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– Banswara, Dungarpur mustard/Sorghum-mustard. Red gram /green gram/groundnut/Sunflowerwheat/mustard Bellary Karnataka Chellakere, Chitradurga, 500 Sep-Oct Semi arid Medium and Sorghum/safflower/gram sorghum + Bellary, Raichur (105) deep black lablab Andhra Pradesh Anantapur, Kurnool, Mahboobnagar Kovilpatti Tamil Nadu... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
sorghum/pulses/pearl millet/ and Dindugal Dts. 876 groundnut +red gram/castor Southern Tirunelveli Dt. 940 Oct-Dec Semiarid Red Groundnut/cowpea/sesamum sorghum/ pearl millet/pulses castor Thoothukudi Dt. 677 Oct-Dec Semiarid Black Red Cotton/chillies/coriander/black gram/sorghum/ pearl millet/pulses. Virudunagar Dt. 8... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
a place is necessary to serve as a base for the application of technology, for the interpretation of resource assessment and for transfer of technology. It is also useful to analyze the climatic resources and to identify specific climatic constraints for planning agricultural development. The degree of aridity can be a... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
0.75 to 1.00 Intermediate humid 1.00 to 2.00 Humid More than 2.00 Wet 4. Hargreaves (1971): Moisture Availability Index (MAI) is used for the classification. It is the ratio of dependable precipitation to potential evapotranspiration. It is a measure of adequacy of precipitation in supplying crop water demand. ( ) Depe... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
in 1970, used the simple formula of Thornthwaite (1955) for estimating the moisture index. Moisture Index = 100 [(P-PE)/PE] Thornthwaite and Mathur (1955) classified only six categories, while the ICAR had eight moisture indices with eight moisture belt indicating eight zones in India. The scale adopted in defining cli... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
be classified based on duration, nature of users, time of occurrence and using some specific terms. Demarcation between the classifications is not well defined and many times, overlapping of the cause and effect of one on the rest is seen. 472 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY 1. Based on duration (a) Permanent drought This is ch... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
air humidity, frequently accompanied by hot dry winds. It may occur even under conditions of adequate available soil moisture. It refers to a condition when plants show wilting symptoms during the hot part of the day, when transpiration exceeds absorption temporarily for a short period. When decreases, absorption keeps... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
for agricultural drought are: • Inadequate precipitation, • Erratic distribution, • Long dry spells in the monsoon, • Late onset of monsoon, • Early withdrawal of monsoon, and • Lack of proper soil and crop management 3. Based on time of occurrence (a) Early season drought It occurs due to delay in onset of monsoon or ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
observation on the periodicity of drought in respect of different meteorological subdivisions of India is given Table 13.7. Table 13.7. Periodicity of Drought in India Meteorological subdivisions Period of recurrence of drought Assam Very rare, once in 15 years West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Konkan, Once in 5 years Coast... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
the regions of east Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and southern Andhra Pradesh only by 1st May. In most of these regions, it ends after 15th May. In the arid zone of northwest India, severe drought ends normally during 474 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY the second fortnight of June, except in the Jaisalmer and Bikaner regions w... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
NPK is reduced. • Growth and Development: Drought results in decrease in growth of leaves, stems and fruits. Maturity is delayed if drought occurs before flowering, while it advances if drought occurs after flowering. • Reproduction and grain growth: Drought at flowering and grain development determines the number of f... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
particles and expose the hard, impermeable subsoil causing less infiltration and less water storage. • Crusting of soil surface after rainfall reduces infiltration and storage of rainfall, due to high run off. DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 475 • Compaction in surface and sub soil hardpans and poor soil structure affect infiltra... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
drainage, planting etc. • incorporate and mix manures, fertilizers, pesticides or soil amendments into the soil. • accomplish segregation by moving soil from one layer to another, removal of rocks or root harvesting. Hence, attention must be paid to the depth of tillage, time of tillage, direction of tillage and intens... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
OF AGRONOMY rainfall causes more conservation of moisture and also enables early and timely sowing. It is particularly useful for pre-monsoon sowing. (c) Direction of tillage For moisture conservation, ploughing across slope or along contour is very effective. Plough furrows check the velocity of runoff, promote more i... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
bullock power and traditional wooden plough may not help in this regard. Use of more efficient tillage implements and mechanization of tillage operations are warranted. Tillage in dry lands also encompasses land shaping for in situ soil moisture conservation. Implements that can carryout tillage and land shaping in one... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
soil properties in ways that affect plant growth, and reduce water runoff from fields. The mulched soil is cooler and soil surface under the residue is moist, as a result many conservation tillage systems have been successful. (iii) Zero tillage or no-till system: Here, the crop residue is usually shredded and planting... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
plant nutrients and poor soil fertility. A. Soil erosion: Soil erosion is the process of detachment of soil particles from the topsoil and transportation of the detached soil particles by wind and/or water. The detaching agents are falling raindrop, channel flow and wind. The transporting agents are flowing water, rain... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
in water erosion are impacting raindrops and runoff water flowing over the soil surface. Erosion and sedimentation embody the processes of detachment, transportation and deposition of soil particles. Detachment is dislodging of soil particles from soil mass by the erosive agents. Transportation is movement of detached ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
surface runoff Control measures are grouped in to agronomic, mechanical and forestry measures Agronomic: Choice of crops, land preparation, contour cultivation, strip cropping, mulching, application of manures and fertilizers and appropriate cropping systems. Mechanical: Contour bunding, graded bunding, bench terracing... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
erodes easily). (iii) Losses due to wind erosion: Fertile topsoil is lost. Fertile soils are converted into unproductive sandy soils drifting sand. Yield losses due to abrasive action of wind driven soil particles, especially on broad leaved crops. (iv) Wind erosion control: Greatest damage by wind erosion occurs durin... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
and permeability, water holding capacity, vegetative cover, etc. Cultural/agronomical Mechanical methods Agrostological/biological methods methods Addition of organic matter, Basin listing, Bunding, Ridges and Pasture, Strip cropping with Summer ploughing, mulching furrows, Tie ridging, Random tie grasses, Ley farming,... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
than 2 per cent. (v) Mixed cropping (vi) Inter cropping (vii) Mulching 480 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY (viii) Strip cropping: Strip intercropping involves erosion resistant crops and erosion permitting crops in alternate strips of 2–3 m width across slope and along the contour. Erosion resistant crops include grasses and le... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
three types: (a) Contour bunding: Bunds of 1 m basal width, 0.5 m top width and 0.5 m height are formed along the contour. The distance between two contour bunds depends on slope. The interbund surface is leveled and used for cropping. It is suitable for deep red soils with slope less than 1%. It is not suitable for he... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
Kovilpatti region of Tamil Nadu. Maize, sunflower, sorghum performs well in this type of bunding. (iii) Ridges and furrows: Furrows of 30-45 cm width and 15-20 cm height are formed across slope. The furrows guide runoff water safely when rainfall intensity is high and avoid water stagnation. They collect and store wate... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
width, 15 cm height and convenient length are formed, separated by furrows of 30 cm width and 15 cm depth. Crops are sown on the beds at required intervals. It is suitable for heavy black soils and deep red soils. The furrows have a gradient of 0.6%. Broad bed furrow has many advantages over other methods. • It can acc... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
the various agrostological methods of in situ moisture conservation. (i) Pastures/grass lands: Raising perennial grasses to establish pastures or grass lands is recommended for shallow gravelly, eroded, degraded soils. Grass canopy intercepts rainfall, reduces splash erosion, checks runoff and improves soil moisture st... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
without soil loss. It is adapted to drought and requires less care for maintenance. It does not exhibit any border effect on crops in adjacent rows. It allows uniform spread of water to lower area in the field resulting in uniform plant stand thus increasing yield of a crop by 10–15%. It facilitates better storage of s... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
rainfall in black soils and about 20% of rainfall in red soils is lost as runoff. The amount of such runoff varies with rainfall intensity, soil physical properties, soil surface characters, slope, vegetation cover and cultural practices. Runoff water, if not checked, flows out and is wasted, causing soil erosion. It c... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
since early days in the form of tanks. Farm ponds are small storage structures constructed at the lowest point of a farm to collect and store runoff water. Runoff from various parts of the catchment area is properly guided through grassed waterways into the farm pond. The following points need to be considered while co... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
more depth rather than surface area (circular instead of rectangular). Advantages Harvested water can be used for protective irrigation to crops at critical stages. Since runoff is properly guided through grassed waterways, erosion is checked. Earth excavated from ponds can be used for bunding and leveling of fields. S... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
donor strip is guided to a smaller, strip on the lower reach to increase soil storage and to raise crops. The proportion of ‘donor area’ to cropped area depends on rainfall quantity, duration of rainfall, soil properties and crop characters. In the cropped area, land is shaped to conserve moisture. Acceptability of thi... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
surface as evaporation and from crop and weed canopy as transpiration. The loss through evaporation from soil and transpiration by weeds can be checked to reduce loss of stored moisture. Excessive transpiration loss from crop plants can also be minimized. ET loss is by latent heat of vapourisation and is governed by en... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
absorb more heat and may evaporate more water. When cracks are formed during drying, evaporation takes place from the sides of the cracks also. With high temperature, low humidity and dry winds, atmospheric water demand increases the rate of evaporation. (a) Measures to reduce evaporation loss (i) Shallow surface tilla... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
and filled with stubbles or organic wastes to a height of 10 cm above soil surface. Runoff is checked, collected in the shallow trenches and redistributed to adjoining soil layers. This method can be considered as precursor method to broad bed furrow method. Live mulching is the term used to describe the covering soil ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
area undisturbed. It also acts as minimum tillage and conservation tillage. Pebble mulch where small pebbles like stone are placed on the soil surface. This mulching will be successful in dry land horticulture (fruit tree culture). The pebbles placed on the basins of trees not only reduce evaporation but also facilitat... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
percentage is due to favourable microclimate created by shelterbelts. It can be used as resting place of livestock in dry lands. Due to reduction in wind velocity, the pollen drift in orchard crops is minimized, there by pollination percentage is increased and fruit setting is improved. Many trees in shelterbelt are ec... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
restrict water loss from leaf surface without restricting entry of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, and (b) Transpiration necessary for cooling of leaf surface should not be completely stopped by the application of antitranspirants leading to rise in leaf temperature. Based on their mechanism of action, antitranspira... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
Most weeds have a high transpiration coefficient i.e., amount of water transpired to produce unit quantity of dry matter. Early weed control prevents unwanted transpiration loss through weeds. (b) Shelterbelts: Rows of trees grown across the direction of wind reduce air movement, reduce temperature of air and plant can... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
millets and pulses. In a predominantly subsistence type of farming system, such dominance of food crops is natural. The choice of crops for dry lands is affected by rainfall quantity and distribution, time of onset of monsoon, duration of monsoon, soil characters including amount of rainwater stored in the soil and far... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
capacity. The broad guidelines in choosing a cropping system for dry lands based on rainfall and soil characters are given in Table 13.8. Table 13.8. Broad Guidelines in choosing Cropping System Rainfall Soil type Growing Season Profile storage Suggested cropping system (mm) (weeks) capacity (mm) 350-600 Alfisols, shal... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
in intercropping, soil fertility is enriched. Intercrop canopy suppresses weed growth. Some intercrop combinations provide biological control of pests and diseases (e.g.,) cotton + cluster bean cropping system. Intercrop cluster bean reduces jassid incidence in cotton. Resource use efficiency is increased viz., light, ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
places with high rainfall (> 900 mm) extended rainy season and high soil moisture storage capacity. (a) Double cropping by relay cropping Groundnut/Ragi + Red gram Horse gram (June–Sep) (June–January) (September–January) Groundnut or ragi is sown with red gram as intercrop in 6:1 proportion in June. After harvest of gr... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
pulses. 13.6 CLIMATOLOGICAL APPROACH FOR CROP PLANNING Crops and varieties selected should match the length of growing season during which they are not subjected to soil moisture stress. Climatological analysis helps to identify cultivars suitable for different regions. Feasibility for intercropping, sequence cropping ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
than 750 mm rainfall or with more than 30 weeks are suitable for double cropping. Optimum population: Poor or suboptimal population is a major reason for low yields in rainfed crops. Establishment of an optimum population depends on seed treatment, sowing at optimum soil moisture, time of sowing, depth of sowing, metho... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
and drying to induce tolerance to drought. Soil moisture stress immediately after sowing affects germination and establishment. Seed hardening enables seedlings to survive this early moisture stress. During seed hardening, seeds are subjected to partial hydration followed by dehydration before sowing. Seeds are soaked ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
Acacia gum is added and mixed thoroughly so that wood ash-gum paste is obtained. 8 kg of black gram or green gram seed is spread over the Acacia-wood ash paste and mixed thoroughly so that all the seeds are smeared with the paste. The treated seeds are shade dried for 5 hours and then can be sown. (b) Sowing at optimum... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
1 litre Pearl millet Potassium chloride 2 % 16 hrs 1 litre Sodium chloride 3% Ragi Calcium chloride 0.5% Until visibility 1 litre of embryo growth Sunflower Zinc sulphate 2 % 12 hrs 1 litre Cotton CCC 1000 ppm 6 hrs 1 litre KCl 2% 5 hrs 1.6 litre DAP 2% 5 hrs 1.6 litre Pre-monsoon dry seeding: In some regions, where he... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
of advance sowing must be fixed based on rainfall analysis for date of onset of monsoon and continuity of rainfall after sowing. • Seeds must be hardened to ensure quick germination and drought tolerance. • Seeding depth must be such that seeds will germinate only after receipt of rainfall to wet that depth is received... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
at correct depth, neither on the surface nor too deep. Establishment of an optimum population also depends on proper spacing between plants. The density, geometry, and depth of sowing are dependent on method of sowing. The sowing methods usually adopted in dry lands include broadcasting, sowing behind plough and sowing... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
behind plough. Sowing depth and row separately. Cannot be used for spacing is uniform pre-monsoon sowing. Mechanized seed Large coverage, row and plant spacing ensured Initial cost is high, needs skill for drill (Bullock uniform depth of sowing. Base crop and operation and maintenance. drawn/tractor intercrop sown simu... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
return from the investment on fertilizer use and the poor resource base are the reasons for not using fertilizer by the dry land farmers. The fertilizer use in dry land crops might vary between 5 and 40 kg/ha (N+P2O5+K2O). Soils are low in N and P, and Zn is the most limiting factor among micronutrient. The response fo... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
128.9 Red gram 62.0 11.5 65.0 138.5 Table 13.15. Nutrient Requirement of Dry Land Crops Crop kg /q of produce N P2O5 K2O Total Pearl millet 3.73 0.99 4.89 9.61 Maize 2.00 0.92 3.00 5.92 Soybean 7.40 1.45 7.20 16.05 Red gram 6.20 1.15 6.50 13.85 Groundnut 6.65 2.12 4.39 13.16 Farmers in dry lands however do not apply su... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
AGRICULTURE 497 B. Scope for Fertilizer Use • Introduction of new high yielding varieties/hybrids in different crops which are fertilizer responsive at a given adequate soil moisture storage level. • Development of new in situ soil moisture conservation methods enhances the duration time and depth of soil moisture avai... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
uptake and response. This is accomplished through greater mobility of nutrients in a moist soil, improved microbial activity and better root growth. Under moisture stress, nutrient uptake suffers due to reduced mobility of nutrients, restricted root growth high salt concentration of soil solution, nutrient fixation and... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
P2O5 and K2O. (c) Soil properties: Soil physical properties influence crop response mainly by affecting soil moisture availability. Soil nutrient status also has a significant effect on crop response. Dry lands are mostly deficient in N and so, there is universal response to N. Response to P2O5 depends on fixation in s... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
cost. It depends on soil, crop variety and moisture availability Recommended dose of fertilizer application (kg ha−1) to dry land crops of Tamil Nadu Crop N P2O5 K2O Sorghum 40 20 070 Maize 135 62.5 50 Cumbu 70 35 35 Cotton 40 20 0 Sunflower 40 20 20 Pulses 12.5 2.5 0 Groundnut 17.5 35 53 DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 499 Metho... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
is applied basally. For pre-monsoon sown crops like cotton and sorghum, entire P can be applied basally as enriched FYM. In case of sorghum, entire N can be applied at 30-35 DAS and for cotton, N can be applied in two equal splits at 20–25 and 40–45 DAS depending upon the receipt of rainfall during the corresponding pe... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
and non-monetary inputs in soil fertility management Fertilizer is a costly input, compared with other components of dry land technology package. Considering the uncertainty and low level of returns in dry lands during years of abnormal rainfall, low cost technologies and non-monetary inputs relevant to soil fertility ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
vegetative phase Affects stem elongation, leaf area expansion and branching or tillering (c) At flowering Affects anthesis and pollination, and grain/pod number is reduced (d) At ripening Grain filling and size is reduced Contingency plan and midterm corrections vary with the type and time of occurrence of rainfall obs... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
Aruppukottai and Kovilpatti of Tamil Nadu is furnished below. Rainfall period Aruppukottai Kovilpatti Rain fall 810 mm 730 mm On set of monsoon 37th standard week 41st standard week (2nd week of September) (2nd week of October) Soil Shallow vertisol Deep vertisol Premonsoon 35th standard week 39th standard week Sowing ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
to match the length of growing season for stabilizing in crop production. 502 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY A. Dry Land Horticulture Fruit trees with drought tolerance potential can substitute annual crops in many dry land tracts. The criteria for selection of fruit trees for dry lands are drought tolerance, adaptability to v... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
Groundnut/ samai/horse gram, ber + cowpea/green gram. (c) Hortipasture: Growing pasture grasses and legumes between fruit trees. E.g.: Ber/guava + Cenchrus cilliaris + Stylosanthes. B. Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) Integrated farming system (IFS) refers to the adoption of allied agricultural enterprises along with c... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
Crop Sorghum + cowpea for fodder 0.2 ha; Leucaena + Cenchrus 0.2 ha Trees Acacia senegal 0.2 ha; Prosophis cineraria 0.2 ha Livestock Goats in deep litter system (5 females + one male) Crop alone IFS Net income (Rs/ha/ Year) 1919 5666 Additional income – 3749 Employment (man day/year) 40 153 Per day profit (Rs.) 2.26 1... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
dry lands. In some instances, cropping has been given up altogether and lands remain fallow and become wastelands overgrown with unwanted vegetation. To arrest this trend and to bring back the land under economically useful vegetation, alternate land use systems such as grasslands/pastures, agroforestry and horticultur... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
and degraded lands for soil and moisture conservation and for reclamation of wastelands. B. Forage Crops Forage crops for dry lands include: Annual cereals Sorghum, maize, pearl millet Annual legumes Cowpea, cluster beans (guar) DRY LAND AGRICULTURE 505 Perennial grasses Cenchrus ciliaris (Anjan or Kolukkattai grass) C... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
They play protective role by making available a variety of products for human consumption, for livestock and for industrial raw material needs. E.g., fruits, nuts, fuel, fodder, timber, wood, wax, resin, etc. They also play a protective role through soil and moisture conservation, enrichment of soil fertility through n... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
hedgerow intercropping: Annual field crops are grown in alleys formed by hedgerows of trees and shrubs. The trees or shrubs in hedge rows are cut back to short height (0.5–1.0 m) at sowing of annual crops with onset of rains and kept pruned during crop growing season to reduce shade effect and competition with field cr... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
trees and perennial fibre crops together. E.g., Leucaena + agave. (iii) Choice of trees for dry lands Trees suitable for dry lands must have the characters like multipurpose tree species (fodder, fuel, timber, wood), adaptable to wide variations in soil and climate, rapid growth and withstanding against severe pruning.... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
of the people in a sustained manner. It is also defined as the development and management of watershed resources in such a manner as to achieve optimum production without deterioration of resources base or disturbing the ecological balance. It is termed as “Resource centered technology” since it helps in assessment aug... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
livestock etc. Some of the resource conservation measures may have to be carried out cutting across field boundaries E.g., Contour bunding, contour vegetative barriers, shelterbelts, drainage channel. For this, watershed is more ideal unit. It is a multidisciplinary approach involving scientists from all related discip... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
years; • Stabilizing total income and to cut down risks during aberrant weather situations; • Improving infrastructural facilities with regard to storage, transportation and marketing of the agricultural produce; • Setting up of small scale agro industries; and • Improving the socioeconomic status of the farmers. Objec... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
and integration of livestock in farming system. D. Aims • Increased land productivity through improved technology • Sustaining the resource base thorough improved conservation measures • Augmentation of resource base viz., soil productivity and water availability E. Action Plan (Steps in watershed development) Step 1. ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
each part of watershed. Step 6 Cost-benefit analysis to indicate estimated cost of each component activity, total cost of project and expected benefit. Step 7 Fixing the time frame to show time of start, duration of project, time frame for completion of each component activity along with the department/agency to be inv... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
of Food and Civil supplies put the total preventable post-harvest losses of food grains at about 20 million tons a year, which was nearly 10 per cent of the total production. The principal adviser, planning commission stated that food grains wasted during post-harvest period could have fed up 117 million people for a y... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
the field is called harvesting. It includes the operation of cutting, picking, plucking or digging or a combination of these for removing the useful part or economic part from the plants/crops. The portion of the stem that is left in the field after harvest is called as stubble. The economic product may be grain, seed,... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
2 n b i i T T T = + ⎡ ⎤ ⎣ ⎦ = − ∑ where Tmax is maximum temperature, Tmin is minimum temperature. Tb is the lowest temperature at which there is no growth (base temperature). For example–base temperature of rice, maize and cumbu is 10°C whereas it is 4.5°C for wheat. Degree days are useful for predicting the time of ha... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
pods turning brown about 25 days after flowering. D. Harvest Maturity Symptoms The harvest maturity symptoms of some important crops are as follows: • Rice–Hard and yellow coloured grains. • Wheat–Yellowing of spikelets. • Sorghum, Pearl millet, foxtail millet–Yellow coloured ears with hard grains. • Ragi–Brown coloure... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
is delayed for the sake of immature pods, mature pods may shatter, if harvested earlier, yield is less due to several immature pods. This problem can be overcome by, • harvesting pods or ears when 75% of them are mature (or) 514 A TEXTBOOK OF AGRONOMY • periodical harvesting or picking of pods • inducing uniform maturi... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
the coverage for one movement will be 0.75 m. The power requirement is 3 H.P. The present cost of the unit will be Rs. 30,000 and operation cost is Rs. 260/ha including cost of two labourers. (ii) Combine harvester: It is possible to harvest and thresh the produce simultaneously using combine harvester. It cuts the cro... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
driving mechanism and a supporting frame. Main parts are wooden drum with peg-teeth all around its circumference. The diameter of the drum is about 43 cm to 76 cm. The thresher is operated by a single person with the help of a pedal. Threshing of paddy is done by holding the bundle of harvested material against the tee... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
in addition of selling surplus produce when the marketing price is favourable. Traders and Co-operatives at market centres need storage structures to hold grains when the transport facility is inadequate. The government also needs storage structures to maintain buffer reserves to offset the effects produced by the vaga... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
is about 14% (raw rice), 15% for parboiled rice, 12% for wheat, barley, other millets and pulses, 10% for coriander, chillies and 6% for groundnut, rapeseed and mustard. I. Objectives • To minimize post harvest losses which is around 10–25% in cereals and 20–30% in perishables. • To get good quality products. • To get ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
during harvest, 2 to 6% during threshing, 1 to 5% during drying 2 to 7% during handling 2 to 10% during milling and 2 to 6% during handling 2 to 10% during milling and 2 to 6% during storage. To overcome these losses the following improved practices can be adopted. (i) Harvesting: Paddy if not harvested at the optimum ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
etc., transport the produce from one place to another place either by road or rail (waggons) for long-term storage and sometimes to export to other countries by sea (cargo). If the produce is not properly bagged and handled there will be some loss during transport. (iv) Drying: Sun drying methods cause more breakage of... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
a layer of straw is placed on all sides. After the pit is filled, straw is spread over the grain and then topped with a layer of soil. Insect infestation is less in the underground storage and it is cheaper over above ground storage structures. This underground structure is not suitable for high rainfall and high water... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
placed on a raised plat form, which is generally supported on pillars. Both the floor and walls are made of wooden planks, where the tiled or thatched roof is placed over it as a protection against sun and rains. The capacity may vary from 9–35 t. (v) Metal bins: Bins made of steel, alluminium R.C.C. are used for stora... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
storage. Generally, there are two ways of storing grains i.e., Storage in bags and loose or bulk storage. In the tropical regions, the grain is stored in bags. Storage in bags requires considerable labour, but the minimum investment is enough on permanent structures and equipment. The storage in bags has the advantage ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
with modern mills, the milling losses can be reduced. The qualitative losses like change in colour, odour, vitamins, texture are due to over exposure to sun, fungal growth and insect attack. These losses can also be controlled by proper handling, drying and storage after harvest. (viii) Marketing: In general most of th... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
If production exceeds demand, price declines until the market is cleared. Prices raise when production fell short. Responses to lower or higher prices occur in the next production cycle. Therefore, the acreage for a particular crop based on demand and the supporting prices for each commodity need to be monitored by the... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
storage. Just make a double walled room. Keep sand between the outer and inner wall. Keep the sand wet by watering. And your produce kept inside the inner room will be preserved longer. Government is giving subsidy to popularize this concept. 3. Pickles: Pickling is one of the cheapest process of preservation of fruits... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
Calcutta University has done considerable research in this field. 6. Small-scale industry in farm: Farmers cannot get price for their produce because they have to depend upon middlemen for marketing. There is a solution to the problem. You can start manufacturing ketchups, sauces of various types and also Paste of Garl... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
husk is used as animal feed, for papermaking and as fuel source. Rice bran is used as cattle and poultry feed and defatted bran, which is rich in protein, can be used in the preparation of biscuits. Rice bran oil is used in soap industry. Refined oil can be used as a cooling medium like cotton seed oil/corn oil. Rice b... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
Indica and Japanica—first cross was ADT 27 during 1964. 3. Javanica: It is a wild form of rice and is cultivated in some parts of Indonesia. Varieties are the tallest, erect, poor filling and awned. C. Distribution It grows from the tropics to subtropical and warm temperate countries up to 40°S and 50°N of the equator.... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
Area, Production and Productivity of Rice—important countrywise (2004) Countries Area (m.ha) Production (m.t) Yield (kg/ha) Remarks India 42.50 124.40 2.93 The area under cultivation is high China 29.42 186.73 6.35 in India. Indonesia 11.75 53.60 4.52 Myanmar 6.00 23.00 3.83 The production and productivity Pakistan 2.2... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
the basins of Brahmaputra, Ganga and Mahanadhi rivers (known for the highest intensity of cultivation in the country). This region enjoys heavy rainfall and mostly rice is grown mainly under rainfed conditions. 2. Southern region: This region comprises of deltaic tracts of Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery and Tambraparani ri... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
CROPS AND BIOFUEL PLANTS 523 • Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute (TRRI), Aduthurai • Agricultural College and Research Institutes at Madurai, Trichy and Killikulam • Rice Research Stations at Tirur and Ambasamudram • Agricultural Research Stations at Paramakudi, Ramanathapuram and Thirupathisaram From these Research S... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
germination and increases almost linearly with increasing temperature within a range of 22–31°C. At later stages, it slightly affects tillering rate and the relative growth rate. During reproductive stage, the spikelet number per plant increases as the temperature drops. The critical temperatures for different growth s... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
Water stress at any growth stage may reduce the yield. The rice plant is most sensitive to water deficit from the reduction division stage to heading. (e) Wind: Moderate wind is beneficial for crop growth. High wind at maturity may cause lodging of the crop. (f) Soils: Rice is a semi aquatic plant and grows best under ... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
In Tamil Nadu, it is mainly grown in Chengleput, Virudhunagar, Sivaganga, Nagapatinam, Thiruvallur, Kanchipuram, Pudukkottai and Kanyakumari districts. It is grown in areas where the rainfall is more than 850 mm and it is well distributed. In North India, it is mainly grown in SWM seasons and in Tamil Nadu, it is grown... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
and the seeds are treated with Azospirillum at 3 pockets (600 g) per ha of seeds. (e) Sowing: Broadcasting: The seeds are sown by broadcasting when the moisture is at the optimum level and the surface soil is compacted by a light roller for compacting the seeds with moist soil. Line sowing: Line sowing is better than b... | Agricultural_studies.pdf | Agri life sciences |
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