He had to close her eyes himself. She went away from under the ensign like a sailor’s wife, a sailor herself at heart. He had read the service over her, out of her own prayer-book, without a break in his voice. When he raised his eyes he could see old Swinburne facing him with his cap pressed to his breast, and his rugged, weather-beaten, impassive face streaming with drops of water like a lump of chipped red granite in a shower. It was all very well for that old sea-dog to cry. He had to read on to the end; but after the splash he did not remember much of what happened for the next few days. An elderly sailor of the crew, deft at needlework, put together a mourning frock for the child out of one of her black skirts. He was not likely to forget; but you cannot dam up life like a sluggish stream. It will break out and flow over a man’s troubles, it will close upon a sorrow like the sea upon a dead body, no matter how much love has gone to the bottom. And the world is not bad. People had been very kind to him; especially Mrs. Gardner, the wife of the senior partner in Gardner, Patteson, & Co., the owners of the Condor. It was she who volunteered to look after the little one, and in due course took her to England (something of a journey in those days, even by the overland mail route) with her own girls to finish her education. It was ten years before he saw her again. As a little child she had never been frightened of bad weather; she would beg to be taken up on deck in the bosom of his oilskin coat to watch the big seas hurling themselves upon the Condor. The swirl and crash of the waves seemed to fill her small soul with a breathless delight. “A good boy spoiled,” he used to say of her in joke. He had named her Ivy because of the sound of the word, and obscurely fascinated by a vague association of ideas. She had twined herself tightly round his heart, and he intended her to cling close to her father as to a tower of strength; forgetting, while she was little, that in the nature of things she would probably elect to cling to someone else. But he loved life well enough for
even that event to give him a certain satisfaction, apart from his more intimate feeling of loss. After he had purchased the Fair Maid to occupy his loneliness, he hastened to accept a rather unprofitable freight to Australia simply for the opportunity of seeing his daughter in her own home. What made him dissatisfied there was not to see that she clung now to somebody else, but that the prop she had selected seemed on closer examination “a rather poor stick”—even in the matter of health. He disliked his son-in-law’s studied civility perhaps more than his method of handling the sum of money he had given Ivy at her marriage. But of his apprehensions he said nothing. Only on the day of his departure, with the hall-door open already, holding her hands and looking steadily into her eyes, he had said, “You know, my dear, all I have is for you and the chicks. Mind you write to me openly.” She had answered him by an almost imperceptible movement of her head. She resembled her mother in the color of her eyes, and in character—and also in this, that she understood him without many words. Sure enough she had to write; and some of these letters made Captain Whalley lift his white eye-brows. For the rest he considered he was reaping the true reward of his life by being thus able to produce on demand whatever was needed. He had not enjoyed himself so much in a way since his wife had died. Characteristically enough his son-in-law’s punctuality in failure caused him at a distance to feel a sort of kindness towards the man. The fellow was so perpetually being jammed on a lee shore that to charge it all to his reckless navigation would be manifestly unfair. No, no! He knew well what that meant. It was bad luck. His own had been simply marvelous, but he had seen in his life too many good men—seamen and others—go under with the sheer weight of bad luck not to recognize the fatal signs. For all that, he was cogitating on the best way of tying up very strictly every penny he had to leave, when, with a preliminary rumble of rumors (whose first sound reached him in Shanghai as it happened), the shock of the big failure came; and, after passing through the phases of stupor, of incredulity, of indignation, he had to accept the fact that he had nothing to speak of to leave. Upon that, as if he had only waited for this catastrophe, the unlucky man, away there in Melbourne, gave up his unprofitable game, and sat down—in an invalid’s bath-chair at that too. “He will never walk again,” wrote the wife. For the first time in his life Captain Whalley was a bit staggered.
The Fair Maid had to go to work in bitter earnest now. It was no longer a matter of preserving alive the memory of Dare-devil Harry Whalley in the Eastern Seas, or of keeping an old man in pocket-money and clothes, with, perhaps, a bill for a few hundred first-class cigars thrown in at the end of the year. He would have to buckle-to, and keep her going hard on a scant allowance of gilt for the gingerbread scrolls at her stem and stern. This necessity opened his eyes to the fundamental changes of the world. Of his past only the familiar names remained, here and there, but the things and the men, as he had known them, were gone. The name of Gardner, Patteson, & Co. was still displayed on the walls of warehouses by the waterside, on the brass plates and window-panes in the business quarters of more than one Eastern port, but there was no longer a Gardner or a Patteson in the firm. There was no longer for Captain Whalley an arm-chair and a welcome in the private office, with a bit of business ready to be put in the way of an old friend, for the sake of bygone services. The husbands of the Gardner girls sat behind the desks in that room where, long after he had left the employ, he had kept his right of entrance in the old man’s time. Their ships now had yellow funnels with black tops, and a timetable of appointed routes like a confounded service of tramways. The winds of December and June were all one to them; their captains (excellent young men he doubted not) were, to be sure, familiar with Whalley Island, because of late years the Government had established a white fixed light on the north end (with a red danger sector over the Condor Reef), but most of them would have been extremely surprised to hear that a flesh-and-blood Whalley still existed—an old man going about the world trying to pick up a cargo here and there for his little bark. And everywhere it was the same. Departed the men who would have nodded appreciatively at the mention of his name, and would have thought themselves bound in honor to do something for Dare-devil Harry Whalley. Departed the opportunities which he would have known how to seize; and gone with them the white-winged flock of clippers that lived in the boisterous uncertain life of the winds, skimming big fortunes out of the foam of the sea. In a world that pared down the profits to an irreducible minimum, in a world that was able to count its disengaged tonnage twice over every day, and in which lean charters were snapped up by cable three months in advance, there were no chances of fortune for an individual wandering haphazard with a little bark—hardly indeed any room to exist.
He found it more difficult from year to year. He suffered greatly from the smallness of remittances he was able to send his daughter. Meantime he had given up good cigars, and even in the matter of inferior cheroots limited himself to six a day. He never told her of his difficulties, and she never enlarged upon her struggle to live. Their confidence in each other needed no explanations, and their perfect understanding endured without protestations of gratitude or regret. He would have been shocked if she had taken it into her head to thank him in so many words, but he found it perfectly natural that she should tell him she needed two hundred pounds. He had come in with the Fair Maid in ballast to look for a freight in the Sofala’s port of registry, and her letter met him there. Its tenor was that it was no use mincing matters. Her only resource was in opening a boarding-house, for which the prospects, she judged, were good. Good enough, at any rate, to make her tell him frankly that with two hundred pounds she could make a start. He had torn the envelope open, hastily, on deck, where it was handed to him by the shipchandler’s runner, who had brought his mail at the moment of anchoring. For the second time in his life he was appalled, and remained stock-still at the cabin door with the paper trembling between his fingers. Open a boarding-house! Two hundred pounds for a start! The only resource! And he did not know where to lay his hands on two hundred pence. All that night Captain Whalley walked the poop of his anchored ship, as though he had been about to close with the land in thick weather, and uncertain of his position after a run of many gray days without a sight of sun, moon, or stars. The black night twinkled with the guiding lights of seamen and the steady straight lines of lights on shore; and all around the Fair Maid the riding lights of ships cast trembling trails upon the water of the roadstead. Captain Whalley saw not a gleam anywhere till the dawn broke and he found out that his clothing was soaked through with the heavy dew. His ship was awake. He stopped short, stroked his wet beard, and descended the poop ladder backwards, with tired feet. At the sight of him the chief officer, lounging about sleepily on the quarterdeck, remained open-mouthed in the middle of a great early-morning yawn. “Good morning to you,” pronounced Captain Whalley solemnly, passing into the cabin. But he checked himself in the doorway, and without looking back, “By the bye,” he said, “there should be an empty wooden case put away in the
lazarette. It has not been broken up—has it?” The mate shut his mouth, and then asked as if dazed, “What empty case, sir?” “A big flat packing-case belonging to that painting in my room. Let it be taken up on deck and tell the carpenter to look it over. I may want to use it before long.” The chief officer did not stir a limb till he had heard the door of the captain’s stateroom slam within the cuddy. Then he beckoned aft the second mate with his forefinger to tell him that there was something “in the wind.” When the bell rang Captain Whalley’s authoritative voice boomed out through a closed door, “Sit down and don’t wait for me.” And his impressed officers took their places, exchanging looks and whispers across the table. What! No breakfast? And after apparently knocking about all night on deck, too! Clearly, there was something in the wind. In the skylight above their heads, bowed earnestly over the plates, three wire cages rocked and rattled to the restless jumping of the hungry canaries; and they could detect the sounds of their “old man’s” deliberate movements within his stateroom. Captain Whalley was methodically winding up the chronometers, dusting the portrait of his late wife, getting a clean white shirt out of the drawers, making himself ready in his punctilious unhurried manner to go ashore. He could not have swallowed a single mouthful of food that morning. He had made up his mind to sell the Fair Maid.
The End of the Tether/III
Just at that time the Japanese were casting far and wide for ships of European build, and he had no difficulty in finding a purchaser, a speculator who drove a hard bargain, but paid cash down for the Fair Maid, with a view to a profitable resale. Thus it came about that Captain Whalley found himself on a certain afternoon descending the steps of one of the most important post-offices of the East with a slip of bluish paper in his hand. This was the receipt of a registered letter enclosing a draft for two hundred pounds, and addressed to Melbourne. Captain Whalley pushed the paper into his waistcoat-pocket, took his stick from under his arm, and walked down the street. It was a recently opened and untidy thoroughfare with rudimentary side-walks and a soft layer of dust cushioning the whole width of the road. One end touched the slummy street of Chinese shops near the harbor, the other drove straight on, without houses, for a couple of miles, through patches of jungle-like vegetation, to the yard gates of the new Consolidated Docks Company. The crude frontages of the new Government buildings alternated with the blank fencing of vacant plots, and the view of the sky seemed to give an added spaciousness to the broad vista. It was empty and shunned by natives after business hours, as though they had expected to see one of the tigers from the neighborhood of the New Waterworks on the hill coming at a loping canter down the middle to get a Chinese shopkeeper for supper. Captain Whalley was not dwarfed by the solitude of the grandly planned street. He had too fine a presence for that. He was only a lonely figure walking purposefully, with a great white beard like a pilgrim, and with a thick stick that resembled a weapon. On one side the new Courts of Justice had a low and unadorned portico of squat columns half concealed by a few old trees left in the approach. On the other the pavilion wings of the new Colonial Treasury came out to the line of the street. But Captain Whalley, who had now no ship and no home, remembered in passing that on that very site when he first came out from England there had stood a fishing village, a few mat huts erected on piles between a muddy tidal creek and a miry pathway that went writhing into a tangled wilderness without any docks or waterworks. No ship—no home. And his poor Ivy away there had no home either. A
boarding-house is no sort of home though it may get you a living. His feelings were horribly rasped by the idea of the boarding-house. In his rank of life he had that truly aristocratic temperament characterized by a scorn of vulgar gentility and by prejudiced views as to the derogatory nature of certain occupations. For his own part he had always preferred sailing merchant ships (which is a straightforward occupation) to buying and selling merchandise, of which the essence is to get the better of somebody in a bargain—an undignified trial of wits at best. His father had been Colonel Whalley (retired) of the H. E. I. Company’s service, with very slender means besides his pension, but with distinguished connections. He could remember as a boy how frequently waiters at the inns, country tradesmen and small people of that sort, used to “My lord” the old warrior on the strength of his appearance. Captain Whalley himself (he would have entered the Navy if his father had not died before he was fourteen) had something of a grand air which would have suited an old and glorious admiral; but he became lost like a straw in the eddy of a brook amongst the swarm of brown and yellow humanity filling a thoroughfare, that by contrast with the vast and empty avenue he had left seemed as narrow as a lane and absolutely riotous with life. The walls of the houses were blue; the shops of the Chinamen yawned like cavernous lairs; heaps of nondescript merchandise overflowed the gloom of the long range of arcades, and the fiery serenity of sunset took the middle of the street from end to end with a glow like the reflection of a fire. It fell on the bright colors and the dark faces of the bare-footed crowd, on the pallid yellow backs of the half-naked jostling coolies, on the accouterments of a tall Sikh trooper with a parted beard and fierce mustaches on sentry before the gate of the police compound. Looming very big above the heads in a red haze of dust, the tightly packed car of the cable tramway navigated cautiously up the human stream, with the incessant blare of its horn, in the manner of a steamer groping in a fog. Captain Whalley emerged like a diver on the other side, and in the desert shade between the walls of closed warehouses removed his hat to cool his brow. A certain disrepute attached to the calling of a landlady of a boarding-house. These women were said to be rapacious, unscrupulous, untruthful; and though he contemned no class of his fellow-creatures—God forbid!—these were suspicions to which it was unseemly that a Whalley should lay herself open. He had not expostulated with her, however. He was confident she shared his feelings; he was sorry for her; he trusted her judgment; he considered it a merciful dispensation that he could help her once more,—but in his aristocratic heart of hearts he
would have found it more easy to reconcile himself to the idea of her turning seamstress. Vaguely he remembered reading years ago a touching piece called the “Song of the Shirt.” It was all very well making songs about poor women. The granddaughter of Colonel Whalley, the landlady of a boarding-house! Pooh! He replaced his hat, dived into two pockets, and stopping a moment to apply a flaring match to the end of a cheap cheroot, blew an embittered cloud of smoke at a world that could hold such surprises. Of one thing he was certain—that she was the own child of a clever mother. Now he had got over the wrench of parting with his ship, he perceived clearly that such a step had been unavoidable. Perhaps he had been growing aware of it all along with an unconfessed knowledge. But she, far away there, must have had an intuitive perception of it, with the pluck to face that truth and the courage to speak out—all the qualities which had made her mother a woman of such excellent counsel. It would have had to come to that in the end! It was fortunate she had forced his hand. In another year or two it would have been an utterly barren sale. To keep the ship going he had been involving himself deeper every year. He was defenseless before the insidious work of adversity, to whose more open assaults he could present a firm front; like a cliff that stands unmoved the open battering of the sea, with a lofty ignorance of the treacherous backwash undermining its base. As it was, every liability satisfied, her request answered, and owing no man a penny, there remained to him from the proceeds a sum of five hundred pounds put away safely. In addition he had upon his person some forty odd dollars—enough to pay his hotel bill, providing he did not linger too long in the modest bedroom where he had taken refuge. Scantily furnished, and with a waxed floor, it opened into one of the sideverandas. The straggling building of bricks, as airy as a bird-cage, resounded with the incessant flapping of rattan screens worried by the wind between the white-washed square pillars of the sea-front. The rooms were lofty, a ripple of sunshine flowed over the ceilings; and the periodical invasions of tourists from some passenger steamer in the harbor flitted through the wind-swept dusk of the apartments with the tumult of their unfamiliar voices and impermanent presences, like relays of migratory shades condemned to speed headlong round the earth without leaving a trace. The babble of their irruptions ebbed out as suddenly as it had arisen; the draughty corridors and the long chairs of the verandas knew their sight-seeing hurry or their prostrate repose no more; and
Captain Whalley, substantial and dignified, left well-nigh alone in the vast hotel by each light-hearted skurry, felt more and more like a stranded tourist with no aim in view, like a forlorn traveler without a home. In the solitude of his room he smoked thoughtfully, gazing at the two sea-chests which held all that he could call his own in this world. A thick roll of charts in a sheath of sailcloth leaned in a corner; the flat packing-case containing the portrait in oils and the three carbon photographs had been pushed under the bed. He was tired of discussing terms, of assisting at surveys, of all the routine of the business. What to the other parties was merely the sale of a ship was to him a momentous event involving a radically new view of existence. He knew that after this ship there would be no other; and the hopes of his youth, the exercise of his abilities, every feeling and achievement of his manhood, had been indissolubly connected with ships. He had served ships; he had owned ships; and even the years of his actual retirement from the sea had been made bearable by the idea that he had only to stretch out his hand full of money to get a ship. He had been at liberty to feel as though he were the owner of all the ships in the world. The selling of this one was weary work; but when she passed from him at last, when he signed the last receipt, it was as though all the ships had gone out of the world together, leaving him on the shore of inaccessible oceans with seven hundred pounds in his hands. Striding firmly, without haste, along the quay, Captain Whalley averted his glances from the familiar roadstead. Two generations of seamen born since his first day at sea stood between him and all these ships at the anchorage. His own was sold, and he had been asking himself, What next? From the feeling of loneliness, of inward emptiness,—and of loss too, as if his very soul had been taken out of him forcibly,—there had sprung at first a desire to start right off and join his daughter. “Here are the last pence,” he would say to her; “take them, my dear. And here’s your old father: you must take him too.” His soul recoiled, as if afraid of what lay hidden at the bottom of this impulse. Give up! Never! When one is thoroughly weary all sorts of nonsense come into one’s head. A pretty gift it would have been for a poor woman—this seven hundred pounds with the incumbrance of a hale old fellow more than likely to last for years and years to come. Was he not as fit to die in harness as any of the youngsters in charge of these anchored ships out yonder? He was as solid now as ever he had been. But as to who would give him work to do, that was another matter. Were he, with his appearance and antecedents, to go about looking for a junior’s berth, people, he was afraid, would not take him seriously; or else if he
succeeded in impressing them, he would maybe obtain their pity, which would be like stripping yourself naked to be kicked. He was not anxious to give himself away for less than nothing. He had no use for anybody’s pity. On the other hand, a command—the only thing he could try for with due regard for common decency—was not likely to be lying in wait for him at the corner of the next street. Commands don’t go a-begging nowadays. Ever since he had come ashore to carry out the business of the sale he had kept his ears open, but had heard no hint of one being vacant in the port. And even if there had been one, his successful past itself stood in his way. He had been his own employer too long. The only credential he could produce was the testimony of his whole life. What better recommendation could anyone require? But vaguely he felt that the unique document would be looked upon as an archaic curiosity of the Eastern waters, a screed traced in obsolete words—in a half-forgotten language.
The End of the Tether/IV
Revolving these thoughts, he strolled on near the railings of the quay, broadchested, without a stoop, as though his big shoulders had never felt the burden of the loads that must be carried between the cradle and the grave. No single betraying fold or line of care disfigured the reposeful modeling of his face. It was full and untanned; and the upper part emerged, massively quiet, out of the downward flow of silvery hair, with the striking delicacy of its clear complexion and the powerful width of the forehead. The first cast of his glance fell on you candid and swift, like a boy’s; but because of the ragged snowy thatch of the eyebrows the affability of his attention acquired the character of a dark and searching scrutiny. With age he had put on flesh a little, had increased his girth like an old tree presenting no symptoms of decay; and even the opulent, lustrous ripple of white hairs upon his chest seemed an attribute of unquenchable vitality and vigor. Once rather proud of his great bodily strength, and even of his personal appearance, conscious of his worth, and firm in his rectitude, there had remained to him, like the heritage of departed prosperity, the tranquil bearing of a man who had proved himself fit in every sort of way for the life of his choice. He strode on squarely under the projecting brim of an ancient Panama hat. It had a low crown, a crease through its whole diameter, a narrow black ribbon. Imperishable and a little discolored, this headgear made it easy to pick him out from afar on thronged wharves and in the busy streets. He had never adopted the comparatively modern fashion of pipeclayed cork helmets. He disliked the form; and he hoped he could manage to keep a cool head to the end of his life without all these contrivances for hygienic ventilation. His hair was cropped close, his linen always of immaculate whiteness; a suit of thin gray flannel, worn threadbare but scrupulously brushed, floated about his burly limbs, adding to his bulk by the looseness of its cut. The years had mellowed the good-humored, imperturbable audacity of his prime into a temper carelessly serene; and the leisurely tapping of his iron-shod stick accompanied his footfalls with a selfconfident sound on the flagstones. It was impossible to connect such a fine presence and this unruffled aspect with the belittling troubles of poverty; the man’s whole existence appeared to pass before you, facile and large, in the
freedom of means as ample as the clothing of his body. The irrational dread of having to break into his five hundred pounds for personal expenses in the hotel disturbed the steady poise of his mind. There was no time to lose. The bill was running up. He nourished the hope that this five hundred would perhaps be the means, if everything else failed, of obtaining some work which, keeping his body and soul together (not a matter of great outlay), would enable him to be of use to his daughter. To his mind it was her own money which he employed, as it were, in backing her father and solely for her benefit. Once at work, he would help her with the greater part of his earnings; he was good for many years yet, and this boarding-house business, he argued to himself, whatever the prospects, could not be much of a gold-mine from the first start. But what work? He was ready to lay hold of anything in an honest way so that it came quickly to his hand; because the five hundred pounds must be preserved intact for eventual use. That was the great point. With the entire five hundred one felt a substance at one’s back; but it seemed to him that should he let it dwindle to four-fifty or even four-eighty, all the efficiency would be gone out of the money, as though there were some magic power in the round figure. But what sort of work? Confronted by that haunting question as by an uneasy ghost, for whom he had no exorcising formula, Captain Whalley stopped short on the apex of a small bridge spanning steeply the bed of a canalized creek with granite shores. Moored between the square blocks a seagoing Malay prau floated half hidden under the arch of masonry, with her spars lowered down, without a sound of life on board, and covered from stem to stern with a ridge of palm-leaf mats. He had left behind him the overheated pavements bordered by the stone frontages that, like the sheer face of cliffs, followed the sweep of the quays; and an unconfined spaciousness of orderly and sylvan aspect opened before him its wide plots of rolled grass, like pieces of green carpet smoothly pegged out, its long ranges of trees lined up in colossal porticos of dark shafts roofed with a vault of branches. Some of these avenues ended at the sea. It was a terraced shore; and beyond, upon the level expanse, profound and glistening like the gaze of a dark-blue eye, an oblique band of stippled purple lengthened itself indefinitely through the gap between a couple of verdant twin islets. The masts and spars of a few ships far away, hull down in the outer roads, sprang straight from the water in a fine maze of rosy lines penciled on the clear shadow of the eastern board. Captain Whalley gave them a long glance. The ship, once his own, was anchored out there. It was
staggering to think that it was open to him no longer to take a boat at the jetty and get himself pulled off to her when the evening came. To no ship. Perhaps never more. Before the sale was concluded, and till the purchase-money had been paid, he had spent daily some time on board the Fair Maid. The money had been paid this very morning, and now, all at once, there was positively no ship that he could go on board of when he liked; no ship that would need his presence in order to do her work—to live. It seemed an incredible state of affairs, something too bizarre to last. And the sea was full of craft of all sorts. There was that prau lying so still swathed in her shroud of sewn palm-leaves—she too had her indispensable man. They lived through each other, this Malay he had never seen, and this high-sterned thing of no size that seemed to be resting after a long journey. And of all the ships in sight, near and far, each was provided with a man, the man without whom the finest ship is a dead thing, a floating and purposeless log. After his one glance at the roadstead he went on, since there was nothing to turn back for, and the time must be got through somehow. The avenues of big trees ran straight over the Esplanade, cutting each other at diverse angles, columnar below and luxuriant above. The interlaced boughs high up there seemed to slumber; not a leaf stirred overhead: and the reedy cast-iron lampposts in the middle of the road, gilt like scepters, diminished in a long perspective, with their globes of white porcelain atop, resembling a barbarous decoration of ostriches’ eggs displayed in a row. The flaming sky kindled a tiny crimson spark upon the glistening surface of each glassy shell. With his chin sunk a little, his hands behind his back, and the end of his stick marking the gravel with a faint wavering line at his heels, Captain Whalley reflected that if a ship without a man was like a body without a soul, a sailor without a ship was of not much more account in this world than an aimless log adrift upon the sea. The log might be sound enough by itself, tough of fiber, and hard to destroy—but what of that! And a sudden sense of irremediable idleness weighted his feet like a great fatigue. A succession of open carriages came bowling along the newly opened sea-road. You could see across the wide grass-plots the discs of vibration made by the spokes. The bright domes of the parasols swayed lightly outwards like fullblown blossoms on the rim of a vase; and the quiet sheet of dark-blue water, crossed by a bar of purple, made a background for the spinning wheels and the high action of the horses, whilst the turbaned heads of the Indian servants
elevated above the line of the sea horizon glided rapidly on the paler blue of the sky. In an open space near the little bridge each turn-out trotted smartly in a wide curve away from the sunset; then pulling up sharp, entered the main alley in a long slow-moving file with the great red stillness of the sky at the back. The trunks of mighty trees stood all touched with red on the same side, the air seemed aflame under the high foliage, the very ground under the hoofs of the horses was red. The wheels turned solemnly; one after another the sunshades drooped, folding their colors like gorgeous flowers shutting their petals at the end of the day. In the whole half-mile of human beings no voice uttered a distinct word, only a faint thudding noise went on mingled with slight jingling sounds, and the motionless heads and shoulders of men and women sitting in couples emerged stolidly above the lowered hoods—as if wooden. But one carriage and pair coming late did not join the line. It fled along in a noiseless roll; but on entering the avenue one of the dark bays snorted, arching his neck and shying against the steel-tipped pole; a flake of foam fell from the bit upon the point of a satiny shoulder, and the dusky face of the coachman leaned forward at once over the hands taking a fresh grip of the reins. It was a long dark-green landau, having a dignified and buoyant motion between the sharply curved C-springs, and a sort of strictly official majesty in its supreme elegance. It seemed more roomy than is usual, its horses seemed slightly bigger, the appointments a shade more perfect, the servants perched somewhat higher on the box. The dresses of three women—two young and pretty, and one, handsome, large, of mature age—seemed to fill completely the shallow body of the carriage. The fourth face was that of a man, heavy lidded, distinguished and sallow, with a somber, thick, iron-gray imperial and mustaches, which somehow had the air of solid appendages. His Excellency— The rapid motion of that one equipage made all the others appear utterly inferior, blighted, and reduced to crawl painfully at a snail’s pace. The landau distanced the whole file in a sort of sustained rush; the features of the occupant whirling out of sight left behind an impression of fixed stares and impassive vacancy; and after it had vanished in full flight as it were, notwithstanding the long line of vehicles hugging the curb at a walk, the whole lofty vista of the avenue seemed to lie open and emptied of life in the enlarged impression of an august solitude. Captain Whalley had lifted his head to look, and his mind, disturbed in its meditation, turned with wonder (as men’s minds will do) to matters of no importance. It struck him that it was to this port, where he had just sold his last
ship, that he had come with the very first he had ever owned, and with his head full of a plan for opening a new trade with a distant part of the Archipelago. The then governor had given him no end of encouragement. No Excellency he—this Mr. Denham—this governor with his jacket off; a man who tended night and day, so to speak, the growing prosperity of the settlement with the self-forgetful devotion of a nurse for a child she loves; a lone bachelor who lived as in a camp with the few servants and his three dogs in what was called then the Government Bungalow: a low-roofed structure on the half-cleared slope of a hill, with a new flagstaff in front and a police orderly on the veranda. He remembered toiling up that hill under a heavy sun for his audience; the unfurnished aspect of the cool shaded room; the long table covered at one end with piles of papers, and with two guns, a brass telescope, a small bottle of oil with a feather stuck in the neck at the other—and the flattering attention given to him by the man in power. It was an undertaking full of risk he had come to expound, but a twenty minutes’ talk in the Government Bungalow on the hill had made it go smoothly from the start. And as he was retiring Mr. Denham, already seated before the papers, called out after him, “Next month the Dido starts for a cruise that way, and I shall request her captain officially to give you a look in and see how you get on.” The Dido was one of the smart frigates on the China station—and five-and-thirty years make a big slice of time. Five-and-thirty years ago an enterprise like his had for the colony enough importance to be looked after by a Queen’s ship. A big slice of time. Individuals were of some account then. Men like himself; men, too, like poor Evans, for instance, with his red face, his coal-black whiskers, and his restless eyes, who had set up the first patent slip for repairing small ships, on the edge of the forest, in a lonely bay three miles up the coast. Mr. Denham had encouraged that enterprise too, and yet somehow poor Evans had ended by dying at home deucedly hard up. His son, they said, was squeezing oil out of cocoanuts for a living on some God-forsaken islet of the Indian Ocean; but it was from that patent slip in a lonely wooded bay that had sprung the workshops of the Consolidated Docks Company, with its three graving basins carved out of solid rock, its wharves, its jetties, its electric-light plant, its steam-power houses— with its gigantic sheer-legs, fit to lift the heaviest weight ever carried afloat, and whose head could be seen like the top of a queer white monument peeping over bushy points of land and sandy promontories, as you approached the New Harbor from the west. There had been a time when men counted: there were not so many carriages in the colony then, though Mr. Denham, he fancied, had a buggy. And Captain Whalley seemed to be swept out of the great avenue by the swirl of a mental
backwash. He remembered muddy shores, a harbor without quays, the one solitary wooden pier (but that was a public work) jutting out crookedly, the first coal-sheds erected on Monkey Point, that caught fire mysteriously and smoldered for days, so that amazed ships came into a roadstead full of sulphurous smoke, and the sun hung blood-red at midday. He remembered the things, the faces, and something more besides—like the faint flavor of a cup quaffed to the bottom, like a subtle sparkle of the air that was not to be found in the atmosphere of to-day. In this evocation, swift and full of detail like a flash of magnesium light into the niches of a dark memorial hall, Captain Whalley contemplated things once important, the efforts of small men, the growth of a great place, but now robbed of all consequence by the greatness of accomplished facts, by hopes greater still; and they gave him for a moment such an almost physical grip upon time, such a comprehension of our unchangeable feelings, that he stopped short, struck the ground with his stick, and ejaculated mentally, “What the devil am I doing here!” He seemed lost in a sort of surprise; but he heard his name called out in wheezy tones once, twice—and turned on his heels slowly. He beheld then, waddling towards him autocratically, a man of an old-fashioned and gouty aspect, with hair as white as his own, but with shaved, florid cheeks, wearing a necktie—almost a neckcloth—whose stiff ends projected far beyond his chin; with round legs, round arms, a round body, a round face—generally producing the effect of his short figure having been distended by means of an air-pump as much as the seams of his clothing would stand. This was the MasterAttendant of the port. A master-attendant is a superior sort of harbor-master; a person, out in the East, of some consequence in his sphere; a Government official, a magistrate for the waters of the port, and possessed of vast but illdefined disciplinary authority over seamen of all classes. This particular MasterAttendant was reported to consider it miserably inadequate, on the ground that it did not include the power of life and death. This was a jocular exaggeration. Captain Eliott was fairly satisfied with his position, and nursed no inconsiderable sense of such power as he had. His conceited and tyrannical disposition did not allow him to let it dwindle in his hands for want of use. The uproarious, choleric frankness of his comments on people’s character and conduct caused him to be feared at bottom; though in conversation many pretended not to mind him in the least, others would only smile sourly at the mention of his name, and there were even some who dared to pronounce him “a meddlesome old ruffian.” But for almost all of them one of Captain Eliott’s outbreaks was nearly as distasteful to
face as a chance of annihilation.
The End of the Tether/V
As soon as he had come up quite close he said, mouthing in a growl— “What’s this I hear, Whalley? Is it true you’re selling the Fair Maid?” Captain Whalley, looking away, said the thing was done—money had been paid that morning; and the other expressed at once his approbation of such an extremely sensible proceeding. He had got out of his trap to stretch his legs, he explained, on his way home to dinner. Sir Frederick looked well at the end of his time. Didn’t he? Captain Whalley could not say; had only noticed the carriage going past. The Master-Attendant, plunging his hands into the pockets of an alpaca jacket inappropriately short and tight for a man of his age and appearance, strutted with a slight limp, and with his head reaching only to the shoulder of Captain Whalley, who walked easily, staring straight before him. They had been good comrades years ago, almost intimates. At the time when Whalley commanded the renowned Condor, Eliott had charge of the nearly as famous Ringdove for the same owners; and when the appointment of Master-Attendant was created, Whalley would have been the only other serious candidate. But Captain Whalley, then in the prime of life, was resolved to serve no one but his own auspicious Fortune. Far away, tending his hot irons, he was glad to hear the other had been successful. There was a worldly suppleness in bluff Ned Eliott that would serve him well in that sort of official appointment. And they were so dissimilar at bottom that as they came slowly to the end of the avenue before the Cathedral, it had never come into Whalley’s head that he might have been in that man’s place —provided for to the end of his days. The sacred edifice, standing in solemn isolation amongst the converging avenues of enormous trees, as if to put grave thoughts of heaven into the hours of ease, presented a closed Gothic portal to the light and glory of the west. The glass of the rosace above the ogive glowed like fiery coal in the deep carvings of a wheel of stone. The two men faced about.
“I’ll tell you what they ought to do next, Whalley,” growled Captain Eliott suddenly. “Well?” “They ought to send a real live lord out here when Sir Frederick’s time is up. Eh?” Captain Whalley perfunctorily did not see why a lord of the right sort should not do as well as anyone else. But this was not the other’s point of view. “No, no. Place runs itself. Nothing can stop it now. Good enough for a lord,” he growled in short sentences. “Look at the changes in our time. We need a lord here now. They have got a lord in Bombay.” He dined once or twice every year at the Government House—a manywindowed, arcaded palace upon a hill laid out in roads and gardens. And lately he had been taking about a duke in his Master-Attendant’s steam-launch to visit the harbor improvements. Before that he had “most obligingly” gone out in person to pick out a good berth for the ducal yacht. Afterwards he had an invitation to lunch on board. The duchess herself lunched with them. A big woman with a red face. Complexion quite sunburnt. He should think ruined. Very gracious manners. They were going on to Japan… . He ejaculated these details for Captain Whalley’s edification, pausing to blow out his cheeks as if with a pent-up sense of importance, and repeatedly protruding his thick lips till the blunt crimson end of his nose seemed to dip into the milk of his mustache. The place ran itself; it was fit for any lord; it gave no trouble except in its Marine department—in its Marine department he repeated twice, and after a heavy snort began to relate how the other day her Majesty’s Consul-General in French Cochin-China had cabled to him—in his official capacity—asking for a qualified man to be sent over to take charge of a Glasgow ship whose master had died in Saigon. “I sent word of it to the officers’ quarters in the Sailors’ Home,” he continued, while the limp in his gait seemed to grow more accentuated with the increasing irritation of his voice. “Place’s full of them. Twice as many men as there are berths going in the local trade. All hungry for an easy job. Twice as many—and —What d’you think, Whalley? …”
He stopped short; his hands clenched and thrust deeply downwards, seemed ready to burst the pockets of his jacket. A slight sigh escaped Captain Whalley. “Hey? You would think they would be falling over each other. Not a bit of it. Frightened to go home. Nice and warm out here to lie about a veranda waiting for a job. I sit and wait in my office. Nobody. What did they suppose? That I was going to sit there like a dummy with the Consul-General’s cable before me? Not likely. So I looked up a list of them I keep by me and sent word for Hamilton— the worst loafer of them all—and just made him go. Threatened to instruct the steward of the Sailors’ Home to have him turned out neck and crop. He did not think the berth was good enough—if—you—please. ‘I’ve your little records by me,’ said I. ‘You came ashore here eighteen months ago, and you haven’t done six months’ work since. You are in debt for your board now at the Home, and I suppose you reckon the Marine Office will pay in the end. Eh? So it shall; but if you don’t take this chance, away you go to England, assisted passage, by the first homeward steamer that comes along. You are no better than a pauper. We don’t want any white paupers here.’ I scared him. But look at the trouble all this gave me.” “You would not have had any trouble,” Captain Whalley said almost involuntarily, “if you had sent for me.” Captain Eliott was immensely amused; he shook with laughter as he walked. But suddenly he stopped laughing. A vague recollection had crossed his mind. Hadn’t he heard it said at the time of the Travancore and Deccan smash that poor Whalley had been cleaned out completely. “Fellow’s hard up, by heavens!” he thought; and at once he cast a sidelong upward glance at his companion. But Captain Whalley was smiling austerely straight before him, with a carriage of the head inconceivable in a penniless man—and he became reassured. Impossible. Could not have lost everything. That ship had been only a hobby of his. And the reflection that a man who had confessed to receiving that very morning a presumably large sum of money was not likely to spring upon him a demand for a small loan put him entirely at his ease again. There had come a long pause in their talk, however, and not knowing how to begin again, he growled out soberly, “We old fellows ought to take a rest now.” “The best thing for some of us would be to die at the oar,” Captain Whalley said negligently.
“Come, now. Aren’t you a bit tired by this time of the whole show?” muttered the other sullenly. “Are you?” Captain Eliott was. Infernally tired. He only hung on to his berth so long in order to get his pension on the highest scale before he went home. It would be no better than poverty, anyhow; still, it was the only thing between him and the workhouse. And he had a family. Three girls, as Whalley knew. He gave “Harry, old boy,” to understand that these three girls were a source of the greatest anxiety and worry to him. Enough to drive a man distracted. “Why? What have they been doing now?” asked Captain Whalley with a sort of amused absent-mindedness. “Doing! Doing nothing. That’s just it. Lawn-tennis and silly novels from morning to night… .” If one of them at least had been a boy. But all three! And, as ill-luck would have it, there did not seem to be any decent young fellows left in the world. When he looked around in the club he saw only a lot of conceited popinjays too selfish to think of making a good woman happy. Extreme indigence stared him in the face with all that crowd to keep at home. He had cherished the idea of building himself a little house in the country—in Surrey—to end his days in, but he was afraid it was out of the question, … and his staring eyes rolled upwards with such a pathetic anxiety that Captain Whalley charitably nodded down at him, restraining a sort of sickening desire to laugh. “You must know what it is yourself, Harry. Girls are the very devil for worry and anxiety.” “Ay! But mine is doing well,” Captain Whalley pronounced slowly, staring to the end of the avenue. The Master-Attendant was glad to hear this. Uncommonly glad. He remembered her well. A pretty girl she was. Captain Whalley, stepping out carelessly, assented as if in a dream. “She was pretty.”
The procession of carriages was breaking up. One after another they left the file to go off at a trot, animating the vast avenue with their scattered life and movement; but soon the aspect of dignified solitude returned and took possession of the straight wide road. A syce in white stood at the head of a Burmah pony harnessed to a varnished two-wheel cart; and the whole thing waiting by the curb seemed no bigger than a child’s toy forgotten under the soaring trees. Captain Eliott waddled up to it and made as if to clamber in, but refrained; and keeping one hand resting easily on the shaft, he changed the conversation from his pension, his daughters, and his poverty back again to the only other topic in the world—the Marine Office, the men and the ships of the port. He proceeded to give instances of what was expected of him; and his thick voice drowsed in the still air like the obstinate droning of an enormous bumble-bee. Captain Whalley did not know what was the force or the weakness that prevented him from saying good-night and walking away. It was as though he had been too tired to make the effort. How queer. More queer than any of Ned’s instances. Or was it that overpowering sense of idleness alone that made him stand there and listen to these stories. Nothing very real had ever troubled Ned Eliott; and gradually he seemed to detect deep in, as if wrapped up in the gross wheezy rumble, something of the clear hearty voice of the young captain of the Ringdove. He wondered if he too had changed to the same extent; and it seemed to him that the voice of his old chum had not changed so very much—that the man was the same. Not a bad fellow the pleasant, jolly Ned Eliott, friendly, well up to his business—and always a bit of a humbug. He remembered how he used to amuse his poor wife. She could read him like an open book. When the Condor and the Ringdove happened to be in port together, she would frequently ask him to bring Captain Eliott to dinner. They had not met often since those old days. Not once in five years, perhaps. He regarded from under his white eyebrows this man he could not bring himself to take into his confidence at this juncture; and the other went on with his intimate outpourings, and as remote from his hearer as though he had been talking on a hill-top a mile away. He was in a bit of a quandary now as to the steamer Sofala. Ultimately every hitch in the port came into his hands to undo. They would miss him when he was gone in another eighteen months, and most likely some retired naval officer had been pitchforked into the appointment—a man that would understand nothing and care less. That steamer was a coasting craft having a steady trade connection
as far north as Tenasserim; but the trouble was she could get no captain to take her on her regular trip. Nobody would go in her. He really had no power, of course, to order a man to take a job. It was all very well to stretch a point on the demand of a consul-general, but … “What’s the matter with the ship?” Captain Whalley interrupted in measured tones. “Nothing’s the matter. Sound old steamer. Her owner has been in my office this afternoon tearing his hair.” “Is he a white man?” asked Whalley in an interested voice. “He calls himself a white man,” answered the Master-Attendant scornfully; “but if so, it’s just skin-deep and no more. I told him that to his face too.” “But who is he, then?” “He’s the chief engineer of her. See that, Harry?” “I see,” Captain Whalley said thoughtfully. “The engineer. I see.” How the fellow came to be a shipowner at the same time was quite a tale. He came out third in a home ship nearly fifteen years ago, Captain Eliott remembered, and got paid off after a bad sort of row both with his skipper and his chief. Anyway, they seemed jolly glad to get rid of him at all costs. Clearly a mutinous sort of chap. Well, he remained out here, a perfect nuisance, everlastingly shipped and unshipped, unable to keep a berth very long; pretty nigh went through every engine-room afloat belonging to the colony. Then suddenly, “What do you think happened, Harry?” Captain Whalley, who seemed lost in a mental effort as of doing a sum in his head, gave a slight start. He really couldn’t imagine. The Master-Attendant’s voice vibrated dully with hoarse emphasis. The man actually had the luck to win the second prize in the Manilla lottery. All these engineers and officers of ships took tickets in that gamble. It seemed to be a perfect mania with them all. Everybody expected now that he would take himself off home with his money, and go to the devil in his own way. Not at all. The Sofala, judged too small and not quite modern enough for the sort of trade she was in, could be got for a
moderate price from her owners, who had ordered a new steamer from Europe. He rushed in and bought her. This man had never given any signs of that sort of mental intoxication the mere fact of getting hold of a large sum of money may produce—not till he got a ship of his own; but then he went off his balance all at once: came bouncing into the Marine Office on some transfer business, with his hat hanging over his left eye and switching a little cane in his hand, and told each one of the clerks separately that “Nobody could put him out now. It was his turn. There was no one over him on earth, and there never would be either.” He swaggered and strutted between the desks, talking at the top of his voice, and trembling like a leaf all the while, so that the current business of the office was suspended for the time he was in there, and everybody in the big room stood open-mouthed looking at his antics. Afterwards he could be seen during the hottest hours of the day with his face as red as fire rushing along up and down the quays to look at his ship from different points of view: he seemed inclined to stop every stranger he came across just to let them know “that there would be no longer anyone over him; he had bought a ship; nobody on earth could put him out of his engine-room now.” Good bargain as she was, the price of the Sofala took up pretty near all the lottery-money. He had left himself no capital to work with. That did not matter so much, for these were the halcyon days of steam coasting trade, before some of the home shipping firms had thought of establishing local fleets to feed their main lines. These, when once organized, took the biggest slices out of that cake, of course; and by-and-by a squad of confounded German tramps turned up east of Suez Canal and swept up all the crumbs. They prowled on the cheap to and fro along the coast and between the islands, like a lot of sharks in the water ready to snap up anything you let drop. And then the high old times were over for good; for years the Sofala had made no more, he judged, than a fair living. Captain Eliott looked upon it as his duty in every way to assist an English ship to hold her own; and it stood to reason that if for want of a captain the Sofala began to miss her trips she would very soon lose her trade. There was the quandary. The man was too impracticable. “Too much of a beggar on horseback from the first,” he explained. “Seemed to grow worse as the time went on. In the last three years he’s run through eleven skippers; he had tried every single man here, outside of the regular lines. I had warned him before that this would not do. And now, of course, no one will look at the Sofala. I had one or two men up at my office and talked to them; but, as they said to me, what was the good of taking the berth to lead a regular dog’s life for a month and then get the sack at the end of the first trip? The fellow, of course, told me it was all nonsense; there has
been a plot hatching for years against him. And now it had come. All the horrid sailors in the port had conspired to bring him to his knees, because he was an engineer.” Captain Eliott emitted a throaty chuckle. “And the fact is, that if he misses a couple more trips he need never trouble himself to start again. He won’t find any cargo in his old trade. There’s too much competition nowadays for people to keep their stuff lying about for a ship that does not turn up when she’s expected. It’s a bad lookout for him. He swears he will shut himself on board and starve to death in his cabin rather than sell her— even if he could find a buyer. And that’s not likely in the least. Not even the Japs would give her insured value for her. It isn’t like selling sailing-ships. Steamers do get out of date, besides getting old.” “He must have laid by a good bit of money though,” observed Captain Whalley quietly. The Harbor-master puffed out his purple cheeks to an amazing size. “Not a stiver, Harry. Not—a—single—sti-ver.” He waited; but as Captain Whalley, stroking his beard slowly, looked down on the ground without a word, he tapped him on the forearm, tiptoed, and said in a hoarse whisper— “The Manilla lottery has been eating him up.” He frowned a little, nodding in tiny affirmative jerks. They all were going in for it; a third of the wages paid to ships’ officers (“in my port,” he snorted) went to Manilla. It was a mania. That fellow Massy had been bitten by it like the rest of them from the first; but after winning once he seemed to have persuaded himself he had only to try again to get another big prize. He had taken dozens and scores of tickets for every drawing since. What with this vice and his ignorance of affairs, ever since he had improvidently bought that steamer he had been more or less short of money. This, in Captain Eliott’s opinion, gave an opening for a sensible sailor-man with a few pounds to step in and save that fool from the consequences of his folly. It was his craze to quarrel with his captains. He had had some really good men too,
who would have been too glad to stay if he would only let them. But no. He seemed to think he was no owner unless he was kicking somebody out in the morning and having a row with the new man in the evening. What was wanted for him was a master with a couple of hundred or so to take an interest in the ship on proper conditions. You don’t discharge a man for no fault, only because of the fun of telling him to pack up his traps and go ashore, when you know that in that case you are bound to buy back his share. On the other hand, a fellow with an interest in the ship is not likely to throw up his job in a huff about a trifle. He had told Massy that. He had said: “‘This won’t do, Mr. Massy. We are getting very sick of you here in the Marine Office. What you must do now is to try whether you could get a sailor to join you as partner. That seems to be the only way.’ And that was sound advice, Harry.” Captain Whalley, leaning on his stick, was perfectly still all over, and his hand, arrested in the act of stroking, grasped his whole beard. And what did the fellow say to that? The fellow had the audacity to fly out at the Master-Attendant. He had received the advice in a most impudent manner. “I didn’t come here to be laughed at,” he had shrieked. “I appeal to you as an Englishman and a shipowner brought to the verge of ruin by an illegal conspiracy of your beggarly sailors, and all you condescend to do for me is to tell me to go and get a partner!” … The fellow had presumed to stamp with rage on the floor of the private office. Where was he going to get a partner? Was he being taken for a fool? Not a single one of that contemptible lot ashore at the “Home” had twopence in his pocket to bless himself with. The very native curs in the bazaar knew that much… . “And it’s true enough, Harry,” rumbled Captain Eliott judicially. “They are much more likely one and all to owe money to the Chinamen in Denham Road for the clothes on their backs. ‘Well,’ said I, ‘you make too much noise over it for my taste, Mr. Massy. Good morning.’ He banged the door after him; he dared to bang my door, confound his cheek!” The head of the Marine department was out of breath with indignation; then recollecting himself as it were, “I’ll end by being late to dinner—yarning with you here … wife doesn’t like it.” He clambered ponderously into the trap; leaned out sideways, and only then wondered wheezily what on earth Captain Whalley could have been doing with himself of late. They had had no sight of each other for years and years till the
other day when he had seen him unexpectedly in the office. What on earth … Captain Whalley seemed to be smiling to himself in his white beard. “The earth is big,” he said vaguely. The other, as if to test the statement, stared all round from his driving-seat. The Esplanade was very quiet; only from afar, from very far, a long way from the seashore, across the stretches of grass, through the long ranges of trees, came faintly the toot—toot—toot of the cable car beginning to roll before the empty peristyle of the Public Library on its three-mile journey to the New Harbor Docks. “Doesn’t seem to be so much room on it,” growled the Master-Attendant, “since these Germans came along shouldering us at every turn. It was not so in our time.” He fell into deep thought, breathing stertorously, as though he had been taking a nap open-eyed. Perhaps he too, on his side, had detected in the silent pilgrim-like figure, standing there by the wheel, like an arrested wayfarer, the buried lineaments of the features belonging to the young captain of the Condor. Good fellow—Harry Whalley—never very talkative. You never knew what he was up to—a bit too off-hand with people of consequence, and apt to take a wrong view of a fellow’s actions. Fact was he had a too good opinion of himself. He would have liked to tell him to get in and drive him home to dinner. But one never knew. Wife would not like it. “And it’s funny to think, Harry,” he went on in a big, subdued drone, “that of all the people on it there seems only you and I left to remember this part of the world as it used to be …” He was ready to indulge in the sweetness of a sentimental mood had it not struck him suddenly that Captain Whalley, unstirring and without a word, seemed to be awaiting something—perhaps expecting … He gathered the reins at once and burst out in bluff, hearty growls— “Ha! My dear boy. The men we have known—the ships we’ve sailed—ay! and the things we’ve done …”
The pony plunged—the syce skipped out of the way. Captain Whalley raised his arm. “Good-by.”
The End of the Tether/VI
The sun had set. And when, after drilling a deep hole with his stick, he moved from that spot the night had massed its army of shadows under the trees. They filled the eastern ends of the avenues as if only waiting the signal for a general advance upon the open spaces of the world; they were gathering low between the deep stone-faced banks of the canal. The Malay prau, half-concealed under the arch of the bridge, had not altered its position a quarter of an inch. For a long time Captain Whalley stared down over the parapet, till at last the floating immobility of that beshrouded thing seemed to grow upon him into something inexplicable and alarming. The twilight abandoned the zenith; its reflected gleams left the world below, and the water of the canal seemed to turn into pitch. Captain Whalley crossed it. The turning to the right, which was his way to his hotel, was only a very few steps farther. He stopped again (all the houses of the sea-front were shut up, the quayside was deserted, but for one or two figures of natives walking in the distance) and began to reckon the amount of his bill. So many days in the hotel at so many dollars a day. To count the days he used his fingers: plunging one hand into his pocket, he jingled a few silver coins. All right for three days more; and then, unless something turned up, he must break into the five hundred— Ivy’s money—invested in her father. It seemed to him that the first meal coming out of that reserve would choke him—for certain. Reason was of no use. It was a matter of feeling. His feelings had never played him false. He did not turn to the right. He walked on, as if there still had been a ship in the roadstead to which he could get himself pulled off in the evening. Far away, beyond the houses, on the slope of an indigo promontory closing the view of the quays, the slim column of a factory-chimney smoked quietly straight up into the clear air. A Chinaman, curled down in the stern of one of the half-dozen sampans floating off the end of the jetty, caught sight of a beckoning hand. He jumped up, rolled his pigtail round his head swiftly, tucked in two rapid movements his wide dark trousers high up his yellow thighs, and by a single, noiseless, finlike stir of the oars, sheered the sampan alongside the steps with the ease and precision of a swimming fish.
“Sofala,” articulated Captain Whalley from above; and the Chinaman, a new emigrant probably, stared upwards with a tense attention as if waiting to see the queer word fall visibly from the white man’s lips. “Sofala,” Captain Whalley repeated; and suddenly his heart failed him. He paused. The shores, the islets, the high ground, the low points, were dark: the horizon had grown somber; and across the eastern sweep of the shore the white obelisk, marking the landingplace of the telegraph-cable, stood like a pale ghost on the beach before the dark spread of uneven roofs, intermingled with palms, of the native town. Captain Whalley began again. “Sofala. Savee So-fa-la, John?” This time the Chinaman made out that bizarre sound, and grunted his assent uncouthly, low down in his bare throat. With the first yellow twinkle of a star that appeared like the head of a pin stabbed deep into the smooth, pale, shimmering fabric of the sky, the edge of a keen chill seemed to cleave through the warm air of the earth. At the moment of stepping into the sampan to go and try for the command of the Sofala Captain Whalley shivered a little.
When on his return he landed on the quay again Venus, like a choice jewel set low on the hem of the sky, cast a faint gold trail behind him upon the roadstead, as level as a floor made of one dark and polished stone. The lofty vaults of the avenues were black—all black overhead—and the porcelain globes on the lampposts resembled egg-shaped pearls, gigantic and luminous, displayed in a row whose farther end seemed to sink in the distance, down to the level of his knees. He put his hands behind his back. He would now consider calmly the discretion of it before saying the final word to-morrow. His feet scrunched the gravel loudly—the discretion of it. It would have been easier to appraise had there been a workable alternative. The honesty of it was indubitable: he meant well by the fellow; and periodically his shadow leaped up intense by his side on the trunks of the trees, to lengthen itself, oblique and dim, far over the grass—repeating his stride. The discretion of it. Was there a choice? He seemed already to have lost something of himself; to have given up to a hungry specter something of his truth and dignity in order to live. But his life was necessary. Let poverty do its worst in exacting its toll of humiliation. It was certain that Ned Eliott had
rendered him, without knowing it, a service for which it would have been impossible to ask. He hoped Ned would not think there had been something underhand in his action. He supposed that now when he heard of it he would understand—or perhaps he would only think Whalley an eccentric old fool. What would have been the good of telling him—any more than of blurting the whole tale to that man Massy? Five hundred pounds ready to invest. Let him make the best of that. Let him wonder. You want a captain—I want a ship. That’s enough. B-r-r-r-r. What a disagreeable impression that empty, dark, echoing steamer had made upon him… . A laid-up steamer was a dead thing and no mistake; a sailing-ship somehow seems always ready to spring into life with the breath of the incorruptible heaven; but a teamer, thought Captain Whalley, with her fires out, without the warm whiffs from below meeting you on her decks, without the hiss of steam, the clangs of iron in her breast—lies there as cold and still and pulseless as a corpse. In the solitude of the avenue, all black above and lighted below, Captain Whalley, considering the discretion of his course, met, as it were incidentally, the thought of death. He pushed it aside with dislike and contempt. He almost laughed at it; and in the unquenchable vitality of his age only thought with a kind of exultation how little he needed to keep body and soul together. Not a bad investment for the poor woman this solid carcass of her father. And for the rest —in case of anything—the agreement should be clear: the whole five hundred to be paid back to her integrally within three months. Integrally. Every penny. He was not to lose any of her money whatever else had to go—a little dignity— some of his self-respect. He had never before allowed anybody to remain under any sort of false impression as to himself. Well, let that go—for her sake. After all, he had never said anything misleading—and Captain Whalley felt himself corrupt to the marrow of his bones. He laughed a little with the intimate scorn of his worldly prudence. Clearly, with a fellow of that sort, and in the peculiar relation they were to stand to each other, it would not have done to blurt out everything. He did not like the fellow. He did not like his spells of fawning loquacity and bursts of resentfulness. In the end—a poor devil. He would not have liked to stand in his shoes. Men were not evil, after all. He did not like his sleek hair, his queer way of standing at right angles, with his nose in the air, and glancing along his shoulder at you. No. On the whole, men were not bad—they were only silly or unhappy.
Captain Whalley had finished considering the discretion of that step—and there was the whole long night before him. In the full light his long beard would glisten like a silver breastplate covering his heart; in the spaces between the lamps his burly figure passed less distinct, loomed very big, wandering, and mysterious. No; there was not much real harm in men: and all the time a shadow marched with him, slanting on his left hand—which in the East is a presage of evil. … … . “Can you make out the clump of palms yet, Serang?” asked Captain Whalley from his chair on the bridge of the Sofala approaching the bar of Batu Beru. “No, Tuan. By-and-by see.” The old Malay, in a blue dungaree suit, planted on his bony dark feet under the bridge awning, put his hands behind his back and stared ahead out of the innumerable wrinkles at the corners of his eyes. Captain Whalley sat still, without lifting his head to look for himself. Three years—thirty-six times. He had made these palms thirty-six times from the southward. They would come into view at the proper time. Thank God, the old ship made her courses and distances trip after trip, as correct as clockwork. At last he murmured again— “In sight yet?” “The sun makes a very great glare, Tuan.” “Watch well, Serang.” “Ya, Tuan.” A white man had ascended the ladder from the deck noiselessly, and had listened quietly to this short colloquy. Then he stepped out on the bridge and began to walk from end to end, holding up the long cherrywood stem of a pipe. His black hair lay plastered in long lanky wisps across the bald summit of his head; he had a furrowed brow, a yellow complexion, and a thick shapeless nose. A scanty growth of whisker did not conceal the contour of his jaw. His aspect was of brooding care; and sucking at a curved black mouthpiece, he presented such a heavy overhanging profile that even the Serang could not help reflecting sometimes upon the extreme unloveliness of some white men.
Captain Whalley seemed to brace himself up in his chair, but gave no recognition whatever to his presence. The other puffed jets of smoke; then suddenly— “I could never understand that new mania of yours of having this Malay here for your shadow, partner.” Captain Whalley got up from the chair in all his imposing stature and walked across to the binnacle, holding such an unswerving course that the other had to back away hurriedly, and remained as if intimidated, with the pipe trembling in his hand. “Walk over me now,” he muttered in a sort of astounded and discomfited whisper. Then slowly and distinctly he said— “I—am—not—dirt.” And then added defiantly, “As you seem to think.” The Serang jerked out— “See the palms now, Tuan.” Captain Whalley strode forward to the rail; but his eyes, instead of going straight to the point, with the assured keen glance of a sailor, wandered irresolutely in space, as though he, the discoverer of new routes, had lost his way upon this narrow sea. Another white man, the mate, came up on the bridge. He was tall, young, lean, with a mustache like a trooper, and something malicious in the eye. He took up a position beside the engineer. Captain Whalley, with his back to them, inquired— “What’s on the log?” “Eighty-five,” answered the mate quickly, and nudged the engineer with his elbow. Captain Whalley’s muscular hands squeezed the iron rail with an extraordinary force; his eyes glared with an enormous effort; he knitted his eyebrows, the perspiration fell from under his hat,—and in a faint voice he murmured, “Steady her, Serang—when she is on the proper bearing.” The silent Malay stepped back, waited a little, and lifted his arm warningly to the helmsman. The wheel revolved rapidly to meet the swing of the ship. Again the
made nudged the engineer. But Massy turned upon him. “Mr. Sterne,” he said violently, “let me tell you—as a shipowner—that you are no better than a confounded fool.”
The End of the Tether/VII
Sterne went down smirking and apparently not at all disconcerted, but the engineer Massy remained on the bridge, moving about with uneasy selfassertion. Everybody on board was his inferior—everyone without exception. He paid their wages and found them in their food. They ate more of his bread and pocketed more of his money than they were worth; and they had no care in the world, while he alone had to meet all the difficulties of shipowning. When he contemplated his position in all its menacing entirety, it seemed to him that he had been for years the prey of a band of parasites: and for years he had scowled at everybody connected with the Sofala except, perhaps, at the Chinese firemen who served to get her along. Their use was manifest: they were an indispensable part of the machinery of which he was the master. When he passed along his decks he shouldered those he came across brutally; but the Malay deck hands had learned to dodge out of his way. He had to bring himself to tolerate them because of the necessary manual labor of the ship which must be done. He had to struggle and plan and scheme to keep the Sofala afloat —and what did he get for it? Not even enough respect. They could not have given him enough of that if all their thoughts and all their actions had been directed to that end. The vanity of possession, the vainglory of power, had passed away by this time, and there remained only the material embarrassments, the fear of losing that position which had turned out not worth having, and an anxiety of thought which no abject subservience of men could repay. He walked up and down. The bridge was his own after all. He had paid for it; and with the stem of the pipe in his hand he would stop short at times as if to listen with a profound and concentrated attention to the deadened beat of the engines (his own engines) and the slight grinding of the steering chains upon the continuous low wash of water alongside. But for these sounds, the ship might have been lying as still as if moored to a bank, and as silent as if abandoned by every living soul; only the coast, the low coast of mud and mangroves with the three palms in a bunch at the back, grew slowly more distinct in its long straight line, without a single feature to arrest attention. The native passengers of the Sofala lay about on mats under the awnings; the smoke of her funnel seemed the
only sign of her life and connected with her gliding motion in a mysterious manner. Captain Whalley on his feet, with a pair of binoculars in his hand and the little Malay Serang at his elbow, like an old giant attended by a wizened pigmy, was taking her over the shallow water of the bar. This submarine ridge of mud, scoured by the stream out of the soft bottom of the river and heaped up far out on the hard bottom of the sea, was difficult to get over. The alluvial coast having no distinguishing marks, the bearings of the crossing-place had to be taken from the shape of the mountains inland. The guidance of a form flattened and uneven at the top like a grinder tooth, and of another smooth, saddle-backed summit, had to be searched for within the great unclouded glare that seemed to shift and float like a dry fiery mist, filling the air, ascending from the water, shrouding the distances, scorching to the eye. In this veil of light the near edge of the shore alone stood out almost coal-black with an opaque and motionless solidity. Thirty miles away the serrated range of the interior stretched across the horizon, its outlines and shades of blue, faint and tremulous like a background painted on airy gossamer on the quivering fabric of an impalpable curtain let down to the plain of alluvial soil; and the openings of the estuary appeared, shining white, like bits of silver let into the square pieces snipped clean and sharp out of the body of the land bordered with mangroves. On the forepart of the bridge the giant and the pigmy muttered to each other frequently in quiet tones. Behind them Massy stood sideways with an expression of disdain and suspense on his face. His globular eyes were perfectly motionless, and he seemed to have forgotten the long pipe he held in his hand. On the fore-deck below the bridge, steeply roofed with the white slopes of the awnings, a young lascar seaman had clambered outside the rail. He adjusted quickly a broad band of sail canvas under his armpits, and throwing his chest against it, leaned out far over the water. The sleeves of his thin cotton shirt, cut off close to the shoulder, bared his brown arm of full rounded form and with a satiny skin like a woman’s. He swung it rigidly with the rotary and menacing action of a slinger: the 14-lb. weight hurtled circling in the air, then suddenly flew ahead as far as the curve of the bow. The wet thin line swished like scratched silk running through the dark fingers of the man, and the plunge of the lead close to the ship’s side made a vanishing silvery scar upon the golden glitter; then after an interval the voice of the young Malay uplifted and long-
drawn declared the depth of the water in his own language. “Tiga stengah,” he cried after each splash and pause, gathering the line busily for another cast. “Tiga stengah,” which means three fathom and a half. For a mile or so from seaward there was a uniform depth of water right up to the bar. “Halfthree. Half-three. Half-three,”—and his modulated cry, returned leisurely and monotonous, like the repeated call of a bird, seemed to float away in sunshine and disappear in the spacious silence of the empty sea and of a lifeless shore lying open, north and south, east and west, without the stir of a single cloudshadow or the whisper of any other voice. The owner-engineer of the Sofala remained very still behind the two seamen of different race, creed, and color; the European with the time-defying vigor of his old frame, the little Malay, old, too, but slight and shrunken like a withered brown leaf blown by a chance wind under the mighty shadow of the other. Very busy looking forward at the land, they had not a glance to spare; and Massy, glaring at them from behind, seemed to resent their attention to their duty like a personal slight upon himself. This was unreasonable; but he had lived in his own world of unreasonable resentments for many years. At last, passing his moist palm over the rare lanky wisps of coarse hair on the top of his yellow head, he began to talk slowly. “A leadsman, you want! I suppose that’s your correct mail-boat style. Haven’t you enough judgment to tell where you are by looking at the land? Why, before I had been a twelvemonth in the trade I was up to that trick—and I am only an engineer. I can point to you from here where the bar is, and I could tell you besides that you are as likely as not to stick her in the mud in about five minutes from now; only you would call it interfering, I suppose. And there’s that written agreement of ours, that says I mustn’t interfere.” His voice stopped. Captain Whalley, without relaxing the set severity of his features, moved his lips to ask in a quick mumble— “How near, Serang?” “Very near now, Tuan,” the Malay muttered rapidly. “Dead slow,” said the Captain aloud in a firm tone.
The Serang snatched at the handle of the telegraph. A gong clanged down below. Massy with a scornful snigger walked off and put his head down the engineroom skylight. “You may expect some rare fooling with the engines, Jack,” he bellowed. The space into which he stared was deep and full of gloom; and the gray gleams of steel down there seemed cool after the intense glare of the sea around the ship. The air, however, came up clammy and hot on his face. A short hoot on which it would have been impossible to put any sort of interpretation came from the bottom cavernously. This was the way in which the second engineer answered his chief. He was a middle-aged man with an inattentive manner, and apparently wrapped up in such a taciturn concern for his engines that he seemed to have lost the use of speech. When addressed directly his only answer would be a grunt or a hoot, according to the distance. For all the years he had been in the Sofala he had never been known to exchange as much as a frank Good-morning with any of his shipmates. He did not seem aware that men came and went in the world; he did not seem to see them at all. Indeed he never recognized his ship mates on shore. At table (the four white men of the Sofala messed together) he sat looking into his plate dispassionately, but at the end of the meal would jump up and bolt down below as if a sudden thought had impelled him to rush and see whether somebody had not stolen the engines while he dined. In port at the end of the trip he went ashore regularly, but no one knew where he spent his evenings or in what manner. The local coasting fleet had preserved a wild and incoherent tale of his infatuation for the wife of a sergeant in an Irish infantry regiment. The regiment, however, had done its turn of garrison duty there ages before, and was gone somewhere to the other side of the earth, out of men’s knowledge. Twice or perhaps three times in the course of the year he would take too much to drink. On these occasions he returned on board at an earlier hour than usual; ran across the deck balancing himself with his spread arms like a tight-rope walker; and locking the door of his cabin, he would converse and argue with himself the livelong night in an amazing variety of tones; storm, sneer, and whine with an inexhaustible persistence. Massy in his berth next door, raising himself on his elbow, would discover that his second had remembered the name of every white man that had passed through the Sofala for years and years back. He remembered the names of men that had died, that had gone home, that had gone to America: he remembered in his cups the names of men whose connection with the ship had been so short that Massy had almost forgotten its
circumstances and could barely recall their faces. The inebriated voice on the other side of the bulkhead commented upon them all with an extraordinary and ingenious venom of scandalous inventions. It seems they had all offended him in some way, and in return he had found them all out. He muttered darkly; he laughed sardonically; he crushed them one after another; but of his chief, Massy, he babbled with an envious and naive admiration. Clever scoundrel! Don’t meet the likes of him every day. Just look at him. Ha! Great! Ship of his own. Wouldn’t catch him going wrong. No fear—the beast! And Massy, after listening with a gratified smile to these artless tributes to his greatness, would begin to shout, thumping at the bulkhead with both fists— “Shut up, you lunatic! Won’t you let me go to sleep, you fool!” But a half smile of pride lingered on his lips; outside the solitary lascar told off for night duty in harbor, perhaps a youth fresh from a forest village, would stand motionless in the shadows of the deck listening to the endless drunken gabble. His heart would be thumping with breathless awe of white men: the arbitrary and obstinate men who pursue inflexibly their incomprehensible purposes,—beings with weird intonations in the voice, moved by unaccountable feelings, actuated by inscrutable motives.
The End of the Tether/VIII
For a while after his second’s answering hoot Massy hung over the engine-room gloomily. Captain Whalley, who, by the power of five hundred pounds, had kept his command for three years, might have been suspected of never having seen that coast before. He seemed unable to put down his glasses, as though they had been glued under his contracted eyebrows. This settled frown gave to his face an air of invincible and just severity; but his raised elbow trembled slightly, and the perspiration poured from under his hat as if a second sun had suddenly blazed up at the zenith by the side of the ardent still globe already there, in whose blinding white heat the earth whirled and shone like a mote of dust. From time to time, still holding up his glasses, he raised his other hand to wipe his streaming face. The drops rolled down his cheeks, fell like rain upon the white hairs of his beard, and brusquely, as if guided by an uncontrollable and anxious impulse, his arm reached out to the stand of the engine-room telegraph. The gong clanged down below. The balanced vibration of the dead-slow speed ceased together with every sound and tremor in the ship, as if the great stillness that reigned upon the coast had stolen in through her sides of iron and taken possession of her innermost recesses. The illusion of perfect immobility seemed to fall upon her from the luminous blue dome without a stain arching over a flat sea without a stir. The faint breeze she had made for herself expired, as if all at once the air had become too thick to budge; even the slight hiss of the water on her stem died out. The narrow, long hull, carrying its way without a ripple, seemed to approach the shoal water of the bar by stealth. The plunge of the lead with the mournful, mechanical cry of the lascar came at longer and longer intervals; and the men on her bridge seemed to hold their breath. The Malay at the helm looked fixedly at the compass card, the Captain and the Serang stared at the coast. Massy had left the skylight, and, walking flat-footed, had returned softly to the very spot on the bridge he had occupied before. A slow, lingering grin exposed his set of big white teeth: they gleamed evenly in the shade of the awning like the keyboard of a piano in a dusky room.
At last, pretending to talk to himself in excessive astonishment, he said not very loud— “Stop the engines now. What next, I wonder?” He waited, stooping from the shoulders, his head bowed, his glance oblique. Then raising his voice a shade— “If I dared make an absurd remark I would say that you haven’t the stomach to …” But a yelling spirit of excitement, like some frantic soul wandering unsuspected in the vast stillness of the coast, had seized upon the body of the lascar at the lead. The languid monotony of his sing-song changed to a swift, sharp clamor. The weight flew after a single whir, the line whistled, splash followed splash in haste. The water had shoaled, and the man, instead of the drowsy tale of fathoms, was calling out the soundings in feet. “Fifteen feet. Fifteen, fifteen! Fourteen, fourteen …” Captain Whalley lowered the arm holding the glasses. It descended slowly as if by its own weight; no other part of his towering body stirred; and the swift cries with their eager warning note passed him by as though he had been deaf. Massy, very still, and turning an attentive ear, had fastened his eyes upon the silvery, close-cropped back of the steady old head. The ship herself seemed to be arrested but for the gradual decrease of depth under her keel. “Thirteen feet … Thirteen! Twelve!” cried the leadsman anxiously below the bridge. And suddenly the barefooted Serang stepped away noiselessly to steal a glance over the side. Narrow of shoulder, in a suit of faded blue cotton, an old gray felt hat rammed down on his head, with a hollow in the nape of his dark neck, and with his slender limbs, he appeared from the back no bigger than a boy of fourteen. There was a childlike impulsiveness in the curiosity with which he watched the spread of the voluminous, yellowish convolutions rolling up from below to the surface of the blue water like massive clouds driving slowly upwards on the unfathomable sky. He was not startled at the sight in the least. It was not doubt, but the certitude that the keel of the Sofala must be stirring the mud now, which
made him peep over the side. His peering eyes, set aslant in a face of the Chinese type, a little old face, immovable, as if carved in old brown oak, had informed him long before that the ship was not headed at the bar properly. Paid off from the Fair Maid, together with the rest of the crew, after the completion of the sale, he had hung, in his faded blue suit and floppy gray hat, about the doors of the Harbor Office, till one day, seeing Captain Whalley coming along to get a crew for the Sofala, he had put himself quietly in the way, with his bare feet in the dust and an upward mute glance. The eyes of his old commander had fallen on him favorably—it must have been an auspicious day—and in less than half an hour the white men in the “Ofiss” had written his name on a document as Serang of the fire-ship Sofala. Since that time he had repeatedly looked at that estuary, upon that coast, from this bridge and from this side of the bar. The record of the visual world fell through his eyes upon his unspeculating mind as on a sensitized plate through the lens of a camera. His knowledge was absolute and precise; nevertheless, had he been asked his opinion, and especially if questioned in the downright, alarming manner of white men, he would have displayed the hesitation of ignorance. He was certain of his facts—but such a certitude counted for little against the doubt what answer would be pleasing. Fifty years ago, in a jungle village, and before he was a day old, his father (who died without ever seeing a white face) had had his nativity cast by a man of skill and wisdom in astrology, because in the arrangement of the stars may be read the last word of human destiny. His destiny had been to thrive by the favor of various white men on the sea. He had swept the decks of ships, had tended their helms, had minded their stores, had risen at last to be a Serang; and his placid mind had remained as incapable of penetrating the simplest motives of those he served as they themselves were incapable of detecting through the crust of the earth the secret nature of its heart, which may be fire or may be stone. But he had no doubt whatever that the Sofala was out of the proper track for crossing the bar at Batu Beru. It was a slight error. The ship could not have been more than twice her own length too far to the northward; and a white man at a loss for a cause (since it was impossible to suspect Captain Whalley of blundering ignorance, of want of skill, or of neglect) would have been inclined to doubt the testimony of his senses. It was some such feeling that kept Massy motionless, with his teeth laid bare by an anxious grin. Not so the Serang. He was not troubled by any intellectual mistrust of his senses. If his captain chose to stir the mud it was well.
He had known in his life white men indulge in outbreaks equally strange. He was only genuinely interested to see what would come of it. At last, apparently satisfied, he stepped back from the rail. He had made no sound: Captain Whalley, however, seemed to have observed the movements of his Serang. Holding his head rigidly, he asked with a mere stir of his lips— “Going ahead still, Serang?” “Still going a little, Tuan,” answered the Malay. Then added casually, “She is over.” The lead confirmed his words; the depth of water increased at every cast, and the soul of excitement departed suddenly from the lascar swung in the canvas belt over the Sofala’s side. Captain Whalley ordered the lead in, set the engines ahead without haste, and averting his eyes from the coast directed the Serang to keep a course for the middle of the entrance. Massy brought the palm of his hand with a loud smack against his thigh. “You grazed on the bar. Just look astern and see if you didn’t. Look at the track she left. You can see it plainly. Upon my soul, I thought you would! What made you do that? What on earth made you do that? I believe you are trying to scare me.” He talked slowly, as it were circumspectly, keeping his prominent black eyes on his captain. There was also a slight plaintive note in his rising choler, for, primarily, it was the clear sense of a wrong suffered undeservedly that made him hate the man who, for a beggarly five hundred pounds, claimed a sixth part of the profits under the three years’ agreement. Whenever his resentment got the better of the awe the person of Captain Whalley inspired he would positively whimper with fury. “You don’t know what to invent to plague my life out of me. I would not have thought that a man of your sort would condescend …” He paused, half hopefully, half timidly, whenever Captain Whalley made the slightest movement in the deck-chair, as though expecting to be conciliated by a soft speech or else rushed upon and hunted off the bridge.
“I am puzzled,” he went on again, with the watchful unsmiling baring of his big teeth. “I don’t know what to think. I do believe you are trying to frighten me. You very nearly planted her on the bar for at least twelve hours, besides getting the engines choked with mud. Ships can’t afford to lose twelve hours on a trip nowadays—as you ought to know very well, and do know very well to be sure, only …” His slow volubility, the sideways cranings of his neck, the black glances out of the very corners of his eyes, left Captain Whalley unmoved. He looked at the deck with a severe frown. Massy waited for some little time, then began to threaten plaintively. “You think you’ve got me bound hand and foot in that agreement. You think you can torment me in any way you please. Ah! But remember it has another six weeks to run yet. There’s time for me to dismiss you before the three years are out. You will do yet something that will give me the chance to dismiss you, and make you wait a twelvemonth for your money before you can take yourself off and pull out your five hundred, and leave me without a penny to get the new boilers for her. You gloat over that idea—don’t you? I do believe you sit here gloating. It’s as if I had sold my soul for five hundred pounds to be everlastingly damned in the end… .” He paused, without apparent exasperation, then continued evenly— “… With the boilers worn out and the survey hanging over my head, Captain Whalley—Captain Whalley, I say, what do you do with your money? You must have stacks of money somewhere—a man like you must. It stands to reason. I am not a fool, you know, Captain Whalley—partner.” Again he paused, as though he had done for good. He passed his tongue over his lips, gave a backward glance at the Serang conning the ship with quiet whispers and slight signs of the hand. The wash of the propeller sent a swift ripple, crested with dark froth, upon a long flat spit of black slime. The Sofala had entered the river; the trail she had stirred up over the bar was a mile astern of her now, out of sight, had disappeared utterly; and the smooth, empty sea along the coast was left behind in the glittering desolation of sunshine. On each side of her, low down, the growth of somber twisted mangroves covered the semi-liquid banks; and Massy continued in his old tone, with an abrupt start, as if his speech had been ground out of him, like the tune of a music-box, by turning a handle.
“Though if anybody ever got the best of me, it is you. I don’t mind saying this. I’ve said it—there! What more can you want? Isn’t that enough for your pride, Captain Whalley. You got over me from the first. It’s all of a piece, when I look back at it. You allowed me to insert that clause about intemperance without saying anything, only looking very sick when I made a point of it going in black on white. How could I tell what was wrong about you. There’s generally something wrong somewhere. And, lo and behold! when you come on board it turns out that you’ve been in the habit of drinking nothing but water for years and years.” His dogmatic reproachful whine stopped. He brooded profoundly, after the manner of crafty and unintelligent men. It seemed inconceivable that Captain Whalley should not laugh at the expression of disgust that overspread the heavy, yellow countenance. But Captain Whalley never raised his eyes—sitting in his arm-chair, outraged, dignified, and motionless. “Much good it was to me,” Massy remonstrated monotonously, “to insert a clause for dismissal for intemperance against a man who drinks nothing but water. And you looked so upset, too, when I read my draft in the lawyer’s office that morning, Captain Whalley,—you looked so crestfallen, that I made sure I had gone home on your weak spot. A shipowner can’t be too careful as to the sort of skipper he gets. You must have been laughing at me in your sleeve all the blessed time… . Eh? What are you going to say?” Captain Whalley had only shuffled his feet slightly. A dull animosity became apparent in Massy’s sideways stare. “But recollect that there are other grounds of dismissal. There’s habitual carelessness, amounting to incompetence—there’s gross and persistent neglect of duty. I am not quite as big a fool as you try to make me out to be. You have been careless of late—leaving everything to that Serang. Why! I’ve seen you letting that old fool of a Malay take bearings for you, as if you were too big to attend to your work yourself. And what do you call that silly touch-and-go manner in which you took the ship over the bar just now? You expect me to put up with that?” Leaning on his elbow against the ladder abaft the bridge, Sterne, the mate, tried to hear, blinking the while from the distance at the second engineer, who had come up for a moment, and stood in the engine-room companion. Wiping his
hands on a bunch of cotton waste, he looked about with indifference to the right and left at the river banks slipping astern of the Sofala steadily. Massy turned full at the chair. The character of his whine became again threatening. “Take care. I may yet dismiss you and freeze to your money for a year. I may …” But before the silent, rigid immobility of the man whose money had come in the nick of time to save him from utter ruin, his voice died out in his throat. “Not that I want you to go,” he resumed after a silence, and in an absurdly insinuating tone. “I want nothing better than to be friends and renew the agreement, if you will consent to find another couple of hundred to help with the new boilers, Captain Whalley. I’ve told you before. She must have new boilers; you know it as well as I do. Have you thought this over?” He waited. The slender stem of the pipe with its bulky lump of a bowl at the end hung down from his thick lips. It had gone out. Suddenly he took it from between his teeth and wrung his hands slightly. “Don’t you believe me?” He thrust the pipe bowl into the pocket of his shiny black jacket. “It’s like dealing with the devil,” he said. “Why don’t you speak? At first you were so high and mighty with me I hardly dared to creep about my own deck. Now I can’t get a word from you. You don’t seem to see me at all. What does it mean? Upon my soul, you terrify me with this deaf and dumb trick. What’s going on in that head of yours? What are you plotting against me there so hard that you can’t say a word? You will never make me believe that you—you— don’t know where to lay your hands on a couple of hundred. You have made me curse the day I was born… .” “Mr. Massy,” said Captain Whalley suddenly, without stirring. The engineer started violently. “If that is so I can only beg you to forgive me.”
“Starboard,” muttered the Serang to the helmsman; and the Sofala began to swing round the bend into the second reach. “Ough!” Massy shuddered. “You make my blood run cold. What made you come here? What made you come aboard that evening all of a sudden, with your high talk and your money—tempting me? I always wondered what was your motive? You fastened yourself on me to have easy times and grow fat on my life blood, I tell you. Was that it? I believe you are the greatest miser in the world, or else why …” “No. I am only poor,” interrupted Captain Whalley, stonily. “Steady,” murmured the Serang. Massy turned away with his chin on his shoulder. “I don’t believe it,” he said in his dogmatic tone. Captain Whalley made no movement. “There you sit like a gorged vulture—exactly like a vulture.” He embraced the middle of the reach and both the banks in one blank unseeing circular glance, and left the bridge slowly.
The End of the Tether/IX
On turning to descend Massy perceived the head of Sterne the mate loitering, with his sly confident smile, his red mustaches and blinking eyes, at the foot of the ladder. Sterne had been a junior in one of the larger shipping concerns before joining the Sofala. He had thrown up his berth, he said, “on general principles.” The promotion in the employ was very slow, he complained, and he thought it was time for him to try and get on a bit in the world. It seemed as though nobody would ever die or leave the firm; they all stuck fast in their berths till they got mildewed; he was tired of waiting; and he feared that when a vacancy did occur the best servants were by no means sure of being treated fairly. Besides, the captain he had to serve under—Captain Provost—was an unaccountable sort of man, and, he fancied, had taken a dislike to him for some reason or other. For doing rather more than his bare duty as likely as not. When he had done anything wrong he could take a talking to, like a man; but he expected to be treated like a man too, and not to be addressed invariably as though he were a dog. He had asked Captain Provost plump and plain to tell him where he was at fault, and Captain Provost, in a most scornful way, had told him that he was a perfect officer, and that if he disliked the way he was being spoken to there was the gangway—he could take himself off ashore at once. But everybody knew what sort of man Captain Provost was. It was no use appealing to the office. Captain Provost had too much influence in the employ. All the same, they had to give him a good character. He made bold to say there was nothing in the world against him, and, as he had happened to hear that the mate of the Sofala had been taken to the hospital that morning with a sunstroke, he thought there would be no harm in seeing whether he would not do… . He had come to Captain Whalley freshly shaved, red-faced, thin-flanked, throwing out his lean chest; and had recited his little tale with an open and manly assurance. Now and then his eyelids quivered slightly, his hand would steal up to the end of the flaming mustache; his eyebrows were straight, furry, of a chestnut color, and the directness of his frank gaze seemed to tremble on the verge of impudence. Captain Whalley had engaged him temporarily; then, the other man
having been ordered home by the doctors, he had remained for the next trip, and then the next. He had now attained permanency, and the performance of his duties was marked by an air of serious, single-minded application. Directly he was spoken to, he began to smile attentively, with a great deference expressed in his whole attitude; but there was in the rapid winking which went on all the time something quizzical, as though he had possessed the secret of some universal joke cheating all creation and impenetrable to other mortals. Grave and smiling he watched Massy come down step by step; when the chief engineer had reached the deck he swung about, and they found themselves face to face. Matched as to height and utterly dissimilar, they confronted each other as if there had been something between them—something else than the bright strip of sunlight that, falling through the wide lacing of two awnings, cut crosswise the narrow planking of the deck and separated their feet as it were a stream; something profound and subtle and incalculable, like an unexpressed understanding, a secret mistrust, or some sort of fear. At last Sterne, blinking his deep-set eyes and sticking forward his scraped, cleancut chin, as crimson as the rest of his face, murmured— “You’ve seen? He grazed! You’ve seen?” Massy, contemptuous, and without raising his yellow, fleshy countenance, replied in the same pitch— “Maybe. But if it had been you we would have been stuck fast in the mud.” “Pardon me, Mr. Massy. I beg to deny it. Of course a shipowner may say what he jolly well pleases on his own deck. That’s all right; but I beg to …” “Get out of my way!” The other had a slight start, the impulse of suppressed indignation perhaps, but held his ground. Massy’s downward glance wandered right and left, as though the deck all round Sterne had been bestrewn with eggs that must not be broken, and he had looked irritably for places where he could set his feet in flight. In the end he too did not move, though there was plenty of room to pass on. “I heard you say up there,” went on the mate—“and a very just remark it was too —that there’s always something wrong… .”
“Eavesdropping is what’s wrong with you, Mr. Sterne.” “Now, if you would only listen to me for a moment, Mr. Massy, sir, I could …” “You are a sneak,” interrupted Massy in a great hurry, and even managed to get so far as to repeat, “a common sneak,” before the mate had broken in argumentatively— “Now, sir, what is it you want? You want …” “I want—I want,” stammered Massy, infuriated and astonished—“I want. How do you know that I want anything? How dare you? … What do you mean? … What are you after—you …” “Promotion.” Sterne silenced him with a sort of candid bravado. The engineer’s round soft cheeks quivered still, but he said quietly enough— “You are only worrying my head off,” and Sterne met him with a confident little smile. “A chap in business I know (well up in the world he is now) used to tell me that this was the proper way. ‘Always push on to the front,’ he would say. ‘Keep yourself well before your boss. Interfere whenever you get a chance. Show him what you know. Worry him into seeing you.’ That was his advice. Now I know no other boss than you here. You are the owner, and no one else counts for that much in my eyes. See, Mr. Massy? I want to get on. I make no secret of it that I am one of the sort that means to get on. These are the men to make use of, sir. You haven’t arrived at the top of the tree, sir, without finding that out—I dare say.” “Worry your boss in order to get on,” mumbled Massy, as if awestruck by the irreverent originality of the idea. “I shouldn’t wonder if this was just what the Blue Anchor people kicked you out of the employ for. Is that what you call getting on? You shall get on in the same way here if you aren’t careful—I can promise you.” At this Sterne hung his head, thoughtful, perplexed, winking hard at the deck. All his attempts to enter into confidential relations with his owner had led of late to nothing better than these dark threats of dismissal; and a threat of dismissal would check him at once into a hesitating silence as though he were not sure that
the proper time for defying it had come. On this occasion he seemed to have lost his tongue for a moment, and Massy, getting in motion, heavily passed him by with an abortive attempt at shouldering. Sterne defeated it by stepping aside. He turned then swiftly, opening his mouth very wide as if to shout something after the engineer, but seemed to think better of it. Always—as he was ready to confess—on the lookout for an opening to get on, it had become an instinct with him to watch the conduct of his immediate superiors for something “that one could lay hold of.” It was his belief that no skipper in the world would keep his command for a day if only the owners could be “made to know.” This romantic and naive theory had led him into trouble more than once, but he remained incorrigible; and his character was so instinctively disloyal that whenever he joined a ship the intention of ousting his commander out of the berth and taking his place was always present at the back of his head, as a matter of course. It filled the leisure of his waking hours with the reveries of careful plans and compromising discoveries—the dreams of his sleep with images of lucky turns and favorable accidents. Skippers had been known to sicken and die at sea, than which nothing could be better to give a smart mate a chance of showing what he’s made of. They also would tumble overboard sometimes: he had heard of one or two such cases. Others again … But, as it were constitutionally, he was faithful to the belief that the conduct of no single one of them would stand the test of careful watching by a man who “knew what’s what” and who kept his eyes “skinned pretty well” all the time. After he had gained a permanent footing on board the Sofala he allowed his perennial hope to rise high. To begin with, it was a great advantage to have an old man for captain: the sort of man besides who in the nature of things was likely to give up the job before long from one cause or another. Sterne was greatly chagrined, however, to notice that he did not seem anyway near being past his work yet. Still, these old men go to pieces all at once sometimes. Then there was the owner-engineer close at hand to be impressed by his zeal and steadiness. Sterne never for a moment doubted the obvious nature of his own merits (he was really an excellent officer); only, nowadays, professional merit alone does not take a man along fast enough. A chap must have some push in him, and must keep his wits at work too to help him forward. He made up his mind to inherit the charge of this steamer if it was to be done at all; not indeed estimating the command of the Sofala as a very great catch, but for the reason that, out East especially, to make a start is everything, and one command leads to another.
He began by promising himself to behave with great circumspection; Massy’s somber and fantastic humors intimidated him as being outside one’s usual sea experience; but he was quite intelligent enough to realize almost from the first that he was there in the presence of an exceptional situation. His peculiar prying imagination penetrated it quickly; the feeling that there was in it an element which eluded his grasp exasperated his impatience to get on. And so one trip came to an end, then another, and he had begun his third before he saw an opening by which he could step in with any sort of effect. It had all been very queer and very obscure; something had been going on near him, as if separated by a chasm from the common life and the working routine of the ship, which was exactly like the life and the routine of any other coasting steamer of that class. Then one day he made his discovery. It came to him after all these weeks of watchful observation and puzzled surmises, suddenly, like the long-sought solution of a riddle that suggests itself to the mind in a flash. Not with the same authority, however. Great heavens! Could it be that? And after remaining thunderstruck for a few seconds he tried to shake it off with self-contumely, as though it had been the product of an unhealthy bias towards the Incredible, the Inexplicable, the Unheard-of—the Mad! This—the illuminating moment—had occurred the trip before, on the return passage. They had just left a place of call on the mainland called Pangu; they were steaming straight out of a bay. To the east a massive headland closed the view, with the tilted edges of the rocky strata showing through its ragged clothing of rank bushes and thorny creepers. The wind had begun to sing in the rigging; the sea along the coast, green and as if swollen a little above the line of the horizon, seemed to pour itself over, time after time, with a slow and thundering fall, into the shadow of the leeward cape; and across the wide opening the nearest of a group of small islands stood enveloped in the hazy yellow light of a breezy sunrise; still farther out the hummocky tops of other islets peeped out motionless above the water of the channels between, scoured tumultuously by the breeze. The usual track of the Sofala both going and returning on every trip led her for a few miles along this reefinfested region. She followed a broad lane of water, dropping astern, one after another, these crumbs of the earth’s crust resembling a
squadron of dismasted hulks run in disorder upon a foul ground of rocks and shoals. Some of these fragments of land appeared, indeed, no bigger than a stranded ship; others, quite flat, lay awash like anchored rafts, like ponderous, black rafts of stone; several, heavily timbered and round at the base, emerged in squat domes of deep green foliage that shuddered darkly all over to the flying touch of cloud shadows driven by the sudden gusts of the squally season. The thunderstorms of the coast broke frequently over that cluster; it turned then shadowy in its whole extent; it turned more dark, and as if more still in the play of fire; as if more impenetrably silent in the peals of thunder; its blurred shapes vanished—dissolving utterly at times in the thick rain—to reappear clear-cut and black in the stormy light against the gray sheet of the cloud—scattered on the slaty round table of the sea. Unscathed by storms, resisting the work of years, unfretted by the strife of the world, there it lay unchanged as on that day, four hundred years ago, when first beheld by Western eyes from the deck of a highpooped caravel. It was one of these secluded spots that may be found on the busy sea, as on land you come sometimes upon the clustered houses of a hamlet untouched by men’s restlessness, untouched by their need, by their thought, and as if forgotten by time itself. The lives of uncounted generations had passed it by, and the multitudes of seafowl, urging their way from all the points of the horizon to sleep on the outer rocks of the group, unrolled the converging evolutions of their flight in long somber streamers upon the glow of the sky. The palpitating cloud of their wings soared and stooped over the pinnacles of the rocks, over the rocks slender like spires, squat like martello towers; over the pyramidal heaps like fallen ruins, over the lines of bald bowlders showing like a wall of stones battered to pieces and scorched by lightning—with the sleepy, clear glimmer of water in every breach. The noise of their continuous and violent screaming filled the air. This great noise would meet the Sofala coming up from Batu Beru; it would meet her on quiet evenings, a pitiless and savage clamor enfeebled by distance, the clamor of seabirds settling to rest, and struggling for a footing at the end of the day. No one noticed it especially on board; it was the voice of their ship’s unerring landfall, ending the steady stretch of a hundred miles. She had made good her course, she had run her distance till the punctual islets began to emerge one by one, the points of rocks, the hummocks of earth … and the cloud of birds hovered—the restless cloud emitting a strident and cruel uproar, the sound of the familiar scene, the living part of the broken land beneath, of the outspread sea,
and of the high sky without a flaw. But when the Sofala happened to close with the land after sunset she would find everything very still there under the mantle of the night. All would be still, dumb, almost invisible—but for the blotting out of the low constellations occulted in turns behind the vague masses of the islets whose true outlines eluded the eye amongst the dark spaces of the heaven: and the ship’s three lights, resembling three stars—the red and the green with the white above—her three lights, like three companion stars wandering on the earth, held their unswerving course for the passage at the southern end of the group. Sometimes there were human eyes open to watch them come nearer, traveling smoothly in the somber void; the eyes of a naked fisherman in his canoe floating over a reef. He thought drowsily: “Ha! The fire-ship that once in every moon goes in and comes out of Pangu bay.” More he did not know of her. And just as he had detected the faint rhythm of the propeller beating the calm water a mile and a half away, the time would come for the Sofala to alter her course, the lights would swing off him their triple beam—and disappear. A few miserable, half-naked families, a sort of outcast tribe of long-haired, lean, and wild-eyed people, strove for their living in this lonely wilderness of islets, lying like an abandoned outwork of the land at the gates of the bay. Within the knots and loops of the rocks the water rested more transparent than crystal under their crooked and leaky canoes, scooped out of the trunk of a tree: the forms of the bottom undulated slightly to the dip of a paddle; and the men seemed to hang in the air, they seemed to hang inclosed within the fibers of a dark, sodden log, fishing patiently in a strange, unsteady, pellucid, green air above the shoals. Their bodies stalked brown and emaciated as if dried up in the sunshine; their lives ran out silently; the homes where they were born, went to rest, and died— flimsy sheds of rushes and coarse grass eked out with a few ragged mats—were hidden out of sight from the open sea. No glow of their household fires ever kindled for a seaman a red spark upon the blind night of the group: and the calms of the coast, the flaming long calms of the equator, the unbreathing, concentrated calms like the deep introspection of a passionate nature, brooded awfully for days and weeks together over the unchangeable inheritance of their children; till at last the stones, hot like live embers, scorched the naked sole, till the water clung warm, and sickly, and as if thickened, about the legs of lean men with girded loins, wading thigh-deep in the pale blaze of the shallows. And it would happen now and then that the Sofala, through some delay in one of the ports of
call, would heave in sight making for Pangu bay as late as noonday. Only a blurring cloud at first, the thin mist of her smoke would arise mysteriously from an empty point on the clear line of sea and sky. The taciturn fishermen within the reefs would extend their lean arms towards the offing; and the brown figures stooping on the tiny beaches, the brown figures of men, women, and children grubbing in the sand in search of turtles’ eggs, would rise up, crooked elbow aloft and hand over the eyes, to watch this monthly apparition glide straight on, swerve off—and go by. Their ears caught the panting of that ship; their eyes followed her till she passed between the two capes of the mainland going at full speed as though she hoped to make her way unchecked into the very bosom of the earth. On such days the luminous sea would give no sign of the dangers lurking on both sides of her path. Everything remained still, crushed by the overwhelming power of the light; and the whole group, opaque in the sunshine,—the rocks resembling pinnacles, the rocks resembling spires, the rocks resembling ruins; the forms of islets resembling beehives, resembling mole-hills, the islets recalling the shapes of haystacks, the contours of ivy-clad towers,—would stand reflected together upside down in the unwrinkled water, like carved toys of ebony disposed on the silvered plate-glass of a mirror. The first touch of blowing weather would envelop the whole at once in the spume of the windward breakers, as if in a sudden cloudlike burst of steam; and the clear water seemed fairly to boil in all the passages. The provoked sea outlined exactly in a design of angry foam the wide base of the group; the submerged level of broken waste and refuse left over from the building of the coast near by, projecting its dangerous spurs, all awash, far into the channel, and bristling with wicked long spits often a mile long: with deadly spits made of froth and stones. And even nothing more than a brisk breeze—as on that morning, the voyage before, when the Sofala left Pangu bay early, and Mr. Sterne’s discovery was to blossom out like a flower of incredible and evil aspect from the tiny seed of instinctive suspicion,—even such a breeze had enough strength to tear the placid mask from the face of the sea. To Sterne, gazing with indifference, it had been like a revelation to behold for the first time the dangers marked by the hissing livid patches on the water as distinctly as on the engraved paper of a chart. It came into his mind that this was the sort of day most favorable for a stranger
attempting the passage: a clear day, just windy enough for the sea to break on every ledge, buoying, as it were, the channel plainly to the sight; whereas during a calm you had nothing to depend on but the compass and the practiced judgment of your eye. And yet the successive captains of the Sofala had had to take her through at night more than once. Nowadays you could not afford to throw away six or seven hours of a steamer’s time. That you couldn’t. But then use is everything, and with proper care … The channel was broad and safe enough; the main point was to hit upon the entrance correctly in the dark—for if a man got himself involved in that stretch of broken water over yonder he would never get out with a whole ship—if he ever got out at all. This was Sterne’s last train of thought independent of the great discovery. He had just seen to the securing of the anchor, and had remained forward idling away a moment or two. The captain was in charge on the bridge. With a slight yawn he had turned away from his survey of the sea and had leaned his shoulders against the fish davit. These, properly speaking, were the very last moments of ease he was to know on board the Sofala. All the instants that came after were to be pregnant with purpose and intolerable with perplexity. No more idle, random thoughts; the discovery would put them on the rack, till sometimes he wished to goodness he had been fool enough not to make it at all. And yet, if his chance to get on rested on the discovery of “something wrong,” he could not have hoped for a greater stroke of luck.
The End of the Tether/X
The knowledge was too disturbing, really. There was “something wrong” with a vengeance, and the moral certitude of it was at first simply frightful to contemplate. Sterne had been looking aft in a mood so idle, that for once he was thinking no harm of anyone. His captain on the bridge presented himself naturally to his sight. How insignificant, how casual was the thought that had started the train of discovery—like an accidental spark that suffices to ignite the charge of a tremendous mine! Caught under by the breeze, the awnings of the foredeck bellied upwards and collapsed slowly, and above their heavy flapping the gray stuff of Captain Whalley’s roomy coat fluttered incessantly around his arms and trunk. He faced the wind in full light, with his great silvery beard blown forcibly against his chest; the eyebrows overhung heavily the shadows whence his glance appeared to be staring ahead piercingly. Sterne could just detect the twin gleam of the whites shifting under the shaggy arches of the brow. At short range these eyes, for all the man’s affable manner, seemed to look you through and through. Sterne never could defend himself from that feeling when he had occasion to speak with his captain. He did not like it. What a big heavy man he appeared up there, with that little shrimp of a Serang in close attendance—as was usual in this extraordinary steamer! Confounded absurd custom that. He resented it. Surely the old fellow could have looked after his ship without that loafing native at his elbow. Sterne wriggled his shoulders with disgust. What was it? Indolence or what? That old skipper must have been growing lazy for years. They all grew lazy out East here (Sterne was very conscious of his own unimpaired activity); they got slack all over. But he towered very erect on the bridge; and quite low by his side, as you see a small child looking over the edge of a table, the battered soft hat and the brown face of the Serang peeped over the white canvas screen of the rail. No doubt the Malay was standing back, nearer to the wheel; but the great disparity of size in close association amused Sterne like the observation of a bizarre fact in nature. They were as queer fish out of the sea as any in it.
He saw Captain Whalley turn his head quickly to speak to his Serang; the wind whipped the whole white mass of the beard sideways. He would be directing the chap to look at the compass for him, or what not. Of course. Too much trouble to step over and see for himself. Sterne’s scorn for that bodily indolence which overtakes white men in the East increased on reflection. Some of them would be utterly lost if they hadn’t all these natives at their beck and call; they grew perfectly shameless about it too. He was not of that sort, thank God! It wasn’t in him to make himself dependent for his work on any shriveled-up little Malay like that. As if one could ever trust a silly native for anything in the world! But that fine old man thought differently, it seems. There they were together, never far apart; a pair of them, recalling to the mind an old whale attended by a little pilot-fish. The fancifulness of the comparison made him smile. A whale with an inseparable pilot-fish! That’s what the old man looked like; for it could not be said he looked like a shark, though Mr. Massy had called him that very name. But Mr. Massy did not mind what he said in his savage fits. Sterne smiled to himself—and gradually the ideas evoked by the sound, by the imagined shape of the word pilot-fish; the ideas of aid, of guidance needed and received, came uppermost in his mind: the word pilot awakened the idea of trust, of dependence, the idea of welcome, clear-eyed help brought to the seaman groping for the land in the dark: groping blindly in fogs: feeling their way in the thick weather of the gales that, filling the air with a salt mist blown up from the sea, contract the range of sight on all sides to a shrunken horizon that seems within reach of the hand. A pilot sees better than a stranger, because his local knowledge, like a sharper vision, completes the shapes of things hurriedly glimpsed; penetrates the veils of mist spread over the land by the storms of the sea; defines with certitude the outlines of a coast lying under the pall of fog, the forms of landmarks half buried in a starless night as in a shallow grave. He recognizes because he already knows. It is not to his far-reaching eye but to his more extensive knowledge that the pilot looks for certitude; for this certitude of the ship’s position on which may depend a man’s good fame and the peace of his conscience, the justification of the trust deposited in his hands, with his own life too, which is seldom wholly his to throw away, and the humble lives of others rooted in distant affections, perhaps, and made as weighty as the lives of kings by the burden of the awaiting mystery. The pilot’s knowledge brings relief and certitude to the commander of a ship; the Serang, however, in his fanciful suggestion of a pilot-fish attending a
whale, could not in any way be credited with a superior knowledge. Why should he have it? These two men had come on that run together—the white and the brown—on the same day: and of course a white man would learn more in a week than the best native would in a month. He was made to stick to the skipper as though he were of some use—as the pilot-fish, they say, is to the whale. But how —it was very marked—how? A pilot-fish—a pilot—a … But if not superior knowledge then … Sterne’s discovery was made. It was repugnant to his imagination, shocking to his ideas of honesty, shocking to his conception of mankind. This enormity affected one’s outlook on what was possible in this world: it was as if for instance the sun had turned blue, throwing a new and sinister light on men and nature. Really in the first moment he had felt sickish, as though he had got a blow below the belt: for a second the very color of the sea seemed changed— appeared queer to his wandering eye; and he had a passing, unsteady sensation in all his limbs as though the earth had started turning the other way. A very natural incredulity succeeding this sense of upheaval brought a measure of relief. He had gasped; it was over. But afterwards during all that day sudden paroxysms of wonder would come over him in the midst of his occupations. He would stop and shake his head. The revolt of his incredulity had passed away almost as quick as the first emotion of discovery, and for the next twenty-four hours he had no sleep. That would never do. At meal-times (he took the foot of the table set up for the white men on the bridge) he could not help losing himself in a fascinated contemplation of Captain Whalley opposite. He watched the deliberate upward movements of the arm; the old man put his food to his lips as though he never expected to find any taste in his daily bread, as though he did not know anything about it. He fed himself like a somnambulist. “It’s an awful sight,” thought Sterne; and he watched the long period of mournful, silent immobility, with a big brown hand lying loosely closed by the side of the plate, till he noticed the two engineers to the right and left looking at him in astonishment. He would close his mouth in a hurry then, and lowering his eyes, wink rapidly at his plate. It was awful to see the old chap sitting there; it was even awful to think that with three words he could blow him up sky-high. All he had to do was to raise his voice and pronounce a single short sentence, and yet that simple act seemed as impossible to attempt as moving the sun out of its place in the sky. The old chap could eat in his terrific mechanical way; but Sterne, from mental excitement, could not—not that evening, at any rate.
He had had ample time since to get accustomed to the strain of the meal-hours. He would never have believed it. But then use is everything; only the very potency of his success prevented anything resembling elation. He felt like a man who, in his legitimate search for a loaded gun to help him on his way through the world, chances to come upon a torpedo—upon a live torpedo with a shattering charge in its head and a pressure of many atmospheres in its tail. It is the sort of weapon to make its possessor careworn and nervous. He had no mind to be blown up himself; and he could not get rid of the notion that the explosion was bound to damage him too in some way. This vague apprehension had restrained him at first. He was able now to eat and sleep with that fearful weapon by his side, with the conviction of its power always in mind. It had not been arrived at by any reflective process; but once the idea had entered his head, the conviction had followed overwhelmingly in a multitude of observed little facts to which before he had given only a languid attention. The abrupt and faltering intonations of the deep voice; the taciturnity put on like an armor; the deliberate, as if guarded, movements; the long immobilities, as if the man he watched had been afraid to disturb the very air: every familiar gesture, every word uttered in his hearing, every sigh overheard, had acquired a special significance, a confirmatory import. Every day that passed over the Sofala appeared to Sterne simply crammed full with proofs—with incontrovertible proofs. At night, when off duty, he would steal out of his cabin in pyjamas (for more proofs) and stand a full hour, perhaps, on his bare feet below the bridge, as absolutely motionless as the awning stanchion in its deck socket near by. On the stretches of easy navigation it is not usual for a coasting captain to remain on deck all the time of his watch. The Serang keeps it for him as a matter of custom; in open water, on a straight course, he is usually trusted to look after the ship by himself. But this old man seemed incapable of remaining quietly down below. No doubt he could not sleep. And no wonder. This was also a proof. Suddenly in the silence of the ship panting upon the still, dark sea, Sterne would hear a low voice above him exclaiming nervously— “Serang!” “Tuan!” “You are watching the compass well?”
“Yes, I am watching, Tuan.” “The ship is making her course?” “She is, Tuan. Very straight.” “It is well; and remember, Serang, that the order is that you are to mind the helmsmen and keep a lookout with care, the same as if I were not on deck.” Then, when the Serang had made his answer, the low tones on the bridge would cease, and everything round Sterne seemed to become more still and more profoundly silent. Slightly chilled and with his back aching a little from long immobility, he would steal away to his room on the port side of the deck. He had long since parted with the last vestige of incredulity; of the original emotions, set into a tumult by the discovery, some trace of the first awe alone remained. Not the awe of the man himself—he could blow him up sky-high with six words— rather it was an awestruck indignation at the reckless perversity of avarice (what else could it be?), at the mad and somber resolution that for the sake of a few dollars more seemed to set at naught the common rule of conscience and pretended to struggle against the very decree of Providence. You could not find another man like this one in the whole round world—thank God. There was something devilishly dauntless in the character of such a deception which made you pause. Other considerations occurring to his prudence had kept him tongue-tied from day to day. It seemed to him now that it would yet have been easier to speak out in the first hour of discovery. He almost regretted not having made a row at once. But then the very monstrosity of the disclosure … Why! He could hardly face it himself, let alone pointing it out to somebody else. Moreover, with a desperado of that sort one never knew. The object was not to get him out (that was as well as done already), but to step into his place. Bizarre as the thought seemed he might have shown fight. A fellow up to working such a fraud would have enough cheek for anything; a fellow that, as it were, stood up against God Almighty Himself. He was a horrid marvel—that’s what he was: he was perfectly capable of brazening out the affair scandalously till he got him (Sterne) kicked out of the ship and everlastingly damaged his prospects in this part of the East. Yet if you want to get on something must be risked. At times Sterne thought he had been unduly timid of taking action in the past; and what was
worse, it had come to this, that in the present he did not seem to know what action to take. Massy’s savage moroseness was too disconcerting. It was an incalculable factor of the situation. You could not tell what there was behind that insulting ferocity. How could one trust such a temper; it did not put Sterne in bodily fear for himself, but it frightened him exceedingly as to his prospects. Though of course inclined to credit himself with exceptional powers of observation, he had by now lived too long with his discovery. He had gone on looking at nothing else, till at last one day it occurred to him that the thing was so obvious that no one could miss seeing it. There were four white men in all on board the Sofala. Jack, the second engineer, was too dull to notice anything that took place out of his engine-room. Remained Massy—the owner—the interested person—nearly going mad with worry. Sterne had heard and seen more than enough on board to know what ailed him; but his exasperation seemed to make him deaf to cautious overtures. If he had only known it, there was the very thing he wanted. But how could you bargain with a man of that sort? It was like going into a tiger’s den with a piece of raw meat in your hand. He was as likely as not to rend you for your pains. In fact, he was always threatening to do that very thing; and the urgency of the case, combined with the impossibility of handling it with safety, made Sterne in his watches below toss and mutter open-eyed in his bunk, for hours, as though he had been burning with fever. Occurrences like the crossing of the bar just now were extremely alarming to his prospects. He did not want to be left behind by some swift catastrophe. Massy being on the bridge, the old man had to brace himself up and make a show, he supposed. But it was getting very bad with him, very bad indeed, now. Even Massy had been emboldened to find fault this time; Sterne, listening at the foot of the ladder, had heard the other’s whimpering and artless denunciations. Luckily the beast was very stupid and could not see the why of all this. However, small blame to him; it took a clever man to hit upon the cause. Nevertheless, it was high time to do something. The old man’s game could not be kept up for many days more. “I may yet lose my life at this fooling—let alone my chance,” Sterne mumbled angrily to himself, after the stooping back of the chief engineer had disappeared round the corner of the skylight. Yes, no doubt—he thought; but to blurt out his knowledge would not advance his prospects. On the contrary, it would blast
them utterly as likely as not. He dreaded another failure. He had a vague consciousness of not being much liked by his fellows in this part of the world; inexplicably enough, for he had done nothing to them. Envy, he supposed. People were always down on a clever chap who made no bones about his determination to get on. To do your duty and count on the gratitude of that brute Massy would be sheer folly. He was a bad lot. Unmanly! A vicious man! Bad! Bad! A brute! A brute without a spark of anything human about him; without so much as simple curiosity even, or else surely he would have responded in some way to all these hints he had been given… . Such insensibility was almost mysterious. Massy’s state of exasperation seemed to Sterne to have made him stupid beyond the ordinary silliness of shipowners. Sterne, meditating on the embarrassments of that stupidity, forgot himself completely. His stony, unwinking stare was fixed on the planks of the deck. The slight quiver agitating the whole fabric of the ship was more perceptible in the silent river, shaded and still like a forest path. The Sofala, gliding with an even motion, had passed beyond the coast-belt of mud and mangroves. The shores rose higher, in firm sloping banks, and the forest of big trees came down to the brink. Where the earth had been crumbled by the floods it showed a steep brown cut, denuding a mass of roots intertwined as if wrestling underground; and in the air, the interlaced boughs, bound and loaded with creepers, carried on the struggle for life, mingled their foliage in one solid wall of leaves, with here and there the shape of an enormous dark pillar soaring, or a ragged opening, as if torn by the flight of a cannonball, disclosing the impenetrable gloom within, the secular inviolable shade of the virgin forest. The thump of the engines reverberated regularly like the strokes of a metronome beating the measure of the vast silence, the shadow of the western wall had fallen across the river, and the smoke pouring backwards from the funnel eddied down behind the ship, spread a thin dusky veil over the somber water, which, checked by the flood-tide, seemed to lie stagnant in the whole straight length of the reaches. Sterne’s body, as if rooted on the spot, trembled slightly from top to toe with the internal vibration of the ship; from under his feet came sometimes a sudden clang of iron, the noisy burst of a shout below; to the right the leaves of the treetops caught the rays of the low sun, and seemed to shine with a golden green light of their own shimmering around the highest boughs which stood out black against a smooth blue sky that seemed to droop over the bed of the river like the roof of a tent. The passengers for Batu Beru, kneeling on the planks, were
engaged in rolling their bedding of mats busily; they tied up bundles, they snapped the locks of wooden chests. A pockmarked peddler of small wares threw his head back to drain into his throat the last drops out of an earthenware bottle before putting it away in a roll of blankets. Knots of traveling traders standing about the deck conversed in low tones; the followers of a small Rajah from down the coast, broad-faced, simple young fellows in white drawers and round white cotton caps with their colored sarongs twisted across their bronze shoulders, squatted on their hams on the hatch, chewing betel with bright red mouths as if they had been tasting blood. Their spears, lying piled up together within the circle of their bare toes, resembled a casual bundle of dry bamboos; a thin, livid Chinaman, with a bulky package wrapped up in leaves already thrust under his arm, gazed ahead eagerly; a wandering Kling rubbed his teeth with a bit of wood, pouring over the side a bright stream of water out of his lips; the fat Rajah dozed in a shabby deck-chair,—and at the turn of every bend the two walls of leaves reappeared running parallel along the banks, with their impenetrable solidity fading at the top to a vaporous mistiness of countless slender twigs growing free, of young delicate branches shooting from the topmost limbs of hoary trunks, of feathery heads of climbers like delicate silver sprays standing up without a quiver. There was not a sign of a clearing anywhere; not a trace of human habitation, except when in one place, on the bare end of a low point under an isolated group of slender tree-ferns, the jagged, tangled remnants of an old hut on piles appeared with that peculiar aspect of ruined bamboo walls that look as if smashed with a club. Farther on, half hidden under the drooping bushes, a canoe containing a man and a woman, together with a dozen green cocoanuts in a heap, rocked helplessly after the Sofala had passed, like a navigating contrivance of venturesome insects, of traveling ants; while two glassy folds of water streaming away from each bow of the steamer across the whole width of the river ran with her up stream smoothly, fretting their outer ends into a brown whispering tumble of froth against the miry foot of each bank. “I must,” thought Sterne, “bring that brute Massy to his bearings. It’s getting too absurd in the end. Here’s the old man up there buried in his chair—he may just as well be in his grave for all the use he’ll ever be in the world—and the Serang’s in charge. Because that’s what he is. In charge. In the place that’s mine by rights. I must bring that savage brute to his bearings. I’ll do it at once, too …” When the mate made an abrupt start, a little brown half-naked boy, with large black eyes, and the string of a written charm round his neck, became panic-
struck at once. He dropped the banana he had been munching, and ran to the knee of a grave dark Arab in flowing robes, sitting like a Biblical figure, incongruously, on a yellow tin trunk corded with a rope of twisted rattan. The father, unmoved, put out his hand to pat the little shaven poll protectingly.
The End of the Tether/XI
Sterne crossed the deck upon the track of the chief engineer. Jack, the second, retreating backwards down the engine-room ladder, and still wiping his hands, treated him to an incomprehensible grin of white teeth out of his grimy hard face; Massy was nowhere to be seen. He must have gone straight into his berth. Sterne scratched at the door softly, then, putting his lips to the rose of the ventilator, said— “I must speak to you, Mr. Massy. Just give me a minute or two.” “I am busy. Go away from my door.” “But pray, Mr. Massy …” “You go away. D’you hear? Take yourself off altogether—to the other end of the ship—quite away …” The voice inside dropped low. “To the devil.” Sterne paused: then very quietly— “It’s rather pressing. When do you think you will be at liberty, sir?” The answer to this was an exasperated “Never”; and at once Sterne, with a very firm expression of face, turned the handle. Mr. Massy’s stateroom—a narrow, one-berth cabin—smelt strongly of soap, and presented to view a swept, dusted, unadorned neatness, not so much bare as barren, not so much severe as starved and lacking in humanity, like the ward of a public hospital, or rather (owing to the small size) like the clean retreat of a desperately poor but exemplary person. Not a single photograph frame ornamented the bulkheads; not a single article of clothing, not as much as a spare cap, hung from the brass hooks. All the inside was painted in one plain tint of pale blue; two big sea-chests in sailcloth covers and with iron padlocks fitted exactly in the space under the bunk. One glance was enough to embrace all the strip of scrubbed planks within the four unconcealed corners. The absence of the
usual settee was striking; the teak-wood top of the washing-stand seemed hermetically closed, and so was the lid of the writing-desk, which protruded from the partition at the foot of the bed-place, containing a mattress as thin as a pancake under a threadbare blanket with a faded red stripe, and a folded mosquito-net against the nights spent in harbor. There was not a scrap of paper anywhere in sight, no boots on the floor, no litter of any sort, not a speck of dust anywhere; no traces of pipe-ash even, which, in a heavy smoker, was morally revolting, like a manifestation of extreme hypocrisy; and the bottom of the old wooden arm-chair (the only seat there), polished with much use, shone as if its shabbiness had been waxed. The screen of leaves on the bank, passing as if unrolled endlessly in the round opening of the port, sent a wavering network of light and shade into the place. Sterne, holding the door open with one hand, had thrust in his head and shoulders. At this amazing intrusion Massy, who was doing absolutely nothing, jumped up speechless. “Don’t call names,” murmured Sterne hurriedly. “I won’t be called names. I think of nothing but your good, Mr. Massy.” A pause as of extreme astonishment followed. They both seemed to have lost their tongues. Then the mate went on with a discreet glibness. “You simply couldn’t conceive what’s going on on board your ship. It wouldn’t enter your head for a moment. You are too good—too—too upright, Mr. Massy, to suspect anybody of such a … It’s enough to make your hair stand on end.” He watched for the effect: Massy seemed dazed, uncomprehending. He only passed the palm of his hand on the coal-black wisps plastered across the top of his head. In a tone suddenly changed to confidential audacity Sterne hastened on. “Remember that there’s only six weeks left to run …” The other was looking at him stonily … “so anyhow you shall require a captain for the ship before long.” Then only, as if that suggestion had scarified his flesh in the manner of red-hot iron, Massy gave a start and seemed ready to shriek. He contained himself by a great effort. “Require a captain,” he repeated with scathing slowness. “Who requires a captain? You dare to tell me that I need any of you humbugging sailors to run my
ship. You and your likes have been fattening on me for years. It would have hurt me less to throw my money overboard. Pam—pe—red us—e—less f-f-f-frauds. The old ship knows as much as the best of you.” He snapped his teeth audibly and growled through them, “The silly law requires a captain.” Sterne had taken heart of grace meantime. “And the silly insurance people too, as well,” he said lightly. “But never mind that. What I want to ask is: Why shouldn’t I do, sir? I don’t say but you could take a steamer about the world as well as any of us sailors. I don’t pretend to tell you that it is a very great trick …” He emitted a short, hollow guffaw, familiarly … “I didn’t make the law—but there it is; and I am an active young fellow! I quite hold with your ideas; I know your ways by this time, Mr. Massy. I wouldn’t try to give myself airs like that—that—er lazy specimen of an old man up there.” He put a marked emphasis on the last sentence, to lead Massy away from the track in case … but he did not doubt of now holding his success. The chief engineer seemed nonplused, like a slow man invited to catch hold of a whirligig of some sort. “What you want, sir, is a chap with no nonsense about him, who would be content to be your sailing-master. Quite right, too. Well, I am fit for the work as much as that Serang. Because that’s what it amounts to. Do you know, sir, that a dam’ Malay like a monkey is in charge of your ship—and no one else. Just listen to his feet pit-patting above us on the bridge—real officer in charge. He’s taking her up the river while the great man is wallowing in the chair—perhaps asleep; and if he is, that would not make it much worse either—take my word for it.” He tried to thrust himself farther in. Massy, with lowered forehead, one hand grasping the back of the arm-chair, did not budge. “You think, sir, that the man has got you tight in his agreement …” Massy raised a heavy snarling face at this … “Well, sir, one can’t help hearing of it on board. It’s no secret. And it has been the talk on shore for years; fellows have been making bets about it. No, sir! It’s you who have got him at your mercy. You will say that you can’t dismiss him for indolence. Difficult to prove in court, and so on. Why, yes. But if you say the word, sir, I can tell you something about his indolence that will give you the clear right to fire him out on the spot and put me
in charge for the rest of this very trip—yes, sir, before we leave Batu Beru—and make him pay a dollar a day for his keep till we get back, if you like. Now, what do you think of that? Come, sir. Say the word. It’s really well worth your while, and I am quite ready to take your bare word. A definite statement from you would be as good as a bond.” His eyes began to shine. He insisted. A simple statement,—and he thought to himself that he would manage somehow to stick in his berth as long as it suited him. He would make himself indispensable; the ship had a bad name in her port; it would be easy to scare the fellows off. Massy would have to keep him. “A definite statement from me would be enough,” Massy repeated slowly. “Yes, sir. It would.” Sterne stuck out his chin cheerily and blinked at close quarters with that unconscious impudence which had the power to enrage Massy beyond anything. The engineer spoke very distinctly. “Listen well to me, then, Mr. Sterne: I wouldn’t—d’ye hear?—I wouldn’t promise you the value of two pence for anything you can tell me.” He struck Sterne’s arm away with a smart blow, and catching hold of the handle pulled the door to. The terrific slam darkened the cabin instantaneously to his eye as if after the flash of an explosion. At once he dropped into the chair. “Oh, no! You don’t!” he whispered faintly. The ship had in that place to shave the bank so close that the gigantic wall of leaves came gliding like a shutter against the port; the darkness of the primeval forest seemed to flow into that bare cabin with the odor of rotting leaves, of sodden soil—the strong muddy smell of the living earth steaming uncovered after the passing of a deluge. The bushes swished loudly alongside; above there was a series of crackling sounds, with a sharp rain of small broken branches falling on the bridge; a creeper with a great rustle snapped on the head of a boat davit, and a long, luxuriant green twig actually whipped in and out of the open port, leaving behind a few torn leaves that remained suddenly at rest on Mr. Massy’s blanket. Then, the ship sheering out in the stream, the light began to return but did not augment beyond a subdued clearness: for the sun was very low already, and the river, wending its sinuous course through a multitude of secular trees as if at the bottom of a precipitous gorge, had been already invaded by a
deepening gloom—the swift precursor of the night. “Oh, no, you don’t!” murmured the engineer again. His lips trembled almost imperceptibly; his hands too, a little: and to calm himself he opened the writingdesk, spread out a sheet of thin grayish paper covered with a mass of printed figures and began to scan them attentively for the twentieth time this trip at least. With his elbows propped, his head between his hands, he seemed to lose himself in the study of an abstruse problem in mathematics. It was the list of the winning numbers from the last drawing of the great lottery which had been the one inspiring fact of so many years of his existence. The conception of a life deprived of that periodical sheet of paper had slipped away from him entirely, as another man, according to his nature, would not have been able to conceive a world without fresh air, without activity, or without affection. A great pile of flimsy sheets had been growing for years in his desk, while the Sofala, driven by the faithful Jack, wore out her boilers in tramping up and down the Straits, from cape to cape, from river to river, from bay to bay; accumulating by that hard labor of an overworked, starved ship the blackened mass of these documents. Massy kept them under lock and key like a treasure. There was in them, as in the experience of life, the fascination of hope, the excitement of a half-penetrated mystery, the longing of a half-satisfied desire. For days together, on a trip, he would shut himself up in his berth with them: the thump of the toiling engines pulsated in his ear; and he would weary his brain poring over the rows of disconnected figures, bewildering by their senseless sequence, resembling the hazards of destiny itself. He nourished a conviction that there must be some logic lurking somewhere in the results of chance. He thought he had seen its very form. His head swam; his limbs ached; he puffed at his pipe mechanically; a contemplative stupor would soothe the fretfulness of his temper, like the passive bodily quietude procured by a drug, while the intellect remains tensely on the stretch. Nine, nine, aught, four, two. He made a note. The next winning number of the great prize was forty-seven thousand and five. These numbers of course would have to be avoided in the future when writing to Manilla for the tickets. He mumbled, pencil in hand … “and five. Hm … hm.” He wetted his finger: the papers rustled. Ha! But what’s this? Three years ago, in the September drawing, it was number nine, aught, four, two that took the first prize. Most remarkable. There was a hint there of a definite rule! He was afraid of missing some recondite principle in the overwhelming wealth of his material. What could it be? and for half an hour he would remain dead still, bent low over
the desk, without twitching a muscle. At his back the whole berth would be thick with a heavy body of smoke, as if a bomb had burst in there, unnoticed, unheard. At last he would lock up the desk with the decision of unshaken confidence, jump and go out. He would walk swiftly back and forth on that part of the foredeck which was kept clear of the lumber and of the bodies of the native passengers. They were a great nuisance, but they were also a source of profit that could not be disdained. He needed every penny of profit the Sofala could make. Little enough it was, in all conscience! The incertitude of chance gave him no concern, since he had somehow arrived at the conviction that, in the course of years, every number was bound to have his winning turn. It was simply a matter of time and of taking as many tickets as he could afford for every drawing. He generally took rather more; all the earnings of the ship went that way, and also the wages he allowed himself as chief engineer. It was the wages he paid to others that he begrudged with a reasoned and at the same time a passionate regret. He scowled at the lascars with their deck brooms, at the quartermasters rubbing the brass rails with greasy rags; he was eager to shake his fist and roar abuse in bad Malay at the poor carpenter—a timid, sickly, opium-fuddled Chinaman, in loose blue drawers for all costume, who invariably dropped his tools and fled below, with streaming tail and shaking all over, before the fury of that “devil.” But it was when he raised up his eyes to the bridge where one of these sailor frauds was always planted by law in charge of his ship that he felt almost dizzy with rage. He abominated them all; it was an old feud, from the time he first went to sea, an unlicked cub with a great opinion of himself, in the engine-room. The slights that had been put upon him. The persecutions he had suffered at the hands of skippers—of absolute nobodies in a steamship after all. And now that he had risen to be a shipowner they were still a plague to him: he had absolutely to pay away precious money to the conceited useless loafers:— As if a fully qualified engineer—who was the owner as well—were not fit to be trusted with the whole charge of a ship. Well! he made it pretty warm for them; but it was a poor consolation. He had come in time to hate the ship too for the repairs she required, for the coal-bills he had to pay, for the poor beggarly freights she earned. He would clench his hand as he walked and hit the rail a sudden blow, viciously, as though she could be made to feel pain. And yet he could not do without er; he needed her; he must hang on to her tooth and nail to keep his head above water till the expected flood of fortune came sweeping up and landed him safely on the high shore of his ambition. It was now to do nothing, nothing whatever, and have plenty of money to do it
on. He had tasted of power, the highest form of it his limited experience was aware of—the power of shipowning. What a deception! Vanity of vanities! He wondered at his folly. He had thrown away the substance for the shadow. Of the gratification of wealth he did not know enough to excite his imagination with any visions of luxury. How could he—the child of a drunken boiler-maker— going straight from the workshop into the engine-room of a north-country collier! But the notion of the absolute idleness of wealth he could very well conceive. He reveled in it, to forget his present troubles; he imagined himself walking about the streets of Hull (he knew their gutters well as a boy) with his pockets full of sovereigns. He would buy himself a house; his married sisters, their husbands, his old workshop chums, would render him infinite homage. There would be nothing to think of. His word would be law. He had been out of work for a long time before he won his prize, and he remembered how Carlo Mariani (commonly known as Paunchy Charley), the Maltese hotel-keeper at the slummy end of Denham Street, had cringed joyfully before him in the evening, when the news had come. Poor Charley, though he made his living by ministering to various abject vices, gave credit for their food to many a piece of white wreckage. He was naively overjoyed at the idea of his old bills being paid, and he reckoned confidently on a spell of festivities in the cavernous grog-shop downstairs. Massy remembered the curious, respectful looks of the “trashy” white men in the place. His heart had swelled within him. Massy had left Charley’s infamous den directly he had realized the possibilities open to him, and with his nose in the air. Afterwards the memory of these adulations was a great sadness. This was the true power of money,—and no trouble with it, nor any thinking required either. He thought with difficulty and felt vividly; to his blunt brain the problems offered by any ordered scheme of life seemed in their cruel toughness to have been put in his way by the obvious malevolence of men. As a shipowner everyone had conspired to make him a nobody. How could he have been such a fool as to purchase that accursed ship. He had been abominably swindled; there was no end to this swindling; and as the difficulties of his improvident ambition gathered thicker round him, he really came to hate everybody he had ever come in contact with. A temper naturally irritable and an amazing sensitiveness to the claims of his own personality had ended by making of life for him a sort of inferno—a place where his lost soul had been given up to the torment of savage brooding. But he had never hated anyone so much as that old man who had turned up one
evening to save him from an utter disaster,—from the conspiracy of the wretched sailors. He seemed to have fallen on board from the sky. His footsteps echoed on the empty steamer, and the strange deep-toned voice on deck repeating interrogatively the words, “Mr. Massy, Mr. Massy there?” had been startling like a wonder. And coming up from the depths of the cold engine-room, where he had been pottering dismally with a candle amongst the enormous shadows, thrown on all sides by the skeleton limbs of machinery, Massy had been struck dumb by astonishment in the presence of that imposing old man with a beard like a silver plate, towering in the dusk rendered lurid by the expiring flames of sunset. “Want to see me on business? What business? I am doing no business. Can’t you see that this ship is laid up?” Massy had turned at bay before the pursuing irony of his disaster. Afterwards he could not believe his ears. What was that old fellow getting at? Things don’t happen that way. It was a dream. He would presently wake up and find the man vanished like a shape of mist. The gravity, the dignity, the firm and courteous tone of that athletic old stranger impressed Massy. He was almost afraid. But it was no dream. Five hundred pounds are no dream. At once he became suspicious. What did it mean? Of course it was an offer to catch hold of for dear life. But what could there be behind? Before they had parted, after appointing a meeting in a solicitor’s office early on the morrow, Massy was asking himself, What is his motive? He spent the night in hammering out the clauses of the agreement—a unique instrument of its sort whose tenor got bruited abroad somehow and became the talk and wonder of the port. Massy’s object had been to secure for himself as many ways as possible of getting rid of his partner without being called upon at once to pay back his share. Captain Whalley’s efforts were directed to making the money secure. Was it not Ivy’s money—a part of her fortune whose only other asset was the time-defying body of her old father? Sure of his forbearance in the strength of his love for her, he accepted, with stately serenity, Massy’s stupidly cunning paragraphs against his incompetence, his dishonesty, his drunkenness, for the sake of other stringent stipulations. At the end of three years he was at liberty to withdraw from the partnership, taking his money with him. Provision was made for forming a fund to pay him off. But if he left the Sofala before the term, from whatever cause (barring death), Massy was to have a whole year for paying. “Illness?” the lawyer had suggested: a young man fresh from Europe and not overburdened
with business, who was rather amused. Massy began to whine unctuously, “How could he be expected? …” “Let that go,” Captain Whalley had said with a superb confidence in his body. “Acts of God,” he added. In the midst of life we are in death, but he trusted his Maker with a still greater fearlessness—his Maker who knew his thoughts, his human affections, and his motives. His Creator knew what use he was making of his health—how much he wanted it … “I trust my first illness will be my last. I’ve never been ill that I can remember,” he had remarked. “Let it go.” But at this early stage he had already awakened Massy’s hostility by refusing to make it six hundred instead of five. “I cannot do that,” was all he had said, simply, but with so much decision that Massy desisted at once from pressing the point, but had thought to himself, “Can’t! Old curmudgeon. Won’t He must have lots of money, but he would like to get hold of a soft berth and the sixth part of my profits for nothing if he only could.” And during these years Massy’s dislike grew under the restraint of something resembling fear. The simplicity of that man appeared dangerous. Of late he had changed, however, had appeared less formidable and with a lessened vigor of life, as though he had received a secret wound. But still he remained incomprehensible in his simplicity, fearlessness, and rectitude. And when Massy learned that he meant to leave him at the end of the time, to leave him confronted with the problem of boilers, his dislike blazed up secretly into hate. It had made him so clear-eyed that for a long time now Mr. Sterne could have told him nothing he did not know. He had much ado in trying to terrorize that mean sneak into silence; he wanted to deal alone with the situation; and— incredible as it might have appeared to Mr. Sterne—he had not yet given up the desire and the hope of inducing that hated old man to stay. Why! there was nothing else to do, unless he were to abandon his chances of fortune. But now, suddenly, since the crossing of the bar at Batu Beru things seemed to be coming rapidly to a point. It disquieted him so much that the study of the winning numbers failed to soothe his agitation: and the twilight in the cabin deepened, very somber. He put the list away, muttering once more, “Oh, no, my boy, you don’t. Not if I know it.” He did not mean the blinking, eavesdropping humbug to force his action. He took his head again into his hands; his immobility confined in the
darkness of this shut-up little place seemed to make him a thing apart infinitely removed from the stir and the sounds of the deck. He heard them: the passengers were beginning to jabber excitedly; somebody dragged a heavy box past his door. He heard Captain Whalley’s voice above— “Stations, Mr. Sterne.” And the answer from somewhere on deck forward— “Ay, ay, sir.” “We shall moor head up stream this time; the ebb has made.” “Head up stream, sir.” “You will see to it, Mr. Sterne.” The answer was covered by the autocratic clang on the engine-room gong. The propeller went on beating slowly: one, two, three; one, two, three—with pauses as if hesitating on the turn. The gong clanged time after time, and the water churned this way and that by the blades was making a great noisy commotion alongside. Mr. Massy did not move. A shore-light on the other bank, a quarter of a mile across the river, drifted, no bigger than a tiny star, passing slowly athwart the circle of the port. Voices from Mr. Van Wyk’s jetty answered the hails from the ship; ropes were thrown and missed and thrown again; the swaying flame of a torch carried in a large sampan coming to fetch away in state the Rajah from down the coast cast a sudden ruddy glare into his cabin, over his very person. Mr. Massy did not move. After a few last ponderous turns the engines stopped, and the prolonged clanging of the gong signified that the captain had done with them. A great number of boats and canoes of all sizes boarded the off-side of the Sofala. Then after a time the tumult of splashing, of cries, of shuffling feet, of packages dropped with a thump, the noise of the native passengers going away, subsided slowly. On the shore, a voice, cultivated, slightly authoritative, spoke very close alongside— “Brought any mail for me this time?” “Yes, Mr. Van Wyk.” This was from Sterne, answering over the rail in a tone of respectful cordiality. “Shall I bring it up to you?” But the voice asked again—
“Where’s the captain?” “Still on the bridge, I believe. He hasn’t left his chair. Shall I …” The voice interrupted negligently. “I will come on board.” “Mr. Van Wyk,” Sterne suddenly broke out with an eager effort, “will you do me the favor …” The mate walked away quickly towards the gangway. A silence fell. Mr. Massy in the dark did not move. He did not move even when he heard slow shuffling footsteps pass his cabin lazily. He contented himself to bellow out through the closed door— “You—Jack!” The footsteps came back without haste; the door handle rattled, and the second engineer appeared in the opening, shadowy in the sheen of the skylight at his back, with his face apparently as black as the rest of his figure. “We have been very long coming up this time,” Mr. Massy growled, without changing his attitude. “What do you expect with half the boiler tubes plugged up for leaks.” The second defended himself loquaciously. “None of your lip,” said Massy. “None of your rotten boilers—I say,” retorted his faithful subordinate without animation, huskily. “Go down there and carry a head of steam on them yourself —if you dare. I don’t.” “You aren’t worth your salt then,” Massy said. The other made a faint noise which resembled a laugh but might have been a snarl. “Better go slow than stop the ship altogether,” he admonished his admired superior. Mr. Massy moved at last. He turned in his chair, and grinding his teeth
— “Dam’ you and the ship! I wish she were at the bottom of the sea. Then you would have to starve.” The trusty second engineer closed the door gently. Massy listened. Instead of passing on to the bathroom where he should have gone to clean himself, the second entered his cabin, which was next door. Mr. Massy jumped up and waited. Suddenly he heard the lock snap in there. He rushed out and gave a violent kick to the door. “I believe you are locking yourself up to get drunk,” he shouted. A muffled answer came after a while. “My own time.” “If you take to boozing on the trip I’ll fire you out,” Massy cried. An obstinate silence followed that threat. Massy moved away perplexed. On the bank two figures appeared, approaching the gangway. He heard a voice tinged with contempt— “I would rather doubt your word. But I shall certainly speak to him of this.” The other voice, Sterne’s, said with a sort of regretful formality— “Thanks. That’s all I want. I must do my duty.” Mr. Massy was surprised. A short, dapper figure leaped lightly on the deck and nearly bounded into him where he stood beyond the circle of light from the gangway lamp. When it had passed towards the bridge, after exchanging a hurried “Good evening,” Massy said surlily to Sterne who followed with slow steps— “What is it you’re making up to Mr. Van Wyk for, now?” “Far from it, Mr. Massy. I am not good enough for Mr. Van Wyk. Neither are you, sir, in his opinion, I am afraid. Captain Whalley is, it seems. He’s gone to
ask him to dine up at the house this evening.” Then he murmured to himself darkly— “I hope he will like it.”
The End of the Tether/XII
Mr. Van Wyk, the white man of Batu Beru, an ex-naval officer who, for reasons best known to himself, had thrown away the promise of a brilliant career to become the pioneer of tobacco-planting on that remote part of the coast, had learned to like Captain Whalley. The appearance of the new skipper had attracted his attention. Nothing more unlike all the diverse types he had seen succeeding each other on the bridge of the Sofala could be imagined. At that time Batu Beru was not what it has become since: the center of a prosperous tobacco-growing district, a tropically suburban-looking little settlement of bungalows in one long street shaded with two rows of trees, embowered by the flowering and trim luxuriance of the gardens, with a threemile-long carriage-road for the afternoon drives and a first-class Resident with a fat, cheery wife to lead the society of married estate-managers and unmarried young fellows in the service of the big companies. All this prosperity was not yet; and Mr. Van Wyk prospered alone on the left bank on his deep clearing carved out of the forest, which came down above and below to the water’s edge. His lonely bungalow faced across the river the houses of the Sultan: a restless and melancholy old ruler who had done with love and war, for whom life no longer held any savor (except of evil forebodings) and time never had any value. He was afraid of death, and hoped he would die before the white men were ready to take his country from him. He crossed the river frequently (with never less than ten boats crammed full of people), in the wistful hope of extracting some information on the subject from his own white man. There was a certain chair on the veranda he always took: the dignitaries of the court squatted on the rugs and skins between the furniture: the inferior people remained below on the grass plot between the house and the river in rows three or four deep all along the front. Not seldom the visit began at daybreak. Mr. Van Wyk tolerated these inroads. He would nod out of his bedroom window, toothbrush or razor in hand, or pass through the throng of courtiers in his bathing robe. He appeared and disappeared humming a tune, polished his nails with attention, rubbed his shaved face with eau-de-Cologne, drank his early tea, went out to see his coolies at work: returned, looked through some papers on his desk,
read a page or two in a book or sat before his cottage piano leaning back on the stool, his arms extended, fingers on the keys, his body swaying slightly from side to side. When absolutely forced to speak he gave evasive vaguely soothing answers out of pure compassion: the same feeling perhaps made him so lavishly hospitable with the aerated drinks that more than once he left himself without soda-water for a whole week. That old man had granted him as much land as he cared to have cleared: it was neither more nor less than a fortune. Whether it was fortune or seclusion from his kind that Mr. Van Wyk sought, he could not have pitched upon a better place. Even the mail-boats of the subsidized company calling on the veriest clusters of palm-thatched hovels along the coast steamed past the mouth of Batu Beru river far away in the offing. The contract was old: perhaps in a few years’ time, when it had expired, Batu Beru would be included in the service; meantime all Mr. Van Wyk’s mail was addressed to Malacca, whence his agent sent it across once a month by the Sofala. It followed that whenever Massy had run short of money (through taking too many lottery tickets), or got into a difficulty about a skipper, Mr. Van Wyk was deprived of his letter and newspapers. In so far he had a personal interest in the fortunes of the Sofala. Though he considered himself a hermit (and for no passing whim evidently, since he had stood eight years of it already), he liked to know what went on in the world. Handy on the veranda upon a walnut etagere (it had come last year by the Sofala)—everything came by the Sofala there lay, piled up under bronze weights, a pile of the Times’ weekly edition, the large sheets of the Rotterdam Courant, the Graphic in its world-wide green wrappers, an illustrated Dutch publication without a cover, the numbers of a German magazine with covers of the “Bismarck malade” color. There were also parcels of new music—though the piano (it had come years ago by the Sofala in the damp atmosphere of the forests was generally out of tune.) It was vexing to be cut off from everything for sixty days at a stretch sometimes, without any means of knowing what was the matter. And when the Sofala reappeared Mr. Van Wyk would descend the steps of the veranda and stroll over the grass plot in front of his house, down to the waterside, with a frown on his white brow. “You’ve been laid up after an accident, I presume.” He addressed the bridge, but before anybody could answer Massy was sure to have already scrambled ashore over the rail and pushed in, squeezing the palms
of his hands together, bowing his sleek head as if gummed all over the top with black threads and tapes. And he would be so enraged at the necessity of having to offer such an explanation that his moaning would be positively pitiful, while all the time he tried to compose his big lips into a smile. “No, Mr. Van Wyk. You would not believe it. I couldn’t get one of those wretches to take the ship out. Not a single one of the lazy beasts could be induced, and the law, you know, Mr. Van Wyk …” He moaned at great length apologetically; the words conspiracy, plot, envy, came out prominently, whined with greater energy. Mr. Van Wyk, examining with a faint grimace his polished finger-nails, would say, “H’m. Very unfortunate,” and turn his back on him. Fastidious, clever, slightly skeptical, accustomed to the best society (he had held a much-envied shore appointment at the Ministry of Marine for a year preceding his retreat from his profession and from Europe), he possessed a latent warmth of feeling and a capacity for sympathy which were concealed by a sort of haughty, arbitrary indifference of manner arising from his early training; and by a something an enemy might have called foppish, in his aspect—like a distorted echo of past elegance. He managed to keep an almost military discipline amongst the coolies of the estate he had dragged into the light of day out of the tangle and shadows of the jungle; and the white shirt he put on every evening with its stiff glossy front and high collar looked as if he had meant to preserve the decent ceremony of evening-dress, but had wound a thick crimson sash above his hips as a concession to the wilderness, once his adversary, now his vanquished companion. Moreover, it was a hygienic precaution. Worn wide open in front, a short jacket of some airy silken stuff floated from his shoulders. His fluffy, fair hair, thin at the top, curled slightly at the sides; a carefully arranged mustache, an ungarnished forehead, the gleam of low patent shoes peeping under the wide bottom of trowsers cut straight from the same stuff as the gossamer coat, completed a figure recalling, with its sash, a pirate chief of romance, and at the same time the elegance of a slightly bald dandy indulging, in seclusion, a taste for unorthodox costume. It was his evening get-up. The proper time for the Sofala to arrive at Batu Beru was an hour before sunset, and he looked picturesque, and somehow quite
correct too, walking at the water’s edge on the background of grass slope crowned with a low long bungalow with an immensely steep roof of palm thatch, and clad to the eaves in flowering creepers. While the Sofala was being made fast he strolled in the shade of the few trees left near the landing-place, waiting till he could go on board. Her white men were not of his kind. The old Sultan (though his wistful invasions were a nuisance) was really much more acceptable to his fastidious taste. But still they were white; the periodical visits of the ship made a break in the well-filled sameness of the days without disturbing his privacy. Moreover, they were necessary from a business point of view; and through a strain of preciseness in his nature he was irritated when she failed to appear at the appointed time. The cause of the irregularity was too absurd, and Massy, in his opinion, was a contemptible idiot. The first time the Sofala reappeared under the new agreement swinging out of the bend below, after he had almost given up all hope of ever seeing her again, he felt so angry that he did not go down at once to the landingplace. His servants had come running to him with the news, and he had dragged a chair close against the front rail of the veranda, spread his elbows out, rested his chin on his hands, and went on glaring at her fixedly while she was being made fast opposite his house. He could make out easily all the white faces on board. Who on earth was that kind of patriarch they had got there on the bridge now? At last he sprang up and walked down the gravel path. It was a fact that the very gravel for his paths had been imported by the Sofala. Exasperated out of his quiet superciliousness, without looking at anyone right or left, he accosted Massy straightway in so determined a manner that the engineer, taken aback, began to stammer unintelligibly. Nothing could be heard but the words: “Mr. Van Wyk … Indeed, Mr. Van Wyk … For the future, Mr. Van Wyk”—and by the suffusion of blood Massy’s vast bilious face acquired an unnatural orange tint, out of which the disconcerted coal-black eyes shone in an extraordinary manner. “Nonsense. I am tired of this. I wonder you have the impudence to come alongside my jetty as if I had it made for your convenience alone.” Massy tried to protest earnestly. Mr. Van Wyk was very angry. He had a good mind to ask that German firm—those people in Malacca—what was their name? —boats with green funnels. They would be only too glad of the opening to put one of their small steamers on the run. Yes; Schnitzler, Jacob Schnitzler, would
in a moment. Yes. He had decided to write without delay. In his agitation Massy caught up his falling pipe. “You don’t mean it, sir!” he shrieked. “You shouldn’t mismanage your business in this ridiculous manner.” Mr. Van Wyk turned on his heel. The other three whites on the bridge had not stirred during the scene. Massy walked hastily from side to side, puffed out his cheeks, suffocated. “Stuck up Dutchman!” And he moaned out feverishly a long tale of griefs. The efforts he had made for all these years to please that man. This was the return you got for it, eh? Pretty. Write to Schnitzler—let in the green-funnel boats—get an old Hamburg Jew to ruin him. No, really he could laugh… . He laughed sobbingly… . Ha! ha! ha! And make him carry the letter in his own ship presumably. He stumbled across a grating and swore. He would not hesitate to fling the Dutchman’s correspondence overboard—the whole confounded bundle. He had never, never made any charge for that accommodation. But Captain Whalley, his new partner, would not let him probably; besides, it would be only putting off the evil day. For his own part he would make a hole in the water rather than look on tamely at the green funnels overrunning his trade. He raved aloud. The China boys hung back with the dishes at the foot of the ladder. He yelled from the bridge down at the deck, “Aren’t we going to have any chow this evening at all?” then turned violently to Captain Whalley, who waited, grave and patient, at the head of the table, smoothing his beard in silence now and then with a forbearing gesture. “You don’t seem to care what happens to me. Don’t you see that this affects your interests as much as mine? It’s no joking matter.” He took the foot of the table growling between his teeth. “Unless you have a few thousands put away somewhere. I haven’t.”
Mr. Van Wyk dined in his thoroughly lit-up bungalow, putting a point of splendor in the night of his clearing above the dark bank of the river. Afterwards he sat down to his piano, and in a pause he became aware of slow footsteps passing on the path along the front. A plank or two creaked under a heavy tread; he swung half round on the music-stool, listening with his fingertips at rest on the keyboard. His little terrier barked violently, backing in from the veranda. A deep voice apologized gravely for “this intrusion.” He walked out quickly. At the head of the steps the patriarchal figure, who was the new captain of the Sofala apparently (he had seen a round dozen of them, but not one of that sort), towered without advancing. The little dog barked unceasingly, till a flick of Mr. Van Wyk’s handkerchief made him spring aside into silence. Captain Whalley, opening the matter, was met by a punctiliously polite but determined opposition. They carried on their discussion standing where they had come face to face. Mr. Van Wyk observed his visitor with attention. Then at last, as if forced out of his reserve— “I am surprised that you should intercede for such a confounded fool.” This outbreak was almost complimentary, as if its meaning had been, “That such a man as you should intercede!” Captain Whalley let it pass by without flinching. One would have thought he had heard nothing. He simply went on to state that he was personally interested in putting things straight between them. Personally … But Mr. Van Wyk, really carried away by his disgust with Massy, became very incisive— “Indeed—if I am to be frank with you—his whole character does not seem to me particularly estimable or trustworthy …” Captain Whalley, always straight, seemed to grow an inch taller and broader, as if the girth of his chest had suddenly expanded under his beard. “My dear sir, you don’t think I came here to discuss a man with whom I am—I am—h’m—closely associated.” A sort of solemn silence lasted for a moment. He was not used to asking favors, but the importance he attached to this affair had made him willing to try… . Mr.
Van Wyk, favorably impressed, and suddenly mollified by a desire to laugh, interrupted— “That’s all right if you make it a personal matter; but you can do no less than sit down and smoke a cigar with me.” A slight pause, then Captain Whalley stepped forward heavily. As to the regularity of the service, for the future he made himself responsible for it; and his name was Whalley—perhaps to a sailor (he was speaking to a sailor, was he not?) not altogether unfamiliar. There was a lighthouse now, on an island. Maybe Mr. Van Wyk himself … “Oh yes. Oh indeed.” Mr. Van Wyk caught on at once. He indicated a chair. How very interesting. For his own part he had seen some service in the last Acheen War, but had never been so far East. Whalley Island? Of course. Now that was very interesting. What changes his guest must have seen since. “I can look further back even—on a whole half-century.” Captain Whalley expanded a bit. The flavor of a good cigar (it was a weakness) had gone straight to his heart, also the civility of that young man. There was something in that accidental contact of which he had been starved in his years of struggle. The front wall retreating made a square recess furnished like a room. A lamp with a milky glass shade, suspended below the slope of the high roof at the end of a slender brass chain, threw a bright round of light upon a little table bearing an open book and an ivory paper-knife. And, in the translucent shadows beyond, other tables could be seen, a number of easy-chairs of various shapes, with a great profusion of skin rugs strewn on the teakwood planking all over the veranda. The flowering creepers scented the air. Their foliage clipped out between the uprights made as if several frames of thick unstirring leaves reflecting the lamplight in a green glow. Through the opening at his elbow Captain Whalley could see the gangway lantern of the Sofala burning dim by the shore, the shadowy masses of the town beyond the open lustrous darkness of the river, and, as if hung along the straight edge of the projecting eaves, a narrow black strip of the night sky full of stars—resplendent. The famous cigar in hand he had a moment of complacency. “A trifle. Somebody must lead the way. I just showed that the thing could be
done; but you men brought up to the use of steam cannot conceive the vast importance of my bit of venturesomeness to the Eastern trade of the time. Why, that new route reduced the average time of a southern passage by eleven days for more than half the year. Eleven days! It’s on record. But the remarkable thing— speaking to a sailor—I should say was …” He talked well, without egotism, professionally. The powerful voice, produced without effort, filled the bungalow even into the empty rooms with a deep and limpid resonance, seemed to make a stillness outside; and Mr. Van Wyk was surprised by the serene quality of its tone, like the perfection of manly gentleness. Nursing one small foot, in a silk sock and a patent leather shoe, on his knee, he was immensely entertained. It was as if nobody could talk like this now, and the overshadowed eyes, the flowing white beard, the big frame, the serenity, the whole temper of the man, were an amazing survival from the prehistoric times of the world coming up to him out of the sea. Captain Whalley had been also the pioneer of the early trade in the Gulf of Petchi-li. He even found occasion to mention that he had buried his “dear wife” there six-and-twenty years ago. Mr. Van Wyk, impassive, could not help speculating in his mind swiftly as to the sort of woman that would mate with such a man. Did they make an adventurous and well-matched pair? No. Very possible she had been small, frail, no doubt very feminine—or most likely commonplace with domestic instincts, utterly insignificant. But Captain Whalley was no garrulous bore, and shaking his head as if to dissipate the momentary gloom that had settled on his handsome old face, he alluded conversationally to Mr. Van Wyk’s solitude. Mr. Van Wyk affirmed that sometimes he had more company than he wanted. He mentioned smilingly some of the peculiarities of his intercourse with “My Sultan.” He made his visits in force. Those people damaged his grass plot in front (it was not easy to obtain some approach to a lawn in the tropics) and the other day had broken down some rare bushes he had planted over there. And Captain Whalley remembered immediately that, in ‘forty-seven, the then Sultan, “this man’s grandfather,” had been notorious as a great protector of the piratical fleets of praus from farther East. They had a safe refuge in the river at Batu Beru. He financed more especially a Balinini chief called Haji Daman. Captain Whalley, nodding significantly his bushy white eyebrows, had very good reason to know something of that. The world had progressed since that time.
Mr. Van Wyk demurred with unexpected acrimony. Progressed in what? he wanted to know. Why, in knowledge of truth, in decency, in justice, in order—in honesty too, since men harmed each other mostly from ignorance. It was, Captain Whalley concluded quaintly, more pleasant to live in. Mr. Van Wyk whimsically would not admit that Mr. Massy, for instance, was more pleasant naturally than the Balinini pirates. The river had not gained much by the change. They were in their way every bit as honest. Massy was less ferocious than Haji Daman no doubt, but … “And what about you, my good sir?” Captain Whalley laughed a deep soft laugh. “You are an improvement, surely.” He continued in a vein of pleasantry. A good cigar was better than a knock on the head—the sort of welcome he would have found on this river forty or fifty years ago. Then leaning forward slightly, he became earnestly serious. It seems as if, outside their own sea-gypsy tribes, these rovers had hated all mankind with an incomprehensible, bloodthirsty hatred. Meantime their depredations had been stopped, and what was the consequence? The new generation was orderly, peaceable, settled in prosperous villages. He could speak from personal knowledge. And even the few survivors of that time—old men now—had changed so much, that it would have been unkind to remember against them that they had ever slit a throat in their lives. He had one especially in his mind’s eye: a dignified, venerable headman of a certain large coast village about sixty miles sou’west of Tampasuk. It did one’s heart good to see him—to hear that man speak. He might have been a ferocious savage once. What men wanted was to be checked by superior intelligence, by superior knowledge, by superior force too— yes, by force held in trust from God and sanctified by its use in accordance with His declared will. Captain Whalley believed a disposition for good existed in every man, even if the world were not a very happy place as a whole. In the wisdom of men he had not so much confidence. The disposition had to be helped up pretty sharply sometimes, he admitted. They might be silly, wrongheaded, unhappy; but naturally evil—no. There was at bottom a complete harmlessness at least … “Is there?” Mr. Van Wyk snapped acrimoniously.
Captain Whalley laughed at the interjection, in the good humor of large, tolerating certitude. He could look back at half a century, he pointed out. The smoke oozed placidly through the white hairs hiding his kindly lips. “At all events,” he resumed after a pause, “I am glad that they’ve had no time to do you much harm as yet.” This allusion to his comparative youthfulness did not offend Mr. Van Wyk, who got up and wriggled his shoulders with an enigmatic half-smile. They walked out together amicably into the starry night towards the river-side. Their footsteps resounded unequally on the dark path. At the shore end of the gangway the lantern, hung low to the handrail, threw a vivid light on the white legs and the big black feet of Mr. Massy waiting about anxiously. From the waist upwards he remained shadowy, with a row of buttons gleaming up to the vague outline of his chin. “You may thank Captain Whalley for this,” Mr. Van Wyk said curtly to him before turning away. The lamps on the veranda flung three long squares of light between the uprights far over the grass. A bat flitted before his face like a circling flake of velvety blackness. Along the jasmine hedge the night air seemed heavy with the fall of perfumed dew; flowerbeds bordered the path; the clipped bushes uprose in dark rounded clumps here and there before the house; the dense foliage of creepers filtered the sheen of the lamplight within in a soft glow all along the front; and everything near and far stood still in a great immobility, in a great sweetness. Mr. Van Wyk (a few years before he had had occasion to imagine himself treated more badly than anybody alive had ever been by a woman) felt for Captain Whalley’s optimistic views the disdain of a man who had once been credulous himself. His disgust with the world (the woman for a time had filled it for him completely) had taken the form of activity in retirement, because, though capable of great depth of feeling, he was energetic and essentially practical. But there was in that uncommon old sailor, drifting on the outskirts of his busy solitude, something that fascinated his skepticism. His very simplicity (amusing enough) was like a delicate refinement of an upright character. The striking dignity of manner could be nothing else, in a man reduced to such a humble position, but the expression of something essentially noble in the character. With all his trust in mankind he was no fool; the serenity of his temper at the end of so
many years, since it could not obviously have been appeased by success, wore an air of profound wisdom. Mr. Van Wyk was amused at it sometimes. Even the very physical traits of the old captain of the Sofala, his powerful frame, his reposeful mien, his intelligent, handsome face, the big limbs, the benign courtesy, the touch of rugged severity in the shaggy eyebrows, made up a seductive personality. Mr. Van Wyk disliked littleness of every kind, but there was nothing small about that man, and in the exemplary regularity of many trips an intimacy had grown up between them, a warm feeling at bottom under a kindly stateliness of forms agreeable to his fastidiousness. They kept their respective opinions on all worldly matters. His other convictions Captain Whalley never intruded. The difference of their ages was like another bond between them. Once, when twitted with the uncharitableness of his youth, Mr. Van Wyk, running his eye over the vast proportions of his interlocutor, retorted in friendly banter— “Oh. You’ll come to my way of thinking yet. You’ll have plenty of time. Don’t call yourself old: you look good for a round hundred.” But he could not help his stinging incisiveness, and though moderating it by an almost affectionate smile, he added— “And by then you will probably consent to die from sheer disgust.” Captain Whalley, smiling too, shook his head. “God forbid!” He thought that perhaps on the whole he deserved something better than to die in such sentiments. The time of course would have to come, and he trusted to his Maker to provide a manner of going out of which he need not be ashamed. For the rest he hoped he would live to a hundred if need be: other men had been known; it would be no miracle. He expected no miracles. The pronounced, argumentative tone caused Mr. Van Wyk to raise his head and look at him steadily. Captain Whalley was gazing fixedly with a rapt expression, as though he had seen his Creator’s favorable decree written in mysterious characters on the wall. He kept perfectly motionless for a few seconds, then got his vast bulk on to his feet so impetuously that Mr. Van Wyk was startled. He struck first a heavy blow on his inflated chest: and, throwing out horizontally a big arm that remained steady, extended in the air like the limb of a tree on a
windless day— “Not a pain or an ache there. Can you see this shake in the least?” His voice was low, in an awing, confident contrast with the headlong emphasis of his movements. He sat down abruptly. “This isn’t to boast of it, you know. I am nothing,” he said in his effortless strong voice, that seemed to come out as naturally as a river flows. He picked up the stump of the cigar he had laid aside, and added peacefully, with a slight nod, “As it happens, my life is necessary; it isn’t my own, it isn’t—God knows.” He did not say much for the rest of the evening, but several times Mr. Van Wyk detected a faint smile of assurance flitting under the heavy mustache. Later on Captain Whalley would now and then consent to dine “at the house.” He could even be induced to drink a glass of wine. “Don’t think I am afraid of it, my good sir,” he explained. “There was a very good reason why I should give it up.” On another occasion, leaning back at ease, he remarked, “You have treated me most—most humanely, my dear Mr. Van Wyk, from the very first.” “You’ll admit there was some merit,” Mr. Van Wyk hinted slyly. “An associate of that excellent Massy… . Well, well, my dear captain, I won’t say a word against him.” “It would be no use your saying anything against him,” Captain Whalley affirmed a little moodily. “As I’ve told you before, my life—my work, is necessary, not for myself alone. I can’t choose” … He paused, turned the glass before him right round… . “I have an only child—a daughter.” The ample downward sweep of his arm over the table seemed to suggest a small girl at a vast distance. “I hope to see her once more before I die. Meantime it’s enough to know that she has me sound and solid, thank God. You can’t understand how one feels. Bone of my bone, flesh of my flesh; the very image of my poor wife. Well, she …” Again he paused, then pronounced stoically the words, “She has a hard struggle.”
And his head fell on his breast, his eyebrows remained knitted, as by an effort of meditation. But generally his mind seemed steeped in the serenity of boundless trust in a higher power. Mr. Van Wyk wondered sometimes how much of it was due to the splendid vitality of the man, to the bodily vigor which seems to impart something of its force to the soul. But he had learned to like him very much.
The End of the Tether/XIII
This was the reason why Mr. Sterne’s confidential communication, delivered hurriedly on the shore alongside the dark silent ship, had disturbed his equanimity. It was the most incomprehensible and unexpected thing that could happen; and the perturbation of his spirit was so great that, forgetting all about his letters, he ran rapidly up the bridge ladder. The portable table was being put together for dinner to the left of the wheel by two pig-tailed “boys,” who as usual snarled at each other over the job, while another, a doleful, burly, very yellow Chinaman, resembling Mr. Massy, waited apathetically with the cloth over his arm and a pile of thick dinner-plates against his chest. A common cabin lamp with its globe missing, brought up from below, had been hooked to the wooden framework of the awning; the side-screens had been lowered all round; Captain Whalley filling the depths of the wicker-chair seemed to sit benumbed in a canvas tent crudely lighted, and used for the storing of nautical objects; a shabby steering-wheel, a battered brass binnacle on a stout mahogany stand, two dingy life-buoys, an old cork fender lying in a corner, dilapidated deck-lockers with loops of thin rope instead of door-handles. He shook off the appearance of numbness to return Mr. Van Wyk’s unusually brisk greeting, but relapsed directly afterwards. To accept a pressing invitation to dinner “up at the house” cost him another very visible physical effort. Mr. Van Wyk, perplexed, folded his arms, and leaning back against the rail, with his little, black, shiny feet well out, examined him covertly. “I’ve noticed of late that you are not quite yourself, old friend.” He put an affectionate gentleness into the last two words. The real intimacy of their intercourse had never been so vividly expressed before. “Tut, tut, tut!” The wicker-chair creaked heavily.
“Irritable,” commented Mr. Van Wyk to himself; and aloud, “I’ll expect to see you in half an hour, then,” he said negligently, moving off. “In half an hour,” Captain Whalley’s rigid silvery head repeated behind him as if out of a trance. Amidships, below, two voices, close against the engineroom, could be heard answering each other—one angry and slow, the other alert. “I tell you the beast has locked himself in to get drunk.” “Can’t help it now, Mr. Massy. After all, a man has a right to shut himself up in his cabin in his own time.” “Not to get drunk.” “I heard him swear that the worry with the boilers was enough to drive any man to drink,” Sterne said maliciously. Massy hissed out something about bursting the door in. Mr. Van Wyk, to avoid them, crossed in the dark to the other side of the deserted deck. The planking of the little wharf rattled faintly under his hasty feet. “Mr. Van Wyk! Mr. Van Wyk!” He walked on: somebody was running on the path. “You’ve forgotten to get your mail.” Sterne, holding a bundle of papers in his hand, caught up with him. “Oh, thanks.” But, as the other continued at his elbow, Mr. Van Wyk stopped short. The overhanging eaves, descending low upon the lighted front of the bungalow, threw their black straight-edged shadow into the great body of the night on that side. Everything was very still. A tinkle of cutlery and a slight jingle of glasses were heard. Mr. Van Wyk’s servants were laying the table for two on the veranda. “I’m afraid you give me no credit whatever for my good intentions in the matter
I’ve spoken to you about,” said Sterne. “I simply don’t understand you.” “Captain Whalley is a very audacious man, but he will understand that his game is up. That’s all that anybody need ever know of it from me. Believe me, I am very considerate in this, but duty is duty. I don’t want to make a fuss. All I ask you, as his friend, is to tell him from me that the game’s up. That will be sufficient.” Mr. Van Wyk felt a loathsome dismay at this queer privilege of friendship. He would not demean himself by asking for the slightest explanation; to drive the other away with contumely he did not think prudent—as yet, at any rate. So much assurance staggered him. Who could tell what there could be in it, he thought? His regard for Captain Whalley had the tenacity of a disinterested sentiment, and his practical instinct coming to his aid, he concealed his scorn. “I gather, then, that this is something grave.” “Very grave,” Sterne assented solemnly, delighted at having produced an effect at last. He was ready to add some effusive protestations of regret at the “unavoidable necessity,” but Mr. Van Wyk cut him short—very civilly, however. Once on the veranda Mr. Van Wyk put his hands in his pockets, and, straddling his legs, stared down at a black panther skin lying on the floor before a rockingchair. “It looks as if the fellow had not the pluck to play his own precious game openly,” he thought. This was true enough. In the face of Massy’s last rebuff Sterne dared not declare his knowledge. His object was simply to get charge of the steamer and keep it for some time. Massy would never forgive him for forcing himself on; but if Captain Whalley left the ship of his own accord, the command would devolve upon him for the rest of the trip; so he hit upon the brilliant idea of scaring the old man away. A vague menace, a mere hint, would be enough in such a brazen case; and, with a strange admixture of compassion, he thought that Batu Beru was a very good place for throwing up the sponge. The skipper could go ashore quietly, and stay with that Dutchman of his. Weren’t these two as thick as thieves together? And on reflection he seemed to see that there was a way to work the whole thing through that great friend of the old man’s. This was another brilliant idea. He had an inborn preference for circuitous methods. In this particular case
he desired to remain in the background as much as possible, to avoid exasperating Massy needlessly. No fuss! Let it all happen naturally. Mr. Van Wyk all through the dinner was conscious of a sense of isolation that invades sometimes the closeness of human intercourse. Captain Whalley failed lamentably and obviously in his attempts to eat something. He seemed overcome by a strange absentmindedness. His hand would hover irresolutely, as if left without guidance by a preoccupied mind. Mr. Van Wyk had heard him coming up from a long way off in the profound stillness of the river-side, and had noticed the irresolute character of the footfalls. The toe of his boot had struck the bottom stair as though he had come along mooning with his head in the air right up to the steps of the veranda. Had the captain of the Sofala been another sort of man he would have suspected the work of age there. But one glance at him was enough. Time—after, indeed, marking him for its own—had given him up to his usefulness, in which his simple faith would see a proof of Divine mercy. “How could I contrive to warn him?” Mr. Van Wyk wondered, as if Captain Whalley had been miles and miles away, out of sight and earshot of all evil. He was sickened by an immense disgust of Sterne. To even mention his threat to a man like Whalley would be positively indecent. There was something more vile and insulting in its hint than in a definite charge of crime—the debasing taint of blackmailing. “What could anyone bring against him?” he asked himself. This was a limpid personality. “And for what object?” The Power that man trusted had thought fit to leave him nothing on earth that envy could lay hold of, except a bare crust of bread. “Won’t you try some of this?” he asked, pushing a dish slightly. Suddenly it seemed to Mr. Van Wyk that Sterne might possibly be coveting the command of the Sofala. His cynicism was quite startled by what looked like a proof that no man may count himself safe from his kind unless in the very abyss of misery. An intrigue of that sort was hardly worth troubling about, he judged; but still, with such a fool as Massy to deal with, Whalley ought to and must be warned. At this moment Captain Whalley, bolt upright, the deep cavities of the eyes overhung by a bushy frown, and one large brown hand resting on each side of his empty plate, spoke across the tablecloth abruptly—“Mr. Van Wyk, you’ve always treated me with the most humane consideration.” “My dear captain, you make too much of a simple fact that I am not a savage.” Mr. Van Wyk, utterly revolted by the thought of Sterne’s obscure attempt, raised
his voice incisively, as if the mate had been hiding somewhere within earshot. “Any consideration I have been able to show was no more than the rightful due of a character I’ve learned to regard by this time with an esteem that nothing can shake.” A slight ring of glass made him lift his eyes from the slice of pine-apple he was cutting into small pieces on his plate. In changing his position Captain Whalley had contrived to upset an empty tumbler. Without looking that way, leaning sideways on his elbow, his other hand shading his brow, he groped shakily for it, then desisted. Van Wyk stared blankly, as if something momentous had happened all at once. He did not know why he should feel so startled; but he forgot Sterne utterly for the moment. “Why, what’s the matter?” And Captain Whalley, half-averted, in a deadened, agitated voice, muttered— “Esteem!” “And I may add something more,” Mr. Van Wyk, very steady-eyed, pronounced slowly. “Hold! Enough!” Captain Whalley did not change his attitude or raise his voice. “Say no more! I can make you no return. I am too poor even for that now. Your esteem is worth having. You are not a man that would stoop to deceive the poorest sort of devil on earth, or make a ship unseaworthy every time he takes her to sea.” Mr. Van Wyk, leaning forward, his face gone pink all over, with the starched table-napkin over his knees, was inclined to mistrust his senses, his power of comprehension, the sanity of his guest. “Where? Why? In the name of God!—what’s this? What ship? I don’t understand who …” “Then, in the name of God, it is I! A ship’s unseaworthy when her captain can’t see. I am going blind.” Mr. Van Wyk made a slight movement, and sat very still afterwards for a few
seconds; then, with the thought of Sterne’s “The game’s up,” he ducked under the table to pick up the napkin which had slipped off his knees. This was the game that was up. And at the same time the muffled voice of Captain Whalley passed over him— “I’ve deceived them all. Nobody knows.” He emerged flushed to the eyes. Captain Whalley, motionless under the full blaze of the lamp, shaded his face with his hand. “And you had that courage?” “Call it by what name you like. But you are a humane man—a—a—gentleman, Mr. Van Wyk. You may have asked me what I had done with my conscience.” He seemed to muse, profoundly silent, very still in his mournful pose. “I began to tamper with it in my pride. You begin to see a lot of things when you are going blind. I could not be frank with an old chum even. I was not frank with Massy—no, not altogether. I knew he took me for a wealthy sailor fool, and I let him. I wanted to keep up my importance—because there was poor Ivy away there—my daughter. What did I want to trade on his misery for? I did trade on it —for her. And now, what mercy could I expect from him? He would trade on mine if he knew it. He would hunt the old fraud out, and stick to the money for a year. Ivy’s money. And I haven’t kept a penny for myself. How am I going to live for a year. A year! In a year there will be no sun in the sky for her father.” His deep voice came out, awfully veiled, as though he had been overwhelmed by the earth of a landslide, and talking to you of the thoughts that haunt the dead in their graves. A cold shudder ran down Mr. Van Wyk’s back. “And how long is it since you have …?” he began. “It was a long time before I could bring myself to believe in this—this visitation.” Captain Whalley spoke with gloomy patience from under his hand. He had not thought he had deserved it. He had begun by deceiving himself from day to day, from week to week. He had the Serang at hand there—an old servant. It came on gradually, and when he could no longer deceive himself …
His voice died out almost. “Rather than give her up I set myself to deceive you all.” “It’s incredible,” whispered Mr. Van Wyk. Captain Whalley’s appalling murmur flowed on. “Not even the sign of God’s anger could make me forget her. How could I forsake my child, feeling my vigor all the time—the blood warm within me? Warm as yours. It seems to me that, like the blinded Samson, I would find the strength to shake down a temple upon my head. She’s a struggling woman—my own child that we used to pray over together, my poor wife and I. Do you remember that day I as well as told you that I believed God would let me live to a hundred for her sake? What sin is there in loving your child? Do you see it? I was ready for her sake to live for ever. I half believed I would. I’ve been praying for death since. Ha! Presumptuous man—you wanted to live …” A tremendous, shuddering upheaval of that big frame, shaken by a gasping sob, set the glasses jingling all over the table, seemed to make the whole house tremble to the roof-tree. And Mr. Van Wyk, whose feeling of outraged love had been translated into a form of struggle with nature, understood very well that, for that man whose whole life had been conditioned by action, there could exist no other expression for all the emotions; that, to voluntarily cease venturing, doing, enduring, for his child’s sake, would have been exactly like plucking his warm love for her out of his living heart. Something too monstrous, too impossible, even to conceive. Captain Whalley had not changed his attitude, that seemed to express something of shame, sorrow, and defiance. “I have even deceived you. If it had not been for that word ‘esteem.’ These are not the words for me. I would have lied to you. Haven’t I lied to you? Weren’t you going to trust your property on board this very trip?” “I have a floating yearly policy,” Mr. Van Wyk said almost unwittingly, and was amazed at the sudden cropping up of a commercial detail. “The ship is unseaworthy, I tell you. The policy would be invalid if it were known …”
“We shall share the guilt, then.” “Nothing could make mine less,” said Captain Whalley. He had not dared to consult a doctor; the man would have perhaps asked who he was, what he was doing; Massy might have heard something. He had lived on without any help, human or divine. The very prayers stuck in his throat. What was there to pray for? and death seemed as far as ever. Once he got into his cabin he dared not come out again; when he sat down he dared not get up; he dared not raise his eyes to anybody’s face; he felt reluctant to look upon the sea or up to the sky. The world was fading before his great fear of giving himself away. The old ship was his last friend; he was not afraid of her; he knew every inch of her deck; but at her too he hardly dared to look, for fear of finding he could see less than the day before. A great incertitude enveloped him. The horizon was gone; the sky mingled darkly with the sea. Who was this figure standing over yonder? what was this thing lying down there? And a frightful doubt of the reality of what he could see made even the remnant of sight that remained to him an added torment, a pitfall always open for his miserable pretense. He was afraid to stumble inexcusably over something—to say a fatal Yes or No to a question. The hand of God was upon him, but it could not tear him away from his child. And, as if in a nightmare of humiliation, every featureless man seemed an enemy. He let his hand fall heavily on the table. Mr. Van Wyk, arms down, chin on breast, with a gleam of white teeth pressing on the lower lip, meditated on Sterne’s “The game’s up.” “The Serang of course does not know.” “Nobody,” said Captain Whalley, with assurance. “Ah yes. Nobody. Very well. Can you keep it up to the end of the trip? That is the last under the agreement with Massy.” Captain Whalley got up and stood erect, very stately, with the great white beard lying like a silver breastplate over the awful secret of his heart. Yes; that was the only hope there was for him of ever seeing her again, of securing the money, the last he could do for her, before he crept away somewhere—useless, a burden, a reproach to himself. His voice faltered. “Think of it! Never see her any more: the only human being besides myself now
on earth that can remember my wife. She’s just like her mother. Lucky the poor woman is where there are no tears shed over those they loved on earth and that remain to pray not to be led into temptation—because, I suppose, the blessed know the secret of grace in God’s dealings with His created children.” He swayed a little, said with austere dignity— “I don’t. I know only the child He has given me.” And he began to walk. Mr. Van Wyk, jumping up, saw the full meaning of the rigid head, the hesitating feet, the vaguely extended hand. His heart was beating fast; he moved a chair aside, and instinctively advanced as if to offer his arm. But Captain Whalley passed him by, making for the stairs quite straight. “He could not see me at all out of his line,” Van Wyk thought, with a sort of awe. Then going to the head of the stairs, he asked a little tremulously— “What is it like—like a mist—like …” Captain Whalley, half-way down, stopped, and turned round undismayed to answer. “It is as if the light were ebbing out of the world. Have you ever watched the ebbing sea on an open stretch of sands withdrawing farther and farther away from you? It is like this—only there will be no flood to follow. Never. It is as if the sun were growing smaller, the stars going out one by one. There can’t be many left that I can see by this. But I haven’t had the courage to look of late …” He must have been able to make out Mr. Van Wyk, because he checked him by an authoritative gesture and a stoical— “I can get about alone yet.” It was as if he had taken his line, and would accept no help from men, after having been cast out, like a presumptuous Titan, from his heaven. Mr. Van Wyk, arrested, seemed to count the footsteps right out of earshot. He walked between the tables, tapping smartly with his heels, took up a paper-knife, dropped it after a vague glance along the blade; then happening upon the piano, struck a few chords again and again, vigorously, standing up before the keyboard with an attentive poise of the head like a piano-tuner; closing it, he pivoted on his heels brusquely, avoided the little terrier sleeping trustfully on crossed forepaws, came
upon the stairs next, and, as though he had lost his balance on the top step, ran down headlong out of the house. His servants, beginning to clear the table, heard him mutter to himself (evil words no doubt) down there, and then after a pause go away with a strolling gait in the direction of the wharf. The bulwarks of the Sofala lying alongside the bank made a low, black wall on the undulating contour of the shore. Two masts and a funnel uprose from behind it with a great rake, as if about to fall: a solid, square elevation in the middle bore the ghostly shapes of white boats, the curves of davits, lines of rail and stanchions, all confused and mingling darkly everywhere; but low down, amidships, a single lighted port stared out on the night, perfectly round, like a small, full moon, whose yellow beam caught a patch of wet mud, the edge of trodden grass, two turns of heavy cable wound round the foot of a thick wooden post in the ground. Mr. Van Wyk, peering alongside, heard a muzzy boastful voice apparently jeering at a person called Prendergast. It mouthed abuse thickly, choked; then pronounced very distinctly the word “Murphy,” and chuckled. Glass tinkled tremulously. All these sounds came from the lighted port. Mr. Van Wyk hesitated, stooped; it was impossible to look through unless he went down into the mud. “Sterne,” he said, half aloud. The drunken voice within said gladly— “Sterne—of course. Look at him blink. Look at him! Sterne, Whalley, Massy. Massy, Whalley, Sterne. But Massy’s the best. You can’t come over him. He would just love to see you starve.” Mr. Van Wyk moved away, made out farther forward a shadowy head stuck out from under the awnings as if on the watch, and spoke quietly in Malay, “Is the mate asleep?” “No. Here, at your service.” In a moment Sterne appeared, walking as noiselessly as a cat on the wharf. “It’s so jolly dark, and I had no idea you would be down to-night.”
“What’s this horrible raving?” asked Mr. Van Wyk, as if to explain the cause of a shudder than ran over him audibly. “Jack’s broken out on a drunk. That’s our second. It’s his way. He will be right enough by to-morrow afternoon, only Mr. Massy will keep on worrying up and down the deck. We had better get away.” He muttered suggestively of a talk “up at the house.” He had long desired to effect an entrance there, but Mr. Van Wyk nonchalantly demurred: it would not, he feared, be quite prudent, perhaps; and the opaque black shadow under one of the two big trees left at the landing-place swallowed them up, impenetrably dense, by the side of the wide river, that seemed to spin into threads of glitter the light of a few big stars dropped here and there upon its outspread and flowing stillness. “The situation is grave beyond doubt,” Mr. Van Wyk said. Ghost-like in their white clothes they could not distinguish each others’ features, and their feet made no sound on the soft earth. A sort of purring was heard. Mr. Sterne felt gratified by such a beginning. “I thought, Mr. Van Wyk, a gentleman of your sort would see at once how awkwardly I was situated.” “Yes, very. Obviously his health is bad. Perhaps he’s breaking up. I see, and he himself is well aware—I assume I am speaking to a man of sense—he is well aware that his legs are giving out.” “His legs—ah!” Mr. Sterne was disconcerted, and then turned sulky. “You may call it his legs if you like; what I want to know is whether he intends to clear out quietly. That’s a good one, too! His legs! Pooh!” “Why, yes. Only look at the way he walks.” Mr. Van Wyk took him up in a perfectly cool and undoubting tone. “The question, however, is whether your sense of duty does not carry you too far from your true interest. After all, I too could do something to serve you. You know who I am.” “Everybody along the Straits has heard of you, sir.” Mr. Van Wyk presumed that this meant something favorable. Sterne had a soft laugh at this pleasantry. He should think so! To the opening statement, that the
partnership agreement was to expire at the end of this very trip, he gave an attentive assent. He was aware. One heard of nothing else on board all the blessed day long. As to Massy, it was no secret that he was in a jolly deep hole with these worn-out boilers. He would have to borrow somewhere a couple of hundred first of all to pay off the captain; and then he would have to raise money on mortgage upon the ship for the new boilers—that is, if he could find a lender at all. At best it meant loss of time, a break in the trade, short earnings for the year—and there was always the danger of having his connection filched away from him by the Germans. It was whispered about that he had already tried two firms. Neither would have anything to do with him. Ship too old, and the man too well known in the place… . Mr. Sterne’s final rapid winking remained buried in the deep darkness sibilating with his whispers. “Supposing, then, he got the loan,” Mr. Van Wyk resumed in a deliberate undertone, “on your own showing he’s more than likely to get a mortgagee’s man thrust upon him as captain. For my part, I know that I would make that very stipulation myself if I had to find the money. And as a matter of fact I am thinking of doing so. It would be worth my while in many ways. Do you see how this would bear on the case under discussion?” “Thank you, sir. I am sure you couldn’t get anybody that would care more for your interests.” “Well, it suits my interest that Captain Whalley should finish his time. I shall probably take a passage with you down the Straits. If that can be done, I’ll be on the spot when all these changes take place, and in a position to look after your interests.” “Mr. Van Wyk, I want nothing better. I am sure I am infinitely …” “I take it, then, that this may be done without any trouble.” “Well, sir, what risk there is can’t be helped; but (speaking to you as my employer now) the thing is more safe than it looks. If anybody had told me of it I wouldn’t have believed it, but I have been looking on myself. That old Serang has been trained up to the game. There’s nothing the matter with his—his— limbs, sir. He’s got used to doing things himself in a remarkable way. And let me tell you, sir, that Captain Whalley, poor man, is by no means useless. Fact. Let me explain to you, sir. He stiffens up that old monkey of a Malay, who knows
well enough what to do. Why, he must have kept captain’s watches in all sorts of country ships off and on for the last five-and-twenty years. These natives, sir, as long as they have a white man close at the back, will go on doing the right thing most surprisingly well—even if left quite to themselves. Only the white man must be of the sort to put starch into them, and the captain is just the one for that. Why, sir, he has drilled him so well that now he needs hardly speak at all. I have seen that little wrinkled ape made to take the ship out of Pangu Bay on a blowy morning and on all through the islands; take her out first-rate, sir, dodging under the old man’s elbow, and in such quiet style that you could not have told for the life of you which of the two was doing the work up there. That’s where our poor friend would be still of use to the ship even if—if—he could no longer lift a foot, sir. Provided the Serang does not know that there’s anything wrong.” “He doesn’t.” “Naturally not. Quite beyond his apprehension. They aren’t capable of finding out anything about us, sir.” “You seem to be a shrewd man,” said Mr. Van Wyk in a choked mutter, as though he were feeling sick. “You’ll find me a good enough servant, sir.” Mr. Sterne hoped now for a handshake at least, but unexpectedly, with a “What’s this? Better not to be seen together,” Mr. Van Wyk’s white shape wavered, and instantly seemed to melt away in the black air under the roof of boughs. The mate was startled. Yes. There was that faint thumping clatter. He stole out silently from under the shade. The lighted port-hole shone from afar. His head swam with the intoxication of sudden success. What a thing it was to have a gentleman to deal with! He crept aboard, and there was something weird in the shadowy stretch of empty decks, echoing with shouts and blows proceeding from a darker part amidships. Mr. Massy was raging before the door of the berth: the drunken voice within flowed on undisturbed in the violent racket of kicks. “Shut up! Put your light out and turn in, you confounded swilling pig—you! D’you hear me, you beast?” The kicking stopped, and in the pause the muzzy oracular voice announced from
within— “Ah! Massy, now—that’s another thing. Massy’s deep.” “Who’s that aft there? You, Sterne? He’ll drink himself into a fit of horrors.” The chief engineer appeared vague and big at the corner of the engineroom. “He will be good enough for duty to-morrow. I would let him be, Mr. Massy.” Sterne slipped away into his berth, and at once had to sit down. His head swam with exultation. He got into his bunk as if in a dream. A feeling of profound peace, of pacific joy, came over him. On deck all was quiet. Mr. Massy, with his ear against the door of Jack’s cabin, listened critically to a deep stertorous breathing within. This was a dead-drunk sleep. The bout was over: tranquilized on that score, he too went in, and with slow wriggles got out of his old tweed jacket. It was a garment with many pockets, which he used to put on at odd times of the day, being subject to sudden chilly fits, and when he felt warmed he would take it off and hang it about anywhere all over the ship. It would be seen swinging on belaying-pins, thrown over the heads of winches, suspended on people’s very door-handles for that matter. Was he not the owner? But his favorite place was a hook on a wooden awning stanchion on the bridge, almost against the binnacle. He had even in the early days more than one tussle on that point with Captain Whalley, who desired the bridge to be kept tidy. He had been overawed then. Of late, though, he had been able to defy his partner with impunity. Captain Whalley never seemed to notice anything now. As to the Malays, in their awe of that scowling man not one of the crew would dream of laying a hand on the thing, no matter where or what it swung from. With an unexpectedness which made Mr. Massy jump and drop the coat at his feet, there came from the next berth the crash and thud of a headlong, jingling, clattering fall. The faithful Jack must have dropped to sleep suddenly as he sat at his revels, and now had gone over chair and all, breaking, as it seemed by the sound, every single glass and bottle in the place. After the terrific smash all was still for a time in there, as though he had killed himself outright on the spot. Mr. Massy held his breath. At last a sleepy uneasy groaning sigh was exhaled slowly on the other side of the bulkhead. “I hope to goodness he’s too drunk to wake up now,” muttered Mr. Massy.
The sound of a softly knowing laugh nearly drove him to despair. He swore violently under his breath. The fool would keep him awake all night now for certain. He cursed his luck. He wanted to forget his maddening troubles in sleep sometimes. He could detect no movements. Without apparently making the slightest attempt to get up, Jack went on sniggering to himself where he lay; then began to speak, where he had left off as it were— “Massy! I love the dirty rascal. He would like to see his poor old Jack starve— but just you look where he has climbed to.” … He hiccoughed in a superior, leisurely manner… . “Ship-owning it with the best. A lottery ticket you want. Ha! ha! I will give you lottery tickets, my boy. Let the old ship sink and the old chum starve—that’s right. He don’t go wrong—Massy don’t. Not he. He’s a genius—that man is. That’s the way to win your money. Ship and chum must go.” “The silly fool has taken it to heart,” muttered Massy to himself. And, listening with a softened expression of face for any slight sign of returning drowsiness, he was discouraged profoundly by a burst of laughter full of joyful irony. “Would like to see her at the bottom of the sea! Oh, you clever, clever devil! Wish her sunk, eh? I should think you would, my boy; the damned old thing and all your troubles with her. Rake in the insurance money —turn your back on your old chum—all’s well—gentleman again.” A grim stillness had come over Massy’s face. Only his big black eyes rolled uneasily. The raving fool. And yet it was all true. Yes. Lottery tickets, too. All true. What? Beginning again? He wished he wouldn’t… . But it was even so. The imaginative drunkard on the other side of the bulkhead shook off the deathlike stillness that after his last words had fallen on the dark ship moored to a silent shore. “Don’t you dare to say anything against George Massy, Esquire. When he’s tired of waiting he will do away with her. Look out! Down she goes—chum and all. He’ll know how to …” The voice hesitated, weary, dreamy, lost, as if dying away in a vast open space. “… Find a trick that will work. He’s up to it—never fear …”
He must have been very drunk, for at last the heavy sleep gripped him with the suddenness of a magic spell, and the last word lengthened itself into an interminable, noisy, in-drawn snore. And then even the snoring stopped, and all was still. But it seemed as though Mr. Massy had suddenly come to doubt the efficacy of sleep as against a man’s troubles; or perhaps he had found the relief he needed in the stillness of a calm contemplation that may contain the vivid thoughts of wealth, of a stroke of luck, of long idleness, and may bring before you the imagined form of every desire; for, turning about and throwing his arms over the edge of his bunk, he stood there with his feet on his favorite old coat, looking out through the round port into the night over the river. Sometimes a breath of wind would enter and touch his face, a cool breath charged with the damp, fresh feel from a vast body of water. A glimmer here and there was all he could see of it; and once he might after all suppose he had dozed off, since there appeared before his vision, unexpectedly and connected with no dream, a row of flaming and gigantic figures—three naught seven one two—making up a number such as you may see on a lottery ticket. And then all at once the port was no longer black: it was pearly gray, framing a shore crowded with houses, thatched roof beyond thatched roof, walls of mats and bamboo, gables of carved teak timber. Rows of dwellings raised on a forest of piles lined the steely band of the river, brimful and still, with the tide at the turn. This was Batu Beru—and the day had come. Mr. Massy shook himself, put on the tweed coat, and, shivering nervously as if from some great shock, made a note of the number. A fortunate, rare hint that. Yes; but to pursue fortune one wanted money—ready cash. Then he went out and prepared to descend into the engineroom. Several small jobs had to be seen to, and Jack was lying dead drunk on the floor of his cabin, with the door locked at that. His gorge rose at the thought of work. Ay! But if you wanted to do nothing you had to get first a good bit of money. A ship won’t save you. He cursed the Sofala. True, all true. He was tired of waiting for some chance that would rid him at last of that ship that had turned out a curse on his life.
The End of the Tether/XIV
The deep, interminable hoot of the steam-whistle had, in its grave, vibrating note, something intolerable, which sent a slight shudder down Mr. Van Wyk’s back. It was the early afternoon; the Sofala was leaving Batu Beru for Pangu, the next place of call. She swung in the stream, scantily attended by a few canoes, and, gliding on the broad river, became lost to view from the Van Wyk bungalow. Its owner had not gone this time to see her off. Generally he came down to the wharf, exchanged a few words with the bridge while she cast off, and waved his hand to Captain Whalley at the last moment. This day he did not even go as far as the balustrade of the veranda. “He couldn’t see me if I did,” he said to himself. “I wonder whether he can make out the house at all.” And this thought somehow made him feel more alone than he had ever felt for all these years. What was it? six or seven? Seven. A long time. He sat on the veranda with a closed book on his knee, and, as it were, looked out upon his solitude, as if the fact of Captain Whalley’s blindness had opened his eyes to his own. There were many sorts of heartaches and troubles, and there was no place where they could not find a man out. And he felt ashamed, as though he had for six years behaved like a peevish boy. His thought followed the Sofala on her way. On the spur of the moment he had acted impulsively, turning to the thing most pressing. And what else could he have done? Later on he should see. It seemed necessary that he should come out into the world, for a time at least. He had money—something could be arranged; he would grudge no time, no trouble, no loss of his solitude. It weighed on him now—and Captain Whalley appeared to him as he had sat shading his eyes, as if, being deceived in the trust of his faith, he were beyond all the good and evil that can be wrought by the hands of men. Mr. Van Wyk’s thoughts followed the Sofala down the river, winding about through the belt of the coast forest, between the buttressed shafts of the big trees, through the mangrove strip, and over the bar. The ship crossed it easily in broad
daylight, piloted, as it happened, by Mr. Sterne, who took the watch from four to six, and then went below to hug himself with delight at the prospect of being virtually employed by a rich man—like Mr. Van Wyk. He could not see how any hitch could occur now. He did not seem able to get over the feeling of being “fixed up at last.” From six to eight, in the course of duty, the Serang looked alone after the ship. She had a clear road before her now till about three in the morning, when she would close with the Pangu group. At eight Mr. Sterne came out cheerily to take charge again till midnight. At ten he was still chirruping and humming to himself on the bridge, and about that time Mr. Van Wyk’s thought abandoned the Sofala. Mr. Van Wyk had fallen asleep at last. Massy, blocking the engine-room companion, jerked himself into his tweed jacket surlily, while the second waited with a scowl. “Oh. You came out? You sot! Well, what have you got to say for yourself?” He had been in charge of the engines till then. A somber fury darkened his mind: a hot anger against the ship, against the facts of life, against the men for their cheating, against himself too—because of an inward tremor of his heart. An incomprehensible growl answered him. “What? Can’t you open your mouth now? You yelp out your infernal rot loud enough when you are drunk. What do you mean by abusing people in that way? —you old useless boozer, you!” “Can’t help it. Don’t remember anything about it. You shouldn’t listen.” “You dare to tell me! What do you mean by going on a drunk like this!” “Don’t ask me. Sick of the dam’ boilers—you would be. Sick of life.” “I wish you were dead, then. You’ve made me sick of you. Don’t you remember the uproar you made last night? You miserable old soaker!” “No; I don’t. Don’t want to. Drink is drink.” “I wonder what prevents me from kicking you out. What do you want here?” “Relieve you. You’ve been long enough down there, George.”
“Don’t you George me—you tippling old rascal, you! If I were to die to-morrow you would starve. Remember that. Say Mr. Massy.” “Mr. Massy,” repeated the other stolidly. Disheveled, with dull blood-shot eyes, a snuffy, grimy shirt, greasy trowsers, naked feet thrust into ragged slippers, he bolted in head down directly Massy had made way for him. The chief engineer looked around. The deck was empty as far as the taffrail. All the native passengers had left in Batu Beru this time, and no others had joined. The dial of the patent log tinkled periodically in the dark at the end of the ship. It was a dead calm, and, under the clouded sky, through the still air that seemed to cling warm, with a seaweed smell, to her slim hull, on a sea of somber gray and unwrinkled, the ship moved on an even keel, as if floating detached in empty space. But Mr. Massy slapped his forehead, tottered a little, caught hold of a belaying-pin at the foot of the mast. “I shall go mad,” he muttered, walking across the deck unsteadily. A shovel was scraping loose coal down below—a fire-door clanged. Sterne on the bridge began whistling a new tune. Captain Whalley, sitting on the couch, awake and fully dressed, heard the door of his cabin open. He did not move in the least, waiting to recognize the voice, with an appalling strain of prudence. A bulkhead lamp blazed on the white paint, the crimson plush, the brown varnish of mahogany tops. The white wood packing-case under the bed-place had remained unopened for three years now, as though Captain Whalley had felt that, after the Fair Maid was gone, there could be no abiding-place on earth for his affections. His hands rested on his knees; his handsome head with big eyebrows presented a rigid profile to the doorway. The expected voice spoke out at last. “Once more, then. What am I to call you?” Ha! Massy. Again. The weariness of it crushed his heart—and the pain of shame was almost more than he could bear without crying out. “Well. Is it to be ‘partner’ still?”
“You don’t know what you ask.” “I know what I want …” Massy stepped in and closed the door. “… And I am going to have a try for it with you once more.” His whine was half persuasive, half menacing. “For it’s no manner of use to tell me that you are poor. You don’t spend anything on yourself, that’s true enough; but there’s another name for that. You think you are going to have what you want out of me for three years, and then cast me off without hearing what I think of you. You think I would have submitted to your airs if I had known you had only a beggarly five hundred pounds in the world. You ought to have told me.” “Perhaps,” said Captain Whalley, bowing his head. “And yet it has saved you.” … Massy laughed scornfully… . “I have told you often enough since.” “And I don’t believe you now. When I think how I let you lord it over my ship! Do you remember how you used to bullyrag me about my coat and your bridge? It was in his way. His bridge! ‘And I won’t be a party to this—and I couldn’t think of doing that.’ Honest man! And now it all comes out. ‘I am poor, and I can’t. I have only this five hundred in the world.’” He contemplated the immobility of Captain Whalley, that seemed to present an inconquerable obstacle in his path. His face took a mournful cast. “You are a hard man.” “Enough,” said Captain Whalley, turning upon him. “You shall get nothing from me, because I have nothing of mine to give away now.” “Tell that to the marines!” Mr. Massy, going out, looked back once; then the door closed, and Captain Whalley, alone, sat as still as before. He had nothing of his own—even his past of honor, of truth, of just pride, was gone. All his spotless life had fallen into the abyss. He had said his last good-by to it. But what belonged to her, that he meant
to save. Only a little money. He would take it to her in his own hands—this last gift of a man that had lasted too long. And an immense and fierce impulse, the very passion of paternity, flamed up with all the unquenched vigor of his worthless life in a desire to see her face. Just across the deck Massy had gone straight to his cabin, struck a light, and hunted up the note of the dreamed number whose figures had flamed up also with the fierceness of another passion. He must contrive somehow not to miss a drawing. That number meant something. But what expedient could he contrive to keep himself going? “Wretched miser!” he mumbled. If Mr. Sterne could at no time have told him anything new about his partner, he could have told Mr. Sterne that another use could be made of a man’s affliction than just to kick him out, and thus defer the term of a difficult payment for a year. To keep the secret of the affliction and induce him to stay was a better move. If without means, he would be anxious to remain; and that settled the question of refunding him his share. He did not know exactly how much Captain Whalley was disabled; but if it so happened that he put the ship ashore somewhere for good and all, it was not the owner’s fault—was it? He was not obliged to know that there was anything wrong. But probably nobody would raise such a point, and the ship was fully insured. He had had enough selfrestraint to pay up the premiums. But this was not all. He could not believe Captain Whalley to be so confoundedly destitute as not to have some more money put away somewhere. If he, Massy, could get hold of it, that would pay for the boilers, and everything went on as before. And if she got lost in the end, so much the better. He hated her: he loathed the troubles that took his mind off the chances of fortune. He wished her at the bottom of the sea, and the insurance money in his pocket. And as, baffled, he left Captain Whalley’s cabin, he enveloped in the same hatred the ship with the worn-out boilers and the man with the dimmed eyes. And our conduct after all is so much a matter of outside suggestion, that had it not been for his Jack’s drunken gabble he would have there and then had it out with this miserable man, who would neither help, nor stay, nor yet lose the ship. The old fraud! He longed to kick him out. But he restrained himself. Time enough for that—when he liked. There was a fearful new thought put into his head. Wasn’t he up to it after all? How that beast Jack had raved! “Find a safe
trick to get rid of her.” Well, Jack was not so far wrong. A very clever trick had occurred to him. Aye! But what of the risk? A feeling of pride—the pride of superiority to common prejudices—crept into his breast, made his heart beat fast, his mouth turn dry. Not everybody would dare; but he was Massy, and he was up to it! Six bells were struck on deck. Eleven! He drank a glass of water, and sat down for ten minutes or so to calm himself. Then he got out of his chest a small bull’seye lantern of his own and lit it. Almost opposite his berth, across the narrow passage under the bridge, there was, in the iron deck-structure covering the stokehold fiddle and the boilerspace, a storeroom with iron sides, iron roof, iron-plated floor, too, on account of the heat below. All sorts of rubbish was shot there: it had a mound of scrap-iron in a corner; rows of empty oil-cans; sacks of cotton-waste, with a heap of charcoal, a deck-forge, fragments of an old hencoop, winch-covers all in rags, remnants of lamps, and a brown felt hat, discarded by a man dead now (of a fever on the Brazil coast), who had been once mate of the Sofala, had remained for years jammed forcibly behind a length of burst copper pipe, flung at some time or other out of the engine-room. A complete and imperious blackness pervaded that Capharnaum of forgotten things. A small shaft of light from Mr. Massy’s bull’s-eye fell slanting right through it. His coat was unbuttoned; he shot the bolt of the door (there was no other opening), and, squatting before the scrap-heap, began to pack his pockets with pieces of iron. He packed them carefully, as if the rusty nuts, the broken bolts, the links of cargo chain, had been so much gold he had that one chance to carry away. He packed his side-pockets till they bulged, the breast pocket, the pockets inside. He turned over the pieces. Some he rejected. A small mist of powdered rust began to rise about his busy hands. Mr. Massy knew something of the scientific basis of his clever trick. If you want to deflect the magnetic needle of a ship’s compass, soft iron is the best; likewise many small pieces in the pockets of a jacket would have more effect than a few large ones, because in that way you obtain a greater amount of surface for weight in your iron, and it’s surface that tells. He slipped out swiftly—two strides sufficed—and in his cabin he perceived that his hands were all red—red with rust. It disconcerted him, as though he had
found them covered with blood: he looked himself over hastily. Why, his trowsers too! He had been rubbing his rusty palms on his legs. He tore off the waistband button in his haste, brushed his coat, washed his hands. Then the air of guilt left him, and he sat down to wait. He sat bolt upright and weighted with iron in his chair. He had a hard, lumpy bulk against each hip, felt the scrappy iron in his pockets touch his ribs at every breath, the downward drag of all these pounds hanging upon his shoulders. He looked very dull too, sitting idle there, and his yellow face, with motionless black eyes, had something passive and sad in its quietness. When he heard eight bells struck above his head, he rose and made ready to go out. His movements seemed aimless, his lower lip had dropped a little, his eyes roamed about the cabin, and the tremendous tension of his will had robbed them of every vestige of intelligence. With the last stroke of the bell the Serang appeared noiselessly on the bridge to relieve the mate. Sterne overflowed with good nature, since he had nothing more to desire. “Got your eyes well open yet, Serang? It’s middling dark; I’ll wait till you get your sight properly.” The old Malay murmured, looked up with his worn eyes, sidled away into the light of the binnacle, and, crossing his hands behind his back, fixed his eyes on the compass-card. “You’ll have to keep a good look-out ahead for land, about half-past three. It’s fairly clear, though. You have looked in on the captain as you came along—eh? He knows the time? Well, then, I am off.” At the foot of the ladder he stood aside for the captain. He watched him go up with an even, certain tread, and remained thoughtful for a moment. “It’s funny,” he said to himself, “but you can never tell whether that man has seen you or not. He might have heard me breathe this time.” He was a wonderful man when all was said and done. They said he had had a name in his day. Mr. Sterne could well believe it; and he concluded serenely that Captain Whalley must be able to see people more or less —as himself just now,
for instance—but not being certain of anybody, had to keep up that unnoticing silence of manner for fear of giving himself away. Mr. Sterne was a shrewd guesser. This necessity of every moment brought home to Captain Whalley’s heart the humiliation of his falsehood. He had drifted into it from paternal love, from incredulity, from boundless trust in divine justice meted out to men’s feelings on this earth. He would give his poor Ivy the benefit of another month’s work; perhaps the affliction was only temporary. Surely God would not rob his child of his power to help, and cast him naked into a night without end. He had caught at every hope; and when the evidence of his misfortune was stronger than hope, he tried not to believe the manifest thing. In vain. In the steadily darkening universe a sinister clearness fell upon his ideas. In the illuminating moments of suffering he saw life, men, all things, the whole earth with all her burden of created nature, as he had never seen them before. Sometimes he was seized with a sudden vertigo and an overwhelming terror; and then the image of his daughter appeared. Her, too, he had never seen so clearly before. Was it possible that he should ever be unable to do anything whatever for her? Nothing. And not see her any more? Never. Why? The punishment was too great for a little presumption, for a little pride. And at last he came to cling to his deception with a fierce determination to carry it out to the end, to save her money intact, and behold her once more with his own eyes. Afterwards—what? The idea of suicide was revolting to the vigor of his manhood. He had prayed for death till the prayers had stuck in his throat. All the days of his life he had prayed for daily bread, and not to be led into temptation, in a childlike humility of spirit. Did words mean anything? Whence did the gift of speech come? The violent beating of his heart reverberated in his head—seemed to shake his brain to pieces. He sat down heavily in the deck-chair to keep the pretense of his watch. The night was dark. All the nights were dark now. “Serang,” he said, half aloud. “Ada, Tuan. I am here.” “There are clouds on the sky?”
“There are, Tuan.” “Let her be steered straight. North.” “She is going north, Tuan.” The Serang stepped back. Captain Whalley recognized Massy’s footfalls on the bridge. The engineer walked over to port and returned, passing behind the chair several times. Captain Whalley detected an unusual character as of prudent care in this prowling. The near presence of that man brought with it always a recrudescence of moral suffering for Captain Whalley. It was not remorse. After all, he had done nothing but good to the poor devil. There was also a sense of danger—the necessity of a greater care. Massy stopped and said— “So you still say you must go?” “I must indeed.” “And you couldn’t at least leave the money for a term of years?” “Impossible.” “Can’t trust it with me without your care, eh?” Captain Whalley remained silent. Massy sighed deeply over the back of the chair. “It would just do to save me,” he said in a tremulous voice. “I’ve saved you once.” The chief engineer took off his coat with careful movements, and proceeded to feel for the brass hook screwed into the wooden stanchion. For this purpose he placed himself right in front of the binnacle, thus hiding completely the compass-card from the quartermaster at the wheel. “Tuan!” the lascar at last murmured softly, meaning to let the white man know that he could not see to
steer. Mr. Massy had accomplished his purpose. The coat was hanging from the nail, within six inches of the binnacle. And directly he had stepped aside the quartermaster, a middle-aged, pock-marked, Sumatra Malay, almost as dark as a negro, perceived with amazement that in that short time, in this smooth water, with no wind at all, the ship had gone swinging far out of her course. He had never known her get away like this before. With a slight grunt of astonishment he turned the wheel hastily to bring her head back north, which was the course. The grinding of the steering-chains, the chiding murmurs of the Serang, who had come over to the wheel, made a slight stir, which attracted Captain Whalley’s anxious attention. He said, “Take better care.” Then everything settled to the usual quiet on the bridge. Mr. Massy had disappeared. But the iron in the pockets of the coat had done its work; and the Sofala, heading north by the compass, made untrue by this simple device, was no longer making a safe course for Pangu Bay. The hiss of water parted by her stem, the throb of her engines, all the sounds of her faithful and laborious life, went on uninterrupted in the great calm of the sea joining on all sides the motionless layer of cloud over the sky. A gentle stillness as vast as the world seemed to wait upon her path, enveloping her lovingly in a supreme caress. Mr. Massy thought there could be no better night for an arranged shipwreck. Run up high and dry on one of the reefs east of Pangu—wait for daylight—hole in the bottom—out boats—Pangu Bay same evening. That’s about it. As soon as she touched he would hasten on the bridge, get hold of the coat (nobody would notice in the dark), and shake it upside-down over the side, or even fling it into the sea. A detail. Who could guess? Coat been seen hanging there from that hook hundreds of times. Nevertheless, when he sat down on the lower step of the bridge-ladder his knees knocked together a little. The waiting part was the worst of it. At times he would begin to pant quickly, as though he had been running, and then breathe largely, swelling with the intimate sense of a mastered fate. Now and then he would hear the shuffle of the Serang’s bare feet up there: quiet, low voices would exchange a few words, and lapse almost at once into silence… . “Tell me directly you see any land, Serang.”
“Yes, Tuan. Not yet.” “No, not yet,” Captain Whalley would agree. The ship had been the best friend of his decline. He had sent all the money he had made by and in the Sofala to his daughter. His thought lingered on the name. How often he and his wife had talked over the cot of the child in the big sterncabin of the Condor; she would grow up, she would marry, she would love them, they would live near her and look at her happiness—it would go on without end. Well, his wife was dead, to the child he had given all he had to give; he wished he could come near her, see her, see her face once, live in the sound of her voice, that could make the darkness of the living grave ready for him supportable. He had been starved of love too long. He imagined her tenderness. The Serang had been peering forward, and now and then glancing at the chair. He fidgeted restlessly, and suddenly burst out close to Captain Whalley— “Tuan, do you see anything of the land?” The alarmed voice brought Captain Whalley to his feet at once. He! See! And at the question, the curse of his blindness seemed to fall on him with a hundredfold force. “What’s the time?” he cried. “Half-past three, Tuan.” “We are close. You must see. Look, I say. Look.” Mr. Massy, awakened by the sudden sound of talking from a short doze on the lowest step, wondered why he was there. Ah! A faintness came over him. It is one thing to sow the seed of an accident and another to see the monstrous fruit hanging over your head ready to fall in the sound of agitated voices. “There’s no danger,” he muttered thickly. The horror of incertitude had seized upon Captain Whalley, the miserable mistrust of men, of things—of the very earth. He had steered that very course thirty-six times by the same compass—if anything was certain in this world it was its absolute, unerring correctness. Then what had happened? Did the Serang
lie? Why lie? Why? Was he going blind too? “Is there a mist? Look low on the water. Low down, I say.” “Tuan, there’s no mist. See for yourself.” Captain Whalley steadied the trembling of his limbs by an effort. Should he stop the engines at once and give himself away. A gust of irresolution swayed all sorts of bizarre notions in his mind. The unusual had come, and he was not fit to deal with it. In this passage of inexpressible anguish he saw her face—the face of a young girl—with an amazing strength of illusion. No, he must not give himself away after having gone so far for her sake. “You steered the course? You made it? Speak the truth.” “Ya, Tuan. On the course now. Look.” Captain Whalley strode to the binnacle, which to him made such a dim spot of light in an infinity of shapeless shadow. By bending his face right down to the glass he had been able before … Having to stoop so low, he put out, instinctively, his arm to where he knew there was a stanchion to steady himself against. His hand closed on something that was not wood but cloth. The slight pull adding to the weight, the loop broke, and Mr. Massy’s coat falling, struck the deck heavily with a dull thump, accompanied by a lot of clicks. “What’s this?” Captain Whalley fell on his knees, with groping hands extended in a frank gesture of blindness. They trembled, these hands feeling for the truth. He saw it. Iron near the compass. Wrong course. Wreck her! His ship. Oh no. Not that. “Jump and stop her!” he roared out in a voice not his own. He ran himself—hands forward, a blind man, and while the clanging of the gong echoed still all over the ship, she seemed to butt full tilt into the side of a mountain. It was low water along the north side of the strait. Mr. Massy had not reckoned on that. Instead of running aground for half her length, the Sofala butted the
sheer ridge of a stone reef which would have been awash at high water. This made the shock absolutely terrific. Everybody in the ship that was standing was thrown down headlong: the shaken rigging made a great rattling to the very trucks. All the lights went out: several chain-guys, snapping, clattered against the funnel: there were crashes, pings of parted wire-rope, splintering sounds, loud cracks, the masthead lamp flew over the bows, and all the doors about the deck began to bang heavily. Then, after having hit, she rebounded, hit the second time the very same spot like a battering-ram. This completed the havoc: the funnel, with all the guys gone, fell over with a hollow sound of thunder, smashing the wheel to bits, crushing the frame of the awnings, breaking the lockers, filling the bridge with a mass of splinters, sticks, and broken wood. Captain Whalley picked himself up and stood knee-deep in wreckage, torn, bleeding, knowing the nature of the danger he had escaped mostly by the sound, and holding Mr. Massy’s coat in his arms. By this time Sterne (he had been flung out of his bunk) had set the engines astern. They worked for a few turns, then a voice bawled out, “Get out of the damned engine-room, Jack!”—and they stopped; but the ship had gone clear of the reef and lay still, with a heavy cloud of steam issuing from the broken deckpipes, and vanishing in wispy shapes into the night. Notwithstanding the suddenness of the disaster there was no shouting, as if the very violence of the shock had half-stunned the shadowy lot of people swaying here and there about her decks. The voice of the Serang pronounced distinctly above the confused murmurs— “Eight fathom.” He had heaved the lead. Mr. Sterne cried out next in a strained pitch— “Where the devil has she got to? Where are we?” Captain Whalley replied in a calm bass— “Amongst the reefs to the eastward.” “You know it, sir? Then she will never get out again.” “She will be sunk in five minutes. Boats, Sterne. Even one will save you all in this calm.”
The Chinaman stokers went in a disorderly rush for the port boats. Nobody tried to check them. The Malays, after a moment of confusion, became quiet, and Mr. Sterne showed a good countenance. Captain Whalley had not moved. His thoughts were darker than this night in which he had lost his first ship. “He made me lose a ship.” Another tall figure standing before him amongst the litter of the smash on the bridge whispered insanely— “Say nothing of it.” Massy stumbled closer. Captain Whalley heard the chattering of his teeth. “I have the coat.” “Throw it down and come along,” urged the chattering voice. “B-b-b-b-boat!” “You will get fifteen years for this.” Mr. Massy had lost his voice. His speech was a mere dry rustling in his throat. “Have mercy!” “Had you any when you made me lose my ship? Mr. Massy, you shall get fifteen years for this!” “I wanted money! Money! My own money! I will give you some money. Take half of it. You love money yourself.” “There’s a justice …” Massy made an awful effort, and in a strange, half choked utterance— “You blind devil! It’s you that drove me to it.” Captain Whalley, hugging the coat to his breast, made no sound. The light had ebbed for ever from the world—let everything go. But this man should not escape scot-free. Sterne’s voice commanded—
“Lower away!” The blocks rattled. “Now then,” he cried, “over with you. This way. You, Jack, here. Mr. Massy! Mr. Massy! Captain! Quick, sir! Let’s get— “I shall go to prison for trying to cheat the insurance, but you’ll get exposed; you, honest man, who has been cheating me. You are poor. Aren’t you? You’ve nothing but the five hundred pounds. Well, you have nothing at all now. The ship’s lost, and the insurance won’t be paid.” Captain Whalley did not move. True! Ivy’s money! Gone in this wreck. Again he had a flash of insight. He was indeed at the end of his tether. Urgent voices cried out together alongside. Massy did not seem able to tear himself away from the bridge. He chattered and hissed despairingly— “Give it up to me! Give it up!” “No,” said Captain Whalley; “I could not give it up. You had better go. Don’t wait, man, if you want to live. She’s settling down by the head fast. No; I shall keep it, but I shall stay on board.” Massy did not seem to understand; but the love of life, awakened suddenly, drove him away from the bridge. Captain Whalley laid the coat down, and stumbled amongst the heaps of wreckage to the side. “Is Mr. Massy in with you?” he called out into the night. Sterne from the boat shouted— “Yes; we’ve got him. Come along, sir. It’s madness to stay longer.” Captain Whalley felt along the rail carefully, and, without a word, cast off the painter. They were expecting him still down there. They were waiting, till a voice suddenly exclaimed—
“We are adrift! Shove off!” “Captain Whalley! Leap! … pull up a little … leap! You can swim.” In that old heart, in that vigorous body, there was, that nothing should be wanting, a horror of death that apparently could not be overcome by the horror of blindness. But after all, for Ivy he had carried his point, walking in his darkness to the very verge of a crime. God had not listened to his prayers. The light had finished ebbing out of the world; not a glimmer. It was a dark waste; but it was unseemly that a Whalley who had gone so far to carry a point should continue to live. He must pay the price. “Leap as far as you can, sir; we will pick you up.” They did not hear him answer. But their shouting seemed to remind him of something. He groped his way back, and sought for Mr. Massy’s coat. He could swim indeed; people sucked down by the whirlpool of a sinking ship do come up sometimes to the surface, and it was unseemly that a Whalley, who had made up his mind to die, should be beguiled by chance into a struggle. He would put all these pieces of iron into his own pockets. They, looking from the boat, saw the Sofala, a black mass upon a black sea, lying still at an appalling cant. No sound came from her. Then, with a great bizarre shuffling noise, as if the boilers had broken through the bulkheads, and with a faint muffled detonation, where the ship had been there appeared for a moment something standing upright and narrow, like a rock out of the sea. Then that too disappeared.
When the Sofala failed to come back to Batu Beru at the proper time, Mr. Van Wyk understood at once that he would never see her any more. But he did not know what had happened till some months afterwards, when, in a native craft lent him by his Sultan, he had made his way to the Sofala’s port of registry, where already her existence and the official inquiry into her loss was beginning to be forgotten. It had not been a very remarkable or interesting case, except for the fact that the captain had gone down with his sinking ship. It was the only life lost; and Mr. Van Wyk would not have been able to learn any details had it not been for
Sterne, whom he met one day on the quay near the bridge over the creek, almost on the very spot where Captain Whalley, to preserve his daughter’s five hundred pounds intact, had turned to get a sampan which would take him on board the Sofala. From afar Mr. Van Wyk saw Sterne blink straight at him and raise his hand to his hat. They drew into the shade of a building (it was a bank), and the mate related how the boat with the crew got into Pangu Bay about six hours after the accident, and how they had lived for a fortnight in a state of destitution before they found an opportunity to get away from that beastly place. The inquiry had exonerated everybody from all blame. The loss of the ship was put down to an unusual set of the current. Indeed, it could not have been anything else: there was no other way to account for the ship being set seven miles to the eastward of her position during the middle watch. “A piece of bad luck for me, sir.” Sterne passed his tongue on his lips, and glanced aside. “I lost the advantage of being employed by you, sir. I can never be sorry enough. But here it is: one man’s poison, another man’s meat. This could not have been handier for Mr. Massy if he had arranged that shipwreck himself. The most timely total loss I’ve ever heard of.” “What became of that Massy?” asked Mr. Van Wyk. “He, sir? Ha! ha! He would keep on telling me that he meant to buy another ship; but as soon as he had the money in his pocket he cleared out for Manilla by mail-boat early in the morning. I gave him chase right aboard, and he told me then he was going to make his fortune dead sure in Manilla. I could go to the devil for all he cared. And yet he as good as promised to give me the command if I didn’t talk too much.” “You never said anything …” Mr. Van Wyk began. “Not I, sir. Why should I? I mean to get on, but the dead aren’t in my way,” said Sterne. His eyelids were beating rapidly, then drooped for an instant. “Besides, sir, it would have been an awkward business. You made me hold my tongue just a bit too long.” “Do you know how it was that Captain Whalley remained on board? Did he
really refuse to leave? Come now! Or was it perhaps an accidental …?” “Nothing!” Sterne interrupted with energy. “I tell you I yelled for him to leap overboard. He simply must have cast off the painter of the boat himself. We all yelled to him—that is, Jack and I. He wouldn’t even answer us. The ship was as silent as a grave to the last. Then the boilers fetched away, and down she went. Accident! Not it! The game was up, sir, I tell you.” This was all that Sterne had to say. Mr. Van Wyk had been of course made the guest of the club for a fortnight, and it was there that he met the lawyer in whose office had been signed the agreement between Massy and Captain Whalley. “Extraordinary old man,” he said. “He came into my office from nowhere in particular as you may say, with his five hundred pounds to place, and that engineer fellow following him anxiously. And now he is gone out a little inexplicably, just as he came. I could never understand him quite. There was no mystery at all about that Massy, eh? I wonder whether Whalley refused to leave the ship. It would have been foolish. He was blameless, as the court found.” Mr. Van Wyk had known him well, he said, and he could not believe in suicide. Such an act would not have been in character with what he knew of the man. “It is my opinion, too,” the lawyer agreed. The general theory was that the captain had remained too long on board trying to save something of importance. Perhaps the chart which would clear him, or else something of value in his cabin. The painter of the boat had come adrift of itself it was supposed. However, strange to say, some little time before that voyage poor Whalley had called in his office and had left with him a sealed envelope addressed to his daughter, to be forwarded to her in case of his death. Still it was nothing very unusual, especially in a man of his age. Mr. Van Wyk shook his head. Captain Whalley looked good for a hundred years. “Perfectly true,” assented the lawyer. “The old fellow looked as though he had come into the world full-grown and with that long beard. I could never, somehow, imagine him either younger or older—don’t you know. There was a sense of physical power about that man too. And perhaps that was the secret of that something peculiar in his person which struck everybody who came in contact with him. He looked indestructible by any ordinary means that put an
end to the rest of us. His deliberate, stately courtesy of manner was full of significance. It was as though he were certain of having plenty of time for everything. Yes, there was something indestructible about him; and the way he talked sometimes you might have thought he believed it himself. When he called on me last with that letter he wanted me to take charge of, he was not depressed at all. Perhaps a shade more deliberate in his talk and manner. Not depressed in the least. Had he a presentiment, I wonder? Perhaps! Still it seems a miserable end for such a striking figure.” “Oh yes! It was a miserable end,” Mr. Van Wyk said, with so much fervor that the lawyer looked up at him curiously; and afterwards, after parting with him, he remarked to an acquaintance— “Queer person that Dutch tobacco-planter from Batu Beru. Know anything of him?” “Heaps of money,” answered the bank manager. “I hear he’s going home by the next mail to form a company to take over his estates. Another tobacco district thrown open. He’s wise, I think. These good times won’t last for ever.” In the southern hemisphere Captain Whalley’s daughter had no presentiment of evil when she opened the envelope addressed to her in the lawyer’s handwriting. She had received it in the afternoon; all the boarders had gone out, her boys were at school, her husband sat upstairs in his big arm-chair with a book, thin-faced, wrapped up in rugs to the waist. The house was still, and the grayness of a cloudy day lay against the panes of three lofty windows. In a shabby dining-room, where a faint cold smell of dishes lingered all the year round, sitting at the end of a long table surrounded by many chairs pushed in with their backs close against the edge of the perpetually laid table-cloth, she read the opening sentence: “Most profound regret—painful duty—your father is no more—in accordance with his instructions—fatal casualty—consolation—no blame attached to his memory… .” Her face was thin, her temples a little sunk under the smooth bands of black hair, her lips remained resolutely compressed, while her dark eyes grew larger, till at last, with a low cry, she stood up, and instantly stooped to pick up another envelope which had slipped off her knees on to the floor. She tore it open, snatched out the inclosure… .
“My dearest child,” it said, “I am writing this while I am able yet to write legibly. I am trying hard to save for you all the money that is left; I have only kept it to serve you better. It is yours. It shall not be lost: it shall not be touched. There’s five hundred pounds. Of what I have earned I have kept nothing back till now. For the future, if I live, I must keep back some—a little—to bring me to you. I must come to you. I must see you once more. “It is hard to believe that you will ever look on these lines. God seems to have forgotten me. I want to see you—and yet death would be a greater favor. If you ever read these words, I charge you to begin by thanking a God merciful at last, for I shall be dead then, and it will be well. My dear, I am at the end of my tether.” The next paragraph began with the words: “My sight is going …” She read no more that day. The hand holding up the paper to her eyes fell slowly, and her slender figure in a plain black dress walked rigidly to the window. Her eyes were dry: no cry of sorrow or whisper of thanks went up to heaven from her lips. Life had been too hard, for all the efforts of his love. It had silenced her emotions. But for the first time in all these years its sting had departed, the carking care of poverty, the meanness of a hard struggle for bread. Even the image of her husband and of her children seemed to glide away from her into the gray twilight; it was her father’s face alone that she saw, as though he had come to see her, always quiet and big, as she had seen him last, but with something more august and tender in his aspect. She slipped his folded letter between the two buttons of her plain black bodice, and leaning her forehead against a window-pane remained there till dusk, perfectly motionless, giving him all the time she could spare. Gone! Was it possible? My God, was it possible! The blow had come softened by the spaces of the earth, by the years of absence. There had been whole days when she had not thought of him at all—had no time. But she had loved him, she felt she had loved him, after all.
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MECHANICAL FUNCTION OF LEFT ATRIUM IS IMPROVED WITH EPICARDIAL LIGATION OF LEFT ATRIAL APPENDAGE: INSIGHTS FROM LAFIT-LARIAT REGISTRY | Request PDF
Request PDF | On Apr 1, 2016, Muhammad Rizwan Afzal and others published MECHANICAL FUNCTION OF LEFT ATRIUM IS IMPROVED WITH EPICARDIAL LIGATION OF LEFT ATRIAL APPENDAGE: INSIGHTS FROM LAFIT-LARIAT REGISTRY | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
Conference Paper
MECHANICAL FUNCTION OF LEFT ATRIUM IS IMPROVED WITH EPICARDIAL LIGATION OF LEFT ATRIAL APPENDAGE: INSIGHTS FROM LAFIT-LARIAT REGISTRY
April 2016
Journal of the American College of Cardiology 67(13):726
DOI: 10.1016/S0735-1097(16)30727-6
Conference: Journal of the American College of Cardiology
Authors:
Muhammad Rizwan Afzal
Quanliang Shang
Full-text available
Mar 2019
Mengyun Qiao
Yuanyuan Wang
Floris F. Berendsen
Qian Tao
Purpose:
Atrial fibrillation (AF) originating from the left atrium (LA) and pulmonary veins (PVs) is the most prevalent cardiac electrophysiological disorder. Accurate segmentation and quantification of the LA chamber, PVs, and left atrial appendage (LAA) provides clinically important references for treatment of AF patients. The purpose of this work is to realize objective segmentation of the LA chamber, PVs, and LAA in an accurate and fully automated manner.
Methods:
In this work, we proposed a new approach, named joint-atlas-optimization, to segment the LA chamber, PVs, and LAA from magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) images. We formulated the segmentation as a single registration problem between the given image and all N atlas images, instead of N separate registration between the given image and an individual atlas image. Level sets was applied to refine the atlas-based segmentation. Using the publically available LA benchmark database, we compared the proposed joint-atlas-optimization approach to the conventional pairwise atlas approach and evaluated the segmentation performance in terms of Dice index and surface-to-surface (S2S) distance to the manual ground truth.
Results:
The proposed joint-atlas-optimization method showed systemically improved accuracy and robustness over the pairwise atlas approach. The Dice of LA segmentation using joint-atlas-optimization was 0.93 ± 0.04, compared to 0.91 ± 0.04 by the pairwise approach (P < 0.05). The mean S2S distance was 1.52 ± 0.58 mm, compared to 1.83 ± 0.75 mm (P < 0.05). In particular, it produced significantly improved segmentation accuracy of the LAA and PVs, the small distant part in LA geometry that is intrinsically difficult to segment using the conventional pairwise approach. The Dice of PVs segmentation was 0.69 ± 0.16, compared to 0.49 ± 0.15 (P < 0.001). The Dice of LAA segmentation was 0.91 ± 0.03, compared to 0.88 ± 0.05 (P < 0.01).
Conclusion:
The proposed joint-atlas optimization method can segment the complex LA geometry in a fully automated manner. Compared to the conventional atlas approach in a pairwise manner, our method improves the performance on small distal parts of LA, for example, PVs and LAA, the geometrical and quantitative assessment of which is clinically interesting.
Andreas Eicken
Sohrab Fratz
Konstantinos Marmagkiolis
John W. Lister
Atrioventricular conduction was studied in 14 patients. A bipolar electrode catheter was placed in the right atrium, and the heart rate was controlled by atrial pacing.Increases in the sinus heart rate were associated with decreases in atrioventricular conduction time. When the heart rate was increased by atrial pacing, there were progressive increases in atrioventricular conduction time. ... [Show full abstract] Exercise, isoproterenol and atropine shortened atrioventricular conduction time. In those cases where atrioventricular conduction block occurred during atrial pacing, there was a 1:1 atrioventricular response during exercise at the same paced heart rate. Stimuli which increase the rate of discharge of the sinus pacemaker also enhance atrioventricular conduction.It is concluded that there is a fine balance between heart rate and A-V conduction. When the heart rate is increased by neurohumoral stimuli, there is a corresponding enhancement of A-V conduction. When the heart rate is increased by artificial stimulation of the atria and neurohumoral effects are not altered, there is a progressive increase in conduction time and eventual blockage of conduction at the A-V nodal region.
An Unusual Case of Thyroid Hurtle Cell Carcinoma with Direct Extension to the Right Brachiocephalic...
The clinical behavior of various types of thyroid tumor have been much studied during the past several decades, and the histologic features, surgical management, and prognostic factors of follicular and papillary tumors in particular have been clarified to a considerable degree. On the other hand, there is still controversy concerning management of Hurtle cell tumor (HCT) of the thyroid. HCT is ... [Show full abstract] not a common disease, making it impossible to obtain sufficient clinical data at a single institution. It has been reported that all HCT are aggressive and should be treated as malignant tumors. It is believed that an accurate differential diagnosis can be made between cancer and adenoma on the basis of pathological studies. We describe a patient with HCT of the thyroid extending into the right atrium. To our knowledge, after a Medline search, this is the first such case in the medical literature. The interesting features are described, and the relevant literature is briefly reviewed.
Ablation of Focally Induced Atrial Fibrillation:
[Recurrent arrhythmias after catheter ablation of originally paroxysmal atrial fibrillation and resu...
The aim is a description of the recurrent arrhythmias after previous ablation of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (AF), and the results of a repeat catheter ablation.
A repeat ablation was performed in 76 patients (18 females, 54 +/- 11 years) in 96 procedures, which was 21% out of 362 patients, who had undergone the first ablation for a paroxysmal AF. The endpoints of the repeat ablation were ... [Show full abstract] re-isolation of the pulmonary veins (PV) and termination of a spontaneous or induced arrhythmia and restoration of a stable sinus rhythm (SR), and possibly achievement of noninducibility of any arrhythmia.
Clinical left atrial tachycardia (LAT) was present in 10 (13%) patients before the first, and in 5 (25%) patients before the second repeat ablation. Arrhythmia arising from an arrhythmogenic PV due to the conduction recovery into the left atrium (LA) was found in 50 (66%) patients during the first, and in 7 (35%) patients during the second repeat ablation. Arrhythmias, predominantly of the reentry mechanism and originating in the LA free wall, were found in 26 (34%), respectively 13 (65%) during the first or the second repeat ablation. All arrhythmias from PVs were terminated by a PV encircling ablation. Substrate-related arrhythmias were terminated by ablation except for 2 (3%) patients during the first and 3 (15%) patients during the second repeat ablation. Persistent AF was mainly terminated via conversion into a LAT. In these cases, the ablation sites leading to the SR restoration were, similarly to the primary LATs, located predominantly in the LA anterior wall. During the 22 +/- 13 months follow-up, 68 (89%) patients were free of AF, 54 (71%) patients off the antiarrhythmic drugs and 14 (18%) patients with the class I or III antiarrhythmic drugs.
AF associated with PV-LA re-connection dominated prior to the first repeat ablation, then the proportion of the substrate-related arrhythmias from the LA free wall increased. Clinical efficacy of the repeat ablation is high.
Dysfunction of the left atrium after cardioversion of atrial fibrillation
Case of the month. Left atrial myxoma
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Atrial fibrillation and sympathovagal balance in patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease
| https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299573286_MECHANICAL_FUNCTION_OF_LEFT_ATRIUM_IS_IMPROVED_WITH_EPICARDIAL_LIGATION_OF_LEFT_ATRIAL_APPENDAGE_INSIGHTS_FROM_LAFIT-LARIAT_REGISTRY |
A Republican Looks at Foreign Policy
Perspective is always difficult to apply to events of the day. Centuries hence, however, historians will surely conclude that this generation of Americans stood poised on a hinge of history. Beginning with the east European revolutions of 1989 the world has witnessed an astounding cataract of events, the triumphant culmination of forty years of steadfast alliance diplomacy.
From the anthology: Essays for the Presidency
< America's First Post-Cold War President A Democrat Looks at Foreign Policy >
A Republican Looks at Foreign Policy
President George H.W. Bush at the White House, August 29, 1990.
Gary Cameron / Reuters
Perspective is always difficult to apply to events of the day. Centuries hence, however, historians will surely conclude that this generation of Americans stood poised on a hinge of history. Beginning with the east European revolutions of 1989 the world has witnessed an astounding cataract of events, the triumphant culmination of forty years of steadfast alliance diplomacy.
America’s principal adversary, the once-formidable Soviet empire, has collapsed from without and within. Militarily the threat of sudden Muscovite aggression and of nuclear Armageddon has diminished to imperceptibility. Philosophically communism is in retreat, pell-mell. Economically the liberating logic of the free market has challenged the world’s remaining Marxist governments with contrasting models of such greater efficiency and opportunity that the demise of centralized-planning regimes is heralded, with only the time frame in doubt.
Through a strategy of economic development and political containment the United States and the community of free nations have achieved a more decisive victory over Bolshevism than could ever have been gained through war.
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Meanwhile only one short year ago in the Persian Gulf, President Bush assembled an unprecedented international coalition to uphold the rule of law. For the first time since Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal, an American president has defined his presidency with a theme—New World Order—developed in action (or more precisely, reaction) rather than as campaign sloganeering.
II
Absent stark Cold War contrasts, the challenge for American leadership in the decade ahead will be to chart a course that is inclusive, not exclusive, of perspectives developed beyond our shores. America must look to constructive internationalism; to Pacificism, rather than pacifism; to Atlanticism rather than mere alliance-ism; to leadership of the Americas, rather than insular America First-ism.
The politics of hard times at home, however, has led some in American public life to suggest myopically that Russian roulette be played with our economy and national security by retreating from larger world affairs. At a time when public frustration with Congress has never been higher, a legislative branch on trial has caused members to become overwrought with concern for political survival; courage and largeness of the human spirit are not hallmarks of a legislative body fighting to reestablish both public and self respect.
The consequence of the American people’s dwindling confidence in Congress is the potential breakdown not just of bipartisan but bi-institutional foreign policy. The demoralization of Congress has led to another Dullesque reappraisal of U.S. foreign policy, which is potentially most troubling in the area of commerce, where the Constitution gives the legislative branch a larger role than in state-to-state political relations.
The combination of political institutions in disrepute and an economy without growth has resulted in a dispirited civil polity, increased partisanship and pressure from the extremes of the political spectrum to play ostrich politics, to construct a Fortress America, to revive lost causes and lost illusions. However seductive, the lure of neo-isolationism—the dream of returning to relative economic autarky and somnolent continental security—appeals to the nostalgic instincts of the American public, much as do Norman Rockwell’s depictions of the American character.
The danger of this contemporary "America First" movement is neither its premise nor its romanticism, but its implications: that the United States has nothing left to gain from or contribute to international peace and prosperity; that America should be an observer rather than a leader of the world; that political ambition can best be advanced by manipulating parochial fears rather than enlarging the human horizon.
Key leaders in Congress, largely Democratic, continue to peddle a protectionist insularism that amounts to a gospel of retreat from progressive foreign policy values. Frustrated by a dozen years of Republican control of the White House, theirs is the easy wisdom of those without accountability, the irresponsibility of semi-permanent foreign policy opposition. Hence the vacillation implicit in the refusal to endorse the president’s approach to the Gulf War, and exasperated opportunism reflected in vehement anti-foreign aid pronouncements coupled simultaneously with criticism of the president for lacking the vision to present a forthcoming Soviet aid package. Hence also the hypocrisy of claiming to desire warmer, more respectful relations with Latin America while placing a series of delaying roadblocks in the paths of President Bush’s North American Free Trade Area proposal and of his debt forgiveness and debt-for-nature swap programs that, with his investment program, comprise the Enterprise for the Americas Initiative.
On the Republican right, protest candidate Patrick A. Buchanan defines himself more in the tradition of Father Coughlin than Robert Taft. Repudiating core tenets of Nixonian and Reaganite foreign policy, Buchanan mixes diplomatic disengagement, economic protection and appeals to a new American nativism into a political apostasy rooted more in the nineteenth-century anti-immigrant biases of the Know-Nothings than the Lincolnian model of societal sacrifice to broaden the scope of individual rights and social tolerance.
In foreign policy the twentieth-century Republican tradition includes Theodore Roosevelt’s brand of principled brigandage, Harding’s coolness to the League of Nations and Wendell Willkie’s "one worldism." In its history the G.O.P. has been isolationist and interventionist, unilateral and multilateral. Out of power, or at least outside the executive branch, it tends to intemperance. In power, in the last half century, with the possible exception of Reagan’s first term, it has been professional, prepared and progressive.
President Bush has had the good fortune to oversee and lead a world in transition. The thaw in East-West relations has precipitated the winding down or conclusion of a number of bloody regional conflicts—from Afghanistan to Angola to Cambodia to Nicaragua and, at long last, war-torn El Salvador. And, in the cauldron that is the Middle East, the United States has embarked on a high-risk strategy to facilitate a process that could lead to a comprehensive peace.
Writing in 1950, Reinhold Niebuhr noted that the price of survival was our ability to give leadership to the free world. Today the price of the prosperity of the free world still depends on our ability and willingness to lead. No other society has the capacity or inclination to light freedom’s lamp in quite the same way; nor is any other as capable of combining self-interest with a genuine historically rooted concern for others. For the United States to deny its transnational responsibilities and thwart the development of internationalist approaches to problem-solving is to jeopardize a future of peace and greater prosperity.
No principle of American foreign policy, no understanding of American history or the American people, no sober appreciation of the limits of our power or moral authority commends a Pax Americana. By the same token no prudent statesman, surveying the breadth of our international interests and responsibilities, could find security or virtue in a new isolationism.
III
Few issues are more important to our long-term national interest than the future of democracy and free enterprise in the former Soviet Union and former Soviet bloc. President Nixon was correct when he observed in March 1992 that concern for the fate of the political and economic reforms in Russia had been a casualty of the early presidential primaries.
It may be ironic that it was Nixon who staked out the moral high ground on such a crucial strategic issue (and doubly so that it was a former manipulator of wage and price controls who expressed such telling criticism of politicians in both parties for pandering to voters in an election year). Nevertheless, while the greatest unfought war in history may be won, peace remains elusive. Failure of the West to engage in helping alleviate the problems in the wake of communism’s demise carries as many liabilities today as failure to contain communist expansionism would have forty years ago.
Establishment thinking in Washington for much of the last decade centered on the dubious assumption that American interests were intertwined with those of Gorbachev and his commitment to preserve the Soviet Union. Gorbachev’s claim to historical significance cannot be denied—primarily because like Tokugawa Keiki, the last shogun of Japan, he chose to yield rather than confront popular sentiment with the force of arms. Yet the weakness of Gorbachev’s political mandate was revealed by the speed with which he, titular head of the world’s largest army and internal security force, went from being a leader without a constituency to almost irrelevant status as the former chief of state of a nonexistent country.
While startling and unexpected in its swiftness, the collapse of the Soviet empire is a historical turning point that Americans should understand more profoundly than any other society, because the self-determination asserted by the newly independent states is rooted in the principles of our Declaration of Independence.
Seldom has there been a more profound conjunction of American philosophy and American national interest than in the self-determination issues involved in the splintering of the Soviet state. Despite the fact that nuclear weapons management has become more complex and that irredentism and violent ethnic prejudices, repressed for almost three-quarters of a century, have resurfaced as if merely buried in a time capsule, the threat of dealing with 15 democratizing republics has to be considered less challenging to American national interests than that emanating from a single united despotic state. There simply could be no better safeguard for our national security than the development of a multiplicity of independent Eurasian governments accountable to free peoples.
Marx notwithstanding, the real opiate of the twentieth century is intolerance, the instinct for hatred that becomes manifest in the individual and is unleashed in society when governments fail to provide safeguards for human rights and fail to erect civilizing institutions adaptable to change and accountable to the people. As the old world order passes and a new one is experimented with, policymakers have an obligation to look beyond the balance-of-power politics to a new civil community. The wolf is still at the door in relations between states, between peoples of differing ethnic and religious composition, and among the economic have-nots of the globe.
The immediate challenge for America is to craft techniques that nurture democratic values and retard the prospect of regression to police-state controls and aggressive foreign policies on the Eurasian land mass. Winning peace is always less costly than waging war, but it is not cheap; nor in some instances is it easy to justify to political constituencies. Yet, as Washington well understands but not so well dares to explain to the public, little is more worrisome than punitive indifference, as the victors of World War I applied to Germany. Likewise, little in retrospect appears more successfully enlightened than the more generous approach taken toward the losers of World War II.
In the long run, free enterprise and trade are the only answers; in the short run, a modest amount of humanitarian, technical and international financial assistance to the former Soviet republics may be the cheapest national security insurance policy the United States can consider taking out. Direct U.S. aid ought to emphasize exchange programs, humanitarian assistance—principally food and medicine—and help in dismantlement of nuclear weapons systems. For economic development and financial assistance, the West should rely primarily on the three relevant multilateral institutions: the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the newly created European Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
The role of the multilateral institutions should be stressed for three reasons. First, reliance on international institutions implies shared rather than singular U.S. aid responsibility; our European allies and Japan will provide the majority of financial resources. Second, in addition to leveraging dollars, these institutions allow the West to leverage principles. Few governments are prone to bow to pressure for market-oriented reform coming from a single country. Many, however, will institute politically difficult reforms as prerequisites for IMF and World Bank support. Third, in most cases the international financial institutions make loans rather than grants and have a far better record of receiving repayment than any individual country. Indeed, in the 1980s the United States earned over $600 million a year through participation in IMF loans.
While Americans may differ on the role and composition of foreign aid, consensus should be obtainable on the notion that progressive change can most likely be institutionalized through expanded trade and investment ties. Aid without trade is a prescription for dependency, not self-sufficiency. Likewise aid without the development of a free-enterprise psychology and legal infrastructure will be of fleeting significance. Unless laws are developed that protect property and provide incentives for entrepreneurship, all of the newly established states of the former Soviet Union and erstwhile Soviet bloc will likely stagnate for decades with per capita GNP wallowing at the level of less developed countries. What the former socialist states need is a cultural reordering of attitudes toward the relation of the state and individual. This can only occur through the widest possible contact with the West, particularly America.
What the West must do is conjoin political and economic principles, emphasizing that democracy and free enterprise go hand in hand and that those states that move the most progressively in tandem are likely to be recipients of most public assistance as well as private investment. In this regard the non-Russian republics of the former Soviet Union should be singled out for sympathetic concern, with the new leaders of the Kremlin put on frank notice that efforts to thwart independence movements, whether in the Baltics, Ukraine or Georgia, will be looked on with political disfavor carrying negative trade and investment implications.
Social dislocation too often leads to scapegoats and easy solutions, to a search for a strong man, a Ukrainian Mussolini or a Russian Miloševic. Likewise the pace of reform itself may lead to disillusionment, like that expressed by Russian nihilist Dimitri Pisarev, who suggested in the mid-nineteenth century that a pair of boots was of more intrinsic human value than all the plays of Shakespeare. If communism is not simply to give way to nihilism, hope must be provided in democracy, market economics and trade.
The United States should not shy away from offering free trade agreements to the countries of east-central Europe and the Baltic. Such agreements would assure market access to the United States, stand as a beckoning incentive for foreign investment, counterbalance potential German dominance of the region and serve to undercut from behind any exterior trade walls the west Europeans might consider erecting.
IV
Nationalism may be an instrument for liberty. It may also be a harbinger of intolerance that must be vigilantly guarded against, especially in the part of Europe that has given birth to the two epochal conflicts of this century.
In Europe George Kennan’s historic policy of containment represented a near-war defined as a Cold War response to the aggressive tendencies of a powerful totalitarian adversary. Premised on that containment doctrine, NATO’s strategic policy and deterrence posture successfully thwarted any expansionist ambitions in Europe that may have been entertained by the Kremlin.
The very success of NATO ironically jeopardizes its future. But as new doctrines are considered care must be taken that NATO be sustained with a structure and a mission that provide security for the preservation of liberty in central and eastern Europe. While progressive winds continue to blow from behind the collapsed iron curtain, NATO must be prepared to deal with contingencies that may develop from a shift in these winds, accidental escalations or political misjudgments.
Unity based on common threat is easier to obtain than one based on common aspirations. The immediate challenges to NATO are likely to come more from within than without, from ethnic and nationalist discord and emerging parochialism on trade, with the resultant danger that a global trading system may collapse at precisely the moment when the peoples of east-central Europe need open markets most.
In 1944 Walter Lippmann coined the term "Atlantic Community" to convey America’s strategic interest in the successful postwar reconstruction of Europe. Almost fifty years later, and half a world away, it is time for the United States to help establish a "Pacific Community," to convey our political and economic interests in the Far East and in reawakening south Asia.
The linchpin of American policy in the Far East is our relationship with Japan. The good news in the relationship is that, despite a hiccup in 1991, the bilateral trade deficit continues to decline, and that at long last American business has begun to warm to the task of competing and winning in the difficult Japanese market. The bad news is that in tough economic times national moods take on an uglier, more pessimistic tone, manifested in Japan-bashing and, across the Pacific, in kenbei.
Yet despite the rising tension America and Japan continue to share a remarkable coincidence of interests. All the United States asked of Japan at the end of World War II was that it be democratic, oriented toward free enterprise and peaceful. The competitive concerns Americans evidence today stem from the Japanese heeding our advice too well rather than too little.
The United States and Japan represent 40 percent of the world economy; neither can allow trade disputes to poison this relationship. The best way to keep simmering tensions manageable is for the two countries to work together to defend and expand a free world trading system and for Japan, preferably of its own free will, without foreign pressure or gaiatsu, to become a model of free trade internally as well as an advocate of the same abroad.
If history is a guide protectionism belies its name. It provides job security for candidates, not workers. Just as, in Pogo’s terms, the enemy too often is us, in trade policy the enemy is politicians, usually one’s own. As the world moves from a half century of obsession with geopolitics to stress instead geoeconomics, the challenge for all peoples and all political systems is to avoid the easy trap of economic nationalism.
For America the trade issue for the last decade of the twentieth century is not so much figuring out what new arrows should be added to the bulging quiver of existing sanctions, it is in selecting the right marksman with the right judgment to understand when and where to aim, with the first concern being to avoid at all costs driving a shaft into the heart of the U.S. and world economy.
One of the lessons of the 1930s was that protectionist legislation, such as the Smoot-Hawley tariff, lengthened and deepened the Great Depression. By reverse logic, in recessionary times, promoting policies that impel the growth of international trade is likely to serve as an economic stimulant. Hence the importance of advancing the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and the negotiation of free trade agreements, first with Mexico and other Latin and east European countries, but eventually with the European Community and selected south Pacific and Asian countries.
V
Historically the strength of American foreign policy has been most evident when we have stood solidly for advancing abroad the principles and ideals upon which our society is based. Principles should not be sacrificed for shortsighted objectives or shortsighted leaders. In reflecting societal values no country should be more confident. After all, the philosophical taproot of the changes taking place in the world—from central Europe to the Baltic states, from Afghanistan to Tiananmen Square, from Nicaragua to South Africa—is a happy recognition that it is Jeffersonian democracy that provides the boldest and most humane model for political and economic organization in recorded history.
Conservative Republican thinking has two philosophical bedrocks. The first is a Burkean emphasis on respect for existing social structures: the assumption that for change to be effective it must be gradualist. The second, a Lockean emphasis on definable rights, is more radical and uncompromising.
President Bush in general is Burkean in temperament, emphasizing dialogue with the leadership in Moscow, Beijing and Pretoria, even when, for instance, a case might be made that in his Kiev speech of August 1991 he embraced Gorbachev beyond his due and his time.
Tiananmen produced stark challenges to conservative sensibilities about the rights of individuals. The president, however, has concluded that the maintenance of communication and trade not only advances short-term American interests on issues such as the Gulf War and peacekeeping in Cambodia, but in the long run bolsters the position in China of a Western-oriented entrepreneurial class that holds the best chance of promoting a regime more attuned to human rights concerns.
South Africa presents a similarly troubling philosophical dilemma for any conservative administration in Washington. While the first Republican presidency chose to risk war rather than compromise principles to end extremist apartheid—slavery—the last two Republican administrations have preferred to work with rather than against the government in Pretoria in an effort to help abolish apartheid in as civil and bloodless a way as possible. Fortunately, Washington has found in F. W. de Klerk an establishment leader heroically inclined to change and in Nelson Mandela a uniquely martyred aspirant. In competitive combination they give promise of an unusually civilized political phenomenon—evolutionary revolution.
VI
President Bush’s critics have frequently gibed at him for problems with "the vision thing." Episcopalian in attitude as well as religious conviction, Bush eschews philosophical and even policy articulation, emphasizing reasoned decision-making and good judgment as contrasted with philosophical explication.
The Dutch architect Mies van der Rohe developed a theory of architecture around simplicity of design and the observation that "less is more," that is, the cluttering of design with fixtures and flourishes too often represents imperfection. Likewise, less can sometimes be more in public policy. In a variant of Teddy Roosevelt’s "speak softly but carry a big stick" theme, President Bush’s approach appears to be to speak little, sometimes in a convoluted fashion—with the manner more than the substance of his comments inducing confidence that he leads an administration capable of crafting reasoned responses to challenges of the day.
Instinctively, Bush at his low-key best appears to be attempting to follow the advice of Thomas Paine that "moderation in temper is always a virtue; moderation in principle is always a vice." To the extent the president attempts to appeal in public pronouncements to wider constituencies, his higher charged patriotic rhetoric often shields a deep-seated internationalism.
If one American political party has been historically identified with the advocacy of collective security and the multilateral diplomacy it implies, it is the Democratic Party. Collective security was the watchword of Woodrow Wilson, who literally drove himself to death defending the principle against strident critics. Franklin Roosevelt, arguably the greatest president of this century, insisted that collective security principles be espoused in the Atlantic Charter, in authoritative statements of American war aims in World War II and ultimately in the Charter of the United Nations.
Yet today it is a Republican president who, in opposition to both the isolationist and go-it-alone interventionist themes that have ambivalently represented much of this century’s conservative tradition, is in the vanguard of constructive internationalism and credible collective security endeavors. Such is the implication of the extraordinary international coalition that Washington led in the Gulf War. Such is also the meaning of U.N.-sanctioned peacekeeping initiatives in Cambodia and Yugoslavia.
In a strategic sense, there have been three defining events in this century: World War I, World War II and the Cold War. The role of American soldiers and American military preparedness was crucial in winning each. Were it not for the American G.I., there would be no collective security. The only competition in the world today would be between the totalitarianism of the left and totalitarianism of the right. Europe would be freedom’s toxic dump. Either the Nazi or the Soviet jackboot would be the symbol of order. The land mass that produced Montesquieu and Locke, Beethoven and Descartes would find its libraries filled with the class conflict implications of Das Kapital and the hate-ridden dogma of Mein Kampf.
While it would be overly optimistic to conclude that the wars of this century were wars to end all wars, it would be overly pessimistic to fail to recognize the extraordinary opportunity presented to the United States to advance verifiable arms control and strengthen collective security arrangements.
Seldom has a benchmark policy been less theoretically defined, but it would appear that what President Bush is attempting to develop in his New World Order theme is the precedent that aggression will not be rewarded; that countries should be expected to follow core precepts of international law; that countries distant from areas of conflict should be prepared to contribute to the preservation of worldwide norms; that international institutions and multilateral arrangements will be used to the maximum in developing collective approaches to common concerns.
Some 39 years ago President Eisenhower proposed an initiative called Atoms for Peace, a plan for the United States and the Soviet Union to dedicate fissionable materials from dismantled nuclear warheads for peaceful uses. Given the current momentum on arms control, the timing could not be more propitious for Russia and the other Soviet successor states to work with the United States to ensure that weapons-grade materials will not become "loose nukes" or recycled back into other deadly warheads, but instead that their awesome destructive potential will be converted to humanitarian purposes.
The 21st century can be looked to with an understanding that what distinguishes this generation of citizens from all others is that we are the first to have the capacity not just to wage war, but to destroy civilization. As Einstein once noted, "The unleashed power of the atom has changed everything save our modes of thinking." If war is a constant of history, the greatest political science quandary of all time is how to develop techniques to make it obsolete.
Avoiding a nuclear exchange implies the need to pay greater attention to the causes of war, such as impoverishment, as well as to the development of instruments of war. To halt the scourge of nuclear proliferation, arms control on a global as well as regional basis is a self-evident societal imperative.
Erecting effective barriers to the spread of nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction demands that restraint be accepted by the United States as well as developing countries. The first business of a new world order should be negotiation of a comprehensive test ban. In addition the United Nations ought to be mandated to develop a more rigorous International Atomic Energy Agency inspection regime than has heretofore been contemplated, and to authorize appropriate sanctions for regimes like that of North Korea.
The time is also ripe for the United States and the world community to consider creating within the U.N. system an international criminal court or courts, to hold accountable international criminals who violate specific international conventions such as those related to terrorism, drug trafficking and crimes against the peace. Such a court system would be complementary to the International Court of Justice at the Hague, which exclusively adjudicates disputes between states. There could be no more appropriate potential defendants to proceedings of this nature than Pol Pot, Saddam Hussein and Abu Nidal.
Since one of the most effective antidotes to the irrationality of ancient enmity is the swift justice of the law, a turn (or in the case of the United States, return) to the compulsory jurisdiction of the World Court would appear to be one of the most appropriate and achievable objectives of the decades ahead.
Any credible post-Gulf War scenario for encouraging peace and stability in the Middle East must include unprecedented multilateral restraints on the transfer of advanced conventional arms. If there is any lesson of the gulf conflict it is that the West was responsible for the creation of the armed camp known as Iraq.
Nevertheless the triumph of collective security in the Persian Gulf gives hope that a new international order will be established, with the understanding that peacekeeping is peacemaking. As Winston Churchill observed in his famous Iron Curtain speech some 46 years ago, U.N. peacekeeping efforts to be effective require "sheriffs and constables."
With the United Nations finally beginning to function as its framers intended, it is time for the United States to lead in the creation of a modest U.N. rapid-deployment force. Logistical and certain intelligence capabilities could be shared with the United Nations by the member states, as Congress originally contemplated in the 1945 U.N. Participation Act, and by U.N. members as a whole by "special agreements" under Article 43 of the charter. Likewise either the moribund Military Staff Committee needs to be revived or a new system established.
There is an ambivalence, if not tension, in the American psyche between isolationism and internationalism, between hubristic leadership and team playing. Given the traumas of post-World War II interventions, the American people are reluctant to assume the lonely and costly role of policeman for the world. On the other hand, they accept as a credible obligation that the United States should play a significant part with others as international highway patrolman.
Finally, a note about this century as it is beginning to unfold into the next. The twentieth century, like those of all recorded history, has been marked by war. For the first time, however, mankind has come to contemplate reasons why war should become obsolete and rational approaches to ensuring that such a prospect becomes possible. The existence of weapons of mass destruction gives unprecedented and compelling reason to work to ensure that they not be employed. The creation of international institutions—most importantly the United Nations—the expansion of international law and the demonstrated will of the international community to participate in collective security arrangements give hope that the next century will be marked by a dramatic diminution of cross-boundary conflict.
The simplest, although most dangerous, part of the Cold War is over. Now the complicated work begins. If the nascent experiments in democracy and free enterprise collapse in the former Soviet Union and central Europe, the potential ramifications for the national security of the United States—in dollar costs for military preparedness and human costs due to unanticipated threats and conflicts—could be staggering.
The challenge of our time is to grasp the opportunity created by the end of the Cold War. If America leads wisely, new wells of creative energy can be opened up and mankind’s untapped productive potential released. The world can be enriched with a renaissance of the human spirit. If, on the other hand, America fails to secure the peace so many citizens have sacrificed so much to achieve, the mantle of 21st century leadership will pass to other less charitable societies and less liberal philosophies.
The weight of historical judgment is on our shoulders. As Dwight Eisenhower declared in his first inaugural address, "the faith we hold belongs not to us alone, but to the free of all the world."
| https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/1992-06-01/republican-looks-foreign-policy?fa_anthology=1113430 |
Refworld | Nations in Transit - Serbia [Serbia and Montenegro] (2006)
Refworld is the leading source of information necessary for taking quality decisions on refugee status. Refworld contains a vast collection of reports relating to situations in countries of origin, policy documents and positions, and documents relating to international and national legal frameworks. The information has been carefully selected and compiled from UNHCR's global network of field offices, Governments, international, regional and non-governmental organizations, academic institutions and judicial bodies.
Nations in Transit - Serbia [Serbia and Montenegro] (2006)
Publisher Freedom House Author Florian Bieber, Dejan Stjepanovic Publication Date 13 June 2006 Cite as Freedom House, Nations in Transit - Serbia [Serbia and Montenegro] (2006) , 13 June 2006, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/473aff3a50.html [accessed 1 June 2023] Disclaimer This is not a UNHCR publication. UNHCR is not responsible for, nor does it necessarily endorse, its content. Any views expressed are solely those of the author or publisher and do not necessarily reflect those of UNHCR, the United Nations or its Member States.
Capital:Belgrade Population:10,700,000 Status:Free PPP:$1,190 Private Sector as % of GNI:na Life Expectancy:73 Religious Groups:Orthodox (65 percent), Muslim (19 percent), Roman Catholic (4 percent), other (12 percent) Ethnic Groups:Serb (63 percent), Albanian (17 percent), Montenegrin (5 percent), Hungarian (3 percent), other (12 percent)
NIT Ratings 2006 Electoral Process 3.25 Civil Society 2.75 Independent Media 3.25 Judicial Framework and Independence 4.25 Corruption 4.75 Governance N/A National Democratic Governance 4.00 Local Democratic Governance 3.75 Democracy Score 3.71
Executive Summary
This report is associated with the reports on Montenegro and Kosovo.
In Nations in Transit 2006, Freedom House provides separate ratings for Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo in order to provide a clearer picture of processes and conditions in the three different administrative areas. Doing so does not indicate a position on the part of Freedom House regarding the territorial integrity of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro; neither does it indicate a position on Kosovo's future status.
Serbia's democratic transformation began much later than that of most other post-Communist countries, with the fall of the Slobodan Milosevic regime in October 2000. Democratization slowly resulted from elections won by the opposition and massive protests that forced the regime to accept the results. It was also a negotiated transition, with some members of the old regime supporting the opposition for the price of political protection. The legacy of the populist and nationalist Milosevic regime left deep ruts that continue to block transformation. The status of Kosovo, formally a province of Serbia but under international administration since 1999, allows nationalist mobilization and distracts from democratic reforms. The State Union, established by Serbia and Montenegro in 2003 under European Union (EU) mediation, succeeded the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which had de facto ceased to function. The State Union is also dysfunctional as a result of the different policy priorities of the two member states and strong support for independence by the Montenegrin authorities. Serbia has transformed itself dramatically since 2000, but economic interest groups formerly associated with the Milosevic regime, an insufficiently reformed security sector, and a lack of broad reforms based on political consensus continue to present obstacles to the state's democratic consolidation.
National Democratic Government.Serbia's constitutional environment remains problematic, with the dysfunctional State Union – whose charter is frequently broken by both member states and the authoritarian Serbian Constitution of 1990 – still in effect without any clear prospect for change. Few State Union institutions work effectively. The Parliament met only for ten sessions on altogether seven days in 2005, with sessions of the Council of Ministers similarly rare and the Court of Serbia and Montenegro, operating after a two-year delay, working with administrative support out of Belgrade rather than Podgorica as originally planned. The army lacks effective parliamentary oversight. In Serbia, the government has been weak and forced to negotiate laws with the Socialist Party of Serbia. The cohabitation of President Boris Tadic of the Democratic Party and Vojislav Kostunica of the Democratic Party of Serbia has also been difficult owing to a lack of previous cohabitation experience in Serbia and burdened relations between the parties. The Radical Party remains the strongest party according to opinion polls. As the constitutional charter remains largely a legal fiction and no new Serbian Constitution has been passed, no improvement is detectable. The Radical Party, which has strong populist, nationalist, and authoritarian traits, continues to be strong and shows no substantial signs of moderating. Thus, the rating remains at 4.00.
Electoral Process.No major national elections were held in 2005. Elections for the State Union Parliament planned for March 2005 were postponed owing to Montenegro's opposition and will only be held in conjunction with the next parliamentary elections in either Serbia or Montenegro, if at all. The legitimacy of the government and the Parliament in Serbia has been seriously undermined by a number of members of Parliament (MPs) switching political parties. The current legislation prevents parties from expelling these MPs from the Parliament but opens the door to parties "buying" MPs or MPs blackmailing their party. Owing to the attempts by parties to increase their number of deputies in the Parliament through potentially dubious means and the overall lack of progress to amend the constitutional charter and other framework for electoral process, Serbia's rating remains at 3.25.
Civil Society.In 2005, the government proposed new legislation to regulate the work of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Although the law has some problems, it is considerably less restrictive than existing laws from the Socialist period. The introduction of the value-added tax (VAT), on the other hand, constitutes a financial burden on many NGOs, as only humanitarian aid is exempt. Relations between the government and NGOs have not improved significantly, although some ministries have been more willing to consider NGO advice. Some government members, MPs, and the head of the intelligence agency have attacked NGOs for their work and their supposed threat to national interest. Furthermore, sensationalist media and nationalist groups frequently attack NGOs. Government, media, and society remain hostile to civil society, which came under heavy attack in 2005. The initiative to amend NGO legislation constitutes a positive step. The law was not passed by year's end, but results may be seen in 2006. Therefore, Serbia's rating for civil society remains at 2.75.
Independent Media.After years of a chaotic media sector, the government made more serious attempts to regulate electronic media in 2005. These include initiating the privatization (to be completed by 2007) of local and national media other than the public broadcaster, preparing the licensing of statewide private TV and radio (due in 2006), and the first steps toward transforming state-run Radio Television Serbia into a public broadcaster. These measures are tentative, and criticism over the composition of the main supervisory organ, the Broadcasting Council, remains strong. Another key reform passed in 2005 was the decriminalization of slander in the new criminal code. At the same time, hate speech is not prosecuted, despite existing laws and daily occurrences in the nationalist and sensationalist media. Although many institutions continue to withhold information and do not live up to their legal obligations under the Law on Freedom of Information, requests submitted from citizens and responses from institutions about monitoring the law may mark the beginning of a phase of improved implementation. Serbia's independent media rating remains at 3.25, because even though the law decriminalizing slander was passed, a real change in policy remains to be seen, the beginning of reforms in the electronic media sector is tentative, and the response to last year's promising Law on Freedom of Information has been slow.
Local Democratic Governance.In 2005, the weakness of the 2002 Law on Local Government became visible with the power struggle between municipal presidents and municipal assemblies in numerous municipalities, both elected democratically in 2004. The ensuing stalemate has led to paralysis in many municipalities, referendums on recalling mayors, and new municipal elections. Furthermore, Prime Minister Kostunica has rejected any additional steps toward decentralization prior to the enactment of a new Constitution. The lack of progress in fiscal decentralization and the deadlock in municipalities following the 2004 elections maintain Serbia's rating for local democratic governance at 3.75.
Judicial Framework and Independence.The EU feasibility study from April 2005 called the judiciary the main weakness in Serbia's transformation. Despite some legal reforms, including the legal framework for witness protection and a new criminal code, the appointment of judges and prosecutors remains susceptible to political pressure, and corruption is ever present. However, positive steps from 2005 included the national courts' increased cooperation with the ICTY by surrendering 16 indicted war criminals and rendering guilty verdicts in war crimes cases. Furthermore, trials concerning the assassination of former Serbian president Ivan Stambolic and the attempt on the life of Vuk Draskovic, former opposition leader and current minister of foreign affairs were concluded with guilty verdicts in 2005, suggesting that special courts are generally able to try such serious crimes. Nevertheless, the ICTY repeatedly noted the need for further cooperation regarding both the arrest of Ratko Mladic (former commander of the Bosnian Serb army and wanted for war crimes during the war in Bosnia-Herzegovina), and access to information for Serbia and Montenegro to fully cooperate with the tribunal. Serbia's rating for judicial framework and independence remains at 4.25. Improved cooperation with the ICTY and domestic courts' handling of serious crimes indicate positive steps taken in 2005 that may yield results in 2006. The overall framework remains politicized and prone to corruption and misuse by organized crime.
Corruption.Corruption remains a problem in Serbia, though 2005 brought some formal improvements through legislation, criminalizing some instances of corruption in the new criminal code, and ratification of the UN Convention Against Corruption. Furthermore, the Parliament approved a strategy against corruption that will result in action plans and a new anticorruption institution. At the same time, however, the government has made no visible efforts to combat corruption. No cases from previous years have been cleared, nor have new corruption scandals resulted in high-visibility legal cases. In particular, the government continues to ignore the work and investigations of the Council for the Fight Against Corruption. Despite the absence of substantial real-life changes, Serbia's corruption rating improves from 5.00 to 4.75 owing to improvements in the legal framework.
Outlook for 2006.The State Union of Serbia and Montenegro is fragile and may dissolve in 2006 with Montenegro's referendum on independence, expected in May. The possible independence of Montenegro is unlikely to result in a political crisis in Serbia. However, it will involve the government and ministries in negotiating the terms of the dissolution of the State Union and the restructuring of state institutions, in particular the army and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The advanced human rights protection afforded by the State Union's constitutional charter would have to be replaced by adequate protection in Serbia itself.
The other main territorial issue that will dominate 2006 is the status of Kosovo. The final status will be unlikely to resemble the demands of the Serbian authorities, which offered "less than independence and more than autonomy" and categorically excluded the option of independence. Consequently, there is a serious risk of setback for reforms in Serbia. Most citizens prefer that Kosovo remain part of Serbia or the State Union, but there is widespread recognition that such an outcome might be unattainable.
Although the government lacks a minority and the governing parties have seen their popularity shrink, the opposition Serb Radical Party and the Democratic Party are unlikely to seek early elections as long as Kosovo's status remains unresolved. The status question and the question of a new Constitution, a perennial debate since 2000, are likely to overshadow other reform efforts. Significant developments can be expected in media restructuring and reform laws. Serbia (and/or Montenegro) seeks to conclude negotiations for a Stabilization and Association Agreement in 2006 to move closer toward EU integration. However, the rapid conclusion of these negotiations is partially contingent on the status of the State Union.
The growing pressure of the EU and other international organizations to arrest Ratko Mladic, together with Radovan Karadzic, the highest-ranking indicted war criminals still at large, will impact other reform efforts. In particular, continued negotiations on the Stabilization and Association Agreement are dependent on the arrest of Mladic. Domestically, the arrest is unlikely to destabilize the government or result in mass mobilization against democratic reforms.
Electoral Process (Score: 3.25)
Deep divisions among the reform-oriented parties and the continued strength of the extreme nationalist SRS continue to mar the Serbian party system. Currently, the state is governed by a coalition of the DSS, SPO, NS, and G17+, with strong opposition from the DS and the SRS. The DS and the governing parties share the goal of democratic reform and European integration but vary on the pace and degree. The strongest party in the Parliament and according to all opinion polls, however, remains the SRS, which is rhetorically committed to democracy but displays authoritarian traits and has subordinated European integration to extreme nationalism and social populism. The PSS similarly thrives on social populism while clearly pursuing the economic interests of its founder, business tycoon Bogoljub Karic.
In terms of support, surveys in 2005 indicate two strong parties, the DS and the SRS, each commanding a quarter to a third of voters, with the governing parties and the PSS together receiving the remaining support. This division indicates a slim majority for democratically oriented parties. Combined with repeated conflicts between Kostunica and President Tadic (although less than between the DS and the DSS earlier), these conditions make a broad coalition of democratic parties difficult to achieve and block the stabilization of the party system. In late 2005, the liberal democratic faction of the DS officially left the party and formed the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) under the leadership of Cedomir Jovanovic, a former deputy prime minister and deputy president of the DS. The party has a strong pro-European orientation and supports a clear break with the past, but owing to its radical, reformist position, it is unlikely to enjoy broad support.
With the election of Boris Tadic in June 2004, all key offices in Serbia were filled with democratically elected officials. After a decade of massive electoral fraud, heavy-handed intervention against political opponents, and limited freedom of the media during the 1990s, elections since 2000 have been free and fair, with few (if any) irregularities. Serbia has faced frequent elections since 2000, including six ballots for the Serbian president from 2002 to 2004 alone – the first four attempts failed because of low turnout. After a string of national elections, the only polls in 2005 were municipal elections.
The key event in terms of electoral process was an election that did not take place. The mandate of indirectly elected deputies to the State Union was to expire in March 2005, two years after the creation of the State Union, paving the way for direct elections. The Montenegrin government's refusal to enact a law on electing MPs to the State Union Parliament made such elections impossible and led to negotiations between Serbia and Montenegro, mediated by the EU, on amending the constitutional charter. As a compromise, the constitutional charter was amended in June 2005 to extend the mandate of the current deputies.
Another key discussion involved changing the electoral law to prevent MPs from leaving the parties on whose lists they were elected. Nearly every parliamentary group, except for the DSS and the SPS, has lost MPs since the December 2003 elections. According to a 2003 Constitutional Court decision, the mandate belongs to the MP, not to his or her party, but the matter is still being argued in the courts. These major shifts of party allegiance continue to throw the legitimacy of the current Parliament into question and raise suspicions over bribes paid to some MPs for their allegiance. Considering the narrow basis of support for the minority government in the first place, this party hopping constitutes a serious threat to government stability.
Although the State Union Charter on Human and Minority Rights and Civil Liberties grants minorities the right "to a certain number of seats in the Assembly of Member States and in the Assembly of the State Union," there are no MPs from national minorities in the State Union Parliament and only a few, elected on general party lists, in the Serbian Parliament. To remedy this serious underrepresentation, the Parliament amended the election legislation in February 2004, eliminating the 5 percent threshold. Nevertheless, owing to the small size of these communities, most parties of minorities (except Hungarians and Bosniaks) will not be represented in the Parliament.
Civil Society (Score: 2.75)
The number of active NGOs in Serbia is not officially documented, but between 1991 and 2005,8, 476 legal entities and citizens' associations were registered. The Center for the Development of the Nonprofit Sector Directory of NGOs lists 2,278 NGOs in Serbia and Montenegro. According to a study by the NGO Civic Initiatives, around 1,000 NGOs were active in Serbia in December 2004. Most NGOs are located in Belgrade (30 percent of all NGOs in Serbia and Montenegro). In a survey by Civic Initiatives of 516 NGOs, 23.6 percent were active in the areas of culture, education, and the environment; 17.8 percent are involved in social and humanitarian work; 15.9 percent focus on youth or the economy or are professional associations; 14.7 percent work on developing civil society; and the largest share of NGOs, 27.9 percent, deal with human rights.
After years of delay, the Ministry for Public Administration and Local Self-Government presented a draft Law on Associations in November 2005. This step to improve the legal and social standing of civil society has been welcomed by international organizations and NGOs in Serbia. The draft law advances the existing legal framework, and associations would no longer be required to register. Furthermore, the new law would lower the number of required founders from 10 to 3 (with only 1 required to reside in Serbia). The draft law would also regulate the registration of foreign-based associations in Serbia, which formerly required notification of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the State Union. The Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia has criticized the draft law as being too vague and overregulating and containing problematic regulations regarding property.
Currently, NGOs can be registered either at the Serbia level or by the State Union, leading to both an inadequate and confusing legal situation for NGOs. Both the Law on Civic Associations of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Law on Social and Civic Associations date from the Socialist period.
NGOs, especially those active in the field of human rights and reconciliation, continue to be the target of nationalist and extremist political parties and movements. Furthermore, the government and parliamentarians have attacked NGOs. The head of the intelligence agency BIA, Rade Bulatovic, declared that the agency was monitoring the work of NGOs. The conservative orientation of the government has thus cooled relations with NGOs since 2003. NGO advocacy efforts have been limited, although the adoption of the Law on Freedom of Information can be seen as one of their successes. Altogether, however, NGOs have been weak in clearly formulating policies, and think tanks remain ineffective.
Most NGOs continue to view the civil society climate in Serbia as unfavorable, although there has been an increase of contacts with both government, in particular local government, and business. According to the Civic Initiatives survey, businesses have had contact with some 61 percent of NGOs, primarily as donors. Still, most NGOs find themselves in a precarious financial situation. The average NGO budget was €56,000 (US$ 70,000) in 2004, but nearly half of all NGOs have a budget of less than €5,000, meaning there are a few large NGOs that financially dominate civil society. Foreign donors continue to be the largest single source of support, accounting for 47 percent of all funds, while governments account for 14 percent and businesses 9 percent. Although this constitutes a slight upturn in domestic funding since 2002, the shift is marginal and indicates the continued importance of foreign donations.
Skinhead groups and other radical organizations continue to be active in Serbia, including events denying war crimes, such as the public discussion at the Faculty of Law of the University of Belgrade in May 2005 entitled "The Truth About Srebrenica." More frequently, nationalist media and extremist groups threatened or attacked human rights NGOs and independent media. Sonja Biserko, head of the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia, has been accused of spying and being an enemy to the Serb people; the tabloids, which spearheaded the accusations, subsequently published her private residential mailing address. The police and judicial response has been muted. In November 2005, the neo-Nazi group National Machine attacked participants at a public debate on the Fascist threat in Novi Sad. For the first time, such an incident triggered a strong state response, with police arresting members of the group and authorities publishing a list of neo-Nazi and Fascist groups, paving the way for more effective prosecution of hate speech and crimes.
As in other transition countries, the role of trade unions has been weak. Only a third of all employees are members of a trade union, according to a CeSID suvey. In general, trade unions have a disproportionate number of older members and tend to have more workers from the state sector than average. The two largest trade unions are the Confederation of Autonomous Trade Unions (SSSS; 850,000 members) and Nezavisnost (Independence; 180,000 members), together incorporating some 80 percent of organized labor. Nezavisnost and the smaller Association of Free and Independent Trade Unions (ASNS) split during the 1990s from the SSSS, which was controlled by the Milosevic regime. The SSSS still enjoys more support from conservative and nationalist party members, while the ASNS is more closely affiliated with reformist parties.
Both trade unions often disagree on strategy and view each other with suspicion, weakening their effectiveness. Government has played on this weakness to further strengthen the ASNS at the expense of the other unions. Although the Kostunica government made a greater commitment to job protection than the Djindjic government, relations with trade unions have worsened since the government took office. The head of Nezavisnost, Branislav Canak, has accused Kostunica of breaking previous agreements.
The significance of trade unions has been decreasing owing to fragmentation and a lack of organized labor in the growing private sector. The main body of tripartite dialogue, the Social-Economic Council, established in 2001, remains dysfunctional. Furthermore, trade unions continue to rely on government intervention or dialogue rather than engaging directly with companies. As a result, trade union concerns are often excessively politicized.
Reforms continue in the education system, although at a slower pace than in the initial post-Milosevic years. In 2004, Ljiljana Colic, the first minister of education of the Kostunica government, was forced to resign after proposing restricted use of Darwin's theory of evolution, English as a foreign language, and computers. The new minister, Slobodan Vuksanovic, has been less erratic and resumed the reform agenda. The Law on Higher Education was adopted on August 2005, but higher education lags significantly behind European standards, according to a 2005 survey for European ministers of education concerning the implementation of the Bologna Process. Political influence remains strong, in particular in the highly politicized University of Pristina with its seat in the northern Kosovo town of Mitrovica.
Independent Media (Score: 3.25)
Serbian media are underregulated, and the number of outlets far exceeds commercial viability. In addition to numerous statewide newspapers, magazines, and TV stations, there are hundreds of local electronic and print media, often controlled by local governments. As a recent report by the Open Society Institute details, electronic outlets dominate the Serbian media scene, which has one of the lowest rates of daily newspapers sold per capita in Europe (less than 1 percent). The legacy of government control and intervention remains strong, despite a decline.
Local media independence remains precarious. Controlled by local government, many media underwent purges following the local elections in October 2004. In particular, some municipal administrations controlled by the SRS removed critical journalists from their jobs in local media. Some journalists also faced threats and physical attacks. Independent media, such as the TV and radio station B92, have received bomb threats and graffiti. Local media have also been attacked for critical reporting on local politicians or their supporters. For example, in the city of Vranje, members of the municipal council have repeatedly attacked independent media.
Government members also threaten and demean media. In particular, the minister for capital investments, Velimir Ilic, has repeatedly harassed B92. In one instance, he called journalists mentally ill, and his spokesperson threatened to kill the director of B92. This was not an isolated incident but rather part of a long string of abuse by Ilic toward the media. Furthermore, despite criticism from international and local NGOs and organizations, the government has either not responded or done so in a muted manner.
Sensationalist tabloids continue to dominate print media in Serbia. This style draws on nationalist resentments. Tabloids report "scandals" without serious evidence, generally to the discredit of the political system. In 2005, the largest tabloid was Vecernje Novosti (270,000 copies), followed by Kurir (225,000 copies). Smaller tabloids, such as Srpski Nacional and Start, are often more radical and short-lived. More moderate tabloids include Blic (165,000 copies) and Glas Javnosti (18,000 copies). The main, quality dailies command a considerably lower print run. The largest, Politika (150,000 copies), which is partially owned by the German WAZ group, is followed by the liberal Danas (20,000 copies) and the regional daily from Vojvodina, Dnevnik (20,000 copies). The main weeklies include the political magazines Vreme (liberal) and NIN (conservative) and a number of more sensationalist publications, such as Nedeljni Telegraf or Evropa.
In addition to commercial interests, sensationalist media have been accused of close links to organized crime, war criminals, and the secret service. During the 2003 state of emergency, the weekly Identitet and daily Nacional (precursor to Srpski Nacional) were shut down – the former because of links to organized crime and the latter for breaking state of emergency regulations.
An ongoing controversy has surrounded the transformation of the state television part of Radio Television Serbia (RTS), and state radio into public broadcasting outlets and the regulation of electronic media, which have been operating without a clear legal framework. The 2002 Law on Broadcasting and its implementation are criticized by the independent media. The law establishes an agency for broadcasting, headed by an alleged politically independent Broadcasting Council. An amendment to the law, criticized by Independent Journalists' Association of Serbia (IJAS), the Association of Independent Electronic Media (ANEM), and opposition parties in the Parliament, extended the deadline for privatization of state-run media until late 2007 and introduced new terms for the members of the Broadcasting Council, already criticized for being too susceptible to political pressure. The OSCE also commented on the lack of consultation with stakeholders and the absence of a clear term of service for Broadcasting Council members.
The agency is responsible for the transformation of state television into a public broadcaster, the privatization of local state-owned media, and the allocation of frequencies to private broadcasters. A draft strategy adopted by the council foresees licensing five nationwide private TV and radio broadcasters by tender in 2006. It is anticipated that B92, BKTV, and Pink will be among them. These three stations are the most successful in Serbia, with B92 renowned for its opposition to the Milosevic regime. Although more commercial in recent years, it continues to advocate for a reckoning with the past and other unpopular topics. BKTV is owned by business tycoon and politician Bogoljub Karic, who aggressively promotes himself in the television news. In December 2005, Karic announced the impending sale of the station to avoid a conflict of interest. Whether such a move will result in less biased reporting remains to be seen. Pink is owned by another controversial businessman, Zeljko Mitrovic. Both Mitrovic and Karic have been close to the Milosevic regime and family and were able to establish their stations because of their ties to the regime. Pink has subsequently shifted its support to the DS and successfully expanded to Montenegro and Bosnia-Herzegovina.
The draft Law on Broadcasting introduces monthly subscription fees for all households in Serbia in order to transform the RTS into a financially independent public broadcaster. The mandatory monthly fee of 300 dinar (about US$5), which began in late 2005, has been widely criticized and has led to doubts that the RTS will become genuinely independent. The current director of the RTS, Aleksandar Tijanic, has professionalized the station but has been severely criticized by NGOs for his links to the ruling DSS, his political past (including a brief post as minister for information under Milosevic), and his verbal attacks on independent media.
The Broadcasting Council, in addition to licensing and public broadcasting, began the delayed process of privatizing state-owned media other than the public broadcaster. According to the original law, this should have been completed in 2005, but it was not. As of October 2005, the state still owned 150 media, including 14 print media, 23 mixed print and electronic media, and 100 electronic media, most of them local. Although local media privatization is widely called for by international organizations, there is an already demonstrated risk that private owners will cancel noncommercially viable, minority-language programming. In Vojvodina, the assembly transferred ownership of minority-language media to the minority national councils, which raises concerns about the capacity of councils to manage media and the dominance of political parties that threatens minority council independence.
Although Serbian statutes, including the 2003 Law on Public Information, prohibit hate speech, such breaches are not prosecuted. Furthermore, there have been no court rulings penalizing the media for hate speech, despite frequent occurrences. During the debates on a new draft criminal code, NGOs, international organizations, and media associations criticized plans to keep libel and defamation a criminal offense, with suspended prison sentences of up to six months and high fines. The final version of the new criminal code, passed in September 2005, decriminalized libel. Thus, by January 1,2006, libel and emotional distress will be punishable only by financial penalties or jail sentences of up to six months. According to the Independent Journalists Association, some 300 journalists face charges for libel or emotional distress; in many cases, these journalists are associated with liberal and independent media rather than tabloids. Many cases either date back to the Milosevic era or are based on reports linking public figures to the Milosevic regime. In one case, a local journalist received a one-year suspended prison sentence for reporting about links between a businessman and the Milosevic family.
The importance of the Internet is increasing steadily. By late 2005, Serbia had 1 million Internet users, reaching 13.3 percent of the population (minus Kosovo). According to a 2005 survey by Telekom Srbija and CESID, around 300,000 citizens spent at least one hour on the Internet daily. The legal framework does not restrict the use of the Internet, but the new criminal code introduces cybercrime as a category. The Internet has become more accessible through new technologies (cable, ADSL) and falling prices. Formally, the monopoly of Telekom Srbija, the state-run telecommunications company, was ended in 2005, but no alternative companies have yet emerged.
Judicial Framework and Independence (Score: 4.25)
Serbia continues to have a weak, underfunded, and poorly trained judiciary, making it susceptible to political pressure and corruption. As the European Commission noted in its Serbia and Montenegro 2005 Progress Report, the appointment of the judiciary remains politicized, and it has little impact on its own resources, which are determined by the Ministry of Justice. Slow work resulting in backlogs, with some court cases taking more than 10 years, continues to be a serious problem.
After several years' delay, the Court of Serbia and Montenegro – the only State Union court – began operations in 2005. The court assesses whether member state legislation is in harmony with the Constitutional Charter of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. Originally planned in Podgorica, the court has provisionally operated in Belgrade with funding from Serbia and without much technical support. By November 2005, the court had resolved 350 out of the more than 1,000 cases inherited from its predecessors of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The European Commission notes in its Serbia and Montenegro 2005 Progress Report that compliance with court rulings remains in doubt owing to the contested nature of the State Union.
The ministry prepared a National Strategy for Judiciary Reform in 2004, but the Council of Europe found this strategy not to be in line with international standards. Nevertheless, the strategy has been adopted, though it was not discussed in the Parliament or publicly. In March 2005, the Ministry of Justice attempted to assign the power to propose and dismiss candidates for the position of court president to the Court Administration Council, a state-controlled body, but the Supreme Court declared the move unconstitutional. Another weakness of the current judicial system is the training system. The current system has partially changed through a series of amendments passed in July 2005.
An important reform law passed in 2005 has been the adoption of a witness protection plan, key for combating organized crime. Furthermore, the Parliament passed a new criminal code in September, reformed the outdated law, and recognized previously neglected crimes, such as war crimes and money laundering. In addition, a new Law on Police, passed in November 2005, reorganized the police force and introduced more democratic principles. In terms of human rights statutes, the main problems arise from either their inadequate implementation or legal shortcomings. Although Serbia and Montenegro have committed to all key human rights instruments, the State Union still lacks comprehensive antidiscrimination legislation establishing procedures and penalties.
The State Union Charter on Human and Minority Rights and Civil Liberties and the 2002 federal Law on National Minorities protect minority rights at the general level. In practice, this legal framework has not been implemented effectively through regulations and detailed legislation. Minority rights, such as the use of minority languages, remain inadequately protected in central Serbia. The National Minority Councils, a form of minority self-government, received more budgetary support in 2005 but lacks the legal competences to effectively represent minority interests. The Republican Council of National Minorities, an ad hoc body established by the prime minister in 2004, brings together the National Minority Councils and relevant resource ministries but has had limited impact on advancing minority rights.
In 2004, a series of ethnically motivated incidents against minorities took place in Vojvodina, including graffiti, damage to churches, threats, and fights. Additionally, there were attacks against Albanians, Muslims, and Ashkali (Roma from Kosovo) following anti-Serb violence in Kosovo in March 2004. Originally, police and prosecutors were mostly passive, and the Serbian government failed to take the incident seriously. Following growing international pressure, especially from Hungary, the government and police took a more proactive approach in late 2004, leading to a sharp drop in incidents in 2005. Nevertheless, criminal prosecution of these incidents remains a problem. In July 2005, a court in Nis sentenced participants in the 2004 burning of a mosque with great leniency: One person received a five-month jail sentence, seven were sentenced to three months each, and two were freed. The Muslim community and several human rights NGOs criticized the sentences.
Corruption remains a potent problem within the judiciary. According to a 2005 survey among lawyers by the Center for Liberal-Democratic Study, 39 percent believe that a majority of court employees are involved in corruption. Bribes are paid to delay court cases and to secure favorable outcomes. Such bribes were used particularly by organized crime to stop investigations or secure the release of members. In a high-profile case, a Supreme Court judge and a deputy special prosecutor were arrested for taking bribes from organized crime.
There is also evidence of the continued political abuse of courts and the judiciary. A case against Marko Milosevic, the son of Slobodan Milosevic, was dropped, and the Interpol arrest warrant for Slobodan Milosevic's wife, Mira Markovic, was temporarily suspended. The suspicious circumstances in both cases led commentators and NGOs to suggest that these developments involved political support from the SPS. In September 2005, Vladan Batic, former minister of justice and prominent critic of the government, was arrested for allegedly supporting the release of a member of a criminal group in 2003 but was released 48 hours later uncharged, suggesting the arrest was politically motivated.
The trial against those charged with the murder of former prime minister Zoran Djindjic in 2003 continued in 2005. Two related trials – for the murder in 2000 of former Serbian president Ivan Stambolic and the 1999 assassination attempt on Vuk Draskovic – resulted in guilty verdicts in 2005, establishing the previous regime's clear legal responsibility for seeking to kill political opponents. The main suspect in the Djindic trial, Milorad Ulemek, was sentenced to 15 and 40 years, respectively, for his role in both plots, whereas Rade Markovic, former head of the DB under Milosevic, was sentenced to 10 and 15 years. In addition, a number of other officials from the Unit for Special Operations and the DB and the former head of Yugoslav customs were sentenced to prison terms. Despite these advances, there is a general unwillingness to fully confront the legacy of the Milosevic regime, indicated by the lack of implementation of the 2003 lustration legislation.
A long-standing obstacle to ensuring the rule of law in Serbia has been the lack of cooperation with the ICTY. Kostunica repeatedly noted his opposition to the ICTY and indicated that his government would not cooperate with the tribunal. Nevertheless, the Kostunica government has made more progress in 2005 toward cooperating with the tribunal than any previous government. The Kostunica government pursued the strategy of convincing indicted war criminals to "surrender voluntarily." For this purpose, the government provided funds for the family of the surrendering indicted and generally portrayed surrender as a "patriotic duty."
As one of the first of a series of surrenders, Vladimir Lazarevic, a former general accused of war crimes in Kosovo, was met by the prime minister and the patriarch of the Serbian Orthodox Church and received a car from the mayor of Nis. Altogether, some 16 indicted persons surrendered between October 2004 and late 2005. The circumstances of some surrenders calls into question their voluntary nature, suggesting government pressure on at-large war criminals. Nonetheless, the two most important indicted war criminals, Radovan Karadzic and Ratko Mladic – the latter believed to be hiding in Serbia – remain at large and continue to frustrate the situation, as does the reluctance of Serbian authorities to openly provide the tribunal with full documentation on war crimes cases.
In July 2005, four members of a paramilitary group were sentenced to 15 to 20 years in prison for the murder of 16 Muslims from Sandzak during the Bosnian war in 1992. Another key domestic war crimes trial that was concluded in December 2005 concerned the murder of Croatian civilians killed in 1991 by Serb soldiers and paramilitaries on a farm close to the city of Vukovar. Eight soldiers received maximum sentences of 20 years each, six received lower jail terms of 5 to 15 years, and two were found not guilty. Human rights organizations welcomed the verdicts as a breakthrough in the domestic prosecution of war crimes. In October 2004, the ICTY transferred the first case to the special war crimes court in Serbia. However, in July 2005 the ICTY rejected moving a case against army officers Miroslav Radic, Veselin Sljivancanin, and Mile Mrksic to either Croatia or Serbia, considering the countries unprepared for high-level war crimes cases.
A turning point in the public perception of war crimes was the release of a video showing members of the Serb paramilitary unit Scorpions killing six Muslim men and boys from Srebrenica. The video, originally shown at the ICTY, was broadcast in Serbia on state television in June 2005. The brutality of the crime and the blessing by a Serb Orthodox priest as part of the video brought home the reality of war crimes and was met by broad condemnation and the rapid arrest of five unit members shown in the video (their trial began in December 2005). Although the video incident and the 10th anniversary of the mass murder in Srebrenica did not open a larger debate on facing the past, these events made it more difficult to deny war crimes committed by the Serbian side and confronted the public with the cold-blooded nature of the crimes.
Corruption (Score: 4.75)
Corruption formed an integral part of governance under Milosevic, and both the Milosevic regime and the Zoran Zivkovic government lost elections because of corruption scandals. The fight against corruption has not been a high priority of post-Milosevic governments, despite rhetorical commitments and the potent power of corruption allegations in ousting governments. As a result, corruption remains deeply entrenched at all levels. According to Transparency International's 2005 Corruption Perceptions Index, Serbia's score of 2.8 is 97th among countries surveyed, constituting only a slight improvement from the 2.7 score in 2004.
Corruption reports dominate domestic media, from examples of petty corruption to bribes and corruption at the government level. One of the key corruption scandals that shaped public debate in Serbia in 2005 involved a payment to doctors at the well-respected Institute of Cardiovascular Diseases in Sremska Kamenica to reduce the waiting time for heart surgery. The case was filmed by hidden camera and broadcast on TV.
The most high-level corruption scandal involved the company Mile Dragic, which allegedly overcharged the army for equipment and paid (relatively minor) bribes to army officials and the Ministry of Defense. Minster of Finance Mladjan Dinkic made the case public, resulting in the resignation of the minister of defense. The latest in a series of military corruption scandals, this case helped make the army more responsive to civilian fiscal control. In a similar case, the Ministry of Finance accused the railway company, Serbian Railways, of purchasing train cars in contravention of the Law on Public Procurement. In another case, the Movement Force of Serbia was accused of offering bribes to MPs to join their party. Much corruption reporting is sensationalized, lacks firm evidence, and eventually fizzles out, resulting in mutually incriminating accusations among political elites. This does little but distract from real cases of corruption and its causes.
The Kostunica government has taken some steps to improve anticorruption measures, as much of its political legitimacy rests on the fight against corruption and international pressure from the EU and Council of Europe. In past years, Serbia has undertaken serious efforts to reduce state obstacles toward private business, often creating opportunities for corruption. In a World Bank study released in October 2005, Serbia and Montenegro is listed as the country that undertook the most efforts to improve the business climate. These measures include reducing obstacles to the establishment of businesses, bankruptcy procedures, and business operations.
In the past two years, the Serbian Parliament introduced key legislation to combat corruption, such as new laws on public procurement, conflict of interest, party financing, and access to information and a new criminal code. Despite these new laws, additional measures are required to complete the legal framework and implement the anticorruption strategy. In October 2005, the State Union Parliament ratified the UN Convention Against Corruption but has not ratified other international anticorruption instruments.
In contrast with the apparent commitment to introduce anticorruption legislation, the government has been unwilling to work in earnest with the Anticorruption Council, established as an advisory body to the government in 2001. The council has been raising and documenting high-level corruption cases without government support or consideration.
Following a government proposal developed with the Council of Europe, the Parliament voted in favor of a National Anticorruption Strategy in December 2005 – a step called for by NGOs and international organizations for years. The strategy is to be followed by a detailed action plan for all relevant ministries and agencies. A separate law is also planned to establish an anticorruption body to cooperate with public prosecutors. The strategy discusses goals in combating corruption in all fields, incorporates key international initiatives, and defines corruption.
Following the Law on Conflict of Interest in 2004, the Committee for Resolving Conflicts of Interest began work in January 2005 after a long passive period. The law is less strict than demanded by NGOs. According to Transparency Serbia, the law does not cover all cases of conflict of interest and has a weak implementation mechanism. Public officials must submit a financial report before taking office and 15 days afterward. The independent body can reprimand but not punish public officials for a conflict of interest. Between January and November 2005, the committee had 29 meetings and launched 78 complaints of conflict of interest. In about 50 percent of the cases, the officials resigned or were dismissed, and in 30 percent, officials assured the committee they would abide by its decision.
Transparency International-Serbia welcomed the new criminal code for making cases of corruption a criminal offense. Another key statute is the antimonopoly law passed by the Parliament in October 2005. Prohibiting monopolistic behavior and imposing high fines, the law is key to improving the business climate. At the same time, the law does not define monopolistic behavior but leaves such a decision to the government, allowing political abuse of the regulation.
According to Transparency International-Serbia, the Law on Party Financing is the most problematic. It enables political parties to tap budget resources for electoral campaigns and regular operations. Each party receives an amount proportional to its parliamentary representation. The law aims to limit the influence of private donations by encouraging members to pay smaller dues rather than having a few wealthy members sponsor entire parties. Individual members can contribute up to 10 times the average monthly wage in Serbia, whereas legal entities (such as businesses) can give up to 100 times the average wage. However, the law prohibits donations from foreign countries, organizations, anonymous persons, public sector and state-owned firms, humanitarian organizations, religious communities, and a number of other legal entities.
Local Governance (Score: 3.75)
As a legacy of the Milosevic regime, Serbia continues to be a highly centralized state. Although the Kostunica government explicitly linked decentralization to passing a new Constitution, the current draft Constitution suggests no fundamental change in terms of decentralization.
The 2002 Law on Local Government enhanced the competences of the 165 municipalities (minus Kosovo), but in the absence of a new Constitution, the degree of local self-government remains constrained. As noted by the Council of Europe in October 2005, there have been recent measures to enhance the role of municipalities. Key questions concern the return of public land to municipal control and fiscal autonomy of municipalities regarding debts and local taxes.
In addition to municipalities, the law recognizes four cities, two of which – Belgrade and Nis – comprise different municipalities (17 for Belgrade, 5 for Nis). The 24 districts of Serbia (minus Kosovo) are administrative and do not have substantial competences or directly elected representative bodies. Vojvodina is a more significant unit of regional governance and enjoyed far-reaching autonomy before being dismantled by the Milosevic regime in the late 1980s. Some competences were returned to Vojvodina through the Law Establishing Particular Competencies of the Autonomous Province, known generally as the omnibus law, passed by the Serbian Parliament in 2002. Vojvodina thus conducts its own affairs in the areas of education and culture, which is particularly important considering the number of minorities living in the province (more than a third of the population).
Although Vojvodina has its own assembly and executive, the province cannot raise its own taxes or pass laws. Minority and regionalist parties, as well as some governing parties (including the DS), have been arguing for greater autonomy in Vojvodina, especially concerning privatization and economic policy. The existing draft Constitutions do not substantially enhance the powers of the province. The new Law on Government passed in June 2005 is problematic, as it allows the government to suspend regulations and statutes passed by the authorities of Vojvodina or municipalities. The other pro forma province in Serbia is Kosovo, whose status remains undefined pending the conclusion of status negotiations.
In 2005, problems with the implementation of the 2002 Law on Local Government became apparent. The law foresees the direct election of both the newly created post of president of the municipality and the Municipal Assembly. The Municipal Assembly elects the Municipal Council, creating two often competing executives. Consequently, many municipalities have a form of local cohabitation, with a mayor from a different party from that of the municipal majority. This has paralyzed a number of municipalities and can be resolved only through a recall referendum and election of a new mayor. Alternatively, in the case of a local assembly failing to meet for three months, it can be dissolved by the Ministry for Public Administration and Local Self-Government.
Early local elections took place in the Vojvodina town of Kula in September 2005 owing to the lack of a municipal coalition following the 2004 local elections. Although this was not a particularly significant municipality and the elections were not representative of statewide trends, all major parties campaigned heavily, including, for the first time, the LDP. The latter narrowly failed to pass the threshold. The strongest parties were the SRS (31 percent, 13 seats), the DS (19 percent, 8 seats), the PSS (6 percent, 3 seats), and G17+ (6 percent, 3 seats), while the remaining four parties each gained 1 seat.
The paralysis in many Serbian municipalities highlights not only the weakness of existing laws, but also polarization at the local level. These conflicts, however, do not necessarily mirror those at the national level. The SRS, the largest party following the 2004 local elections, has managed to form local coalitions and is thus in power in 63 municipalities. These include coalitions with G17+, the DS, and other moderate and reformist parties that have excluded any possibility for coalition cooperation with SRS at the national level.
The Standing Conference of Towns and Municipalities in Serbia proposed a code of ethics for local officials, which had been accepted by 142 municipalities by October 2005. The code is based on the European Code of Conduct for elected local and regional representatives of the Council of Europe.
National Governance (Score: 4.00)
During 2005, there was little movement toward constitutional reform. The State Union of Serbia and Montenegro remained highly dysfunctional, while the outdated 1990 Serbian Constitution stayed in place. As Montenegrin authorities have shown little interest in the joint state, and Serbian authorities have made few efforts to accommodate Montenegrin interests, the State Union has not operated effectively since its establishment in 2003, and both member states have repeatedly broken the constitutional charter.
The constitutional charter, ratified in 2003, establishes weak institutions, with most competences concentrated on external relations. The State Union has a one-chamber Parliament composed of 126 deputies (91 from Serbia, 35 from Montenegro) elected indirectly by each state's Parliament. The State Union president is elected by the Parliament. The president, in turn, heads the five-member Council of Ministers, which consists of the ministers of foreign affairs, defense, and human and minority rights (all from Serbia) and the ministers of external economic relations and domestic economic relations (both from Montenegro).
The most important State Union institution, the army, remains beyond serious parliamentary control owing to the weakness of the State Union Parliament. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has been somewhat more functional, even though ambassadors from Montenegro and Serbia have pursued diametrically opposed policies: Ambassadors from Montenegro frequently advocate the dissolution of the State Union, whereas ambassadors from Serbia have made Serbia's policy on Kosovo a priority and generally do not consider Montenegrin interests. The State Union Parliament met only 10 times in 2005, and the Serbian Parliament and its Committee for Defense and Security are not competent to oversee the work of the army. Army reforms progressed slowly in 2005, including the closure of military courts, with cases transferred to civil courts on January 1,2005.
Serbia's Constitution, adopted in 1990 under Slobodan Milosevic, establishes a semipresidential system with a directly elected president. The president is the supreme commander of the Serbian armed forces (which currently do not exist), has the right to dismiss the Parliament, enjoys various foreign policy prerogatives, and can be dismissed only by a referendum. The government is appointed by the 250-member unicameral Parliament. Because the president and the Parliament are not elected simultaneously, the odds of cohabitation are great. Although all major parties agree on the need for a new Constitution, changing it requires a two-thirds parliamentary majority and a subsequent referendum. Two draft Constitutions have been proposed by the government and president, yet neither departs fundamentally from the 1990 Constitution, and the process is currently stalled.
The Serbian government came to power following parliamentary elections in December 2003. It lacks an outright majority and relies on support from the Socialist Party of Serbia (SPS), formally (because he could not effectively govern the party from prison) headed by Slobodan Milosevic. The government is led by the conservative Democratic Party of Serbia (DSS) of Prime Minister Vojislav Kostunica and includes the small, liberal, market-oriented G17+ party of Deputy Prime Minister Miroljub Labus, the conservative Serbian Renewal Movement (SPO) of Foreign Minister Vuk Draskovic, and the conservative party New Serbia (NS). The division of the SPO into two competing groups has weakened the government, and the public approval rating for all government parties combined is less than 20 percent. Furthermore, the small Social Democratic Party (SDP), with three seats in the Parliament, left the government following its refusal to support a plan on the privatization of the state oil company in August 2005. The parliamentary majority of the government was secured by support from two Bosniak minority MPs from the Coalition for Sandzak.
The tendency of MPs to switch party allegiances has weakened the Parliament, adding to the instability of the political system. Between December 2003 and November 2005,30 MPs left either their party or parliamentary group. Allegations suggest that bribes motivated some changes. In particular, the extra-parliamentary Movement Force of Serbia (PSS), led by the controversial tycoon Bogoljub Karic, has been accused of seeking access to the Parliament through such means.
Although close governmental support enhanced the role of the Parliament and allowed MPs to have more impact on legislation, the level of parliamentary work in terms of both legislation and control of the executive has been poor. In particular, parliamentary oversight of the Security Information Agency (BIA) remains insufficient and problematic. The predecessor of BIA, the State Security (DB), was used by the Milosevic regime to control and murder political opponents and support the wars in Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo. Despite a name change, there is little to indicate any serious reform and agency purging. In December 2005, the BIA was accused of wiretapping MPs to identify those involved in an "Albanian lobby" supporting independence for Kosovo, an allegation the BIA denied. The director of the BIA similarly stated in July 2005 that the agency is monitoring the activities of some NGOs for their links abroad, a thinly veiled threat against human rights NGOs critical of the government.
Elected president of Serbia in June 2004, Boris Tadic from the Democratic Party (DS) has oscillated between confrontation and cooperation with the government. Arguably, the cohabitation between president and government has put an effective check on the executive; at the same time, it has also made decision making more complicated and resulted in a lack of clarity in some key state policy areas, especially regarding Kosovo. Tadic supported the participation of Kosovo Serbs in Kosovo elections in late 2004, whereas Kostunica opposed it – other divergent views emerged with the beginning of status talks in late 2005.
The People's Bureau, established by the president in 2004, was intended as a stopgap for an ombudsman, but the institution lacked a legal mandate and has been a key tool in promoting the president. The bureau's director, Dragan Djilas, has strong business interests in media and public relations, which makes him controversial. In September 2005, the Parliament passed the Law on the Ombudsman, formalizing the duties of this intercessory office created for citizens to turn to when all legal recourse has been exhausted. As of December 2005, no ombudsman had been named in Serbia; by contrast, Montenegro, Vojvodina, and Kosovo have had ombudsmen for several years.
The Law on Freedom of Information, passed by the Parliament in November 2004, is another milestone toward increasing government transparency and accountability. The law was welcomed by key NGOs, but implementation has been slow, as many state institutions were not aware either of the law or of the information they were obliged to make available. The Youth Initiative for Human Rights tested the implementation of the law by submitting 530 requests between December 2004 and April 2005, out of which it received only 259 answers (48.86 percent). In response, the Center for Free Elections and Democracy (CeSID), Transparency Serbia, and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) have been conducting public awareness campaigns to encourage citizens and media to make use of the law.
Currently, the status of Kosovo poses a particular threat to Serbia, as the Serb Radical Party (SRS) has threatened "mayhem in the streets" and suggested that Kosovo be "occupied" if it should become independent. Additionally, small groups of skinheads and extremists have threatened violence and attacked minorities and political enemies. After a number of unresolved incidents against minorities in Vojvodina in 2004, stronger police enforcement and prosecution resulted in a sharp drop since late 2004.
| https://www.refworld.org/publisher,FREEHOU,ANNUALREPORT,SRB,473aff3a50,0.html |
draft-dong-savi-cga-header-01
Cryptographically Generated Address (CGA) Extension Header for Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) (Internet-Draft, 2009)
Network Working Group D. Zhang
Internet-Draft Huawei Symantec
Intended status: Standards Track P. Nallur
Expires: November 13, 2009 Futurewei Technologies
May 12, 2009
CGA Extension Header of IPv6
draft-dong-savi-cga-header-01.txt
Status of This Memo
This Internet-Draft is submitted to IETF in full conformance with the
provisions of
BCP 78
and
BCP 79
. This document may contain material
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the person(s) controlling the copyright in such materials, this
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Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
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This Internet-Draft will expire on November 13, 2009.
Copyright Notice
Copyright (c) 2009 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
document authors. All rights reserved.
Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 1]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
Provisions Relating to IETF Documents in effect on the date of
publication of this document ( http://trustee.ietf.org/license-info ).
Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights
and restrictions with respect to this document.
Abstract
This document specifies a method based on Cryptographically Generated
Addresses (CGA) for protecting the IPv6 network from address
spoofing. The basic idea is to define a new IPv6 extension header
which is called CGA header. Three new options of CGA header are
introduced to satisfy the need of verification between all CGA-aware
nodes. This document also illustrates the proposed verification
procedure under several different situations. Additionally, a
possible alternative way using destination options header to take CGA
information is described.
Table of Contents 1 . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 . Extension Header Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 . CGA Extension Header Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3.1 . CGA Request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.2 . CGA Params . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3.3 . CGA Signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 . Packet Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 4.1 . Processing Outgoing Packet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 4.2 . Processing Incoming Packet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 5 . ICMP Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 5.1 . Verification Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 5.2 . Option Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 6 . Source Address Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 6.1 . Initiator Verifying Resopnder's Address . . . . . . . . . 11 6.2 . Responder Verifying Initiator's Address . . . . . . . . . 11 6.3 . Bidirectional Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 7 . An Alternative Way to Take CGA Information . . . . . . . . . . 12 8 . Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 9 . IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 10 . Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 11 . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 11.1 . Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 11.2 . Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 2]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 1 . Introduction The CGA specifies a new method of generating an IPv6 address with a
cryptographic public key [ RFC3972 ]. This CGA is designed for SEcure
Neighbor Discovery (SEND) protocol [ RFC3971 ]. The original purpose
of using CGA is to verify the messages of the SEND protocol signed by
the address owners without additional security infrastructure.
This document specifies a method based on CGA for protecting IPv6
network from address spoofing. The basic idea is to define a new
IPv6 extension header which is called CGA header. Three new options
which belong to CGA header are introduced to satisfy the need of
verification between all CGA-aware nodes. This document also
illustrates proposed procedure of verification under several
different situations.
This document includes:
o Format of the CGA header definition;
o Formats of options definition;
o Way of processing both outgoing and incoming packets which contain
the CGA header;
o Proposed procedures of source address verification with the CGA
header.
Note that the procedure of verification is not strictly required but
proposed with the consideration of compatibility with higher layer
protocols. In other words, higher layer protocols MAY make use of
CGA header to protect the communication whenever they need. Then the
scope of CGA is no longer restricted to a specific protocol but a
general solution for network infrastructure.
In this document, the key words MUST, MUST NOT, REQUIRED, SHALL,
SHALL NOT, SHOULD, SHOULD NOT, RECOMMENDED, MAY, and OPTIONAL are to
be interpreted as described in [ RFC2119 ]. 2 . Extension Header Order According to [ RFC2460 ], the extension headers of IPv6 are subject to
the ordering recommendations. Of all of the extension headers, the
ones which are handled by network equipments SHOULD occur before
those handled by end-points. After the CGA header is added, a full
implementation of IPv6 includes the following extension headers: Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 3]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 Hop-by-Hop Options header
Destination Options header
Routing header
Fragment header
CGA header
Authentication header
Encapsulating Security Payload header
Destination Options header
upper-layer header
The CGA header MUST NOT be displayed in the extension header of a
packet more than once. 3 . CGA Extension Header Format The CGA header is used to carry optional information. A responder
either authenticates the address of the initiator based on the CGA
information or sends his own CGA options to the initiator. The CGA
header is identified by a Next Header value of TBD1 in IPv6 header.
The format of the CGA header is described as follows: Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 4]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Next Header | Hdr Ext Len | Reserved |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| |
. .
. Options .
. .
| |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
Next Header 8-bit selector. Identifies the type of header
immediately following the CGA header.
Hdr Ext Len 8-bit unsigned integer. Length of the CGA header
in 8-octet units, excluding the first 8 octets.
When the value of Hdr Ext Len is zero, it means
that this information is for CGA initialization.
If one host wants to protect the communication,
it will send the CGA header of which Hdr Ext Len
is zero. After receiving the preceding type of
the CGA header, an end-point sends a CGA Request
as a response.
Reserved An 16-bit field reserved for future use. The value
MUST be initialized to zero by the sender and MUST
be ignored by the receiver.
Options Variable-length field, of length such that the
complete CGA header is an integer multiple of 8
octets long. Contains one or more TLV-encoded
options, as described in section 4.2 of [RFC2460] .
The Options field contains three types of data: CGA Request, CGA
Params and CGA Signature. CGA Request is used to ask the counterpart
for CGA Params; CGA Params is used to carry a CGA parameters data
structure; CGA Signature contains the signature produced by the host
using its private key. CGA Params MUST be accompanied with CGA
Signature. Otherwise the receiver SHOULD respond with an ICMP
message. The packets MAY include CGA Signature only when CGA Params
is sent. How the node handles the CGA Params in the packet before
receiving CGA Request depends on the host's policy. 3.1 . CGA Request Any node can ask its peer for CGA Params by sending CGA Request in
the packet. The node that receives the packet with CGA Request, MAY
respond with its own CGA Params and CGA Signature. CGA Request is of
the following format: Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 5]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Type | Reserved |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Sequence Number |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
Type 8-bit unsigned integer. Type code for CGA Request.
The value is TBD2.
Reserved An 24-bit field reserved for future use. The value
MUST be initialized to zero.
Sequence Number 32-bit unsigned integer. Random-number. It contains
a counter value that increases by one for each
packet sent. It may enable the anti-replay service. 3.2 . CGA Params This type data of the options carries CGA parameters according to
which the receiver validates the address. The format of the CGA
Params is described in the following diagram: Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 6]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Type | Length | Pad Length | Reserved |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Sequence Number |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| |
. .
. CGA Parameters .
. .
| |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| |
. Padding .
| |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
Type 8-bit unsigned integer. Type code for CGA Params.
The value is TBD3.
Length 8-bit unsigned integer. The length of the option
(including the Type, Length, Pad Length, Reserved,
Sequence Number, CGA Parameters, and Padding
fields) in 8-octec units of byte.
Pad Length 8-bit unsigned integer. The number of padding
octets beyond the end of the CGA Parameters field
but within the length specified by the Length
field in byte. Padding octets MUST be set to zero
by senders and ignored by receivers.
Reserved An 8-bit field reserved for future use. The value
MUST be initialized to zero by the sender and MUST
be ignored by the receiver.
Sequence Number 32-bit unsigned integer. As a response, its value
is to add one to the Sequence Number which belongs
to CGA Request. Otherwise it is zero.
CGA Parameters A variable-length field containing the CGA
Parameters data structure described in Section 2
of [RFC3972] .
Padding A variable-length field making the option length a
multiple of 8, containing as many octets as
specified in the Pad Length field. The contents of
padding MUST be zero. 3.3 . CGA Signature This type data of the options is responsible for carrying the
signature. In particular, the following illustration shows the
format of CGA Signature: Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 7]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| Type | Length | Pad Length | Reserved |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| |
. .
. Digital Signature .
. .
| |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
| |
. Padding .
| |
+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
Type 8-bit unsigned integer. Type code for CGA
Signature. The value is TBD4.
Length The length of the option (including the Type,
Length, Pad Length, Reserved, Sequence Number, CGA
Signature, and Padding fields) in units of byte.
Pad Length 8-bit unsigned integer. The number of padding
octets beyond the end of the CGA Signature field
but within the length specified by the Length field
in byte. Padding octets MUST be set to zero by
senders and ignored by receivers.
Reserved 8-bit unsigned integer. An 8-bit field reserved for
future use. The value MUST be initialized to zero
by the sender and MUST be ignored by the receiver.
Digital Signature A variable-length field containing the signature
which is produced by the private-key.
Padding A variable-length field making the option length a
multiple of 8, containing as many octets as
specified in the Pad Length field. 4 . Packet Processing To send a CGA Request packet, the host generates a 32-bit random
Sequence Number, and formats the packet as described in section 3.1 .
Once a host receives the packet with CGA Request, it MAY either
respond with a CGA Params or ignore the packet according to the
host's policy. 4.1 . Processing Outgoing Packet When a host finds CGA Request in the extension header of the packet,
it MAY send CGA Params and CGA Signature to its peer as a response.
In addition, the host also MAY send CGA Params and CGA Signature,
which depends on the higher layer protocols. Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 8]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 If the host responds to CGA Request, its Sequence Number MUST be
equal to the Sequence Number of the CGA request plus one. When the
host sends CGA Params and CGA Signature actively, the Sequence Number
SHOULD be set to zero in CGA Params.
CGA parameters generation is illustrated in Section 4 of [RFC3972] .
The private key used to make the Digital Signature part in CGA
Signature MUST correspond to the public key carried in the CGA
parameters part of CGA Params. The contents to be signed contain the
following parts concatenated from left to right:
1. 128-bit source address in the IP header;
2. 128-bit destination address in the IP header;
3. All parts of CGA header except CGA Signature;
4. Payload of the packet (transport and higher layers).
The data obtained is signed through the RSA method and the signature
is placed in the Digital Signature field. 4.2 . Processing Incoming Packet After the host receives the packet with CGA Params and CGA Signature,
either can it make an authentication with parameters and signature or
ignore them, which depends on the higher layers. If the host need
authentication, the procedure is as follows:
1. If a host receives a responding packet to CGA Request, it
subtracts one from the Sequence Number in CGA Params, and then
compares the subtracted number with the Sequence Number in CGA
Request sent earlier. If the two values are the same, go to the
next step. Otherwise, the host MUST drop the packet, which leads
to the generation of an ICMP message.
2. On the basis of CGA parameters, the host MAY verify the source
address in IP header. The verification procedure is given in Section 5 of [RFC3972] . If the verification succeeds, go to the
next step. Otherwise, the host MUST drop the packet, which leads
to the generation of an ICMP message.
3. The inputs of the signature verification operation are the public
key, which is a part of the CGA parameters data structure, the
concatenation created in Section 3.1 and the signature. If the
signature verification does not succeed, then the host MUST drop
the packet which leads to the generation of an ICMP message. Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 9]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 Certain errors also MAY result in dropping the packet and sending
ICMP messages:
1. The CGA header contains only CGA Params rather than CGA
Signature;
2. The CGA header contains only CGA Signature rather than CGA
Params;
3. The host sends the CGA Request, however, the returned packet does
not contain CGA Params and CGA Signature return. 5 . ICMP Message When the CGA header of IPv6 is deployed and certain errors occur,
ICMP messages are required to report errors to the source host.
Except the problems described in [ RFC2463 ], CGA header has other
types of errors. 5.1 . Verification Failure Verification failure MAY be caused by the following:
1. Sequence Number error;
2. CGA verification error;
3. Signature verification error. 5.2 . Option Errors The three type option errors described at the end of Section 4.2 also
MAY generate ICMP messages. 6 . Source Address Verification Sometimes it is appreciated to do one-way authentication. For
example, host A intends to build a connection with host B. If host A
suspects the identity of the responder, host A MAY ask for
verification. Perhaps this scenario occurs in the Client/Server
model. When both hosts of one connection need to confirm the
identities of each other, they do bidirectional verification.
In this section, the processes of three types of verification
applications are presented. In the connection of two hosts, one is
denoted with Initiator and the other with Responder. Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 10]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 6.1 . Initiator Verifying Resopnder's Address The following picture shows a typical exchange when the initiator
verifies the address of the responder.
Initiator Responder
CGA Request
-------------------------->
CGA Params, CGA Sig
<-------------------------
The initiator sends CGA Request in the message to require the CGA
parameters of the responder. After receiving the request, the
responder returns its own CGA Params and CGA Signature to the
initiator. The processing rules and verification process are given
in Section 4.1 and Section 4.2 respectively. 6.2 . Responder Verifying Initiator's Address The responder can also verify the address of the initiator.
Conceptually, the process can be represented by the following message
sequence.
Initiator Responder
NULL CGA HEADER
-------------------------->
CGA Request
<-------------------------
CGA Params, CGA Sig
-------------------------->
A packet with null CGA header coming from the initiator implicates
that there may be a CGA verification process. After receiving this
kind of special CGA header in the message, the responder sends CGA
Request to the initiator. Then the initiator transfers its CGA
Params and CGA Signature as response, which is used to verify the
initiator's address by the responder. 6.3 . Bidirectional Verification In certain cases, the hosts need to verify the address of each other.
The figure below illustrates the basic exchange. Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 11]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 Initiator Responder
NULL CGA HEADER
-------------------------->
CGA Request
<-------------------------
CGA Params, CGA Sig, CGA Request
-------------------------->
CGA Params, CGA Sig,
<-------------------------
A packet with null CGA header coming from the initiator implicate
that there may be a CGA verification process. After receiving this
kind of special CGA header in the message, the responder sends CGA
Request to the initiator. Then the initiator transfers the message
containing its CGA Params, CGA Signature and accessional CGA Request.
The last message with CGA Params and CGA Signature of the responder
is to allow the initiator to verify the responder address. 7 . An Alternative Way to Take CGA Information Since creating a new extension header MAY be a big change to IPv6
protocol, another implementation way to take CGA information in the
packet is using the existing extension header.
It is articulated that a full implementation of IPv6 includes six
types of extension header in [ RFC2460 ]. From the definition of the
extension headers, it can be easily infered that the destination
options header is the optimal choice. The three types of options
defined in section 3 , including CGA Request, CGA Params and CGA
Signature, SHOULD be put in the options field of the destination
options header within the packets wherever the source address
protection is need.
In the implementation of IPv6, destination options header is able to
occur in different place and twice (once before a routing header and
once before the upper-layer header) in one packet.
1. The destination header before the routing header is used for
options to be processed by the first destination that appears in
the IPv6 Destination Address field plus subsequent destinations
listed in the routing header.
2. The destination header before the upper-layer header is used for
options to be processed only by the final destination of the Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 12]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 packet.
The above feature of destination options header provides the
convenience of the solution using CGA to protect the source address.
If the end host validates the CGA, put the destination options header
with the CGA information options before the upper-layer header. This
usage of the destination options header has the same effect with CGA
extension header. Otherwise, in case 1, any node whose address must
be put in the first place of the routing header can make the
validation of CGA. For instance, put the address of the first-hop
router or gateway in the first place of the routing header, so the
first-hop router or gateway would validate the CGA, which prevents
the forged packets form getting out of their LAN environment.
This way that carries the CGA information in destination options
header also avoids the problem of modifying the current protocols. 8 . Security Considerations Address verification and signature verification by the CGA header is
to validate the identity of the host. At the same time, the CGA
header can limit the exposure of the host to man-in-the-middle (MitM)
and some denial-of-service (DoS) attacks. Because the CGA header is
an application in Network Layer, the higher layer protocols MAY
choose this way to protect communication.
The CGA header can prevents MitM attack. MitM forges packets with
great difficulty. Because of the features of CGA, it is impossible
for MitM to make a spoofed private key based on the address
[ RFC3972 ]. Or, at present, the private key cannot be generated
through the corresponding public key. On the other hand, the
Sequence Number and signature in the CGA header are able to prevent
replay attack.
The CGA header can prevent some DoS attacks as well. Since CGA can
not be forged, attackers cannot launch DoS attack with many spoofed
source addresses. If making DoS attack with the real address, the
attacker is easy to be exposed.
In the implement of the CGA header, signing packets consumes a large
amount of resources. When one host receives packets with CGA Request
from a same source address repeatedly, it MUST refuse to return the
CGA Params and CGA Signature. The form of DoS attack using CGA
verification process can also be avoided by ignoring the packets.
To avoid the DoS attack of CGA Request, the host MAY choose to ignore
the packets with CGA Request before sending the CGA initial message
whose CGA header length is zero or verifying its peer's CGA Params Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 13]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009 and CGA Signature. The choice depends on the policy of the host.
If a host receives CGA Params and CGA Signature from a source address
that does not send the CGA Request, the host cannot trust the source
address. Because there is no Sequence Number preventing replay
attack. In this case, how to handle the packet depends on the local
policy. 9 . IANA Considerations This document specifies a new type of IPv6 extension header, whose
value is to be allocated:
Value Next Header Name Reference
------ ------------------------------- ---------
TBD1 CGA Header [this doc]
This document defines three new options in the CGA Header. A new
namespace is required to be assigned by IANA and the values of these
options are to be allocated:
Value Option Name Reference
------ ------------------------------- ---------
TBD2 CGA Request [this doc]
TBD3 CGA Params [this doc]
TBD4 CGA Signature [this doc]
The above assignation of the three CGA options SHOULD also be used in
destination extension header and identified by the any host.
This document also defines two new types of ICMP messages whose
values are to be allocated from the namespace of ICMP Type Numbers:
Value Name Reference
------ ------------------------------- ---------
TBD5 Verification Failure [this doc]
TBD6 Option Errors [this doc] 10 . Acknowledgements 11 . References 11.1 . Normative References [ RFC2119 ] Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
Requirement Levels", RFC 2119 , March 1997.
[ RFC2460 ] Deering, S. and R. Hinden, "Internet Protocol, Version 6 Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 14]
Internet-Draft CGA Extension Header of IPv6 May 2009
(IPv6) Specification",
RFC 2460
, December 1998.
[
RFC2463
] Conta, A. and S. Deering, "Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMPv6) for the Internet Protocol Version 6
(IPv6) Specification",
RFC 2463
, December 1998.
[
RFC3972
] Aura, T., "Cryptographically Generated Addresses (CGA)",
RFC 3972
, March 2005.
11.2 . Informative References
[
RFC3971
] Arkko, J., Kempf, J., Zill, B., and P. Nikander, "SEcure
Neighbor Discovery (SEND)",
RFC 3971
, March 2005.
Authors' Addresses
Dong Zhang
Huawei Symantec
3rd Floor,Section D, Keshi Building, No.28, Xinxi Rd., Shangdi
HaiDian district, Beijing
China
Phone: 86-10-62721287
EMail: zhangdong_rh@huaweisymantec.com
Padmanabha Nallur
Futurewei Technologies
3255-4, Scott Blvd
Santa Clara, California
USA
EMail: pnallur@huawei.com
Zhang & Nallur Expires November 13, 2009 [Page 15]
Document Document type This is an older version of an Internet-Draft whose latest revision state is "Expired". Expired & archived Select version 00 01 02 03 Compare versions draft-dong-savi-cga-header-03 draft-dong-savi-cga-header-02 draft-dong-savi-cga-header-01 draft-dong-savi-cga-header-00 draft-dong-savi-cga-header-00 draft-dong-savi-cga-header-03 draft-dong-savi-cga-header-02 draft-dong-savi-cga-header-01 draft-dong-savi-cga-header-00 draft-dong-savi-cga-header-01 Side-by-side Inline Author RFC stream (None) Other formats txt html xml pdf bibtex Report a datatracker bug
| https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-dong-savi-cga-header-01 |
Thermal stability of UV light emitting boron nitride nanowalls | Request PDF
Request PDF | On Dec 1, 2016, Ivan S. Merenkov and others published Thermal stability of UV light emitting boron nitride nanowalls | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
Thermal stability of UV light emitting boron nitride nanowalls
December 2016
Materials and Design 117
DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2016.12.063
... However, the intensity of the component at 191.8 eV was significantly increased by 23% and 30% for the maze-like and wavy nanowalls, respectively. This peak corresponds to N-B-O bonding and indicates oxidation of nanowalls during annealing [38,
67]
. The concentration of B-C bonds decreased for wavy nanowalls, possibly due to the deeper oxidation and reaction between carbon and oxygen atoms. ...
... This difference can likely be related to many defects originated on the bends and edges of nanowalls. In our previous study, we showed that the randomly oriented maze-like h-BN nanowalls synthesized from borazine at 700 °С demonstrated higher thermal stability in comparison with nanowalls obtained at lower temperature
[67]
. Therefore, the structure of nanowalls is a critical factor for thermal stability and oxidation resistivity. ...
... Present results suggest that the annealing-induced oxidation of BNNWs proceeded in the way described in our previous study
[67]
. The adsorption of O2 is followed by a reaction with nitrogen and boron atoms resulting in the oxygen atoms embedment into the h-BN structure with the B-O bonds formation. ...
Orientation-controlled, low-temperature plasma growth and applications of h-BN nanosheets
I. S. Merenkov
Mikhail Myshenkov
Yuri. M. Zhukov
Kostya (Ken) Ostrikov
Dimensionality and orientation of hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) nanosheets are promising to create and control their unique properties for diverse applications. However, low-temperature deposition of vertically oriented h-BN nanosheets is a significant challenge. Here we report on the low-temperature plasma synthesis of maze-like h-BN nanowalls (BNNWs) from a mixture of triethylamine borane (TEAB) and ammonia at temperatures as low as 400 °C. The maze-like BNNWs contained vertically aligned stacks of h-BN nanosheets. Wavy h-BN nanowalls with randomly oriented nanocrystalline structure are also fabricated. Simple and effective control of morphological type of BNNWs by the deposition temperature is demonstrated. Despite the lower synthesis temperature, thermal stability and oxidation resistivity of the maze-like BNNWs are higher than for the wavy nanowalls. The structure and oxidation of the nanowalls was found to be the critical factor for their thermal stability and controlled luminescence properties. Cytotoxic study demonstrated significant antibacterial effect of both maze-like and wavy h-BN nanowalls against E. coli. The reported results reveal a significant potential of h-BN nanowalls for a broad range of applications from electronics to biomedicine.
... The influence of impurity defects on optical and luminescent properties of h-BN is essential. Mention may be made of carbon and oxygen as main technological and often uncontrolled impurities in various morphological structures of h-BN [5,
9]
. Carbon impurities are assumed to be the cause of UV emission in the cathodo-(CL) and photoluminescence (PL) spectra of h-BN single-crystal samples and nanotubes. ...
Electron-phonon interactions in subband excited photoluminescence of hexagonal boron nitride
A. S. Vokhmintsev
Ilya Weinstein
Dmitry Aleksandrovich Zamyatin
The h-BN microcrystalline powder with carbon and oxygen impurities have been studied at 83 and 296 K using Raman and photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopies. The observed blue shift of Raman peaks with temperature decreasing have been discussed. Two series of phonon replicas in PL emission spectra with a zero-phonon line at 4.08 eV have been registered under 4.28 eV excitation. The energy levels model of the impurity (CN-ON)-complex responsible for observe luminescence was proposed. It was shown that the optically active center retains its electroneutrality in the processes of radiative recombination under subband (in 4.28 eV) or band-to-band excitation. Possible mechanisms of electron-phonon scattering and phonon replicas forming under subband excitation of (CN-ON)-complex were analyzed. It was substantiated that at 83 K the longitudinal optical (ℏωLO = 174 meV) and transverse acoustic (ℏωTA = 60 meV) phonons at the middle points of high symmetry in the first Brillouin zone participate in the processes of intravalley (M- and Κ-scattering) and intervalley (Κ → Μ)-scattering, respectively.
... The reduced concentration of the oxygen atoms was explained by evaporation of boron oxide forms (B x O y and BHO x ) during synthesis [23,24]. The detailed x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy investigations of chemical states and bonding in BNNWs were presented in our previous works [15,
25]
. ...
Boron nitride nanowalls: Low-temperature plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition synthesis and optical properties
Apr 2017
NANOTECHNOLOGY
I. S. Merenkov
Marina L. Kosinova
Eugene A Maximovskii
Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) nanowalls (BNNWs) were synthesized by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) from a borazine (B3N3H6) and ammonia (NH3) gas mixture at a low temperature range of 400 °C-600 °C on GaAs(100) substrates. The effect of the synthesis temperature on the structure and surface morphology of h-BN films was investigated. The length and thickness of the h-BN nanowalls were in the ranges of 50-200 nm and 15-30 nm, respectively. Transmission electron microscope images showed the obtained BNNWs were composed of layered non-equiaxed h-BN nanocrystallites 5-10 nm in size. The parallel-aligned h-BN layers as an interfacial layer were observed between the film and GaAs(100) substrate. BNNWs demonstrate strong blue light emission, high transparency (>90%) both in visible and infrared spectral regions and are promising for optical applications. The present results enable a convenient growth of BNNWs at low temperatures.
Viability of Boron Nitride Nanotubes as a Support Structure for Metal Nanoparticle Catalysts for the Plasma-Catalytic Synthesis of Ammonia
Gareth Price
Elmira Pajootan
Sylvain Coulombe
Yuanxing Fang
Yidong Hou
Xianzhi Fu
Xinchen Wang
V. A. Shestakov
V. I. Kosyakov
Synthesis and characterization of poly (dihydroxybiphenyl borate) with high char yield for high-performance thermosetting resins
Sep 2017
APPL SURF SCI
Shujuan Wang
Xing Xiaolong
Jian Li
Xinli Jing
The objective of the current work is to synthesize novel boron-containing polymers with excellent thermal resistance, and reveal the structure and the reason for the high char yield. Thus, poly (dihydroxybiphenyl borate) (PDDB) with a more rigid molecular chain, was successfully synthesized using 4,4′-dihydroxybiphenyl and boric acid. Structural characterizations of the prepared PDDB were performed via NMR, FTIR, XPS, and XRD analyses. The results reveal that PDDB consists of aromatic, PhOB and BOB structures as well as a small number of boron hydroxyl and phenolic hydroxyl groups. PDDB shows good solubility in strong polar solvents, which is of great importance for the modification of thermosetting resins. TGA combined with DSC were employed to evaluate the thermal properties of PDDB, and increases in the glass transition temperature (Tg) and char yield were observed with increased boron content. Tg and char yield of PDDB (800 °C, nitrogen atmosphere) reached up to 219 °C and 66.5%, respectively. PDDB was extensively characterized during pyrolysis to reveal the high char yield of PDDB. As briefly discussed, the boron oxide and boron carbide that formed during pyrolysis play a crucial role in the high char yield of PDDB, which reduces the release of volatile carbon dioxide and carbon. This research suggests that PDDB has great potential as a novel modified agent for the improvement of the comprehensive performance of thermosetting resins to broaden their applicability in the field of advanced composites.
The method of grazing incidence X-ray diffraction (GIXRD) is used to study the hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) films produced by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) from borazine and ammonia or helium mixtures. The diffraction patterns of boron nitride layers aligned vertically on the substrate are obtained for the first time. The films deposited consist of the amorphous phase and the nanocrystalline h-BN phase. The nanocrystallite sizes in the films obtained from the mixtures of borazine (B3N3H6) with both ammonia and helium increase with an increase in the synthesis temperature. Nanocrystallites are heteraxial and have a layered structure with the interplanar spacing of ∼0.35 nm.
PECVD synthesis of hexagonal boron nitride nanowalls from a borazine + ammonia mixture
Hexagonal boron nitride nanowalls have been grown by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) from a mixture of borazine (B3N3H6) and ammonia. As the deposition temperature increases from 100 to 700°C, the structure of the films changes from amorphous to nanocrystalline, made up of three-dimensional nanowalls normal to the substrate. The ability to produce nanowalls depends on film growth conditions. We have examined the effect of synthesis temperature on the elemental composition and surface morphology of the films. The structure of the nanowalls has been determined by transmission electron microscopy, and the presence of a transition layer between the h-BN film and Si(100) substrate has been demonstrated. The lowest temperature at which nanowalls can be grown by PECVD is 300°C. The films have high transmission in a wide spectral range (350-3200 nm). Their parameters suggest that the nanostructures in question can find application in microelectronics, optics, and catalysis.
A simple and inexpensive method to functionalize hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) was achieved by using an acid mixture of phosphoric and sulphuric acid. This functionalization induced the exfoliation of the layered structure of hBN into monolayer to few-layer sheets where the sizes of the sheets were dependent on the parent hBN powder used. Exfoliated hBN was shown to be stable in solvents such as ethanol, acetone, deionized water and isopropyl alcohol, and this stability was linked to sulfur functionalization that was induced during the exfoliation process. Further evidence of the functionalization was observed using transmission electron spectroscopy (TEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). By deconvoluting the high resolution peaks for B 1s, the bonding of boron to oxygen and sulfur was confirmed. The exfoliated hBN nanosheets were crystalline as confirmed from X-ray diffraction and they also exhibited an optically active defect related to sulfur functionalization at 320 nm (3.9 ± 0.1 eV).
Size, dimensionality, and shape play important roles in determining the properties of nanomaterials. So far, most of the nanomaterial researches have been focused on zero-dimensional nanoparticles/nanodots and one-dimensional nanowires/nanorods/nanotubes, but very few studies have been carried out on two-dimensional nano-sheets. Starting from carbon, recently we have succeeded in growing a class of nanostructured two-dimensional materials either in the pure forms or in the form of composites with carbon. In this paper, we will first briefly discuss various types of two-dimensional systems and then focus on the formation mechanism of carbon nanowalls and their field-emission and electron transport properties. The use of carbon nanowalls as templates for the formation of other types of nanomaterials will also be discussed.
Hexagonal boron nitride nanowalls: Physical vapour deposition, 2D/3D morphology and spectroscopic analysis
Hexagonal boron nitride nanowalls were synthesized using reactive radio-frequency magnetron sputtering in combination with a hexagonal BN target. The nanowall formation is purely governed by addition of hydrogen to the nitrogen/argon gas mixture, and leads to a decreased incorporation of carbon and oxygen impurities. The surface morphology is assessed with scanning electron microscopy, while stoichiometry and reduced impurity content of the material was evidenced using Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy. Transmission electron microscopy confirms the hexagonal nature of the nanowalls, whose luminescent properties are studied with cathodoluminescence spectroscopy, shedding more light on the location and nature of the excitonic emission and crystalline quality of the h-BN nanowalls.
Patterned growth and cathodoluminescence of conical boron nitride nanorods
Hexagonal boron nitride (h‐BN) is one of the promising 2D materials with excellent mechanical properties, good thermal conductivity and excellent chemical as well as thermal stability. These properties of h‐BN are very much useful for various high temperature applications such as insulators for furnaces, crucibles for melting glass and metals, deep ultraviolet light sources, insulating and ... [Show full abstract] thermally conductive fillers, dielectric layers, cosmetic products, anti‐oxidation lubricants, and protective coatings. In this chapter, different properties and synthesis methods of 2D h‐BN are discussed. The synthesis methods are basically divided as bottom up and top down approaches that are similar to the well‐known graphene sheet growing methods, with required changes in input materials and processing parameters. Most common synthesis methods include mechanical exfoliation, liquid exfoliation, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and physical vapor deposition (PVD). Also, theoretical investigation and experimental synthesis of newly developed material, borophene, is discussed in detail. Its outstanding properties can be very useful in electronics, optoelectronics and mechanical applications.
| https://www.researchgate.net/publication/311882657_Thermal_stability_of_UV_light_emitting_boron_nitride_nanowalls |
Machine learning model for predicting out-of-hospital cardiac arrests using meteorological and chronological data | Heart
Machine learning model for predicting out-of-hospital cardiac arrests using meteorological and chronological data
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6369-6154 Takahiro Nakashima 1 , 2 ,
Soshiro Ogata 2 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5372-4932 Teruo Noguchi 3 ,
Yoshio Tahara 3 ,
http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9596-9188 Daisuke Onozuka 2 ,
Satoshi Kato 4 ,
Yoshiki Yamagata 5 ,
Sunao Kojima 6 ,
Taku Iwami 7 ,
Tetsuya Sakamoto 8 ,
Ken Nagao 9 ,
Hiroshi Nonogi 10 ,
Satoshi Yasuda 11 ,
Koji Iihara 12 ,
Robert Neumar 1 ,
Kunihiro Nishimura 2
1 Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
2 Department of Preventive Medicine and Epidemiologic Informatics, National Cerebral Cardiovascular Centre, Suita, Japan
3 Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Centre, Suita, Japan
4 H.U. Group Research Institute G.K, Tokyo, Japan
5 National Institute for Environmental Studies, Tsukuba, Japan
6 Department of General Internal Medicine 3, Kawasaki Medical School, Kurashiki, Japan
7 Health Service, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
8 Department of Emergency Medicine, Teikyo University, Itabashi-ku, Japan
9 Cardiovascular Centre, Nihon University Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
10 Shizuoka General Hospital, Shizuoka, Japan
11 Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
12 National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Suita, Osaka, Japan
Correspondence toDr Teruo Noguchi, NCVC, Suita, Osaka 564-8565, Japan; tnoguchi@ncvc.go.jp
Abstract
ObjectivesTo evaluate a predictive model for robust estimation of daily out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) incidence using a suite of machine learning (ML) approaches and high-resolution meteorological and chronological data.
MethodsIn this population-based study, we combined an OHCA nationwide registry and high-resolution meteorological and chronological datasets from Japan. We developed a model to predict daily OHCA incidence with a training dataset for 2005–2013 using the eXtreme Gradient Boosting algorithm. A dataset for 2014–2015 was used to test the predictive model. The main outcome was the accuracy of the predictive model for the number of daily OHCA events, based on mean absolute error (MAE) and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE). In general, a model with MAPE less than 10% is considered highly accurate.
ResultsAmong the 1 299 784 OHCA cases, 661 052 OHCA cases of cardiac origin (525 374 cases in the training dataset on which fourfold cross-validation was performed and 135 678 cases in the testing dataset) were included in the analysis. Compared with the ML models using meteorological or chronological variables alone, the ML model with combined meteorological and chronological variables had the highest predictive accuracy in the training (MAE 1.314 and MAPE 7.007%) and testing datasets (MAE 1.547 and MAPE 7.788%). Sunday, Monday, holiday, winter, low ambient temperature and large interday or intraday temperature difference were more strongly associated with OHCA incidence than other the meteorological and chronological variables.
ConclusionsA ML predictive model using comprehensive daily meteorological and chronological data allows for highly precise estimates of OHCA incidence.
cardiac arrest
Data availability statement
No data are available. The All-Japan Utstein Registry of the FDMA is a publicly accessible open database. The availability of the Kobe Municipal Fire Department database, which includes detailed information on the location of cardiac arrest used with permission for this study, is restricted. The Weather Company Data Packages from the Weather Company is subject to a full license agreement, which does not permit data sharing outside of the research team.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/heartjnl-2020-318726
Supplementary materials
cardiac arrest
Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is becoming a substantial worldwide health burden.1 2A systematic review of the international epidemiology of OHCA from 1991 to 2007 reported that the estimated incidence of emergency medical services (EMS)-attended OHCA per 100 000 person-years was 86.4 in Europe, 98.1 in North America, 52.5 in Asia and 112.9 in Australia. The percentage of patients with survival to discharge is extremely low: 9.4% in Europe, 6.3% in North America, 2.2% in Asia and 10.7% in Australia.2Accurately predicting the daily incidence of OHCA may provide a significant public benefit. Since the incidence of OHCA is affected by meteorological conditions,3–10the application of high-resolution meteorological data to medicine might provide ways to improve predictions of the daily incidence of OHCA.
Machine learning (ML) has recently emerged as a novel approach to integrate multiple quantitative variables to improve diagnosis and accuracy of incidence predictions in cardiovascular medicine.11–13Since meteorological data are very extensive and complex, ML can help identify associations not identified by conventional one-dimensional statistical approaches. By combining OHCA data with high-resolution meteorological data, such as daily forecasts, ML could use advanced analytics to build a warning system for individuals potentially at risk for OHCA of cardiac origin through internet of things (IoT) devices.
This study presents a predictive model for robust estimation of daily OHCA incidence of cardiac origin using a suite of ML approaches. This model was evaluated using a nationwide database of OHCA, as well as comprehensive meteorological data and chronological data.
Methods
Study design and setting
We matched two datasets between 1 January 2005 and 31 December 2015 at the hour level based on the time of the emergency call: the All-Japan Utstein Registry of the Fire and Disaster Management Agency (FDMA) dataset on patients with OHCA of cardiac origin and a meteorological dataset from the Weather Company, an IBM Business (Atlanta, Georgia, USA). We classified data from 1 January 2005 to 31 December 2013 in this merged dataset as the training dataset for developing the predictive models and data from 1 January 2014 to 31 December 2015 as the testing dataset for assessing whether the predictive models can work in other years. Japan has an area of approximately 378 000 km 2and its population was approximately 127 million in 2005.14Online supplemental figure 1shows three representative cities located at different latitudes in Japan: Sapporo at N43°, Kobe at N34° and Naha at N26°.
Supplemental material
[heartjnl-2020-318726supp001.pdf]
We performed a four-step analysis. First, we elucidated the association between the incidence of OHCA and daily meteorological and chronological variables. Second, we developed an ML predictive models for OHCA incidence based on daily meteorological data, chronological data and combined meteorological and chronological data from the training dataset.15 16Third, we examined the concordance between the predicted incidence of OHCA based on the ML model and the observed incidence of OHCA in a testing dataset. To further examine concordance at the district level after the time period covered by the original dataset, we performed heatmap analysis using another dataset on the location of OHCA in Kobe city between 1 January 2016 and 31 December 2018. The Kobe Municipal Fire Department has detailed information about where OHCA events occurred in certain districts. The population of Kobe city is more than 1.5 million. Its age distribution (population pyramid) is similar to that of Japan overall. Finally, we investigated the relative strength of the associations between meteorological variables and the incidence of OHCA in each predictive model. The main outcome was the daily incidence of OHCA.
A subcommittee for resuscitation science in the Japanese Circulation Society was provided with registry data following the prescribed governmental procedures.
OHCA dataset
Patients with OHCA of cardiac origin in the FDMA’s All-Japan Utstein Registry were included. The All-Japan Utstein Registry is a prospective, population-based, nationwide registry of patients who have had an OHCA event. Data were prospectively recorded using the internationally standardised Utstein template.17The following patient information was collected and analysed: age, sex, aetiology of arrest (ie, cardiac or non-cardiac) and time of the emergency call. All event times were synchronised with the dispatch centre clock. In Japan, all patients with OHCA who received prehospital resuscitation efforts by EMS personnel are transported to a hospital because they are not permitted to terminate resuscitation in the field. Data were stored on the FDMA registry database server and checked for missing values. If a data form was incomplete, the FDMA returned it to the respective fire station for completion. The registry has yielded some findings about patients with OHCA.14 18–21Details of the registry are described in theonline supplemental materials.
Meteorological and chronological dataset
We analysed meteorological data from the Weather Company (https://www.ibm.com/weather) that operates a weather forecasting service platform (online supplemental materials). Between 1 January 2005 and 31 December 2015, the resolution of the meteorological data was 30 km gridded points (Weather Company Data Packages). In 2016, the resolution improved to 4 km gridded points. Meteorological variables included ambient temperature (°C), relative humidity (%), precipitation during the previous hour (mm), snowfall (mm), cloud coverage (%), wind speed (kph) and atmospheric pressure (hPa). Chronological variables included year (2005 was considered year 0), season (spring: March–May; summer: June–August; autumn: September–November; winter: December–February, with winter coded as the reference value), day of the week (with Sunday coded as the reference value), holidays and Japanese holiday season from 29 December to 6 January (categorical variable with a value of 0 or 1).
Development of predictive models
To develop predictive models for the daily incidence of OHCA, we used the the eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) algorithm, which is an optimised distributed gradient boosting library widely used by data scientists for many ML challenges.11–13Hyperparameters of the XGBoost algorithm were chosen to maximise the predictive ability of the model using fourfold cross-validation. In fourfold cross-validation, we classified our dataset into four groups, and the XGBoost algorithm fitted decision trees to three groups and used the remaining group for validation. This procedure was performed four times with a different validation group each time. Population size for each prefecture was included in the XGBoost algorithm as an offset term. We did not use ambient air pressure to avoid possible multicollinearity.
Statistical analysis
The characteristics of present dataset were summarised with medians and IQRs for continuous variables and numbers and percentages for categorical variables by prefecture and day in the training and testing datasets. The generalised linear models (GLMs) based on the Poisson distribution investigated the associations between meteorological variables and daily OHCA incidence by prefecture using all data in univariable models and a multivariable model. We exponentiated regression coefficients and 95% CIs to present incidence rate ratios (IRRs) for estimated OHCA incidence with each 1-unit increase in a meteorological variable. A p value of less than 0.05 was considered to indicate a significant difference.
We evaluated the predictive accuracy of the predictive models based on mean absolute error (MAE) and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) between predicted values calculated by the predictive models and observed daily OHCA incidence by prefecture. MAE reflects the average magnitude of differences between predicted values and observed values. MAE ranges from zero to infinity. Lower MAE values indicate higher predictive performance. MAPE is generally used as a measure of the predictive accuracy of a forecasting method. It is an average of the absolute values of errors divided by observed values. MAPE ranges from 0% to 100%. Lower MAPE values indicate higher model predictive performance. In general, MAPE less than 10% is considered highly accurate predicting.22We also calculated correlation coefficients, which can range from −1.00 to 1.00. Higher absolute values indicate higher model predictive performance.
We investigated the relative strength of the associations between each meteorological variable and OHCA incidence in the ML predictive model using a Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) algorithm.23For a given set of feature values, a SHAP value reflects how much a single variable, in the context of its interaction with other variables, contributes to the difference between the actual prediction and the mean prediction.
All statistical analyses were performed with R statistical software V.3.5.0 (https://www.R-project.org/) and the xgboost package for R V.0.71.2 (https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=xgboost). Full analysis dataset had no missing information in any key variables.
Results
Characteristics of the training and testing datasets
Among the 1 299 784 OHCA cases in the All-Japan Utstein Registry between 2005 and 2015, there were 661 052 OHCA cases of cardiac origin matched with meteorological data; 525 374 cases were in the training dataset on which fourfold cross-validation was performed, and 135 678 cases were in the testing dataset. The characteristics of the datasets are summarised intable 1. Between 2005 and 2015, the median daily incidence of OHCA increased from 133 (IQR 109–167) to 173 cases (IQR 146–216) and the median annual incidence of OHCA increased from 44.5 to 59.7 per 100 000 person-years. The median age of OHCA onset increased from 77 (IQR 66–85) to 80 years (IQR 70–87), and the proportion of males decreased from 59% to 57%. Various meteorological changes were observed in representative prefectures located at different latitudes over the study period. The median of the mean ambient temperature within a day increased from 5.6°C (IQR −2.8 to 14.8) to 7.1°C (IQR −1.5 to 14.6) in Sapporo at N43°. This trend was not observed in Kobe at N34° or Naha at N26°. Differences between maximum and minimum ambient temperatures within a day decreased from 7.0°C (4.1–10.2) to 6.4°C (4.1–9.2) in Sapporo, but increased from 5.0°C (3.5–6.4) to 5.4°C (4.0–6.9) in Kobe.
Table 1
Characteristics of daily data in the training (2005–2013) and testing (2014–2015) datasets
Association between meteorological and chronological variables and OHCA incidence
Online supplemental figure 2shows the incidence of OHCA by each meteorological variable. The association between OHCA incidence of cardiac origin and mean ambient temperature was U-shaped, meaning that the incidence of OHCA was lowest at approximately 25°C and higher at temperatures above and below.
Exponentiated regression coefficients (ie, IRRs) of the GLM are shown intable 2. In univariable models, conventional ambient temperature, relative humidity, precipitation during the previous hour, snowfall, cloud coverage and wind speed were statistically associated with OHCA incidence (p<0.05, respectively). In the multivariable model, similar statistical associations were observed, except for mean precipitation during the previous hour, mean snowfall and mean wind speed for each day.
Table 2
Incidence rate ratios (IRRs) obtained with a GLM based on the Poisson distribution for both datasets
Predictive accuracy of the models
Predicted and observed OHCA incidence of cardiac origin are plotted for each model infigure 1. Initially, we developed the predictive models based on comprehensive meteorological variables and chronological variables, respectively, using ML. The predicted values fitted the observed values well. ML predictive models with comprehensive meteorological variables were able to predict the daily change in OHCA incidence but were not able to predict a large increase in OHCA incidence accurately during the winter (figure 1A). ML predictive models with chronological variables were able to predict a large increase in OHCA incidence during the winter (figure 1B). By combining meteorological and chronological variables in a single ML predictive model, the concordance of the predicted values and the observed values improved (figure 1C). Predictive accuracy of the predictive models is shown intable 3. Among all predictive models, the predictive model with combined meteorological and chronological variables had the highest predictive accuracy in the training (MAE 1.314 and MAPE 7.007%) and testing datasets (MAE 1.547 and MAPE 7.788%). The predictive model with combined meteorological and chronological variables also had the highest correlations between observed and predicted values in the training (r=0.880, 95% CI 0.880 to 0.880) and testing datasets (r=0.870, 95% CI 0.860 to 0.870) (online supplemental figure 3).
Figure 1
Observed versus predicted incidence of OHCA. The blue dots indicate the observed total number of OHCAs per day in Japan. The red dots indicate the predicted number based on the following predictive models: (A) ML model with comprehensive meteorological variables, (B) ML model with chronological variables and (C) ML model with combined meteorological and chronological variables. ML, machine learning; OHCA, out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.
Table 3
Accuracy of the predictive models for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest based on meteorological data, chronological data and combined meteorological and chronological data
Moreover, using the predictive model with combined meteorological and chronological variables, we predicted the incidence of OHCA at a district level in Kobe city during a 1-week period after 2016.Figure 2shows the heatmap of observed vs predicted numbers of OHCA incidence between 28 January and 3 February 2018. During this week, 24 OCHA events were predicted for Kobe city, while 27 OCHA events were observed. The heatmap showed that zero to four OHCA events occurred in each district during this week. Among nine districts, the predicted OHCA incidence matched the observed OHCA incidence in four districts (districts A, B, E and G). One fewer OHCA event was predicted than observed in three districts (districts C, F and I).
Figure 2
Heatmap of observed and predicted OHCA incidence at the district level in Kobe city during a 1-week period. The blue graduation indicates the number of OHCA events, ranging from 1 to 4. The population for each district is provided. OHCA, out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.
Predictive importance
The predictive importance of meteorological and chronological variables in the ML predictive model is shown infigure 3. With regard to meteorological variables, lower mean ambient temperature within a day was the most strongly associated with the incidence of OHCA. In addition, larger difference in mean ambient temperature from the previous day and larger difference between maximum and minimum ambient temperatures within a day were also more strongly associated with the incidence of OHCA than other variables. Among chronological variables, more recent year, winter, Sunday, Monday and holiday were more strongly associated with the incidence of OHCA.
Figure 3
Importance of meteorological and chronological variables in a machine learning predictive model. This figure shows variable importance plots for meteorological (A) and chronological variables (B) in the machine learning predictive model using XGBoost. The yellow to purple dots in each row represent low to high values of the number of OHCA events corresponding to that meteorological or chronological variable. The x-axis shows the Shapley value, indicating the variable’s impact on the model. Positive SHAP values tend to drive predictions towards an OHCA event, and negative SHAP values tend to drive the prediction towards no OHCA events. *In the model, 2005 was considered year 0. OHCA,out-of-hospital cardiac arrest; SHAP, Shapley Additive Explanations; XGBoost, eXtreme Gradient Boosting.
Discussion
In this study, using the predictive model developed with combined meteorological and chronological variables, we succeeded in predicting OHCA incidence of cardiac origin with high precision. Our study is the first to predict daily OHCA incidence based on both meteorological and chronological variables using ML.
Previous studies that investigated meteorological variables associated with the incidence of cardiovascular events used ambient temperature alone or seasons8–10 24and were limited to one city or region.8 9Thus, these studies did not take diversity in geography and climate into account. Indeed, Japan is located in a temperate zone with four distinct seasons and its climate varies from cool temperate in the north to subtropical in the south. Latitude ranges from N45° to N20°. In this study, we used ML to process complex data that included a nationwide registry of OHCA events and a comprehensive meteorological dataset. If climate change becomes more intense, the relationship between OHCA incidence and comprehensive meteorological data may become all the more crucial.
Meaning of study
Our predictive model for the daily incidence of OHCA had high predictive accuracy. In particular, a larger difference in mean ambient temperature from the previous day and a larger range in ambient temperature within a day, in addition to mean ambient temperature lower or higher than 25°C within a day (a U-shaped distribution), were associated with OHCA incidence of cardiac origin. We speculated that a sudden change in ambient temperature on days with extreme cold or heat plays a key role in increasing the risk of OHCA of cardiac origin; this might be related to increased sympathetic tone and blood viscosity.25 26However, in this study, we could not investigate how the location of OHCA affects the association between meteorological condition and the incidence of OHCA because detailed information about whether OHCA events occurred indoors or outdoors was not available. If this information is available in future research, one prevention method might be to advise individuals to stay home using an IoT device warning system on high-risk days. We found important chronological variables that affect the incidence of OHCA such as season, day of the week and holiday. Combining meteorological and chronological variables further improved the predictive accuracy of the ML predictive model. Importantly, at the local level, a heatmap showed that predicted OHCA incidence based on the ML predictive model fitted observed OHCA incidence well. Although our model was developed based on meteorological data with a resolution of 30 km gridded points, it could be applied even at a district level within one city. The model could be more practically useful if it could be further improved to predict OHCA incidence within a medical catchment area.
Implications
One advantage of using meteorological data to make predictions of OHCA incidence is that weather forecasts can predict meteorological conditions 2 weeks ahead. Our predictive model for daily incidence of OHCA is widely generalisable for the general population in developed countries because this study had a large sample size and used comprehensive meteorological data. Many developed countries are located in a similar latitude range as Japan. The methods developed in this study serve as an example of a new model for predictive analytics that could be applied to other clinical outcomes of interest related to life-threatening acute cardiovascular disease. It could also provide more opportunities to support self-management in high-risk individuals through IoT devices.27 28Moreover, we expect to use our predictive model to provide warnings to EMS personnel, in addition to citizens, on high-risk days. As a result, it may lead to shorter transport time from onset to hospital arrival and rapid start of advanced resuscitation care after hospital arrival. Future research should prospectively evaluate the effectiveness of this approach and whether it translates into improved clinical outcomes.
Strengths and limitations
Our study has several strengths. First, the All-Japan Utstein Registry included all patients with OHCA who received prehospital resuscitation efforts by EMS personnel because they are not permitted to terminate resuscitation in the field. Moreover, uniform data collection, a large sample size and a population-based design covering all known OHCA events in Japan minimise potential sources of bias. These features contribute to the representativeness of the present predictive models.
This study has several inherent limitations. First, we did not have detailed information about where OHCA events occurred in various districts except in Kobe city; information was generally only available on the prefecture level. Second, our data did not address the potential variability in patients’ preexisting medical conditions. Third, the predictability of future OHCA events will depend on the accuracy of meteorological data. Finally, external testing in other developed countries was not performed.
Conclusion
An ML predictive model using combined multiple meteorological and chronological variables could predict OHCA incidence of cardiac origin with high precision. Furthermore, this predictive model may be useful for preventing OHCA and improving the prognosis of patients with OHCA via a warning system for citizens and EMS on high-risk days in the future.
Key messages
What is already known on this subject?
Previous studies have shown an association between lower ambient temperature and the incidence of cardiovascular events.
What might this study add?
This study using Japanese out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) registry data combined with high-resolution meteorological and chronological data demonstrated that various meteorological and chronological variables are significantly associated with the incidence of OHCA of cardiac origin. A machine learning predictive model developed with comprehensive meteorological and chronological variables predicted the daily incidence of OHCA with high precision. Sunday, Monday, holiday, winter, low ambient temperature, and large interday or intraday temperature difference were strongly associated with OHCA incidence.
How might this impact on clinical practice?
This predictive model may be useful for preventing OHCA and improving the prognosis of patients with OHCA via a warning system for citizens and emergency medical services on high-risk days, thereby in the future.
Data availability statement
Ethics statements
Patient consent for publication
Not required.
Ethics approval
A subcommittee for resuscitation science in the Japanese Circulation Society was provided with registry data following prescribed governmental procedures. The ethics committee of the National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Centre approved the study (M30-055-2). In this registry study, the requirement of written informed consent was waived because the researchers only analysed deidentified (anonymised) data.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all the emergency medical services (EMS) personnel and staff members of the Fire and Disaster Management Agency (FDMA) and Institute for Fire Safety and Disaster Preparedness of Japan for their cooperation in establishing and maintaining the Utstein database.
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Supplementary materials
Supplementary DataThis web only file has been produced by the BMJ Publishing Group from an electronic
file supplied by the author(s) and has not been edited for content. Data supplement 1
Footnotes
ContributorsTN contributed to formulation of the study design, interpretation of the results and contributed to the final report. TN, YY, SY, KI and RN contributed to the final report. KN, SO, SK and DO contributed to data analysis. YT, SK, TI, KN, TS and HN contributed to formulation of the concept of the All-Japan Utstein Registry, data collection and data management. All authors approved the final version.
FundingThis research was supported by the Environment Research and Technology Development Fund (1–1905) of the Environmental Restoration and Conservation Agency of Japan, a Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (A) (20K17914) of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, and the Intramural Research Fund of Cardiovascular Disease of the National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Centre (30-6-15). All authors had full access to all datasets. The OHCA dataset from the All-Japan Utstein Registry of the FDMA is a publicly accessible, open database. The meteorological dataset from the Weather Company, an IBM Business, was available by license agreement. The corresponding author had the ultimate responsibility for the decision to submit for publication.
DisclaimerThe funders of the study, FDMA, Kobe Municipal Fire Department and IBM had no role in study design, data, collection, data analysis, data interpretation or writing of the report.
Competing interestsNone declared.
Provenance and peer reviewNot commissioned; externally peer reviewed.
Supplemental materialThis content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.
| https://heart.bmj.com/content/107/13/1084 |
Agronomy | Free Full-Text | Postharvest Geometric Characterization of Table Olive Bruising from 3D Digitalization
The physical properties of table olive fruit are an important factor in the design of harvesting, transport, classification, and commercialization. The visual quality of the fruits harvested is the most important factor limiting the commercialization of table olives. The mechanical damage during harvesting consists of local tissue degradation, resulting in bruising of the fruits. In recent years, several studies have been carried out to identify physical properties and to calculate indices that characterize the damage to olives. However, all of them are based on 2D techniques. The aim of this work is the determination of new geometric parameters based on a 3D analysis of the scanned olives. The 3D shape parameters have been collated with those obtained by standard 2D shape analysis methods. From the results, it is observed that the use of high-resolution, medium-cost 3D technologies allows a more precise characterization of the shape of damages observed in table olives. To carry out three-dimensional analysis, Boolean operations of the solid and parametric surfaces of the meshes obtained by a 3D scanner have been used.
Ramón González-Merino 1 ,
Rafael E. Hidalgo-Fernández 2 ,
Jesús Rodero 1 ,
Rafael R. Sola-Guirado 3 and
Elena Sánchez-López 2,*
1
Department of Visual Computing, Technology Centre of Metal-Mechanical and Transport, 23700 Linares, Spain
2
Department of Graphic and Geomatic Engineering, Campus of Rabanales, University of Córdoba, 14071 Cordoba, Spain
3
Department of Mechanics, Campus de Rabanales, University of Cordoba, 14071 Cordoba, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2022 , 12 (11), 2732; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12112732
Received: 30 September 2022 / Revised: 31 October 2022 / Accepted: 2 November 2022 / Published: 3 November 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The New Agricultural Revolution: From Traditional Farms to Smart Agriculture—New Technologies in Agriculture 5.0 )
The physical properties of table olive fruit are an important factor in the design of harvesting, transport, classification, and commercialization. The visual quality of the fruits harvested is the most important factor limiting the commercialization of table olives. The mechanical damage during harvesting consists of local tissue degradation, resulting in bruising of the fruits. In recent years, several studies have been carried out to identify physical properties and to calculate indices that characterize the damage to olives. However, all of them are based on 2D techniques. The aim of this work is the determination of new geometric parameters based on a 3D analysis of the scanned olives. The 3D shape parameters have been collated with those obtained by standard 2D shape analysis methods. From the results, it is observed that the use of high-resolution, medium-cost 3D technologies allows a more precise characterization of the shape of damages observed in table olives. To carry out three-dimensional analysis, Boolean operations of the solid and parametric surfaces of the meshes obtained by a 3D scanner have been used.
Keywords:
3D scanning
;
table olives
;
fruit damage
;
dimensional properties
;
modelling
1. Introduction
Spain is the world’s leading producer of table olives (
Olea europaea
L.), a market that every year generates worldwide trade valued at EUR 1700 million [
1
]. The world production of table olives is approximately 2,504,000 t. The cultivation of table olives presents a great diversity of productive situations, so in the analysis of production costs, they must be established according to the different types of cultivation and the costs derived from each of them. Of the main costs, the vast majority are common to olives intended for oil production and table olives, such as the costs of fertilization, soil maintenance, pruning, and phytosanitary treatments, among others. The main difference is found in the costs derived from the harvesting technique. In general, this first stage of the production process entails an increase in costs due to the fact that the highest percentage of table olive harvesting is carried out by hand picking methods. Other harvesting alternatives use semi-mechanized systems, such as branch shakers and shaker combs [
2
], but they contribute to the further development of damage to the olive.
The incorporation of mechanization techniques for harvesting is strongly hindered due to the different damages suffered by the olive throughout the process. In general, the olives receive blows during the harvesting process, handling operations, and post-harvest transport, giving rise to a phenomenon called “molestado” [
3
]. Fruit bruising consists of a cellular tissue rupture that releases intracellular water, leading to the oxidation of phenolic compounds. In time, depending on the characteristics of the impact, the affected skin darkens and contrasts notably with the rest of the olive’s green color [
4
]. In the case of olives dedicated to oil extraction, this phenomenon is not important, but for table olives it represents a very important handicap in terms of product quality, so much so that the minimum quality criteria and the defects that this type of olives may have for their commercialization are determined by the Commercial Standard COI/OT/NC nº1 of December 2004 and Royal Decree 679/2016 and Royal Decree 679/2016 [
5
,
6
]. In the current marketing system, the quality and appearance of the fruit prevail over other parameters, such as the proportion of the pulp versus the pit, or the non-use of phytosanitary products.
In general, there are a number of factors that favor the appearance of damage to the fruit. The incidence and severity of damage is related to various pre-harvest and post-harvest causes [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Several studies have focused on determining factors intrinsic to the fruit, such as shape, size, amount of water, firmness, intercellular strength, elasticity, shape, and cell structure, among others, as possible internal factors [ 9 , 12 ], and these are related to the appearance of these damages.
The study and characterization of these factors has been the main objective of many of the research works on this subject that have been developed in recent decades. Many authors have experimented with various techniques to determine the origin of this damage, as well as the power to establish some type of index that allows measuring and characterizing the damage with the aim of preventing it. In summary, in recent decades various types of tests have been carried out to determine the internal properties and detect damage to the fruit. Among this type of test are:
▪
Controlled impact test [ 10 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ];
▪
Compression test [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ];
▪
Vibration test [ 21 , 22 ].
As well as non-destructive techniques:
▪
Artificial vision systems [ 23 ];
▪
Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) [ 24 , 25 , 26 ];
▪
Visible and near-infrared spectroscopy (Vis-NIR) [ 14 , 27 , 28 ];
▪
Nuclear magnetic resonance [ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ];
▪
Thermal or ultrasound imaging [ 34 , 35 , 36 ];
▪
Electrical impedance [ 37 ].
In the same way, there are also numerous works focused on the quantification of different physical and geometric parameters (such as diameter, length, weight, volume) [ 7 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ], or the quantification of the susceptibility to suffer damage by the fruit [ 10 , 13 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ]. There are numerous efforts by researchers to find out what causes damage to the fruit and how it could be avoided or, in any case, reduced as much as possible, so that it does not affect its quality.
However, the main non-destructive techniques used by these authors either do not penetrate the fruit body and are limited only to characterizing the fruit surface (visible and near infrared spectroscopy, thermal imaging, or, recently, hyperspectral imaging), or use techniques that can penetrate the fruit and allow obtaining 2D and 3D images of the interior but are excessively expensive and are not available to any user (e.g., Magnetic Resonance Imaging). The aim of this work is to provide a new method of identification and characterization of the superficial damage produced in table olives that are generated throughout the entire production process, through the use of state-of-the-art and economically affordable 3D equipment. The proposed system is based on the digitization and 3D measurement of olives to determine geometric parameters that are very complicated to measure accurately through the previously mentioned methods, given their high two-dimensional component based on images.
2. Materials and Methods
In the present work, non-destructive methods using 3D digitalization were carried out. Furthermore, the study also applied a digital image analysis, as a usual bruise analysis methods, to compare results.
2.1. Hardware
The Digital Image Analysis system was composed of a main DSLR camera (Nikon D7500, Nikon Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) with a mounted macro lens (Sigma 105 mm f/2.8 ex macro dg hsm, Sigma Corporation, Tokyo, Japan), connected to a laptop computer (MSI GT73VR 7RE Titan, Micro-Star International CO., LTD, Taipei, Taiwan) to trigger the shots. The system provides images of 5568 × 3712 pixels (20.9 Megapixel), 48 bits color depth, and 21.3 Mb/picture. The photographs were taken at an aperture setting of f/7.1, shutter speed E:1/13 s, light sensitivity ISO:100, focal length 105 mm macro, and exposure compensation +1 stop EV.
The entire system was stabilized on a tripod (Manfrotto 055 pro, Videndum Media Solutions Spa. Cassola, Italy). To avoid hard shadows, no flash was used. To prevent parasitic lights and reflections, the photographs were taken inside a softbox (Neewer, Shenshen, China). The lighting system consisted of two white LED spotlights (5000° K daylight color) on the outside and on both sides of the softbox. Before taking pictures, the monitor was calibrated using a ColorChecker Display calibrator (Calibrite LLC, Wilmington, NC, USA), and a color profile was generated using ColorChecker passport (Calibrite LLC, Wilmington, NC, USA). All photographs were acquired in Adobe 1998 color space and RAW format without compression to avoid loss of color information.
The acquisition of 3D models of the olives was carried out using a 3D scanner (Artec3D mod. Spider, Artec 3D, Senningerberg, Luxembourg). This is a handheld type of structured light technology scanner. It has a 3D point accuracy of 0.05 mm, enough to detect the small defects of the olive. In the same way, the 3D scanner was placed on a small tripod to avoid sudden movements during the scanning process. The olives were attached to a small stick and scanned on a turntable controlled from the laptop to achieve a semi-automatic system.
2.2. Samples
The sampling, taken from a farm with UTM coordinates 30 N 372041 4147700, consisted of the collection of 103 olives, of two different varieties (Hojiblanca and Picuda), of which, 60 were selected after a mechanical harvest and 43 were selected by hand on the tree, 13 of them showing some disease (as a consequence of the presence of Camarosporium dalmaticum L. or Sphaeropsis dalmatica L.) on the fruit. From the point of view of geometry, there was no difference between damaged and diseased olives, beyond the effects of the disease, which affects the olive’s skin and the flesh. Sampling of diseased olives was only carried out manually, as an example of olives with damage of a different nature than those produced in the harvesting process. The proposed objective was to characterize the geometry of damages of a different nature. The sample distribution can be seen in Table 1 .
2.3. Image Analysis
The image analysis was performed by the Fiji ImageJ2 (ImageJ 1.53q, National Institutes of Health, USA) image processing package. Fiji was released as open source under the GNU General Public License builds on top of the ImageJ2 core. It was run on a desktop PC (intel i7, 64 Gb RAM, and Geforce RTX 1080 Ti graphic card). The process was carried out in the Visual Computing Department of Technological Centre of Metal–Mechanical and Transport.
The olives were photographed with the described system one by one. The olives were positioned on the photography area randomly. A total of 100 olives of two varieties (Hojiblanca and Picuda) were photographed. The entire set of photographs was imported into the Adobe Lightroom software (Adobe, San Jose, CA, USA), without any treatment, for review and classification. For the digital image analysis process, the best quality photograph of the three was chosen.
The color of the fruits, even in fruits of the same species, can vary slightly depending on many factors, such as the maturity state. Because this segmentation method strongly depends on the color of each individual pixel, it is very sensitive to these changes [
47
]. For this reason, a first identification of the healthy area and the damaged area was carried out manually. In this operation, the RGB values that discriminated only two classes were identified: healthy area and damaged area. With the range of RGB values determined, both for healthy and damaged areas, a semi-automatic routine was developed for the processing of the olive sample set.
The first step of the workflow (
Figure 1
and
Figure 2
) was the calibration of the image to determine the pixel/mm equivalence, obtaining an average of 85 pixels/mm. In this way, all the parameters and measurements made on the image will be shown as real metric units. Then, the ROI corresponding to the area of the image showing the olive was cropped. Damaged versus healthy areas were then segmented. To do this, the 16 bits/channel image (uncompressed.tiff image) was converted to Color RGB, with 32 bits per pixel, and the RGB channels were separated into individual channels: R, G, and B. The G channel allows discriminating with greater precision the healthy areas from the damaged ones. Two binary images were obtained, corresponding to whole olive area (total area binary image) and damaged area (bruise spots binary image). Thus, it was used as a basis for the mathematical operations of segmentation.
The semi-automatic routine was then run, in which the parameters to be identified in each of the detected damages had previously been indicated. In order to eliminate isolated pixels resulting from small variations in segmentation, a Median filter with a threshold value of 0.254 was applied to the image. Previously, the system was configured so that it did not consider those areas of less than 0.1 mm
2
, because they could be artifacts resulting from the segmentation process. The bruised spots were automatically identified and measured.
The complete image analysis process required 8 min. Finally, the results were exported to a .csv file, in which each area corresponding to the damage, the total area of the olive, and a set of geometric parameters were identified. The measured parameters are ( Table 2 ):
▪
Area, in mm 2 : the average amount of pixels corresponding to spot defects or total olive area.
▪
X and Y coordinates of the center of the equivalent ellipse.
▪
Major and Minor, as primary and secondary axis of the best fitting ellipse to shape. This parameter can be assigned to the longest and shortest axes diameters of the olive in the photographs.
▪
Angle (0–180°), as the angle between the primary axis and a line parallel to the x-axis of the image.
In addition, several parameters, such as shape descriptors, were automatically calculated:
▪
Circularity (0–1), to analyze the closeness to a perfect circle of the particle (bruise area), where 1.0 is a perfect circle and 0 assimilates to an infinite elongated shape. Calculated as 4π * [Area]/[Perimeter] 2 .
▪
Aspect Ratio (AR), as a relation between major axis/minor axis. [Major Axis]/[Minor Axis].
▪
Roundness, to determine the degree of “sharpness” of the corners, both of the photographed surface of the entire olive and of the bruised areas, calculated as 4 * ([Area]/π * [Major Axis] 2 ).
▪
Number of spots: the number of bruised defects detected by digital image analysis.
These parameters will be used to analyze the possible origin of the damage of the olives based on their morphology (sticks, edges, pebbles, among others). Thus, one of the targets of this work is to try to determine the possible origin of the bruises of the olives. In this way, elongated damage can be related, for example, to sticks, and cuts with sharp edges or rounded bruise can be assigned to pebbles or machinery.
2.4. 3D Scanning
▪
The scanning of the olives was also carried out one by one. For this, Artec Studio 13 software (Artec 3D, Senningerberg, Luxembourg) was used. This software was also used to process the scans. The scheme of the scanning process was generally as described below ( Figure 3 and Figure 4 ).
▪
Three partial scans were performed per olive. Once the scans were finished, they were processed and the registration of the three scans was carried out to unite them into a single final scan.
▪
The next step was to remove the erroneous and outlier’s points and generate the 3D polygonal mesh. For this, a resolution of 0.05 mm was established ( Table 3 ).
▪
Finally, the 3D model of the olives was texturized (colored), and the results were exported in wavefront.obj format. The total time used in the entire process was 10 min per olive, time that can be significantly reduced in the case of scanning several olives at the same time.
The analysis of the olives made with the high-resolution 3D models was carried out in four stages:
▪
Curvature map of the mesh. The first step was to automatically detect the damage areas, such as those areas that were far from the ideal olive without damage. On the 3D olive meshes (
Figure 5
a), the modifications in the curvature of the surface are visualized, because not all the defects that the olives present have color variation to allow them to be analyzed; this is a problem of the image analysis that the three-dimensional analysis does not present. The texturing of the 3D models allows one to verify the goodness of the defects obtained by the three-dimensional analysis and compare them to the image analysis. To represent these variations in the curvature of the olive surfaces, a zebra analysis, a system widely used in product design, has been tested but does not clearly represent the damage, as can be seen in
Figure 5
b. Instead, a model with a color scale that marks the intensity of the surface deviations was opted for:
Figure 5
c,d.
▪
Creation of 3D virtual olive without damage. To calculate the bruising, an ideal olive without defects, called a “virtual olive”, is needed. Starting from the 3D mesh, (
Figure 6
a), and based on the curvature of the mesh (
Figure 6
b), the defects captured by the 3D scanner will be verified, hiding the photographic texture (
Figure 6
c). In this way, the 3D mesh of the virtual olive with an ideal surface is created. For this, the Polyworks Suite metrology, release 2012 software (InnovMetric Software Inc., Quebec, Canada) was used. The operation creates a theoretical surface without defects directly from the polygonal model. The theoretical surface and the olive 3D polygonal model are then compared in order to measure surface shape deviations. This allows the detection of some surface defects that could not have been detected by using usual color maps. The maximum defect width was imposed to 10 mm. The tolerance limits to the color map were ranged between 0 (normal olive) to –1.2 mm (max. bruise depth) (
Figure 6
d).
An overlay of the original mesh without texture ( Figure 6 c) and the virtual olive mesh, ( Figure 6 e), visually shows us the damage to the olive.
▪
NURBS model. In order to carry out an analysis of the damage, the value of the surfaces and volumes must be obtained, performing as a previous step the conversion of the 3D meshes into parametric models that allow us to perform mathematical operations.
The mathematical solids obtained are formed by NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational B-Splines) surfaces. For the creation of these models, it will be necessary to eliminate any defect in the 3D meshes. Different fruits have been modeled using NURBS models [ 48 ].
Geomagic Design X Build version 2016 software (3D Systems, Inc., Rock Hill, South Carol., USA), for reverse engineering, allows one to select between mechanical and organic meshes and different options, as summarized in Table 4 .
The options shown allow one to create exactly the original mesh of the olives, starting with the models of the real olives ( Figure 7 a) and later creating the virtual olive ( Figure 7 b).
To verify the capture of the details in the NURBS surfaces, the deviation of the original mesh is compared with the mathematical mesh, representing in green all the surfaces that present a deviation of less than 0.015 mm; see Figure 7 c.
The same procedure is repeated for the virtual olive, verifying that the deviations are within the imposed limit of 0.015 mm; see Figure 8 c.
▪
Calculation of solids and surfaces. Obtaining the solids formed by NURBS surfaces allows the realization of Boolean operations, with which the solids that complete the defects of the real olives are obtained. Figure 9 a represents the real olive, Figure 9 b the virtual olive, and Figure 9 c the superimposition of the two solids.
To perform the Boolean subtraction operation, the solid of the virtual olive ( Figure 9 b) is taken as the target object, and the solid of the real olive ( Figure 9 c) is used as the cutting element, obtaining the solids of Figure 10 .
These 3D solids represent the volume of each of the area defects, Figure 11 .
From these 3D solids ( Figure 11 ), the exterior surfaces ( Figure 12 a) and interior ( Figure 12 b) of each imperfection are extracted.
After performing all the operations, all the imperfection data are extracted, both for solids and for external and internal surfaces, through a 3-min routine.
3. Results
In this work, two techniques for the characterization of damage in table olives have been used. Digital image analysis (DIA), as a relatively cheap, affordable, and well tested method, was used to compare the results with the proposed method based on the 3D models of olives. In recent years, more advanced results have been obtained through digital image analysis by using the visible and infrared spectrum, thermal imaging, etc. The main problem that all of them show is that they are based on a 2D model of the olive. In this aspect, the measurements obtained are partial and may be deformed towards the boundaries of the image due to the round geometry of the olives (
Figure 13
). Recently, Sola-Guirado et al. [
49
] provided a solution to this problem by partially segmenting the area without deformations of the image on which the defects are measured. These authors took 24 pictures per fruit and then cropped and merged them in a linear patter. Thus, the time to obtain and process the image is also multiplied by 24. The 3D techniques permit us to obtain, in a short time, a 3D real model of an olive, without deformations and with high-resolution details (up to 50 microns).
3.1. Digital Image Analysis
The main objective of this study was to obtain the most relevant parameters that would allow characterizing the damage to the olives. In recent years, more detailed studies have been published that delve deeper into these imaging techniques. These parameters will be compared later with the 3D equivalents of the olive models to validate the accuracy of the proposed method.
Firstly, it has been observed that the total area calculated from the image analysis shows a distribution close to normal, with a certain bias to the right. In general, the area from image analysis results is greater in the Hojiblanca variety than in the Picuda variety, with average values that range between 320 and 380 mm 2 for the Picuda and between 360 and 440 mm 2 for the Hojiblanca ( Figure 14 ). From these results, it is also observed that the size and number of the damages is not related to the size of the fruit.
In the same way, the intrinsic parameters of each variety (circularity, Feret’s diameters, roundness, total area, among others) are also related to the olive’s variety. In the case of circularity and roundness, they are both higher in the Hojiblanca variety (
Figure 15
). On the other hand, the determined aspect ratio (AR) is higher in the Picuda variety, showing that this variety has a more elongated geometry than the Hojiblanca. In this variety, a greater dispersion of the AR values is also observed (AR 1.5–1.75), while for Hojiblanca olives the range is much more limited (AR 1.3–1.4) (
Figure 16
). For these three shape descriptors, the distributions are bimodal, showing a clear differentiation between both types of varieties.
Regarding the number of damages, the image analysis does not show that one variety is clearly more damaged than the other, although, the highest values are observed in the Picuda variety. This is also corroborated, not only by the number of individual damages detected, but also by the relationship between the damaged area versus the healthy area. Once again, the olives with the highest rate of damage observed are the Picuda variety ( Figure 17 ).
In the case of the analysis of the identified damage, the same formal parameters have been calculated. From the image analysis, a total of 1028 damages (spot bruises) have been detected for all the olives studied. From the results obtained, it is observed that:
(1)
There is no direct relationship between the area of damage and the variety of olive. The highest percentage of damage size is in the range of 0.1–10 mm 2 , with the highest surface values corresponding to diseased olives ( Figure 18 a).
(2)
Parameters such as circularity or roundness do not allow discrimination between varieties of olives, both varieties being due to damage with similar geometries. In the same way, there is no differentiation between damage morphology that allows grouping damage to a specific cause (sticks, stones, machinery, among others) ( Figure 18 b)
(3)
Regarding the aspect ratio (AR) of the damage, the vast majority of damage is in the range of 1–4, denoting a relatively circular geometry. Some of the damages with values greater than 5–6 correspond to elongated damage and are assigned to blows and cuts produced by elements with a high linear component, such as sticks or elongated sharp areas. ( Figure 18 c).
3.2. Three-Dimensional Analysis Results
The first results correspond to the meshes resulting from the 3D scans. In a visual analysis of the meshes, the different types of disturbance can be appreciated (See Figure 19 and Figure 20 ).
The order in which the data have been distributed is shown in Table 5 .
Starting from the models of the virtual olives, the surface data and reference volumes are obtained. Figure 21 shows the distribution of the volumes of the olives, with an average of 3130.27 mm 3 .
The surfaces of the olives are represented in Figure 22 .
Applying the methodology described in Materials and Methods, the 103 samples of olives were analyzed, obtaining the models of imperfections that the real olive presents. The difference in the imperfections obtained can be seen in the examples of Figure 23 and Figure 24 , being (a) the olives with manual harvesting, (b) the olives with mechanical harvesting, and (c) the diseased olives.
The database was completed with the values extracted from the solids and from the external and internal surfaces of the imperfections. The analysis of the results was differentiated into two parts: surface analysis and solid analysis.
3.2.1. 3D Solid Analysis
It can be seen that the classification of the olives by the surface of the solids, Figure 25 , shows a distribution according to the olives that is consistent with the damage of each type of olive. To complete the classification, the distribution of the damage volumes was calculated, which provided a more precise distinction between the internal affectation of the olive pulp, obtaining a less dispersed classification, Figure 26 .
3.2.2. 3D Surface Analysis
Initially, the hypothesis of being able to differentiate the damages by comparing the two external and internal surfaces of the imperfections was raised. Figure 27 shows the percentage of damage compared to the total surface of the olive on the outer surfaces. These surfaces practically overlap, so they can be used interchangeably.
3.3. Comparison of Parameters for the Estimation of Fruit Bruising
The total damaged surface and volume calculated using the 3D analysis with solid or digital image analysis are shown in Table 6 . The 3D analysis can provide a qualitative value because it allows the calculation of the damage depth. It can already be seen that the digital image analysis method reports much lower values than the 3D method, because, in addition to losing information from different parts of the olive, the true magnitude of the damage in real projection is not appreciated. The damage surface estimation through image analysis is only slightly accurate in comparison with 3D analysis, when the damage remains in the area without deformation ( Figure 13 ), as can be observed in Figure 28 a. However, if the damage is in the area affected by the deformation, the estimated damage does not match the real one ( Figure 28 b). However, a very good relationship between the area determined with both methods has been determined, i.e., the area determined with the image analysis (one single photo) is of the order of 2.98 times smaller than the damaged area calculated with the 3D method. This can be seen in Figure 29 , where the 2D area values have been multiplied by this value to obtain an indication of the surface from 2D compensated, which is highly correlated with the area obtained with the 3D method.
However, this ratio between the areas calculated with both methods does not follow this ratio when the total fruit area of either a 2D face or the total 3D ellipsoid is taken into account. Table 6 shows a summary of the main bruise index, in percentage, obtained to characterize the damage to the fruit from the geometric parameters calculated with the different techniques. The results show that there are significant differences ( t -student test, p < 0.05) between the analysis methods for the diseased fruit, but there are not significant differences for bruised fruit.
Regarding the damage classification and their status, there were significant differences (ANOVA, Duncan’s test, p < 0.05) for the three parameters ( Table 7 ) between damaged olives and healthy olives. The mean damage in diseased olives is higher than in mechanically damaged olives, but not significantly different due to the high deviation between samples.
4. Discussion
The field of image processing has been the subject of intensive research and development activities for several decades. Rapid technological advances, especially in terms of computing power and network transmission bandwidth, have resulted in many remarkable and successful applications. Current techniques for defect detection are based on 2D technologies; these technologies are efficient and widely implemented in the industry. This broad area encompasses topics such as image/video processing; image/video analysis; image/video communications; image/video sensing, modelling, and representation; computational imaging; electronic imaging; information forensics and security; medical imaging; and machine learning, which have all been applied to these respective topics. In recent years, one of the fields of study of image analysis has been the detection and characterization of the damage produced in the fruit due to different causes. However, the image analysis technology presents technical limitations, derived mainly from this two-dimensional character:
When studying objects with a rounded three-dimensional geometry (spherical, cylindrical, ellipsoidal, etc.), a single photograph does not capture the entire object. In this case, it is necessary to take serial photographs throughout the entire object. With the increase in the number of photographs, it must be added that only a small part of the resulting photograph presents a minimum optical deformation. In this sense, the correct measurement of defects is only accurate in a small part of the fruit. Measuring damage to the entire fruit is therefore time consuming. In this work, a single capture per olive has been carried out as the most common method of capture. According to the results, in this single capture, only one third of the surface of the olive was correctly registered.
Image analysis techniques, with few exceptions, are not penetrating. In this sense, the only parameters that can be obtained are the references to the outer surface of the olive, without being able to analyze the development of the damage that affects the pulp. To study the geometry of the damage towards the interior of the fruit, it is necessary to use other complementary techniques.
As usual, in any technique based on color images, it is very dependent on the photographic capture conditions (camera, lens, triggering parameter, etc.). For large olive samples, light conditions must be maintained. Thus, variations in these conditions result in variations in the color of the olive surface.
In this sense, throughout the semi-automatic process it has been observed that some color variations not corresponding to damage have been wrongly assigned to damage. The routine has not been able to correctly segment the pixels. To avoid these errors, manual segmentation must be resorted to, leading to an increase in processing time.
Finally, the quality of the image in terms of pixels (resolution) will imply a better quality in the image analysis calibration. This process is fundamental for an optimal measurement of the parameters of the olive.
The three-dimensional analysis carried out avoids the problems described above, because complete information is available on the entire olive, which allows us to carry out a more exhaustive analysis of defects and more precise classifications. The weak points of the system can be highlighted:
Slightly slower process compared to image analysis. High-resolution 3D scanning requires a precise capture of the olive. This process is 5 min slower than a simple photograph, but the result is the 3D model of the complete olive, without deformations derived from optics and with results that do not depend on environmental conditions. In the case of serial photographs to obtain the olive, the multiplication process has to be completed, so that time difference can be reduced.
As with any technique, 3D digitization requires specific equipment. High resolution 3D scanners are not cheap. However, they always maintain the same capture conditions, speed and results. Another advantage is that the results are metrically definitive, avoiding calibration errors that in small sizes can lead to large differences in measurement. The capture of color images by 3D scanners helps to characterize the damage. Thus, with a single piece of equipment it is possible to obtain measurements of both color and shape.
For the use of this technology, a higher qualification of the operators is necessary.
The three-dimensional methodology focused on the analysis of solids offers more precise results and a faster procedure. Because olives are an organic product that undergoes continuous degradation over time, 3D scanning provides a solid and immutable database over time, which allows us to carry out a subsequent analysis or verification of bruising.
From the three-dimensional analysis, the detection of damage (deformation or concavity) not visible in the image analysis is also observed, because there are no color changes on the surface of the olive. Thus, in healthy olives, three-dimensional analysis techniques allow detecting small defects that go unnoticed by image analysis.
In subsequent advances of the work, it is planned to implement artificial intelligence methods for the automatic characterization of damage and its assignment to the origin of the damage, which will allow the redesign of both harvesting processes and machinery [ 50 , 51 ].
5. Conclusions and Future Work
In this work, a new methodology has been developed for the characterization of damages (bruise and disease) in table olives. It uses 3D technologies as a complement to standard 2D analyses, such as digital image analysis. The 3D digitization of table olives through structural light scanners allows one to obtain a precise record of the damage of table olives in the whole olive. Through this method, the main shape parameters have been estimated, and these characterize both the olives and the damage observed in them in a more precise and real way, because errors derived from optical deformations are avoided. A clear advantage of the proposed methodology, compared to traditional methodologies, is the ability to analyze the affectation of the olive pulp, being a fundamental parameter for its commercialization. It is also a relatively cheap and portable method compared to other 3D techniques used in the literature, such as CT.
A conversion factor has been calculated between the two-dimensional surface measurements obtained from image analysis and the results of 3D scanning. You may notice that by applying a scale factor of ×2.94 to the surface calculated by image analysis, the resulting area is very similar to that obtained from the three-dimensional shape analysis. This factor is valid for the generality of the observed damages. In the case of very deep damage, this equivalence could not be fulfilled, because the real surface differs significantly from the geometric one.
Future research should address the need to improve damage characterization and classification with 3D image processing methods, e.g., deep learning with improved 3D sensing and mapping techniques. These techniques could increase the speed of the 3D methodology, which, in combination with the use of a new system for the simultaneous capture of several olives, will reduce the processing time, allowing equalization of the two methodologies.
Future works could focus on the creation of an index based on the 3D methodology that completes the current indices.
It is intended to replicate the three-dimensional analysis in different fruits and their varieties to verify the universality of the system for the detection of defects by means of surfaces and volumes. This method of measurement based on three-dimensional real geometry aims to complement the usual methods of characterization of shape, providing a third dimension to the measurements and approximating more precisely the real dimensions of the damages.
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Figure 1. General image analysis workflow.
Figure 1. General image analysis workflow.
Figure 2. Bruise detection spot from image analysis workflow. Olive variety Hojiblanca: ( a ) original photographs, ( b ) ROI image cropped, ( c ) split color channels, ( d ) green (bruise spot) and blue (whole olive) channels for segmentation, ( e ) segmented images, and ( f ) results of image analysis.
Figure 2. Bruise detection spot from image analysis workflow. Olive variety Hojiblanca: ( a ) original photographs, ( b ) ROI image cropped, ( c ) split color channels, ( d ) green (bruise spot) and blue (whole olive) channels for segmentation, ( e ) segmented images, and ( f ) results of image analysis.
Figure 3. General scanning workflow.
Figure 3. General scanning workflow.
Figure 4. 3D scanning process: ( a ) partial scans; ( b ) scans registering; ( c ) 3D mesh generation, and ( d ) 3D mesh texturing.
Figure 4. 3D scanning process: ( a ) partial scans; ( b ) scans registering; ( c ) 3D mesh generation, and ( d ) 3D mesh texturing.
Figure 5. Curvature map of the mesh: ( a ) 3D mesh texturing; ( b ) zebra curvature; ( c ) curvature 1, and ( d ) curvature 2.
Figure 6. Creation of 3D virtual olive: ( a ) 3D mesh texturing; ( b ) curvature; ( c ) 3D mesh generation; ( d ) virtual olive, and ( e ) superposition of ( c , e ).
Figure 6. Creation of 3D virtual olive: ( a ) 3D mesh texturing; ( b ) curvature; ( c ) 3D mesh generation; ( d ) virtual olive, and ( e ) superposition of ( c , e ).
Figure 7. NURBS model of real olive: ( a ) 3D mesh texturing; ( b ) NURBS surfaces, and ( c ) surfaces deviation.
Figure 7. NURBS model of real olive: ( a ) 3D mesh texturing; ( b ) NURBS surfaces, and ( c ) surfaces deviation.
Figure 8. NURBS model of virtual olive: ( a ) virtual olive; ( b ) NURBS surfaces, and ( c ) surfaces deviation.
Figure 8. NURBS model of virtual olive: ( a ) virtual olive; ( b ) NURBS surfaces, and ( c ) surfaces deviation.
Figure 9. NURBS solid overlay: ( a ) 3D mesh texturing; ( b ) NURBS surfaces real olive; ( c ) NURBS surfaces virtual olive, and ( d ) superposition of ( b , c ).
Figure 9. NURBS solid overlay: ( a ) 3D mesh texturing; ( b ) NURBS surfaces real olive; ( c ) NURBS surfaces virtual olive, and ( d ) superposition of ( b , c ).
Figure 10. Boolean operation result.
Figure 10. Boolean operation result.
Figure 11. Diseased volumes.
Figure 12. Diseased areas: ( a ) 3D outer surface, and ( b ) 3D inner surface.
Figure 12. Diseased areas: ( a ) 3D outer surface, and ( b ) 3D inner surface.
Figure 13. Optical deformation scheme affecting bruise spot measurements.
Figure 13. Optical deformation scheme affecting bruise spot measurements.
Figure 14. Total area distribution: ( a ) histogram vs. theoretical probability density function (PDF), ( b ) scatter plot.
Figure 14. Total area distribution: ( a ) histogram vs. theoretical probability density function (PDF), ( b ) scatter plot.
Figure 15. Circularity distribution: ( a ) histogram vs. theoretical probability density function (PDF), ( b ) scatter plot.
Figure 15. Circularity distribution: ( a ) histogram vs. theoretical probability density function (PDF), ( b ) scatter plot.
Figure 16. Aspect Ratio distribution: ( a ) histogram vs. theoretical probability density function (PDF), ( b ) scatter plot.
Figure 16. Aspect Ratio distribution: ( a ) histogram vs. theoretical probability density function (PDF), ( b ) scatter plot.
Figure 17. ( a ) Number of spot bruised distribution, ( b ) Percentage of damaged area versus total area.
Figure 17. ( a ) Number of spot bruised distribution, ( b ) Percentage of damaged area versus total area.
Figure 18. ( a ) Area of spot bruised distribution, ( b ) Bruise spot circularity distribution, ( c ) Bruise spot Aspect Ratio.
Figure 18. ( a ) Area of spot bruised distribution, ( b ) Bruise spot circularity distribution, ( c ) Bruise spot Aspect Ratio.
Figure 19. Examples of Hojiblanca variety olives: ( a , d , g ) 3D mesh texturing; ( b , e , h ) mesh, and ( c , f , i ) surface.
Figure 19. Examples of Hojiblanca variety olives: ( a , d , g ) 3D mesh texturing; ( b , e , h ) mesh, and ( c , f , i ) surface.
Figure 20. Examples of Picudas variety olives: ( a , d , g ) 3D mesh texturing; ( b , e , h ) mesh, and ( c , f , i ) surface.
Figure 20. Examples of Picudas variety olives: ( a , d , g ) 3D mesh texturing; ( b , e , h ) mesh, and ( c , f , i ) surface.
Figure 21. Total Volume plot.
Figure 21. Total Volume plot.
Figure 22. Total Area from 3D plot.
Figure 22. Total Area from 3D plot.
Figure 23. Damage to Hojiblanca variety olives: ( a ) the olives with manual harvesting, ( b ) the olives with mechanical harvesting, and ( c ) the diseased olives.
Figure 23. Damage to Hojiblanca variety olives: ( a ) the olives with manual harvesting, ( b ) the olives with mechanical harvesting, and ( c ) the diseased olives.
Figure 24. Damage to Picuda variety olives: ( a ) the olives with manual harvesting, ( b ) the olives with mechanical harvesting, and ( c ) the diseased olives.
Figure 24. Damage to Picuda variety olives: ( a ) the olives with manual harvesting, ( b ) the olives with mechanical harvesting, and ( c ) the diseased olives.
Figure 25. Bruise spot solid area plot.
Figure 25. Bruise spot solid area plot.
Figure 26. Volume bruise—olive volume ratio plot.
Figure 26. Volume bruise—olive volume ratio plot.
Figure 27. Internal and external bruise area plot.
Figure 27. Internal and external bruise area plot.
Figure 28. Bruise area calculated by image analysis vs. 3D analysis, with damages in the non-deformed position ( a ) and in the deformed position ( b ) regarding the top horizontal plane.
Figure 28. Bruise area calculated by image analysis vs. 3D analysis, with damages in the non-deformed position ( a ) and in the deformed position ( b ) regarding the top horizontal plane.
Figure 29. Surface of damage calculated from 3D and 2D image digital analysis multiplied by a 2.93 value.
Figure 29. Surface of damage calculated from 3D and 2D image digital analysis multiplied by a 2.93 value.
Table 1. Sample distribution.
Table 1. Sample distribution.
Harvest Hojiblanca Picuda Diseased Hojiblanca Diseased Picuda Mechanical 30 30 - - Manual 15 15 7 6 Total 45 45 7 6
Table 2. Example of results obtained from image analysis.
Table 2. Example of results obtained from image analysis.
Olive ID Status Harvesting Total Area (TA) Major Axis Minor Axis Angle Circularity Roundness Aspect Ratio (RA) Total Damaged (DA) DA/TA (%) Bruise Number 10 healthy Pick handle 412.867 26.322 19.971 93.211 0.859 0.759 1.318 0 0.000 0 40 bruised mechanic 369.293 25.347 18.550 89.816 0.853 0.732 1.366 11.826 3.202 16 87 bruised mechanic 344.234 26.198 16.730 83.989 0.821 0.639 1.566 79.121 22.985 28 100 diseased Pick handle 321.447 25.623 15.973 92.461 0.796 0.623 1.604 13.973 4.347 1
Table 3. Example of results obtained from scanning workflow.
Table 3. Example of results obtained from scanning workflow.
Olive ID Status Harvesting Resolution (mm) File Size (Mb) Polygon number Volume (mm 3 ) Surface (mm 2 ) 7 healthy Pick handle 0.05 7.82 126,142 93.211 0.859 32 bruised mechanic 0.05 4.70 76,464 89.816 0.853 65 bruised mechanic 0.05 4.27 69,572 83.989 0.821 98 diseased Pick handle 0.05 3.76 61,596 92.461 0.796
Table 4. NURBS parameters.
Table 4. NURBS parameters.
Table 5. Data distribution.
Table 5. Data distribution.
Harvest Hojiblanca Picuda Diseased Hojiblanca Diseased Picuda Mechanical 1–30 31–60 - - Manual 61–75 76–90 91–97 98–103
Table 6. Fruit bruise index with different methods. Values shown are mean ± standard deviation.
Table 6. Fruit bruise index with different methods. Values shown are mean ± standard deviation.
Fruit Status Bruise Index * (%) from 3D Analysis Bruise index ** (%) from Digital Surface Analysis healthy 0.5 ± 0.5 0.0 ± 0.0 bruised 8.2 ± 5.1 7.5 ± 7.4 diseased 6.6 ± 3.7 12.9 ± 9.5
* Calculated as the internal 3D surface of damage and the 3D surface of fruit ratio; ** Calculated as the 2D area of damage and 2D area of fruit ratio.
Table 7. Parameters calculated for characterization of the fruit bruising. Values shown are mean ± standard deviation. The same letter in the same column indicate no significant difference between fruit status (Duncan’s test, p < 0.05).
Table 7. Parameters calculated for characterization of the fruit bruising. Values shown are mean ± standard deviation. The same letter in the same column indicate no significant difference between fruit status (Duncan’s test, p < 0.05).
Fruit Status Total Area (mm 2 ) of Damages from … Total Volume (mm 3 ) of Damages from… 3D Analysis Digital Image Analysis 3D Analysis healthy 11.8 ± 11.2 A 0.2 ± 0.2 A 0 ± 0 A bruised 176.1 ± 102.3 B 27.6 ± 26.8 B 13.7 ± 10.8 A diseased 113.1 ± 61.8 B 40.8 ± 28.6 B 31.2 ± 22.9 A
González-Merino, Ramón, Rafael E. Hidalgo-Fernández, Jesús Rodero, Rafael R. Sola-Guirado, and Elena Sánchez-López. 2022. "Postharvest Geometric Characterization of Table Olive Bruising from 3D Digitalization" Agronomy12, no. 11: 2732.
https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12112732
González-Merino, R.; Hidalgo-Fernández, R.E.; Rodero, J.; Sola-Guirado, R.R.; Sánchez-López, E. Postharvest Geometric Characterization of Table Olive Bruising from 3D Digitalization. Agronomy 2022, 12, 2732.
https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12112732
Chicago/Turabian Style
González-Merino, Ramón, Rafael E. Hidalgo-Fernández, Jesús Rodero, Rafael R. Sola-Guirado, and Elena Sánchez-López. 2022. "Postharvest Geometric Characterization of Table Olive Bruising from 3D Digitalization" Agronomy12, no. 11: 2732.
https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12112732
| https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/12/11/2732 |
Debate: FCO: Human Rights Work - 14th Mar 2013 - Richard Ottaway extracts
Thu 14th Mar 2013 - Commons - FCO: Human Rights Work debate Richard Ottaway contributions to the 14th March 2013 FCO: Human Rights Work debate
FCO: Human Rights Work Debate
Full Debate: Read Full Debate Department: Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office
Richard Ottaway
FCO: Human Rights Work
Richard Ottaway Excerpts
Thursday 14th March 2013
(10 years, 2 months ago)
Westminster Hall
Richard Ottaway (Croydon South) (Con) - Hansard - Copy Link -
I am pleased to open this debate on the Select Committee on Foreign Affairs report on the human rights work of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. We are lucky to live in a functioning, flourishing democracy, underpinned by the rule of law. Sometimes, we are accused of going too far in our quest to protect the sanctity of human rights, particularly those of criminals who seek refuge on British shores, but it is a price that we pay for freedom and a fair society. The question is whether we have a moral duty to export the values and rights that we hold so dear. Of course we do, but perhaps not at the expense of our national interests. Matching the UK’s support for human rights and democratic values with its pursuit of trade, security, energy and strategic interests is central to much of the Foreign Office’s work.In addressing the conflict between interests and values, a good starting point is the Prime Minister’s speech to the Kuwait national Parliament in February 2011:“For decades, some have argued that stability required highly controlling regimes, and that reform and openness would put that stability at risk. So, the argument went, countries like Britain faced a choice between our interests and our values. And to be honest, we should acknowledge that sometimes we have made such calculations in the past. But I say that is a false choice.”A careful balance needs to be struck between our interests and our values, and the Committee’s report on the Foreign Office’s human rights work in 2011 explored that. In general, we found that the Foreign Office, which I congratulate on its report, was doing a lot of excellent work, at times under difficult circumstances, but we believe that Ministers should be bolder in acknowledging contradictions between the UK’s interests overseas and its human rights values. Such contradictions are a theme that recurs constantly in inquiries by the Foreign Affairs Committee. A good example is our report on the Arab spring; some witnesses thought that a conflict between the two could not always be avoided.Giving evidence in the current inquiry into Bahrain and Saudi Arabia, Sir Tom Phillips, a former UK ambassador to Saudi Arabia, told the Committee only a couple of weeks ago about working with the grain of particular societies in Saudi Arabia to advance UK values. He added, significantly:“I never interpreted the working-with-the-grain mantra as meaning that one should not be clear when necessary about our principles on any particular issue.”Throughout our human rights inquiry, the issue surfaced again in relation to Bahrain and Burma.The Committee’s human rights report concluded that, in pursuing interests alongside values, the UK runs the risk of operating double standards. It urged the Government to be more transparent and to set out the contradictions in the public domain. The Government rejected our recommendation, but I invite the Minister to consider whether the approach that we proposed would in fact be more open and realistic. Could it expose the Government to less criticism in the long run, without sacrificing our principles?The Committee noted that nearly two thirds of the FCO’s report was taken up with commentary on human rights in countries of concern. The section on countries of concern is a valuable source of information, but it has difficulties, such as certain controversial omissions and vague criteria, although I note that the Government response says that the FCO will report fully on the criteria in its next report. We warned that the list of countries of concern would lose credibility if political and strategic factors were allowed to colour decisions on designation. Such decisions, we said, should be based purely on the assessment of human rights standards and should stand up to objective comparison.Bahrain is a case in which we questioned the Foreign Office’s judgment. At least 35 people died and 2,000 were arrested following repression in early 2011. The report by the Bahrain Independent Commission of Inquiry, although substantial and respected, is being implemented slowly, and there is still much to be done. I am keen to keep an open mind on the issue, as we are still in the midst of our inquiry into the UK’s relations with Saudi Arabia and Bahrain and have yet to hear their Governments’ side of the argument. However, the injustices in Bahrain in February and March 2011 were undeniable, and the events in Bahrain did not seem any less serious than those in other countries that were listed as countries of concern. I know that the Foreign Office is not persuaded—it says that Bahrain has a better record than many countries in the region—but it is only fair to give notice to the Minister that one of the first things that Committee members will do when the FCO publishes this year’s report is to turn the pages to see whether Bahrain has been designated a country of concern, as we believe it should be.Deportation with assurances was another area highlighted in the Committee’s report. Countries receiving deportees from the UK give assurances that their human rights will be respected on their return. Arrangements are already in place with Jordan, Lebanon, Ethiopia, Algeria and Morocco. As a Committee, we are aware of the widespread criticism that promises by Governments with a chequered record of treatment of detainees are, to quote one of our witnesses, not worth the paper that they are written on. The case of Abu Qatada, which has provoked great anger and frustration in recent weeks, is a prime example. I welcome the Government’s response that David Anderson QC, the independent reviewer of terrorism, will conduct a one-off review of the policy on deportation with assurances and that the conclusions will be made public. However, the Committee asks the Foreign Office to provide more information on the arrangements for monitoring detention conditions. The Foreign Office agreed in its response to provide details of the monitoring bodies and the arrangements for following up monitoring. When will that information be provided?We also concluded that the DWA arrangements are of such significance in Parliament that greater accountability is warranted. We suggested that the text of the memorandum of understanding underlying the arrangements should be laid before Parliament and that Members should have 14 days to object. The Government rejected the recommendation, pointing out that memorandums of understanding are not legally binding, but I hint to the Minister that the FCO missed the point slightly. We are talking about agreements of considerable political significance and concern to Members throughout the House. I urge him and his Foreign Office colleagues to rethink.There is some debate about whether pressure should be applied in public or in private. We devoted a section of our report to the FCO’s use of public pressure such as sanctions, boycotts and the like, but sometimes private pressure is the way forward. Sir Tom Phillips, the former UK ambassador to Saudi Arabia, told us that he strongly advocated private pressure for reform on human rights in countries such as Saudi Arabia, though he did not rule out public pressure.It is generally accepted that there are occasions on which public pressure, particularly concerted multilateral action, can be valuable in indicating widespread disapproval of a foreign state’s human rights practices; whether or not it works is another matter. It would not be difficult to argue that the EU sanctions on Iran have been effective in contributing to the current parlous state of the country’s economy, but it would be harder to make that argument for the sanctions imposed on Burma by the EU.The EU agreed last April to a partial suspension of its sanctions against Burma, for one year. The Committee was satisfied that enough progress had been made towards reform in Burma to justify that. We believe, however, that there is still some way to go. By current estimates, there are still some 200 political prisoners in Burma. We urge the FCO to press for better access for independent observers to Rakhine state, where violence against the Rohingya minority reached a peak last year.The EU Foreign Affairs Council will need to agree whether to extend the partial suspension of sanctions next month. We would be grateful to the Minister if he told us what the FCO’s preferred outcome is for those discussions. If he is in favour of continuing the partial suspension, will the UK make that conditional on further commitments to reform by the Burmese Government? Will he clarify his statement in answer to a parliamentary question in February, when he said that, if unanimity at the EU Foreign Affairs Council cannot be reached,“sanctions will fall away in their entirety”? —[ Official Report , 28 February 2013; Vol. 559, c. 668W.]On denying entry visas on human rights grounds, hon. Members will be familiar with the tragic case of Sergei Magnitsky—a lawyer who died in pre-trial detention in Russia in November 2009, following the denial of medical treatment. No one has yet been convicted of any offence in relation to his death. In passing, I register my dismay at the decision of the Russian authorities to proceed with the posthumous prosecution of Mr Magnitsky for defrauding the state. I hope that the Foreign Office will make it clear to the Russians that that is a vindictive and callous action, which we condemn.The UK can refuse to grant a visa for a non-European economic area national to enter the UK if there is“independent, reliable and credible evidence that an individual has committed human rights abuses”.The Government have come under pressure to deny UK entry visas to those people thought to have played a part in Mr Magnitsky’s death. Perhaps the Government have already done exactly that, but we do not know, because the Government’s policy is not to routinely publicise the identity of those who are banned from entering the UK. We concluded that there was value in publicising the names of those who were denied entry to the UK on human rights grounds, if that power was used sparingly.The Government response confirmed that they could disclose the names of those denied entry “when justified”. That is all very well, but how often do the Government feel that publication is justified? It seems to me that it is very rarely, and I wonder whether the Government are missing an opportunity to draw attention to our determination to uphold high standards of human rights by shaming those who blatantly disregard them.As we have touched on the subject of Russia’s questionable human rights record, I also draw attention to Mikhail Khodorkovsky, the former head of the Yukos oil company, who fell out with the Kremlin after challenging official corruption. He is currently serving his 10th year in a prison cell, on grounds that are distinctly flaky and based on a trial that did not comply with the standards that we would recognise in the west.In conclusion, I reaffirm our praise for the FCO’s work on this highly sensitive and morally complex area. The FCO is working in the real world, and the Committee’s job is to support it as a critical friend. We hope that some of our recommendations will help the FCO to strike a better balance, so that its global influence and credibility grow stronger. We live in an age of 24/7 news, where intelligence can be disseminated worldwide at the click of a button. We also have the unprecedented emancipation of previously suppressed peoples, and they might be suspicious of the motives of foreign countries meddling in their affairs. It would therefore be a naive Foreign Office that imagines that it can pretend to act solely in the interest of human rights, when it has its own citizens and national interests to protect.
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Jeremy Corbyn (Islington North) (Lab) - Hansard - Copy Link - - Excerpts
Thank you, Mr Havard. I am pleased to take part in the debate.I shall take as my starting point the end of the speech by the right hon. Member for Tonbridge and Malling (Sir John Stanley) on how the late Robin Cook, as Foreign Secretary, introduced the concept of an annual human rights report from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office. In return, the Foreign Affairs Committee must monitor it and put forward proposals, and then we get a debate in Westminster Hall, which seems to be a poor return for the amount of work put in by both the FCO and the Committee, particularly as the debate is limited to an hour and a half. I reiterate what I said last year, and I have said every year about the debates: the debate should be for at least three hours, in the main Chamber on a Thursday afternoon or another appropriate time—possibly in Government time. If we are to be taken seriously as a country concerned with human rights and with the influence that we can bring to bear on human rights around the world, we have to take ourselves seriously. Although I respect all hon. Members taking part in the debate, it needs to be given greater prominence. I am sure the Chair of the Select Committee, the hon. Member for Croydon South (Richard Ottaway), would agree, because it would mean that he could speak in the main Chamber, rather than here.
Richard Ottaway - Hansard - Copy Link -
I am inscrutable.
Jeremy Corbyn - Hansard - Copy Link - - Excerpts
He is utterly inscrutable. He and I had an interesting debate in Cambridge two weeks ago, and he was less inscrutable then.I wanted to raise many issues, but I shall try to be brief to take on the points you made, Mr Havard, about the length of the debate. We should consider the fact that the parliamentary process of human rights monitoring is complex. We have the Human Rights Act 1998, which applies to UK law. I am a strong supporter of it and our participation in the European convention on human rights and the European Court Of Human Rights. You, Mr Havard, chair the Joint Committee on Human Rights, which the 1998 Act set up. I welcome the Joint Committee and its work. It has been a valuable way to monitor what has gone on, but I remain to be persuaded that, with all the other responsibilities the Foreign Affairs Committee has, it would not be better to have an international human rights Committee of the UK Parliament to deal with international human rights issues and to put forward the strong cases that many Members make on many occasions about human rights issues around the world.Things have moved on, in that Britain is a signatory to the International Criminal Court and our courts have pronounced a universal jurisdiction for human rights offenders and potential war criminals where there is prima facie evidence against them. That was a huge step forward. We have spent a lot of time raising human rights in Chile and the need to put General Pinochet and others on trial for what they did there, so I welcome the universal jurisdiction declaration. Much less welcome however is that Parliament has reduced its applicability by limiting the arrest warrant to an application by the Director of Public Prosecutions rather than an application from an individual citizen to Westminster magistrates court. That has not done our reputation much good.When the Minister responds to the debate—obviously there are many issues and I guess he will not be able to reply to all of them—I would be grateful if he could answer this narrative issue. I welcome the way in which our representatives at the Human Rights Council in Geneva, which I quite often attend on behalf of a non-governmental organisation, regularly and effectively take up the issue of the death penalty; they are to be commended on that. It is quite noticeable that on every single report that comes up from a country that retains the death penalty, the UK representative gets up and objects to its use in that jurisdiction; I absolutely welcome that.I am interested in taking international human rights and human rights law further. The International Criminal Court is an enormous step forward—there is no question about that—but the non-participation of certain countries in it, particularly the United States, obviously weakens it. Since the first world war, the US has had mixed feelings about involvement in any international organisation. What pressure was the Minister able to bring to bear on the United States regarding its participation, or indeed on the many other countries that still need to participate?I am an officer of the all-party group on human rights, and a vast number of human rights abuse issues are brought to our attention. We try to take them up in the best way we can with our very limited resources. I want to bring up a general issue, but I will first deal with some specific countries.I notice how rapidly human rights issues can change. In the “Human Rights and Democracy: The 2011 Foreign and Commonwealth Office Report”, one country that has not been listed for particular attention is Bangladesh. Yesterday, there was a demonstration outside this building concerning the current wave of attacks on minorities and the conduct of the war crimes tribunal in Bangladesh. Amnesty International reported last week:“A wave of violent attacks against Bangladesh’s minority Hindu community shows the urgent need for authorities to provide them with better protection…Over the past week, individuals taking part in strikes called for by Islamic parties have vandalised more than 40 Hindu temples across Bangladesh.”The report goes on to describe the attacks against religious minorities. To the credit of those who attended the small demonstration yesterday in Parliament square, there were representatives from Hindu, Buddhist, Christian and Muslim organisations. They wanted to see the retention of the secular constitution in Bangladesh and to question the conduct of the war crimes tribunal.I have no problem whatever with any country deciding to investigate what were the most abominable abuses of human rights and the war crimes committed during the independence war of 1971. However, the case would be strengthened if international observers were specifically appointed to attend all the sessions, to give it a degree of support and approval, which was done in war crimes tribunals in other parts of the world. It is not to say that the war crimes tribunal is a bad thing—I think it is a good thing—but observer presence should be strengthened.While I understand the deep anger that many people feel and the terrible sense of loss that many have suffered, I cannot, under any circumstance, support the death penalty for anything; indeed, that is now a narrative of our policies. I hope that we will make that clear, and also make it clear that the mobs that are attacking minority communities or anyone who is not seen to approve whatthey want are totally unacceptable. We should be saying that clearly to the Bangladeshi Government. I do not blame the Bangladeshi Government for the activities of the mobs, because those activities are largely directed against the Government, but all Governments have a responsibility to protect minorities and people in what is an extremely difficult situation. There is a large Bangladeshi community in this country.The right hon. Member for Tonbridge and Malling rightly drew attention to the situation in Palestine. I was in Gaza three weeks ago, on a delegation with colleagues from the Liberal Democrat and Conservative parties, organised by Interpal. The issue of human rights and the treatment of prisoners are very current. Issues such as Palestinian parliamentarians still being held in prison, the frequent use of executive detention and the hunger strikes that have taken place, and continue to take place, among the prisoners are not going to go away.Effectively, 1.7 million people are in a prison called Gaza, with very limited access to Israel and no access whatever, as far as I can see, to the west bank through Israel. The population is imprisoned unless Egypt can be persuaded to open the Rafah crossing fully, which would in turn make Gaza part of Egypt rather than part of Palestine. That may well be the intention of some, but we must be firm that the continued corralling of people in Gaza is an abuse of their human rights on a collective scale.There is something tragic in talking to brilliant young people in Gaza. Some 55% of the population are university graduates—the best educated population in the whole region—but unemployment is at 70%. Their life chances and career possibilities are limited. It is a cauldron, of course, that explodes from time to time, and unless the fundamental issues are addressed, that cauldron will continue to explode.I support what my hon. Friend the Member for Ilford South (Mike Gapes) said about Sri Lanka and the treatment of Tamil people. I hope that the Government will continue to put all the pressure they can on the Sri Lankan Government. Above all, I hope that the embassy and particularly the Home Office will follow up cases in which someone is forcibly removed to another jurisdiction.My final general points are about thematic issues. Dalit people in India and many other countries suffer a collective abuse of human rights because of a perverted view of Hinduism. Hundreds of millions of people suffer from that. We have an opportunity to support what the House of Lords has done and defend its amendment to our legislation that would mean that it will be illegal to discriminate by caste and descent in this country. That is illegal in the Indian constitution, but collective discrimination takes place on a massive scale. While the Department for International Development has done well in targeting aid programmes, which ensures that that does not happen in any project that we fund, we must be as tough as possible with the Indian Government and other Governments in whose territory discrimination by caste and descent takes place.Around the world, there are individual and collective abuses of the human rights of people in the circumstances that we have outlined. There is also an appalling lack of human rights, dignity and access to democracy for large numbers of desperately poor migrants around the world. They are the people who are exploited in big cities and who die when they try to cross the Mediterranean, getto the Canary islands in the Atlantic or travel through Mexico to get to the United States, where they hope to gain some kind of economic salvation. We must address the collective human rights issues of millions of people around the world who suffer the most appalling privations and often death while trying to find a place of economic and political sanctuary. It is up to us to be more alert and aware of the causes. That is surely what being in a democratic Parliament is about.
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Mr Dai Havard (in the Chair) - Hansard - Copy Link - - Excerpts
May I ask you, Minister, to give Mr Ottaway a couple of minutes at the end of the debate?
Richard Ottaway - Hansard - Copy Link -
indicated dissent.
Mr Dai Havard (in the Chair) - Hansard - Copy Link - - Excerpts
Mr Ottaway is indicating that he does not need more time.
Richard Ottaway - Hansard - Copy Link -
I give my time to the Minister.
Mr Dai Havard (in the Chair) - Hansard - Copy Link - - Excerpts
Excellent. Thank you very much for that. I call the Minister.
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Solid and Cystic Papillary Neoplasm of the Pancreas in a 18-Year-Old Female: A Case Report | Request PDF
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Solid and Cystic Papillary Neoplasm of the Pancreas in a 18-Year-Old Female: A Case Report
Abstract
Solid and cystic papillary neoplasm of the pancreas is an extremely rare neoplasm that mostly affects young females in the mean age of 25 years and accounts for about 0.2-2.7% of all pancreatic tumors.
A 18-year-old female presented with progressively increasing mass in the left hypochondrium and epigastric regions and vague abdominal pain. There was no history of jaundice and vomiting. The mean diameter of the tumors was 17x24 cm. Preoperative core needle revealed solid and cystic papillary neoplasm. Distal pancreatectomy and splenectomy were performed. The patient did not receive adjuvant therapy and no tumor recurrence was detected in follow up.
Solid and cystic papillary neoplasm may reach large dimensions with a benign behavior and is curable by surgical excision. Differential diagnosis from other tumors with aggressive behavior is therefore important.
... [11] Surgery remains the mainstay of treatment even in big size tumors but there are reports that claim the efficacy of chemotherapy and radiotherapy in treatment of these tumors. [12][13]
[14]
Financial support and sponsorship Nil. ...
Solid cystic papillary tumor of the pancreas in an 18-year-old female
Article
Full-text available
Jan 2015
Veenu Jain
Rani Bansal
Tarun Agarwal
YogeshKumar Yadav
Solid cystic papillary tumor is a rare tumor of the pancreas. These are seen more commonly in young females. Preoperative diagnosis is difficult to make due to its similarity with other cystic pancreatic lesions. These tumors carry a favorable prognosis because of their low malignant potential, and have a good prognostic outcome after surgery. Here we report a case of an 18-year-old female patient who presented with a history of pain and lump in epigastrium for 7 months. Diagnostic laparotomy was done that revealed a well-defined cystic mass attached to the body of pancreas. The mass was excised along with distal pancreatic tissue. Splenectomy was also done in the patient. She had no evidence of recurrence for the last 1 year after complete excision of the tumor.
Incidence, prediction, and the long-term outcome of solid pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas with malignant behaviors: a pooled-analysis
Preprint
Full-text available
Jun 2020
Yifei Li
Shijie Wang
Yifan Li
Yanming Zhou
Background: Microscopic malignancy or gross metastasis of solid pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas were considered to be malignant behaviors. The clinical status of solid pseudopapillary tumors of the pancreas with malignant behaviors (SPTM) are unclear. This study was to perform a review and pooled-analysis to determine the incidence and predictors of SPTM, and explore the survival and prognostic factors.
Methods: A registered meta-analysis (PROSPERO: CRD42020163788) was performed. Studies reporting on SPTM and follow-up information were identified between 1960 and 2020 by searching PubMed, Scopus, and Embase. The search process followed the PRISMA guidelines.
Results: A total of 98 articles were included in this study, including 22 articles reporting the incidence of SPTM, and 159 SPTM cases containing survival information in 77 articles. Pooled estimates showed that the incidence of SPTM in solid pseudopapillary tumors of the pancreas was 22% [95% CI：19~24%], and tumor size ≥5 cm (OR: 2.03，95%CI: 1.28~3.22) was the only risk factor for predicting the occurrence of SPTM. The 5-, and 10-year survival rates of SPTM patients after complete surgical resection were 92% and 77%, respectively. Larger tumors (diameter ≥5cm) (p=0.046), lymphovascular invasion (p=0.005), lymph node metastasis (p=0.02), cellular atypia (0.018), Ki67 index ≥5% (p=0.001), tumor recurrence (p=0.004), recurrent time <5 years (p=0.005) and positive margin (p=0.003) were prognosis unfavorable factors for survival. Additionaly, lymphovascular invasion (OR:8.25, 95% CI:2.26-30.1), lymph node metastasis (OR:25.28, 95% CI:3.01-211.74), extrapancreatic invasion (OR:9.07, 95% CI:2.36-34.84), cellular atypia (OR:16, 95% CI:3-85.3), and Ki67 ≥5% (OR: 7.88, 95%CI: 1.53~40.51) increased the risk of recurrences of resected SPTM.
Conclusion: Tumor size is an important factor in predicting the occurrence of SPTM before operation, and complete surgical resection can provide SPTM patients a expected long-term survival. Proved clinicopathological factors by current research will help to determine prognosis and recurrence, and close follow-up of five years or more after operation is essential.
Pancreatic Pseudopapillary Tumor in a Male Child
Article
Full-text available
Nov 2004
J Pancreas
Context:
Solid-pseudopapillary tumors are exceedingly rare in males. They are almost exclusively encountered in young females (mean age 26 years) and have a female predominance. It is most commonly detected incidentally, but may occasionally present with sudden pain or symptoms related to compression of adjacent organs.
Case report:
We report the case of a 12-year-old boy having a solid-pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas presenting with a tender upper abdominal mass following a slight trauma. Radiological investigation showed the lesion to be a cystic mass arising from the body and the tail of the pancreas. The child underwent emergency distal pancreatectomy and has remained free of recurrence for 3 years.
Conclusion:
In the pediatric age group, solid-pseudopapillary tumors may present acutely with a tender abdominal mass following a slight trauma. Awareness of this fact will allow appropriate and prompt management to be undertaken.
Frantz’s Tumor (Solid Pseudopap illary Tumor) of the Pancreas. A Case Report
Article
Full-text available
Feb 2009
J Pancreas
Settar Bostanoglu
Emrah Otan
Saadet Akturan
Levent Albayrak
A solid pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas is a rare neoplasm which, for the most part, affects young women and has a relatively favorable prognosis with a low malignant potential. These tumors usually have unclear clinical features and may form very large masses before being diagnosed.
We report the case of a 29-year-old woman who underwent complete resection of the tumor using a distal pancreatectomy and splenectomy procedure. The patient is being followed-up and in good condition. A review of the relevant literature is also presented.
A solid pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas is a rare condition with a low potential for malignancy and favorable prognosis; surgical resection is generally curative.
Solid and Papillary Neoplasms of the Pancreas
Article
May 1996
Woo Jung Lee
Yong Tae Park
Solid and papillary neoplasms of the pancreas, a rare tumor usually found in young female patients, seldom presents with metastasis since it is a tumor with low potential for malignancy. The prognosis for this lesion is much more favorable than that for other pancreatic neoplasms. In an attempt to understand the characteristics and prognosis of this lesion, we reviewed twenty cases treated at the Department of Surgery, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University from 1985 to 1994. The mean age of the patients was 25.6 years (range: 13 to 39 years), and 19 (95%) were women. Chief complaints were palpable mass (50%), pain (45%), and indigestion (5%). In laboratory studies, tumor markers, including CEA, CA125, CA19-9, and aFP were studied in eight patients, and found negative. Other laboratory findings were also nonspecific. These tumors may occur anywhere in the pancreas. In our studies, the tumor was most often located in the tail (45%), and the head (40%) of the pancreas. These were treated by distal pancreatectomy and splenectomy (55%), Whipple's operation (20%), pylorus preserving pancreatoduodenectomy (10%), enucleation (10%) or excision (5%). Significant morbidity or mortality was not observed during hospitalization, and no recurrence or malignant degeneration occurred during the mean follow-up period of 4 years (range: 1 month to 9 years). In conclusion, this study has suggested that the patients with a solid and papillary neoplasm of the pancreas have a good prognosis for successful treatment, if the disease is diagnosed early and the tumor is completely resected. A higher index of suspicion, and more aggressive diagnostic workups are needed in dealing with this disease entity.
Solid Pseudopapillary Neoplasm of the Pancreas: Report of a Case after a 10-Year Follow-Up and Review of the Literature
Feb 2001
Ioannis E. Petrakis
Nicolaos Vrachassotakis
Nektarios Kogerakis
George E Chalkiadakis
A solid pseudopapillary neoplasm (SPN) is an extremely rare tumour of the pancreas that frequently occurs in young females and is mostly benign. SPN is a low-grade malignant tumour that may evolve years before symptoms start. However, the pathogenesis of this tumour remains unclear and there are no adequate reports of long-term results to evaluate the management and the long-term surgical control. We describe a new case of SPN with a 10-year follow-up, and review the world literature that accounts for approximately 322 cases. Moreover, a review of the current management and surgical tendencies in the treatment of SPN is considered. An SPN pancreatic tumour occurred in a 24-year-old female who complained of episodic mild abdominal pain sustained by a palpable epigastric mass. The tumour mass was detected by ultrasound and computer tomography and was localised at the tail of the pancreas adherent to the spleen. The preoperative diagnosis was uncertain and en-block distal pancreatectomy and splenectomy were performed. The size of the mass which weighed 300 g was 11 x 12 x 8 cm, and the tumour was strictly adherent and invaded the splenic hilum. Histologic examination confirmed a complete resection of the primary SPN that locally invaded spleen. The postoperative period was uneventful and after a 10-year follow-up the patient is free of symptoms. SPN should be considered in the differential diagnosis of large pancreatic masses, especially in young females. Radical resection, where technically feasible, should be considered the therapy of choice as it is a safe and effective control of the disease.
Papillary cystic and solid tumour of the pancreas: Report of a case and literature review
Article
Oct 2005
World J Surg Oncol
Abdul Kasem
Zainab Ali
Joseph Ellul
Tumors of the pancreas
Article
Jan 1959
V.K. Frantz
Solid and papillary epithelial neoplasm of the pancreas, diagnosis by cytology
Oct 1998
BE Crawford
In this paper, I report a rare, low-grade malignant tumor, solid and papillary epithelial neoplasm of the pancreas (SPENP). I also discuss and review 157 previously reported cases. Unlike other malignant tumors of the pancreas, this neoplasm is typically found in young women, does not have metastases, and is amenable to cure after complete surgical resection. I discuss clinical features, diagnostic procedures, and differential diagnosis. Fine-needle aspiration can be effective in obtaining a preoperative diagnosis of SPENP, since the tumor has characteristic cytologic features. Also, use of clinical data, ultrasonography studies, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, arteriography, and cytologic findings in the preoperative workup are important in obtaining an accurate diagnosis. Although potentially curable, late metastases and current inability to predict aggressive behavior by some tumors require lengthy follow-up.
Operative Management of Papillary Cystic Neoplasms of the Pancreas
Mar 1998
J AM COLL SURGEONS
Eugenio Panieri
Jake E J Krige
Philippus C Bornman
John Peter Cruse
Resection of a solid and papillary epithelial neoplasm of the pancreas following treatment with Cis-platinum and 5-fluorouracil: A case report
Article
Jan 1993
James F. Strauss
Victor J. Hirsch
Charles N. Rubey
Mark Pollock
A 15-year-old female was found at laparotomy to have an unresectable 15 cm solid and papillary epithelial neoplasm of the pancreas invading the superior mesenteric vein. The tumor regressed when treated with cis-platinum and 5-fluorouracil for 6 months leaving a 3.5 cm mass which was resected at reoperation. Response to chemotherapy has not been previously documented for this tumor histology and may contribute to the management of this locally invasive tumor.
Solid and papillary neoplasm of the pancreas: Radiological-pathological study of five cases and review of the literature
Nov 1996
CLIN RADIOL
Paul R. Dong
D.S.K. Lu
F Degregario
B M Kadell
To present five cases of the rare solid and papillary neoplasm of the pancreas with pathological correlation and review of the literature.
Five patients (all female, two Caucasian, one Philipino and two Hispanic) with solid and papillary neoplasm of the pancreas were reviewed. Four patients were under 28 years of age but one patient was 44 years old at presentation. Review consisted of imaging (CT in all and ultrasound in three patients), gross pathological and histological appearance (5/5 specimens), immunohistochemistry (4/5 specimens) and clinical follow-up.
All five tumours were successfully resected without recurrence. All tumours were well-encapsulated but showed a wide spectrum of solid peripheral tumour with central cystic degeneration on imaging. Cystic spaces corresponded to haemorrhagic necrosis on histology. One tumour showed rim calcification. Immunohistological staining showed variable expression of both exocrine and endocrine markers.
Although non-specific, solid and papillary neoplasm of the pancreas is characteristically a benign, well-encapsulated solid tumor with varying degree of central necrosis in young female patients. No racial predilection was demonstrated in this small series.
Papillary Cystic Tumor of the Pancreas in Children
Article
Jan 1997
Y J Yang
Jui-Sheng Chen
Chun-Jen Chen
C C Tzeng
Papillary cystic tumor of the pancreas, so-called Frantz tumor, is a very rare tumor in children. Only 157 cases had been reported since 1959. The clinical manifestations of this disease are usually a slowly growing abdominal mass with or without abdominal pain. It occurs predominantly in young females, and its pathogenesis is still unknown. Surgical resection is usually curative, and its prognosis is excellent. Four adolescent girls with acute or chronic abdominal pain were found to have papillary cystic tumor of the pancreas at our hospital in the past 4 years. They all have a variable clinical presentation. Papillary cystic tumor of the pancreas should therefore be considered one of the differential diagnoses of abdominal pain or abdominal mass in adolescent girls.
Solitary cystic tumor of the pancreas: EUS-pathologic correlation
Article
Apr 1997
GASTROINTEST ENDOSC
Kazumitsu Koito
Tsutomu Namieno
Tatsuya Nagakawa
Kazuo Morita
It is clinically important to distinguish neoplastic from non-neoplastic pancreatic cysts.
Retrospective correlations were made between pathologic and EUS data from 52 pancreatic solitary cystic tumors: mucinous cystadenoma (10), mucinous cystadenocarcinoma (7), serous cystadenoma (5), ductectatic mucinous cystic tumor (10), solid and papillary epithelial neoplasm (5), and non-neoplastic cyst (15). The mean tumor size was 3.5 cm (range, 1.2 cm to 6.0 cm).
Six classifications of the internal structures of these cysts were developed: thick wall type, tumor protruding type, thick septal type, microcystic type, thin septal type, and simple type. Although all neoplastic cysts belonged to the first four types, all non-neoplastic cysts belonged to the last two types. The accuracy of EUS for differentiating tumors was estimated at 96% and 92%, respectively, by two observers.
EUS may become a mandatory modality for differentiating pancreatic solitary cystic tumors and choosing an optimal treatment.
Solid and cystic papillary neoplasms of the pancreas: Report of four cases
Article
Feb 2004
Murat Zeytunlu
Ozgur Firat
Deniz Nart
Refik Killi
In this report we present four cases with solid and cystic papillary neoplasms (SCPN) of the pancreas, and discuss the histopathological and immunohistochemical findings with a review of the literature.
The four cases reported here consisted of three women (ages 20-48, mean: 32) and one man (age: 58). The clinical diagnoses were confirmed with ultrasound (US) and computerized tomography (CT). The surgical management of the tumors included enucleation (1 patient), distal pancreatectomy with splenectomy (1) and distal pancreatectomy (2).
The tumors were large (mean diameter of the resected tumor was 15 cm), had cystic degenerations between solid areas, and were distributed in the body and the tail of the pancreas. The cystic spaces contained hemorrhagic, necrotic and thrombotic material. The immunohistochemical studies revealed that the four tumors were all positive for a1 antitrypsin and neuron specific enolase, and were all negative for chromogranin. Vimentin and synaptophysin were positive in three different cases. The follow-up of the patients has been uneventful for 2, 1, 7 and 12 years, respectively.
SCPN of the pancreas is an uncommon clinicopathologic entity with a relatively low grade malignant potential. The majority of the cases are young women. Fifty percent of the cases are asymptomatic, and the patients with symptoms generally suffer from an abdominal mass or abdominal pain. In spite of the characteristic macroscopic and microscopic aspects, the immunophenotypical view is nonspecific. Prognosis is excellent after complete surgical resection and recurrence is rarely seen. Metastatic spread is not expected and the tumor usually has a manner of local invasion. Acinar cell carcinoma, pancreatoblastoma and pancreatic endocrine tumor must be considered in the differential diagnosis.
Spleen-preserving distal pancreatectomy following neoadjuvant chemotherapy for papillary solid and cystic neoplasm of pancreas
Article
Sep 2004
Ganesh Das
Chidananda Bhuyan
Bhabesh Kumar Das
Joydeep Purkystha
Papillary solid and cystic neoplasm (PSCN) is a rare neoplasm of the pancreas with low-grade malignant potential and favorable prognosis. We report an 18-year-old girl with PSCN presenting with advanced disease. The tumor regressed with six cycles of gemcitabine and cisplantin-based neoadjuvant chemotherapy; spleen-preserving distal pancreatectomy was then done. She is disease-free at 13 months' follow-up.
May 2005
AM J SURG PATHOL
Laura H. Tang
Hakan Aydin
Murray F. Brennan
David S Klimstra
Solid pseudopapillary tumors (SPTs) are unusual neoplasms of the pancreas of uncertain histogenesis that occur mostly, but not exclusively, in young women. The pathologic features and immunophenotype of SPT are unique and well characterized. Despite its low malignant potential, proximately 15% of patients with SPT develop metastatic disease, mostly involving the liver or peritoneum. Even in the presence of disseminated disease, the clinical course is usually protracted, and the overall 5-year survival is reportedly 97%. We have encountered 2 cases of SPT possessing unusual pathologic features and exhibiting an aggressive clinical course. At the time of presentation, 1 patient had liver metastasis, and the other had a lymph node metastasis and developed liver metastases within 3 months. Both died of disease at 6 and 16 months, respectively, following the initial diagnosis. Review of other cases of SPT treated at Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (New York, NY) revealed that 5 of 34 cases (15%) with conventional histologic features developed liver metastases. In contrast to the 2 cases reported here, all 5 patients survived for a mean of 106 months (39-193 months), and only 2 died of disease 5 and 10 years, respectively, following the initial resection. The pathologic features of the two rapidly fatal cases, which might have been indicative of their aggressive behavior, included a diffuse growth pattern, extensive tumor necrosis, significant nuclear atypia, an unusually high mitotic rate (35-70/50 high power fields), and in one a component of sarcomatoid carcinoma. However, regions displaying the typical histologic features of SPT were also evident. Abnormal beta-catenin distribution and markedly increased MIB1 expression were detected by immunohistochemistry in both cases. The immunohistochemical staining patterns were otherwise similar to those of conventional SPTs. Although precise pathologic criteria suggesting a high risk for aggressive behavior are uncertain, recognition of some of the unusual pathologic features displayed in these 2 cases may be useful in the prediction of potentially more aggressive SPTs. The possibility that these tumors represent high-grade malignant transformation of a conventional low-grade SPT is proposed.
Malignant potential of solid pseudopapillary neoplasm of the pancreas
Article
Jun 2006
S.G. Tipton
T. C. Smyrk
Michael G. Sarr
G B Thompson
Solid pseudopapillary neoplasms of the pancreas are rare malignant lesions of the pancreas that typically occur in young women. Large series from any one centre are notably absent in the literature. The aim of this study was to determine long-term outcomes of operative therapy.
The records of all 14 patients diagnosed with pseudopapillary neoplasms of the pancreas over 17 years were reviewed.
Thirteen of the 14 patients were female and the mean age at diagnosis was 30 years. Solid pseudopapillary neoplasm was suspected in only half of these patients before operation. On computed tomography, ultrasonography and/or magnetic resonance imaging, three lesions were solid, three were largely cystic, and five had solid and cystic components. All 14 patients underwent surgical exploration and curative resections were possible in 13, including distal pancreatectomy in nine, pancreaticoduodenectomy in three and resection of a local intraperitoneal recurrence in one patient. After follow-up ranging from 3 months to 20 years, 12 patients were alive, including one who had undergone re-exploration and resection of local and subcutaneous recurrences 9 years previously.
Solid pseudopapillary neoplasm of the pancreas should be considered in the differential diagnosis of any solid or partly cystic pancreatic mass in women aged less than 35 years. An attempt at en bloc resection without formal lymphadenectomy should be undertaken, including resection of synchronous or metachronous distant metastases.
Less common neoplasms of the pancreas
Article
Jun 2006
A. L. Mulkeen
Peter S. Yoo
Charles H Cha
Recently, there has been an increased recognition of neoplasms of the pancreas other than ductal adenocarcinoma. Although not as well studied or characterized as pancreatic adenocarcinoma there are many distinct lesions which exhibit diverse biological behaviors and varying degrees of malignancy. These lesions include: endocrine neoplasms, cystic tumors, solid pseudopapillary tumors, acinar cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, primary lymphoma of the pancreas, and metastatic lesions to the pancreas. These less common neoplasms are being diagnosed more frequently as the number and sensitivity of diagnostic imaging studies increase. This review article discusses the clinical course, diagnosis, and treatment of these less common, but quite relevant, neoplasms of the pancreas.
Clinical and biological behavior of pancreatic solid pseudopapillary tumors: Report on 31 consecutive patients
Article
Mar 2007
Roberto Salvia
Claudio Bassi
Leonardina Festa
Paolo Pederzoli
Solid pseudopapillary tumors (SPTs) represent one of the most uncommon histotypes of all exocrine pancreatic neoplasms.
To delineate the clinical presentation and biological behavior of SPT and evaluate the efficacy of treatment.
Retrospective analysis of 31 patients (27 female, 4 male, mean age of 34 years, (range 7-56)) who underwent surgical resection with a definitive histological diagnosis of SPT.
Tumor detection was incidental in the 55% of cases. Symptoms were abdominal discomfort (n=10), jaundice (n=2), weight loss (n=6), vomiting (n=5), and a palpable abdominal mass (n=4). The neoplasm was localized in the pancreatic head in 10 patients and in the body-tail in 20 cases; the main diameter ranged from 2 to 20 cm (mean 5.4). At the radiological work-up, the neoplasm was solid in 87% of cases and delimited by a capsule in 39%. An internal necrotic-hemorrhagic area was present in 29% of cases. Calcifications were noticed in two patients and septa in one. None of the patients had metastases at the time of diagnosis. In 9 cases, pancreaticoduodenectomy was performed, while 15 patients underwent a left pancreatectomy (4 spleen preserving), 6 a middle pancreatectomy, and 1 enucleation. There was no postoperative mortality with an overall morbidity of 35%. At a median follow-up of 58.2 months (12-229 range), all patients are alive without evidence of local recurrence, metastasis, diabetes, or exocrine insufficiency.
Solid pseudopapillary tumor (SPT) is an indolent neoplasm with low-grade biological aggressiveness, making surgical treatment successful despite its large size.
Solid pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas
Article
May 2008
Indian J Pathol Microbiol
Rima N Kamat
Leena P Naik
Tanushree Shetty
Solid pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas is considered to be a rare pancreatic tumor. These tumors are typically present in women in their third decade of life. The tumors have a low malignant potential. We report a case of 22-year-old female who presented with intermittent abdominal pain of 3 years duration. Distal pancreatectomy with splenectomy was done as a definitive treatment. The importance of accurate diagnosis and treatment is emphasized.
Operative management of papillary cystic neoplasm of the pancreas A solid pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas treated with laparoscopic distal pancreatectomy and splenectomy: a case report and review of the literature
Jan 1998
319-244
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Panieri E, Krige JE, Bornman PC, et al. Operative management
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25. Marinis A, Anastasopoulos G, Polymeneas G. A solid
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[PMID:21114814]
A solid pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas treated with laparoscopic distal pancreatectomy and splenectomy: a case report and review of the literature
Jan 1998
4-387
E Panieri
J E Krige
P C Bornman
Panieri E, Krige JE, Bornman PC, et al. Operative management
of papillary cystic neoplasm of the pancreas. J Am Coll Surg 1998,
186:319-24. [PMID:9510263]
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pseudopapillary tumor of the pancreas treated with laparoscopic
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[PMID:21114814]
May 2010 · JOP: Journal of the pancreas
Somanath Padhi
Ravikanth Kongara
Shantveer G Uppin
[...]
Adikesava Sastry Regulagedda
Extragastrointestinal stromal tumors arising in the pancreas are extremely rare. To date, only eight cases have been reported in the literature.
A 42-year-old female patient presented with gradually increasing abdominal pain of 6-month duration. Computerized tomography scan of the abdomen demonstrated a solid cystic mass in the body and tail of the pancreas. En-block R0 resection of the mass with ... [Show full abstract] distal pancreatectomy, splenectomy and left hemicolectomy was carried out following a radiological diagnosis of a malignant cystic neoplasm of the pancreas. Histopathological and immunohistochemical findings of the lesion were consistent with a gastrointestinal stromal tumor.
Extragastrointestinal stromal tumor of the pancreas, though rare, should be considered in the differential diagnosis of the more common cystic lesions at this site.
| https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258444315_Solid_and_Cystic_Papillary_Neoplasm_of_the_Pancreas_in_a_18-Year-Old_Female_A_Case_Report |
JCM | Free Full-Text | Feasibility of Coronary Artery Calcium Scoring on Dual-Energy Chest Computed Tomography: A Prospective Comparison with Electrocardiogram-Gated Calcium Score Computed Tomography
Rationale and Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of assessment using the coronary artery calcium score (CACS) in dual-energy chest computed tomography (CT). Materials and Methods: We prospectively enrolled 30 patients (19 male, 11 female; mean age, 63.73 ± 9.40 years) who clinically required contrast-enhanced chest CT. The patients underwent electrocardiogram-gated cardiac calcium-scoring CT with a slice thickness of 2.5 mm followed by a sequentially non-gated contrast-enhanced dual-energy chest CT using 140/80 fast kVp switching technology with slice thicknesses of 1.25 mm and 2.5 mm. Virtual unenhanced (VUE) images were then reconstructed from the dual-energy CT using the material suppressed iodine (MSI) technique. Results: The mean heart rates were 63.33 ± 12.01 beats per minute. The mean CACS on the coronary calcium-scoring CT was 361.1 ± 435.5, and CACSs of the VUE images were 76.8 ± 128.6 (2.5 mm slice) and 108.7 ± 165.1 (1.25 mm slice). The correlation coefficients of CACS between the coronary calcium-scoring CT with the VUE 2.5 mm and 1.25 mm images were 0.888 and 0.904, respectively. The inter-observer agreements for the calcium score measurement between the calcium-scoring CT, VUE 2.5 mm, and VUE 1.25 mm were 1.000, 0.999, and 1.000, respectively. Conclusions: In conclusion, assessment of CACS using dual-energy chest CT might be feasible when using MSI virtual unenhanced dual-energy chest CT images with a slice thickness of 1.25 mm.
Feasibility of Coronary Artery Calcium Scoring on Dual-Energy Chest Computed Tomography: A Prospective Comparison with Electrocardiogram-Gated Calcium Score Computed Tomography
by
Sun Yong Lee 1 ,
Tae Hoon Kim 1 ,
Kyunghwa Han 2 ,
Jae Min Shin 1 ,
Ji Young Kim 1 ,
Daein Kim 1 and
Chul Hwan Park 1,*
1
Department of Radiology and The Research Institute of Radiological Science, Gangnam Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 06273, Korea
2
Department of Radiology and The Research Institute of Radiological Science, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul 03722, Korea
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Clin. Med. 2021 , 10 (4), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10040653
Received: 6 December 2020 / Revised: 2 February 2021 / Accepted: 3 February 2021 / Published: 8 February 2021
(This article belongs to the Section Cardiology )
:
Rationale and Objectives
: This study aimed to evaluate the feasibility of assessment using the coronary artery calcium score (CACS) in dual-energy chest computed tomography (CT).
Materials and Methods
: We prospectively enrolled 30 patients (19 male, 11 female; mean age, 63.73 ± 9.40 years) who clinically required contrast-enhanced chest CT. The patients underwent electrocardiogram-gated cardiac calcium-scoring CT with a slice thickness of 2.5 mm followed by a sequentially non-gated contrast-enhanced dual-energy chest CT using 140/80 fast kVp switching technology with slice thicknesses of 1.25 mm and 2.5 mm. Virtual unenhanced (VUE) images were then reconstructed from the dual-energy CT using the material suppressed iodine (MSI) technique.
Results
: The mean heart rates were 63.33 ± 12.01 beats per minute. The mean CACS on the coronary calcium-scoring CT was 361.1 ± 435.5, and CACSs of the VUE images were 76.8 ± 128.6 (2.5 mm slice) and 108.7 ± 165.1 (1.25 mm slice). The correlation coefficients of CACS between the coronary calcium-scoring CT with the VUE 2.5 mm and 1.25 mm images were 0.888 and 0.904, respectively. The inter-observer agreements for the calcium score measurement between the calcium-scoring CT, VUE 2.5 mm, and VUE 1.25 mm were 1.000, 0.999, and 1.000, respectively.
Conclusions
: In conclusion, assessment of CACS using dual-energy chest CT might be feasible when using MSI virtual unenhanced dual-energy chest CT images with a slice thickness of 1.25 mm.
Keywords:
coronary artery calcium score
;
correlation coefficient
;
dual-energy computed tomography
;
ECG-gated cardiac CT
;
wide-detector CT
1. Introduction
Cardiovascular disease is the most common cause of death worldwide. According to the World Health Organization, 15.2 million people died from cardiovascular disease in 2016, accounting for 27% of all global deaths [ 1 ]. Computed tomography (CT) is now the modality of choice for identifying and quantitatively measuring coronary calcification using the coronary artery calcium score (CACS) [ 2 , 3 ]. It has been widely used to assess the clinical risk of a cardiovascular event [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Furthermore, CACS has been the strongest risk prediction tool among asymptomatic populations [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ] and the most useful method to assess risk in intermediate risk populations [ 11 , 12 ]. To acquire CACS, electrocardiogram (ECG)-gated non-enhanced cardiac CT is needed to define coronary calcium levels using the Hounsfield unit (HU) [ 13 ].
Recently, dual-energy CT (DECT) has been widely used for chest CT examinations and two different X-ray spectra can be obtained from a single-source rapid voltage switching method or from the dual-source generating tubes [ 14 ]. Many people who need a chest CT scan may also need CACS at the same time. In the US, 6.6 million of the 7 million people who need lung scanning are expected to benefit from scanning for CACS [ 15 ]. Virtual unenhanced (VUE) images can be derived from DECT using iodine mapping and subtraction and may replace true unenhanced images, reducing radiation exposure and scan time [ 16 , 17 ].
Several studies evaluating the feasibility of using VUE images on DECT to acquire CACS found statistically significant correlations between them, although the CACS of VUE images was significantly lower than that of true non-enhanced cardiac CT images [
18
,
19
,
20
]. However, there has been no study comparing CACS using the VUE images of enhanced chest DECT with that of ECG-gated non-enhanced cardiac CT, despite the fact that ECG-gated non-enhanced cardiac CT is the reference standard for CACS. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of CACS evaluation using VUE images of enhanced chest DECT compared to ECG-gated non-enhanced cardiac CT.
2. Methods
This study had a prospective design and was approved by the Gangnam Severance Hospital ethics committee/institutional review board (3-2018-0148). Written informed consent was obtained from each patient. All methods were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations.
2.1. Patient Selection
Thirty-three patients aged 50 years or older who were planned to undergo contrast-enhanced chest CT scans for any reason were prospectively enrolled in this study from August 2018 to May 2019. Exclusion criteria included age < 50 years; previous coronary artery bypass graft surgery or percutaneous coronary intervention; previous implantation with metallic devices such as pacemakers, implantable cardioverter defibrillators, or artificial heart valves; or contraindication for contrast-enhanced CT scans, such as eGFR < 60 mL/min or previous severe allergic reactions to contrast media. Three patients with a calcium score of 0 were also excluded ( Figure 1 ).
2.2. CT Protocols
CT scan was performed in two steps: all patients underwent ECG-gated coronary calcium-scoring CT first and then underwent non-ECG-gated contrast-enhanced dual-energy chest CT ( Figure 2 ).
All CT scans in this study were performed with a 256-slice CT scanner (Revolution, GE healthcare, Waukesha, Wisconsin, USA). All patients were scanned twice at the end of inspiration, in a supine position; from the aortic arch to the cardiac base by calcium score CT and from the thoracic inlet to the middle of the kidney by enhanced chest DECT.
The ECG-gated coronary calcium-scoring CT was performed with a 16cm axial volume scan and the parameters were as follows: tube voltage = 120 kVp; tube rotation time = 0.28 s; and slice thickness = 2.5 mm.
The enhanced chest DECT scans were performed using a fast kVp switching technology and an 8 cm helical scan mode with the following parameters: tube voltage = 140 kVp and 80 kVp; tube rotation time = 0.28 s; pitch = 1.531 and slice thickness = 1.25 mm. The images were acquired after a 60s administration of contrast medium (350 mg iodine = patient’s weight * 1.2 mL, limited up to 100 mL of Optiray
®
(ioversol): Guerbet, Raleigh, NC, USA; Ultravist
®
(Iopromide): Bayer Schering, Berlin, Germany; or Pamiray
®
(iopamidol): Dongkook Lifescience, Seoul, Korea) and a 10s saline flush using a power injector (Nemoto Kyorindo Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) (
Table 1
).
CT Image Reconstruction and Analysis
After scanning enhanced chest DECT, Gemstone Spectral Imaging data, GE’s dual-energy techniques for acquiring and generating material density data using rapid kV switching and Gemstone Detector technology, were stored in an image processing workstation (AW Server 3.2, GE Healthcare, Chicago, IL, USA) and reconstructed into 70 keV virtual monochromatic images with 1.25 mm and 2.5 mm slice thicknesses that were most similar to conventional 120 kVp polychromatic CT images [ 21 , 22 , 23 ] ( Figure 2 B). VUE images were then obtained using the material suppressed iodine (MSI) technique ( Figure 2 C).
Two radiologists (C.H.P. and T.H.K) with >10 years of experience in chest and cardiac imaging interpretation evaluated all CT images based on consensus. CACSs were acquired with the Agatston method, using a commercially available reconstruction program for three-dimensional reconstruction and measurement (Aquarius iNtuition TM Ver.4.4.12 TeraRecon, Foster City, CA, USA). In this program, regions where the HU value is higher than 130 are displayed in yellow and are selected if they were considered as coronary calcium after reviewing slice by slice on axial images ( Figure 3 ).
This program subsequently calculates the calcium score automatically. The Agatston scoring method, along with the multiplication of calcification areas and weights (1 = 130 to 199 HU, 2 = 200 to 299 HU, 3 = 300 to 399 HU, and 4 = 400 HU or higher), was automatically processed through the program. Images of ECG-gated non-enhanced coronary calcium-scoring CT and VUE images of chest DECT of 1.25 mm and 2.5 mm slice thickness were all analyzed.
2.3. Statistical Analysis
All continuous variables were expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Categorical variables were summarized as frequencies or percentages. Normality assumptions for continuous variables were tested using the Shapiro-Wilk test. A linear mixed model with Bonferroni’s method was used to evaluate the significance of differences among CACS on the coronary calcium-scoring CT and CACSs on the VUE images with 1.25mm and 2.5mm slice thicknesses. Spearman’s correlation analysis was used to evaluate correlations between CACS on the coronary calcium-scoring CT and CACSs on the VUE images. Bland-Altman analysis was used to evaluate the limits of agreement between CACS on the coronary calcium-scoring CT and CACSs on the VUE images. For the sectional analysis, CACSs were divided into ranges of 0, 0–10, 10–100, 100–400, and ˃400 for risk classification [
6
]. Then, the VUE images of enhanced chest DECT (1.25 mm and 2.5 mm) were compared with those of the coronary calcium-scoring CT in all patients. After linear regression analysis, CACS of the coronary calcium-scoring CT was estimated using that of the VUE images of enhanced chest DECT and regression equations, and compared with those of coronary calcium-scoring CT. Cohen’s kappa coefficient was used to analyze agreement for sectional analysis between VUE images of enhanced chest DECT and coronary calcium-scoring CT for CACS. Inter-observer reproducibility in measuring the calcium score was evaluated with the ICC. A
p
-value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant. All statistical analyses were performed with IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, version 25.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, N.Y., USA) or MedCalc Version 19.6.4 (MedCalc Software bv, Ostend, Belgium;
https://www.medcalc.org
; 2021)
3. Results
3.1. General Characteristics of the Patients
In total, 33 patients were enrolled in our study; however, three patients were excluded because their CACS was 0. The mean age of the remaining 30 patients was 63.73 ± 9.40 years, with a male:female ratio of 19:11. Most of the patients (27/30) underwent CT scans for cancer evaluation, two of which were lung cancers, and three patients underwent CT scans because of abnormal chest radiographs. The mean height of the patients was 163.17 ± 7.45 cm; mean weight was 63.93 ± 9.64 kg; and mean body mass index was 24.00 ± 3.16 kg/m
2
. The mean heart rate was 63.33±12.01 beats per minute. Among the 30 patients, five (16.7%) had diabetes mellitus, seven (23.3%) had hypertension, five (16.7%) had hyperlipidemia, and three (10.0%) were current smokers. There was no patient who had a history of ischemic heart disease or had a previous myocardial infarction.
The mean radiation exposure from chest DECT was 276.74 ± 57.30 mGy*cm, whereas the mean radiation exposure from calcium-scoring CT was 26.61 ± 10.33 mGy*cm ( Table 2 ).
3.2. Comparison of CACS between Coronary Calcium-Scoring CT and VUE Images from Chest DECT
The mean CACS on the coronary calcium-scoring CT was 361.1 ± 435.5. The mean CACSs on the VUE images with 1.25 mm and 2.5 mm slice thicknesses were 108.7 ± 165.1 and 76.8 ± 128.6, respectively ( Table 3 ). The mean CACS of each slice thickness was significantly lower than that of corresponding coronary calcium-scoring CT ( p < 0.001, each).
There were one and eight cases of false negative CACS on VUE images with 1.25 mm and 2.5 mm slice thicknesses, respectively.
The correlation coefficients of CACS between the coronary calcium-scoring CT and VUE images of chest DECT with 1.25 mm and 2.5 mm slice thicknesses were 0.904 and 0.888, respectively ( Figure 4 ).
The mean differences of CACS between the coronary calcium-scoring CT and VUE images of chest DECT with 1.25 mm and 2.5 mm slice thicknesses were −252.4 (95% limit of agreement: −812.3 and 307.5) and −284.3 (95% limit of agreement: −933.3 and 364.7) ( Figure 5 ).
3.3. Sectional Analysis of CACS
After dividing patients’ CACS values into ranges of 0, 0–10, 10–100, 100–400, and ˃400, incidences of underestimation of CACSs of VUE images were easily detected, with this occurring more frequently in 2.5 mm slice thickness images than in the 1.2 5mm slice thickness images. Only five patients of 30 in the 1.25 mm slice thickness images and two patients of 30 in the 2.5 mm slice thickness images were classified into the same section of the calcium score; the proportions of agreement were 16.67% and 6.67%, respectively. Cohen’s kappa coefficients of sectional analysis were 0 for VUE images with 1.25 mm and 0 for VUE images with 2.5 mm (
Table 4
and
Table 5
).
After estimation of CACSs on coronary calcium-scoring CT from VUE images of chest DECT using first order linear regression analysis, the proportion of agreement was 73.33% (22/30) for VUE images with 1.25-mm slice thickness and 66.67% (20/30) for VUE images with 2.5-mm slice thickness. Cohen’s kappa coefficients of VUE images with 1.25-mm and 2.5-mm were 0.573 and 0.423, respectively ( Table 6 and Table 7 ).
3.4. Inter-Observer Agreement
The inter-observer agreements for the CACS measurement between the calcium-scoring CT, VUE images with 1.25 mm slice thickness, and VUE images with 2.5 mm slice thickness were essentially perfect, at 1.000, 1.000, and 0.992, respectively.
4. Discussion
Our prospective study shows that CACSs of VUE images from single-source fast kVp-switching enhanced chest DECT correlates closely with those of the ECG-gated non-enhanced coronary calcium-scoring CT. Correlation coefficients of CACSs between the coronary calcium-scoring CT with VUE images of chest DECT were very high, especially for 1.25 mm slice thickness images.
Coronary artery disease is a major cause of mortality globally, and atherosclerotic changes in the coronary artery constitute the main pathophysiology of CAD [ 13 , 24 ]. CACS may represent an atherosclerotic burden and independently predict coronary events [ 8 ]. Conventionally, CACS should be based on ECG-gated non-enhanced calcium score CT with predefined parameters [ 25 ]. However, it is possible to calculate CACS based on chest CT images. In 2016, the Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography (SCCT) and the Society of Thoracic Radiology (STR) recommended coronary artery calcium scoring based on non-enhanced chest CT images in a jointly published guideline [ 13 ]. Many studies have been conducted on CACS acquisition without ECG-gated non-enhanced coronary calcium-scoring CT. Some studies showed a correlation between CACS from non-ECG-gated chest CT [ 24 , 25 ], or even non-ECG-gated low-dose chest CT [ 26 , 27 ], and CACS from ECG-gated non-enhanced coronary calcium-scoring CT. Several other studies have tried to assess the feasibility of CACS from VUE images of DECT. Song et al. [ 19 ] compared 54 patients’ VUE images from single-source fast switching enhanced dual-energy chest CT (140 kVP and 80 kVP) with non ECG-gated non-contrast chest CT (120 kVP). They acquired VUE images from not only the MSI, but also material density iodine-water pair and material density iodine-calcium pair images, and all showed excellent correlation. CACS values of MSI images were approximately 1/3 to 1/4 of those from the calcium score CT after linear regression. Yamada et al. [ 20 ] compared 27 patients’ VUE images from single-source fast switching enhanced dual-energy cardiac CT (70 kVP and 140 kVP) with ECG-gated non-contrast coronary calcium-scoring CT. CACSs of VUE images were about 1/2 of those from coronary calcium-scoring CT after linear regression; the stronger correlation was probably due to the thin slice thickness used (0.625mm). Schwarz et al. [ 18 ] compared 36 patients’ VUE images from dual-source enhanced dual-energy cardiac CT (100 kVP and 140 kVP) with ECG-gated non-contrast coronary calcium-scoring CT. They compared the calcium volume rather than the Agatston calcium score and found an excellent correlation.
VUE images of chest DECT showed some false negative results: one case in the 1.25 mm slice thickness images and eight cases in the 2.5 mm slice thickness images. We reviewed the eight false negative cases from the 2.5 mm VUE images. All had several to multiple tiny calcified plaques; seven cases had calcified plaques in the left anterior descending artery, four cases in the right coronary artery, and two cases in the left circumflex artery. The minimum heart rate was 57 beats per minute and the maximum heart rate was 80 beats per minute without definite motion artifact. One case also showed a false negative result on a 1.25 mm slice thickness image. In seven of eight patients, CACSs were less than 100 on coronary calcium-scoring CT, and one patient’s CACS was more than 100 with long segmental thin calcifications in the left anterior descending artery and right coronary artery. Multiple regions selected as calcium by coronary calcium-scoring CT also showed high attenuation on 2.5 mm VUE examination, but their attenuations were less than 130 HU and were not selected as calcium.
According to our results, the CACS of VUE images from enhanced chest DECT is significantly lower than obtained by routine coronary calcium-scoring CT. This is consistent with previous studies that used a three-material decomposition algorithm [ 18 , 20 ] and two-material decomposition algorithm [ 19 ]. This result may be due to artefacts related to cardiac movement with non-ECG-gated images of VUE images, blooming or beam hardening from 80 kVP images of DECT [ 23 , 28 ], and erroneous subtraction of calcium in post-processing since the attenuation/keV curve of 6% iodine is similar to that of calcium. Furthermore, VUE images with 2.5 mm slice thickness had more underestimated CACSs than VUE images with 1.25 mm slice thickness; this may be due to a partial volume artefact, which results in lowering of the HU of true calcium levels. These underestimations may have been amplified because the Agatston method uses a weighted density score based on high HU. However, CACS can be calculated for patients who undergo chest DECT, given the high correlation between CACS based on VUE images and CACS based on coronary calcium scoring CT. Furthermore, automatic CACS may accelerate the clinical use of CACS based on chest CT images [ 29 ].
Our study had several limitations. First, the number of patients of our study was small and included a relevant number of false negatives. Second, the CACSs of VUE images were significantly lower than those of coronary calcium-scoring CT, and there were several false negative results. However, the CACS of the false negative result in the 1.25 mm VUE image was less than 100 (29.47), and this may be a low score with low CVD risk. Lastly, there is no external validation test for the first-order linear regression equation. Further studies are needed with a larger sample size.
In conclusion, the assessment of CACS using dual-energy chest CT shows excellent correlation with CACS from ECG-gated coronary calcium-scoring CT. It might be feasible to evaluate CACS using the MSI virtual unenhanced images from enhanced dual-energy chest CT images with 1.25 mm slice thickness. However, underestimation and false negatives on the CACS of VUE should be considered, and further studies are needed with a larger sample size.
Conceptualization, S.Y.L. and C.H.P.; methodology, S.Y.L., T.H.K. and C.H.P.; validation, J.M.S., D.K. and T.H.K.; formal analysis, T.H.K., K.H. and C.H.P.; investigation, J.M.S. and J.Y.K.; data curation, J.Y.K. and D.K.; writing—original draft preparation, S.Y.L. and C.H.P.; writing—review and editing, S.Y.L. and C.H.P.; visualization, J.M.S.; supervision, T.H.K.; project administration, C.H.P.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
CACS Coronary artery calcium score CT Computed tomography DECT Dual-energy computed tomography ECG Electrocardiogram MSI Material suppressed iodine VUE Virtual unenhanced
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Figure 1. Flow chart of patient selection.
Figure 1. Flow chart of patient selection.
Figure 2. Process of image acquisition. First, ECG-gated non-enhanced calcium-scoring CT was performed ( a ). Subsequently, non-ECG-gated contrast-enhanced dual energy chest CT was performed with reconstructed virtual 70keV monochromatic images, which are similar to 120-kVp images ( b ). Finally, virtual unenhanced images were acquired with the material-suppressed iodine technique ( c ).
Figure 2. Process of image acquisition. First, ECG-gated non-enhanced calcium-scoring CT was performed ( a ). Subsequently, non-ECG-gated contrast-enhanced dual energy chest CT was performed with reconstructed virtual 70keV monochromatic images, which are similar to 120-kVp images ( b ). Finally, virtual unenhanced images were acquired with the material-suppressed iodine technique ( c ).
Figure 3. Representative case of coronary calcium scoring on calcium-scoring CT and chest dual energy CT. Pixels with HU > 130 are displayed in yellow and red if selected as calcium by operator. Calcium is well visualized on calcium-scoring CT ( a ), 1.25 mm slice thickness VUE image of chest DECT ( b ), and 2.5 mm slice thickness VUE image of chest DECT ( c ).
Figure 3. Representative case of coronary calcium scoring on calcium-scoring CT and chest dual energy CT. Pixels with HU > 130 are displayed in yellow and red if selected as calcium by operator. Calcium is well visualized on calcium-scoring CT ( a ), 1.25 mm slice thickness VUE image of chest DECT ( b ), and 2.5 mm slice thickness VUE image of chest DECT ( c ).
Figure 4. Correlation between calcium-scoring CT and chest dual energy CT. Scatter plots between calcium-scoring CT and virtual unenhanced (VUE) images of enhanced chest dual energy CT (DECT) with 1.25 mm slice thickness ( a ) and 2.5 mm slice thickness ( b ). The correlation coefficients of coronary artery calcium scoring between the coronary calcium-scoring CT and VUE images of chest DECT with 1.25 mm and 2.5 mm slice thicknesses are 0.904 and 0.888.
Figure 4. Correlation between calcium-scoring CT and chest dual energy CT. Scatter plots between calcium-scoring CT and virtual unenhanced (VUE) images of enhanced chest dual energy CT (DECT) with 1.25 mm slice thickness ( a ) and 2.5 mm slice thickness ( b ). The correlation coefficients of coronary artery calcium scoring between the coronary calcium-scoring CT and VUE images of chest DECT with 1.25 mm and 2.5 mm slice thicknesses are 0.904 and 0.888.
Figure 5. Bland-Altman plots of the coronary calcium-scoring CT and chest dual energy CT. Bland-Altman plots between the coronary calcium-scoring CT and chest dual energy CT with 1.25 mm slice thickness ( a ) and 2.5 mm slice thickness ( b ).
Figure 5. Bland-Altman plots of the coronary calcium-scoring CT and chest dual energy CT. Bland-Altman plots between the coronary calcium-scoring CT and chest dual energy CT with 1.25 mm slice thickness ( a ) and 2.5 mm slice thickness ( b ).
Table 1. Protocols for calcium-scoring CT and chest DECT.
Table 1. Protocols for calcium-scoring CT and chest DECT.
Calcium-Scoring CT Dual-Energy Enhanced Chest CT Tube voltage (kVp) 120 80/140 fast switching Tube currents (mAs) 50 AEC Slice thickness (mm) 2.5 1.25, 2.5 Coverage length (cm) 16 8 Scan mode Axial Helical Rotation time(sec) 0.28 0.28 ECG gating Done None Contrast media Not used Used
AEC, automatic exposure control; CT, computed tomography; DECT, dual-energy computed tomography; ECG, electrocardiogram.
Table 2. Demographic data and baseline characteristics of the 30 patients enrolled.
Table 2. Demographic data and baseline characteristics of the 30 patients enrolled.
N = 30 Age (years-old) 63.73 ± 9.40 Gender (M:F) 19:11 Height (cm) 163.17 ± 7.45 Weight (kg) 63.93 ± 9.64 BMI (kg/m 2 ) 24.00 ± 3.16 Heart rate (beats/min) 63.33 ± 12.01 Radiation exposure (mGy*cm) Calcium CT: 26.61 ± 10.33 Chest DECT: 276.74 ± 57.30
BMI, body mass index; CT, computed tomography; DECT, dual-energy computed tomography; F, female; M, male.
Table 3. Coronary artery calcium scores of calcium scoring CT and VUE images using chest DECT.
Table 3. Coronary artery calcium scores of calcium scoring CT and VUE images using chest DECT.
1.25 mm 2.5 mm Calcium scoring CT 361.1 ± 435.5 VUE images of chest DECT 108.7 ± 165.1 76.8 ± 128.6
CT, computed tomography; DECT, dual-energy computed tomography; VUE, virtual un-enhanced.
Table 4. Sectional analysis of CACS of CT and VUE images using chest DECT with 1.25 mm slice thickness.
Table 4. Sectional analysis of CACS of CT and VUE images using chest DECT with 1.25 mm slice thickness.
VUE Images of Chest DECT 1.25 mm Calcium scoring CT 2.5 mm 0 <10 10~<100 100~<400 400~ 0 <10 10~<100 1 5 1 100~<400 2 10 2 400~ 2 5 2
CT, computed tomography; DECT, dual-energy computed tomography; VUE, virtual un-enhanced; CACS, coronary artery calcium scoring.
Table 5. Sectional analysis of CACS of CT and VUE images using chest DECT with 2.5 mm slice thickness.
Table 5. Sectional analysis of CACS of CT and VUE images using chest DECT with 2.5 mm slice thickness.
VUE Images of Chest DECT 2.5 mm CALCIUM scoring CT 2.5 mm 0 <10 10~<100 100~<400 400~ 0 <10 10~<100 5 2 100~<400 3 1 9 1 400~ 3 5 1
CT, computed tomography; DECT, dual-energy computed tomography; VUE, virtual un-enhanced; CACS, coronary artery calcium scoring.
Table 6. Sectional analysis of CACS of CT and estimated CACS from VUE images using chest DECT with 1.25 mm slice thickness and the first-order linear regression equation.
Table 6. Sectional analysis of CACS of CT and estimated CACS from VUE images using chest DECT with 1.25 mm slice thickness and the first-order linear regression equation.
Estimated CACS from VUE Images Using Chest DECT 1.25 mm Calcium scoring CT 2.5 mm 0 <10 10~<100 100~<400 400~ 0 <10 10~<100 4 2 100~<400 3 11 2 400~ 1 7
CT, computed tomography; DECT, dual-energy computed tomography; VUE, virtual un-enhanced; CACS, coronary artery calcium scoring.
Table 7. Sectional analysis of CACS of CT and estimated CACS from VUE images using chest DECT with 2.5 mm slice thickness and the first-order linear regression equation.
Table 7. Sectional analysis of CACS of CT and estimated CACS from VUE images using chest DECT with 2.5 mm slice thickness and the first-order linear regression equation.
Estimated CACS from VUE Images Using Chest DECT 2.5 mm Calcium scoring CT 2.5 mm 0 <10 10~<100 100~<400 400~ 0 <10 10~<100 0 0 100~<400 7 13 2 400~ 0 1 7
CT, computed tomography; DECT, dual-energy computed tomography; VUE, virtual un-enhanced; CACS, coronary artery calcium scoring.
Chicago/Turabian Style
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(PDF) Preoperative fluid retention increases blood loss during major open abdominal surgery
PDF | Background: Quantification of renal fluid conservation is possible by urine analysis, and the results can indicate dehydration. The present... | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate
Preoperative fluid retention increases blood loss during major open abdominal surgery
September 2017
Perioperative Medicine 6(1)
DOI: 10.1186/s13741-017-0068-1
License
CC BY
Authors:
Karolinska Institutet
University Hospital Linköping
Abstract and Figures
Background:
Quantification of renal fluid conservation is possible by urine analysis, and the results can indicate dehydration. The present report sought to determine whether this fluid retention correlates with fluid requirements during major abdominal surgeries that have estimated operating times ≥ 2 h.
Methods:
Urine colour, specific weight, osmolality and creatinine concentration were used to calculate a composite "fluid retention index" (FRI) in 97 patients prior to major abdominal surgery. Goal-directed fluid volume optimization, with hydroxyethyl starch supplemented with a background administration of crystalloid fluid, was used.
Results:
The median preoperative FRI was 3.0. Fluid retention, considered as present when FRI ≥ 3.5, was found in 37% of the patients. Fluid retention was followed by a significantly larger blood loss (+ 125%; 450 vs. 200 ml), higher haemorrhage rate (+ 41%; 123 vs. 87 ml/h) and greater need for both colloid (+ 43%; 1.43 vs. 1.00 l) and crystalloid (+ 18%; 1.28 vs. 1.08 l) fluids. Despite the larger blood loss, the total fluid balance was more positive after surgery in the dehydrated patients (+ 26%; 1.91 vs. 1.51 l; P < 0.02).
Conclusions:
Preoperative fluid retention, as detected in a urine sample, was associated with a greater blood loss and a more positive fluid balance during major abdominal surgery.
Trial registration:
ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT01458678.
Fluid retention index (FRI) versus fluid balance parameters (a, b). The regression lines refer to the gynaecological and urological operations only (r = 0.58 and 0.54, respectively) …
Fluid retention index (FRI) versus the surgical blood loss in all patients (a; note the log scale) and the rate of the haemorrhage in gynaecological and urological patients (b; r = 0.38) and GI surgeries (c; no significant linear relationship) …
Fluid retention index (FRI) versus the surgical blood loss in all patients (a; note the log scale) and the rate of the haemorrhage in gynaecological and urological patients (b; r = 0.38) and GI surgeries (c; no significant linear relationship) …
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Preoperative fluid retention increases blood
loss during major open abdominal surgery
Robert G. Hahn
1*
, Hans Bahlmann
2,3
and Lena Nilsson
2,3
Abstract
Background: Quantification of renal fluid conservation is possible by urine analysis, and the results can indicate
dehydration. The present report sought to determine whether this fluid retention correlates with fluid requirements
during major abdominal surgeries that have estimated operating times ≥ 2h .
Methods: Urine colour, spec ific weight, osm olality and creati nine concentra tion were used to calcula te a composite
“ fluid retent ion index ” (F RI) in 97 patients prio r to major abdomina l surgery. Goal-d irected flui d volume optimiza tion,
with hydroxy ethyl starch supp lemented with a ba ckground admin istration of c rystalloid fl uid, was used.
Results: The median preoper ative FRI was 3. 0. Fluid rete ntion, consi dered as presen t when FRI ≥ 3.5, wa s found in 37%
of the patients. Fl uid retention was fo llowed by a signific antly larger bl ood loss (+ 125%; 450 vs. 200 ml), hi gher
haemorrhag e rate (+ 41%; 123 vs. 87 ml/h) and greater need for both colloid (+ 43%; 1.43 vs. 1.00 l) and crystalloid (+
18%; 1.28 vs. 1. 08 l) fluids . Despite the la rger blood loss , the total fl uid balance wa s more positive after surger y in the
dehydrated patients (+ 26%; 1.91 vs. 1.51 l; P <0 . 0 2 ) .
Conclusion s: Preoperativ e fluid reten tion, as dete cted in a urine s ample, was ass ociated with a greater blood lo ss and
a more positive flui d balance during maj or abdominal surg ery.
Trial registr ation: Clin icalTrials .gov, NCT01458 678
Keywords: Surgery, Abdominal, Dehy dration, Urin e specimen collec tion, Blood loss
Background
Fluid therapy is an inherent component in the manage-
ment of major abdominal surgery. How the kidneys are
currently se t to excrete or cons erve fluid is of importa nce
to the body ’ s handling of infusion f luids (Hahn et al .
2016), and m arked varia bility is common, bot h in every -
day life (Hahn and Waldréus 2013) and before surgery
(Hahn et al. 2014).
A measure of the kidney ’ s state of fluid retention can
be obtained by calculating an index based on four ana-
lyses of metabolic waste products in the urine (Hahn
and Waldréus 2013). A high urinary content of waste
products is associated with a longer half-lif e of crystal-
loid fluid (Hahn et al. 2014), greater need for fluid
optimization (Li et al. 2014), greater rise in the urinary
concentration of neutrophil gelatinase-a ssociated lipoca-
lin (NGAL) (Hahn 2015) and more complications after
hip fracture surgery (Ylinenvaara et al. 2014), as well a s
a higher 30-day mortality in acute geriatric care
(Johnson et al. 2015). However, little is known about
how preoperative fluid retention affect s intraoperative
fluid balance and the need for infusion fluids.
The aim of the present study was to explore the
relationship between preoperative dehydration and fluid
requirements during major abdominal surgery. The data
was derived from a recently performed clinical trial. The
hypothesis was that fluid retention, which might reflect
dehydration, would necessitate the infusion of greater
amounts of fluid during the surgery.
Methods
Adult patients, ASA I – III , were screened for inclusion if
they were scheduled for elective open abdomin al surgery
(upper or lower gastrointestinal (GI) surgery, urolo gy or
gynaecology) with an expected duration of at least 2 h
and age ≥ 18 years. Exclusion criteria were American So-
ciety of Anesthesiologists class IV, laparoscopic surgery,
* Correspondence: r.hahn@telia.com ; robert.hahn@sll.se
1
Research Unit, Södertälje Hospital, SE-152 86 Södertälje, Sweden
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
© The Author(s). 2017 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver
(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Hahn et al. Perioperative Medicine (2017) 6:12
DOI 10.1186/s13741-017-0068-1
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
cardiac arrhythmias, aortic or mitral insufficiency result-
ing in haemodynamic impairment, se vere renal and
hepatic failure, or pulmonary disease that prevented a
ventilation volume of 7 ml/kg ideal body weight or the
use of PEEP. The study was conducted e very time that a
suitable patient and the research team were available.
Procedure
From 195 patients screened for eligibility, 150 were ran-
domized between the use of oesophageal Doppler and
pulse oxim etry (Pleth Variability Index) techni ques to
guide the goal-directed fluid therapy, which influence on
postoperative outcome was a primary aim of the study.
Randomization was performed by using opaque enve-
lopes prepared from a computerized procedure. There
were 4 drop-outs. From the remaining 146 patient s, a
preoperative urine sample had been obtained from 112.
The results from the first half of this trial have been
published elsewhere and show that the amount of fluid
infused in the two groups was quite similar throughout
the study (Bahlmann et al. 2016).
The patients were allowed to ingest clear fluids up to
2 h before the anaesthesia. Thirty of them had been
instructed to be in the complete fasting state since mid-
night and underwent a preoperative experiment in which
they received 5 ml/kg of Ringer ’ s acetate by intravenous
infusion (Hahn et al. 2014). All patients were operate d
under general anaesthesia and ventilated using volume
control with tidal volumes of 7 ml/kg ideal body weight.
The gynaecological operations were usually hyste rec-
tomy with salpingo-oophorectomy. The most common
upper GI surgeries were resection of the stomach, duo-
denum and pancreas. The most common lower GI oper-
ations were colonic resection and rectum amputation.
Urology operations were nephrectomies and cystecto-
mies. The maintenance crystalloid infusion consist ed of
2 ml/kg/h of buffered dextrose 2.5% with 75 mmol/l of
sodium. Details on the types of operations performed
and the anaesthetic management are provided as supple-
ments on the journal ’ s website (Additional file 1).
Fluid volume optimization was guided by either
oesophageal Doppler or Pleth Variability Index and
consisted of intravenous bolus infusions of 3 ml/kg (up
to 250 ml) of tetrastarch, either Venofundin (B Braun
Medical AB, Danderyd, Sweden) or Volulyte (Fresenius
Kabi AB, Uppsala, Sweden), over 3 – 5 min, using a 50-
cm
3
syringe. Volume optimization in the Doppler group
(CardioQ, Deltex Medical, Chichester, UK) was guided
by stroke volume changes in accordance with published
protocols (Challand et al. 2012). For the alternative
method, a fluid bolus was given when the Pleth Variabil-
ity Index exceeded 9%. Details of these measurement s
have been presented elsewhere (Bahlmann et al. 2016).
Measurements
Two urine samples were taken from all patients in the
morning, just before surgery. Urine colour wa s assessed
by holding a 10-ml tube of urine next to a colour scale,
which is available at www.hydrationcheck.com (Arm-
strong et al. 1998). One urine tube was used to measure
the concentration of metabolic waste product s, which
can be used to quantify the degree of dehydration-
induced renal water conservation (Hahn and Waldréus
2013; Hahn et al. 2014; Li et al. 2014; Hahn 2015).
The urinary albumin and albumin/creatinine ratio
were measured on a D CA Vantage Analyser (Siemens
Healthcare Diagnostics, Mölndal, Sweden ). The urine-
specific gravity was determined using Multistix®10 SG
reagent strips and a Clinitek Status®+ Analyse r (Siemens
Healthcare Diagnostics).
The second tube was sent to the certified clinical
chemistry laboratory at Linköping University Hospital
for analysis of osmolality.
As a quality measure, blood wa s obtained for measure-
ment of the high-sensitivity troponin T (hsTnT) and the
N-terminal fragment of B-type natriuretic peptide (N T-
proBNP), before surgery and on the first and second
mornings after surgery. The haemoglobin (Hb) concen-
tration was measured inva sively just before the induction
of anaesthesia, at the end of the surgery, and on the first
morning after the surgery. The Hb concentration was
monitored by pulse oximetry during the surgery (Radical
7, Masimo Corp., Irvine, C A).
Fluid retention index (FRI)
The use of a composite index for fluid retention that is
based on several markers of renal water conservation ha s
the benefit of reducing confounding influences, such a s
diet, disease and medication, which typically cha nge only
o n eo f t h em a r k e r s . T h eu r i n ec o l o u ri sd u et oe n dp r o d -
ucts arising from the fairly stable breakdown of erythro-
cytes, and it darkens with progressive dehydration. The
specific gravity of the urine also increases with dehydration,
as do the creatinine concentr ation and the osmolality.
The ranges of colou r , osmolality and crea tinine concen-
trations have bee n published for sub jects aged 17 – 69 years,
and each range pa ralleled the sp ecific gravi ty scale (Hahn
and Waldréus 2013 ). These ranges we re assigned a score,
where a higher value in dicated more sev ere dehydratio n
(T able 1). The mean of the four sc ores was termed the
fluid retent ion index ( FRI ) . Thi s term is more appr opriate
than the previously us ed “ dehydration in dex ” because flui d
retention may o ccasionally be due to o ther causes than
dehydration , in particular in hosp ital patients.
Exclusion of FRI scores
The composition of the FRI index was then checked for
outliers, which were determined by calculatin g the
Hahn et al. Perioperative Medicine (2017) 6:12 Page 2 of 8
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
standard deviation (SD) for the mean of the four scores.
An outlier typically raised the SD to > 1.0. The individual
scores were then reviewed and any single outlie r was
omitted, followed by recalculation of the index. The new
value was accepted if SD ≤ 1.0, whereas the index was
discarded as being inconclusive if the SD was still > 1.0
(Hahn and Waldréus 2013; Hahn et al. 2014).
Fluid balance
Blood loss during surgery was calculated from the sum
of the volume in suction tubes and an estimation of the
blood absorbed on swabs and dressings.
The fluid balance was obtained as the sum of the
infused crystalloid and colloid fluid volumes , including
blood products, minus the blood loss and excreted urine.
Hence,
Fluid balance = (crystalloid + colloid + blood prod-
ucts) − (blood loss + urine).
The fluid balance in blood volume equivalents was cal-
culated by dividing the crystalloid and the urine volumes
by 3 before entering the figures into this equation.
Statistics
Continuous and categorical demographic, perioperative
and biochemical data were compared using analysis of
variance (ANOVA), the Mann-Whitney U test or the
chi
2
test, as appropriate. Correlations betw een parame-
ters were evaluated by simple and multiple line ar regres-
sion analysis. P values < 0.05 were conside red significant.
Results
Fluid retention index
Preoperative urine samples for analysis of FRI were ob-
tained from 112 patients. The result s were incomplete in
6 and inconclusive in 9 cases (see the “ Exclusion of FRI
scores ” in the “ Methods ” section), which left 97 patients
for the final analysis.
The median (IQR) of the FRI was 3.0 (2.2 – 3.8) for
those 97 patients.
FRI varied depending on the type of scheduled surgery:
gynaecological 2.3 (1.5 – 3.5), upper GI surgery 3.3 (2.5 –
3.8), lower GI surgery 3.0 (1.8 – 4.1) and urological sur-
gery 3.4 (2.5 – 4.0) (ANOVA on log-transformed data;
P < 0.008). There was no indication that dehydrated
patients were less well before the surgery.
Fluid retention groups
A cut-off for fluid retention of 3.5 was implemented in
accordance with previous work with this cohort (Hahn
et al. 2014).
FRI ≥ 3.5 was associated with greater blood loss (+
125%), blood loss per operating hour (+ 41%), need for
colloid fluid (+ 43%), positive fluid balance (+ 27%) and
greater positive fluid balance when expressed in blood
volume equivalents (+ 29%; Table 2).
Even when controlling for the type of surgery, FRI ≥
3.5 was still significantly associated with greater blood
loss ( P < 0.03), blood loss/operating time ( P < 0.03), total
fluid balance ( P < 0.03) and the fluid balance in blood
units ( P < 0.02) (two-way ANOVA based on logarithm-
transformed data). The real data for all patient s is shown
in T able 2 and for the sub-groups in T able 3.
Nine patients (15%) of the patients with FRI < 3.5 were
treated with diuretics on a daily basis (treatme nt with-
drawn on the day of the operation) while 6 received such
treatment in the other group (17%). Other chronic medi-
cations are listed in Additional file 1.
Four out of the 14 patients undergoing pancreatec-
tomy including Whipple ’ s procedure had preoperative
serum bilirubin levels above the reference value. Two of
them had FRI < 3.5 and two had ≥ 3.5.
Fluid balance
The fluid bal ance durin g surgery co rrelate d with FRI
(linear regression r = 0.35, P < 0.001), which was due
to the gynaecological and urological surgeries
( r = 0.58, P < 0.001), while this relationship was not
statistically significant for the GI operations alone
( P = 0.10; Fig. 1a).
The fluid balance expressed in blood volume equ iva-
lents also correlated with FRI ( r = 0.36, P < 0.001).
Again, the linear relationship was mostly due to the gy-
naecological and urological surgeries ( r = 0.54,
P < 0.001), while this relationship was not statistic ally
significant for the GI surgeries alone ( P = 0.10; Fig. 1b).
Table 1 Scheme for calculating the fluid retention index (FRI), which is the mean of the dehydration scores for 4 urinary indexes of
fluid retention
Fluid retention score 1 2 3 4 5 6
Specific gravity ≤ 1.005 1.010 1.015 1.020 1.025 1.030
Osmolality (mOsmol/kg) < 250 250 – 450 450 – 600 600 – 800 800 – 1000 > 1000
Creatinine(mmol/l) < 4 4 – 77 – 12 12 – 17 17 – 25 > 25
Colour (shade) 1 2 3 4 5 6
From Hahn and Waldréus 2013
Hahn et al. Perioperative Medicine (2017) 6:12 Page 3 of 8
Blood loss
The log-transformed blood loss correlated with FRI
( r = 0.23, P < 0.03), which was due to the gynaecological
and urological surgeries ( r = 0.44, P < 0.005), while this
relationship was not statistically significant for the GI
surgeries alone ( P = 0.13; Fig. 2a).
The blood loss per hour operating time also correlated
with FRI for gynaecological and urological surgeries
( r = 0.38, P < 0.02; Fig 2b), while this relationship was
not statistically significant for the GI surgeries ( P = 0.13;
Fig. 2c).
Troponin T
Blood for analysis of tro ponin T and N T-proBNP wa s
obtained from 36 patients. The serum concentration of
troponin T before surgery was 8 (5 – 11) ng/l and the
NT-proBNP was 145 (57 – 250) ng/l.
No increase in troponin T occurred in patients with a
high FRI, but the NT-proBNP doubled regardless of
whether the FRI had a low or high value. Moreover,
there were no differences in B-Hb concentration
between the groups (Table 2).
ASA class and fluid monitoring
I nam u l t i p l er e g r e s s i o nm o d e l ,o n l yt h eF R Iv a l u e ,b u tn o t
the ASA cl ass or the mo de of moni toring fl uid resp onsive -
ness (oesophageal Doppler and pulse oximetry), served as
a statistically significant predictor of the total fluid balance.
Similarly, only the FRI value was a significant predictor
of the surgical blood loss.
Discussion
The result confirms that fluid retention, expressed as a
high FRI, is associated with a greater ne ed for fluid
Table 2 Data on the surgical operations depending on a high or low fluid retention index (FRI) prior to anaesthesia induction
Parameter FRI < 3.5 ( n = 61) FRI ≥ 3.5 ( n = 36) Statistics
Preoperatively
Age (years) 65 (57 – 72) 67 (50 – 73) P = 0.59
Body weight (kg) 75 (68 – 89) 75 (60 – 85) P = 0.42
ASA class I/II/III (%)
a
28/59/13 38/52/8 P = 0.48
B-Hb concentration (g/l) 126 (118 – 134) 127 (120 – 135) P = 0.61
U-albumin/creatinine (mg/mmol) 1.87 (1.15 – 5.04) 1.02 (0.65 – 1.83) P < 0.002
Preoperative fluid experiment ( n ,% )
a
19 (31%) 11 (31%) P = 0.30
During surgery
Operating time (h) 2.3 (1.4 – 4.1) 3.3 (2.2 – 4.2) P = 0.07
Blood loss (ml) 200 (75 – 413) 450 (150 – 738) P < 0.01
Blood loss/operating time (ml/h) 87 (41 – 154) 123 (74 – 225) P < 0.03
Erythrocyte transfusion ( N patient) 4 5
Erythrocytes transfused (ml) 863 (552 – 1408) 1389 (313 – 1670) P = 0.62
B-Hb concentration (g/l) 106 (93 – 112) 104 (95 – 115) P = 0.76
Urine (ml) 245 (171 – 500) 350 (149 – 500) P = 0.95
Urine/operating time (ml/h) 92 (62 – 174) 96 (48 – 143) P = 0.34
Crystalloid fluid (ml) 1081 (688 – 1430) 1279 (954 – 1950) P = 0.05
Colloid fluid (ml) 1000 (700 – 1400) 1430 (953 – 1956) P < 0.04
Infused fluid volume (ml) 2140 (1567 – 2816) 2594 (2248 – 3461) P < 0.02
Fluid balance (ml) + 1506 (1210 – 2041) + 1913 (1439 – 2403) P < 0.02
Fluid balance, blood equivalents (ml) + 954 (729 – 1401) + 1235 (979 – 1494) P < 0.03
Postoperatively
Δ S-troponin T, day 0 vs. 1 – 2 (%)
b, c
+2 0 ( 0 – 66) 0 ( − 6t o+8 ) P < 0.02
Δ S-NT-proBNP, day 0 vs. 1 – 2 (%)
b, c
+ 161 (31 – 357) + 150 (41 – 462) P = 0.43
B-Hb concentration (g/l) 113 (102 – 122) 114 (104 – 124) P = 0.74
Length of hospital stay (days) 7 (5 – 11) 9 (6 – 14) P = 0.15
Mann-Whitney ’ s test was used for statistics
a
contingency table analysis
b
Repeated-measures ANOVA based on log-transformed data
c
The means of the values on days 1 and 2 were compared with the preoperative value
Hahn et al. Perioperative Medicine (2017) 6:12 Page 4 of 8
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
during surgery to maintain the patients in a fluid opti-
mized state using either oesophageal Doppler or the
Pleth Variability Index. The most plausible explanation
to this finding is that fluid retention indicated preopera-
tive dehydration, which had to be overcome by infusing
larger volumes of fluid.
In contrast, the relationship between blood loss and
FRI was a surprising post hoc finding . The explanation
is unclear, but infusion of a small volume of Ringer ’ s
acetate in these preoperative patients showed that the
plasma dilution was greater and the half-life of the fluid
twice as long in those with FRI ≥ 3.5 (Hahn et al. 2014).
Table 3 Data on the surgical operations depending on high or low fluid retention index (FRI) prior to anaesthesia induction
Parameter FRI < 3.5 ( n= 61) FRI ≥ 3.5 ( n= 36) Statistics
Blood loss (ml)
Gynaecology ( n = 27) 175 (100 – 300) 200 (113 – 513) P < 0.03
Upper GI surgery ( n = 27) 225 (50 – 575) 250 (63 – 725)
Lower GI surgery ( n = 31) 150 (81 – 375) 525 (150 – 1000)
Urology ( n = 12) 1000 (100 – 1800) 850 (500 – 1300)
Blood loss/operating time (ml/h)
Gynaecology 120 (44 – 148) 106 (79 – 163) P < 0.03
Upper GI surgery 55 (29 – 145) 129 (72 – 282)
Lower GI surgery 57 (32 – 120) 84 (42 – 217)
Urology 164 (71 – 248) 204 (171 – 229)
Total fluid balance (ml)
Gynaecology 1361 (1032 – 1740) 1674 (1395 – 2210) P < 0.03
Upper GI surgery 1569 (1362 – 2095) 1778 (1372 – 2887)
Lower GI surgery 1506 (1014 – 2047) 1913 (1537 – 2194)
Urology 1559 (560 – 1814) 2122 (1489 – 2938)
Fluid balance in blood units (ml)
Gynaecology 915 (791 – 1113) 1186 (818 – 1577) P < 0.02
Upper GI surgery 1105 (858 – 1467) 1223 (902 – 1455)
Lower GI surgery 954 (690 – 1456) 1266 (1172 – 1447)
Urology 845 (413 – 1214) 1289 (1063 – 1542)
Two-way analysis of variance was performed on ln-transformed data using the type of surgery and FRI ≥ 3.5 as predictors. The levels of significance for FRI ≥ 3.5
are shown
Fig. 1 Fluid retention index (FRI) versus fluid balance parameters ( a , b ). The regression lines refer to the gynaecological and urological operations
only ( r = 0.58 and 0.54, respectively)
Hahn et al. Perioperative Medicine (2017) 6:12 Page 5 of 8
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
In elderly urological patients, concentrated urine triple d
the plasma volume expansion following infusion of
Ringer ’ s acetate and isotonic saline, when compared to
patients without concentrated urine (Hahn et al. 2016).
A greater haemodilution occurring in patients with con-
centrated urine might then have impaired coagulation,
thereby promoting a greater blood loss. If so, a rapid
correction of preoperative dehydration would be at risk
of increasing the surgical blood loss.
Another possibility is that the larger volum es of col-
loid required to maintain an optimized plasma volume
caused the greater haemodilution, thereby increasing the
blood loss. Hence, the actual cause and effe ct between
infused fluid volume and blood loss remains unclear.
How the kidneys were set to excrete or retain fluid
was of relevance to the results and particularly for the
gynaecological or urological surgeries. The blood loss ,
the need for intravenous fluid and the positive fluid bal-
ance all increased with greater preoperative fluid reten -
tion (T able 2). However, the volume optimization guided
by measures of fluid responsiveness required a more
positive fluid balance in patients with fluid retention,
despite the fact that the blood loss also was greater.
The baseline infusion (2 ml/kg/h) and the GDT
optimization as given in this trial resulted in a positive
fluid balance of between 1.5 and 2 l. When expressed in
blood units, the positive balance averaged 1.1 l, despite a
blood loss that was only one third as large. Hence, the
recommended “ zero balance ” (Brandstrup et al. 2012)
was not possible to achieve in these patients if an opti-
mized plasma volume according to GDT was to be
maintained.
The positive fluid balance was about 1 l when the
urine was not concentrated, while twice as large a vol-
ume was needed when the urine was concent rated to a
degree consistent with dehydration (Fig. 1a). Likewise,
the figures for the fluid balance, when expressed in
blood volume equivalents , were + 750 ml and + 1.5 l
(Fig. 1b). Other data suggest that one could expect a
fourfold increase in blood loss rate whe n FRI increases
from 1 to 4 for gynaecological and urological surgery
(Fig. 2b).
Several mechanisms may explain why a positive fluid
balance was required to maintain the central blood flow.
Vasodilatation caused by the anaesthesia, as well as tran-
sudation into injured tissue, remains the best acknowl-
edged reasons. Fluid retention oedema become s more
pronounced when crystalloid fluid is infused sometime
after hydroxyethyl starch (Hahn et al. 2013, Hahn 2017);
Fig. 2 Fluid retention index (FRI) versus the surgical blood loss in all
patients ( a ; note the log scale) and the rate of the haemorrhage in
gynaecological and urological patients ( b ; r = 0.38 ) and GI surgeries
( c ; no significant linear relationship)
Hahn et al. Perioperative Medicine (2017) 6:12 Page 6 of 8
this probably reflects the oncotic properties of lea king
starch molecules that bind the crystalloid fluid in extra-
vascular areas. In contrast, e vaporation is only ≈ 30 ml/h
in an open abdominal surgery (Lamke et al. 1977), and
this could therefore explain only 100 ml of the positive
balance.
Despite the administration of larger volu mes of fluid,
the rise in NT-proBNP was not greater in patients with
concentrated urine (Table 2). The average patient had at
least a doubled plasma concentration of N T-proBNP
after the surgery; the upper 25% showed a quadrupled
concentration after the surgery. This pre cursor of BNP
is released in response to stretching of the myocytes of
the ventricles. The rise shows that cardiac strain wa s not
uncommon during these surgeries, which is surprising
given that flow-guided monitoring of the fluid adminis -
tration should prevent marked fluid overload. In con-
trast, the small postoperative rise in troponin T seen in
many patients was also absent in those with concen-
trated urine (T able 2).
Limitations of this study were the inclusion of different
types of operations, which restricted the possibility of
performing statistics. Major surgery is a very complex
medical situation, and the mechanisms that govern
various parameters, such as urinary excretion, require
simpler situations to be readily understood. Amon g the
benefits of the present study is that it was conducted in
a standardized way and consistently relied on mod ern
approaches to guide the fluid therapy, although there
may be concerns that the oesophageal Doppler and
pulse oximetry may not indicate fluid responsiveness
correctly.
The algorithm used to calculate FRI is based on as -
sessment of urine colour, specific gravity, osmolality and
creatinine, which represent metabolic waste products
that appear in higher concentrations when the kidneys
conserve fluid. The adopted exclusion process ensured
that the finally reported FRI values were robust mea-
sures of fluid retention. For example, isolated darkening
of the urine due to a catheter-induced haematuria or a
high serum bilirubin concentration was not allowed to
affect the result.
Conclusions
Preoperative fluid retention, as given by a urine sample
indicating dehydration, was associated with greater fluid
requirements during major open abdominal surgery.
Fluid retention was also followed by greater blood loss
and a need for a more positive fluid balance. These
effects were most apparent in gynae cological and
urological operations. These results suggest tha t more
fluid should routinely be prescribed to those patients
who have concentrated urine before an operation. How -
ever, more studies are first needed to determine if more
fluid given for this reason result in any benefit for the
outcome of the patients.
Additional file
Additional file 1: Surgical procedures and anaesthetic and fluid
management. (DOCX 16 kb)
Acknowledgements
Research nurses Susanne Lind and Gunilla Gagnö assisted with the collection
of the data.
Funding
The work was supported by the Department of Anaesthesiology and
Intensive Care, Linköping University Hospital, by the County Council of
Östergötland and by the Mats Kleberg Foundation.
Availability of data and materials
Please contact any of the authors for data requests.
Authors ’ contributions
HB and LN performed the data collection, and RH performed the
calculations and wrote the manuscript. All authors read and approved the
final version of the manuscript.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The study was performed at the University Hospital in Linköping between
November 2011 and December 2014. Permission was obtained from the
Regional Ethical Review Board in Linköping (2011/101 – 31) on March 30,
2011, and all patients who participated in the study provided written
informed consent. The study was registered at Clinical Trials (NCT01458678).
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Competing interests
The authors have no competing interests to declare.
Publisher ’ sN o t e
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in
published maps and institutional affiliations.
Author details
1
Research Unit, Södertälje Hospital, SE-152 86 Södertälje, Sweden.
2
Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care, Linköping University,
Linköping, Sweden.
3
Department of Medical and Health Sciences, Linköping
University, Linköping, Sweden.
Received: 3 November 2016 Accepted: 3 August 2017
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... An increase in net fluid balance resulting accumulation of excess fluids in body tissues and weight gain (64)
(65)
(66) and in some cases, peripheral edema (66). This is due to physiological or pathological processes promoting renal reabsorption and fluid conservation, such as during dehydration, pregnancy, anesthesia, acute kidney injury (AKI) and congestive heart failure (64). ...
Rosalind S. Chow
Fluid therapy is administered to veterinary patients in order to improve hemodynamics, replace deficits, and maintain hydration. The gradual expansion of medical knowledge and research in this field has led to a proliferation of terms related to fluid products, fluid delivery and body fluid distribution. Consistency in the use of terminology enables precise and effective communication in clinical and research settings. This article provides an alphabetical glossary of important terms and common definitions in the human and veterinary literature. It also summarizes the common routes of fluid administration in small and large animal species.
Renal water conservation determines the increase in body weight after surgery: A randomized, controlled trial
Background: The present study was undertaken to identify factors that correlate with the gain in body weight after surgery.
Methods: Twenty-one patients (median age of 49 years) were randomized to receive either Ringer × s acetate or 6% dextran 70 as their first infusion fluid during cholecystectomy or hysterectomy. Each patient's body weight was measured before the surgery and on the first postoperative morning. Blood and urine samples were analyzed for signs of stress, inflammation, and kidney injury. The fluid retention index (FRI), which reflects how strongly the kidneys excrete or retain fluid, was also calculated.
Results: The body weight increased by a median of 0.4 kg in the crystalloid fluid group and by 1.0 kg in the colloid fluid group (maximum 2.5 kg, P< 0.01). This difference was due to less urinary excretion after surgery in the colloid group (P < 0.03). The increase in body weight did not correlate with the infused fluid volume, the plasma concentrations of C-reactive protein or cortisol, or the urinary excretion of albumin, cortisol, or neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin. However, the body weight increased with the postoperative FRI score (r = 0.64; P< 0.003) and with the surgery-induced change in FRI score (r = 0.72; P< 0.002).
Conclusion: How strongly the kidneys excrete or retain fluid, which can be assessed by urine sampling, was the strongest indicator of the increase in body weight during the day of surgery. The amount of fluid alone did not correlate with the gain in body weight.
Renal injury during hip fracture surgery: An exploratory study
The present observational study was undertaken to identify potential markers of poor outcome, such as renal failure and mortality, after hip fracture surgery.
Forty-three patients, with a mean age of 78 years, were studied having undergone acute hip fracture surgery. Analysis included the urinary excretion of cortisol, albumin and sodium. The degree of fluid retention was evaluated based on the urinary excretion of metabolic end products. Fluid retention and the excretion of albumin and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) were measured repeatedly in a sub-group of 15 patients who also underwent haemodynamic monitoring. The perioperative change in serum creatinine and a 30-day mortality served as outcome measures.
Although serum creatinine increased by > 25% in 21% of the patients, only a high preoperative creatinine concentration correlated with a 30-day mortality. The subgroup analysis revealed that fluid retention was pronounced and remained essentially unchanged up to the first postoperative day. A rise in serum creatinine was always preceded by increased urinary excretion of NGAL that, in turn, was associated with preoperative fluid retention. The only perioperative event that correlated with a higher 30-day mortality was perioperative aggravation of albuminuria (67% vs 0%, P < 0.01), which became more common with advanced age and a low cardiac index.
Two different mechanisms seem to affect the kidneys during hip fracture surgery. The first elevates the serum creatinine concentration while the second elevates the albuminuria. Only the second mechanism had a bearing on mortality.
| https://www.researchgate.net/publication/319450037_Preoperative_fluid_retention_increases_blood_loss_during_major_open_abdominal_surgery |
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Energies | Free Full-Text | Research on the Critical Issues for Power Battery Reusing of New Energy Vehicles in China
With the rapid development of new energy vehicles (NEVs) industry in China, the reusing of retired power batteries is becoming increasingly urgent. In this paper, the critical issues for power batteries reusing in China are systematically studied. First, the strategic value of power batteries reusing, and the main modes of battery reusing are analyzed. Second, the economic benefit models of power batteries echelon utilization and recycling are constructed. Finally, the economic benefits of lithium iron phosphate (LIP) battery and ternary lithium (TL) battery under different reusing modes are analyzed based on the economic benefit models. The results show that when the industrial chain is fully coordinated, LIP battery echelon utilization is profitable based on a reasonable scenario scheme. However, the multi-level echelon utilization is only practical under an ideal scenario, and more attention should be paid to the first level echelon utilization. Besides, the performance matching of different types of batteries has a great impact on the echelon utilization income. Thus, considering the huge potentials of China’s energy storage market, the design of automobile power batteries in the future should give due consideration to the performance requirements of energy storage batteries. Moreover, the TL battery could only be recycled directly, while the LIP has the feasibility of echelon utilization at present. At the same time, it will strengthen the cost advantage of the LIP battery, which deserves special attention.
Research on the Critical Issues for Power Battery Reusing of New Energy Vehicles in China
Xinglong Liu 1,2 ,
Han Hao 1,2,4 ,
Fuquan Zhao 1,2,* ,
Amer Ahmad Amer 5 and
Hassan Babiker 5
1
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
2
Tsinghua Automotive Strategy Research Institute, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
3
Sloan Automotive Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
4
China Automotive Energy Research Center, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
5
Research and Development Center, Saudi Aramco, Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2020 , 13 (8), 1932; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13081932
Received: 15 March 2020 / Revised: 3 April 2020 / Accepted: 7 April 2020 / Published: 14 April 2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Storage Systems for Electric Vehicles )
Versions Notes
Abstract
:
With the rapid development of new energy vehicles (NEVs) industry in China, the reusing of retired power batteries is becoming increasingly urgent. In this paper, the critical issues for power batteries reusing in China are systematically studied. First, the strategic value of power batteries reusing, and the main modes of battery reusing are analyzed. Second, the economic benefit models of power batteries echelon utilization and recycling are constructed. Finally, the economic benefits of lithium iron phosphate (LIP) battery and ternary lithium (TL) battery under different reusing modes are analyzed based on the economic benefit models. The results show that when the industrial chain is fully coordinated, LIP battery echelon utilization is profitable based on a reasonable scenario scheme. However, the multi-level echelon utilization is only practical under an ideal scenario, and more attention should be paid to the first level echelon utilization. Besides, the performance matching of different types of batteries has a great impact on the echelon utilization income. Thus, considering the huge potentials of China’s energy storage market, the design of automobile power batteries in the future should give due consideration to the performance requirements of energy storage batteries. Moreover, the TL battery could only be recycled directly, while the LIP has the feasibility of echelon utilization at present. At the same time, it will strengthen the cost advantage of the LIP battery, which deserves special attention.
Keywords:
new energy vehicle
;
power battery
;
battery reusing
;
echelon utilization
;
battery recycling
Graphical Abstract
1. Introduction
With the continuous support of the government, the number of NEVs (new energy vehicles) has been increasing rapidly in China, which has led to the rapid development of the power battery industry [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. As shown in Figure 1 , the installed capacity of China’s traction battery is already very large. There was an increase of more than 60 GWh in 2019 and an accumulated installed capacity of more than 205 GWh, which is still growing rapidly [ 4 , 5 ]. At the same time, more and more power batteries are approaching the state of retirement with the passage of time. There are two reasons that the scale of batteries to be retired is further increased. First, the service life of power batteries is usually lower than that of the vehicles resulting that a large number of retired batteries will appear before the vehicles are scrapped. Second, the technical level of early NEV products is relatively low; the service life of many power batteries is far shorter than the newly developed batteries. Therefore, it can be expected that China will soon usher in the peak period of the retirement of NEV power batteries [ 6 ]. Obviously, it will bring serious environmental and security risks if these retired batteries cannot be effectively recycled and managed [ 7 ].
For this reason, the Chinese government is stepping up the development of relevant policies on the reusing of power batteries. As shown in
Figure 2
, the frequency and content of recent relevant policies are getting higher and higher [
8
,
9
]. All kinds of signs indicate that China will issue regulations and policies on the mandatory recycling of retired power batteries soon. Thus, it would require enterprises to solve the problem of retired power batteries in the form of laws so as to ensure the sustainable development of the new energy automobile industry. According to the principle of the "Extended Producer Responsibility System", power battery reusing will become the responsibility of vehicle enterprises. The vehicle enterprises will definitely decompose the responsibility along the supply chain, so the whole power battery industry will be affected [
10
]. Therefore, relevant enterprises need to think ahead, lay out, and prepare in advance to meet the requirements of national laws and regulations.
In fact, the power battery of NEVs contains a large number of metal materials, such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, etc. Its reusing is not only a matter of legal responsibility but also affects the supply status of these metals directly [ 11 , 12 ]. So, it may change the trend of the price of power battery, and then affect the development trend of the industry and the income of enterprises significantly.
For this reason, this paper systematically studies the key issues for NEV power battery reusing in China, including the strategic value, main reusing modes, echelon utilization value, recycling value, and overall value analysis of power battery reusing.
2. Strategic Value of Power Battery Reusing
As mentioned above, the retired volume of power batteries for NEVs will be huge and grow rapidly in China. Reusing these batteries has three important strategic values [ 13 ].
First, it could solve the environmental pollution and potential safety problems caused by retired power batteries [
14
]. Based on the historical data of China’s NEVs and their power batteries, this paper makes a quantitative estimation of the scale of retired power batteries in the next six years. The evaluation method is shown in Equation (1):
R
M
=
∑
M
−
A
M
−
B
R
k
A
−
B
+
1
⋅
I
k
(1)
where the
k
is the year;
R
M
indicates the retirement volume in year M;
A/B
indicates the up/down year of retired power battery life;
I
k
represents the conversion coefficient of influencing factors in the year
k
, which is related to market size, battery type, battery life and installed capacity of batteries [
15
].
The results of this estimation are shown in Figure 3 . It is estimated that the retired volume of power batteries in China will reach about 27 GWh in 2020 and 146 GWh in 2025. It will become a serious threat to the ecological environment. To be specific, it will result in water, soil, and air pollution, as well as public security risks such as short-circuit combustion if the retired power battery with such a huge scale cannot be reused and recycled effectively [ 16 ].
Second, it could realize the recycle and reuse of metal resources and reduce the supply risk of power battery raw materials [
17
]. On the one hand, the demand for lithium, cobalt, nickel, etc. for NEV power batteries is growing. For example, China’s power battery industry consumed about 11,000 tons of lithium, 41,000 tons of nickel, and 17,000 tons of cobalt in 2018 [
15
]. At the same time, China’s external dependence on these three metal materials is more than 80%, especially for cobalt, with the overseas import volume as high as 97% [
15
]. In this case, the recycling of these metal materials must be realized through the reusing of retired power batteries so as to avoid resource bottlenecks and ensure the safety and control of the industry [
18
].
On the other hand, the current price of power battery is still relatively expensive, which is the fundamental reason why NEVs are at a price disadvantage compared with traditional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) [
19
]. As China’s subsidy policy for NEVs will be completely phased out after 2020, the NEVs will be mostly market-driven. Therefore, to improve the competitiveness of the NEVs, their cost-performance needs to approach the level of ICEVs without subsidies. The expectation of this industry is that the scale effect will make the price of power battery drop rapidly with the increase of NEVs. However, if a large number of retired power batteries cannot be reused, it is likely that the supply of metal materials would be a bottleneck. It will lead to the price of power batteries rising instead of falling, resulting in a higher cost of the NEVs [
14
]. In this regard, the reusing of power battery is one of the important factors affecting the sustainable development of China’s NEVs industry in the future.
Third, it has the potential to reduce the cost of power battery in automobile enterprises and generate additional social value [
16
]. The retired power battery should not only simply be dismantled and recycled and the reusing for raw materials. If its potential value can be fully exploited before dismantling and recycling, the retired power battery can be utilized to the maximum extent. Thus, the use cost of the power battery will be effectively shared at different utilization stages [
20
]. In this case, the recovery and utilization of power battery may not be a burden for the automotive enterprise, and may even bring some profits to the enterprise instead. As a result, it would promote the cost reduction of new NEV products further, and thus constitute a competitive advantage for the enterprise. At the same time, the field of application of retired power batteries is also expected to benefit from waste utilization [
21
,
22
]. For the whole society, this means the upgrading of the efficiency of social resources utilization. Therefore, it would also produce certain social values.
It can be seen that China’s subsidies for NEVs are about to be phased out entirely. Hence, the industry must attach great importance and study how to maximize the benefits of the reusing of retired power batteries seriously under the situation. This strategically important for the sustainable development of China’s NEV industry as well as the construction and improvement of a green energy-saving society in the future.
3. Main Modes of Power Battery Reusing
Firstly, the concept of power battery reusing is defined, as shown in Figure 4 .
Retired battery: when the performance of the power battery has declined to a certain extent, it needs to be retired from use and then enter the reusing process. For NEVs, the indicator is that the battery capacity retention rate decays below 80% [ 23 ].
Echelon utilization: the batteries retired from the original products can be used in other applications with relatively low requirements on battery performance [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ]. Theoretically, this kind of secondary utilization can be performed many times, which is the so-called multi-level echelon utilization. NEVs have high requirements for batteries, but the power batteries could be used in micro electric vehicles, communication base stations, energy storage [ 28 ], and other fields until the battery capacity retention rate is reduced to 30% [ 28 ].
Recycling: the power battery is dismantled and recycled, which is the last link of reusing [ 29 ]. From the legal point of view, it will meet the requirements if the retired battery is recycled. However, the retired battery cannot achieve the maximum benefit when dismantled and recycled directly from the perspective of enterprise management.
Reusing: This is actually a big concept, including two aspects of echelon utilization and recycling. It covers the whole process of processing and processing retired batteries with the basic goal of environmental protection and resource reuse [ 13 , 30 ].
According to the above definition, the reusing of retired power batteries of NEVs could be divided into two main modes, as shown in
Figure 5
. The first mode is to recycle retired batteries directly, that is, to realize resource recovery and meet regulatory requirements [
7
]. Mode Ⅱ is to select a suitable scenario for the echelon utilization of retired batteries to give full play to the residual capacity and then implement the recycling [
23
]. Obviously, Mode Ⅱ can obtain greater returns than Mode Ⅰ in theory, but the actual situation is far more complex than the theory [
31
]. There are many factors influencing the benefit of echelon utilization, including appropriate echelon utilization scenarios; therefore, there are key technologies, and costs of detecting battery residual energy and regrouping, cooperation modes of all parties involved in echelon utilization, etc. Thus, the specific value of echelon utilization needs to be systematically evaluated to obtain a greater return from the reusing of retired power batteries.
4. Research on the Key Issues of Power Battery Echelon Utilization
At present, the mainstream power batteries are TL batteries and LIP batteries. The mass-energy density of the TL battery is higher, which plays a leading role in passenger cars, but its cost is higher than that of the LIP battery [ 32 ]. However, the LIP battery exhibits better thermal stability, lower cost, and lower volume energy density. It is more widely used in commercial vehicles [ 33 ]. Overall, they have their own advantages and disadvantages and are widely used in NEVs. By the end of 2018, LIP battery accounted for 54%, and TL battery accounted for 42% of the total installed of NEV power batteries in China [ 34 ].
However, there are technical bottlenecks in TL battery when facing echelon utilization. On the one hand, the safety of the TL battery is poor due to the low thermal runaway temperature (180 °C), meaning it is more prone to cause fire and explosion. On the other hand, more nickel is used in the cathode material of the TL battery in order to pursue higher energy density, which results in shorter cycle life of TL batteries [
35
]. The solution to these problems needs a corresponding technological breakthrough and high costs. So, it is difficult to implement the TL battery echelon utilization at the current technical level. Instead, direct recycling for TL battery is a more reasonable choice. Therefore, this paper only studies the echelon utilization of LIP battery [
36
].
4.1. Scenario Selection of Power Battery Echelon Utilization
There are three important factors to consider when selecting echelon utilization scenarios, including demand matching, utilization cost, and scale capacity. First of all, the performance of retired power batteries must meet the basic needs of echelon utilization scenarios. It includes service life, charging and discharging speed, internal resistance, and working voltage, etc. Secondly, the retired power battery can be used for echelon utilization only after being tested and regrouped. The cost must be low enough to ensure the economy of echelon utilization. Therefore, the technical requirements for batteries in relevant scenarios could not be too high. Finally, the ideal echelon utilization scenario should have a large and stable battery demand due to the number of retired power batteries increasing year by year. Otherwise, it cannot play a great role even if the demand matches, and the cost is controllable.
Based on the above three factors, this study conducts a comprehensive analysis of various possible echelon utilization scenarios, and finally extracts the six most likely scenarios [
23
,
25
,
37
]. They are divided into two categories: power battery and energy storage battery. The former includes a microelectric vehicle (MEV), electric special vehicle (ESV) (such as sightseeing vehicle, ferry car, etc.), and electric bike (E-Bike). While the latter includes communication base station (CBS), renewable energy power station (REPS), and parallel micro-grid (PMG). Each of these scenarios has different battery use characteristics, presented in detail in
Table 1
.
China’s low-speed road vehicles, including MEV, ESV, and E-Bike, etc. listed in
Table 1
, mostly use lead-acid (LA) batteries nowadays. LA batteries have serious environmental pollution problems. At the same time, the energy density, cycle life, and other main indicators are far lower than LIP batteries, as shown in
Table 2
. But its main advantage is the low cost [
38
]. With the continuous growth of the power battery scale of NEVs, the retired LIP batteries can be completely used to replace the LA battery. The retired LIP batteries are not only with better performance and lower cost, but also meet the performance requirement is due to the similar power battery application scenario. Therefore, the replacement of LA batteries in low-speed road vehicles should be one of the best scenarios for the echelon utilization of retired power batteries.
In addition, China currently has a wide range of demand for energy storage batteries. For example, the renewable energy power stations (photovoltaic power generation, wind power generation, etc.) in
Table 1
, the microgrid of the distributed independent power sources and communication base stations all have considerable demand for energy storage batteries. With the optimization of China’s energy structure and the upgrading of information infrastructure, the demand scale of energy storage batteries will continue to expand. The new production of the energy storage battery to meet the demand will inevitably consume a lot of resources and bear high costs. Therefore, if the retired power battery of NEVs can be used for energy storage, it can not only fully accommodate the increasing number of retired power batteries, but also meet the growing demand for energy storage batteries. This will produce huge social benefits [
39
]. In fact, the electric vehicle itself is also regarded as a movable energy storage device. The power batteries have already been and will play the role of energy storage to a certain extent before retired.
As mentioned above, the retired battery can be used in a multi-level echelon in theory. That is to say, until the last remaining energy is exhausted, it can be repurposed from one echelon utilization scenario to the next echelon utilization scenario and so on. However, the switching of each echelon utilization scenario will produce certain costs, including battery purchase, detection, regrouping, and transportation, etc. Especially at present, echelon utilization technology is still in development, leading to the high cost of battery detection and regrouping. Thus, too many levels of echelon utilization will lead to high costs and reduce expected profits. So, the multi-level echelon utilization has no realistic possibility under the existing technology level.
For this reason, this paper only studies the echelon utilization scheme of one or two levels. In the two-level echelon utilization scheme, the power battery with a higher matching degree of battery demand is taken as the first level, and the energy storage battery is taken as the second level. Note that the use of E-Bike as the first link is not considered because it is relatively scattered, and the single-car battery load is small. Therefore, six primary application schemes and six two-level application schemes are determined as the research objects, as shown in Table 3 .
4.2. Economic Benefit Analysis of Power Battery Echelon Utilization
4.2.1. Economic Benefit Evaluation Model of Echelon Utilization
In order to evaluate the economic benefits and influencing factors of different echelon utilization schemes, this paper constructs an evaluation model of echelon utilization economic benefits, as shown in
Figure 6
. There are two key assumptions in this model. First, this study assumes that there are enterprises with enough technology and capital to complete the corresponding work in each link of echelon utilization. This paper only studies the overall cost and benefit of the whole process from the perspective of the industrial chain. However, as for which specific enterprises complete which link of work, and the benefit distribution of enterprises with different roles is not in the scope of this study. Second, in order to simplify the calculation, the battery capacity retention rate is used to measure the overall performance of the battery and the only judgment condition of battery state of health, service life, and whether it should be transferred to the next link [
40
,
41
].
The time point of decommissioning of the battery from the whole vehicle and the judgment condition of the ultimate scrapping are all expressed by battery performance; therefore, all expressions related to the battery service life are also unified to the form of capacity retention rate in the process of model calculation. The specific definition of the capacity retention rate is shown in Equation (2).
B
a
t
t
e
r
y
c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
r
e
t
e
n
t
i
o
n
r
a
t
e
=
C
l
C
n
e
w
(2)
where the
C
l
represents the battery capacity after
l
cycles, and
C
n
e
w
indicates the nominal capacity of the new power battery.
With the use of the battery, the capacity retention rate will continue to decline. The capacity decay rate (
η
) of each cycle is defined as the impact of the new charge-discharge cycle on the battery performance. The specific calculation is as follows:
η
=
C
l
+
1
C
l
(3)
where
C
l
+
1
indicates the battery capacity after
l + 1
cycle.
According to the study conducted by Schuster, the battery capacity retention rate can be approximately considered constant before the battery performance drop to the capacity diving point [
41
]. The capacity retention rate can be calculated using the capacity decay rate (η) and cycles as follows:
B
a
t
t
e
r
y
c
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
r
e
t
e
n
t
i
o
n
r
a
t
e
=
η
l
(4)
And the battery capacity retention rate would be different due to the depth of discharge (DOD) under the use condition. According to the three DOD corresponding to the six application scenarios as abovementioned, different η values are used to calculate the life of the echelon utilization battery, as shown in Table 4 .
As shown in
Figure 6
, the costs incurred in the process of echelon utilization mainly include the purchase and transportation costs of retired batteries as well, as the costs of echelon utilization battery detection and regrouping. The revenue comes from battery sales revenue [
42
]. It should be noted that the cost of each link is different due to the difference in battery performance in primary and secondary echelon utilization. As abovementioned, the echelon utilization profit can be calculated by the total revenue and expenditure, as shown in Equation (5). In order to make the results as broadly applicable as possible, the cost, revenue, and profit are all in term of €/kWh in this study. Note that the study converts RMB to Euro at the 2019 exchange rate.
P
c
=
∑
i
=
1
N
S
R
e
−
C
p
1
−
C
t
r
−
C
r
(5)
where the
P
c
is the profit of echelon utilization;
S
R
e
represents the sales revenue of echelon utilization batteries;
C
p
1
indicates the purchase cost of retired batteries;
C
t
r
is the batteries transportation cost;
C
r
indicates the cost of battery detection and regrouping.
For the sales revenue of the echelon utilization battery: there are two calculation methods. The first method is based on the residual capacity of the retired LIP battery. It calculates profits according to the discount coefficient on the basis of the new battery price [
37
]. The specific calculation is Equation (6) as follows:
S
R
e
=
P
n
e
w
⋅
T
O
r
e
t
i
r
e
d
T
O
n
e
w
⋅
D
R
(6)
where the
P
n
e
w
is the price of new LIP battery;
T
O
n
e
w
represents a nominal capacity of the LIP battery;
T
O
r
e
t
i
r
e
d
indicates the capacity of LIP battery after decommissioning;
D
R
is the discount coefficient [
37
].
The second method is based on the price of the new LA battery and the different cycle life of the two batteries. The specific calculation is Equation (7) as follows:
S
R
e
=
P
q
s
⋅
L
q
s
L
L
i
(7)
where the
P
q
s
is the price of the replaced LA battery in the echelon utilization scenario;
L
q
s
represents LA battery cycle life;
L
L
i
indicates the cycle life of retired LIP power battery.
Finally, the lower one in the calculation results of Equations (6) and (7) is taken as the battery sales price, which is more likely to be accepted by the demander of the echelon utilization scenario, as shown in Equation (8):
b
=
m
i
n
P
n
e
w
⋅
T
O
r
e
t
i
r
e
d
T
O
w
⋅
D
R
,
P
q
s
⋅
L
q
s
L
L
i
Purchase cost of retired battery: when the LIP battery is retired from the vehicle, the capacity retention rate is 80%. Its value is taken from the industry average data, about 13.4 €/kWh [ 10 ].
Battery transportation cost: in this study, only the use cost of freight cars is included, and the cost of vehicle purchase and depreciation is not considered. In order to minimize the cost, trucks with different carrying capacity will be selected according to different transportation needs. In addition, the transportation process is divided into two types according to the distance, including intercity transportation and trans provincial transportation. In this study, the average distances of the two types of transportation are 50 km and 500 km, respectively. Most of the echelon utilization scenarios are short-distance intercity transportation. Only when retired batteries are applied to renewable energy power stations and large-scale communication base stations, can long-distance trans provincial transportation be considered [
43
]. According to the current use of freight in China, the cost of intercity transportation and trans provincial transportation can be calculated, as shown in Equation (9):
C
n
t
e
r
c
i
t
y
=
0.00052
⋅
D
C
t
t
r
a
n
s
p
r
i
n
c
i
a
l
=
0.000077
⋅
D
(9)
where the
C
t
i
n
t
e
r
c
i
t
y
is the intercity transportation cost;
C
t
t
r
a
n
s
p
r
o
v
i
n
c
i
a
l
represents trans provincial transportation cost;
D
indicates the transportation distance.
Detection and regrouping cost: as echelon utilization is still in the exploration and preliminary stage, there is no open direct cost data available. Based on the operation cost of the existing battery treatment plant, this study estimates the detection and regrouping cost of the battery through cost apportionment methods. Considering the different technical difficulties of the different echelon utilization scenarios, the scenario correction coefficient is added to modify the echelon utilization calculation model developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) [
43
], as shown in Equation (10):
C
r
=
C
f
a
c
t
o
r
y
⋅
C
F
/
Q
(10)
where the
C
f
a
c
t
o
r
y
is the enterprise detection and regrouping cost of echelon utilization, including fixed asset cost and labor cost;
C
F
represents the correction coefficient of battery detection and group cost in different echelon utilization scenarios which is related to the processing difficulty and time [
37
];
Q
indicates the annual production of echelon battery.
4.2.2. Economic Benefit Analysis of Echelon Utilization
Based on the evaluation model, the benefits of the echelon utilization of various schemes are calculated, and the results are shown in
Figure 7
. Firstly, it can be seen that most of the schemes of primary and secondary echelon utilization can achieve positive benefits. It shows that if the relevant industrial chain is coordinated, the echelon utilization of retired power battery is profitable. Then the cost of using power battery for BEVs is leveraged by echelon utilization [
20
]. With the development of battery detecting and regrouping technology, the benefits of echelon utilization are expected to expand in the future further. In addition, only LIP battery has the technical feasibility of echelon utilization, which also means that echelon utilization is expected to further increase the cost advantage of LIP battery comparing to TL battery.
Second, compared with the three scenarios of power battery replacement in the primary scheme, the profits of all the secondary schemes are lower. It can be explained that the increase in echelon utilization levels will lead to the decrease of echelon utilization income. Meanwhile, this shows that it is reasonable to study only the primary and secondary schemes in this paper. In a word, multi-level echelon utilization is only a theoretical concept at present. Hence, more attention should be paid to the development of the first level echelon utilization scheme in industrial practice in the future. Moreover, the two-level scheme should be properly considered according to the urgency of the scene demand.
Third, the performance matching of different batteries has a significant impact on the benefits of echelon utilization. From the analysis of the primary echelon utilization scheme, it can be seen that the echelon utilization scenario based on the power battery for transportation purposes can achieve greater benefits, with the maximum profit of 30.21 €/kWh. While there are echelon utilization scenarios for energy storage, only the renewable energy power station can achieve positive benefits. Its profit level is far lower than the power battery scheme. This is mainly due to the difference in performance requirements between the power battery and the energy storage battery. That is to say that the retired batteries of NEVs that were originally used as power batteries are more suitable to continue to be used as low-performance power batteries. If it is to be used as the energy storage battery, the processing cost of the battery will be much higher, making it difficult to make profits. Of course, the battery design of NEVs is only based on the requirement of the power system itself at present without considering the potential echelon utilization in the future, especially for energy storage scenarios [
44
,
45
,
46
]. Thus, if the performance requirements of the energy storage battery are properly considered at the beginning of the battery design, the evaluation results may be significantly different. This is also an important decision-making factor for relevant enterprises to consider seriously.
Generally speaking, E-Bike is the application scenario with the highest profit from echelon utilization at present. However, the demand for retired batteries of E-Bike is limited, and urban regulatory policies are being tightened continuously. It is expected that the follow-up market scale will not be able to grow significantly and cannot accommodate the increasing number of retired power batteries of NEVs. At the same time, microelectric vehicles, commonly known as low-speed electric vehicles, have not been officially recognized by the Chinese government. Therefore, the electric-special vehicle may be the most feasible entry point for automobile enterprises to try to use battery echelons in the near future. In the long run, although the benefits of energy storage scenarios such as renewable energy power stations are relatively low, there is a very broad further market. Especially, China has made the strategic goal of building a low-carbon society and low-carbon industry. China needs a large number of energy storage batteries, which will play an important role in reducing clean power waste and optimizing the balance of power grid urgently. In this sense, the echelon utilization of energy storage scenarios may have more market potential in the future. [
37
].
5. Research on the Recycling Value of Power Battery
The recycling of power battery mainly includes the process of dismantling, crushing, repairing, and smelting. Its purpose is to realize the recycling of resources on the basis of eliminating environmental pollution and potential safety hazards [ 47 ]. The recovery and utilization of battery materials, especially metals such as lithium, nickel, and cobalt, could also generate certain economic benefits [ 48 ]. Considering that Ni 0.5 Co 0.2 Mn 0.3 (NCM523) lithium battery is the most recently retired TL battery, this paper analyzes the recycling value of LIP power battery and TL battery NCM523.
In this paper, the economic benefit evaluation model of power battery recycling is built. It can be seen in Figure 8 for details.
As shown in
Figure 8
, the cost of the recycling process mainly includes purchase, transportation, and dismantling cost of the retired batteries (including the two situations of direct retirement from the NEVs or retirement after echelon utilization), and the revenue mainly comes from the sale of the recovered materials [
42
]. Therefore, the economic benefits of recycling can be calculated by Equation (11):
P
r
=
S
R
r
−
C
p
2
−
C
d
r
−
C
t
r
(11)
where the
P
r
is the profit of recycling;
SR
r
represents the sales revenue of battery recycling resources;
C
p
2
indicates the battery purchase cost;
C
d
r
represents battery dismantling and recovery cost;
C
t
r
indicates battery transportation cost.
The sales revenue of battery recycling resources is mainly from the sales of lithium, cobalt, nickel, and other metal materials. It is assumed that all recovered metal materials can be fully reused. The calculation equation is as follows:
C
p
2
=
∑
j
P
j
⋅
Q
j
⋅
R
R
j
(12)
where the
P
j
is the price of the metal
j
, note that the price of various metals in 2018 is taken in this paper, as shown in
Table 5
[
10
];
Q
j
represents the recyclable amount of the metal
j
in retired batteries per kWh;
R
R
j
represents the recovery rate of the metal
j
, which is determined by the current recovery technology, as shown in
Table 5
[
10
].
Retired battery purchase cost: the initial purchase cost of the retired LIP battery is the same as that of the echelon utilization analysis, referring to the average industry price. As for the battery after echelon utilization (LIP battery), this paper assumes that the repurchase cost will be greatly reduced when recycling due to the large performance degradation. This paper takes the average price of the industry, about 3.87 €/kWh [
10
]. However, for the TL battery with high energy density and metal resources, this paper assumes that the purchase cost of TL battery to LIP battery is proportional to the price ratio of the new batteries.
Cost of battery dismantling and recycling: the wet recovery method is widely used in the industry at present. This method extracts the required metal materials after soaking the cathode materials with chemical reagents. According to the current technical level, the cost of dismantling and recovering the LIP battery is about 7.55 €/kWh, and the cost of recovery of the TL battery (NCM523) is about 12.58 €/kWh [ 15 ].
Battery transportation cost: only intercity transportation is considered because dismantling and recycling enterprises would be near the power battery recovery areas generally. At the same time, its calculation method is the same as that in the echelon utilization model.
Based on the above model, the TL (NCM523) battery and the LIP battery are calculated. Among them, the TL (NCM523) battery is analyzed in terms of the abovementioned mode I (recycling directly after retirement), while the LIP battery is analyzed in terms of mode I and mode II (recycling after echelon utilization). The evaluation results of battery recycling are shown in Figure 9 .
It can be seen from the figure that the TL battery (NCM523) has a high recycling income with a profit of about 11.41 €/kWh, which is mainly due to the large number of metal materials contained in the TL (NCM523) battery. However, due to the low value of reusable materials, if the LIP battery is recycled directly, it will cause a loss of 8.77 €/kWh. If the government begins to implement the mandatory recycling of retired power batteries, the loss will become an additional cost for enterprises. However, if the LIP battery is first used in echelon utilization and then disassembled for recycling, the profit of 0.79 €/kWh from battery recycling can be realized. It is equivalent to reduce the use cost of LIP battery when recycling after echelon utilization.
6. Overall Analysis of Retired Power Battery Reusing
The following is an analysis of the overall economic benefits of the power battery reusing of NEVs. Meanwhile, a comparative analysis of the use economy of TL (NCM523) battery and LIP battery from the perspective of industrial concerns is conducted.
According to the industry average data, the selling prices of TL battery (NCM523) and LIP battery are 155 €/kWh and 129 €/kWh at present, respectively [
34
]. Combined with the above economic benefit evaluation results of echelon utilization and recycling, the use costs of two power batteries in NEVs can be calculated. Note that the use cost represents that enterprises need to pay for the use of the power battery. The specific calculation equation is as follows:
P
u
=
P
p
−
P
c
−
P
r
(13)
where the
P
u
indicates the cost of using the battery;
P
p
represents the original battery price;
P
c
indicates the profit of the echelon utilization of retired power battery. Note that the profit is zero if echelon utilization is not carried out;
P
r
represents the profit of recycling of retired power batteries.
The specific calculation results are shown in Figure 10 . For the LIP battery, if it is recycled directly, its cost will increase. However, if the echelon utilization with the appropriate scenario is implemented ( Figure 10 shows the minimum benefit in the low-performance power battery scenario, which is the electric special vehicle scenario), the use cost of the LIP battery will be significantly reduced to 105.3 €/kWh. Thus, the best reusing mode is to carry out primary echelon utilization and then recycle for the LIP power battery.
The list in
Figure 10
shows the change of the use cost of the TL (NCM523) battery and the LIP battery in different reusing modes relative to the original price of the TL (NCM523) battery. It can be found that the use cost of the LIP battery recycling directly is 5.5 €/kWh, or 3.9% lower than that of the TL (NCM523) battery. Nevertheless, it weakens the cost advantage of the original LIP battery compared with the TL (NCM523) battery. Instead, the use cost of the LIP battery after echelon utilization and recycling could be 38.2 €/kWh lower than the TL (NCM523) battery, or about 27%. There is a 23.1% cost reduction potential for the echelon utilization of the LIP battery if regulations mandate battery recycling. This will improve the cost competitiveness of the LIP battery further. However, there is no feasible technical scheme for the echelon utilization of the TL battery at present. If we can make a breakthrough in this aspect in the future, it may improve the cost-effectiveness of the TL battery significantly.
According to the technological roadmap for energy-saving and new energy vehicles in China, the industry-wide unit cost of a battery pack will be reduced to 104 €/kWh in 2025 and 73 €/kWh in 2030 [
9
]. In this paper, we assume that the price of the LIP battery is the same as the technological roadmap. The price of the TL battery is assumed that the degree of reduction is the same as that of LIP battery, as the technological roadmap suggested. Moreover, there is no available cost data for the battery reusing technological progress. The dismantling and recycling techniques for recycling and detection and regrouping techniques for echelon utilization are assumed to keep constant. The transportation cost in reusing is assumed to be constant. The other costs are assumed to be proportional to the battery prices.
Therefore, according to the abovementioned assumptions, the use costs of the TL and LIP batteries could be predicted, as shown in
Figure 11
. It could be seen that the use costs of power batteries are decreased with the battery prices decreased regardless of the varieties of batteries. The TL battery could reduce to 89.1 €/kWh in 2030 by recycling directly. The LIP battery could reduce to 72.5 €/kWh in 2030 by recycling after echelon utilization. It should be noted that the extent of reduction of the use cost of TL batteries is more than that of the LIP battery due to the assumption that the reusing technical progress cost is constant. In fact, the cost of recycling technology reduces with the development of technology gradually, so the use cost of the LIP battery will be relatively lower than the TL battery.
7. Policy Suggestion
Based on the research and evaluation of the critical issues in the reusing of retired power batteries, this paper proposes some policy suggestions for the government and enterprises. First, China is about to usher in the peak period of retired power batteries, and mandatory recycling is imminent by the government. The relevant enterprises should make arrangements and preparations in advance so as to meet the regulations. Second, while multi-level echelon utilization is practical in theory, it is not economically feasible at present. In the industrial practice, more attention should be paid to the first level of echelon utilization in the future. At the same time, the two-level echelon utilization scheme should be considered properly according to the urgency of the scene demand. Third, the feasibility and profit of the echelon utilization are highly dependent on the requirements of battery performance at each utilization stage, implying the importance of performance matching. Thus, special consideration should be given to the huge market potential of energy storage in China. Besides, the future design of NEV power batteries may need to give due consideration to the performance requirements of the energy storage battery. Finally, the TL battery can only be recycled directly, while the LIP battery is suitable for echelon utilization and recycling at present. This would further improve the cost advantage of the lithium iron phosphate battery. Therefore, automotive enterprises should manage the power battery from the perspective of the whole life cycle to achieve the lowest use cost.
Looking forward to the future, it is imperative to reuse the retired power battery of NEVs. With the decrease of the battery price and the maturity of the reusing technology, the revenue from the reuse of retired power battery will be further improved. The government and related enterprises should increase the research of battery materials and recycling technology so as to reduce the price of batteries and the cost of recycling. Besides, the use cost of the LIP after reusing is lower than TL batteries; the enterprise should make it a key factor in determining the power battery technology route in the future.
8. Conclusions and Limitation
This paper aims to reveal the critical issues for power battery reusing of NEVs in China by the strategic value analysis and building the economic benefit model. Based on the results and discussion, some conclusions could be drawn:
Power battery reusing has three aspects strategic values such as protecting the environment and eliminating potential safety problems of retired power batteries, realizing resource recovery and reducing the risk of battery material supply and reducing the use cost of power battery and then improving the competitiveness of NEVs.
The echelon utilization of retired LIP batteries would be profitable if the relevant industry chain could be coordinated. The primary echelon utilization of retired LIP could obtain the maximum profit in the E-Bike application scenario of 30.21 €/kWh. While the profits of two-level echelon utilization are relatively lower. Thus, more attention should be paid to the first level echelon utilization in the future.
The TL battery (NCM523) has a high recycling income with a profit of about 11.41 €/kWh, while the LIP battery is recycled directly, causing a loss of 8.77 €/kWh for LIP recycling directly. Instead, if the LIP battery is first used in echelon utilization and then disassembled for recycling, the profit of 0.79 €/kWh from battery recycling can be realized.
The use cost of the LIP battery after echelon utilization and recycling could be 38.2 €/kWh lower than the TL (NCM523) battery recycling directly. This would further improve the cost advantage of the lithium iron phosphate battery. Hence, the best reusing mode for the TL battery is recycling directly, while the LIP battery is suitable for echelon utilization and recycling at present.
The use costs of power batteries are decreased, with the battery prices decreased regardless of the varieties of batteries. The TL battery could reduce to 89.1 €/kWh in 2030 by recycling directly. The LIP battery could reduce to 72.5 €/kWh in 2030 by recycling after echelon utilization.
However, it should be noted that this study is based on the ideal assumption that every link of recycling has been fully coordinated. Meanwhile, the model assumes the cost of dismantling and regrouping at the first-level and second-level echelon utilization is the same, while the cost of dismantling and regrouping at the second-level echelon utilization is higher. Therefore, we will refine the model by taking these limitations into consideration and improve the accuracy of the model in future work.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, Z.L. and F.Z.; methodology, Z.L. and X.L.; validation, Z.L., X.L.; formal analysis, X.L.; investigation, X.L.; resources, X.L.; data curation, X.L.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.L. and X.L.; writing—review and editing, H.H. and Z.L.; visualization, X.L.; supervision, A.A.A. and H.B.; project administration, F.Z. and Z.L.; funding acquisition, Z.L., A.A.A. and H.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This study is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (U1764265) and the Chinese Academy of Engineering (2019-XZ-55-01-01).
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Zaidan Chen for her help collect the industrial data of power batteries. Additionally, the authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their reviews and comments.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
NEV New Energy Vehicle ICEV Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles MEV Micro Electric Vehicle ESV Electric Special Vehicle E-Bike Electric Bike CBS Communication Base Station REPS Renewable Energy Power Station PMG Parallel Micro-grid LIP Lithium Iron Phosphate batteries TL Ternary Lithium battery LA Lead-acid battery DOD Depth of Discharge NCM523 Ni 0.5 Co 0.2 Mn 0.3 ternary lithium battery NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory
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Figure 1. Production of new NEVs (new energy vehicles) and installed capacity of power batteries in China (2013–2019).
Figure 1. Production of new NEVs (new energy vehicles) and installed capacity of power batteries in China (2013–2019).
Figure 2. List of relevant policies for power battery reusing in China.
Figure 2. List of relevant policies for power battery reusing in China.
Figure 3. The total retired volume of the new energy vehicle power battery in China.
Figure 3. The total retired volume of the new energy vehicle power battery in China.
Figure 4. Main ways of power battery reusing of NEVs.
Figure 4. Main ways of power battery reusing of NEVs.
Figure 5. Main reusing modes and the echelon utilization process of retired power battery.
Figure 5. Main reusing modes and the echelon utilization process of retired power battery.
Figure 6. Block diagram of economic benefit evaluation model for the echelon utilization of retired power battery.
Figure 6. Block diagram of economic benefit evaluation model for the echelon utilization of retired power battery.
Figure 7. Comparison of economic benefits of the different echelon utilization schemes.
Figure 7. Comparison of economic benefits of the different echelon utilization schemes.
Figure 8. Block diagram of the economic benefit evaluation model for battery recycling.
Figure 8. Block diagram of the economic benefit evaluation model for battery recycling.
Figure 9. Analysis of the economic benefits of recycling of the retired power battery.
Figure 9. Analysis of the economic benefits of recycling of the retired power battery.
Figure 10. Comparison of use costs of NCM523 battery and LIP battery.
Figure 10. Comparison of use costs of NCM523 battery and LIP battery.
Figure 11. The use costs of different power batteries with the battery prices decreased.
Figure 11. The use costs of different power batteries with the battery prices decreased.
Table 1. The most likely echelon utilization scenarios and their battery use characteristics.
Table 1. The most likely echelon utilization scenarios and their battery use characteristics.
Echelon Utilization Scenarios Power Battery Energy Storage Battery MEV ESV E-Bike CBS REPS PMS Depth of discharge 80% 80% 100% 80% 80% 80% Cycle 450 450 180 600 800 650 Capacity (kWh) 13.5 13.5 1 - - - Current price (€/kWh) 65 65 90 31 58 39
Table 2. Performance comparison for different batteries.
Table 2. Performance comparison for different batteries.
Performance LA LIP TL Specific energy (mAh/g) 40–70 130–165 150–210 Cycle life (cycle) 400–800 2000–6000 800–2000
Table 3. Echelon utilization schemes of retired power battery.
Table 3. Echelon utilization schemes of retired power battery.
Echelon Utilization Schemes Primary Echelon Utilization Scheme Two-level Echelon Utilization Scheme F-1 F-2 F-3 F-4 F-5 F-6 S-1 S-2 S-3 S-4 S-5 S-6 MEV X X X X ESV X X X X E-Bike X CBS X XX XX REPS X XX XX PMG X XX XX
Note: “X” represents the first-level echelon utilization; “XX” represents the second-level echelon utilization.
Table 4. Capacity decay rates under different depth of discharge (DOD).
Table 4. Capacity decay rates under different depth of discharge (DOD).
DOD Capacity Decay Rate η 60% 99.98% 80% 99.97% 100% 99.96%
Table 5. Average market price and recovery rate of raw metal materials for power battery (2018).
Table 5. Average market price and recovery rate of raw metal materials for power battery (2018).
Element Type Lithium Cobalt Nickel Manganese Aluminum Average price (€/t) 117,828 77l,769 3600 1858 1845 Recovery rate 85% 98% 98% 98% 90%
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