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Exterior Styling of Futuristic car that Reflects
the Essence of Indian Design
V.M. Brijesh kumar 1 , Prakash Unakal 2 , Pankaj Jhunja 3
1 M.Sc. (Engg.) Student, 2 Professor and Course Manager, 3 General Manager, Renault (India) Product Design Centre M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bangalore 560 054
Abstract
India is going through dramatic change across different fields. Today every Nation is aware about the Indian consumer and their buying Power and has ambitious plans of Investments. In a situation like this it has become important for the Country to establish its own identity itself into every field.
The Project begins with collecting information on what is perceived to be Indian design in every evident form possible (pictures, images, journals, books, videos etc.,) along with this a research is also made to get the picture of Indian consumer market (market survey) to understanding the consumer behavior. Interviews are held with people in different fields. Every opinion is carefully analyzed. To approach the subject on hand from different perspectives a comparative study is done with other nations that have similar history like India but that have a strong signs of design identity in the global market today.
The analysis carried out based on the information gathered during the research phase and it is observed that though India has a strong design Identity of it's own as far as the tradition is concerned (Traditional Design), the existence of a Design Identity becomes doubtful in the days of Modern manufacturing and Mass production. Therefore with all the data and information it is concluded that India doesn't have a genuine design Identity of it's own. This drives rest of the project towards exploring how the Indian elements can be implemented in the designing the car and thus number of car concepts are made that not only have a strong Indian appeal but also at the same time look futuristic.
Key words: Styling, Design, Cars
1. INTRODUCTION
" India is land of Colors", "India is a Land of Gods", " India is a land of Diverse Cultures", "India is a Hub of Spirituality" etc., these are some of the common opinion among foreigners who visit India. Though the globe in a variety of perspectives knows India, it is worth noting that all these views and opinion point at one thing " The rich diverse Culture and Tradition" of India. The famous "Taj Mahal" which is considered to be one among the seven wonders of the world is a proof of architectural marvels that India had centuries ago.
1.1 The Need for Modern Indian Design Identity
The British introduced the Industrial revolution to India in the beginning of the 20th century. Since British ruled India they tapped Indian resources to manufacture products that they would cater to the western world. The same trend continued to this day today. Though India has all the necessary requirements of being called a "Developing country" it still remains a manufacturing hub for most of the Multi National Companies. The reason for this are many most of which will be discussed later, but one of the main reasons being lack of Creative and Original ideas. Because of this Industrial Design didn't gain momentum in India until recently.
Globalisation, Internet technology and Fluency in English have placed India in the Limelight of Global village. The standard of living of Indian Middle class has undergone a dramatic change and the buying power of the consumer has become surprisingly huge. Therefore today Indians don't mind shelling out that extra "moolah" for whatever they feel they should get it. Hence today there is a need to be a original design identity that caters and to this segment of the market and is genuinely Indian also.
2. RESEARCH AND OBSERVATIONS
Surprisingly it was observed that there are many similarities between three major categories namely Housing, Clothing and Food Habits. The "Design Elements" that are observed in one category are similar to the Design Elements that are found in some other category. For example a design element in a clothing may be similar to the one used in an architecture building. This is illustrated in Fig 1 where the highlighted similar colors show the similarities in three major categories like Food, Clothing and Architecture. All these three represent the basic foundation of the Indian society and even Indian takes these terms seriously. Hence the popular Indian slogan goes like " Roti, Kapada aur Makaan"
3. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR
To understand the what goes to through the psyche of a Middle class Indian while buying any product is pictured in brief in Fig 2 where the consumer is buying a car and his thought process is divided into Primary (blue) and Secondary (green) concerns. It can be seen that all the Primary concerns are either directly or indirectly related to the "Cost" of the car like Cost, Servicing cost, Mileage etc., however it is interesting to see that the consumer is also thinking of the resale value of the car right at the time of purchase.
4. JAPANESE DESIGN (Comparative study)
4.1 The Need to Compare
The need to compare with Japanese design trends is essential, as this not only helps us understand how they successfully established a strong design identity in the global market, but also realize our own setbacks for not doing the same when it could have been possible to do so. Also today Japanese products are one of the best among the best and most respected in the global market, sometimes even leaving behind the western products. The motive of this comparison is also to arrive at an all-important question "If India has a genuine design identity in the mass produced objects?"
4.2 Japanese Tradition, Products and Designers
Japanese have a Warrior tradition with the thrilling history of Samurai and Shaolins as shown Fig 3 Both are warriors with a strong sense of discipline and organisation. In fact Shaoline is a Fighter who also a Saint with strong morals and doctrines to abide by. He fights only to protect himself from the enemies. These fighters transmitted their sense of strong Discipline responsibility to the forth-coming generations. Therefore even today Japanese have a strong sense of social responsibility, which is one of the major causes of their tremendous successes worldwide. This was further strengthened when Japan was completely shattered after the Second World War and the same determination that helped them make a strong come back.
Though there have been many influences on the Japan since a long time the impact of the Shaolin and Samurai has been most profound and beneficial. In the Years1970 to 1980 Japanese caught up with semi conductor revolution and they contributed to the world a range of amazing products (electronic) that later became their identity in the Global market. It's quite amazing to see that though Japanese have a traditional history of Warriors the products that are made by them are highly sophisticated and Modern. This is shown in
Fig 3 where other than this special kind of toy called "Bandai gundam" toys that look a little fighter like, all the other products bear no connection or resemblance with their tradition whatsoever. This revolution is brought about by Japanese word called "Dokuritsu Kei" which means, "Freelance designers" in Japanese.
It's because of the sheer creativity of these Freelance designers from the past 20 to 30 years who were able to establish a Design identity that Japan has today. Freelance designers were usually free in designing and making creative products than the designer who is working for a company. Indirectly Freelance designers also challenged those working for the company because ultimately even the later has to compete to sustain. This way the entire country underwent a creative phase that gave rise to the Japanese design identity that we now see.
5. ANALYSIS
Traditionally India has a strong design identity in variety of fields like Clothing, Jewellary, Foot ware, Food, Housing and architecture that also holds good for the diverse culture that India has in the fields of Music, Dance and recreation. This is strongly evident in every part of India even today though there has also been an equally strong western influence in every aspect of the Indian lifestyle. In almost every field India has a unique and distinct place, except when it comes to mass production.
The question of having a genuine Indian design identity as far as Mass production is concerned needs to be addressed. Chapters 3 shows that the Indian Mass production industry till recently was completely engaged in providing Value added products to the Indian consumer who was primarily driven by the cost of the product. Therefore there was not much importance for the Aesthetics and styling of the product and hence they were not competitive in the global market.
A comparative design study with Japan shows how the Freelancers in Japan made all the difference in their products and successfully established a Japanese design identity. The same creative spirit was completely lacking in India and at times when Japan was busy rolling out their creative products in Japan and entire world, India was copying designs from outside and struggling to cater to the local market. Industrial design is just being given importance in India from very recently. Much of the mass production industry was influenced by designs that are not genuinely Indian. Therefore the conclusive answer to the question if India has genuine design identity in mass production, the answer is "NO".
Therefore being aware of the fact that a New Design Identity can be established regardless of Traditions and Previous history, this part is based on exploring what is Indian and putting it into creative ways of generating concepts. The concepts are categorized into four parts as follows:
- Colours
- Materials and Textures
- Form and Shapes
- Spirituality (Spiritual Design)
5.1 Colours
India is truly the land of Colours. There are innumerable varieties of colours that can be seen mingled with every part of our life. One gets to see colours on the streets, buildings, food, clothes etc., almost everywhere. The "Sari", which is the traditional dress in India might probably also the most colourful one in the world. Everywhere one gets to see the bright and diverse colours. India cannot be imagined without colours being the integral part of it.
The idea is to use these colours and pictures that strongly give the Indian feel and blend them with any object and suddenly the object becomes Indian. The power and the effect of these colours to reflect Indian feel is so strong that once these colours are applied on any object the original identity of the object is lost and it then becomes exclusively Indian.
The colours chosen of the study are shown in Fig 4
- Bollywood poster and banners.
- Indian Mythology.
- Patua Paintings
- Indian images
Fig 5 shows how any object can be given an Indian feel by applying these colors on to them.
5.2 Materials and Textures
Any object has an ability get associated with any other object or place because of its Usage, Smell, Taste, Colour and Texture, Form and Shape and most importantly its availability. For example Beetle nut is popularly associated with India because of its usage. It is very common in India to chew Beetle nut. Therefore the object becomes identified with the place. In this chapter some popular objects are selected whose texture when applied on the cars give that sense of Indian feel.
5.3 Concept 1 and 2– Indian Wooden Architecture
The Indian wooden architecture has an amazing history of craftsmen who have created marvels that are splendid to this day. The royal furniture called "deewan" is proofs of extraordinary works with complex curves of wild twigs and wild animals in pouncing positions crafted in great detail. The familiarity of Indians with the wooden architecture is as old as the origin of the art itself. Every Indian home will have some part of their structure where wooden architecture is used. The liberal use of the wooden architecture crafted in expensive wood shows off the status of the owner.The texture of and the craftsmanship of the wooden architecture can be spread to other fields also in the future if technology makes it feasible. Concepts shown in Fig 6 uses the texture of the craftsmanship on the Window panels and the Front grill of the car.
5.4 Concept 3 – Banana Leaf
Banana leaf is one of the most familiar objects used in India. In southern India banana leaf is used instead of plates not only in homes but in public functions like marriages etc., this is considered to be Hygienic and Healthy. Car concept inspired by banana leaf is shown in Fig 7.
5.5 Concept 4 - Cane Baskets
The Cane is a material that is extensively used in India. Because of its low cost, dexterity and wide application it is very widely used and adored. Cane is used for many reasons, cane baskets being highly used end product as shown in the Fig 8.
6. FORMS AND SHAPES
6.1 Concept 5 - The Cobra
The form and shape of this car is inspired from the amazing form and shape of King Cobra's hood. The hood of the King cobra is Elegant, Majestic and surprisingly Aggressive. It's one of the rare species in the world found in few countries. India is one among them. In India people worship King cobra as a form of god. Festival called "naga panchami" is celebrated when cobras are allowed to come inside and people offer them milk. The car concept inspired by the form and shape of King Cobra is shown in Fig 9.
6.2 Concept 6 – The Cow Car
In India Cow is believed to be a very holy animal by Hindus. Since beginning cow is believed to be a form of God. There are temples in India that are meant for the cows. Like the famous Bull temple in Mysore, Karnataka. Cow is the vehicle of the Popular Mythological god Lord "Shiva". Therefore cow is very close to Indian mind and hearts. This concept is inspired by the skull of the cow, which has very organic shape and form as shown in the Fig 10.
7. SPIRITUALITY
Spirituality is the essence of India. This is something because of which India is genuinely known and respected across the globe. People around the globe are attracted towards India because of this. People like Buddha, Mahaveera and Maharshi Mahesh yogi who revolutionised the spiritual world are from India. From the ancient times till now India has been spreading its spiritual fragrance around the world. Spirituality is difficult to define, but in layman's terms it is said to be a feeling that brings about feelings of Bliss, Ecstasy, Contented and Calmness. Attaining these feelings of bliss is rare for the people because of worldly reasons. Therefore spirituality is rough path. But there can be some other alternative where these elated feeling can be induced by an external means. There can be a design that has the effect on the user that resembles a spiritual experience. This can be defined as "Spiritual Design".From the time there has been a revolution in Automobiles people spend more and more time in their cars. In the future people could spend even greater time in cars. Therefore automobiles are the ideal field for applying Spiritual design. The future cars where we'll spend most of time not only serve the basic purpose but also give us some sort of Ecstatic, Elated and Calm feeling.
7.1 TRIZ the Ideal Situation
Before the concepts for Spiritual Design are arrived at, it is worth a bit of study on way of we are going to commute in the future. TRIZ provides an ideal solution for this. According to the Ideal Final Result (IFR) the ultimate purpose of the Travelling is "To be in a Particular place at a particular time". But since man has his own limitations imposed on himself like his body that need to be carried etc., (and body has its limitations). Therefore there is need of a device
However when we are designing for the future, it is assumed that we at least climb a step up the IFR, where we see Selfdriven automobiles. That is the machine itself takes us wherever we want without the need for Handling or driving it. Therefore all the following concepts for spiritual design are based on this theory.
completely isolated from the exterior revolving magnetic strip.
7.2 Concept 7 Theme: Entangled Soul
Fig. 14 Cosmological Cycle
The excess electric current that is generated because of the magnetic strip revolution itself is used for styling the exterior of the vehicle as shown in Fig. 14.
8 CONCEPT SELECTION
The basic five criteria based on which all the nine concepts are evaluated are as follows:
- User friendliness
- Relevance to India and Indian Feel
- Styling and Aesthetics
- Eco-Friendliness
- Practicability
Fig 15 shows the Pugh's chart with concept ratings:
The man ever since his birth has many desires and ambitions all the time. He lives with his desires and dreams forever. But the same bring him unhappiness as once Buddha said "Desire is the cause of Misery". The more the man desires the deeper his miseries will be. These desires and aspirations will cause Delusions which in turn cause Depression and finally depression will take man to the point of dejection. And this becomes a junction few brave men will start out in search of Truth about life or in search of true happiness. The Fig 12 shows man tangled in chains showing his Soul entangled in the misery of life. Similarly based on the theme "Spiritual design" all the cars are inspired by the theme and concepts are iterated imagining that one part of the car is encapsulated by another part shown in Fig 12.
7.3 Concept 8 -- Mystic roof
The concept is inspired from the undersea aquarium and it gives the feelings of elated happiness, excitement and mesmerises the person inside and outside the car. This is achieved by incorporating two polycarbonate sheets that trap a gelatinous colourful liquid between them and a pump is used for making the liquid flow between the sheets Fig 13.
7.4 Cosmological Cycle
The theme for the concept is inspired from the Chinese Yin and Yang cycle that signifies the balance between the opposite forces in the nature. The wheel is powered by a battery pack that is located around the rim of the wheel and there is separate seating chamber for the interiors, which is
9. FINAL CONCEPT AND ITS FEATURES
9.1 Ergonomics
The ergonomics of the car like getting inside, space accommodation, and driving ergonomics are applicable from 5 th percentile Indian woman to 95 th percentile Indian man. Which means that the same ergonomics will apply to any other person who fall between this range and is Indian? The dimensional details are shown in the Fig 16.
9.2 Power transmission System
The power required is generated by the Lithium ion battery pack located at the base of the car (under the footboard). The power generated then transmitted to the Generator motor located at the base of the vehicle which then is connected to
the rear wheels through the connecting equipment as shown in the Fig. 17
9.3 Anti-Infra Red Coatings
Since the Top canopy of the car is transparent means that the Infra red radiation of the sunlight gets trapped inside the car and then causes "Green house effect" inside the car. This causes discomfort for the people sitting inside it. Therefore a coating is applied to prevent this from happening Fig 18.
9.4 Other Safety Features
Other safety features include a safe top canopy, which is made of Composite carbon plastic that is as tough as Stainless steel. Air balloons for the driver and air balloons for rear seat passengers. These air balloons are located on the either side of the door panel as shown in Fig 19.
9.5 Comfort Features
The comforts in the vehicle are plenty. Since this is only a threes eater. Two can comfortably sit in the back with spacious legroom available for them in the front. There is also sufficient amount of Luggage space at the back. This is one of the important features that will satisfy the Indian consumer. There are "Cup holders" on the either side of the hand rest to store drinking water etc., all the passengers will have a sufficient head room as well as shown in the Fig 20.
10. MODEL MAKING STEPS
Following are the steps followed in making the model:
11. CONCLUSIONS
The first half of the project shows that there is no genuine Indian design as such in the mass production presently. But there is a possibility that a fresh start can be made a genuine Indian design identity can be established by the sheer Creativity and Enthusiasm of the Designers in India. Part B of the design focuses on how this spirit of creativity can be applied to the car concepts that look Futuristic at the same time is truly Indian.
The Cow car is the result of this. Among the many concepts generated this car is specially selected as it shows its deep association with the Indian feeling. The entire form of the car is inspired by the shape and form of the cow's face, which is in fact a very organic form with lot of curves around it. Therefore the design of the car that completely follows the form of cows faces breaks away from the boxy car designs of present. This makes the car entirely futuristic. Apart from this the Top canopy of the car is made of Composite carbon fiber that is not only as tough as the Stainless steel but also has Anti Infra red coating on its surface to prevent the Green house effect inside the car. Therefore this not only makes the car Futuristic but also truly Indian.
REFERENCES:
Books and Journals
1 Tony Lewin, How to Design Cars Like a Pro: A Comprehensive Guide to Car Design from the Top Professionals, 2003, Motor Books/MBI Publishing Company
2 Jonathan Bell, Concept Car Design: Driving the Dream, 2003, Technology and Industrial Arts
3 Henry Dreyfuss, Designing for People, 1974,Viking press
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Remote Learning Student Conduct & Protocols
Roosevelt Middle School Protocols for Engaging in Appropriate Remote Learning
Be respectful
* Remember to be respectful of classmates and adults at all times.
* Minimum 5 minute face time for attendance purposes (At the beginning of the period)
* Appropriate attire is to be worn at all times.
* No profanity is to be written or spoken at any time!
* Remember "The Golden Rule," treating others the way you want to be treated.
* Requests to join Zoom must be with the student's First name & Last name
* All students are to be present in their classes at the time that that class is in session (compare the RMS Bell Schedule with your class schedule).
* Make sure nobody has your password information.
1. Conduct yourself respectfully to anyone in the remote learning platform.
* It is important to remember that your classmates and your teacher are real people who are affected by your words (e.g., written, spoken, posted).
* It is essential to keep in mind the feelings and opinions of others, even if the opinions differ from your own.
* It is critical to think about the language you choose to use and the messaging that is related to those words.
* Ask yourself a question first: Would I say this if we were face to face?
* Remember that when we are connecting with each other on video, it is much different than when in our classrooms. We are seeing each other in our homes, which is much more personal. Be especially mindful of how you treat each other.
* Just as if you were in class, taking video or pictures of any class interactions, classmates, or the teacher is prohibited. Obviously then, the sharing or posting of any such videos or pictures is, too. It may actually be illegal to do so, because it is a violation of educational privacy laws.
2. Be patient with yourself and others.
* Remember this experience is new to everyone and there will be a learning curve as we navigate remote learning. There will also be memorable highlights!
* It is very different from simply talking to a person face-to-face. Listen to each person and use the chat area to put your thoughts or questions as you wait.
3. All your communication should be for educational purposes and focused on the task at hand.
* It is easy for written text to be misread or misunderstood. Choose your words carefully- nothing is truly private online.
■ Tip: Read everything out loud before you send it and remember no one can see your facial expression or hear the tone of your voice.
* What you share in the remote learning platform has a digital footprint and cannot be undone: be mindful of what you share.
* Off-topic banter is not appropriate during remote learning.
Guidelines for Remote Learning Platforms
* When you enter the Google Classroom/Meets/Hangout, mute yourself (If you are already not muted).
* When you have a question, use the chat feature and wait for your teacher to call on you.
* When you have something to contribute to what is being said, but it is not your turn, use the chat feature in the right-hand corner.
* Wait for the teacher to call on you to unmute yourself.
* Only one student should contribute/talk at a time.
* Stay attentive. Pay attention to your teacher or other students who are speaking.
* If you need to use the restroom please ask for permission from the teacher.
4. Be a good digital citizen
* Remember, your computer "IS" your classroom for now - so ask yourself, would I write/share/say this while in my classroom in person with my teacher and classmates? If the answer is 'no,' most likely it is not appropriate for your online classroom, either.
* What you post online stays online forever, so make sure you're proud of what you share - it will always be there! Once a message is sent to the group, there is no taking it back.
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Waipara School Strategic Plan 2021 - 2025
Our Strategic Goals
Connecting with People
Support students and staff in their learning and ensure opportunities for all children to attain their highest possible standard in educational achievement, through quality teaching and learning, positive relationships and a responsive curriculum.
Celebrating our Place
Create an environment that is physically and emotionally safe, sustainable and maximizes the potential of our grounds.
Meaningful Partnerships
Actively seek and build rich connections with and within our community.
Our Achievement Goals
Our challenge is to raise the achievement of all our students at Waipara School with a particular emphasis on reading, writing and mathematics. All children in our school will make the amount of progress required to be commensurate with their year level status in each of these areas.
Connecting with People
Support students and staff in their learning and ensure opportunities for all children to attain their highest possible standard in educational achievement, through quality teaching and learning, positive relationships and a responsive curriculum.
Whakamana Reaching potential
* Getting to know our students and their next learning steps and have them take agency with their learning
* Provide curriculum programmes that meet children's learning needs and interests
* Encourage children in being creative
* Having behaviours reflect our school values and show understanding of the Waipara Learner Qualities
* Developing a Professional Growth Cycle to meet the teaching and learning needs of staff
* Collaborating with parents in nurturing a learning partnership between our school and their children
* Develop our local curriculum, including ways we can be involved in the community
* Provide leadership opportunities for staff and students
* Ensure our Maori children have success as Maori and this is reflected in their achievement
Celebrating our Place
Create an environment that is physically and emotionally safe, sustainable and maximizes the potential of our grounds.
Kaitiakitanga
Guardianship of our environment
* Implement a landscaping plan to make better use of some areas in the school to optimise learning opportunities for students
* Enviroschools programme – attain Bronze status and then move through to Silver status
* Beautifying and improving school signage
* A zero tolerance of any form of discrimination
* Explore our school value of Respect for Self, Others and the Environment and take every opportunity to reinforce and model this
Meaningful Partnerships
Actively seek and build rich connections with and within our community.
Whanaungatanga Establishing relationships
* Give effect to reflecting our dual cultural heritage and the principles contained within Te Tiriti o Waitangi
* Strengthen collaborative school partnerships with students and staff with our local schools, ECEs and secondary schools
* Strengthen links within our Tipu Maia Community of Learning
* Make connections with community organisations / businesses to help our students to succeed with skills in education, work and life
* Foster our new partnership with the Education Review Office
Our Place – Waipara School
Waipara School is a well resourced, full primary school nestled in the rolling hills of the Waipara Valley. This is situated in North Canterbury, sixty kilometres north of Christchurch and at the junction of State Highways One and Seven.
Waipara was a railway town surrounded by dry land farming operations. Today, it is a burgeoning viticulture and horticultural area, the verdant pastures nurtured through irrigation. Waipara School's families come from the Waipara village and the surrounding farming enterprises, making for a diverse community mix. All members of the community are very supportive of the school and want the best educational opportunities provided to their children.
Students come to school with positive attitudes and are ready to learn. Our school mission statement is 'being the best we can be - ekea ka tiritiri o te moana ' and it underpins what we do at Waipara School. The Waipara Learner Qualities reflect our vision and these, too, drive our teaching and learning life. Students benefit from good quality teaching and stimulating learning experiences in bright, attractive and welcoming classrooms. Students demonstrate high levels of engagement in their learning. Teaching and learning programmes focus on literacy and numeracy and most students are achieving at or above expected levels in these areas. Support is provided for those students with specific learning needs through inclusive in-class support provided by teacher aides. Embracing Tikanga Maori and celebrating our dual cultural heritage is evident in our classroom learning programmes.
Waipara School staff have been working very hard at using ICT more effectively in classrooms and continue to up skill both staff and students to make their way in this technological age. The BOT continue to provide funds to enable the purchase of professional development and ever changing hardware items. Literacy and Numeracy and having children work at and above curriculum expectations, will continue to be our focus over the next few years. Waipara School is well supported by their fundraising body – the PTA. This organisation funds resources and educational opportunities for the students in our school. Waipara School is a wee gem amongst the grapevines and has been described as having 'a nice feel'.
The unique place of Te Ao Maori at Waipara School
In recognising New Zealand's cultural diversity and the unique position of Maori, Waipara School will take all reasonable steps to embrace and celebrate Tikanga Maori and Te Reo Maori for all children. To achieve this, our school will strive to be culturally responsive and support all Maori children to have success as Maori by working with parents, whanau and our local community to explore the best ways to do this. Waipara School is committed to integrating Te Ao Maori into all aspects of learning, where appropriate.
Waipara School offers the learning of Te Reo Maori across all classes on a daily basis. The programme guidelines contained within Level One and Two of Te Aho Arataki Marau mo te Ako i Te Reo Maori – Kura Auraki are followed. Each week commences with Whanau Time, where we sing, bless our learning and talk about our week. The week finishes in the same way in our assembly. A Kapa Haka programme is provided to all children by Rihari Walker during one term of each year. A Maori dimension is included in all unit planning where appropriate. Maori Tikanga is included where possible and this is recognised that this is an area, which has strengthened across our school.
Our school believes that by learning Te Reo and becoming increasingly familiar with Tikanga Maori, Maori children strengthen their identities, while non Maori children journey towards a shared cultural understanding.
Waipara School consult with Maori families on an annual basis.
Our BOT embrace our dual cultural heritage and our BOT's next steps are to weave a Maori dimension through strategic planning.
BEING THE BEST WE CAN BE
Waipara School Annual Plan 2021 Strategic Goals
Ekea ka tiritiri o te moana
Connecting with People Celebrating our Place Meaningful Relationships
| Goal | Action | How |
|---|---|---|
| Connecting with People | 1.Through targeted classroom | 1.The first term’s programmes are geared to |
| | programmes, have staff get to know | cater for introductions – Health – Creating a |
| | their students, their learning | Positive Classroom Community, Maths – |
| Support students and staff in | | |
| | achievements and their needs | statistics; English – passion reading and writing. |
| their learning and ensure | | |
| | | With teachers knowing the child, this will aid |
| opportunities for all children to | | |
| | | achievement. Have regular discussions about |
| attain their highest possible | | |
| | | students at staff meetings. |
| standard in educational | | |
| | 2.Develop our local Waipara School | 2. Each term, take into account how we can |
| achievement, through quality | | |
| | curriculum | use our school and local environment to best |
| teaching and learning, positive | | |
| | | effect – people and places – the Waipara River |
| relationships and a responsive | | |
| | | is going to be studied in Term Two. |
| curriculum. | | |
| Whanaungatanga | 3.Broaden the use of the Digital | 3. MOE PLD on the DT being undertaken during |
| | Technologies curriculum in Digital | 2021 and all staff are involved. |
| Kinship – sense of belonging | Fluency | |
| | 4.Empower staff in their practice to | 4. Digital Technologies PLD, Te Reo Maori PD, |
| | deliver quality teaching and learning | ALiM intervention, SHARP reading for two new |
| | programmes to raise achievement of | teachers, CoL PLG groups |
| | students | |
| 5.Enable staff in the using and | 5.Maori PLD applied for in 2021; Whanau Time |
|---|---|
| understanding of Te Reo so this can | Kiwaha/Kupu o te Wiki embedded; Kapa Haka |
| be incorporated into everyday | Term One |
| activities, and honouring the | |
| principals of the Te Tiriti o Waitangi | |
| through Partnership, Protection and | |
| Participation | |
| 6.Introduce basic sign language to | 6. Through the Whanau Time forum, the |
| the children | children will be introduced to basic signing |
| | starting with the National Anthem with |
| | assistance from Deb Dellaway-Curtis |
| 7.Survey parents about their | 7. Carried out in Term One to gauge parental |
| expectations for homework | expectations of homework and then a way |
| | forward developed from this feedback |
| 8. Make provision for music tutors to | 8.Note in newsletter early in Term One, advising |
| be available to our school | parents of local tutors and online music |
| | programmes available and that the school |
| | premises may be used after hours for music |
| | tuition, if required. |
BEING THE BEST WE CAN
BE Ekea ka tiritiri o te moana
Waipara School Annual Plan 2021 Strategic Goals
Connecting with People Celebrating our Place Meaningful Relationships
| Action | How |
|---|---|
| 1.Develop new native gardens in our | 1. Jamie McFadden will be asked to quote for |
| grounds | plantings and the children will be responsible |
| | for the plantings in Term Two as part of |
| | Enviroschools’ work |
| 2. Beautification of trees in the school | 2. Working Bee organized for 30 January, 2021 |
| grounds so the branches are not a | before school commencement to prune the |
| Health and Safety issue | low branches |
| 3.Celebrate the creation of the | 3. Regular updates and liaising with Sharon Earl, |
| metal moa structure | who is creating the moa in Amberley |
| 4.Gain Bronze status in our | 4. Collaborate to implement our bronze status |
| Enviroschools journey | environmental vision alongside our |
| | Enviroschools programme – the basis of this is |
| | having sustainable practices |
| 5.Utilise the school gardens as much | 5. Plant vegetables to share with the |
| as we can | community and enjoy shared meals |
| 6.Update school signage | 6. Update and resite the school sign by the |
| | dental clinic |
BEING THE BEST WE CAN BE
Waipara School Annual Plan 2021 Strategic Goals
Ekea ka tiritiri o te moana
Connecting with People Celebrating our Place Meaningful Relationships
| Action | How |
|---|---|
| 1.Foster a rich partnership with | 1. Regularly meet and discuss what’s |
| Shelley Wylie from ERO | happening in the school |
| 2.Provide opportunities for parents to | 2.Via the newsletter, keep parents in the loop |
| help at school | of what we doing and invite them to help us in |
| | any way that they can |
| 3.Host regular events for parents to | 3. *Invite the whole Waipara community to the |
| attend to allow them time to | Community Dinner in Term One - scheduled for |
| connect and form relationships | Wednesday 10 February, 5.30pm |
| | *Host a evening focusing on parenting issues |
| | for interested parents to attend in Term Two |
| | *Invite the parents in to school to see the |
| | new Digital Technology curriculum in action in |
| | Term Three |
| | *Celebrate our year and invite parents to |
| | attend the annual prize giving and final |
| | assembly |
|---|---|
| 5.Involve parents in our weekly | 5. Make the words to the karakia bigger so |
| assemblies | parents can participate in this closing karakia. |
| | Invite them each week and pop snippets of this |
| | gathering onto Seesaw so parents can share |
| | this event |
| 6.Explore online platforms as a | 6.Revisit our use of Seesaw as an online |
| means of connecting with our | platform as a way of engaging with parents |
| community and beyond | and how we can use our website to best |
| | advantage |
| 7.Strengthen collaborative | 7. Plan to interact with these establishments at |
| partnerships with our local high | least twice a year and try to create new links |
| schools, primary schools and pre | with them |
| schools | |
| 8.Strengthen links with our Tipu Maia | 8. Continue to have all teaching staff join in |
| Community of Learning | with CoL Hui Days and PLG meetings |
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Asthma and Allergy Triggers
Over 1 million people in North Carolina have been diagnosed with asthma during their lifetimes.
Follow these steps to prevent or eliminate indoor and outdoor asthma and allergy triggers.
DUST AND DUST MITES
- Cover mattresses and pillows with dust mite proof zippered covers.
- Wash bedding (sheets, pillow cases, blankets and bedcovers) every week in hot water.
- Choose washable stuffed toys, wash them often in hot water and dry them completely.
- Vacuum carpet and fabric-covered furniture every week.
- Control humidity (as low as 30-50%) with a dehumidifier or the air conditioner.
- When cleaning dust, animal dander and other allergens, use vacuums with high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters or central vacuums.
- Remove dust often with a damp cloth.
- Replace blinds with washable curtains, where possible, or regularly wipe down blinds to remove dust.
ANIMAL DANDER
- Keep your pets out of the bedroom or other sleeping areas. Keep pets off the bed linens, carpet and upholstered furniture.
- Bathe and groom your pet's coat. Clean and brush pets outside of your home.
- If possible, keep pets outside the home.
CHEMICAL IRRITANTS
- Don't allow smoking in your home or car.
- Keep fireplaces, gas stoves and furnaces regularly serviced. Increase ventilation when using them.
- Quit smoking. Never smoke in the home or car. Visit www.smokefreehousingnc.com for steps to protect yourself from neighbors' secondhand smoke.
- Read labels and follow directions when using, storing or disposing of personal care products, cleaning products, paint and glue.
- Keep these products out of reach of children.
- When possible, allow materials and finishes (such as new carpet or paint) to off-gas or dry outside.
Asthma and Allergy Triggers
MOLD AND MOISTURE
- Prevent mold by finding the source of moisture and fixing it.
- In the kitchen and bathroom, use an exhaust fan or open a window to control moisture.
- Dry water damaged areas and items within 24-48 hours to prevent mold growth.
- Wipe down damp surfaces after cooking, washing dishes and bathing.
- When mold appears, scrub mold off hard surfaces with detergent and water, and dry completely. Use appropriate respirator/mask, gloves and eye protection.
- Clothes dryers should be vented to the outside, not into the attic or crawl space.
- Open windows or turn on the air conditioner to ventilate the home, especially to prevent mold growth and when using products with chemical irritants.
PESTS
- Seal cracks or holes where cockroaches, rodents and other pests can enter.
- Use trash cans and food containers with lids.
- Keep dishes clean.
- Clean up food and liquid spills on counters, tables and floors.
- Use baits or traps, and avoid spray pesticides.
POLLEN
- If there is a lot of pollen in the air, stay inside and keep windows up.
- Remove your shoes when you enter your home, to prevent tracking in pollen, pests, and pesticides.
- Use the air conditioner to filter air coming into the home.
Produced by the Community Outreach and Engagement Core of the UNC-Chapel Hill Center for Environmental Health and Susceptibility with a grant from the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P30ES010126).
AIR QUALITY INDEX
Children and other sensitive groups of people (such as people with asthma) should play and do other outside activities on days when the air is not hazardous, to avoid aggravating asthma and allergies.
Particulate matter (PM) is a mixture of very small particles of soot, dirt, smoke, dust and liquid droplets in the air. Ground-level ozone forms when pollutants combine in hot sunlight. Ozone levels are highest from early afternoon to early evening (about 2 to 6 pm) on hot, sunny days.
- Be sure to check forecasts for Air Quality Action Days, PM and ozone pollution at http://airnow.gov/.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
UNC Center for Environmental Health and Susceptibility: www.sph.unc.edu/cehs
NC Division of Public Health Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch (919) 733-3421 http://epi.publichealth.nc.gov/oii/mold/
NC Asthma Program: (919) 707-5213; www.asthma.ncdhhs.gov
US Environmental Protection Agency: www.epa.gov
NC Healthy Homes Initiative: http://www.nchealthyhomes.com/
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Is Nuclear the Answer to Global Warming?
Jim Harding, Ph. D
The evidence steadily mounts that we must quickly replace greenhouse gas (GHG) emitting fuels (coal, oil, gas) as our main energy source if we are to avert catastrophic climate change. Three criteria can help steer the decisions about this urgent conversion to sustainable energy. First, new energy systems must significantly reduce the GHGs emitted: we must move to low or, preferably, no-carbon energy sources. Second, the new energy systems must not create other environmental or peace and security issues: they must be ecologically and socially sustainable. As part of this they must be much more equalitarian. And third, the new energy systems must be able to rapidly enter the market and be cost effective.
Before we apply these criteria to nuclear, it is vital to understand the makeup and sources of GHGs. Carbon dioxide (CO2) accounts for ¾'s (76%) of them, so reducing CO2 is fundamental to any strategy for averting extreme climate change. However, only one-third of the CO2 comes from electrical power plants – mostly from coal. The other two-thirds come from transportation (mostly cars and trucks) and from buildings, including factories and home heating. The rest of the GHGs come from methane (13%), nitrous oxide (5%) and fluorocarbons, which includes the ozone-depleters.
When anyone proposes nuclear replacing coal as a magic bullet for global warming they are therefore only addressing ¼ of the sources of GHGs. We have to assess nuclear's capability in the context of reducing GHGs from electrical power plants. This must include doing cost and risk comparisons with other sources of electricity such as efficiency, wind and solar (photovoltaic) energy.
IS NUCLEAR CLEAN?
The Canadian Nuclear Association (CNA) aggressively promotes nuclear as "clean". Since the nuclear fuel system produces cancer-causing radiation from uranium tailings to spent fuel this is clearly untrue. Recent research accepted by the international radiation monitoring body, and reported in its BEIR VII report, has confirmed there is no safe level of radiation.
By "clean" it's clear the CNA wants us to believe that nuclear doesn't produce GHGs. There is some trickery here, as it is true that the nuclear power plant does not release GHGs. But the overall assertion is untrue, as the nuclear industry is extremely energy-intensive, using massive GHGproducing fossil fuels – from mining and milling to enriching uranium, to constructing and decommissioning huge nuclear power plants, to transporting and storing nuclear wastes.
Saskatchewan is now the biggest uraniumproducing region in the world and half of its exports go to the U.S. where uranium is enriched using two dirty coal-fired plants at Paducah, Kentucky. According to the U.S. Department of Energy the most potent of the GHGs – the otherwise banned ozone-depleting CFC 114 – continues to be released through this uranium enrichment.
CAN NUCLEAR REPLACE COAL?
Though not at all "clean", nuclear is a lower-carbon fuel than coal, which presently produces 64% of global electricity. What kind of expansion in nuclear would be required to make a significant global dint in the emissions of GHGs from these power plants?
Two global scenarios have recently been studied, both assuming a growth of electricity of 2.1 % a year. The first from a 2003 MIT study looked at the impact of a three-fold increase in nuclear electrical capacity – to 1,000 Gigawatts (GW) – by 2050. Taking into account shut-downs of aging, ever more dangerous, nuclear plants, this scenario would require a new nuclear power plant being built somewhere every 15 days from 2010-2050. And even if this was accomplished (hypothetically), electricity from nuclear would still only grow from 16% to 20% of global electrical production (and from 5% to 6% of total energy use), and GHGs would continue to rise. This totally unrealistic scenario clearly shows that nuclear is not a magic bullet for global warming. It should therefore be out rightly rejected as a policy option for we'd end up with more radioactive contamination and still not curtail the rise in GHGs. This is going "from the frying pan of global warming into the nuclear fire."
The second scenario, studied by Brice Smith (see references below), makes the same assumptions as the MIT study, except it calculates the number of nuclear power plants required to bring GHGs from power plants to 2000 levels by 2050. This scenario would require about 2,500 GW of nuclear electricity and would see nuclear playing the same relative role as coal does today. However, if the first scenario is unrealistic, this one is delusional, for it would require more than one nuclear plant being built somewhere every week. This is simply not going to happen.
These two scenarios confirm earlier work by energy analyst Charles Komanoff and the U.S.based Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS). They show the nuclear option fails to meet the first criteria of being capable of reducing GHGs even in the one area of power plants.
The danger is that, in the blind search for a magic bullet while in the thrall of immense nuclear propaganda, nuclear will be embraced for politicaleconomic reasons and distract from the urgent task at hand. This typifies both the Federal Conservative Government, that wants nuclear to help produce heavy oil - the dirtiest of all fossil fuels (so much for the magic bullet), and the Saskatchewan NDP Government, that just doesn't seem to "get it" that nuclear is not sustainable development in either the economic or ecological sense.
WHAT ARE NUCLEAR'S RISKS?
Nuclear cannot realistically reduce GHGs, but any expansion of nuclear power would increase the chance of a catastrophic nuclear accident and the dangers of accumulating nuclear wastes and proliferation. As such it totally fails on the second criteria. Smith estimates that the chances of such an accident occurring in the U.S. by 2050 are 75% with the MIT scenario and 90% with his own. This is not reassuring. And he rightly points out that a major nuclear accident would increase global opposition to further nuclear expansion, and we'd be back to the drawing board while being still further along the extreme climate change scenario.
Nuclear power becomes even more dangerous with global warming due to the importance of its coolant system to avert a meltdown. As the Saskatchewan Environmental Society (SES) said in its 2006 pamphlet: "During France's heat wave in 2003, engineers told the government they could no longer guarantee the safety of the country's 58 nuclear plants. This kind of problem will likely become more common with climate change."
And, lest we forget, the nuclear fuel going into all these French reactors, which could contaminate Europe if any of them were to melt down, comes from Northern Saskatchewan, where the huge French nuclear conglomerate Areva (Cogema) operates. If (when?) a nuclear accident happens in France, or another country depending on Saskatchewan uranium such as Japan or the U.S., what will we say? Will the very short-term economic benefits here have been worth the loss of arable land and death and suffering of so many others elsewhere?
The case against nuclear grows the more nuclear amnesia is challenged. If nuclear were to expand there would be a steady accumulation of deadly
nuclear wastes - for example plutonium, which is toxic for 800 generations. The scenarios of global nuclear growth discussed above would require the building of a permanent storage site every 3 to 5 ½ years.
Mined geological repositories have been talked about since 1957, but, as Smith points out, "not one spent fuel rod has yet been permanently disposed of anywhere in the world." This is the same system that the AECL and Nuclear Waste Management Organization (NWMO) are presently lobbying First Nations bands about in Northern Saskatchewan.
THE DISECONOMICS OF NUCLEAR?
These reasons are more than enough for any reasonable and compassionate person to support a sustainable, renewable energy system that addresses global warming, and, in the process, phases-out nuclear energy. But there is more. At its peak, even with huge subsidies, France, the country most dependent on nuclear-generated electricity (80%), only built a few reactors a year. It is obviously not economically realistic to consider a nuclear power plant being built every week. Not only would this rob labour and capital from making the quick transition to sustainable, renewable energy, but the world's financiers are generally not predisposed to nuclear's costly and risky technology. Without government legislation (e.g. Canada's Nuclear Liability Act) that protects the nuclear industry from liability in the case of multi-billion dollar accidents, the industry wouldn't even be in the energy market. Nuclear therefore fails on the third criteria.
Cost comparisons of nuclear vs. sustainable, renewable alternatives should put the final nail in the nuclear coffin. While the nuclear industry says new reactors could produce electricity for 6-7 cents per kWh, these estimates depend on the nuclear industry continuing to be heavily subsidized by the taxpayer. When the cost of borrowing money is factored in, Ontario's Energy Probe estimates that subsidies to the AECL total around $75 billion. Several studies (e.g. reported in New Scientist, and discussed in Helen Caldicotts new book) have shown that without these direct and hidden subsidies, the cost of nuclear would increase threefold (i.e. 300%) to the consumer. This holds true for Ontario's Hydro's consumers who suffer from a serious case of "nuclear dependence", which has created a public debt of $35 billion.
Even without a level playing field, energy efficiency, co-generation and wind are already cheaper than nuclear (or coal) – at 4-6 cents per kWh. According to Amory Lovins of the Rocky Mountain Institute, renewable energy, worldwide, has already passed nuclear as a source of electricity (20% to 16%). This is partly due to wind, biomass and solar power, but is also due to co-generation from waste heat. Wave (tidal) power will soon accelerate this trend. In 2004 small-scale renewables added 6 times the capacity to generate electricity and 3 times the electrical output as did nuclear. According to the SES, by 2010, "renewable energy is projected to outstrip nuclear power's energy output by 43% globally".
While Saskatchewan's NDP government has made an important step towards wind, its policies hold back decentralized energy production (we need netmetering) and still emphasize an economy based on exporting polluting and toxic non-renewables such as uranium and oil. (In 2003, 78% of the primary energy exported from Saskatchewan came from uranium; 20% came from fossil fuels.) We are quickly becoming known as the main world region for exporting radioactivity (uranium) as well as having Canada's highest per capita GHGs emissions.
JOBS, BUT NOT AT ANY COST
All aspects of economics, including job-creation, go against nuclear. Being extremely capital-intensive, nuclear, including its front-end uranium mining, produces very little employment per amount invested. (Each job in uranium mining involves $750,000 or more of capital.) Uranium mining has delivered a pittance of the royalties originally promised to the province and one-half of the jobs promised to northern Indigenous people. And it is making the North a Nuclear Sacrificial Area.
Meanwhile, study after study has confirmed that a renewable energy sector produces many more jobs: wind, like solar, produces 5 times the employment as nuclear per amount invested. Yet, according to the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations (FSIN), SaskPower turned down a request to partner on a wind farm with a northern Band. Co-op Wind Farms in rural Saskatchewan should also be encouraged.
Since its decision to phase-out nuclear power, renewable energy in Germany has grown to provide 250,000 jobs. Solar energy is beginning to replace fossil-fuel generated electricity and lower GHGs and it is expected to produce 200,000 jobs by 2020. By then 27% of Germany's electricity will come from renewables. And Germany's quick transition from nuclear to renewables shows how important it is to resist privatization of public utilities here and elsewhere. Unlike places like New Zealand, which privatized electricity during its neo-liberal days, Germany was able to pass 2000 legislation that provides cash incentives for shifting to renewable energy, and this has worked. Power companies must pay 49 cents a kWh to buy solar electricity for the grid and this still saves money in capital costs of nuclear or coal plants and the projected costs of climate change. Meanwhile Saskatchewan asks consumers to pay extra for "Green" Wind Power. We clearly have to get serious and not just engage in a face-lift on an unsustainable and dangerous non-renewable energy policy.
THE SASKATCHEWAN CHOICE?
Saskatchewan has an important choice to make over the near future. Will Cameco, Cogema and the illinformed Saskatoon Chamber of Commerce, with its amoral approach to economic development, prevail? Will Saskatchewan expand the costly and dangerous nuclear fuel system with a uranium refinery and perhaps a nuclear waste dump? Will it support nuclear power for the tarsands?
As we've seen this will do nothing to avert global warming, though some big business would make huge profits. However, this would rob capital and labour from truly making the urgent conversion to a sustainable, renewable energy system. And, perhaps most vital, it will condemn future generations to accumulating radioactive weapons and wastes while failing to help make the necessary transition needed to avert catastrophic climate change. This would be a double-whammy for our children's children.
* Jim Harding is a retired professor of environmental and justice studies who gardens, writes and hosts retreatworkshops for activists on the Crows Nest Ecology Preserve in the Qu'Appelle Valley. He presently teaches a class on "Ecology and Justice" as an Adjunct Professor at the University of Regina and is active with the Ecumenical Coalition KAIROS in its campaign for a just and sustainable energy policy.
References
Brice Smith, Insurmountable Risks: The Dangers of Using Nuclear Power to Combat Global Warming. (IEER Press, 2006);
Helen Caldicott, Nuclear Power Is Not The Answer, (The New Press, 2006); and,
Jim Harding, Canada's Deadly Secret: Saskatchewan Uranium and the Global Nuclear System, forthcoming (Fernwood, 2007).
The Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives – Saskatchewan (CCPA-SK), is an independent, non-partisan research organization dedicated to promoting economic and social research of importance to Canadian and Saskatchewan citizens.
If you would like more information about CCPA-SK or would like to be on our distribution list, please contact us.
Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives – Saskatchewan #105-2205 11 th Avenue Regina, SK S4P 0K6 (306) 924-3372 www.policyalternatives.ca
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Classroom Management Web Sites
Minnesota Department of Education logo
*By selecting these links, you will be leaving the MDE Web site. See our copyright notice at the bottom of the page for our disclaimer regarding these links.
www.CASEL.org The Collaborative for Academic and Social Emotional Learning, University of Illinois, Chicago list of evidencebased Social-Emotional Learning programs.
http://www.pbis.org/default.aspx School Wide Positive Behavior Intervention and Supports is a decision making framework that guides selection, integration, and implementation of the best evidence-based academic and behavioral practices for improving important academic and behavior outcomes for all students.
http://www.pbismn.org Minnesota Department of Education's web site for school districts implementing PBIS.
http://www.rti4success.org/ Response to Intervention (RtI) integrates assessment and intervention within a multi-level prevention system to maximize student achievement and to reduce behavior problems.
http://www.positivediscipline.com/ Management for the promotion of life skills in family, school, business and community.
http://www.dock.net/gathercoal/judicious_discipline.html Judicious Discipline provides a framework for educators to share their knowledge and authority with students. The power shared leads to empowering students with knowledge for self-control.
http://www.responsiveclassroom.org/ Responsive Classrooms, a classroom management program for elementary schools and Developmental Design, the program for middle schools.
http://www.realrestitution.com/ Restitution Social Development facilitates the bringing together of various educational partners in order to enhance current educational practices in schools, post secondary institutions, community programs and correctional facilities. Through extensive collaboration and innovation Restitution Instructors address discipline by focusing on how young people can correct their mistakes emphasizing positive solutions.
http://www.ascd.org/ The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development has resources on classroom management and other educational topics.
http://www.co-operation.org/ Cooperative Learning focuses on how students should interact with each other as they learn and the skills needed to interact effectively.
http://www.tribes.com/ The Tribes TLC process helps teachers create a positive school or classroom environment.
http://esrnational.org/ Educators for Social Responsibility's resource book The Advisory Guide: Designing and Implementing Effective Advisory Programs in Secondary Schools.
www.corwinpress.com Differentiated Coaching: A Framework for Helping Teachers Change, and Differentiation Through Personality Types A Framework for Instruction, Assessment, and Classroom Management. Jane A. G. Kise, 2006.
Contact Nancy Riestenberg, Prevention Specialist, Minnesota Department of Education 651-582-8433; firstname.lastname@example.org. 2011
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The Truculent Turtle
In late September 1946 a new milestone in aviation history was set, an 11,236-mile non-stop, non-refueled flight from Perth, Australia to Columbus, Ohio. The plane, a US Navy Neptune patrol aircraft, manufactured by Lockheed and nicknamed "Truculent Turtle," was specially fitted with extra gasoline tanks to test its capacity for long-distance flight.
The crew of four made the trip in 55 hours and 17 minutes, at an average speed of 204 mph. Their only passenger was a young kangaroo named Joey, a gift from the Australian people to the National Zoo in Washington.
The Turtle's record held for nearly 15 years, though a New York Times editor opined that the flight's significance had "no practicable application ... to commercial transport of passengers" unless such a flight could ever be accomplished at much higher speeds, with far less time spent in the air.
In the 1950s, the Turtle was put on display at the corner of Granby Street and Taussig Boulevard, where it remained a landmark for many years, until the construction of I-564 in 1967 necessitated its removal to the interior of the Naval Air Station. In 1977, the little plane was transported to a new home at the National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida.
Pages from Norfolk's Past are researched and written by Peggy Haile McPhillips, City Historian
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Fancy Goldfish
Drs. Foster & Smith Educational Staff
The term "Fancy Goldfish" refers to members of the Goldfish family specifically bred to enhance certain colors or body characteristics, such as the tail or head shape. Goldfish are members of the carp family (Cyprinidae) which includes more native members of freshwater fish in the northern hemisphere than any other group.
Varieties of Fancy Goldfish include the Fantail or Ryukin, Veiltail, Globe-eye, Celestial, Bubble-eye or Toadhead, Pearlscale, Pompom, Lionhead or Ranchu, Black Moor, and Oranda. Each variety may share commonalities with other varieties but generally has at least one characteristic that sets it apart.
No matter what variety, the Fancy Goldfish is sure to add color and beauty to any aquarium or water garden.
Interesting Facts:
Family:
Cyprinidae.
Origin:
Asia, China, Japan. Though originally from Asia, these beautiful fish gained international popularity. Now different varieties are bred world-wide
Size:
6+" depending on variety
Diet:
Omnivorous.
Tank Setup: Freshwater aquariums and ponds.
Tank
Conditions:
65-75°F; pH 6.5-7.5; KH 4-20
Min. Tank
Capacity:
29 gallons
Light:
Natural.
Temperament: Peaceful.
Swimming
Level:
All.
Care Level:
Easy
Fancy Goldfish - Page 1 of 2
Reproduction: Egg layers.
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Hard copy of this document, if not marked "CONTROLLED" in red, is by definition uncontrolled and may be out of date.
Standard Operating Procedure for
Natural Disaster Emergency Preparedness Plan for the General Site Population
REVISION
| Rev No. | DCN No. | Change Summary | Release Date | DCN Initiator |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2 | DCN0980 | Update Logo | 9-18-13 | C. Irwin |
Prior revision history, if applicable, is available from the Document Control Office.
1. PURPOSE AND SCOPE
1.1 Purpose
1.1.1 This document outlines the general procedures to follow immediately before, during or after a natural disaster occurs at the College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering (CNSE).
1.2 Scope
1.2.1 This document applies to all CNSE employees, tenants, students and contractors while they are on site at CNSE at the time of one of the events listed below.
2. RESPONSIBILITIES
2.1 Environmental, Health and Safety Department (EHS)
2.1.1 It is the responsibility of EHS to implement, enforce and maintain this document as well as the following:
* Provide guidance on the requirements of this program,
* Ensure Emergency Response Team (ERT) members are trained in the event of an emergency,
* Provide training on evacuation procedures.
2.2 Emergency Response Team (ERT)
2.2.1 During an emergency the ERT members will be responsible for either guiding personnel to a safe location or leading an evacuation. Please follow their direction during an emergency.
2.3 Supervisors and Mangers
2.3.1 Supervisors and managers are responsible for ensuring that their employees know where safe areas and emergency exits are located in their workplace as well as their Rally Point in the event of a building evacuation.
2.4 All Employees, Students, Tenants and Contractors
2.4.1 Those working at CNSE are responsible for following and understanding the procedures in this document.
3. DEFINITIONS
3.1 Natural Disaster – The natural disasters covered by this document are an earthquake, tornado, hurricane, tropical storm or blizzard.
3.2 Earthquake – A sudden and violent shaking of the ground, possibly causing damage, as a result of movements within the earth's crust.
3.3 Hurricane – A severe storm characterized by heavy rain and strong winds in excess of 74 miles per hour (MPH).
3.4 Tropical Storm – A severe storm characterized by heavy rain and strong winds between 39 and 73 MPH.
3.5 Tornado - A mobile, destructive vortex of violently rotating winds having the appearance of a funnel-shaped cloud; advancing beneath a large storm system.
3.6 Blizzard – A severe snow storm characterized by strong winds and low visibility.
4. GENERAL EMEGENCY PREPAREDNESS
4.1 Know the locations of all emergency exits in your work area and make sure they are clearly marked
4.1.1 Keep emergency exits and aisle ways clear.
4.2 Know the CNSE emergency number, ext. 78600 or 518-437-8600.
4.3 Know a designated, safe meeting place indoors. This area should meet the following criteria:
* An interior hallway or room.
* No large or heavy, standing or overhead objects that may fall.
* No glass or windows that may break.
* Away from all openings to the outside, such as windows and doors.
* Away from potentially hazardous utilities, such as water, gas or electrics.
5. EARTHQUAKE
5.1 To prepare for an earthquake the following precautions should be observed:
* Avoid storing heavy objects high on shelves.
* Secure cabinets and shelves to prevent tipping.
* Ensure large and heavy objects will not fall over.
* Be aware of overhead hazards.
5.2 During the event of an earthquake at CNSE follow the procedures below :
* If inside, DO NOT evacuate or leave the building unless directed to do so by ERT members or if a fire alarm is triggered.
* Move away from any windows, glass, file cabinets, overhead objects and other tall or heavy objects that could injure you.
* Duck under a sturdy object, such as a table or desk, and hold on to it until the shaking stops.
* If there is nothing to go under, like in a hallway, move near an interior wall, stay low to the floor and cover your head and neck.
* If in an elevator, stop at the nearest floor and take cover by one of the methods above.
* Remain in your position for a few minutes after the shaking has stopped and be prepared for an after-shock. In the event of an after-shock follow the same procedures. Ensure the area is safe before leaving the immediate area.
* If outside, move away from any buildings, tall structures, power lines or overhead objects. Move to a safe open area and remain there until the event is over. Do not stand in a roadway.
5.3 After the earthquake:
* Remain calm and look around for any injured persons. If anyone is injured call the emergency number immediately. Keep the victim calm until the ERT or medical help arrives.
* Check your area for any hazards caused by the earthquake such as fires, broken utility lines, broken glass, etc. Report all hazards to
Security by calling the emergency number. Follow evacuation guidelines, if required (e.g. fire).
* Do not enter any area that has severe damage or appears to be hazardous.
6. HURRICANE/ TROPICAL STORM
6.1 During a hurricane, tropical storm or a severe wind and rain weather event the following precautions should be followed:
* If outside, take cover inside a building, preferably one of the larger buildings such as NFE, NFS, NFC, NFN or CESTM.
* DO NOT go the rotundas of any building due to all of the glass and windows.
* DO NOT go outside during the storm unless a fire alarm is sounded or directed by ERT members or Security. In the event of a fire alarm personnel will likely be directed to another building for cover.
* Follow all instructions by ERT members and Security.
* Stay away from windows and exterior walls during the storm.
* Move equipment and computers away from areas prone to water damage, if possible. Do not move equipment that is too heavy or that you do not have authorization to operate.
* If leaks or flooding occurs stay away from the area and remove equipment, if safe to do so. DO NOT touch any electrical equipment that is energized and wet.
* DO NOT walk into any standing water.
* Report all hazards such as water, flooding, broken windows, etc. to Security.
6.2 After the hurricane, tropical storm or severe wind and rain weather event the following procedures should be followed:
* Check for any injured persons. Call Security immediately to report any serious injuries.
* Look around your immediate area and take note of any hazards caused by the storm. This includes broken glass or windows, flooding, water damage, equipment damage, etc.
* DO NOT walk through any standing water.
* Report any hazards or damage to Security or your supervisor as necessary.
* Keep away from any hazards until they are fixed or declared safe by Security or ERT members.
* If any hazards exist outside that may block entrances, exits or roadways (e.g. downed tree, downed power lines, flooding, etc); wait for them to be cleared before attempting to leave CNSE.
7. TORNADO
7.1 When a tornado watch is issued, there may be the chance for tornado formation in the area due to strong storms. In the event of a tornado watch please remain indoors. Stay alert; as a tornado warning may be issued.
7.2 In the event of a tornado warning, meaning a tornado is sighted in the area, or weather radar indicates tornado formation, follow the guidelines below.
7.3 If a tornado is reported in the area, and is likely to hit CNSE, the following precautions should be followed immediately before and during the event:
* If outside, take cover inside immediately, preferably one of the larger buildings, such as NFE, NFS, NFC, NFN or CESTM, if time allows.
* DO NOT go the rotundas of any building, due to all of the glass and windows.
* DO NOT leave the building under any circumstance unless directly instructed to do so by ERT members or Security.
* Move away from glass and windows, large or tall objects that may fall and any overhead objects.
* Move away from all openings to the outside, such as doors and windows; do not stay in any hallways or rooms that open to the outside in any direction.
* Move calmly and in an orderly fashion to interior hallways and rooms on the lowest floors, if time allows. Stay away from areas with overhead objects.
* Crouch down and take cover under a sturdy object, such as a table or desk, if possible. If no cover is around, crouch down and cover your head and neck.
* DO NOT leave the safe area until the tornado has passed or directed to do so by ERT members or Security.
7.4 After a tornado the following precautions should be followed:
* Check for any injured persons. Call Security immediately to report any serious injuries.
* Look around your immediate area and take note of any hazards caused by the storm. This includes broken glass or windows, flooding, water damage, equipment damage, etc.
* DO NOT walk through any standing water.
* Report any hazards or damage to Security or your supervisor as necessary.
* Keep away from any hazards until they are fixed or declared safe by Security or ERT members.
* If any hazards exist outside that may block entrances, exits or roadways (e.g. downed tree, downed power lines, flooding, etc.); wait for them to be cleared before attempting to leave CNSE.
8. BLIZZARD
8.1 Prior to a blizzard at CNSE the following precautions should be taken:
* Follow instructions by Security on where to park your car, as to aid with snow removal during the storm.
8.2 During a blizzard at CNSE the following precautions should be taken:
* If outside, take cover inside as soon as possible.
* Do not go outside during the storm unless necessary or directed by ERT members or Security. If a fire alarm sounds, personnel will likely be directed to another building.
* Follow all direction by ERT members, Security or your supervisor.
* If any hazards are caused by the storm (e.g. broken utilities) keep a safe distance and report them to Security or your supervisor, as necessary.
8.3 Following a blizzard at CNSE the following precautions should be taken:
* Check for any injured persons. Call Security immediately to report any serious injuries.
* Look around your immediate area and take note of any hazards caused by the storm. This includes broken glass or windows, flooding, water damage, equipment damage, etc.
* Report any hazards or damage to Security or your supervisor, as necessary.
* Keep away from any hazards until they are fixed or declared safe by Security or ERT members.
* If any hazards exist outside that may block entrances, exits or roadways (e.g. downed tree, downed power lines, excessive snow, etc); wait for them to be cleared before attempting to leave CNSE.
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Fitting In and Standing Out: Shifting Mindsets from Taking to Giving | Adam Grant
At the dawn of the twenty-first century, a renegade entrepreneur named Jimmy decided to take on the Goliath of an industry.
Goliath was launched in 1768, and boasted annual revenue of $650 million, selling over 85,000 products created by four thousand staff members and contractors to more than a hundred thousand loyal customers every year. Goliath's product was highly technical, composed of 40 million tiny units assembled by true experts in their craft.
Jimmy hired one employee, but he didn't have the funds to pay or train a team of experts, so he decided to recruit a group of amateurs and convince them to volunteer their time. In the first month, the volunteers created just 17 products, two for every 10,000 products that Goliath made. After six months, the team was up to 2,400, approaching 3% of Goliath's production. By nine months, the team was attracting 50 new volunteers a month. Within a year, there were 350 volunteers on board, and they had reached 15,000 products: 17% of Goliath's production.
Within five years, Jimmy had achieved the impossible: more than 700,000 products, eight times Goliath's output, available in over a hundred countries.
Industry insiders were stunned, but they were confident that Jimmy's productivity was coming at the expense of quality. Amateur volunteers simply couldn't outpace paid experts without making scores of mistakes along the way, and Jimmy's products must be flawed. A group of independent scientists enlisted 42 experts to intensively evaluate the quality of Goliath's products and Jimmy's. The scientists disguised the source of each product so that the experts were blind to information about who built it. The experts found an average of 2.92 errors per product for Goliath, and sure enough, Jimmy's product was worse. But it wasn't nearly as bad as expected: 3.86 errors per product. In other independent studies, the findings held up: Jimmy's products were almost as good. Jimmy was closing in on Goliath.
After eight years, Goliath's president said that Jimmy's product quality was "very uneven," with "plenty of cracks." But in a desperate attempt to compete, Goliath made a dramatic shift in its business model, copying Jimmy's strategy of engaging volunteers, not only paid experts. It was too little, too late. Within a decade, Jimmy had 25 million products and many millions of users, and Goliath was down to less than $30 million in revenue.
Jimmy Wales is the founder of Wikipedia, the free online encyclopedia. His products are encyclopedia articles, and the tiny units are words. Goliath is Encyclopedia Britannica. Today, Wikipedia is one of the ten most popular websites in the world, viewed by half a billion people every month in nearly 300 languages.
In organizations, a wealth of evidence shows that one of the most important drivers of effectiveness is the willingness to share knowledge, step up for unpopular tasks, and help each other solve problems. "
Wikipedia rose on the shoulders of people who volunteered to share their knowledge and fix mistakes made by their peers. In organizations, a wealth of evidence shows that one of the most important drivers of effectiveness is the willingness to share knowledge, step up for unpopular tasks, and help colleagues solve problems. In an analysis of more than 3,600 business units, researcher Nathan Podsakoff and his colleagues found that the more frequently employees volunteered to support each other's efforts, the greater the productivity, efficiency, and customer satisfaction those units achieved—and the lower their costs and turnover rates. As Daniel Pink writes in Drive, the success of Wikipedia highlights the extraordinary accomplishments that
are possible when a "ragtag band of volunteers" coordinate their individual actions toward a common goal.
For the past decade, I've been studying what motivates people to organize, join, and contribute to such productive ragtag bands. Many leaders and managers assume that volunteering is reserved for a rare breed of unusually generous people. Yet research by psychologists Marcia Finkelstein and Louis Penner shows otherwise: although highly generous people do more volunteering and helping than their more selfish peers, most of the people who volunteer and help in one organization aren't unusually generous in other roles and organizations. Something happens that leads ordinary people to decide that they care about helping this organization and these colleagues.
This is what happened at Wikipedia: when researcher Oded Nov surveyed Wikipiedia contributors about what motivated them, their primary reason for writing and editing wasn't that they felt it was important to help others. Instead, they got involved because they thought it was fun and they believed information should be free.
Once people join a group, what drives them to contribute? In my new book, Give and Take, I argue that one of the keys is a shift in people's mindsets from taking to giving. When people think like takers, they focus on getting as much as possible from others. When they operate
like givers, on the other hand, their overarching emphasis is on contributing their knowledge and skills to benefit others.
A major force behind Wikipedia's effectiveness was encouraging a wide range of people to think like givers rather than takers, freely volunteering their time and knowledge to write and correct article entries. And this mindset shift, it turns out, is a function of identification with a group.
In one study, researchers Joachim Shroer and Guido Hertel examined what predicted the engagement of Wikipedia contributors, tracking the amount of time that people spent improving the site and the number of articles in which they were involved. The strongest predictor of engagement was enjoyment, but next in line was identification—people gave more to Wikipedia when they saw themselves as Wikipedians.
Identification is a powerful driver of contributions. People act like givers rather than takers when they've internalized a group as part of their self-concepts or identities. "
Identification is a powerful driver of contributions. People act like givers rather than takers when they've internalized a group as part of their self-concepts or identities. To catalyze this shift in mindsets, we need to understand what causes people to identify with a group.
A fascinating insight comes from research by the psychologist Marilynn Brewer, who observes that when we interact with other people, we face a tension between two competing motiv-ations: fitting in and standing out. On the one hand, we want to belong—to experience similarity with others. On the other hand, we want to feel unique—to differentiate ourselves from others.
To fulfill these two motivations simultaneously, we search for a sense of optimal distinctiveness, or the feeling of being the same and different at the same time. Brewer finds that the most direct path to optimal distinctiveness is to affiliate with a unique group. Membership in a distinctive group fosters a sense of connection and community, and the fact that the group has an uncommon identity confers a sense of individuality and separation. When people fit in with a group that stands out, they are often driven to give tirelessly to the group, which allows them to express their distinctive identities while validating their membership in the group.
Wikipedia was a distinctive group: contributors shared a superordinate goal of making knowledge universally accessible by creating the world's first free, collaboratively edited online encyclopedia. But to encourage maximum levels of giving, Wikipedia had to combat social loafing. In a classic
experiment, the psychologists Bibb Latané, Kipling Williams, and Stephen Harkins asked people to clap and shout as loud as they could. They varied the presence of others, so participants had the chance to make noise alone, in pairs, and in groups of four and six.
The larger the group, the louder the noise—but the less each member contributed. Pairs reached 71% of their individual capabilities, groups of four performed at 51% capacity, and groups of six were at only 40% of capacity. The psychologists concluded that "many hands make light the work," and went on to test a series of remedies for social loafing. One of the most robust antidotes was making individual contributions identifiable: people give far more to a group when they feel that their personal outputs will be visible to others.
In Wikipedia, a straightforward solution would be for contributors to sign their names on entries. However, individual authorship went against the grain of Wikipedia's ideology, which emphasizes that the collective product is owned by the community, not individual contributors. This meant that Wikipedia needed alternative ways to enable potential contributors to stand out. Three mechanisms that emerged were unique roles, recognition for givers, and distinctive expertise. On the role front, along with writing and editing entries, volunteers could play unique roles in managing content and communication as administrators and arbitrators or mediators. Evidence shows that unique roles allow people to feel that their help is not easily replaceable or substitutable, encouraging them to give more. For example, in a study at a hospital, David Hofmann,
Zhike Lei, and I found that when particular nurses had the opportunity to step up in a unique preceptor role on a unit, they provided more help to their colleagues.
In terms of recognition, Wikipedians built a page that ranks contributors according to the numbers of edits made, began designating particular entries as "featured articles" that allow contributors to see when their work is judged as high-quality by the community, and began placing "barnstars" as tokens of appreciation on the pages of contributors who added significant value to the content or the community. Experiments led by behavioral economist Dan Ariely show that merely making people's contributions visible in these ways can be sufficient to motivate them to volunteer more time and invest more effort in contributing.
People give far more to a group when they feel that their personal outputs will be visible to others. "
Unique expertise was perhaps the most central way that Wikipedia volunteers could stand out. They had access to all of the entries that had been written, which enabled them to quickly spot the largest gaps between current entries and their distinctive knowledge. Indeed, a research team led by Susan Bryant found that many people started contributing to Wikipedia after they spotted an error or omission that they could address. When looking up people, places, events,
or hobbies that they knew well, people couldn't help but fix mistakes and fill in incomplete information. Outside Wikipedia, many people have a hard time recognizing when their knowledge is distinct from what others bring to the table, and emphasizing the uniqueness of their contributions can be enough to motivate them to give. In an experiment led by researcher Kimberly Ling, people were invited to contribute to a movie discussion website. Participants who were merely informed that very few people had seen the movies they rated ended up contributing 74% more knowledge than those who did not receive this information. To foster giver mindsets, we need to create distinctive roles along with distinctive groups. When people recognize the potential to make unique contributions as part of a unique community, they become motivated to volunteer their time and share their expertise.
When Jimmy Wales launched his "benevolent effort to share information," there was no shortage of skeptics doubting whether volunteers could generate sufficient quantity while meeting quality standards. But, if we assume that people aren't capable of shifting into giver mindsets, we run the risk of creating a self-fulfilling prophecy, failing to design the conditions that allow those mindsets to catch on and spread. If we recognize the potential for people to think and act like givers, we can sometimes bring down Goliath with a single, welltossed idea.
Info
Buy the Book | Get more details or buy a copy of Give and Take.
About the Author | Adam Grant is the youngest tenured professor and highest-rated teacher at Wharton. He has been named one of the world's 40 best business professors under 40 and one of Businessweek's favorite professors, and he is a leading expert on success, work motivation, and helping and giving behaviors. Previously, he was a record-setting advertising director at Let's Go Publications, an All-American springboard diver, and a professional magician. He was recently profiled in the New York Times Magazine cover story: "Is giving the secret to getting ahead?"
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This document was created on April 10, 2013 and is based on the best information available at that time. The copyright of this work belongs to the author, who is solely responsible for the content. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License. To view a copy of this license, visit Creative Commons or send a letter to Creative Commons, 559 Nathan Abbott Way, Stanford, California 94305, USA. Cover image from Veer. You are given the unlimited right to print this manifesto and to distribute it electronically (via email, your website, or any other means). You can print out pages and put them in your favorite coffee shop's windows or your doctor's waiting room. You can transcribe the author's words onto the sidewalk, or you can hand out copies to everyone you meet. You may not alter this manifesto in any way, though, and you may not charge for it.
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FIDES SERVICE - FIDESDIENST - AGENCE FIDES - AGENZIA FIDES - AGENCIA FIDES - FIDES SERVICE – FIDESDIENST
AFRICA/CHAD - The children who emigrated finally reunited with their families
Abuja (Agenzia Fides) - The majority of the students of the Koran in Chad who were in Nigeria for study reasons, and who in March were forced to flee back to their country because of the ongoing violence in northern Nigeria, are now reunited with their parents. About 575 of the 1,000 young people who fled from Nigeria were children, 80% of whom, traveling alone with their marabout - Muslim guru - or a Koran teacher. For months they remained in the villages of N'Gouboua in the region of Lac in western Chad, where local families, local authorities and humanitarian agencies provided them with food, shelter and school supplies. Since March UNICEF, the Red Cross of Chad and the Ministry of Social Affairs, had gathered 340 children with their families in 48 villages. According to a report by Human Rights Watch, thousands of West African families send their children to learn the Koran outside their own country, under the guidance of a religious teacher or an imam. Some people do not experience problems, but children traveling alone often spend most of the day begging instead of going to school, have poor health care, inadequate food, and suffer abuse. Students of the Koran are not allowed to have formal education with recognized qualifications, and now there is the risk that their formation can be inspired by ideologies suggested by Boko Haram. Agencies and the Ministry are monitoring every progress made by the school children when they are reunited with their families. It is a very difficult process because many children are initially rejected because their families cannot afford to keep them. (AP) (Agenzia Fides 18/10/2012)
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Varian Johnson talks to Mahtab Narsimhan
In Varian Johnson's To Catch a Cheat, a group of retired, middle-school con men reunite for a pulse-racing, friendship-making caper. Across the globe in India, two best friends kick off their own quest in Mahtab Narsimhan's Mission Mumbai. The two authors came together to discuss their writing processes.
Varian: Is there a recurring theme in your books? If so, what is it and why is it important to you?
out. And as far as getting into trouble, once, in elementary school, my brother and I tried to switch places to trick our teacher and friends. We wore the same clothes and even practiced responding to the "wrong" name. But I'm a horrible liar—I laughed as soon as one of my friends called me by my brother's name, and we abandoned the idea.
Varian Johnson: Describe an incident from your school days that got you into trouble.
Mahtab Narsimhan: I've always been an avid reader. While my friends loved physical exercise, I stretched my imagination. I was fortunate to have attended a private school in Mumbai with access to excellent literature. I'd lose myself in Narnia or the Shire, go up the Magic Faraway Tree or sample Willy Wonka's amazing concoctions.
The catch was, I could borrow only three books at a time. And three books barely lasted three days for me. I perfected a system whereby I had two library cards (by claiming I'd lost one) and would switch them around so I could borrow six books at a time.
I did get caught by the librarian, but given that I'd lied for a worthwhile reason, she allowed me to borrow extra books as long as I promised to return them on time and be gentle with them. That's me confessing my criminal past.
Varian: Only a writer would get in trouble with a librarian! I'm an identical twin, so my brother and I would always pool together to double the number of books we could check
Varian: Do you outline your novels before starting them, or do you figure it out as you go along?
Mahtab: Both, depending on the novel I'm writing. For a stand-alone, I start with a character or a setting and race through the first draft while I'm passionate about the idea. With a series, I tend to write a broad outline for each book and the series arc. I know my final destination, but I leave the route open to interesting detours.
Varian: I was much more of a figureit-out-along-the-way type of writer when I first began my career. I started by creating an interesting character in an unusual situation, and wrote from there. My first drafts were very messy and often went through huge overhauls. Lately, I've found it is much more useful to plot out my novels before beginning them. I started this practice with my Jackson Greene series, and I have continued being a plotter for my stand-alone books.
Mahtab: Plotting helps reveal plot holes and saves time! Someday, I hope to plot all my books, but when an idea inspires me, I'm impatient to start.
Mahtab: Honesty. I believe my readers can handle it, and deserve it. Readers first encounter problems and issues in life through stories. They learn to distinguish between right and wrong through characters they care about. While middle-grade fiction cannot be bleak and hopeless, there must be an element of truth. This is why my stories do not have neat endings but hopeful beginnings.
Varian: Honesty is so important in writing, isn't it? And not just factual honesty—our characters have to be emotionally honest as well. We have to show characters who react to life situations in real ways.
I used to say there wasn't a recurring theme in my novels, but I've changed my mind. All of my novels are "love stories," though not necessarily "romantic" love. I'm much more interested in love between friends, brothers and sisters, children and parents—it's this love and friendship that define who the characters are and who they will grow up to be. I hope readers are thinking about their own relationships as they read about my characters.
Varian: What is the best part of being an author? What's the hardest part? Mahtab: The best part is the process of creating something out of nothing. Then I get to share my imaginary world with my readers who (hopefully!) love the story as much as I do. It's
powerful and satisfying. The hardest part is revision. And that's why it's important to love what you write. Don't follow a trend but your heart.
than show up in their scenes. They're like temperamental actors and I'm the director trying to force them onstage.
Varian: The hardest part of being an author is creating the first draft. I always struggle with getting words down on the page. My characters often want to do anything else other
But the first draft leads to the best part of the process—revision. Once the book is written, I become less of a director and more of a surgeon—cutting and shaping the story to make it the best it can be. I love how characters change, how they transform
Discussion Questions
* What is plotting? Why might it be a useful step for a writer to take?
* Why do the authors say that revision is an important part of the writing process?
* What did this interview teach you about writing? Name three key takeaways.
Writing Prompt
Describe an incident that happened at school that got you into a little bit of trouble. What lesson did you learn from this experience?
from simple characters to three-dimensional beings. I also love how the plot sharpens and I can expand on my theme using literary devices like metaphor and simile. It's during revision where the magic truly happens.
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Running head: DIGITAL MEMORIES
Digital Memories:
Interactive remembrance of September 11
Brittany Green-Miner
University of Utah
Abstract
The proliferation of the Internet in the last two decades has transformed how we communicate; consumers become creators and instant long-distance communication is common. The Internet changes how we as a culture memorialize tragic events, enabling individual recollection and allowing a more thorough collective memory of those events. This article will look at how new media have assisted in the cultivation of our story of the attacks of September 11, 2001. It will focus on the National 9/11 Memorial and Museum in New York City, particularly the interactive sections of the memorial's website at 911memorial.org, and how individual memories and digital artifacts help shape our understanding of the attacks.
September 11, 2001
The attacks
Tuesday, September 11, 2001, dawned temperate and nearly cloudless in the eastern United States. Millions of men and women readied themselves for work. Some made their way to the Twin Towers, the signature structures of the World Trade Center complex in New York City. Others went to Arlington, Virginia, to the Pentagon. Across the Potomac River, the United States Congress was back in session. At the other end of Pennsylvania Avenue, people began to line up for a White House tour. In Sarasota, Florida, President George W. Bush went for an early morning run.
For those heading to an airport, weather conditions could not have been better for a safe and pleasant journey. (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks, 2004, p. 1; hereafter NCTA)
On the morning of September 11, 2001, nineteen men later determined to be members of the extremist Islamic organization al Qaeda boarded four transcontinental flights and took control of the planes with the intention of crashing them into wellknown American buildings.
They were planning to hijack these planes and turn them into large guided missiles, loaded with up to 11,400 gallons of jet fuel. By 8:00 a.m. on the morning of Tuesday, September 11, 2001, they had defeated all the security layers that America's civil aviation security system then had in place to prevent a hijacking. (NCTA, 2004, p. 4)
Two of those planes crashed into the Twin Towers at the World Trade Center in New York City, a pair of office buildings that stood more than a quarter-mile tall and served as the working place for more than 50,000 people and a tourist site for tens of thousands more (Blais, Rasic & Bloomberg, 2011, 1).
American Airlines Flight 11 hit 1 World Trade Center (or the North Tower) at 8:46 a.m., beginning what the National Commission on Terrorists Attacks called, "the largest rescue operation in the city's history." (p. 293) By the time United Airlines Flight 175 hit 2 World Trade Center (or the South Tower) 17 minutes later, more than one thousand first responders had come to help evacuate the pair of 110-story buildings
(NCTA, 2004, p. 293). Thousands were able to evacuate, but miscommunication among emergency crews and a system unprepared for an event of that nature – no one anticipated a total collapse of both towers (NCTA, 2004, section 9.2).
Communications as well as command and control became increasingly critical and increasingly difficult. First responders assisted thousands of civilians in evacuating the towers, even as incident commanders from responding agencies lacked knowledge of what other agencies and, in some cases, their own responders were doing. (NCTA, 2004, p. 305)
Then, at 9:59 a.m., the South Tower collapsed, immediately killing everyone inside. Evacuation of the North Tower continued until it too collapsed at 10:28 a.m. Nearly everyone was killed; twelve firefighters, one Port Authority police officer and three civilians in stairwell B survived the collapse.
On September 11, the nation suffered the largest loss of life – 2,973 – on its soil as a result of hostile attack in history. The FDNY suffered 343 fatalities – the largest loss of life of any emergency response agency in history. The PAPD suffered 37 fatalities – the largest loss of life of any police force in history. The NYPD suffered 23 fatalities – the second largest loss of life of any police force in history, exceeded only by the number of PAPD officers lost the same day. (NCTA, 2004, p. 311)
A third hijacked flight, American Airlines Flight 77, crashed into the west wall of the Pentagon in Washington, DC, at 9:37 a.m., killing all 64 people aboard the airplane and 125 people inside the Pentagon. The building suffered a partial collapse, but the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks says the response to the attack was mainly a success (p. 314).
When the fourth plane, United Airlines Flight 93, took off, its passengers and crew were unaware of the attacks in New York City and Washington, DC. The four hijackers took control at 9:28 a.m., more than 45 minutes after takeoff.
Shortly thereafter, the passengers and flight crew began a series of calls from GTE airphones and cellular phones. These calls between family, friends and colleagues took place until the end of the flight and provided those on the ground with firsthand accounts. They enabled the passengers to gain critical information, including the news that two aircraft had slammed into the World Trade Center. (NCTA, 2004, p. 12)
With that information, the surviving crew and passengers aboard the plane decided to take action, staging a revolt against the hijackers. As the passengers fought to get to the cockpit, the plane's hijacked captain, Ziad Jarrah, began to roll the plane to the left and right in an attempt to knock the passengers off balance. Five minutes later, "the hijackers remained at the controls but must have judged that the passengers were only seconds from overcoming them," (NCTA, 2004, p. 14), and Jarrah turned the plane towards the ground, crashing it into an empty field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, killing the seven crew members, 33 passengers and four hijackers. "Jarrah's objective was to crash his airliner into symbols of the American Republic, the Capitol or the White House. He was defeated by the alerted, unarmed passengers of United 93" (NCTA, 2004, p. 14).
Rescue and recovery
Rescue efforts at the site of the Twin Towers started within hours of the collapse as an estimated 5,000 people searched through the rubble, often by hand, for any survivors. Eighteen people were pulled alive from the wreckage, fourteen in one stairwell; the last survivor was found at 12:30 p.m. on September 12 (Blais, Rasic & Bloomberg, 2011, ch. 3).
By mid-October, rescue had formally shifted to recovery, as crews worked to find remains of the dead and any other personal affects as they removed the wreckage of the buildings.
The "Last Column," a 36-foot-tall piece of steel was a core column of the South Tower that had been adorned with tributes from first responders and recovery workers, was removed from the site on May 30, 2002, to mark the official end of recovery. Nearly 22,000 human remains were located among the estimated 3.6 billion pounds of debris removed from the site (Blais, Rasic & Bloomberg, 2011, ch. 3).
Online memorials
As explained by Zelizer and Halbwachs, our memories are shaped, in part, by connection with others. Individual memories come together to create a more complete collective memory. "Yet another basic premise in our understanding of collective memory concerns its partiality. No single memory contains all that we know, or could know, about any given event, personality or issue. Rather, memories are often pieced together as a mosaic" (Zelizer 1995, p. 221).
The Internet has given a voice to more people, allowing them to communicate – through the use of blogs, message boards and, more recently, social media – and share their stories and perspectives to "piece together" a more comprehensive collective memory. Online communication allows individuals to connect with a more diverse community, allowing perspectives from across great distances and from different backgrounds and social groups, helping to create a broader understanding of an event.
Memorializing September 11 online
Unlike so many other historical events that are reconstructed from diaries, letters, or the retrospective testimony of eyewitnesses, the story of September 11—occurring as it did on the cusp of the twenty-first century—can be told using the myriad real-time digital documentation of cell phone communications, emails, voice mail recordings, and cockpit recordings. Each one of these borndigital media has the potential to place the visitor inside the story in a most immediate fashion. (Greenwald, 2010, p. 120)
The September 11 attacks were the first true test of the Internet, and traffic to news sites saw a huge spike as "the Internet became a channel for anguished and prayerful gatherings, for heartfelt communication through email, and for vital information" (Fox, Rainie, & Madden, 2002, p. 4).
According to a 2002 study conducted by the Pew Research Center's Internet & American Life Project, "for those whose only contact with the attacks came through a television set, the Internet provided a way to connect emotionally with a virtual community whose ties were not geographic, but bounded by common experience" (p. 7).
Those both directly impacted by the destruction in New York City and Washington, DC, and those connected only via the Internet or television were able to collect and distribute information. They were able to share their individual perspectives and memories.
Instead of only official accounts disseminated by mainstream media and the government, all kinds of stories can now become part of an evolving patchwork of public memory. Formerly limited in time and space, ephemeral gestures can be preserved in still and moving images, ready to be viewed and replayed on demand.
Previously banished to dark storage rooms, mementos left at memorial sites can be displayed for all to see. (Haskins, 2007, p. 405)
Some websites have becoming collecting ground for those memories and experiences, creating a more permanent archive of our collective experience on September 11. This collection allows us to look at the shifting memories of September 11 as time passes and its place in our nation's history becomes more apparent.
WhereWereYou.org
Wouldn't it have been wonderful to have known what everyday people felt when Pearl Harbor was bombed or what the nation was thinking when the word Vietnam was first introduced into our nation's psyche or when Kennedy was assassinated, and how those views changed as the events afterwards unfolded? It would be a great historical resource. The media records everything, true, but those records get lost and aren't compiled like these fresh ongoing thoughts from people of all backgrounds. ("Where were you," 2001)
WhereWereYou.org, started by three American teenagers on September 15, 2001, allowed visitors from around the world to share their memories of September 11. It collected more than 2,500 posts before closing to new entries one year later. Some entries were limited to recollections of the attacks from both those in New York City and those around the world (Jarvis, 2011). From Viktorya B, 24, New York: "Then it happened, the second plane hit. We all grew silent. We all knew it was not an accident," to Joe Hanley, 40, New Jersey:
I was stuck in a group of several hundred people one block from the Trade Center when building 2 collapsed. We tried running till the choking wall of debris overwhelmed us. I've experienced mortal fear. Near misses and car accidents narrowly avoided. Moments of panic. But not like this. In those minutes I was sure I was going to die. Absolutely sure. (Jarvis, 2011)
Others expressed disbelief at the attacks and hatred towards the attackers. Asks Kristin, 19, Michigan: "Why do people hate us so much and why would you go to this extent to express that hate?" (Jarvis, 2011). Some called for a return to normalcy, while others demanded retaliation.
As Jarvis describes, the inclusion of hundreds of individual narratives and perspectives offers a counter to attempts to create an official story for September 11 and its response. Visitors can better understand, "the World's hearts and thoughts" ("Where Were You," 2001).
The September 11 Digital Archive
The September 11 Digital Archive, organized by George Mason University's Center for History and New Media and the City University of New York's American Social History Project, and supported by the Library of Congress, is an attempt to collect a comprehensive history of the attacks on September 11, not only from official news sources, but from those who experienced the attack (Haskins, 2007). The Archive, its creators say, is designed to:
Act as a mediator of a historical event as it was witnessed by regular people, to provide a well-sorted repository of materials for future historians, and to furnish a space where the disparate experiences and reactions could be relived and reflected on. (Haskins, 2007, p. 409-10)
The Archive's curators only collect and sort the information, providing an unedited perspective of attitudes about the event. Even inaccurate or not factual accounts, they say, "contribute in some way to the historical record...[and] could reveal certain personal and emotional aspects of the event" (as quoted in Haskins, 2007, p. 415).
Through this exhaustive attempt to be impartial collectors of history, Haskins says the Archive "offers a panoramic view of the fractious cacophony of public expression that cannot be accommodated by a permanent, professionally designed memorial" (p. 414). This collection, then, will allow future historians to get a more complete understanding of the memories of the event rather than just an official narrative provided in traditional media sources.
The National September 11 Memorial and Museum Goal of the Memorial
Demonstrating the consequences of terrorism on individual lives and its impact on communities at the local, national, and international levels, the Museum
attests to the triumph of human dignity over human depravity and affirms an unwavering commitment to the fundamental value of human life. (National September 11 Memorial & Museum, 2013, "The Mission"; hereafter 911Memorial)
The National September 11 Memorial and Museum (hereafter Memorial Museum), according to its mission statement, is intended to "bear solemn witness" to the attacks on September 11 and in February 1993. It is designed to honor the victims of the attacks and those who risked their lives to help those victims (911Memorial, 2013, "The Mission").
The Challenge
The Memorial Museum's curators were faced with the challenge of how to portray an event that is "unsettled and still evolving" (Haskins, 2007, p. 411) with varied, often disparate, remembrances. Further complicating matters, the Memorial Museum is located at the site of tragedy that serves as a graveyard for nearly 3,000 citizens.
Alice M. Greenwald, director of the museum, said:
At its core, the Memorial Museum must carefully balance the act of commemoration— which has its own requirements of sensibility and reverence— with the imperatives of education, historical documentation, and fidelity to the emotionally. (Greenwald, 2010, p. 117)
This challenge is one Greenwald had faced before. She worked for nearly two decades at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, another site where curators had to tell a traumatic event and transform it into one of conscience (Greenwald, 2010). A goal of the Holocaust Memorial Museum, as described by Hasian (2004) could be utilized at the September 11 Memorial:
But they do provide us with vivid reminders of the importance of memory-work in the retrieval of the relics and narratives of our traumatic pasts. If these imperfect visual representations serve as catalysts for continued debates about the Holocaust or other genocidal events, then these pilgrimages will have helped facilitate, rather than close off, the preservation of tragic memories. A monument can, indeed, only be a monument, and we need to remember that the preservation of Holocaust remembrances involves active human intervention and rhetorical negotiations. (Hasian, 2004, p. 88)
To achieve this, museum staff worked with not only historians and museum theorists, but trauma psychologists and representatives of groups that claim ownership of some part of the history of September 11. "Months were spent crafting…the fundamental intention of the museum, describing not the ''what'' but the ''so what'' of this project" (Greenwald, 2010, p. 121).
The Memorial
The Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (hereafter LMDC) was formed in November 2001 by then-Governor George Pataki and then-Mayor Rudy Giuliani to help rebuild and revitalize the World Trade Center site and the surrounding area (LMDC, 2007). After six preliminary plans were rejected by the public, a worldwide design competition was held to decide on a master plan for the site. 406 designs were narrowed down to two finalists and, after thousands of comments, "Memory Foundations" by Studio Daniel Libeskind was selected as the winner (Blais, Rasic & Bloomberg, 2011). The master plan called for a memorial and museum, the design of which would be decided by another international design competition.
The competition for the National September 11 Memorial was held in 2003. More than 5,200 designs from 63 nations were received, and eight finalists were selected. From those finalists, "Reflecting Absence," by Michael Arad and Peter Walker, was selected.
Arad's design places a pair of pools in the footprints of the North and South Towers, with the largest manmade waterfalls in North America. The names of every person who died in the attacks on September 11, 2001 – at the World Trade Center, the Pentagon and in Pennsylvania – as well as the victims of the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center are inscribed into bronze panels edging the pools (911Memorial, 2013, "About the Memorial").
Surrounding the pools on bronze parapets are the names. The enormity of this space and the multitude of names underscore the vast scope of the destruction. Standing there at the water's edge, looking at a pool of water that is flowing away into an abyss, a visitor to the site can sense that what is beyond this parapet edge is inaccessible. (911 Memorial, 2013, from the design statement of Arad and Walker)
The twin pools, each nearly an acre in size and 30 feet deep (911Memorial, 2013, "About the memorial), are a physical reminder of the monumental loss to the both the local and international community. The names of the nearly 3,000 people who died on September 11 and in 1993 humanize that loss, showing both the human and institutional victims of the attacks.
The names
Developers were faced with the task of how to list the names of the 2,977 people who died in the attacks at the World Trade Center, at the Pentagon and in Shanksville, Pennsylvania, on September 11, 2001, and the six people who died in the February 1993 World Trade Center bombing. Their initial plan was for a random arrangement, but Arad advocated for an arrangement of "meaningful adjacencies," or an arrangement by victims' relationships, which "allows the names of family, friends, and colleagues to be together, as they lived and died" (911Memorial, 2013, "Memorial Guide").
It was important to not put the names in an arrangement that looked like the pages of a ledger. To the naked eye, it looks random. But to those who know, and for those who bother to learn, it is anything but. (Dunlap, 2011)
Using software, designers were able to group employees within a company, crew members on the same flight or friends or family. The year-long process also took into account around 1,200 requests from victims' family and friends. Some victims grouped together were family or longtime friends while others met for the first time on September 11 and spent their last hours together (Dunlap, 2011).
For the most part, there is no listing of affiliations on the Memorial itself; it is simply a list of nearly 3,000 names engraved on the 76 panels surrounding each pool (Dunlap, 2011). There is a designation for those who died in the North Tower, the South Tower, at the Pentagon, in each of the four hijacked flights, in February 1993 and those who were considered first responders (911Memorial, 2013, "Memorial Guide").
The use of just a seemingly endless list of names that appears random but is, in fact, anything but, gives visitors a sense of both the collective and individual loss. It provides a sense of both chaos and order, much like that which surrounded the attacks on September 11.
One can compare the inscription of names on the September 11 Memorial to the names of those lost in Vietnam inscribed on the National Vietnam War Memorial in Washington, DC. Foss (1986) and Sturken (1997) suggest that the listing of each name and visitors' ability to touch those names encourages a more personal, concrete reaction than in traditional memorials. "Each name suggests individual features, actions, personalities, families, and friends that defy their placement in a general, ideal class" (Foss 1986, p. 332). The memorials speak to the loss New York City and the world
experienced and allows each visitor to contemplate and create his own memory of the attack.
The Museum
These many challenges have afforded an opportunity to transform a historical site of atrocity into a site of conscience. It is this goal that has most directly shaped the museum planning process…the national 9/11 museum will be devoted to the telling of a complex, challenging, and fundamentally disturbing human narrative. (Greenwald, 2010, p. 117)
In a 2010 article published in Curator: The Museum Journal, Alice M. Greenwald, director of the museum, emphasizes the importance of individual memories and allowing visitors to immerse themselves in the events of September 11. This is achieved through interactive multimedia displays, narratives of survivors of the attacks and a collection of artifacts from the collapse and its victims (Greenwald, 2010).
The museum itself will be housed underground at the foundation of the World Trade Center site. "Visitors will reach the museum by progressing along a ramped descent that provides periodic glimpses into the cavernous space below." (Greenwald, 2010, p. 122)
The museum will be divided into three exhibitions: the Historical Exhibition, which will tell the story of the events on September 11, the events that led up to the attacks and how our world has changed since the attacks; the Memorial Exhibition, which will tell the stories of the nearly 3,000 people who died that day; and the Foundation Hall, which houses the "slurry wall," a retaining wall from the WTC that survived the collapse, and the "Last Column."
Visitors' first encounter in the museum is a "chamber of memory" where a multimedia program creates a "soundscape of recollections" of the attack.
Visitors will hear personal stories told by real people from across the nation, and from all over the world—some finishing each other's sentences, some speaking in their native languages. Listening as they go along, visitors will recall their own experiences on that fateful day, taking note that while the attacks of September 11 happened on American soil, their effect was experienced globally. (Greenwald, 2010, p. 119)
Later in the museum, visitors will have a chance to record and share their memories, some of which will be added to the dynamic memorial exhibit.
Artifacts in the museum vary from the monumental – the Vesey Street stairs, the "Last Column" and a fire truck from Engine Company 21 – to the tiny – ID cards and dollar bills – that represent the heroism and loss at the World Trade Center site. (Greenwald & Chanin, 2013)
Hein, as quoted in Hasian (2004), explains:
"Synthesizing experience," noted Hein in 2000, has "become a major museum project, contributing to a metamorphosed conception of the museums" (p. 84). More traditional ideas about allowing memorials and museums to merely "warehouse" or speak for themselves have now been augmented with commemorative sites that are concerned with evocations that "intentionally arouse feeling and therewith a new dimension of authenticity" (p. 84). (Hasian, 2004, p. 70)
The smaller, seemingly inconsequential, artifacts like ID cards and shoes, combined with survivors' stories allow visitors to connect with the victims and personalize the events, evoking more powerful memories and reaction to the museum's artifacts.
While the Memorial offers a simple yet powerful tribute to those lost in the attacks, the museum offers a more complex perspective, speaking not only about loss but also about heroism and survival. Some artifacts celebrate first responders who lost their lives to save others while others show the commemorative response of survivors in New York City and throughout the world.
Controversy
It was always clear that there were too many people and organizations with conflicting interests involved in the World Trade Center site for anything there to go smoothly (Loos, 2011).
The design and construction of both the Memorial and the Museum were marred by controversy. As Greenwald (2010) describes, the designers faced a challenge of how to memorialize and commemorate "unimaginable collective loss" as "key constituencies may still be traumatized by grief, both personal and communal" (p. 117).
Planning for a memorial plaza begin less than a year after the September 11 attacks and a memorial design was selected in 2004. Construction didn't begin until September 2008 as debates over money, ownership and design delayed production. The Memorial was dedicated on September 11, 2011, a decade after the attack. The Museum was scheduled to open in 2011, but that date has been pushed back multiple times. It is currently scheduled to open in spring 2014 (Dunlap, 2008).
Exhibits
Curators faced the task of deciding what should be remembered through artifacts in the Memorial Museum, a topic that many of the relatives of victims and residents of New York City felt passionately – and often differently – about.
Should it be limited to the events that happened on September 11, 2001, and in February 1993 or should it speak to a greater lesson?
Earlier plans for an "International Freedom Center" were to connect the victims of September 11 to the evolution of freedom, something victims' families worried would turn the tragedy into "political or artistic commentary and angry debate" (Ramirez, 2005).
Debra Burlingame, sister of one of the pilots who crashed into the World Trade Center on September 11, said that placing such a museum "over the ashes of Ground Zero is like creating a Museum of Tolerance over the sunken graves of the USS Arizona" (Donofrio, 2010, p. 151).
Listening to those concerns, curators eventually decided that the Museum should focus on the victims and survivors of the attacks, but should not be limited to the events of that day. It will include the rise of al Qaeda in the Middle East and American foreign policy, allowing visitors to have an understanding of what led up to the attack.
The final exhibition will show how our understanding of September 11 has evolved, "changing as the world changes and deepening as we come to understand more fully the reality that we live in a world forever changed by 9/ 11" (Greenwald, 2010, p. 124)"
How should the hijackers be included and remembered in the museum?
Curators felt it necessary to include the story of the nineteen hijackers in the museum, and considered offering an in-depth history on their plot and activities leading up to the attacks. But the decision of how much information should be provided led to much debate. Some felt that leaving out that information would "whitewash" the tragedy while others worried that including information about the "murderers" could feel like blaming the victim or celebrating the perpetrators.
In the end, curators decided to move away from displaying the hijackers' motivations, only showing evidence that proved their guilt. They decided to focus instead on the rise of al Qaeda in the 1980s (Cohen 2012).
The decision to include images of the hijackers was also met with contention. A 2012 New York Times article said:
New York City's fire chief protested that such a display would ''honor'' the terrorists who destroyed the World Trade Center. A New York Post editorial called the idea ''appalling.'' Groups representing rescuers, survivors and victims' families asked how anyone could even think of showing the faces of the men who killed their relatives, colleagues and friends (Cohen, 2012).
Curators decided to shrink the images of the hijackers, "from 6 by 4 inches to 2 by 1-1/2 inches, the faces a little bigger than a thumbnail. And they will have evidence stickers from the F.B.I. attached" (Cohen, 2012).
Remains
Thousands of body fragments collected after the attacks remain unidentified and, for a decade, were stored near Memorial Park. The plan is to put those remains in a room that would share space with the Memorial Museum at Ground Zero. The area would be closed to all but the victims' families. "Visitors will just see an outer wall inscribed with a quotation from Virgil: 'No day shall erase you from the memory of time'" (Cohen, 2012).
Rosaleen Tallon, whose brother died on September 11, said in a 2012 New York Times article, "the insensitivity was mirrored in the museum's decision to stock its gift shop with $40 souvenir key chains engraved with the Virgil phrase. 'They're marketing the headstones of our loved ones on key chains,' she said. 'How disgusting is that?'" (Cohen, 2012).
Some families of victims also disagree with that placement of the remains below ground, particularly after the area was flooded from Hurricane Sandy in 2012.
Seventeen families filed a lawsuit against the city in hopes to reopen the decision on the placement of the remains.
But Greenwald told the New York Times that the decision to place the remains underground at Ground Zero "represented an equally earnest effort to fulfill a longstanding promise to other families who had sought, above all, to ensure that the remains stayed at bedrock" (Cohen, 2012).
Finances
The National September 11 Memorial & Museum at the World Trade Center Foundation estimates that the total building cost will be about $710 million, with an additional $60 million annually in operating costs. That number is higher than the initial $500 million estimate, but lower than the billion dollars estimated at one point in construction; the foundation and its designers were forced to simplify their plans to lower the price tag (Loos, 2011), prolonging the construction process.
That cost is higher than necessary, as construction was halted for nearly a year over a multi-million dispute between the foundation and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, which is responsible for the construction. The Port Authority claimed the foundation owed them $300 million for their part in the construction and the surrounding infrastructure. The foundation claimed they owe nothing. That dispute was finally resolved and construction resumed on September 11, 2012 (Bagli, 2012).
The Online Memorial
Portions of the exhibits and artifacts in the Memorial and Memorial Museum have been duplicated online at www.911Memorial.org. This allows people who have some connection to the events on September 11 but are unable to visit the physical memorial grounds to participate in the remembrances provided by the memorial.
The Memorial
While visitors to the online memorial cannot experience the sheer physical size of the Memorial, a 3D simulation has been developed with Google Maps to provide a sense of the environment. Visitors can take a virtual "walk" around the two pools and read the names engraved on the panels.
A webcam shows the current site of the Memorial and Memorial Museum, and a panoramic camera shows a 3D view of the Memorial in connection with other sites of interest in New York City, like the Empire State Building, Statue of Liberty and other buildings at the World Trade Center.
An interactive Memorial Guide allows online visitors to search for individual names or browse by panel. Each victim has a photo, age and locations where they were born and lived when killed, and any requested affiliations with other victims.
The Memorial Museum
Since the Memorial Museum is currently under construction, it's unclear what the permanent online portion will look like.
Currently, the website offers a history of the World Trade Center, the planning and construction of the Memorial and Memorial Museum and previews of some of the artifacts that will appear in the Memorial Museum, as well as stories behind those artifacts.
The collections and exhibitions have been discussed previously.
Oral Histories
The online memorial has a collection of more than 500 hours of oral histories from family members of victims, survivors, first responders, recovery workers, residents and other contributors.
Oral histories include that of David Beamer, whose son Todd was heard rallying other passengers on United Airlines Flight 93. "Thanks to the bravery of Todd and the rest of the passengers and crew, Flight 93 never reached its intended target, saving countless lives" (911Memorial, 2013).
Kathleen Santora, sister of New York City firefighter Christopher Santora, tells the story of her brother's death on September 11 and how she enlisted in the Army in his honor, serving in Iraq and Afghanistan. She tells the story of speaking to her battalion and brigade during a ceremony in Iraq on the second anniversary of September 11.
New York City Firefighter Ed Walsh tells the story of recovery after the collapse and describes personal objects found while searching for missing coworkers in the rubble.
Dianne DeFontes, who worked as a receptionist at a law firm on the 89 th floor of the North Tower, tells the story of her survival, including calling loved ones after American Airlines Flight 11 crashed into the building, and preparing to evacuate. DeFontes tells the story of how Frank DeMartini and Pablo Ortiz, employees of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey, helped her and coworkers evacuate to a stairwell, and describes the long descent to safety. DeMartini and Ortiz died when the tower collapsed.
Some of the people who offered oral histories have since died. One of those, Richard Sheirer, led the coordinated rescue and recovery efforts in the aftermath of the attack. He died in January 2012, but "part of his remarkable legacy will live on through the 9/11 Memorial Museum's permanent collection. In addition to his oral history, he also donated to the collection the OEM helmet he wore on 9/11" (911Memorial, 2013, "Oral Histories").
The online Memorial Museum also includes an Artists Registry, a database and gallery of artistic work created in response to the attacks on September 11. "The database, which is not formally curated, is intended to serve as a resource for the artistic community, scholars, journalists and others. The creative works in this online collection range from seasoned professionals to novice" (911Memorial, 2013, "Artists Registry").
Interactivity
Portions of the online Memorial Museum allow the visitor to interact with artifacts and timelines of the events on September 11.
A pair of interactive timelines show both the events on September 11, 2001, and the rescue and recovery efforts. The timelines include photos, videos and audio recordings (both oral histories and items from the events, like phone calls and dispatches from the planes).
An infographic, called "From Plaza to Bedroock," shows an interactive history of the Memorial, including information about visitors, costs and artifacts set to be on display at the Memorial Museum.
A replica of the Statue of Liberty that stood outside a Manhattan firehouse and collected spontaneous messages of tribute and became "covered from torch to toe with uniform patches, miniature American flags, money, mass cards, rosary beads, condolence notes, souvenir postcards, angel figurines and other mementos from
mourners and passersby"(911Memorial, 2013, "Lady Liberty"). That replica was donated to the permanent collection at the Memorial Museum, and an interactive 3D Lady Liberty can be explored, with clickable stories about certain pieces of memorabilia attached to the statue.
The online Memorial Museum has a section like that in the WhereWereYou.org or the National September 11 Archive, where individuals can posts stories, photos or videos connected to the attacks. "Make History" has collected more than 1,000 photos and several hundred stories from around the world.
Discussion
The Internet has helped shape how we remember the attacks on September 11, and allows virtual connections for those who cannot be physically present at the site of the Memorial and Memorial Museum in New York City yet whose lives were transformed by the attacks.
This connection is aided by the online National September 11 Memorial and Museum at 911Memorial.org. Visitors can virtually experience artifacts and remembrances by those who survived the attack through interactive online exhibitions. They can listen to the same oral histories that will be heard at the Memorial Museum and read the histories of artifacts found and donated to the exhibits.
An interactive Memorial lists the names and shows photos of the nearly 3,000 people who died on September 11 and in the February 1993 bombing at the World Trade Center, allowing a connection that, while not tangible, still allows a deeper understanding of the substantial loss we experienced in 2001.
Limitations
Time and finances prevented me from visiting the physical Memorial and Memorial Museum in New York City, so my understanding of the Memorial is limited to information found online and through the interactive Memorial and Memorial Museum. This, however, was both a blessing and a curse, since my focus was on online memorializing and lessons learned in the online Memorial; I spoke only to the things I could personally experience.
Further, the Memorial Museum has not yet opened so it is hard to analyze both the physical and online artifacts without knowing exactly what they will be. Books and websites show some of the artifacts that will be on display and give renderings of the Memorial Museum, allowing some understanding of what will be shown, but a full analysis of how the online Memorial Museum aids remembering September 11 is not yet possible.
Bibliography
Bagli, C. V. (2012, September 11). Bloomberg and cuomo announce deal to restart construction of museum at ground zero. New York Times, p. A17.
Blais, A., Rasic, L., & Bloomberg, M. (2011). A place of remembrance: Official book of the National September 11 Memorial. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society.
Cohen, P. (2012, June 3). At 9/11 museum, talking through an identity crisis. New York Times, p. A1.
Donofrio, T. A. (2010). Ground Zero and place-making authority: The conservative metaphors in 9/11 families' "Take Back the Memorial" rhetoric. Western Journal of Communication, 74(2), 150-169. doi: 10.1080/10570311003614492
Dunlap, D. W. (2008, September 2). At last, steel will rise for memorial at 9/11 site. New York Times, p. B4.
Dunlap, D. W. (2011, May 5). Constructing a story, with 2,982 names. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/05/nyregion/on-911-memorialconstructing-a-story-name-by-name.html
Foss, S. K. (1986). Ambiguity as persuasion: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial. Communication Quarterly, 34(3), 326-340.
Fox, S., Rainie, L., & Madden, M. (2002). One year later: September 11 and the internet. Washington, DC: Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved from http://pewinternet.org/Reports/2002/One-year-later-September-11-and-theInternet.aspx
Greenwald, A. M. (2010). "Passion on all sides": Lessons for planning the National September 11 Memorial Museum. Curator: The Museum Journal, 53(1), 117-125. doi: 10.1111/j.2151-6952.2009.00012.x
Greenwald, A. M., & Chanin, C. (2013). The stories they tell: Artifacts from the National September 11 Memorial Museum. New York, NY.: Skira Rizzoli.
Hasian, M. (2004). Remembering and forgetting the "Final Solution": A rhetorical pilgrimage through the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 21(1), 64–92. doi: 10.1080/0739318042000184352
Haskins, E. (2007). Between Archive and Participation: Public Memory in a Digital Age. Rhetoric Society Quarterly,37(4), 401-22.
Jarvis, L. (2011). 9/11 digitally remastered? Internet archives, vernacular memories and wherewereyou.org. Journal of American Studies , 45 (4), 793–814. doi: 10.1017/S002187581100096X
Loos, T. (2011, September 1). Architect and 9/11 memorial both evolved over the years. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/04/arts/design/how-the-911-memorial-changed-itsarchitect-michael-arad.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
Lower Manhattan Development Corporation. (2007). About US - Lower Manhattan Development Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.renewnyc.com/
National Commission on Terrorist Attacks. (2004). The 9/11 commission report: Final report of the National Commission on terrorist attacks upon the United States. W. W. Norton & Company. Retrieved from http://www.911commission.gov/report/911Report.pdf
National September 11 Memorial & Museum. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.911memorial.org/
Ramirez, A. (2005, September 11). At ground zero rally, anger over a planned museum. New York Times . Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/11/nyregion/11families.html
Sturken, M. (1997). The wall and the screen memory. In Tangled Memories: The Vietnam War, the AIDS Epidemic, and the Politics of Remembering (pp. 44-84). Berkeley: University of California Press.
Where were you: September 11th, 2001. (2001, September 15). Retrieved from http://www.wherewereyou.org/
Zelizer, B. (1995). Reading the past against the grain: The shape of memory studies. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 12(2), 214-39. doi: 10.1080/15295039509366932
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Better Ways to Help Bn Overactive Child Category : December 1997 Published by Anonymous on Dec. 01, 1997
HEALING
Better Ways to Help Bn Overactive Child Nature can solve "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder," without drugs' side effects
Devananda Tandavan M. D.
When children are in adults' presence or environment, many of them are fidgety, cannot sit still, whine and are an overall distraction to the adults. For some this may be perfectly normal, because what is important in the adult world is usually not important in the child's world. For many this may merely be a lack of education, discipline and proper guidance from the parents. For others, however, it may be a symptom of a condition known as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. It is a neurological condition that usually sets in about age 6-7 (often as early as age 3) and may go into the teens, though rarely on into adulthood.
Those with ADHD have a very short attention span, act impulsively, appear hyperactive and sometimes out of control of their physical movements and emotions. They do not take directions well and sometimes appear to not have heard the parents at all, which may even suggest deafness.
page 1 / 3
This is a serious condition needing professional help. The help usually received from an allopathic doctor is a prescription for stimulant agents such as Ritalin, Dexedrone or Cylert. These are potent, with side effects such as appetite loss, stomach aches, nervousness and insomnia. There may also be some temporary growth retardation. Additionally, a class of drugs called beta-blockers are used for those patients who do not respond to stimulants.
I recommend a different approach. The child or young adult should see a competent homeopath who can give a remedy specific to the person with ADHD. An ayurvedic doctor should assure whether the patient's diet and lifestyle is balanced and appropriate. Parents should not "bribe" their children with sweets, especially white sugar--although not causative in this condition, it often aggravates ADHD, much like pouring gasoline onto a fire. With so much energy released, the child is unable to cope and "goes off the deep end." Misbehavior is not his fault, and he should not be punished for it, as some parents do. There may be a need for counseling of both parents and children to bring a true understanding of the multiple sources of ADHD.
I recommend a powerful antioxidant as a dietary supplement, along with Beta Carotene, Zinc Gluconate, Vitamin E, EsterC, selenium and Ginkgo Biloba. That antioxidant is pycnogenol--a patented, registered, maritime pine bark extract supplied in two forms: Pycnogenol (plain pine bark substance) and Pycnogenol Plus (pycnogenol supplemented with the above vitamins.)
page 2 / 3
The dosage is not difficult, but must be followed faithfully with both Pyc and Pyc+ twice daily, preferably with meals, in an amount according to the patient's weight. There may be no relief of symptoms for a period of 10-39 days or until saturation has been achieved. After this, a maintenance dosage is used and slowly decreased as the symptoms come under control. The dose is from 2-8 Pyc+ pills and 1-8 regular pills twice a day for ten days or until saturation.
Maintain saturation for two months and then, perhaps after symptoms have subsided, slowly withdraw the pycnogenol. If symptoms are still present, continue treating for another couple of months. This eliminator of "free radicals" will gradually bring about more responsive and civilized behavior of the ADHD patient.
Dr. Tandavan, 77, retired nuclear physician and hospital staff president, lives in Chicago, where he specializes in alternative healing arts. Visit his home page at the Hinduism Today Website.
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Yuba City High School
School Accountability Report Card Reported Using Data from the 2018-19 School Year
Published During 2019-20
By February 1 of each year, every school in California is required by state law to publish a School Accountability Report Card (SARC). The SARC contains information about the condition and performance of each California public school. Under the Local Control Funding Formula (LCFF) all local educational agencies (LEAs) are required to prepare a Local Control and Accountability Plan (LCAP), which describes how they intend to meet annual school-specific goals for all pupils, with specific activities to address state and local priorities. Additionally, data reported in an LCAP is to be consistent with data reported in the SARC.
* For more information about SARC requirements, see the California Department of Education (CDE) SARC web page at https://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/ac/sa/.
* For more information about the LCFF or LCAP, see the CDE LCFF web page at https://www.cde.ca.gov/fg/aa/lc/.
* For additional information about the school, parents/guardians and community members should contact the school principal or the district office.
DataQuest
DataQuest is an online data tool located on the CDE DataQuest web page at https://dq.cde.ca.gov/dataquest/ that contains additional information about this school and comparisons of the school to the district and the county. Specifically, DataQuest is a dynamic system that provides reports for accountability (e.g., test data, enrollment, high school graduates, dropouts, course enrollments, staffing, and data regarding English learners).
Internet Access
Internet access is available at public libraries and other locations that are publicly accessible (e.g., the California State Library). Access to the Internet at libraries and public locations is generally provided on a first-come, first-served basis. Other use restrictions may include the hours of operation, the length of time that a workstation may be used (depending on availability), the types of software programs available on a workstation, and the ability to print documents.
About This School
School Contact Information (School Year 2019-20)
| Entity | Contact Information |
|---|---|
| School Name | |
| Street | |
| City, State, Zip | |
| Phone Number | |
| Principal | |
| Email Address | |
| Website | |
| County-District-School (CDS) Code | |
| Entity | Contact Information |
|---|---|
| District Name | |
| Phone Number | |
| Superintendent | |
| Email Address | |
| Website | |
School Description and Mission Statement (School Year 2019-20)
Yuba City High School is one of two comprehensive high schools in the Yuba City Unified School District. It was founded in 1923 and for 83 years was the only 9-12 comprehensive high school in the district. In the late 1990's and early 2000's, the school's student enrollment was the largest of any high school north of Sacramento. In 2004, the school enrollment reached nearly 3,000 students. Today, Yuba City High School has over 1800 students, and continues to maintain all of the academic, social, athletic, and college and career readiness programs of a large comprehensive high school.
Yuba City High School is proud of its course offerings, extensive elective, and robust Career and Technical Education (CTE) career pathways which include: a) Agriculture & Natural Resources, b) Arts, Media & Entertainment, Education, c) Child Development and Family Services, d) Engineering & Architecture, e) Fashion & Interior Design, f) Health Science & Technology, g) Hospitality, Tourism & Recreation, h) Information & Communication Technologies, I) Manufacturing & Product Development, j) Public Services, and k) Transportation. As a result of offering an extensive selection of classes, Yuba City High School is a host school to over 150 co-enrolled students who are not included in the total enrollment. Coenrolled students come to us from Marysville High School, Sutter High School, River Valley High School, Albert Powell Continuation High School, Yuba City Independence Academy, and the Sutter County Superintendent of School Special Education programs. Our co-enrolled students take academic and elective classes such as German, Physical Education, Music, Drama, Ceramics, Drawing, Beginning Art, as well as classes in the CTE career pathways.
Yuba City High School offers numerous opportunities for students to be involved in a variety of on-campus clubs and organizations, one of which is our FFA program which competes all year in a multitude of agriculture competitions. Students also have the opportunity to be involved in interscholastic athletics and compete on one or more of the 38 CIF athletic teams in various sports in the Tri-County Conference.
After graduation, our students represent YCHS at many of the major universities and colleges throughout California and the nation. Our community is particularly proud of the many achievements of our students in the classroom and on the athletic field.
Mission Statement:
Yuba City High School educates and supports students so that graduates will be literate, meet academic standards, establish goals for their future, and demonstrate involvement in school and/or community.
Vision Statement:
The Yuba City High School community will continually enhance a rigorous, comprehensive, and supportive environment. YCHS students will demonstrate the knowledge and skills needed to achieve their academic, personal, and career goals as responsible, contributing citizens.
Expected Schoolwide Learning Results:
* Meet or Exceed Academic Standards
* Achieve competency in any course taken
* Effectively access and use the technology provided and required for each course
* Achieve proficient or better, or meet and/or exceed annual growth targets for language acquisition as applicable, on state assessments including the California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress (CAASPP), the California Science Test (CAST), and the English Language Proficiency Assessment for California (ELPAC)
Establish Goals:
* Develop a plan to achieve individual short and long term goals, utilizing available resources
* Demonstrate essential social and workplace skills
Participate in a school activity/and or community organization:
* Involvement in school sports, clubs, and community volunteerism
Student Enrollment by Grade Level (School Year 2018-19)
| Grade Level | Number of Students |
|---|---|
| Grade 9 | |
| Grade 10 | |
| Grade 11 | |
| Grade 12 | |
| Total Enrollment | |
Student Enrollment by Group (School Year 2018-19)
| Student Group | Percent of Total Enrollment |
|---|---|
| Black or African American | |
| American Indian or Alaska Native | |
| Asian | |
| Filipino | |
| Hispanic or Latino | |
| Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander | |
| White | |
| Two or More Races | |
| Socioeconomically Disadvantaged | |
| English Learners | |
| Students with Disabilities | |
| Foster Youth | |
A. Conditions of Learning
State Priority: Basic
The SARC provides the following information relevant to the State priority: Basic (Priority 1):
* Degree to which teachers are appropriately assigned and fully credentialed in the subject area and for the pupils they are teaching;
* Pupils have access to standards-aligned instructional materials; and
* School facilities are maintained in good repair
Teacher Credentials
| Teachers | School | School | School | District |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| | 2017-18 | 2018-19 | 2019-20 | 2019-20 |
| With Full Credential | 94 | 93 | 95 | |
| Without Full Credential | 1 | 2 | 1 | |
| Teaching Outside Subject Area of Competence (with full credential) | 0 | 0 | 2 | |
Teacher Misassignments and Vacant Teacher Positions
Note: "Misassignments" refers to the number of positions filled by teachers who lack legal authorization to teach that grade level, subject area, student group, etc. *Total Teacher Misassignments includes the number of Misassignments of Teachers of English Learners.
| Indicator | 2017-18 | 2018-19 | 2019-20 |
|---|---|---|---|
| Misassignments of Teachers of English Learners | 0 | 1 | 1 |
| Total Teacher Misassignments* | 1 | 1 | 3 |
| Vacant Teacher Positions | 2 | 4 | 0 |
Quality, Currency, Availability of Textbooks and Instructional Materials (School Year 2019-20)
Year and month in which data were collected: 10/08/2019
| Subject | Textbooks and Other Instructional Materials/year of Adoption | From Most | Percent Students |
|---|---|---|---|
| | | Recent | Lacking Own |
| | | Adoption? | Assigned Copy |
| Reading/Language Arts | Themes in World Literature/McDougal 2002 Literature & Language Arts 3rd, 4th, & 5th Courses/Holt 2003 Springboard/College Board, Gr 9-11, 2017 READ 180, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017 English 3D, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2017 | Yes | |
| Subject | Textbooks and Other Instructional Materials/year of Adoption | From Most |
|---|---|---|
| | | Recent |
| | | Adoption? |
| Mathematics | Big Ideas Math Integrated Mathematics 1/Cengage Learning 2016 Big Ideas Math Integrated Mathematics 2/Cengage Learning 2016 Big Ideas Math Integrated Mathematics 3/Cengage Learning 2016 Precaluclus: Graphical, Numerical Algebraic/ Person Education 2015 Calculus of a Single Variable/ Cengage Learning 2014 ALEKS, McGraw-Hill Education, 2017 Stats Modeling the World {AP edition}/Pearson Education 2015 | Yes |
| Science | Science Spectrum/Holt 2000 Chemistry Visualizing Matter/Holt 2000 Modern Biology/Holt 2000 Conceptual Physics/Hewitt 1990 Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity/Thomson Learning 2004 AP Biology/Prentice Hall 2011 | Yes |
| Subject | Textbooks and Other Instructional Materials/year of Adoption | From Most |
|---|---|---|
| | | Recent |
| | | Adoption? |
| | Avancemos, McDougal Littel 2007 Temas, Vista Higher Learning 2014 Bien Dit, Holt McDougal 2013 Bon Voyage, Glencoe McGraw Hill 2005 Punjabi Made Easy, Nagra Publications 2008 Let Us Learn Gurmukhi, Singh Brothers 2005 Punjabi Reader, Sikh Social and Educational Society 1991 Mosaik, Vista Higher Learning 2014 Elementary Punjabi Book Workbook/University of British Columbia 2006 | Yes |
School Facility Conditions and Planned Improvements (Most Recent Year)
Yuba City High School is currently comprised of 89 traditional classrooms, a College and Career Center with 33 computers, three fully equipped computer labs with 32-student computer stations, and a 33-student station computer lab in the library. During the summer of 2018, a new greenhouse was built on site, new roofs were installed on three buildings, a new scoreboard was installed on the athletics field, and the entire exterior of the school was painted along with the interior corridors and lockers. Additional roofing, HVAC, and concrete work was completed during the summer of 2019 as well as a renovation of the CTE Culinary Arts kitchen. Upcoming projects will be additional roof replacements, concrete path work, security fencing, and classroom painting. More than 40 Chromebook mobile lab/carts are used to support the math curriculum and all content areas. YCHS is very proud of its 32-student station digital photography lab which also includes a photography studio, as well as, a black and white photography lab. To support students in acquiring 21st century skills, YCHS also has three digital classrooms which include: a 32-student station Video Game Design lab, a 24student station Yearbook lab, and a 30-student station Architectural Design lab. Additionally, YCHS has fully equipped CTE classrooms specifically designated for CTE programs such as automotive repair, auto body collision repair, welding, small engine repair, agricultural mechanics, culinary arts kitchen, and fashion design. The school has two comprehensive gymnasiums. One gym has an adjacent wrestling facility while the other gym has an adjacent gymnastics facility. YCHS has a multi-purpose room that serves as the student cafeteria during the day and a theatrical stage in the evenings. Additionally, there is a band room, a choir room, a student store, a full service ASB office, a book room, a weight room, a farm for livestock, a greenhouse, a staff lounge, six teacher work stations each equipped with a high-volume copier, and four conference rooms for parent-teacher conferences, Student Study Team (SST), and Individualized Education Program (IEP) meetings.
There is a newly remodeled building housing Physics, Engineering, Architectural, and Auto Repair programs. The Physics and Engineering facility includes a classroom for instruction and teacher demonstration, as well as, an additional 40 x 30 foot lab/experiment facility. The Auto Repair building includes a classroom, a computer lab, trainer/simulation area, and a full auto shop with two lifts and basic shop equipment standard to the industry in 2018.
School Facility Good Repair Status (Most Recent Year)
Using the most recently collected FIT data (or equivalent), provide the following:
* Determination of repair status for systems listed
* Description of any needed maintenance to ensure good repair
* The year and month in which the data were collected
* The overall rating
Year and month of the most recent FIT report: 11/22/2019
| System Inspected | Rating |
|---|---|
| Systems: Gas Leaks, Mechanical/HVAC, Sewer | XGood |
| Interior: Interior Surfaces | XGood |
| Cleanliness: Overall Cleanliness, Pest/ Vermin Infestation | XGood |
| Electrical: Electrical | XGood |
| Restrooms/Fountains: Restrooms, Sinks/ Fountains | XGood |
| Safety: Fire Safety, Hazardous Materials | XGood |
| Structural: Structural Damage, Roofs | XGood |
| External: Playground/School Grounds, Windows/ Doors/Gates/Fences | XGood |
B. Pupil Outcomes
State Priority: Pupil Achievement
The SARC provides the following information relevant to the State priority: Pupil Achievement (Priority 4):
* Statewide assessments (i.e., California Assessment of Student Performance and Progress [CAASPP] System, which includes the Smarter Balanced Summative Assessments for students in the general education population and the California Alternate Assessments [CAAs] for English language arts/literacy [ELA] and mathematics given in grades three through eight and grade eleven. Only eligible students may participate in the administration of the CAAs. CAAs items are aligned with alternate achievement standards, which are linked with the Common Core State Standards [CCSS] for students with the most significant cognitive disabilities); and
* The percentage of students who have successfully completed courses that satisfy the requirements for entrance to the University of California and the California State University, or career technical education sequences or programs of study.
CAASPP Test Results in ELA and Mathematics for All Students Grades Three through Eight and Grade Eleven
Percentage of Students Meeting or Exceeding the State Standard
| Subject | School | School | District | District | State | State |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | 2017-18 | 2018-19 | 2017-18 | 2018-19 | 2017-18 | 2018-19 |
| English Language Arts/Literacy (grades 3-8 and 11) | 59 | 49 | 46 | 48 | 50 | |
| Mathematics (grades 3-8 and 11) | 19 | 25 | 29 | 30 | 38 | |
Note: Percentages are not calculated when the number of students tested is ten or less, either because the number of students in this category is too small for statistical accuracy or to protect student privacy.
Note: ELA and mathematics test results include the Smarter Balanced Summative Assessment and the CAA. The "Percent Met or Exceeded" is calculated by taking the total number of students who met or exceeded the standard on the Smarter Balanced Summative Assessment plus the total number of students who met the standard (i.e., achieved Level 3-Alternate) on the CAAs divided by the total number of students who participated in both assessments.
CAASPP Test Results in ELA by Student Group
Grades Three through Eight and Grade Eleven (School Year 2018-19)
| | | | | Percent | Percent |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | Total | Number | Percent | | |
| Student Group | | | | Not | Met or |
| | Enrollment | Tested | Tested | | |
| | | | | Tested | Exceeded |
| All Students | 387 | 374 | 96.64 | 3.36 | |
| Male | 203 | 194 | 95.57 | 4.43 | |
| Female | 184 | 180 | 97.83 | 2.17 | |
| Black or African American | -- | -- | -- | -- | |
| American Indian or Alaska Native | -- | -- | -- | -- | |
| Asian | 47 | 46 | 97.87 | 2.13 | |
| Filipino | -- | -- | -- | -- | |
| Hispanic or Latino | 209 | 206 | 98.56 | 1.44 | |
| Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander | | | | | |
| White | 99 | 92 | 92.93 | 7.07 | |
| Student Group | | | Percent Tested | Percent | Percent |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | Total | Number | | | |
| | | | | Not | Met or |
| | Enrollment | Tested | | | |
| | | | | Tested | Exceeded |
| Two or More Races | 21 | 19 | 90.48 | 9.52 | |
| Socioeconomically Disadvantaged | 257 | 251 | 97.67 | 2.33 | |
| English Learners | 54 | 51 | 94.44 | 5.56 | |
| Students with Disabilities | 48 | 42 | 87.50 | 12.50 | |
| Students Receiving Migrant Education Services | 23 | 21 | 91.30 | 8.70 | |
| Foster Youth | -- | -- | -- | -- | |
| Homeless | -- | -- | -- | -- | |
Note: ELA test results include the Smarter Balanced Summative Assessment and the CAA. The "Percent Met or Exceeded" is calculated by taking the total number of students who met or exceeded the standard on the Smarter Balanced Summative Assessment plus the total number of students who met the standard (i.e., achieved Level 3-Alternate) on the CAAs divided by the total number of students who participated in both assessments.
Note: Double dashes (--) appear in the table when the number of students is ten or less, either because the number of students in this category is too small for statistical accuracy or to protect student privacy.
Note: The number of students tested includes all students who participated in the test whether they received a score or not; however, the number of students tested is not the number that was used to calculate the achievement level percentages. The achievement level percentages are calculated using only students who received scores.
CAASPP Test Results in Mathematics by Student Group Grades Three through Eight and Grade Eleven (School Year 2018-19)
| | | | | Percent |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| | Total | Number | Percent | |
| Student Group | | | | Not |
| | Enrollment | Tested | Tested | |
| | | | | Tested |
| All Students | 387 | 377 | 97.42 | 2.58 |
| Male | 203 | 197 | 97.04 | 2.96 |
| Female | 184 | 180 | 97.83 | 2.17 |
| Black or African American | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| American Indian or Alaska Native | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Asian | 47 | 47 | 100.00 | 0.00 |
| Filipino | -- | -- | -- | -- |
| Hispanic or Latino | 209 | 207 | 99.04 | 0.96 |
| Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander | | | | |
| White | 99 | 93 | 93.94 | 6.06 |
| Two or More Races | 21 | 19 | 90.48 | 9.52 |
| Socioeconomically Disadvantaged | 257 | 253 | 98.44 | 1.56 |
| English Learners | 54 | 53 | 98.15 | 1.85 |
| Students with Disabilities | 48 | 42 | 87.50 | 12.50 |
| Student Group | | | Percent Tested | Percent | Percent |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | Total | Number | | | |
| | | | | Not | Met or |
| | Enrollment | Tested | | | |
| | | | | Tested | Exceeded |
| Foster Youth | -- | -- | -- | -- | |
Note: Mathematics test results include the Smarter Balanced Summative Assessment and the CAA. The "Percent Met or Exceeded" is calculated by taking the total number of students who met or exceeded the standard on the Smarter Balanced Summative Assessment plus the total number of students who met the standard (i.e., achieved Level 3-Alternate) on the CAAs divided by the total number of students who participated in both assessments.
Note: Double dashes (--) appear in the table when the number of students is ten or less, either because the number of students in this category is too small for statistical accuracy or to protect student privacy.
Note: The number of students tested includes all students who participated in the test whether they received a score or not; however, the number of students tested is not the number that was used to calculate the achievement level percentages. The achievement level percentages are calculated using only students who received scores.
CAASPP Test Results in Science for All Students
Grades Five, Eight, and Ten
Percentage of Students Meeting or Exceeding the State Standard
| Subject | School | School | District | District | State |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | 2017-18 | 2018-19 | 2017-18 | 2018-19 | 2017-18 |
| | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A | N/A |
Note: Cells with N/A values do not require data.
Note: This is a placeholder for the California Science Test (CAST) which was administered operationally during the 2018-19 school year. However, these data are not available for inclusion in the 2018-19 SARC posting due February 1, 2020. These data will be included in the 2019-20 SARC posting due February 1, 2021.
Career Technical Education Programs (School Year 2018-19)
Yuba City High School (YCHS) proudly offers an extensive CTE program to meet the work and career needs of students. YCHS offers the following pathways and CTE programs: a) Agriculture & Natural Resources, b) Arts, Media & Entertainment, Education, c) Child Development and Family Services, d) Engineering & Architecture, e) Fashion & Interior Design, f) Health Science & Technology, g) Hospitality, Tourism & Recreation, h) Information & Communication Technologies, I) Manufacturing & Product Development, j) Public Services and k) Transportation. All CTE programs incorporate, in the daily curriculum, the California Common Core State Standards for Literacy in the Technical Subjects, College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards, and the California Model Curriculum Standards for CTE. Students are encouraged to complete a sequence of courses in a specific CTE program to obtain skills and knowledge that will lead to higher levels of success in entry level workforce positions or in post-secondary CTE training programs. Many of the CTE programs offer industry certifications. The programs that offer certification of skills include Welding, Culinary Arts, Automotive Technology, Early Child Careers, Photography, and Law Enforcement.
Each CTE program is affiliated with a regional industry-specific advisory committee. The industry-specific advisory committee counsels the instructor on new technologies, specific skills needed in the industry, labor market demands (job outlook), and assistance with internships. YCHS maintains data on the number of students enrolling and completing CTE programs to examine trends of student interests in CTE programs. The District CTE advisory committee is chaired by the Director of Economic Development for the City of Yuba City and includes individuals representing Engineering, Architecture, Agriculture, Family and Consumer Sciences, Automotive Repair, and Information Technology. This committee annually reviews all the CTE programs offered to match CTE programs to local workforce needs for the YubaSutter area. All CTE programs are reviewed for relevancy to our community's workforce needs based on the following criteria: high demand, high skilled, and high wage.
2018-19 School Accountability Report Card for Yuba City High School
Page 10 of 15
Career Technical Education Participation (School Year 2018-19)
| Measure | CTE Program |
|---|---|
| | Participation |
| Number of Pupils Participating in CTE | |
| Percent of Pupils that Complete a CTE Program and Earn a High School Diploma | |
| Percent of CTE Courses that are Sequenced or Articulated Between the School and Institutions of Postsecondary Education | |
Courses for University of California (UC) and/or California State University (CSU) Admission
| UC/CSU Course Measure | Percent |
|---|---|
| 2018-19 Pupils Enrolled in Courses Required for UC/CSU Admission | |
| 2017-18 Graduates Who Completed All Courses Required for UC/CSU Admission | |
State Priority: Other Pupil Outcomes
The SARC provides the following information relevant to the State priority: Other Pupil Outcomes (Priority 8):
* Pupil outcomes in the subject areas of physical education.
California Physical Fitness Test Results (School Year 2018-19)
| Grade Level | Percentage of Students | Percentage of Students | Percentage of Students |
|---|---|---|---|
| | Meeting Four of Six | Meeting Five of Six | Meeting Six of Six |
| | Fitness Standards | Fitness Standards | Fitness Standards |
| 9 | 16.2 | 25.1 | |
Note: Percentages are not calculated and double dashes (**) appear in the table when the number of students tested is ten or less, either because the number of students in this category is too small for statistical accuracy or to protect student privacy.
C. Engagement
State Priority: Parental Involvement
The SARC provides the following information relevant to the State priority: Parental Involvement (Priority 3):
* Efforts the school district makes to seek parent input in making decisions for the school district and each school site.
Opportunities for Parental Involvement (School Year 2019-20)
Yuba City High School offers multiple opportunities for parents to stay informed and involved. The YCHS FAN (Friends and Neighbors) Club meets every 4-6 weeks with the contact person being Principal Robert Pogue. The Honker Club meets on the third Tuesday of every month at 7:00 p.m. in the YCHS library with the contact person being Robin Rocha. Band Boosters meet on the third Monday of each month at 7:00 p.m. at the Round Table Pizza restaurant on Gray Avenue. Another parent involvement opportunity includes School Site Council which meets from 3:30 p.m. to 4:30 p.m. every third Thursday of each month. Additional informal opportunities for parents to visit and and be involved include informal parent meetings with the principal, volunteering to be field trip chaperones, volunteer coaches, and volunteer drivers to athletic events. Monthly English Language Advisory Committee (ELAC) meetings assist parents of English Learners with staying informed and involved. The daily bulletin is emailed to parents every day. Additionally, the counseling department holds numerous evening events for parents and students to meet college representatives, learn about college admission requirements, and financial aid. Other parent involvement venues include Back-To-School Night, Open House, Fall and Spring Academic Awards, and various theatrical and musical performances.
2018-19 School Accountability Report Card for Yuba City High School
Page 11 of 15
State Priority: Pupil Engagement
The SARC provides the following information relevant to the State priority: Pupil Engagement (Priority 5):
* High school dropout rates; and
* High school graduation rates.
Dropout Rate and Graduation Rate (Four-Year Cohort Rate)
| Indicator | School | School | School | District | District | District | State | State | State |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | 2015-16 | 2016-17 | 2017-18 | 2015-16 | 2016-17 | 2017-18 | 2015-16 | 2016-17 | 2017-18 |
| Dropout Rate | 3.9 | 5.5 | 4.3 | 6.1 | 8.2 | 6.9 | 9.7 | 9.1 | |
| Graduation Rate | 94.4 | 90.5 | 90.9 | 91.3 | 84.6 | 86.7 | 83.8 | 82.7 | |
For the formula to calculate the 2016-17 and 2017-18 adjusted cohort graduation rate, see the 2018-19 Data Element Definitions document located on the SARC web page at https://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/ac/sa/.
State Priority: School Climate
The SARC provides the following information relevant to the State priority: School Climate (Priority 6):
* Pupil suspension rates;
* Pupil expulsion rates; and
* Other local measures on the sense of safety.
Suspensions and Expulsions
| Rate | School | School | School | District | District | District | State | State | State |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | 2016-17 | 2017-18 | 2018-19 | 2016-17 | 2017-18 | 2018-19 | 2016-17 | 2017-18 | 2018-19 |
| Suspensions | 6.6 | 16.4 | 8.9 | 6.8 | 10.5 | 6.0 | 3.6 | 3.5 | |
| Expulsions | 1.2 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.1 | |
School Safety Plan (School Year 2019-20)
Yuba City High School provides a safe and clean educational environment for students, staff, and volunteers. The Safety Plan stresses the procedures for ensuring student safety during emergencies. Yuba City High School maintains a standing School Safety Committee which meets regularly throughout the school year. The Committee makes revisions to the Safety Plan. Revisions to the Safety Plan are reviewed with the whole staff at the first staff meetings of the year. For 2019, it was reviewed on August 9th and August 12th. The school's disaster preparedness plan includes steps for ensuring student and staff safety during a disaster. Fire, earthquake, and lock-down drills are conducted on a regular basis throughout the school year. The school is in compliance with all laws, rules, and regulations pertaining to hazardous materials and state earthquake standards.
Yuba City High School has a full time School Resource Officer and a full time Probation Officer on campus. Habitually truant students are supervised by the School Intervention Attendance Specialist and the District's Truancy Officer. Finally, the school has a full time certificated teacher who operates the "GOLD Room" which is an intervention room for restorative practices.
There is a designated student drop off and pickup area at the main entrance of the school. All visitors must sign in at the office, where they receive a badge that must be displayed at all times. Visitors need to give teachers prior notification when visiting a classroom.
2018-19 School Accountability Report Card for Yuba City High School
Page 12 of 15
Average Class Size and Class Size Distribution (Secondary)
| | 2016-17 | 2016-17 | 2016-17 | 2016-17 | 2017-18 | 2017-18 | 2017-18 | 2017-18 | 2018-19 | 2018-19 | 2018-19 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | Average | # of | # of | # of | Average | # of | # of | # of | Average | # of | # of |
| Subject | Class | Classes* | Classes* | Classes* | Class | Classes* | Classes* | Classes* | Class | Classes* | Classes* |
| | Size | Size | Size | Size | Size | Size | Size | Size | Size | Size | Size |
| | | 1-22 | 23-32 | 33+ | | 1-22 | 23-32 | 33+ | | 1-22 | 23-32 |
| English | 27 | 29 | 23 | 28 | 27 | 23 | 39 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 40 |
| Mathematics | 28 | 9 | 37 | 11 | 26 | 8 | 55 | 2 | 27 | 13 | 40 |
| Science | 29 | 4 | 28 | 3 | 26 | 8 | 34 | 3 | 24 | 17 | 31 |
| Social Science | 31 | 4 | 23 | 22 | 32 | 3 | 14 | 32 | 28 | 9 | 31 |
*Number of classes indicates how many classrooms fall into each size category (a range of total students per classroom). At the secondary school level, this information
is reported by subject area rather than grade level.
Ratio of Academic Counselors to Pupils (School Year 2018-19)
| Title | Ratio |
|---|---|
| Academic Counselors* | |
*One Full Time Equivalent (FTE) equals one staff member working full time; one FTE could also represent two staff members who each work 50 percent of full time.
Student Support Services Staff (School Year 2018-19)
| Title | Number of FTE* |
|---|---|
| | Assigned to School |
| Counselor (Academic, Social/Behavioral or Career Development) | 7.0 |
| Library Media Teacher (Librarian) | |
| Library Media Services Staff (Paraprofessional) | |
| Psychologist | 1.0 |
| Social Worker | |
| Speech/Language/Hearing Specialist | .8 |
*One Full Time Equivalent (FTE) equals one staff member working full time; one FTE could also represent two staff members who each work 50 percent of full time.
Expenditures Per Pupil and School Site Teacher Salaries (Fiscal Year 2017-18)
| Level | Total | Expenditures | Expenditures |
|---|---|---|---|
| | Expenditures | Per Pupil | Per Pupil |
| | Per Pupil | (Restricted) | (Unrestricted) |
| School Site | 8283.6 | 1641.81 | 6641.79 |
| District | N/A | N/A | $8673.01 |
| Percent Difference - School Site and District | N/A | N/A | -26.5 |
| State | N/A | N/A | $7,506.64 |
| Percent Difference - School Site and State | N/A | N/A | -3.2 |
Note: Cells with N/A values do not require data.
The California Department of Education issued guidance to LEAs on August 1, 2018, regarding how to calculate school-level per-pupil expenditures that will be reported on 2018-19 report cards.
2018-19 School Accountability Report Card for Yuba City High School
Page 13 of 15
Types of Services Funded (Fiscal Year 2018-19)
Yuba City Unified School District spent an average of $12,778.51 to educate students (based on 2018-19 audited financial statements). Yuba City Unified School District receives state and federal categorical funding for special programs. For the 2018-19 school year, the district received approximately $4,475.02 per student in state and federal funding for the following categorical, special education, and support programs:
Agriculture Vocational Ed
Carl Perkins Career & Tech Ed
Career Technical Education Inc.
College Readiness Block Grant
Donations
Lottery
Medi-Cal Billing Option
Medi-Cal SELPA
Sp Ed AB-602
Sp Ed IDEA Basic
Sp Ed Low Incidence
Sp Ed Transportation
STREAM Grant
Title I
Title II Teacher Quality
Title III, LEP
Title IV
CSEPD Block Grant
LPS Block Grant
Teacher and Administrative Salaries (Fiscal Year 2017-18)
| Category | | State Average |
|---|---|---|
| | District | |
| | | For Districts |
| | Amount | |
| | | In Same Category |
| Beginning Teacher Salary | $45,151 | $51,374 |
| Mid-Range Teacher Salary | $71,410 | $80,151 |
| Highest Teacher Salary | $92,981 | $100,143 |
| Average Principal Salary (Elementary) | $140,815 | $126,896 |
| Average Principal Salary (Middle) | $150,125 | $133,668 |
| Average Principal Salary (High) | $153,817 | $143,746 |
| Superintendent Salary | $211,380 | $245,810 |
| Percent of Budget for Teacher Salaries | 33% | 35% |
For detailed information on salaries, see the CDE Certificated Salaries & Benefits web page at https://www.cde.ca.gov/ds/fd/cs/.
2018-19 School Accountability Report Card for Yuba City High School
Page 14 of 15
Advanced Placement (AP) Courses (School Year 2018-19)
| Subject | Number of | Percent of Students |
|---|---|---|
| | AP Courses Offered* | In AP Courses |
| Computer Science | | |
| English------- | 4 | |
| Fine and Performing Arts | 1 | |
| Foreign Language | 2 | |
| Mathematics | 2 | |
| Science------- | 9 | |
| Social Science | 5 | |
| All courses | 23 | |
Note: Cells with N/A values do not require data.
*Where there are student course enrollments of at least one student.
Professional Development (Most Recent Three Years)
| Measure | 2017-18 | 2018-19 | 2019-20 |
|---|---|---|---|
2018-19 School Accountability Report Card for Yuba City High School
Page 15 of 15
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The Idea of the University
Introduction
The aim of this main theme section is to discuss the idea of the university in the past, the present, as well as future perspectives.
Universitas, pandidakterion/panepistemion, sveučilište and university are names for institutions of learning where higher education is attained in all significant fields of knowledge. As an institution, it distinguishes between scientific and artistic qualifications, guaranteeing that he who receives them has attained an appropriate education and preparation for those challenging professions requiring a high level of scientific training or artistic maturity.
Institutions of higher learning have existed in numerous civilisations, and were often either priestly or temple schools, or aristocratic or state schools. In ancient India, in the 2 nd and 1 st millennia BC, students would gather around an eminent Brahmin and would learn from him the Vedas and those sciences connected with them. Such training could last as long as 16 years. Later, true institutions of higher learning would develop within some Buddhist monasteries, with hundreds of professors and thousands of students, an example of which being Nālanda university between the Gupta and Pāla periods, i.e. from the 5 th to the 12 th century.
In China, higher education was founded on the five Confucian classics. In the 2 nd century BC, Emperor Wu Di of the Han dynasty founded such an institution of higher learning, known as Dà xué, the Great Academy, upon which the education system of imperial China was based for many subsequent centuries. It may be interesting to quote some principles from Confucius' work Dà xué, the Great Learning, about the ideals of education:
"The ancients who wished to illustrate illustrious virtue throughout the world, first ordered well their own States. Wishing to order well their States, they first regulated their families. Wishing to regulate their families, they first cultivated their persons. Wishing to cultivate their persons, they first rectified their hearts. Wishing to rectify their hearts, they first sought to be sincere in their thoughts. Wishing to be sincere in their thoughts, they first extended to the utmost of their knowledge. Such extension of knowledge lay in the investigation of things. Things being investigated, knowledge became complete. Their knowledge being complete, their thoughts were sincere. Their thoughts being sincere, their hearts were then rectified. Their hearts being rectified, their persons were cultivated. Their persons being cultivated, their families were regulated. Their families being regulated, their States were rightly governed. Their States being rightly governed, the entire world was at peace. From the Son of Heaven down to the mass of the people, all must consider the cultivation of the person the root of everything besides." 1
In the West, Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum became the paragons of an educational institution in later times. The university began in the West as
1
See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Le- arning.
a system of education that developed in late Antiquity, throughout the Middle Ages and in Modern-Age religious and secular universities.
The Pandidakterion in Constantinople, founded by Theodosius II in 425 AD, could be considered the first European university. University education in late Antiquity in Western Europe was founded on the septem artes liberales, and, throughout the Migration Period and the development of the feudal system, managed to preserve much knowledge that had been attained in classical Antiquity. It was greatly enriched through the acquaintance of scholars in the 13 th century with the whole of Aristotle's scientific opus, which significantly spurred the development of the study of philosophy, theology and science. Aside from this, curricula of law and medicine were highly sought after out of practical necessity at mediæval universities, especially in the relatively more developed south of Europe.
The foundation of the University in Bologna in the late 11 th century also brought with it the establishment of the principle of autonomy of the university from government interference. This autonomy enabled the best-informed, and not politics or the government, to decide upon the development of science and study, and allowed universities to choose their own professors and suitably educated leaders – some even had their own courts of justice.
After the Renaissance, in which elitist academies raised the overall quality of education, new standards began to be applied in the 16 th , and especially the 17 th and 18 th centuries, over a significantly wider range of university students, in part spurred on by Protestant universities and in part by universities under the wing of the Catholic church – especially the Jesuit order – both in Europe and in missionary regions of the world. In the 18 th century, Enlightenment notions made headway in schooling and at universities, giving education emphatic social tasks, and during the 19 th century more and more universities became secular.
At this same time, reforms outlined by Wilhelm von Humboldt spread throughout German universities, based upon breadth of scientific theoretical and practical education (including experimental sciences) as well as the humanistic foundations of Antiquity, and aimed at assuring the quality education and the full development of the character of those able to assume the tasks and responsibilities of a scholar and scientist in a society where science was becoming an ever more effective catalyst of social, technical and economic development. The adoption of the Humboldtian university scheme assured for the best U.S. universities very high standards until today. It may be interesting to cite some principles of education from Humboldt's essay on the Theory of Human Education:
"'Education, truth and virtue' must be disseminated to such an extent that the 'concept of mankind' takes on a great and dignified form in each individual (GS, I, p. 284). However, this shall be achieved personally by each individual, who must 'absorb the great mass of material offered to him by the world around him and by his inner existence, using all the possibilities of his receptiveness; he must then reshape that material with all the energies of his own activity and appropriate it to himself so as to create an interaction between his own personality and nature in a most general, active and harmonious form' (GS, II, p. 117)." 2
In the 20 th and early 21 st centuries, many reforms took place throughout school systems and universities, frequently at opposing purposes, especially in Europe: on one hand, the desire for higher, more elite scientific demands, and on the other for the expansion of the numbers of the educated in society, and on yet another for serving the needs of economic development and all else in the service of such development and the profit it brings. On one hand, the latter has put university education to use in numerous ways and benefitted the development of the economy, just as Francis Bacon and even René Descartes imagined so long ago. On the other, however, this education has been less in the service of discovering and understanding the truth, and has begun to place science in the position of ancilla œconomiæ, which can in the long term distort and limit both the range of its discoveries and the ethical standards that scholars and scientists should respect at a Humboldtian university. Modernday interference of the state and economy in the work and organisation of the university, processes of centralisation, standardisation and management are significantly altering the nature of the university and the role of the scientist in society. They place universities and scientists in the service of power and profit, and by endangering the autonomy of the university, they endanger the democratic principles of society and human rights, such as the right to free thought and the right to education.
In the world of free-market economics and the laws of profit, universities are also in danger from research institutes owned by large, especially international corporations. Here science ceases to be a public good, transforming instead into patents and business secrets. Universities are even offered the opportunity to survive financially by serving such corporations, since university scientists are a cheaper and often better-educated work force than those at expensive, private institutes.
Does this union with business aid the development of the university in the short- and long-term or endanger it? What kind of relationship between the sciences and universities on one side and economics and politics on the other would be the best for society and the most profitable for the economy in the long-term, and what kind would provide the highest impetus for discovering and understanding the truth?
Has the concept of the Bologna university reform of European universities in this light proven stimulative or limiting? What roles do the principles of university and scientific autonomy play here? Which states and cultural spheres develop faster and more desirably – those in which politics and capital control universities and the sciences and decide on them, or those in which politics, the economy and society seek advice and stimulus from the most eminent institutions and representatives of the academic community in order to better direct their political, economic and social decisions?
Do universities and the sciences today have a particular task and responsibility that is potentially vital to the future of the economy, knowledge and ethical values, the future of the social and political community, the future of the common good, vital to freedom and the maintenance of the world in which we live?
Do the values of scientific curiosity, truthfulness, accessibility of scientific information, general education, individual character building, cultivation of virtue, care for the common good, long-term strategies, moral responsibility for society, for peace, for nature, for world survival and improvement (or at least sustainable development) still play a role in the contemporary world and contemporary academic institutions?
2
Humboldt, Wilhelm von. 1903–1936. Gesam melte Schriften, Bd. I–XVII. Ausgabe der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin. See also: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Wilhelm_von_Humboldt.
Does anybody reform our educational systems and universities along these lines? Is it not our responsibility and even duty as academics?
These are the questions upon which we invited the participants to reflect in their contributions to the international conference on the idea of the university, organised within the framework of the Days of Frane Petrić in Cres in 2012.
We are grateful to all the participants from Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Slovenia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Croatia for their contributions, particularly to authors whose papers were accepted for publication in the journals of the Croatian Philosophical Society Synthesis Philosophica, Filozofska istraživanja and Metodički ogledi.
We are especially grateful to Professor Richard Gombrich from Oxford University for his video participation at the conference and for the permission to republish on this occasion his lectures British Higher Education Policy in the Last Twenty Years: The Murder of a Profession and Why Has British Education Gone so Wrong, and Why Can't We Stop the Rot? Popper's Night mare. We would equally like to express our thanks to Professor Konrad Paul Liessmann from Vienna University for his permission to republish his speech Akademische Bildung. Ein Leitfaden für neue Eliten in this issue. Their reflections have greatly inspired the participants who received them in the conference materials. They are also a great encouragement to all of us in the struggle for academic and scientific or scholarly values which are among the greatest achievements of the civilized world.
Mislav Ježić
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FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
Date: January 21, 2009
Contact: Carolyn Belardo 215 299-1043, firstname.lastname@example.org
To download this press release and image: www.ansp.org/media
PALEOPALOOZA FEATURES RARE FOSSILS, "DINOTOPIA" ARTIST, FOSSIL CASTING, GAMES, FEB. 14, 15 AND 16
PHILADELPHIA—Get your fossil on at The Academy of Natural Sciences' Paleopalooza, a threeday extravaganza of rare fossil displays, dinosaur art lessons, trilobite races, paleontology talks, games, crafts, and the chance to meet a famous dinosaur book illustrator.
Paleopalooza takes place Saturday, Sunday and Monday, Feb. 14, 15 and16 and is free with regular admission. There is something for everybody: It makes for an interesting Valentine's Day date and a fun family outing when schools are closed for President's Day. Displays, talks, animated films, demonstrations, and games will be spread throughout all floors of the museum.
Visitors will see rare fossils from the Academy's collection including fish, turtles, pigs, dinosaurs and, from President Thomas Jefferson's personal cache, mastodon teeth and a ground sloth. "Dinotopia" book series artist-author James Gurney will talk (Saturday only) about the process of putting into words and pictures the imaginary lost island where dinosaurs and humans live peacefully together. He will sign copies of his newest book. Academy educator and dinosaur illustrator Jason Poole will give drawing lessons, and short animation films will be shown in the auditorium.
Academy paleontologist Dr. Ted Daeschler, world-renowned in science circles for his discovery of Tiktaalik roseae (a creature with features of both fish and limbed animal) will talk about his amazing fossil finds in Pennsylvania. His colleague, Dr. Jason Downs, will discourse on his recent research on the brain of Tiktaalik and visitors can see the prehistoric creature on display. Paleontologists from the tri-state area will give illustrated talks on dinosaurs, and members of the Delaware Valley Paleontology Society will mount extensive interactive displays.
Children will enjoy making dinosaur finger puppets, digging for fossils, playing a dinosaur detective game, listening to dinosaur stories, and seeing live animal shows starring those dinosaur descendants: birds. Throughout each day there will be trilobite races, demonstrations of fossil casting and preparation (Monday only), and guided tours of Dinosaur Hall and the special exhibit "Hadrosaurus foulkii: The Dinosaur That Changed the World."
For a full schedule of activities, see www.ansp.org/paleopalooza. Here are some highlights:
Saturday, Feb. 14
12:30 p.m. and 3:30 pm – Dinosaur Animation Films
Includes the silent classic "Gertie the Dinosaur"
1 p.m. – "Dinotopia" Fact and Fantasy
"Dinotopia" artist-author James Gurney talks about his creative process and signs copies of his new book.
2:30 p.m. – Dinosaurs in Your Back Yard
Dr. Bill Gallagher of Rider University talks about local dinosaur finds.
3:15 p.m. – Tiktaalik roseae
Dr. Jason Downs of the Academy talks about the evolution of the skull in the "fishapod" Tiktaalik.
Sunday, Feb. 15
12:30 p.m. and 3:30 p.m. – Dinosaur Animation Films
Includes the silent classic "Gertie the Dinosaur"
1 p.m. – Meet Dr. Peter Dodson
Dr. Peter Dodson of the University of Pennsylvania discusses his latest paleontological research.
1:45 pm – Digging Dinosaurs in the Land Down Under
Meet Dr. Steve Salisbury of Carnegie Museum of Natural History and hear about his search for dinosaurs in Australia.
2:30 p.m. – China's Feathered Dinosaurs (also Monday at same time)
Dr. Matthew Lamanna of Carnegie Museum of Natural History talks about feathered dinosaurs from China.
Monday, Feb. 16
12:30 p.m. and 3:30 pm – Dinosaur Animation Films
Includes the silent classic "Gertie the Dinosaur"
1 p.m. and 3:15 p.m. – Ancient Pennsylvania: Fossil Discoveries from the Devonian Period
The Academy's Dr. Ted Daeschler talks about tetrapods and other Devonian fossils from Pennsylvania.
1:45 p.m. – Unearthing Chinese Dinosaurs
Dr. David Parris of the New Jersey State Museum gives updates on some important finds.
### The Academy is located at 1900 Benjamin Franklin Parkway and is open Monday through Friday from 10 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. and weekends until 5 p.m. Admission is $10 for adults, $8 for children ages 3–12, seniors, college students and military personnel, and free for Members and children under 3. There is an additional $2 entry fee for "Butterflies!"
Founded in 1812, The Academy of Natural Sciences is the oldest natural science research institution and museum in the Americas and is a world leader in biodiversity and environmental research. The mission of the Academy is the encouragement and cultivation of the sciences.
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U.S. Life-Saving Service in Oregon
The mission of the U.S. Life-Saving Service (USLSS) was to rescue those in peril from the sea. To serve that mission, the federal government built coastal stations to house the men and equipment engaged in rescue operations. The stations were integral in the development of Oregon's coastal communities, whose livelihood and connection to other places depended on safe water travel.
Established in 1871, the USLSS had its roots in the Massachusetts Humane Society founded in 1785. Maritime trade was key to the survival of the young nation. With shipwrecks came not only loss of life but also monetary loss, and that needed to be staunched.
Oregon's first life-saving station, staffed by a keeper on an island, was erected at Cape Arago in 1878. When a rescue was needed, the keeper, who had no view of the coastline, had to be informed of the emergency. He then would row to town to look for volunteers. Years went by without a single rescue. This first step led to fully staffed stations at Point Adams near Astoria in 1889, Coquille River at Bandon in 1890, Umpqua River near Winchester Bay in 1890, Yaquina Bay at South Beach in 1896, and Tillamook Bay at Barview in 1908. With more stations, men, and funding, the success and reputation of the lifesavers grew.
Typically, a crew was made up of eight surfmen and a keeper. The number of men was determined by how many were needed to row a lifeboat; motor lifeboats were not available until about 1910. Life-saving stations had to be near a place where boats could be launched during a storm. In addition to a station house and a boathouse, crewmembers often built homes next door on government land to house their families.
The USLSS schedule was military in its precision. Mondays and Thursdays were spent practicing with the beach apparatus, which involved firing a cannon with a projectile that carried a line over a simulated wreck mast. The crew then erected a breeches buoy in which people could be rescued from ship to shore. Tuesdays were reserved for boat drills, which involved launching, capsizing, rowing, and landing. Wednesdays were signal flag practice. Fridays were dedicated to medical training. Saturdays were station and equipment maintenance days. On a rotating basis, crewmembers each got one day off a week.
Only twenty life-saving stations operated on the Pacific Coast, compared to hundreds for the Atlantic Coast. Ports are at a distance from each other in the West, so ships tended to go farther out and then cut in at harbors. Still, the mouth of the Columbia River is named the Graveyard of the Pacific for a reason, as more than 230 major shipwrecks have occurred in or around the Columbia Bar.
Two major Oregon Coast shipwrecks held the attention of the nation during the time of the USLSS—one famous, the other infamous. The Rosecrans ran aground on Peacock Spit at the mouth of the Columbia on January 7, 1913. Through heroic actions by the crews of the Point Adams station and its sister station at Cape Disappointment, two people were rescued. The day-long endeavor, during which two motor lifeboats were sunk, became the stuff of legend among surfmen. Sixteen gold life-saving medals were awarded, a record number that has not been broken since.
The USLSS Annual Report called the wreck of the Czarina, on January 12, 1910, the most "appalling marine casualty" in a quarter century. All but one of the crew died, and newspapers vilified the keeper and crew for not doing more. The lifesavers credo has always been, "You have to go out, but you don't have to come back," and the public felt the rescue attempts had not been enough. After a lengthy investigation, the station keeper was charged with dereliction of duty and forced to resign.
Few visible signs of the USLSS are left in Oregon. A complete station still exists at Barview, Point Adams has its original boathouse, and Yaquina Bay still has the lighthouse where lifesavers were stationed from 1906 to 1933. After it merged with the Revenue Cutter Service in 1915 to become the U.S. Coast Guard, the life-saving stations became more substantial to support larger crews. In 1939, the U.S. Lighthouse Service also became part of the Coast Guard. With the merger of these three government services, the Coast Guard became the primary protector of mariners.
Written by David Pinyerd
Further Reading:
page 1 / 2
Oregon Encyclopedia
http://oregonencyclopedia.org/entry/view/u_s_life_saving_service_in_oregon/ - 03/08/2014
Pinyerd, David. Lighthouses and Life-Saving on the Oregon Coast. Charleston, N.C.: Arcadia Press, 2007.
Shanks, Ralph and Wick York. The U.S. Life-Saving Service: Heroes, Rescues and Architecture of the Early Coast Guard. Petaluma, CA.: Costaño Books, 1996.
Copyright © 2008-2014 Portland State University
page 2 / 2
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Mamble Colliery
Location - 3 miles south of Cleobury Mortimer (SO690718)
Minerals - Coal
Working Life - Known working life : 17th century-1944
History ("Mamble Colliery", David Poyner & Robert Evans, SCMC Journal No.4)
Mining in Mamble was certainly underway in the mid-17th century, with workings on the outcrop in the neighbouring Sakenhurst Estate. The Blount family owned most of the eastern half of Mamble, centred on their hall at Soddington, and land tax returns suggest that their coal works began some time between 1700-1730. In 1759, Sir Edward Blount was one of three Wyre Forest coalowners advertising in Berrows Worcester Journal. In 1771 the mines in Mamble, as well as those to the north in Bayton, were leased to a local collier Francis Bint. Bint claimed to have spent over £1,200 in constructing adits to drain the mines but, by 1777, he had given up his lease. Shortly after this date, the presence of the coal mines began to feature in the plans of local canal promoters. In 1791, work began on Leominster Canal that was planned to run from Kington in Herefordshire to the Severn at Stourport, via Leominster and Mamble. Heavy engineering works meant that the canal was not finished and actually only ever ran between the latter two places. The Blount collieries were connected to a wharf on the canal by a tramway. Although the failure to complete the canal was a disaster for shareholders, it mattered little to the colliery, which now had a means to send its coal into the heart of the Herefordshire countryside. Here it was able to undercut competing collieries on the Clee Hill.
The first part of the 19th century probably saw Mamble Colliery at its most prosperous. The Ordnance Survey preliminary drawings of 1817 show 11 shafts, concentrated in three areas and linked to the canal by tramways. This state of affairs would have lasted until the middle of the century, when the Shrewsbury & Hereford Railway arrived in Leominster and probably destroyed Mamble's market with cheaper and better quality coal than it could provide. The canal, by now very run down, was finally drained in the 1860s and Mamble had to rely on purely local trade. In 1869, the Blount family abandoned all direct interest in the mines, leasing them to Thomas Aston, a local coal master. The Aston family were to run the mines for the next half century and did rather well from them. Thomas's son, Edward, managed the mines and a farm, as well as being a District Councillor and JP. Not for nothing was he known as the "King of Mamble".
Mamble worked throughout the First World War and into the 1920s. Winding of men and coal was by hand windlass, up shafts about 30 yards in depth. Underground, a collier worked in conjunction with a loader and youth, who pushed the tram of coal to the pit bottom. The technology had essentially not changed in 100 years and would still have been recognisable to the miners 100 years before that. The end was brought about by a dispute over the lease. The bulk of the Blount estate's mineral rights had been leased by the Bayton Colliery Company in 1921. Aston was working at the very boundary of his area and allegedly took coal demised to the Bayton Colliery Company. When this was brought to light, he abandoned the mine in 1925 and (briefly) worked an entirely new mine on the adjacent Sakenhurst Estate.
The Bayton Colliery did not sink in the immediate area of Mamble village until 1934, when New Mamble (Bayton No.5) was opened. This was never very successful, ironically part due to water seeping out of Aston's flooded workings. Its closure in 1944 finally brought mining to an end in Mamble village.
Surface Remains
The most westerly part of the site that has significant remains is west of Whatehall Farm. Significantly, in the 1770s, this provided the name for the colliery. The Marl Brook cuts a deep valley through here and the ground is very disturbed with the indistinct remains of old spoil tips. A public footpath follows part of the line of the tramway built in the 1790s to reach the canal terminus at Sousnett, about ( mile away. In fact the tramway line appears intact all the way to the canal basin, where the impressive Wharf House fronts onto a stretch of canal turned into fishponds.
Returning to the colliery and proceeding eastwards, the Marl Brook opens out into an extensive flat area, the site of many shafts marked by the Ordnance Survey in 1817. The 1903 OS map showed three of these still open, just to the north of the brook, and one had an intriguingly square section. They have been filled more recently but a collapse has revealed another shaft north of the brook, whilst flattened spoil tips to the south suggest one or two more shafts. There are two cottages by the brook and a third on the hill which are probably contemporary with the colliery. Indeed one called Footrid Cottage proclaims its age as 1812 with a cast iron plaque. It is the hydraulic engineering which is the most intriguing feature of this part of the site. Marl Brook is carried underneath a causeway at the eastern end of the area in a brick culvert about 36" high and 28" wide, originally some 70 yards in length. A curved culvert of similar length but approximately cylindrical in section (now 40" high by 44" wide) carries it to the cottages. A shorter culvert is behind the cottages, and two more much shorter structures act as bridges further down, one carrying the tramroad over the brook. These structures must have taken some effort to build but their purpose is unclear. At the start of the 19th century, this was a key area in the mine as it was the point where the various feeder tramways converged onto the main line to the canal. One possibility is that the culverts were built to drain and protect this area from flash flooding of the Mark Brook.
The name of Footrid given to one of the cottages here indicates that this was also the approximate site of the drainage adits for the mines. Of course, the culverts may be connected with this but the most likely site for an adit is several hundred yards further west, in the deep brook valley. On the south side of the brook there is a strong feeder of ochre-impregnated water. There is no trace of any tunnel but this may simply reflect collapse of the original portal. The site may also have other adits but these are even less obvious.
In the early 19th century, workings extended in a broad north-south band beyond the immediate valley of the Marl Brook. Nothing of these is now obvious, as the land has either been reclaimed for agriculture or covered with trees. However, the wooded area appears to have suffered from considerable subsidence and a number of large pools have been created in it. From at least the 1830s, this area was also the site of a brickworks with associated clay pits. The route of the tramway apparently climbed away from the Marl Brook to intersect a smaller stream which eventually flows north into Bayton Brook. In the pasture land here, there are again impressive remains of grassed-over spoil tips. At the western end, where the tips probably date from the 1830s, they are typically 4-6ft high, forming a circle perhaps 20 yards in diameter around the shaft depression. In the centre of the site, developed in the 1870s and 1880s, they can be up to 10-12ft high and 40 yards in diameter, with the shaft depression at one end. At the eastern end, the 20th century workings have left flattened mounds extending over perhaps 50 x 30 yards, with no trace of the shafts.
Perhaps the most interesting features at this end of the site are the remains of the tramway. There is a prominent embankment, up to 6ft high and 6ft wide, running through a wooded area and then branching into two on entering a field. These branches run to old shafts, with the southern branch dividing again. It is possible to identify short, curved embankments leading from individual shafts to the main lines. One branch of the tramway ends at a shaft which was shown as active on the 1883 OS map, suggesting that the system long outlived the canal to which it was originally connected. In some cases, a tramway leading from a shaft was used for tipping spoil. A basically circular spoil tip has a short northwards extension associated with a tramway embankment. There are also two linear spoiltips. These have depressions in the centre marking the sites of shafts but the spoil has obviously been trammed away along just the one axis.
There are a number of fragments of plate rail to be found on the site, usually associated with the spoil tips. Until a few months ago, a 4'6" section was still embedded in one of the linear mounds. The rails are of two types with flange x bed measurements of either 2" x 3" or 1" x 3". They have holes at either end for fastening to sleepers.
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Mrs. Rosa Parks: Before and after the bus
Written by Marian Wright Edelman, NNPA Columnist Tuesday, 12 March 2013 11:38
She reminds us that this is how change happens — not mainly through the exploits of the famous and the powerful, but through the countless acts of often anonymous courage and kindness and fellow feeling and responsibility that continually, stubbornly, expand our conception of justice — our conception of what is possible.
Our minds fasten on that single moment on the bus — Mrs. Parks alone in that seat, clutching her purse, staring out a window, waiting to be arrested. That moment tells us something about how change happens, or doesn't happen . . . We so often spend our lives as if in a fog, accepting injustice, rationalizing inequity, tolerating the intolerable. Like the bus driver, but also like the passengers on the bus, we see the way things are — children hungry in a land of plenty, entire neighborhoods ravaged by violence, families hobbled by job loss or illness — and we make excuses for inaction, and we say to ourselves, that's not my responsibility, there's nothing I can do. Rosa Parks tells us there's always something we can do. She tells us that we all have responsibilities, to ourselves and to one another.
President Obama spoke these moving and right words at the February 27 unveiling of the beautiful new statue of Mrs. Rosa Parks in the United States Capitol's Statuary Hall — the first Black woman so honored. The ceremony also included eloquent remarks from Congressional leaders and a stirring performance of "Lift Every Voice and Sing" by the military choir that was a tribute to this bright North Star to freedom. Mrs. Parks, like Harriet Tubman before her, lit our nation's way.
The president's words were a needed reminder that Mrs. Parks was just one very bright star in a constellation of sacrificial Black and White stars who pushed and pulled our nation forward on the long stony road of struggle, activism, and sacrifice that began generations before her birth in Tuskegee, Ala. 100 years ago. So many Americans keep looking for the next Dr. King or Mrs. Parks to come and solve our problems and save us from our own responsibility to act. But Mrs. Parks and Dr. King were always part of a much larger whole. On the particular day in December 1955 when she refused to give up her seat on a Montgomery city bus, she was one of a trained cohort of civil rights leadership in the city who had been putting the community infrastructure in place waiting for the right spark to ignite the needed anti-Jim Crow movement time in Montgomery. Jeanne Theoharis's new biography The Rebellious Life of Mrs. Rosa Parks (and other recent books) is now shedding extra light on the fact that there was much more to Mrs. Parks than the story of the quiet seamstress who one day was just so tired she finally decided to sit down.
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Mrs. Rosa Parks: Before and after the bus
Written by Marian Wright Edelman, NNPA Columnist Tuesday, 12 March 2013 11:38
In reality, Mrs. Parks was not only a seamstress but a respected local activist; was willing to work without a spotlight but was not meek or quiet; and did not spontaneously act out of the blue just because she felt tired. Mrs. Parks was neither complacent nor long suffering, and had been fighting for equality and justice years before December 1955. In fact, like most Black people raised under Southern segregation, Jim Crow, and injustice, Mrs. Parks resented them from the day she was born.
Before her arrest Mrs. Parks had served as the secretary of the Montgomery branch of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (N.A.A.C.P.) for more than 10 years. As part of her work with the N.A.A.C.P., she investigated cases of violence and sexual assault against Black women, including Recy Taylor, a married Black mother who was walking home from church when she was abducted at gunpoint and gang-raped by a group of six white men in Abbeville, Ala. in 1944. In response, Mrs. Parks helped found the Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor that attracted nationwide support, action that the Chicago Defender called the "strongest campaign for equal justice to be seen in a decade." Although Mrs. Taylor's attackers had admitted their guilt to local authorities, they were not convicted of the crime or punished—and Mrs. Parks was not done fighting injustice.
Nor was she alone. In all of her battles before and after her own arrest, Mrs. Parks was part of a coordinated movement of others sharing the same goal. The summer before her arrest she attended Highlander Folk School near Knoxville, Tenn., a training center for activism in civil rights and workers' rights. Immediately after her arrest, Mrs. Parks was supported by N.A.A.C.P. colleagues, including E.D. Nixon and others in Montgomery actively watching for the right moment to act. Alabama State College professor and Women's Political Council President Jo Ann Robinson was one of the key unsung heroines who were the backbones of most civil rights struggles who waited and watched for the right incident and opportunity and were prepared to help seize the moment and propel it into a larger movement.
Although many people think of Dr. King as the leader of the Montgomery Bus Boycott, it's important to remember that Dr. King did not establish or spark that movement or most campaigns that developed into major movements across the South. He responded to the demands of the communities whose cups boiled over and was able to embody and communicate their hopes and dreams. In fact, when the Montgomery movement began, the community needed someone to be out in front. As the youngest and newest preacher in town, Dr. King was the top candidate because he had the least baggage. So he rose to the occasion and responded to and eloquently articulated the movement already in place.
As it happened, the Montgomery Bus Boycott quickly showcased Dr. King's enormous God-given ability as a leader and spokesperson with enormous courage. But what took place in Montgomery was repeated in Selma, Birmingham, and elsewhere and in the sit-in and Freedom Rider movements: Dr. King did not start those local movements himself either, but used his powerful eloquence and moral voice and willingness to go to jail with local people to amplify those movements already in process led by extraordinary local people such as Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth in Birmingham and the incredible Black children of Birmingham who stood up to fire hoses and police dogs and filled Birmingham's jails with child energy, courage, and determination to be free. Photos of these children under attack circulated around the globe led
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Mrs. Rosa Parks: Before and after the bus
Written by Marian Wright Edelman, NNPA Columnist Tuesday, 12 March 2013 11:38
President Kennedy to submit what became the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to Congress and Birmingham's white power structure to agree to end Jim Crow in Birmingham's public facilities.
Today, too many would-be movement leaders simply want to be Dr. King or Mrs. Rosa Parks: they want the glory and privilege of leadership without the burdens or sacrifice and sustained hard work.
Movements are not built from the top down by powerful leaders but percolate from the bottom up from people who share common grievances. Nor are they the result of individuals acting alone, although the courageous actions of one individual can provide a powerful defining symbolic spark—just as with the image of the dignified and proud Mrs. Parks sitting on that bus and refusing to move. But if Jo Ann Robinson had not been watchful and ready with a mimeograph machine to run off 30,000 flyers to circulate to Montgomery's Black community about Mrs. Parks and calling for a bus boycott, and had not pushed her Dexter Avenue Church's young pastor into the forefront, who knows what might have happened? So we can and should be enormously inspired by Mrs. Parks at that moment. But we should be equally inspired and informed by all the work she and others did behind the scenes before and after that day, and by all of the other women and men whose names we'll never know who worked to end racial injustice before and after December 1, 1955. Their individual and collective decisions to stand up for themselves and one another created the Montgomery movement—and the Montgomery Movement changed America's conception of what was just and possible.
It is past time for another transforming movement in America today to challenge rampant and morally obscene wealth and income inequality in our nation and the materialism, militarism, poverty, and racism Dr. King warned could destroy us. We have come a very long way towards honoring the Declaration of Independence's affirmation that "all men are created equal with certain inalienable rights" and overcoming some of the effects of the huge birth defects of slavery, Native American genocide, and the exclusion of women and non-propertied white men from equal footing in our new nation. But we must continue to move forward until a level playing field is a reality and resist those who seek to move us backwards into a second postReconstruction era through voter suppression, mass incarceration, failing schools, absent jobs, and rampant poverty. This will require committed and prepared marathoners like Mrs. Parks, not sprinters or self-marketers seeking momentary glory in our 10-second attention span media-driven culture. Movement building is a complex and long term struggle that must be pursued with both urgency and persistence and a critical mass of citizens must step up to the plate and stay there until real change happens.
The German playwright Bertolt Brecht said: "There are those who struggle for a day and they are good. There are those who struggle for a year and they are better. There are those who struggle all their lives. These are the indispensable ones." Mrs. Rosa Parks was an indispensable one who struggled all of her life for freedom and justice as did countless unknown Black citizens. So let us not just celebrate her example and that of the young preacher leader and people of Montgomery, let's follow their example.
Marian Wright Edelman is president of the Children's Defense Fund whose Leave No Child Behind® mission is to ensure every child a Healthy Start, a Head Start, a Fair Start, a Safe Start
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Mrs. Rosa Parks: Before and after the bus
Written by Marian Wright Edelman, NNPA Columnist
Tuesday, 12 March 2013 11:38
and a Moral Start in life and successful passage to adulthood with the help of caring families and communities. For more information go to www.childrensdefense.org .
4 / 4
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When you are riding with others, there are several manners that will help keep everyone safer.
While your mother may not hesitate to ask you to settle down or be quiet when she needs to concentrate, your friend may be reluctant to ask you to be a polite passenger. You need to take control of yourself, pay attention to what is going on around you, and be considerate of you friend who is driving.
-
Safety first. Always buckle up; don't make your friend have to ask you. Keep the volume on your music to a reasonable level. Keep your arms, head, legs, and other body parts inside any moving vehicle.
- The driver must have full control. Do not attempt to hold the steering wheel, turn on the windshield wipers, shift, or put on the brake even if the driver asks you to. Those are his responsibilities.
- Don't abuse the driver's car privileges. Don't ask or expect the driver to bend or break her rules. If she is expected to be home before dark, honor that expectation, and don't ask, tease, beg, or demand favors that violate her curfew or restrictions.
- Offer to pay for gasoline. The offer to pay is not expected when you're on a date or if you're an infrequent rider, but if you ride often with your friend or depend on her for regular transportation, do offer to pay so she does not need to ask.
- Be considerate of other drivers and pedestrians. Avoid yelling, whistling, and other behavior that can distract people and cause accidents.
- Don't litter insider the car or out. Clean up any messes. This can include offering to help pay for a trip through a car wash with a vacuuming included. Don't throw trash from the car or leave litter in someone else's car.
Heads Up: The Difference between a Helpful Passenger and a Pain in the Butt
When you're a passenger in a car and you indicate something to look out for in the road, such as a car that's pulling out of a driveway or side street or suddenly changing lanes, you're being helpful. When you comment on someone's driving, however: "Why did you turn your blinker on so early?" or "You so could have passed him back there," or "If you'd taken Dorset we'd be
1 / 2
there by now," you're being a pain in the butt. Before you make a comment to the driver, consider whether your comment will truly be helpful - or whether you're butting in unnecessarily.
2 / 2
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Prevents influenza-related death.
Each year over 36,000 people in the U.S. die because of the flu— most are 65 or older. More people die from flu than from any other vaccine-preventable disease.
Prevents severe illness.
In the U.S. influenza puts about 200,000 people in the hospital each year. Children younger than 2 years old are as likely to be hospitalized as adults who are 65 or older.
Protects other people.
You should get vaccinated if you live with or care for others who are at high risk of complications from the flu. Getting a flu vaccination yourself can help protect your family members, including seniors and young children.
Department of Health and Human Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
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Value-Added Assessment Annotated Bibliography
Adcock, E. P. (1995). Value-added effective schools study for elementary schools: 1994 Maryland school performance assessment program results. Research Report No. 36-9 95. Maryland: Prince George's County Public Schools, Research, Evaluation and Accountability.
This reports provides the results of a value-added study of the effectiveness of 119 Prince George's County elementary school's reading and mathematics programs.
Andrejko, L. (2004). Value-added assessment: a view from a practitioner. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 29(1), 7-9.
A school superintendent describes the use of the information from the Pennsylvania ValueAdded Assessment System (PVAAS) in her school district.
Astin, A.W. (1982). Excellence and equity in American education. Washington, D. C.: National Commission on Excellence in Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 227 098)
Discusses the concept of value-added assessment and how it can promote equity in education by diverting attention away from mere acquisition of resources, focusing instead on their effective utilization.
Bixler-Stoudt, T., Bohan, J., Lewald, K. & McCartney, P. (2005). The pursuit of a data informed school culture in Pennsylvania. The Pennsylvania Administrator, 8 (3), 15-1.
Outlines the various types of data available for school districts to use in Pennsylvania and formats to analysis said data. Included is a discussion of the use of value-added data (PVAAS) in schools.
Bock, R.D., Wolfe, R. & Fisher, T. (1996). A review and analysis of the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System. Nashville, TN: Comptroller of the Treasury. www.comptroller.state.tn.us/orea/reportstvaasp1.pdf
A review of TVAAS by outside reviewers found the system to be fundamentally sound and consistent with other hierarchical models in widespread use. The completeness of the data was found adequate, although improvements could be made.
Bratton, S., Horn, S. & Wright, S. Paul. (1996). Using and Interpreting Tennessee's Value-Added Assessment System. Knoxville: University of Tennessee.
This paper focused on how teachers and principals may use the results of Tennessee's ValueAdded Assessment System (TVAAS)/ Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Principle (TCAP), and also listed some basic principles of the TVAAS statistics and of achievement testing. The paper is divided into four parts. First, Evaluating and Using TVAAS Results, guides readers' in interpreting results and putting them to good use. Second, Basic Principles of TVAAS talks about how TVASS works and what makes it new and different. Third, Standardized Testing and Alternative Assessments deals with educational evaluation issues that has more to do with assessment of learning in general. Finally, the last part covers an assortment of topics.
Bryk, A.S., Thum, Y.M., Easton, J.A., & Luppescu, S. (1998). Academic productivity of Chicago Public elementary schools. Chicago: Consortium on Chicago School Research.
In the context of Chicago school reform, the productivity of individual schools cannot be measured fairly using system-wide reports of average test scores. The authors develop a school productivity profile that estimates the value a school adds to learning in a year. The initial study summarizes trends in reading. Subsequent studies will examine schools that appear to be especially effective.
California Department of Education, Office of Policy and Evaluation, Special Studies and Evaluation (1998).
The California Department of Education summarizes the value-added accountability models in use in Tennessee and in Dallas, and discusses their potential for California schools. The Tennessee system (TVAAS), was implemented in 1992 with support by the Tennessee Business Roundtable. Three hallmarks of the statistical model are that it controls for confounding variables by allowing each student to serve as his or her own control, it accommodates but does not over-react to missing data, and it protects against misclassification, particularly when there are few scores, by assuming that all teacher or school effects are an average of their school system until the weight of the data pulls their specific estimates away from the mean. Two reviews of the model commissioned by the Tennessee Comptroller have largely confirmed the soundness of the methodology. The Dallas system, also in use since 1992, uses a two-stage model. Stage one regression controls for confounding influences, and stage two hierarchical linear modeling controls for school level influences. Reviewers suggest that this system may not accurately account for confounding factors, and does not account well for missing data or regression to the mean. A value-added system could be implemented in California.
Ceperley, P.E. & Reel, K. (1997). The impetus for the Tennessee value-added accountability system. In J. Millman (Ed.), Grading teachers, grading schools: is student achievement a valid evaluation measure? (133-136). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
TVAAS was at the heart of Tennessee's 1992 education reform legislation, prompted by a funding lawsuit. The Business Roundtable demanded accountability provisions for schools in exchange for business support of tax increases for school funding. The reform plan prescribed penalties for schools and districts that repeatedly failed to make gains equal to national norms.
Council of Chief State School Officers (2005). Policymakers' Guide to Growth Models for School Accountability: How Do Accountability Models Differ?
Washington, D.C.
This paper address the potential use of growth models for school accountability and the possibility of adding a growth model to existing systems to provide additional information about educational performance of school and groups of students. For example, a growth model can have the purpose of predicting whether and when a school will meet a projected proficiency goal.
Crane, J. (2002). The promise of value-added testing. Progressive Policy Institute.
Retrieved from www.ppionline.org
No Child Left Behind brings a new emphasis on accountability. Value-added assessment would provide a better picture than annual yearly progress for measuring progress, because of its focus
on gains.
Cunningham, L. (1997). In the beginning. In J. Millman (Ed.), Grading teachers, grading schools: is student achievement a valid evaluation measure? (75-80). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
The Dallas Independent School District built statistical and evaluative capacity throughout the 1960's and 1970's under a remarkably capable superintendent. William Webster, head of research and evaluation, and his staff are leaders in evaluation. Dallas is a leader in educational accountability systems. The value-added assessment system used in Dallas was built over a number of years and consistently refined to fit into (and at times guide) the state accountability scheme.
Darlington, R.B. (1997). The Tennessee value-added assessment system: a challenge to familiar assessment methods. In J. Millman (Ed.) Grading teachers, grading schools: is student achievement a valid evaluation measure? (163-168). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
In this evaluation of TVAAS, the author asks two questions: does the system work well enough to be worthwhile; and how does it compare to regression methods? He concludes that the system does work well enough, and that it is superior to regression models in most real world contexts, where significant data is missing. Regression models are well understood by educators, and thus would be preferable in an ideal school system with complete data, but no such system exists. Mixed models are not well known in education circles, being more common in agricultural statistics. Nonetheless, the mixed model seems superior because of its handling of missing data.
Dembosky, J., Pane, J. Barney, H, & Christina, R. (2006). Data driven decision-making in southwestern Pennsylvania school districts. Retrieved from http://www.rand.org/pubs/working_papers/2006/RAND_WR326.pdf. This study by the RAND Corporation examines the preparedness of school districts to use data driven decision-making, including data provided by PVAAS.
Gormley, W. T., Jr., & Weimer, D. L. (1999). Organizational report cards. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Offers the first comprehensive study of organizational reports. It discusses the circumstances under which they are desirable alternatives to other policy instruments, how they should be designed, who is likely to use them and for what purpose, and what role if any, government should have in their creation.
Graphical summary of educational findings from the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System (TVAAS) (1997). Knoxville: University of Tennessee Value-Added Research and Assessment Center.
Compilation of research findings presented in a series of graphs organized in 1) answer to frequently asked questions about factors thought to influence student academic gain; 2) summarize statewide academic gain trends; and 3) address the problem of variability.
Graphical summary of educational findings from the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System (TVAAS) (1995). Knoxville: University of Tennessee Value-Added Research and Assessment Center. Similar to graphical summary, 1995 but adds a section for interpreting TVAAS reports.
Harris, J. (2006). Using PVAAS data to improve student achievement. Pennsylvania Educational Leadership, 26 (1), 63-69.
Discusses the use of PVAAS data by the district data team. The author concludes that by using PVAAS data along with other school data, the team was able to better identify the academic growth of their students and respond accordingly.
Harville, D. A. (1976). Extension of the Gauss-Markov theorem to include the estimation of random effects. The Annals of Statistics, 4, 384-395.
Harville, D. A. (1995). A review of the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System (TVAAS). Unpublished manuscript: Iowa State University. Describes and reviews methodology and application of TVAAS.
Hippert, L. (2007). Measuring student growth. PASA Flyer, 49 (4), 1-6. This article presents an overview of PVAAS and its use in helping schools look at student growth.
Ladd, H., & Walsh, R. (2002). Implementing value-added measures of school effectiveness: getting the incentives right. Economics of Education Review, 21(1) 1-17.
Value-added systems must distinguish the effectiveness with which schools operate, controlling for differing resources. North and South Carolina school effectiveness measures are based on overall gains in test scores, and do not accurately account for how efficiently a school is operated because they include effects outside the control of school personnel. While these measures provide useful information, because they do not control for school resources, including the student mix, that are outside the control of schools, they should be used cautiously for accountability purposes. Results show that schools serving higher performing students are more likely to be deemed effective than schools serving lower performing students. The authors determine that two-fifths of this correlation is due to measurement error. However, even correcting for measurement error, effectiveness remains correlated with socio-economic status and average test scores. The likely result is that the best teachers will be drawn to the better performing schools.
Lissitz, R.W. (2005). Longitudinal and Value-Added Modeling of Student Performance. Maple Grove, MN: JAM Press.
This book is based on the very well received conference of the same name held on the University of Maryland Campus on November 7 and 8, 2005. This book presents a variety of chapters regarding the theory and application of Longitudinal (Growth) Modeling and Value Added determinations of Student Achievement. This book is found to be stimulating to academics, psychometrics personnel, as well as to school practitioners who are concerned with the monitoring of student performance across time and the organization of schools to utilize this information to encourage maximizing student performance across time. Concerns include statistical theory, estimation issues, and a variety of approaches to modeling that have direct application to this school problem. NCLB has emphasized the status of Cross-sectional Cohorts through the analysis of AYP measures. This is one approach to the problem of measuring school performance. This book is concerned with alternatives that will permit schools to model the performance of individual students with the hope that all students might eventually have their performance maximized as they progress through the school experience. This goal requires the field to develop new ways to measure such progress and new ideas for the use of such measures by the schools.
Lockwood, J.R., Louis, T. & McCaffrey, D. (2002). Uncertainty in rank estimation: implications for value-added modeling accountability systems. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 27(3), 255-70.
The performance of rank (percentile) estimators is investigated in a basic, two-stage hierarchical model that captures the essential features of value-added systems currently in use. The authors conclude that percentile estimators do not necessarily perform well enough to be desirable for use as a basis for evaluations. Substantial information, which is not always present, is needed for acceptable performance of systems based on percentile rankings.
Marsh, J, Pane, J., & Hamilton, L. (2006). Making sense of data-driven decisionmaking in education. Evidence from recent RAND research. Retrieved from http://www.rand.org/pubs/occasional_papers/2006/RAND_OP170.pdf This paper seeks to clarify the ways in which multiple types of data, including value-added data are being used in schools and districts.
McAdams, D. (2002). Enemy of the good. Education Next, 2(2). Retrieved from www.educationnext.org.
Even though value-added analysis is flawed, the author, a former Houston school board member, is committed to it. It is better than the other measures. However, it must be applied with flexibility and supervisors must have the freedom to use their judgment. High-performing organizations measure almost everything, because measurement changes behavior. Constant measurement focuses attention. While it is obvious that testing can be misused, there is little evidence of value-added being misused, and much evidence that it focuses attention on learning.
McCartney, P. (2004). The Pennsylvania Value-Added Assessment System (PVAAS): A Tool for Educators to Improve Instruction. Insight, 24 (3), 6-7. A brief overview of the Pennsylvania Value-Added Assessment System pilot.
McLean, R. A., Sanders, W. L. & Stroup, W. W. (1991). A unified approach to mixed linear models. American Statistician, 45, 54-64. Explanation of mixed-model methodology.
Meyer, R. (2002). Value-added indicators: do they make an important difference? Evidence from the Milwaukee public schools. Wisconsin Center for Education Research. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Education Research Association, New Orleans, April 2, 2002.
The Milwaukee Public Schools initiated annual assessment of students in 2001 and is now using value-added analysis to track school performance, program efficacy, and other policies. Math achievement data from 7th and 8th grades is used to illustrate the approach. The purpose of using value-added analysis is to isolate the contribution of schools from other factors, such as prior achievement and student, family and neighborhood characteristics. The value-added math productivity of Milwaukee middle schools varied widely, with some generating almost two times the growth of the average school. Most schools the served students with lower prior achievement produced better than average gains.
Meyer, R.H. (1996). Value-added indicators of student performance. In Hanushek, E.A. & Jorgenson, D.W. (Eds.). Improving America's Schools: The Role of Incentives (197-224). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
The author's premise is that level indicators such as average test scores, while valid for some purposes, are not valid measures of school performance. He describes various types of statistical models that can be used to determine gains in student achievement, discusses the contexts in which particular models can be effective, and examines the factors that affect reliability. He compares value-added assessments to other, more common, indicators of student achievement, and suggests that inappropriate indicators of achievement drive flawed policy decisions. He recommends that students be tested at every grade level and that other data be collected to enable value-added assessments of student gains.
Meyer, R.H. (1997). Value-added indicators of school performance: A primer. Economics of Education Review 16(3), 283-301.
Evaluating
National Association of State Boards of Education (NASBE) (2005). Value-Added. Alexandria, VA.
This paper looks at the questions surrounding value-added model concepts and practical uses. It addresses and makes recommendations on issues such as the alignment between value-added and other aspects of the state's testing and accountability system, the accuracy of value-added results, the best uses for value-added data, the programs associated with value-added, and the areas states need to think about if they are planning to use value-added analysis as a component of their assessment and accountability system.
Noell, G. & Burns, J. (2006). Value-added assessment of teacher preparation: an illustration of emerging technology; Journal of Teacher Education, 57(1), 37-50.
Broad-based empirical outcomes assessment is an increasingly evident part of governmental services and this trend is particularly apparent in education. The clearest manifestation of this trend in education has been the advent of high-stakes, broad-based testing and accountability programs in K-12 education. Although this assessment regime has not yet been used to assess the efficacy of teacher preparation programs, the data management capacity and statistical technology is now emerging to make this possible. This article presents data from the first year of a pilot study examining the methodological and practical issues involved in implementing a value-added assessment of teacher preparation based on a massive multivariate longitudinal database. The pilot data are discussed in relation to the literature pertaining to value-added assessments in K-12 education. Selected research needs and practical concerns related to the use of value-added models for the assessment of teacher preparation are discussed.
Noell, G. (2005). Assessing teacher preparation program effectiveness: A pilot examination of value added approaches. Retrieved from www.asa.regents.state.la.us/TE/digest.pdf.
This paper is a plot work examining the feasibility of using Louisiana's educational assessment data in concert with the Louisiana Educational Assessment Data System (LEADS). The degree of matching across years and the degree of matching between the LEADS data and achievement data suggest this approach is viable. The reliability of individual level estimates of teacher efficiency across 12 months, different student groups and test forms were promising. As the number of years achievement data increased, the contribution of demographic factors rapidly decreased to low levels. Some statistically significant differences were obtained between new teacher groups and experienced certified teachers for student overcomes after controlling for prior achievement, demography variables, and classroom context variables.
O'Brien, D. & Ware. A. (2002). Implementing research-based reading programs in Fort Worth Independent School District. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 7(2), 167-95.
The Fort Worth Independent School district implemented a direct instruction reading program in kindergarten, 1st and 2nd grades in 61 schools. Two different programs were implemented. This article reports on the history, implementation and evaluation of the programs. Outcome evaluation used statistical analysis to look at the effect of the program on district performance, to compare schools, programs and classrooms, and to identify sources of variation in student gain. Student gains were evaluated using a value-added regression methodology. Simple comparisons of the two programs with a control group would not be adequate because of large differences in the demographics of school populations. The student level regression analysis used a spring reading test score as the independent variable. Dependent variables included the fall reading test score, race, free or reduced price lunch status, gender, special education status and English proficiency. In 50 of 60 program years, holding control variables constant, score gains for the direct instruction programs were larger than the control school gains.
Peevely, G. & Ray, J. (2001). Does equalization litigation effect a narrowing of the gap of value-added achievement outcomes among school districts? Journal of Education Finance, 26(4), 463-76.
Value-added student achievement levels of mostly small, rural schools that participated in the Tennessee school finance case were compared to districts that had not been litigants. The litigants asserted that inequitable funding resulted in lower achievement levels, and implied that higher expectations required equalization of resources. When "full funding," as mandated by the state was achieved, litigants' budgets increased, but were still less than other districts. During the phase in of full funding, the gap between litigants and non-litigants did not significantly close, and the direction of change was mixed.
Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (1988). Methodological advances in analyzing the effects of schools and classrooms on student learning. Review of Research in Education, 15, 469.
Roderick, M, Bryk, A., & Jacob, B. (2002). The impact of high-stakes testing in Chicago on student achievement in promotional gate grades. Educational Evaluation & Policy Analysis, 24(4), 333-57.
Chicago has linked school accountability with high-stakes consequences for students by requiring mandatory levels of performance on standardized tests to achieve promotion from 3rd, 6th and 8th grades. Using a three-level hierarchical linear model, the authors compare student achievement gains in grades targeted for promotion both before and after implementation of the policy, and conclude that student achievement increased substantially in grades 6 and 8 after implementation of the policy. Results for grade 3 were less conclusive. In reading, the lowestachieving students showed the greatest gains, while in math the opposite was true.
Ross, S.M. (2001). Creating critical mass for restructuring. Appalachia Educational Leb., Charleston, WV. [AWT03075] Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Washington, DC. [EDD00036]
From 1995 to 1999, Memphis City Schools implemented a successful systemic reform program. However, in 2001, the program was discontinued. The author documents the success of the program in its early stages, as evidenced by observations and by gains in value-added scores. As the reform program was expanded in its later years, however, schools were added that were more resistant to change and support resources became strained. Schools that joined the reform effort later reported feeling pressure to adopt "favored" reform models. In addition, the superintendent and assistant superintendent, who had spearhead the program announced their departures. The author concludes that for any reform effort to be successful, it must be tailored to school needs, have teacher buy-in, be supportable by district staff, originate in schools rather than in district offices, and be backed by credible, high-quality training.
Ross, S.M., Sanders, W., Wright, S., Stringfield, S., Wang, L., Weiping, A., & Albert, M. (2001). Two- and three-year achievement results from the Memphis restructuring initiative. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 12(3), 323-46.
Two-and three-year achievement results from the Memphis restructuring initiative. School Effectiveness and School Improvement 12(3), 323-46. This study examined the results of three years of school reform initiatives in Memphis. The authors recount the history of recent Memphis reform initiatives and summarize the various reform models chosen by certain Memphis schools. Using TVAAS scores, the study compares the percent of expected gains attained by reform schools versus non-reform schools. After three years, reform schools generally gained relative to matched non-reform schools. Stronger results were shown in the first group of schools to adopt reform models.
Sanders, W. (1998). Value-added assessment. School Administrator, 11(3), 24-27.
"Value-added" methodology is defined as "a statistical method of determining the effectiveness of school systems, schools and teachers in sustaining academic growth for student populations." This methodology allows each student to serve as his or her own control, rather than explicitly accounting for race and socioeconomic status. The validity of this approach is confirmed by the fact that demonstrated cumulative school gains are unrelated to racial and socioeconomic factors.
Sanders, W. (2000). Value-added assessment from student achievement data: opportunities and hurdles. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 14(4), 329-39.
In this transcript of a speech given on receiving an award named for Dr. Jay Milman, the author describes TVAAS and addresses common criticisms of value-added assessment. He describes the pattern, especially in inner city schools, in which previously lower scoring students make progress, but earlier higher scoring students fail to do so. The goal should be realistic growth for all students. While measurement alone will not bring change, information has to be available to guide development and growth.
Sanders, W. L., & Horn, S. (1993). An overview of the Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System (TVAAS) with answers to frequently asked questions. (booklet) Knoxville, TN: Univ. of Tennessee.
Sanders, W.L. & Horn, S.P. (1994). The Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System (TVAAS): Mixed-model methodology in educational assessment. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 8(3), 299-311.
TVAAS is described, including the background for its development and the advantages of using a statistical mixed model approach. The authors defend the practice of using each student as his or her own control rather than trying to explicitly account for all other variables that affect student achievement, noting that it is impossible to account for everything that might have an effect on a student's achievement in a given year.
Sanders, W. L., & Horn, S. P. (1995). Educational assessment reassessed: The usefulness of standardized and alternative measures of student achievement as indicators for the assessment of educational outcomes. Educational Policy Analysis Archives, 3(6).
Sanders, W.L., Saxton, A., & Horn, S.P (1997). The Tennessee Value-Added Assessment System: a quantitative, outcomes-based approach to educational assessment. In J. Millman (Ed.), Grading teachers, grading schools: is student achievement a valid evaluation measure? (137-162). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
TVAAS is described by its creator as a "repeated measures, multivariate response analysis" that allows the inclusion of all the information for each student regardless of the degree of missing information. It uses each student as his or her own control, because it would be a "hopeless impossibility" to include all data for each child so that all confounding influences could be accounted for. The history of TVAAS implementation in Tennessee and the efforts made to educate teachers and other groups is summarized.
Sanders, W. L., Saxton, A. M., Schneider, J. F., Dearden, B. L., Wright, S. Paul, and Horn, S. P. (1994). Effects of building change on indicators of student academic growth. Evaluation Perspectives, 4(1).
Sanders, W. L., Wright, P. S., & Rivers, J. C. (2006). Measurement of academic growth of individual students toward variable and meaningful academic standards. In Lissitz, R. W. (Ed.). Longitudinal and value added models of student performance. Maple Grove, MN: Journal of Applied Measurement Press.
Sanders, W.L., Wright, P., Ross, S. & Wang, W. (2000). Value-added achievement results for three cohorts of Roots and Wings schools in Memphis: 1995-1999 Outcomes. www.successforall.com
This is an extension of a prior study of Roots & Wings schools in Memphis. Twenty-two Roots & Wings schools were examined, with four, three and two years of implementation history. Among the cohort with the longest history of implementation, achievement gains measured by the TVAAS (using the percent of national norm gain across all grades) significantly exceeded comparison non-reform schools. The results were positive, but less pronounced for cohorts with fewer years of reform experience.
Schacter, J., Schiff, T. Thum, Y.M., Fagnano, C., Bendotti, M., Solmon, L., Firetag, K. and Milken, L. (n.d.). The impact of the Teacher Advancement Program on student achievement, teacher attitudes, and job satisfaction. Milken Family Foundation. Retrieved from www.mff.org/pubs/impact of tap.pdf
This study compared gains in student achievement of schools implementing a reform model developed by the Milken Foundation to similar schools not implementing the reform model. Student level scores for Stanford 9 Total Reading, Language and Mathematics were used in a value-added model that measured the percent of the gap to a specified target achievement level that was in fact achieved. All reform schools made improvement and gained significantly more than control schools. Those schools that implemented the reforms the most zealously gained the most.
Stecher, B., & Naftel, S. (2006). Implementing standards-based accountability (ISBA): study design, state context, and accountability policies. Rand Education. Paper presented at the symposium "Implementing No Child Left Behind: New Evidence from Three States" at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco. CA. April. Retrieved from http://www.rand.org/pubs/working_papers/2006/RAND_WR380.pdf.
Sterbin, A. (2001). Rozelle Elementary School: A longitudinal analysis 1995-2000. University of Memphis. Retrieved from www.mrsh.org/ipr.html
In a case study of one Memphis elementary school, the author used value-added scores, among other factors, to assess the success of Modern Red School House comprehensive school reform model as implemented in the school. Comparing longitudinal value-added scores from the subject school with those of similar schools, all Memphis schools, and all Tennessee schools, he found that value-added scores rose, especially in the early years of reform implementation, far more than in all comparison groups, and remained higher throughout the study than comparable schools and all Memphis schools.
Stewart, B. (2006). Value-Added Modeling: The Challenge of Measuring Educational Outcomes: Carnegie Corporation of New York.
The report summarizes the history of value-added models (VAM) for measuring student academic progress over time and the discovery of VAM findings from Sanders to researchers like Robert Mendro. The author discusses the ways in which VAM is being used, and the criticism about the accuracy of VAM measurement.
Stronge, J. & Tucker, P. (2000). Teacher Evaluation and Student Achievement. Annapolis Junction, MD: NEA Professional Library.
Thum, Y.M. (2003). No Child Left Behind: Methodological challenges & recommendations for measuring adequate yearly progress. CSE Tech Report 590, National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST), University of California, Los Angeles.
A statistical accountability measure that focuses on value-added performance can be used to measure Annual Yearly Progress (AYP) under NCLB. AYP can be conceived as a comparison of a unit's growth rate to the rate expected if the unit is to reach proficiency by the NCLB deadline. While there are various types of measures called value-added, only a model based on student level gain gives us a true map of change. (Estimating gains scores are preferable to regressing post-test scores on pre-test scores.) Even when the unit of accountability is the school, the unit of analysis should be the student. Reports should show, and accountability regimes should take account of, the precision of the productivity estimate.
Thum, Y.M. (2002). Measuring student and school progress with the California API. National Center for Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST), University of California, Los Angeles.
The California Public Schools Accountability Act required the state board of education to establish a numerical index (API) for measuring school performance and the performance of groups of students within schools. The author concludes that the API misrepresents student and school performance and presents an alternative based on a Baysian meta-analysis of results from multilevel models of student test scores. This new approach retains the main features of the API and is feasible given the current API database. The approach is illustrated using data from the Long Beach Unified School District.
Thum, Y.M. & Bryk, A.S. (1997). Value-added productivity indicators. In J. Millman (Ed.), Grading teachers, grading schools: is student achievement a valid evaluation measure? (137-162). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Dallas is a leader in school accountability, especially notable for the degree of political support and educator buy in for the system. While the system rules work reasonably well at controlling for student mobility and preventing manipulation, and the adjustment for fairness variables is appropriate, there are significant questions about the validity of the model and it should be used with caution.
Vaughan, A. (2002). Standards, accountability, and the determination of school success. The Education Forum, 66(3), 206-13.
A review of the history of the modern standards movement from 1989 to the present includes examples of state successes in raising student achievement and narrowing the achievement gap. Policy makers now realize that evaluations based on average test scores simply result in rewarding prosperous schools. Value-added evaluation models such as those in place in North Carolina, Tennessee, Prince Georges County, Maryland, Colonial School District in Pennsylvania, and Dallas, Texas may be the best hope for transforming schools.
Viadero, D. (2006). U.S. Pilot of AYP 'Growth' Models Advances; Education Week.
To make adequate progress, or AYP, schools and districts currently must meet annual targets for the percent of students who score at least at the proficient level on state tests, both for the student population as a whole and for subgroups of students who are poor, speak limited English, have disabilities, or come from racial or ethnic minorities. Federal officials are sending proposals from eight states on to the next round of screening for a new pilot program allowing states to consider students' academic growth in measuring whether schools and districts meet performance targets under the No Child Left Behind Act.
Webster, W.J. (1998). A comprehensive system for the evaluation of schools. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA., April 13-17, 1998.
The author describes the three-tier accountability system in place in the Dallas public schools. School effectiveness indices are one component of the system. The inclusion of these indices results in a valid and fair way to compare the effects of the school on student learning, apart from factors out of the school's control.
Webster, W.J. & Mendro, R.L. (1995). Evaluation for improved school level decisionmaking and productivity. Studies in Education Evaluation, 21, 361-399.
Dallas' three-tier accountability system couples accountability at the school and district levels with school accountability indices. School and district improvement plans support the first two components of the accountability system. The school improvement indices used by Dallas schools separates school effects from non-school effects in a more precise way than measures used by the Texas Education Agency. The only fair method for holding schools accountable for improvement is to adjust measures of outcomes for factors that impact those outcomes but are out of school control. This can be done through multiple regression and through hierarchical linear modeling. The indices predict student levels of accomplishment and set the desired level of improvement based on these predictions. School-level consequences are imposed based on achievement or non-achievement of predicted levels of student improvement.
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LEMONS&
Lemons originated in China and were brought to the United States by Catholic Missionaries where they were planted in Arizona and California. Today Arizona and California produce all of the lemons consumed in the United States as well as about one-third of those used throughout the world. There are two different types of lemons – acid and sweet. The acidic varieties are grown commercially and the sweet types are grown mainly by home gardeners. Lemons are valued for their many uses in flavoring the food we eat, as a garnish, and for household purposes. Lemons are an excellent source of vitamin C. Did you know that one medium lemon has about 3 tablespoons of juice and 3 tablespoons of grated peel?
The Persian lime also known as a Tahiti lime or Bearss lime is the variety of lime most commonly found in grocery stores. It is usually sold quite green, seedless and has light-green to yellow pulp which is tender and acidic. It is larger, thicker-skinned, and less aromatic than the Key Lime, which has a wider agricultural distribution worldwide. The advantages of the Persian lime compared to the Key Lime is its larger size, hardiness, absence of thorns on the bushes and longer fruit shelf like. Florida is the largest grower of Persian limes, producing 90% of the U.S.
crop, most of which is used for making fresh juice and canned or frozen juice concentrate. Limes like lemons are an excellent source of vitamin C. Did you know that the lime changes to a yellow color as it reaches full ripeness?
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Promoting a culture of civic engagement by connecting and supporting all Portlanders working together and with government to build inclusive, safe and livable neighborhoods and communities.
1221 SW 4th Avenue, Suite 110 Portland, Oregon 97204
tel 503-823-4000 tty 503-823-6969
fax 503-823-3050
Amanda Fritz Commissioner
Amalia Alarcón de Morris Bureau Director
City/County
Information & Referral Line 503-823-4000 •
This document is available at the ONI website:
www.portlandoregon.gov/oni/cp
Community Foot Patrol
A guide for crime prevention practitioners and volunteers
Office of Neighborhood Involvement Crime Prevention Program Copyrighted 1992 Revised Summer 2006
This manual has the following purposes:
* To support the initial training of newly-forming Community Foot Patrols
* To consult when questions arise about the procedures and policies of Community Foot Patrol
* To help train new members joining an already-established Community Foot Patrol
Table of Contents
Программа по Предотвращению Преступности имеет сотрудника, который говорит нa Русскoм языкe. Пожалуйста позвоните нам по #503-823-4000, если Вы нуждаетесь в нашиx услугах на Русскoм языкe.
El Programa de la Prevención del Crimen tiene un miembro que habla espa ñol. Llame por favor al número principal 503-823-4000 si usted necesita los servicios en español.
Introduction to Community Foot Patrols
What is a Community Foot Patrol?
A Foot Patrol is a trained group of volunteers organized to increase the safety and livability of their neighborhood. They walk their neigh borhood streets, parks, or schools to deter crime and report incidents and problems, rather than sit back and hope that someone else will take care of any crime or livability problems. Foot Patrol members are actively and directly involved in solving those problems in a commu nity-based, non-confrontational manner. Foot Patrols collaborate with the City's Crime Prevention Coordinators, police, neighborhood coali tions and associations, schools, parks personnel, and area businesses to help make sure that neighborhood problems receive a prompt and effective response. A Foot Patrol is a great way to meet like-minded people, contribute to your community, and get some exercise too!
Purpose of Foot Patrols
Community Foot Patrols have several purposes:
* To help reduce crime and the fear of crime by providing a visible presence as a deterrent to criminal activity. Having concerned patrol members actively watching sends a mes sage in the neighborhood that crime will not be tolerated. Criminals don't wish to be observed, so the presence of alert, trained volunteers can deter and prevent some crimes. Ad ditionally, residents begin to feel a sense of safety knowing that neighbors care and are concerned about the safety and security of the area.
* To report livability problems. A Foot Patrol is in a good position to notice and report graffiti and other vandalism, abandoned vehicles, illegal dump sites, camping, evidence of drug dealing or manufac turing, street drinking, and other liquor violations.
* To report suspicious or illegal activities. The police and crime prevention staff rely on patrols to tell them about crime incidents and suspects. These patrols can provide timely in formation which can prevent crime from occurring or help ap prehend criminals.
* To promote positive communication and relationships within a neighborhood. Community Foot Patrols provide an avenue for neighbors to get to know one another and build a sense of com munity.
Types of patrols
Community Foot Patrols are, by their nature, walking patrols. Being on foot makes it much easier to notice detailed information about the environment or an event than one could notice driving in a car. For this reason, and others, the City does not encourage or support driving patrols. On rare occasions, it may be appropriate to start a bike patrol. For example, if a patrol is desired in an area that is mostly traveled by bicycle, such as a bike path, it would make sense to patrol it by bicycle. However, these situations are rare. It is almost always most appropri ate to patrol on foot.
Foot Patrols typically operate in one of four different environments: res idential areas, business districts, parks, or school grounds. Sometimes these areas overlap and a patrol may operate in two environments; the most common combination is residential and business. Different patrol settings may call for some differences in organization and operation due to the different crime and livability issues that may be present and the agencies that might respond to these problems.
* Residential area patrols usually work on reducing drug dealing, bur glaries, thefts, and vandalism.
* Park patrols are focused on reducing criminal activity in parks, such as vandalism, camping, speeding, sexual ac tivity, drug sales or use, alcohol violations, and other mis use of park facilities. In establishing park patrols, addi tional steps need to be taken in co-operation with Portland Parks & Recreation.
* Business district patrols are often oriented toward reducing drug dealing, prostitution, and alcohol-related problems.
* School patrols are organized to patrol the school grounds and immediate surrounding area to eliminate vandalism, drug dealing, speeding, or the presence of adults who may endanger children. In establishing school patrols, ad ditional steps need to be taken in co-operation with the school district.
Roles within a Foot Patrol
Foot Patrols consist of a group of patrol members, one or two of whom are designated the patrol organizer(s). The patrol organizer is some one selected by the group to manage the patrol schedule and the re cords of the group, as well as serve as the main communication link between the patrol, its members, and its partners.
Roles of partners
While community members are the people who do the actual patrolling, they partner with others to achieve the best results. Without exception, Foot Patrols partner with and receive technical assistance from crime prevention staff and police. Depending on the location of the patrol and the specific issues at that location, other partners may also be ap propriate.
Crime Prevention Program Coordinators
Employed by the Office of Neighborhood Involvement, Crime Preven tion Program Coordinators (CPPC) are professional problem-solvers, educators, and community organizers on issues of crime and public safety. Every part of Portland has an assigned CPPC. CPPCs provide the initial training to patrol members, and often provide follow-up train ing as well; provide advice and assistance to the patrol such as informa tion about resources and crime patterns; help coordinate responses to chronic problems; and serve as a central repository for patrol records.
Police officers
These could be district officers, who respond to radio calls; Neighbor hood Response Team officers, who work on long-term problems; or members of specialty units such as the Gang Enforcement Team, the
Drugs and Vice Division, or the School Police. Police receive, review, and respond as necessary to incidents reported by the Foot Patrol. They can assign an officer to attend patrol trainings or meetings.
Neighborhood Watch Organizers
These are community members who lead a Neighborhood Watch. A Neighborhood Watch is a way of organizing residents of a block to make the block more resistant to crime, and better able to respond to crime if it occurs. Often, people who are interested in Neighborhood Watch are interested in Foot Patrol, and vice versa. Many times, people are involved in both. Some Foot Patrols are outgrowths of a specific Neigh borhood Watch. If Neighborhood Watches exist in the patrol area, for mutual safety and effectiveness the members of each group communi cate with each other about any incidents or problems in the area.
Neighborhood coalitions and associations
Neighborhood coalitions are organizations which provide support and technical assistance to a group of neighborhood associations. It may be appropriate to notify the neighborhood association and/or neighbor hood coalition of any problems that are witnessed on a patrol. These organizations have a certain amount of clout because they represent the residents of an area, and can sometimes direct resources or atten tion to a problem.
Business owners, business associations, and Business Watches
These can be very effective partners for a business district Foot Patrol. Like the neighborhood associations and coali tions, business associations may be able to direct resources or attention to a problem. Business owners often give their emergency numbers for a patrol to call if they see any prob lems at their building. Some business owners are willing and able to make physical improvements on their building that may help deter crime, such as adding lighting. Business Watches are networks of businesses in a specific area organized to prevent and better respond to crime. They are obvious allies for a business area Foot Patrol, in the same way that Neigh borhood Watches are allies for a residential area Foot Patrol.
Parks & Recreation staff
A park Foot Patrol would regularly communicate with the Portland Parks & Recreation security manager, the Park Rangers, the park district maintenance manager, and/or the staff at community centers, which are often located in parks. Depending on the location and the problem, once they are made aware of a problem any of these staff members may be able to take action that could help deter or eliminate problem activity in a park. Especially during the summer months, activity in parks picks up and requests for services and patrol by the parks bureau increases. The Parks Bureau employs Park Rangers who patrol the parks and assist in keeping the parks safe and livable. Park Rangers write park exclusions and work with the Police, neighbors, and patrols in keeping the parks safe and secure.
School staff
A school Foot Patrol would communicate with that school's principal, the school district security manager, and/or maintenance and custodial staff to help address problems that are detected on school grounds.
Other possible partners
There are other city staff and community members that may be appro priate partners for a Foot Patrol, such as the City's graffiti abatement coordinator or noise control officer, or the office of transportation, or a religious leader of a congregation in the patrol area.
Success stories
There are multiple Community Foot Patrols operating in Portland. Here are some of the successes they have had in reducing problems in their neighborhoods:
The Mt. Tabor Park Foot Patrol has 27 active volunteers who conduct as many as 33 patrols per month at the very popular Mt. Tabor Park in Southeast Portland. The group also helps by picking up litter and providing information to park visitors. Over the years this patrol has been very successful in reporting criminal activity, educating visitors on how to keep their cars safe from vandalism, reporting graffiti and work ing with the police and park staff to address suspicious activity. This committed group of individuals has increased the trust of the neighbors, police, and visitors to Mt. Tabor Park.
At Argay Park in Northeast Portland, a history of drug activity in the park prompted neighbors to form the Argay Park Foot Patrol. More recently, the park has experienced a spate of racist graffiti, and the patrol has been instrumental in getting it reported and cleaned up quickly. The patrol uses their patrol sessions to pick up litter while they watch for any further crime and nuisance problems. They often encounter neighbors in the park who thank them for what they are doing and say that they like using the park because it feels safe and clean.
Starting a Foot Patrol
Talk to your Crime Prevention Program Coordinator about your interest in starting a Foot Patrol. He or she can give you some pointers on the first steps, which include:
Recruiting volunteers
People with a vested interest in the potential patrol area (stakehold ers) are your best resource for potential volunteers. Your CPPC can assist in publicizing and marketing the effort to the public. Places to recruit potential members include: Neighborhood or Business Watches; neighborhood or business associations; congregations; and civic or ganizations. Effective recruitment techniques might include press re leases, newsletters, posters, and announcements at meetings. Think about the stakeholders in your area, where they gather, and how they communicate. It's a good idea to gather as many interested people as possible before holding the first training. Twelve is a good target num ber for starting a new Foot Patrol. If you have fewer people, but they are very dedicated, it can work out just fine too.
Selecting a patrol area & time
In choosing a patrol area and the time the patrol will occur, consider the following: residents' complaints or concerns; crime patterns in the area; existence of Neighborhood Watch es or Business Watches; identified problem locations; safety of patrol members; and natural borders.
Making arrangements with partners
If you have decided to have a Foot Patrol that is focused on a park, you will need to make a connection with Portland Parks & Recreation. They have their own criteria for volunteers that need to be met. Since parks attract young children, Portland Parks & Recreation requires a basic background check for
Similarly, Foot Patrols that are focused on schools will need to make a connection with the school district and the principal of the school. If the Foot Patrol will operate in an area with an active Neighborhood Watch or Business Association, it makes sense to connect with these groups. Your CPPC can help you with any of this.
those doing volunteer work in the parks.
Arranging training for patrol members
Once you have recruited a group of volunteers, the CPPC will provide the initial training for the group. An outline of the initial training can be found in the addenda of this manual. Talk to your CPPC about a date, time, and location for this first training.
Patrol logistics & procedures
Once a Foot Patrol has formed, they are ready to start patrolling their area. What follows is an explanation of the logistics and procedures of conducting a patrol session, and maintaining a Foot Patrol over time.
Preparing for your patrol
Dress appropriately
* When patrols form, they select identifying clothing that all members must wear while on patrol. Most patrols opt for reflective vests, which can be purchased for a fairly low cost at sporting goods stores, safety supply stores, or bike shops. Some patrols have tee-shirts or jackets printed. If paying for the patrol's identifying clothing may be a problem for any member, consider approaching a local business and ask them to donate to your patrol, or talk to your CPPC for other ideas. No member should be excluded for an inability to purchase the vest or shirt.
* Dress for the weather, for comfort, and for easy movement. A fanny pack or pockets will be the best way to carry any personal items you want to have with you. Carry as little as possible for easy movement.
Meet up with your fellow patrol members
* Meet up with the other patrol members in a spot that makes the most sense for everyone. This might be a member's house, an area business, a community center, or wherever the patrol equip ment is kept.
* At least two people must be present for a patrol to go out. One person should never patrol alone for safety reasons. At night or in areas which have been experiencing significant crime problems, it is recommended that three or more people go out together on patrol.
Bring or pick up the necessary equipment
* Usually, patrol members supply their own flashlights, notebooks, pens, and cell phones and bring them along the day of the patrol.
* Each member must carry a notebook & pen for recording incidents or conditions that need to be reported, and be equipped with a flashlight if the patrol is in the evening. The flashlight enables you to see your patrol area better, and allows the police to find you more easily if you need to summon them. The group must have at least one cell phone with them on patrol so they can call 911 or the non-emergency number if necessary.
* Some patrols prefer to share this equipment and leave it in a central location for the patrol to pick up each time they go out. A local business that is open long hours may be willing to store the equipment, and the group could start
and end the patrol at the business.
* If it is the case that few or no members of a patrol own cell phones, speak to your CPPC about the situation. A patrol really must have a cell phone with them when they are out patrolling.
Select your patrol area for the shift
Check in with the police
* Identify which areas of the neighborhood you want to patrol, being sure to discuss any particular areas where the patrol may need to be especially alert. Select a route that is within the bound aries that your specific Foot Patrol has selected. Preplan your route and the amount of time it will take to do the patrol. All the members should begin and end with a preplanned destination. If members cannot walk the full route because of time or physical constraints, the Foot Patrol needs to discuss how this will impact the patrol for that day or evening.
* Notify the police that the patrol is heading out. They need to know the area that will be patrolled, how many patrol members are go ing out, the time the patrol will end, and the cell phone where the patrol can be reached.
* Notifying the police is important both for the safety of patrol mem bers and the knowledge of police officers who are working in the patrol area. If the Foot Patrol needs to call the police, it can speed their response time and understanding of the situation if the police already know that a patrol is happening in the area.
* As of this writing, only Central Precinct has desk clerks 24 hours per day. For this reason, Central Precinct will take the calls from Foot Patrols who are headed out on patrol and convey the infor mation to the appropriate officers anywhere in the city. The num ber for Central Precinct is 503-823-0097.
Conducting your patrol
Walk your area
* Walk through your patrol area, looking for any situations or condi tions that need attention. Patrol members should stick together for the entire time that they are on patrol.
* Neighbors are often curious about what the Foot Patrol is doing. As long as the neighbors seem safe, be open and friendly! You are forming potential alliances with people who might want to join the Foot Patrol or help your cause in some other way. Likewise, be friendly towards kids you may en counter. It's valuable for them to see that theirs is a com munity that cares about safety and livability and is hopeful for the future.
* Protect your personal safety and that of the other patrol members. See addenda section of this manual for informa tion about personal safety. Personal safety is paramount.
If you encounter a situation that seems criminal or dan gerous
There is no need to endanger yourself EVER.
* From a safe distance, note exactly where the problem is happen ing and as many other details as you can safely gather. If cars are involved, try to get license plates. If the suspects leave, note the direction in which they travel.
* Keep your demeanor cool-headed and non-confrontational. It is not the Foot Patrol's job to arrest, detain, or confront criminals, even just verbally; that's what police are for. Your job is only to be the eyes and ears of the community and to record problems and report them to the appropriate people.
* Call 911 or the non-emergency number, as appropriate. See ad denda under "Calling 911, non-emergency, and other resources."
* Again, note as many details as possible in your notebook.
If you see situations or problems that can be reported later
* After the patrol, you will report the situation to the appropriate per son. See the addenda under "Calling 911, non-emer gency, and other resources" for some commonly-needed phone numbers. If you are unsure to whom you need to report a problem, call your CPPC for advice.
Wrapping up a patrol
* If the patrol organizer is not present, decide who will con tact them with the information they need to write a log entry. Or, if the patrol's log book is in a central location, the entry can be made at the end of the shift by any of the patrol members.
* If the group shares equipment that is stored in a central location, return the equipment to its storage place.
* If any non-emergency events or conditions were noted on the patrol that need to be reported, decide who will make that report. For example, if graffiti was noted, someone needs to call the graffiti hotline or make an online report.
* Do something nice for yourself. You deserve it. You are making an important contribution to your community!
Patrol organizer tasks
Scheduling
* Some patrols can have regularly scheduled times. Patrol volun teers are informed when the patrol goes out and they come if they can. The patrol goes out if there are enough volunteers for a pa trol. A minimum of two members must patrol at one time.
* The scheduling of patrols varies greatly depending on the number of volunteers and their schedules, geographic size of the area patrolled, and safety considerations.
* The times the patrol wants coverage can be divided into shifts. Volunteers then sign up for a particular weekly or monthly shift, or as they have time.
Record keeping
* Another way of scheduling is to have an open calendar. Volun teers sign up for the time that is most convenient for them.
The patrol organizer keeps the following records for the patrol, and makes sure that the CPPC has current copies:
* Updated patrol roster, including emergency contact information for each member. Some patrols like to set up a phone tree or email list serve so they can get information to the whole group quickly if needed.
* Patrol area map
* Patrol logs: patrol logs will include dates and times of patrols; volunteers on the patrol; and any significant events or calls for service.
In addition to assisting with monitoring of neighborhood problems over time, the reason for this documentation is to provide a re cord of active volunteers and volunteer hours. This can provide
the basis for volunteer recognition, patrol recognition, and support requests for donations or grants for the patrol.
Follow-up training and meetings
An active Foot Patrol often has members join after the initial training that happens when the patrol forms. The crime prevention program coordinator (CPPC) will be happy to train new members of the Foot Patrol and do refresher trainings for people who are already members. Or, when a Foot Patrol is experienced and established, the Foot Patrol organizer may do these trainings. The CPPC can provide the Foot Pa trol organizer with materials to conduct the training.
It's a good idea for active Foot Patrols to set up regular meetings for members to discuss what they are seeing on patrol. The CPPC or a police officer will be able to attend some of these meetings. Meetings are a good time to discuss how more members might be recruited, or any procedural decisions that need to be made. They are also a good time to have a short training on a topic of interest to members of your Foot Patrol that would help them better understand trends in crime in their neighborhood. For example, additional training in liquor violations, gang activity, or domestic violence may be helpful. Talk to your CPPC about additional training you would like to have. He or she may be able to provide the training, or help you find a trainer on the topic.
Addenda
Frequently Asked Questions
Can we have a driving patrol?
It is far easier to see and respond to problems in the neighborhood when on foot. When you are driving, your attention should be on safely driving the car. When you are on foot, you can devote your attention to the neighborhood itself, which is the purpose of a Foot Patrol. For these reasons, the City does not encourage or support driving patrols.
Can my children come along on patrol?
For practical and safety reasons Foot Patrol members need to be focused on watching their surroundings, rather than tak ing care of the needs of a child. Also, the Foot Patrol cannot be as flexible and mobile if accompanied by a child. Lastly, there is the potential that Foot Patrols could be confronted by people who are belligerent and angry. Remember, criminals don't like to be watched and in rare instance may confront a Foot Patrol. For this reason, Foot Patrol members may not bring their minor children on patrol with them.
Can I bring my dog?
For the same reasons listed above, we recommend that you leave your pet at home when you are on patrol. However, we are aware that some people like to combine their patrolling with their dog's daily walk, and would have difficulty fitting in two walks. If you have a very well-trained dog who you know will not distract you from patrolling, and the other members of the Foot Patrol are comfort able patrolling with you and your dog, you may go ahead and bring your dog.
Can I bring a friend or a potential new patrol member?
Yes, as long as that person is briefed on the basics of participating in Foot Patrol prior to going out. A good way to do this is for a current pa trol member to go over the volunteer agreement form with the person, making sure that they understand that Foot Patrol is a non-confronta tional activity. Having people come along for "walk-alongs" is an excel lent way to recruit new members of the Foot Patrol. If a person is going to join the patrol on a regular basis, they need to be provided with the training, and need to sign the volunteer agreement form.
Can minors be part of the patrol?
Community Foot Patrol members must be 18 years of age or older.
What if we don't have access to cell phones?
patrol, talk to your CPPC. He or she may know about a way to get cell
If no members of the Foot Patrol have cell phones that can be used on phones donated to your Foot Patrol.
What if I have a concealed carry permit? Can I bring my gun? What about pepper spray?
Even if you choose to carry a weapon for self-protection in other cir
cumstances, you may not do so while patrolling with your Foot Patrol. If you insist upon carrying your weapon with you at all times, Foot Patrol is not for you. There are other ways you can serve your community if you are interested. Speak to your CPPC for ideas.
Can we arrest or detain someone until the police arrive?
Civilians who try to detain or arrest criminals risk injury, death, and lawsuits. Police officers are paid and trained to make ar rests. Foot Patrol members should stay a safe distance away from a situation and wait for the police to arrive and determine if arrests need to be made.
What if we see family violence?
to their situation, violence should never be ignored. Ignoring violence hurts the whole community.
Many people who witness a disturbance between romantic partners or family members feel like the situation is "private" and should be ignored. Nothing could be further from the truth. If you see violence, or a situation that could soon be come violent, no matter the relationship between the people involved, 911 should be called. While the people involved in family violence may feel embarrassed if attention is called
Can we distribute brochures or flyers while we patrol? Can we pick up litter as we patrol?
* • • • •
Yes. Just keep in mind that your ability to move easily and quickly is important, so you don't want to carry so much with you that it impairs this ability.
Outline of Foot Patrol training
Crime prevention staff will train Foot Patrol members with assistance from the police and other resources as appropriate.
* Discussion of specific neighborhood problems that have led to the desire for a patrol
1. Classroom training
* Overview of purpose of Community Foot Patrol
* Identifying suspicious activities
* Patrol procedures
* Calling 911, non-emergency, and other resources
* Patrol logistics: scheduling, record keeping, equipment
* Reporting livability problems
* Personal safety while on patrol
* Filling out volunteer agreement, and if needed, background check forms for Portland Parks & Recreation or the school district
* Selection of patrol leadership
2. Initial patrol with crime prevention staff and/or police officer
* The CPPC or a police officer (or both) can accompany the group for an initial patrol of the area, pointing out problem spots and answering questions.
The CPPC will provide the Foot Patrol with manuals. The manual is
also on the Office of Neighborhood Involvement website and can be downloaded by anyone who would like a copy. The website is located at www.portlandonline.com/oni. Follow the links for Crime Prevention.
Additional training may be arranged upon request. For example, train ing about a specific type of crime may be appropriate.
* • • • •
Calling 911, non-emergency, and other resources
(This section adapted from Bureau of Emergency Communications brochure)
Call 911 when it is an emergency and a prompt response is needed. Call 911 if it is a life-threatening situation or something is occurring at the time of the call. A fire, medical problem, assault, fight, traffic ac cident, or any situation that could result in loss of life or major property loss should be called in to 911.
When to call 911
What happens when you call 911
Please do not assume that the call taker has this information in the computer. All facts need to be verified to ensure that your emergency is handled as quickly as possible.
When you call 911, a call taker will ask you a series of ques tions which they are trained to ask. Keep your answers as short and direct as possible. Questions may include: What happened? What is the location? Where are you calling from? What is your name?
Why you should stay on the line
send your call to the dispatcher. Staying on the line with the call taker does not interfere with the ability of the dispatcher to send help and it will not delay the response. The call taker may need you to stay on the line to help direct emergency personnel to the right location or to provide additional assistance that can help ensure your emer gency is handled correctly. If it is possible, do not hang up the phone until the 911 call taker says it is okay to hang up.
While you are on the phone with the call taker, he or she can
What should you do if you're put on hold?
If you call 911 and reach a recording which states that all lines are busy, stay on the line. Your call will be answered as quickly as possible. If you hang up and redial, you will lose your place in line and a call taker will receive the message that someone from your phone called 911 and then hung up. The call taker then is required to attempt to call you back; meanwhile if you are calling in to 911 again, two call takers are now attempting to respond to your call.
When to call the non-emergency number
The non-emergency number is 503-823-3333, which you can dial 24 hours a day for non-emergency police help. Using the non-emergency number keeps 911 available for true emergencies. 911 call takers re ceive non-emergency calls often; most frequently the call is from some
one wanting to report a crime which occurred a few hours, or even a few days ago. This ties up valuable resources that should be reserved for true emergencies.
* While your patrol is walking down an alley, you discover discarded property (such as a wallet or some mail) which may have been sto len
Some examples of when you should call 503-823-3333 are:
* While your patrol is walking through a park, you see some people who are behaving suspiciously and you would like to have the police check them out, but no obvious crimes are being committed and no one is in danger
* While your patrol is walking through a commercial area, you walk by a business after business hours, and it has not been secured (e.g. the door is hanging open and there are no employees around)
When not to call either number
Often people call 911 or the non-emergency number if they want to know road conditions, report an animal problem which does not involve a vicious animal, report a power outage, or are having trouble finding a phone number in the phone book. When you need information, or if you are making routine business inquiries, you should not use either the emergency or non-emergency number.
If you cannot find a phone number in the phone book, call information at 411.
If you have a complaint or question regarding a service pro vided by the City of Portland or Multnomah County, call the city/county information and referral line at 503-823-4000.
If you have a general question regarding police services or are unsure whom to call with your non-emergency question, call the Police Bureau information line at 503-823-4636.
If you want to report graffiti, call 503-823-4TAG (4824).
If you want to report a possible liquor law violation, call the City's liquor licensing specialist at 503-823-3092 or the Or egon Liquor Control Commission at 503-872-5070.
If you want to report a pattern of excessive noise, call the City's noise control office at 503-823-7350.
You can also report graffiti, liquor, and noise problems online at www.portlandonline.com/oni.
If you want to report an animal problem, call Multnomah County Animal Control at 503-988-7387.
* • • • •
Protecting your personal safety while on patrol
It is important that, while you are on patrol, you take measures to protect your personal safety. Participating in Foot Patrol is very rarely danger ous, but it is certainly true that criminals do not like to be watched while they commit crimes. Sometimes they confront Foot Patrol members. Below is a discussion of some basic principles of personal safety that you can apply to your activities on the Foot Patrol and other parts of your life as well.
Trust your intuition, and act on it
safer for you and the others on Foot Patrol with you. You could reduce your isolation by walking into a store, or you could cross the street and go the other direction to get away from a situation. If you are face-toface with a dangerous situation, you can use de-escalation techniques to try to keep the situation calm until you can escape.
Your intuition is your internal alarm system that tells you when there is something wrong in your environment. Your intuition may tell you that something is wrong even before you detect the problem through sight, sound, smell, or touch. You may experience intuition as a feeling of dread or doubt, or through physical sensations, such as tightness in the stomach, hair standing on end, or a racing heart. When your intuition tells you that you are in danger, take action! Often, people try to talk themselves out of what they feel ("Don't react. Maybe you're wrong. You don't want to look foolish."), but this is rare ly a good idea. Instead, do something to make the situation
Deal with a situation at the lowest & calmest level possible
For optimal safety on your Foot Patrol, it is best to deal with a potentially dangerous situation as soon as it is recognized as such. At the earliest sign of danger, remove yourselves from the situation if possible. There is no reason to wait around to see if your suspicions are confirmed. If something feels bad, it probably is bad, and you don't need to endanger yourself to "make sure."
If you are unable to leave the situation right away, you can use deescalation. De-escalation is a method of calming down a situation or another person. When you are facing an agitated, angry person, the calmer you can get them, the safer it is for you.
* Display a confident & calm demeanor. Make some eye contact, but with a soft gaze, not an intense or constant stare. Keep your face neutral. Keep your posture calm and relaxed but alert. Don't make any sudden movements.
* Calm yourself. Breathe slowly and deeply. Tell yourself, "I can handle this. I'm going to be OK."
* Position yourselves for safety. Stay at least two arm-lengths away from a potentially dangerous person, or position yourselves be hind a barrier if possible. Keep your hands free and in front of your body. Look for escape routes.
* Use your voice to calm the potential assailant. Keep your voice calm, firm, low, slow, and even. Use short, simple sentences. Avoid complex logic; agitated people cannot understand compli
cated concepts—they are thinking at a very simple level.
* Avoid escalating behaviors. Examples: ignoring, making threats, hurtful remarks, arguing, commanding, shouting, interrupting, personal space invasions, threatening gestures, obscenities, selfrighteous attitude, taking away their dignity. Remember, in a dan gerous situation you don't need to be right; you need to be safe.
* Say things that will help you establish rapport with the potential assailant. Listen actively. Use "uh-huh" and nod. Listen for con tent and emotion. Really listen to what the person wants and needs. Acknowledge their feelings, agree with them, and em pathize (even if you don't really feel that way). Project sincerity. "It looks like we startled you when we came down the alley. I'm sorry. We didn't mean to."
Recognize the strategies that assailants commonly use & pre-plan your defense
There are some common strategies that assailants use against the per son/people they attack or harass. Here is a description of how these
common strategies might be used against your patrol group in a street situation, and what might help in each case.
Assailant strategy: Isolation
* You have a built-in buddy system with Foot Patrol, so you're never alone.
It is much easier for an assailant to attack someone who is iso lated and alone, and the assailant is less likely to be caught. What might help: Stay connected with others
* Identify some safe places to go for help when you are out on your route, e.g. stores, bars, supermarkets, fire stations, police stations.
* Having checked in with the precinct means there are people out there who know where you are.
* Use the patrol's cell phone to make a call. This shows that help is not far away.
Assailant strategy: Surprise
What might help: Be hard to surprise
Physical surprise: Assailant hides behind something and jumps out, or approaches very quickly. Psychological surprise: When someone we never expected to be violent is violent. This is often the result of stereotypes about who is/is not a criminal based on race, income level, educational level, neighborhood, etc.
* Stay aware of surroundings. This means visual awareness (look all around you), and auditory awareness (listen to what's going on around you).
* Respond to gut feelings about behavior rather than stereotypes about appearance.
Assailant strategy: Intimidation
Intimidation can be very obvious (pointing a weapon, saying some thing threatening) or more subtle (leaning over someone, clenching jaw muscles, angry facial expressions, putdowns, etc.) Sometimes assailants try to intimidate people into not making any noise during an assault or not reporting an incident. Assailants are often "power
trippers," who try to make others feel small and powerless so they can feel big and powerful by comparison.
* Breathe slowly and deeply, and tell yourself you're going to be OK, that you handle the situation.
What might help: Try to show that you are not afraid, even if you are
* Respond in ways that maintain your dignity and do not escalate the interaction. This could be as subtle as standing up straight, making some brief eye contact, and trying to calm someone down.
Communicate with your fellow patrol members.
* Some patrols set up a code word for dangerous situations. For ex ample, a word could be selected to mean, "This is dangerous and we need to leave now."
Before going out with your fellow patrol members, it's a good idea to have an agreed-upon way of handling incidents, so that you don't have to figure it out in the moment.
* Some patrols arrange in advance who will do what in an emergency situation. The person with the best verbal skills could be the one that tries to calm down the situation. Another person could be the one who calls 911.
Before patrol
* Take cell phone, notebook and pen, flashlight
* Meet up with patrol partners
* Wear identifying clothing
* Before leaving on patrol, call Central Precinct
After patrol
* Store any shared equipment
* Report any livability problems noted during patrol to the appropriate place
* Make a log entry
* Call your CPPC if any significant events happened during the patrol
Foot Patrol organizer(s)
Name
Phone
Address
Email
Frequently used phone numbers
Community Foot Patrol Volunteer Agreement
Foot Patrol member: Keep the origi nal of this form. Give a copy to the Crime Prevention Coordinator.
I, ______________________________________(full name), have chosen to participate as a volunteer mem ber of the ____________________________________ Community Foot Patrol.
I understand that the central function of a Community Foot Patrol is to watch for suspicious or criminal activity in a specific area, and to report that activity to the Portland Police, the Office of Neighborhood Involvement Crime Prevention Program, and other applicable crime prevention partners for the purpose of short- and long-term problem solving efforts. I recognize that our patrol will collaborate with the Office of Neighborhood Involvement Crime Prevention Program, the Portland Police Bureau, and other partners to make our neighborhood a safer place to live, work, and play. I understand that in my capacity as a member of this Community Foot Patrol, I am not a City employee or agent, and that I have no right to any City insurance coverage or workers compensa tion.
I have received training in Community Foot Patrol from the Office of Neighborhood Involvement Crime Pre vention Program or from the organizer of my Community Foot Patrol, ___________________________(trainer name), on _____________(date).
As a volunteer member of the Community Foot Patrol, I agree to abide by all of the rules stated below:
2. I will not engage in any verbal or physical confrontations while on patrol.
1. While on patrol, I will not carry anything that is, or resembles, a weapon, including but not limited to guns, knives, bats, or pepper spray products.
3. I will not patrol while under the influence of alcohol, drugs (including prescribed medication), or other sub stances which may impair my ability to act as an effective member of the patrol.
5. I accept financial responsibility for the damage or loss of any equipment belonging to the Community Foot Patrol and its members or to the City of Portland, such as reflective vests or cellular phones.
4. I will not patrol outside of the patrol boundaries as reported to the precinct at the beginning of a shift.
6. I will always patrol in teams of two or more, never alone.
8. I will respect my patrol members as individuals who share my concern about our neighborhood and will not act in any way that unnecessarily jeopardizes their personal safety or mine.
7. I will not bring children under the age of 18 with me on patrol under any circumstances.
I am 18 years of age or older.
I am not a sex offender required to register with law enforcement, and understand that this will be verified by the Office of Neighborhood Involvement Crime Prevention Program.
I agree to hold harmless the City of Portland, its officers, employees, and agents for any injury that I, another person, or my property may suffer through participation in Community Foot Patrol that may occur through no fault of my own or another member's actions.
I accept responsibility for my own actions while on patrol and the consequences of those actions. I understand that I can cause my removal from Community Foot Patrol if I violate any of the terms of this agreement.
Name of volunteer (please print)
Signature of volunteer
Date
Address of volunteer, including zip code
Phone numbers & email address of volunteer
Government-issued identif cation (type and number)
Date of Birth of volunteer
Office use only:
Approved by Crime Prevention Coordinator:
Date:
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Communication Framework for Measuring Teacher Quality and Effectiveness:
Bringing Coherence to the Conversation
1
Written by Jane G. Coggshall, Ph.D.
Contents
Introduction
Teacher effectiveness is one of many dimensions of teacher quality, and some argue that it is the most crucial dimension. The appropriate definition and measurement of teacher effectiveness are the subject of an important ongoing national conversation—as well as the source of some contention and a fair amount of confusion.
To promote effective dialogue about the measurement of teacher quality and effectiveness, the National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality (NCCTQ) developed this communication framework. Its purpose is to facilitate communication about policies regarding teacher effectiveness by helping to build a shared understanding of the terminology used in the discussion. By presenting a brief overview of teacher quality and the various instruments that can be used to collect evidence of its many facets, the framework intends to illuminate both the possibilities and the limitations of focusing on teacher effectiveness (as opposed to other dimensions of teacher quality) in education policy and practice.
The communication framework is offered at a critical time. The effectiveness of a child's teacher is increasingly recognized as the most important school-based factor contributing to student learning outcomes. Myriad proposals, programs, policies, and practices aiming to improve the nation's teaching corps are being adopted at an astounding pace. Determining whether these approaches are successful or not will depend on how fairly and accurately teacher quality and effectiveness can be measured.
Both a knowledge resource and communication tool, the framework was developed with education leaders in mind—whether they are at the local, state, or national levels. State education agency (SEA) personnel should find it useful in their work with districts in implementing policies to certify, hire, assign, retain, support, and evaluate effective teachers. In addition, the framework can be used as a quick guide for late entrants into the conversation.
In this framework, the term teacher quality is broadly used as a catch-all term that encompasses the many aspects of what makes teachers "good" at what they do. It includes concepts such as teacher effectiveness but also teacher qualifications, expertise, capacity, character, performance, and success. The term teacher effectiveness, on the other hand, is more narrowly defined here, with a focus on teachers' contributions to student outcomes, but it too can be productively measured in multiple ways.
This framework consists of the following four components:
* Communication Planning. What are some best practices for communicating effectively about teacher quality and effectiveness?
* Goals Clarification. Why measure teacher quality and effectiveness in the first place? What are the parameters of the discussion?
* Teacher Quality Terms. What do teacher quality and effectiveness mean to your organization? To other organizations?
* Measurement Tools and Resources. How can teacher quality and effectiveness be measured? What are the details of the discussion?
The communication framework is followed by definitions of key measurement terms (Appendix A), three communication tools (Appendix B), resources that provide information on standards for teaching quality (Appendix C), and additional resources from NCCTQ (Appendix D).
3
Components of the Communication Framework
Component 1: Communication Planning
The measurement of teacher quality and effectiveness can be a sticky topic of conversation. Not only are there a multiplicity of perspectives on what makes teachers "good," there are deeply held personal and professional beliefs and values surrounding what "good" is and how to gauge it in a meaningful way. Add high-stakes accountability into the mix, and the chances for miscommunication and unproductive argument abound.
It is therefore helpful to have a plan. Every good plan begins with some thought regarding where, upon following the plan, one wants to go. Component 1 of the communication framework is designed to assist school leaders and other policymakers to identify their communication goals. It then describes some essential aspects of planning to ease communication of this important issue.
Goal Identification
Following are some of the communication goals that school leaders may have, beginning with one of the goals of this communication framework:
* To help build consensus across the education system on what teacher quality is, how it ought to be measured and supported, and for what purposes.
* To galvanize support for portfolio assessment or value-added models as components of a pay-for-performance program.
* To inform state legislators about the use of particular teacher-evaluation tools for both summative and formative purposes as well as the need for continued funding for such tools.
* To develop a set of locally accepted metrics of teacher effectiveness that principals can use when making decisions relating to teacher tenure.
* To help information technology staff members at the state level understand the kinds of data they need to collect to enable effective teacherworkforce development.
* To convince governors to allocate funds for the development of state and district professional development plans.
* To persuade other states in the region to develop a regionally recognized credential to ease the interstate mobility of effective teachers.
Notice that most of these communication goals are policy goals as well. Just about any endeavor that requires collective action, especially in a system as large and as loosely coupled as the American education system, requires effective and nearly constant communication. Indeed, systems have failed utterly without such communication (Weick, 2001).
Unfortunately, like the child's game of "telephone," policy messages are rarely received as they are intended (Spillane, 2004) and a great deal of learning at all levels needs to take place before any complex and substantive change can be made (Cohen & Hill, 1998; Kimmelman, 2006). Strategic communication planning can facilitate the achievement of communication and policy goals.
Essential Aspects of Communication Planning
Real improvement in teacher quality policy requires good communication, which begins with the following: (1) concerted stakeholder involvement, (2) careful selection of communication channels to aid relationship building, and (3) a significant investment in the conduct and dissemination of rigorous and thoughtful educational research on teacher quality.
Stakeholder Involvement. Involving stakeholders in the development of measures of teacher quality is necessary not only to account for their perspectives (Te'eni, 2001) but also to ensure the credibility of the final set of measurement tools used (Blanton, Sindelar, Correa, Hardman, McDonnell, & Kuhel, 2003).
Including teachers early and often in this conversation is critically important. Teachers in today's classrooms bring a deepened understanding of the contexts in which teacher quality measurement needs to take place and so are able to inform the conversation as no one else can. Moreover, if teachers do not find the measurement of teacher quality and/or effectiveness meaningful or legitimate, they may decide to "game the system" or opt out of it entirely. The validity of any metric of teacher quality developed out of these conversations therefore rests on teachers' thoughtful participation.
In addition to teachers and their associated groups (including unions, curriculum associations, and teacher leader networks), other individuals and organizations should be invited into the conversation at various stages. A plethora of stakeholders are interested in teacher quality— for example, institutions of higher education, other preparation program providers, the media, parents, boards of education, local school leaders, district human resources officials, credentialing commissions, think tanks, policy shops, lobbyists, legislators on education committees, regulators, researchers, and governors, to name a few. These stakeholders can act as key resources for information and communication; but if their buy-in is not gained, they can scuttle the process. Luckily, many channels of communication can be engaged to bring these stakeholders to the table.
Identification of Communication Channels.
It is easier to communicate and collaborate with people who are known personally. One might not think twice about calling up a colleague or close acquaintance to ask a quick question or to invite her to speak at a conference. One also might feel more comfortable challenging a colleague's perspective and helping him to understand a different one. In an enterprise as large as teacher quality policy and with a multiplicity of diverse stakeholders, such personal relationships are both necessary and cumbersome. Fortunately, one can choose from a number of communication tools for building those relationships as well as sharing information impersonally yet effectively. Such conversations can take place through any of the following means:
Meetings
* Conferences, conventions, or summits
* Town hall meetings
* Issue forums
* Workshops or symposia
* Board meetings
* Faculty meetings
* Conference calls
* Press release parties
Print Media
* Policy briefs
* Memos or newsletters
* Technical reports
* Press releases, op-eds
Broadcast Media
* Public radio
* Local or national television news
* Telephone drives
Internet
* E-mail (individual or electronic mailing lists)
* Webcasts or weblogs
* Wiki Web interfaces
Face-to-face options for communication seem to have the best potential for transmitting rich information and resolving ambiguity (Barry & Crant, 2000). Face-to-face communication also is more powerful in terms of persuasion. Nevertheless, when complex information is presented in written form, comprehension tends to be higher. The appropriate medium thus depends on the purpose of the communication—whether it is to persuade or to promote understanding. Using a combination of both written and oral communication through a variety of communication channels is likely to have the most potential for success, no matter the purpose (Hoy & Miskel, 2008).
Research on Teacher Quality. Once everyone is talking, virtually or otherwise, conversations often yield more questions than they answer. The resolution of such questions often can be gained only through a rigorous examination of the evidence. Comprehensive data collection systems—with links between teacher data and student data, and individuals trained to interpret the data in a reliable way—are a necessary investment. Such systems are costly but vital, and educators may need to contend with carryovers from older systems. The design of such systems may be complicated by the lack of agreement on what teacher and student data are important to collect. Until consensus is reached on how to measure teacher quality, however, more data are probably better than less, so participants in the conversation can have some data from which to speak. Data can provide the warrant for the message and touchstones for productive conversations.
Component 2: Goal Clarification
Effective communication about the measurement of teacher quality and effectiveness begins with a clear understanding of the goals and purposes toward which the measurement will be applied. Clarity on the goals of the measurements might help to reduce or eliminate static in the lines of communication. Table 1 provides a list of potential goals for the measurement of teacher quality as well as relevant policy questions.
Table 1. Policy Questions Relating to Potential Uses of Teacher Quality Measurement
These goals should drive the conversation because each goal has different measurement implications. For example, using a metric of teacher effectiveness may make sense in terms of performance monitoring for the district or for the professional development program; but this metric would not be useful for hiring beginning teachers, who likely have a limited track record of effectiveness.
The first step in goal clarification is determining which policy question regarding teacher quality is most relevant to one's organization—whether school, district, or SEA. Communication Tool 1, located in Appendix B, will help guide these early conversations.
The next step is to discuss those dimensions of quality that are valued within one's organization
7
and among the constituent and stakeholder groups. That way, consensus may be achieved on the definition of a high-quality teacher in a particular context. Such a consensus will ease communication on the best ways to collect evidence of quality, which in turn will support the successful accomplishment of the organization's agreed-upon goals.
Component 3: Teacher Quality Terms
Teacher quality is a multidimensional concept, and teacher effectiveness is just one important dimension. When individuals are talking about teacher quality or debating about how best to measure it, the conversation will be more productive if these individuals have a shared interpretation of the terms used to describe teacher quality.
Table 2 lists several dimensions of teacher quality. Although it stops short of providing a definition of these terms, it does offer a suggested frame for each dimension to help the field gain consensus on these terms. Because nearly everyone engaged in the conversation about teacher quality has a different sense of what these terms mean and how much importance to place on them, these terms are fluid. (For a brief
Table 2. Proposed Definitions of Teacher Quality Dimensions
historical discussion, see Mitchell, Robinson, Plake, and Knowles, 2001.) These dimensions can overlap and interact in complex ways. Many researchers and policy analysts have had mixed success in attempting to link some of these dimensions— such as teacher qualifications and teacher expertise—to teacher effectiveness. (See Goe [2007] for a recent comprehensive review of this research.) Table 2 allows school leaders and others to think about how to collect evidence of quality in the absence of an observable or measurable link to student achievement outcomes.
the focus is directed to only one aspect of it. Nevertheless, accomplishing the policy goals listed in Component 1 of this framework requires the development of a teacher quality index or model to assess quality.
Teasing apart these dimensions to assess one aspect of teacher quality individually may be difficult. Table 2 makes clear that much of the complexity of teacher quality may be lost if
Again, depending on the purpose of the teacher assessment—whether it is for targeting professional development, allocating performance bonuses, or making a licensure decision—different aspects of teacher quality weigh more or less heavily in the conversation. Communication Tool 2 in Appendix B may be used to guide a deeper discussion of these dimensions of quality.
Component 4: Measurement Tools and Resources
The science of teacher quality measurement is still in its developing stages, so school leaders cannot count on finding definitive answers to all their questions in the literature. As Becker, Kennedy, and Hundersmarck (2003) point out, a serious need for rigorous debate and effective communication is paramount.
Although the field is still developing, a great deal of research evidence can inform the discussion. It is important that school leaders and policymakers use this evidence as they communicate about the measurement of teacher quality.
Table 3 indicates some ways that these dimensions of teacher quality may be measured and lists some research articles that are relevant and informative. The suggestions for tools and research articles can be considered as resources for this conversation. In most cases, these resources are not the seminal works on the topic but rather are articles—either reviews of research or original studies—that can broaden and enhance the conversation.
Table 3. Measurements and Resources for Teacher Quality Dimensions
| Teacher Quality Dimension | Measurement Instruments/Indicators |
|---|---|
| Teacher effectiveness | • Student achievement (including value-added methods, growth models) • Dropout rates • Documented student work • Student affect, engagement, persistence |
| Teacher qualifications | • Degrees • Coursework or transcript review • Certification or licensure requirements • Preparation program status (such as alternative, traditional, accreditation status, prestige level) • Test cut scores for certification |
Teacher capacity
* Teacher interviews
Aloe and Becker (2007)
* Qualification review
Haberman and Post (1998)
| Teacher character | • Teacher interviews • Personal and professional references • Student surveys and interviews • Parent surveys and interviews • Classroom observations • Teaching philosophy statements • Background checks or fingerprinting |
|---|---|
| Teacher performance | • Teaching portfolios • Principal/peer/specialist evaluation with structured observation protocols • California Teaching Performance Assessment (CATPA), Performance Assessment for California Teachers (PACT), Teaching Advancement Program (TAP), Connecticut Beginning Educator Support and Training (CT BEST), Danielson (2007) teaching framework, and other state and local evaluation systems • Praxis III • Teacher work samples • Video evaluation • Student surveys and interviews • Parent surveys and interviews • Teaching cases analysis • Teacher logs • Surveys of Enacted Curriculum |
| Teacher success | • Combined measures of effectiveness and performance |
Note that several of the instruments/indicators in the middle column of Table 3 allow for the measurement of more than one dimension of teacher quality. Much of the research cited in the right column cuts across several dimensions as well.
Measuring teacher quality using any of these instruments requires sophisticated and comprehensive data systems targeted to particular uses. Many of these instruments require a great deal of training and a significant investment of time to examine and document evidence of quality. In addition, a great deal of validation work must occur before any of these instruments can be trusted to measure what users intend to measure. (Refer to Appendix A for a discussion of validity considerations as well as other indicators of measurement quality.)
Every measurement tool used in social science research contains some error. Often these errors stem from incorrect application, inequities in the ability to collect sufficient data, or a lack of necessary validation. Also, some people may resist the measurement and eventually figure out how to undermine it. Communication Tool 3 in Appendix B helps guide a discussion about these instruments, their promises and limitations, and their use despite their limitations.
As Tables 1, 2, and 3 make clear, measuring teacher quality as an overall concept requires the construction of a complex measurement model that incorporates many of its facets. Teacher quality is a great challenge to measurement specialists and others seeking to define and improve teacher quality, but it is a challenge that keenly needs to be met.
Conclusion: From Measurement to Improvement
This communication framework is intended to inform and help frame the many conversations about the measurement of teacher quality and effectiveness taking place today. Clearly, this work is complex and requires effective communication at all levels of the education system. No matter how teacher quality is defined and measured, the improvement of teacher quality depends on more than its measurement. Such improvement requires systems of support throughout a teacher's career continuum—from preparation though advancement—as well as a finely honed understanding of the aspects about teaching that matter for student learning.
assessment as well as through dialogue with their peers, instructional leaders, or other support providers (Ball & Cohen, 1999; Rosenholtz, 1991). Such contexts also allow teachers to teach within their subject area of expertise and to be assigned reasonable course and student loads (Johnson, 2006; Little, 1999). Effective professional contexts also are places in which teachers experience supportive and effective leadership (Leithwood, Louis, Anderson & Wahlstrom, 2004).
Supporting teacher quality requires the implementation of effective professional contexts as well. These professional contexts are workplaces that have structured opportunities for teachers to learn from their own teaching through formative
Creating these contexts in all schools requires reform at all levels of the education system as well as a significant investment of money, time, and human resources. Holding systems accountable for the improvement of teacher quality makes the valid, reliable, and fair measure of the quality of teachers (at least in the aggregate) all the more important. Let's talk.
References
Aloe, A. M., & Becker, B. J. (2007, April). Teacher verbal ability and school outcomes: Where is the evidence? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://www.msu.edu/~mkennedy/TQQT/Reports/AloeBecker07verbal_ability.pdf
American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (1999). Standards for educational and psychological testing (Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.
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Appendix A Definitions of Key Measurement Terms
In any consideration of the measurement of teacher quality and effectiveness, the criteria used to judge the quality of such measures include the following: validity, credibility, comprehensiveness, generality, practicality, reliability, and utility (Blanton et al., 2003). These terms are described as follows, beginning with the most fundamental consideration: validity.
Credibility is the extent to which a measure is considered sound and appropriate among a variety of stakeholders (for example, teachers, policymakers, school leaders, and parents). Credibility can be bolstered by involving stakeholders in the development or validation process.
Validity refers to the degree to which the interpretation of a measurement is supported by the evidence. In other words, a measure of teacher quality can be considered to have validity if (1) it actually is measuring the dimension or dimensions of teacher quality that it purports to measure, (2) it is not actually measuring something else, and (3) sufficient evidence exists to support the first two claims. Determining validity is thus not a matter of coming up with a single number or a yes/no proposition. As Millet, Stickler, Payne, and Dwyer (2007) emphasize, it requires a compilation of evidence that specific inferences can be appropriately and adequately drawn from the measurement data, including the intended or unintended consequences of the measurement itself. Validity therefore must be considered within the total context of the assessment. For more in-depth discussions of validity, refer to American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education (1999) and Messick (1989).
Comprehensiveness refers to the richness and breadth of a measure, metric, or model of a concept.
Generality refers to how well one metric or model of teacher quality can be valid and useful across a variety of classroom contexts.
Practicality refers to the extent to which the measure or model of teacher quality is usable for implementers. For example, is it cost-effective and easily adaptable? Does it require a reasonable amount of training, among other pragmatic considerations?
Reliability refers to the consistency with which an assessment measures the construct(s) or dimensions that it purports to measure (Millet et al., 2007). However, just because the assessment is reliable, it may not be valid—that is, it may indeed be measuring something reliably but not the dimension of teacher quality that it intends to measure or that the user believes it is measuring.
Utility refers to whether an instrument has been used before and therefore can be evaluated and refined, benefiting from previous experience (Blanton et al., 2003). This term also can refer to the extent to which a metric or model of teacher quality can be used practicably.
Appendix B Communication Tools
Communication Tool 1: Outlining a Plan
The first and second components of this communication framework have emphasized the need for clarifying the purpose of measuring teacher quality or effectiveness. Within your team, agency, or organization, discuss why you are attempting to measure teacher quality or effectiveness. Filling in the boxes below may help you communicate these goals to others within your organization as well as to those on the outside.
1. Why measure teacher quality or effectiveness? How will the measurement be used?
4. How will you involve these stakeholders in the process?
3. Who are the primary stakeholders?
2. What needs to be communicated and why?
Communication Tool 2: Coming to Terms With Terminology
If participants in the same discussion are using the same terms to mean different things, effective communication becomes nearly impossible. To ensure that the terminology you are using is not misinterpreted by others, it may be helpful to fill out the following chart.
First, try writing down your personal definitions of these terms in column A. Then, in conversation with others of your team or among your constituency groups, try writing a shared definition of these terms in column B. Then, for column C, think about how one might go about distinguishing what makes for a "highly expert" teacher versus an "expert" teacher versus an "emerging expert" teacher, for instance. You may find that focusing on just one dimension—or on a combination of dimensions— is more productive. Finally, think about how you would align or reconcile these terms to make progress in achieving your goals to identify and support high-quality teachers.
| Teacher Quality Dimension | Column A: Personal Definition of Term | Column B: Local Definition of Term |
|---|---|---|
| Teacher effectiveness | | |
| Teacher qualifications | | |
| Teacher expertise | | |
| Teacher capacity | | |
| Teacher character | | |
| Teacher performance | | |
| Teacher success | | |
| Additional dimension(s) | | |
Communication Tool 3: Selecting Assessment Instruments
To further develop shared understandings of the measurement of teacher quality, another useful activity is to invite stakeholders to walk through the following flowchart together, answering the questions in turn. Evidence from existing research should be brought to bear on these discussions.
What dimensions of
t
eacher quality do we
want to measure? (What
do we want to know?)
Why?
When in a teacher’s career
continuum would these
measures apply?
How will we measure what we want to
measure about teacher quality? What
measurement tools can we use?
Do adequate
measurement instruments
already exist?
Do we need
to create new tools?
YES
NO
What evidence do we have that helps
us judge whether these tools are valid
for the context in which we envision
using them?
How do we know whether the
measurement instrument is measuring
what we want to measure and not
something else?
What are the intended consequences
of measuring teachers this way?
What may be some unintended
consequences of measuring teachers
this way?
How will we communicate
the power and limitations
of the measures of teacher
quality that we adopt and
act appropriately in light
of these considerations?
What more do we need to know and
who can we ask? How can NCCTQ help?
What are the reasons for adopting a
measure of teacher quality
even when
the measurement falls short on one or
some of these criteria?
How do we know whether these
assessment tools are reliable?
Credible? Comprehensive? Practical?
Have generality and utility?
Appendix C Resources That Provide Information on Standards for Teaching Quality
Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC)
www.ccsso.org/projects/Interstate_New_Teacher_Assessment_and_Support_Consortium/
INTASC, operated by the Council of Chief State School Officers, has developed a set of model standards for beginning teachers. These standards are available online (www.ccsso.org/projects/ Interstate%5FNew%5FTeacher%5FAssessment%5Fand%5FSupport%5FConsortium/Projects/ Standards%5FDevelopment/) and have been used by many states to develop teaching standards.
Center for Improving Teaching Quality (CTQ)
www.ccsso.org/projects/Center_for_Improving_Teacher_Quality/
CTQ, also operated by the Council of Chief State School Officers, has further built on INTASC's standards for special education teachers.
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS)
www.nbpts.org
NBPTS has a portfolio assessment process (www.nbpts.org/for_candidates/the_portfolio) for determining teachers who are "accomplished" according to the board's standards.
EdStandards.Org's Administrative and Teaching Standards
edstandards.org/StSu/Teaching.html
EdStandards.Org has compiled all the available state teaching and administrative standards in one location. The website is maintained by the Putnam Valley (New York) School District and the Wappingers (New York) Central School District.
Education Commission of the States (ECS) Teaching Quality website
www.ecs.org/html/issue.asp?issueid=129
The ECS Teaching Quality website provides information on evaluation, preparation/education, professional development, and state professional standards boards. The evaluation section (www.ecs.org/html/issue.asp?issueid=129&subissueID=62) looks at the various ways that teacher quality has been assessed.
21
Appendix D Key Resources From NCCTQ
Teaching Quality (TQ) Source
www.TQSource.org
The TQ Source website is the premier source for information on teacher quality and leadership quality. Made available by NCCTQ, the site is designed to help policymakers and educators make informed decisions on teacher and leadership quality by identifying policies and initiatives that impact the fundamental issues of teacher preparation, certification, recruitment, retention, and advancement. The website also has an extensive library of research on issues relating to teacher quality and leadership quality.
TQ Source Tips and Tools: Emerging Strategies to Enhance Teacher Quality www.tqsource.org/strategies/
A forthcoming series of the TQ Source Tips and Tools webpage will focus on measuring effective teachers:
* Using student achievement to identify and support highly effective teachers
* Using portfolios and performance assessments to identify and support highly effective teachers
* Using teacher evaluations to identify and support highly effective teachers
* Identifying highly effective professional contexts to support highly effective teachers
* Identifying how highly effective leaders support highly effective teachers
Research Synthesis
Goe, L. (2007). The link between teacher quality and student outcomes: A research synthesis. Washington, DC: National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality.
About NCCTQ
The National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality (NCCTQ) was launched on October 2, 2005, after Learning Point Associates and its partners—Education Commission of the States, ETS, and Vanderbilt University—entered into a five-year cooperative agreement with the U.S. Department of Education to operate the teacher quality content center.
NCCTQ is part of the U.S. Department of Education's Comprehensive Centers program, which includes 16 regional comprehensive assistance centers that provide technical assistance to states within a specified boundary and five content centers that provide expert assistance to benefit states and districts nationwide on key issues related to the goals of the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act.
Acknowledgments
Special thanks to the reviewers of this publication:
Tricia Coulter, Ph.D, Education Commission of the States
Carol Dwyer, Ph.D., ETS
Laura Goe, Ph.D., ETS
Peirce Hammond, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, U.S. Department of Education
Bonnie Jones, Ed.D., Office of Special Education Programs, U.S. Department of Education
Paul Koehler, Ph.D., Southwest Comprehensive Center
George Ann Rice, Ed.D., consultant and former associate superintendent of the Clark County (Nevada) School District
Robert Stonehill, Ph.D., Learning Point Associates
Kate Walsh, National Council on Teacher Quality
The author also is greatly indebted to other members of the NCCTQ team for lively discussion and input into this piece: Sabrina Laine, Ph.D., Cortney Rowland, Gretchen Weber, Jeffrey Max, Paul Kimmelman, Ph.D., and especially Amy Jackson.
1100 17th Street NW, Suite 500 Washington, DC 20036-4632 877-322-8700 • 202-223-6690 www.ncctq.org
Copyright © 2007 National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality, sponsored under government cooperative agreement number S283B050051. All rights reserved.
This work was originally produced in whole or in part by the National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality with funds from the U.S. Department of Education under cooperative agreement number S283B050051. The content does not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the Department of Education, nor does mention or visual representation of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the federal government.
The National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality is a collaborative effort of Education Commission of the States, ETS, Learning Point Associates, and Vanderbilt University.
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CSIRO Submission 12/471
Recent trends in and preparedness for extreme weather events
Senate Standing Committee on Environment and Communications
January 2013
Enquiries should be addressed to:
Dr Grant Farrell CSIRO Ministerial and Parliamentary Liaison PO Box 225, Dickson ACT 2612
Main Submission Author:
Dr Andrew Ash Director, Climate Adaptation Flagship GPO Box 2583 Brisbane QLD
Contents
I. Executive Summary
II. Introduction
III. Background - Climate Change: Extreme Weather and Climate Events
IV. CSIRO response to the Terms of Reference
a. Recent trends in the frequency of extreme weather events, including but not limited to drought, bushfires, heatwaves, floods and storm surges.
b. Based on global warming scenarios outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation of 1 to 5 degrees by 2070:
i. Projections on the frequency of extreme weather events, including but not limited to drought, bushfires, heatwaves, floods and storm surges.
ii. The costs of extreme weather events and impacts on natural ecosystems, social and economic infrastructure, and human health.
c. An assessment of the preparedness of key sectors for extreme weather events, including major infrastructure (electricity, water, transport, telecommunications), health, construction and property, and agriculture and forestry.
d. An assessment of the preparedness and the adequacy of resources in the emergency services sector to prevent and respond to extreme weather events.
e. The current roles and effectiveness of the division of responsibilities between different levels of government (federal, state and local) to manage extreme weather events.
I. Executive Summary
CSIRO undertakes a wide range of research on weather and climate, its impacts, and how we can adapt to both current climate and that of the future.
Australia experiences a highly variable climate: our climate includes a range of extreme events which add up to considerable economic, social and environmental impact. Given this large natural variability in weather and climate, it is often difficult to detect a trend in extreme events or it takes a long time for the trend to become statistically significant. However, there is now strong evidence globally that during the past 50 years there has been a change in temperature extremes with fewer cold days and nights and more hot days, hot nights and heatwaves. This warming trend has flow on consequences for other events such as bushfires with an observed tendency towards more days of high forest fire danger in the last few decades. Trends in rainfall extremes are much less certain, though the IPCC reported in 2012 a statistically significant increase in the number of heavy precipitation events in many regions of the world.
Future climate change impacts will increasingly be experienced first through extreme events rather than gradual changes in mean temperature or rainfall. For example, heatwaves: the number of days over 35 o C is expected to increase significantly by 2030 for many locations in Australia. Also rainfall: despite the general tendency for decreases, or little change in seasonal-average rainfall in the future for much of Australia, increases in extreme daily rainfall are expected over most of the continent in the future. Likewise, tropical cyclones are likely to become more intense with a decrease in frequency. And dry extremes: drought occurrence is expected to increase over most of southern Australia, especially in south-western Australia.
Extreme events place a huge financial, social and emotional burden on individuals, communities, industry and the government. Better preparing for extreme events through planning, engineering and awareness has proved to be effective in reducing their cost. For example, cyclone building codes in northern Australia are very effective at reducing damage from high intensity wind events. Cost-benefit analyses demonstrate that under a changed climate it is cost effective to put in place stronger engineering codes, especially in sub-tropical regions.
Increased vulnerability to extreme events is not just related to climate change. Planning regulations that place more people in vulnerable areas will lead to greatly increased costs of extreme events. For example, in south-east Queensland, based on current development patterns, the number of residential buildings affected by a 1 in 100 year storm tide inundation event nearly doubles in 2030 compared with today. Sea level rise accounts for only a small amount of this increased exposure in 2030 but by 2070 it is a much more significant contributor to the projected damages.
Human health is an important consideration in the context of extreme events. Heatwaves in particular can lead to considerable loss of life in today's climate. As the climate warms and heatwaves become frequent the effect on years of life lost increases gradually but then starts to rise rapidly once mean temperatures increase beyond 2 o C.
Emergency services agencies can be better equipped through having in place better forecasting and modelling tools and early warning systems for a wide range of extreme events, including heatwaves, bushfires, floods, and inundation events. These forecasting and modelling tools are developing rapidly and with information systems technologies are increasingly able to be deployed in real time.
Finally, it is important to understand the impacts of existing extreme weather and climate events and use these as a window into determining how to respond to future climate change in an enhanced greenhouse world.
II. Introduction
CSIRO welcomes the opportunity to comment on and provide input to the Senate Standing Committee on Environment and Communications inquiry into - Recent trends in and preparedness for extreme weather events.
CSIRO provides comprehensive, rigorous science to help Australia understand, respond to and plan for a changing climate. We have significant research activities, nationally and internationally, which have helped us to better understand the causes and impacts of extreme weather events. This information is used to work closely with governments, industry, and the community to develop practical and effective adaptation options. Our response to the inquiry draws on this very broad range of scientific work.
Our comments have been prepared by a team of scientists from across CSIRO with experience and international recognition in many facets of climate research. This submission is focused on sections where CSIRO has undertaken research that is published or in the public domain. We would welcome the opportunity to discuss any areas in more depth with the Committee.
III. Background – Climate Change: Extreme Weather and Climate Events
In 2012, CSIRO and the Bureau of Meteorology released the report entitled State of the Climate. Some key highlights include -
* Warming in Australia is consistent with warming observed across the globe in recent decades. Australian annual average daily mean temperatures have increased by 0.9 °C since 1910, and each decade since the 1950s has been warmer than the previous decade.
* Global average mean sea level for 2011 was 210 mm above the level in 1880.
* Sea surface temperatures in the Australian region have increased by about 0.8 °C since 1910.
* Greenhouse concentrations have risen rapidly during the past two centuries. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere in 2011 was 390 parts per million – higher than at any time for the past 800,000 years.
* The main cause of the observed increase in carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere is the combustion of fossil fuels since the industrial revolution.
* It is very likely that most of the surface global warming observed since the mid-20 th century is due to anthropogenic increases in greenhouse gases. This has also influenced ocean warming, sea level rise and temperature extremes. Further increases in greenhouse gases are expected during the 21 st century.
* Australian average temperatures are projected to rise by 1.0 to 5.0 °C by 2070 when compared with the climate of recent decades.
A changing climate leads to changes in the frequency, intensity, spatial extent, duration, and timing of extreme weather and climate events. Some local climate extremes (e.g. the south-east Australian droughts from 1997-2009) may be the result of an accumulation of weather or climate conditions that are not extreme when considered independently. The natural climate variability that underlies all extreme weather events is now influenced and altered by the effect of human-induced warming of the climate system (IPCC, 2012). It is not relevant to ask whether an individual extreme event is 'caused' by climate change (any more than whether a particular warm day in spring is 'caused' by the change of season); rather, analysis should focus on whether the risk of extreme weather events is changing due to a range of different factors, such as the El Nino Southern Oscillation, land-use change or increases in greenhouse gases.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2012) report on Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation concluded that it is very likely that global warming has caused changes in the frequency of extreme weather events that have been observed since
4
1950. The report also found that it is very likely that there has been an overall decrease in the number of cold days and nights, and an overall increase in the number of warm days and nights, at the global scale and at the continental scale in North America, Europe, and Australia. There have been statistically significant increases in the number of heavy precipitation events in most regions (IPCC, 2012).
Australia has experienced a number of extreme weather and climate events in recent years, including the 1997-2009 droughts, the Black Saturday bushfires and severe heatwaves in south-east Australia in Jan-Feb 2009, the 2011 Queensland and northern NSW floods and Cyclone Yasi, and 7-8 January 2013 was Australia's hottest 2-day period on record.
Climate change impacts will increasingly be experienced first through extreme events rather than gradual changes in mean temperature or rainfall. Consideration of current vulnerability to extreme events helps to establish the context for assessing changes in vulnerability due to future changes in extremes. Regardless of the cause, it is important to understand the impacts of existing extreme weather and climate events and use these as a window into determining how to respond to future climate change in an enhanced greenhouse world (CSIRO, 2011).
Dealing with uncertainties
Popular narratives about climate change focus strongly on the uncertainties of the future, and it is true that some climate parameters vary greatly, especially at the local scale. Changes in some extremes are hard to project, especially for individual locations: for example, is it very hard to say whether hail storms or extreme winds will hit a specific location in the future. However, there are many climate parameters where the direction of change is known with high confidence, and where the changing risk of impacts, even at a specific location, can be projected with similar confidence. Thus there is very likely to be increases in maximum temperatures, heatwaves, fire weather conditions, minimum temperatures, ocean temperatures, ocean acidity, and sea level. For these parameters it is possible to specify minimum levels of change for the 21 st century and a likely magnitude of change with some uncertainty in timing (Stafford Smith et al., 2011; IPCC, 2012). By contrast, some climate parameters are inherently uncertain: for example, rainfall projections remain highly uncertain in northern Australia (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2007). However, even these types of uncertainties can be managed with appropriate risk mitigation approaches.
The implications of uncertainty and extremes for adapting to current and future climate have been canvassed in CSIRO's submissions to the recent Productivity Commission enquiry on barriers to adaptation – the Committee is referred to these public documents for more details: see http://www.pc.gov.au/projects/inquiry/climate-change-adaptation/submissions , submissions 40 and DR136.
Definitions of uncertainty
The IPCC (2012) relies on two metrics for communicating the degree of certainty in key findings, which is based on author teams' evaluations of underlying scientific understanding:
* Quantified measures of uncertainty in a finding expressed probabilistically (based on statistical analysis of observations or model results, or expert judgment).
* Confidence in the validity of a finding, based on the type, amount, quality, and consistency of evidence (e.g., mechanistic understanding, theory, data, models, expert judgment) and the degree of agreement. Confidence is expressed qualitatively Term* Likelihood of the Outcome Virtually certain 99–100% probability
IPCC (2012) use the follow summary terms to describe the available evidence: limited, medium, or robust; and for the degree of agreement: low,
medium, or high. A level of confidence is expressed using five qualifiers: very low, low, medium, high, and very high (IPCC, 2012). There is flexibility in this relationship; for a given evidence and agreement statement, different confidence levels can be assigned, but increasing levels of evidence and degrees of agreement are correlated with increasing confidence (IPCC, 2012).
IV. CSIRO response to the Terms of Reference
a. Recent trends in the frequency of extreme weather events, including but not limited to drought, bushfires, heatwaves, floods and storm surges.
CSIRO's research, conducted with national and international research partners, has improved our understanding of recent trends in extreme climate events.
Extreme temperatures and heatwaves
There is evidence globally that, during the past 50 years, there has been increase in temperatures with a warming of extreme daily minimum and maximum temperatures (IPCC, 2012). Changes include fewer cold days and nights and more hot days, hot nights and heatwaves. It is likely that human influences have already led to warming of extreme daily minimum and maximum temperatures at the global scale (IPCC, 2012). This has occurred against a backdrop of natural, year-to-year climate variability.
In Australia, El Niño and La Niña events have continued to produce the hot droughts and cooler wet periods for which the country is well known. Most notably it has been observed:
* Each decade has been warmer than the previous decade since the 1950s (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2012).
* Australian annual average daily mean temperatures have increased by 0.9°C since 1910 (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2012).
* Australian annual average daily maximum temperatures have increased by 0.75 °C since 1910 (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2012).
* Australian annual average overnight minimum temperatures have warmed by more than 1.1°C since 1910 (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2012).
* An exceptional heatwave affected south-eastern Australia during late January and early February 2009. The most extreme conditions occurred in northern and eastern Tasmania, most of Victoria and adjacent border areas of New South Wales, and southern South Australia, with many records set both for high day and night time temperatures as well as for the duration of extreme heat (Bureau of Meteorology, 2009).
* Australia's hottest year was 2005, with a temperature more than 1°C above the 1961–1990 average (Bureau of Meteorology, 2013a).
* 2010 and 2011 were Australia's coolest years recorded since 2001 due to two consecutive La Niña events. (Bureau of Meteorology, 2013a).
* 7-8 January 2013 was Australia's hottest 2-day period on record, and many other records were broken locally during 4-13 Jan 2013 (Bureau of Meteorology, 2013b).
* For September to December 2012, the average Australian maximum temperature was the highest on record with a national anomaly of +1.61 °C, slightly ahead of the previous record of 1.60 °C set in 2002 (Bureau of Meteorology, 2013b).
Droughts and floods
In Australia there has been a trend over recent decades towards increased spring and summer monsoonal rainfall in the north, while the south of the country has experienced decreased late autumn and winter
rainfall, and southwest Western Australia has experienced reductions in rainfall since 1970 during the winter half of the year.
Changes in seasonal-average rainfall affect the incidence of drought and floods. Both droughts and floods occur from a combination of biophysical and social phenomena: drought is not just a lack of rainfall but it is influenced by water demand and flood is influenced by urban factors such as development patterns which affect vulnerability of population and infrastructure.
Regarding floods, there have been statistically significant increases in the number of heavy precipitation events in most regions of the world (IPCC, 2012). There is medium confidence that human influences have contributed to intensification of extreme precipitation at the global scale (IPCC, 2012). There is limited to medium evidence available to assess climate-driven observed changes in the magnitude and frequency of floods at regional scales because the available instrumental records of floods at gauge stations are limited in space and time, and because of confounding effects of changes in land use and engineering (IPCC, 2012). Over Australia, trends in heavy rainfall depend on the period of analysis and the metric of interest. For example, the annual number of days with more than 30 mm of rain from 1950-2012 has decreased in much of southern and eastern Australia, but increased in the north (similar to the trend in average rainfall: Bureau of Meteorology, 2013c). Similar results have been found for other metrics (Gallant et al., 2007).
Regarding droughts, there is medium confidence that some regions of the world have experienced more intense and longer droughts, in particular in southern Europe and West Africa, but in some regions droughts have become less frequent, less intense, or shorter, for example, in central North America and north-western Australia (IPCC, 2012). The 14-year period of very low rainfall (or drought) from late 1996 to mid 2010 over parts of Australia has raised questions about how exceptional this period was in the longerterm context.
Based on data available from the Bureau of Meteorology (Bureau of Meteorology, 2013d), there has been a decreasing trend from 1900-2011 in the area of Australia with less than 10% of annual-average rainfall (defined as serious rainfall deficiency). This decrease is apparent in all States and Territories, except Victoria and south-west WA where there has been little change and an increase, respectively.
Trends in the area with serious annual rainfall deficiency do not provide information about whether recent multi-year rainfall deficiencies were exceptional for particular regions. This has been assessed for various multi-year periods and regions.
* For the 7-year period October 2001 to September 2008, Victoria's area-averaged rainfall (17.6% below the 1961-90 average) fell to the lowest level on record, surpassing the previous record (17.3% below) for a seven-year period set between May 1938 and April 1945 (Bureau of Meteorology, 2010).
* For the 9-year period 2001–2009, annual-average rainfall across the MDB was 406 mm, but the lowest 9-year period on record was 395 mm for 1937–1945 (Leblanc et al., 2012). Despite the similar rainfall deficiencies in both periods, it has been argued that there were much stronger decreases in runoff in the more-recent period partly due to the lower inter-annual rainfall variability and lower autumn and winter rainfall, and other factors such as the impacts of farm dams, groundwater extraction or recent changes in land use (Leblanc et al., 2012).
* For the 12-year period 1997-2008, the area of record low totals covered the majority of southern Victoria from Gippsland westwards, extending into SA and most of the northern and eastern coasts of Tasmania (Bureau of Meteorology, 2010). A separate area of record low totals on the west coast of WA extended from north of Perth south to Busselton, and in parts of the Darling Downs and South Burnett regions between Gayndah and Kingaroy (Bureau of Meteorology, 2010). Around metropolitan Melbourne and to its east, 12-year rainfall totals were around 20% below the 1961-90 average, and 10-13% below the lowest on record for any 12-year period prior to 1996 (Bureau of Meteorology, 2010).
* For the 13-year period 1997 to 2009, rainfall over continental southeastern Australia (south of 33.5°S and east of 135.5 °E) was 11.4% below the long-term average, making it the driest 13-year period on record by a large margin; the previous record is 7.8% below average for the 13-year period 1933–1945 (Timbal and Drosdowsky, 2012). Both the duration and intensity of the 1997– 2009 rainfall deficit is without historical precedent in the instrumental record starting from 1900 (Timbal and Drosdowsky, 2012). The spatial signature of the 1997–2009 drought (largest decline observed along the southern coast and near significant orography) and its temporal signature (mostly during autumn–winter–spring) further indicate that the rainfall decline is linked to a weakening of the dominant westerly atmospheric flow as expected in response to a strengthening of the belt of high pressure (Timbal and Drosdowsky, 2012).
* For the 14-year period October 1996 to September 2010, around half of Victoria and half of Tasmania recorded lowest-on-record rainfall, and in south-west WA areas of lowest-on-record rainfall covered western coastal areas between Cape Leeuwin and Kalbarri, and extending inland into the southern wheat belt (Bureau of Meteorology, 2008). The increasing severity of the rainfall deficiencies in south-west Western Australia is significant in the context of a 40-year pattern of drying which has affected the region (Bureau of Meteorology, 2008).
No evidence of significant trends in the total numbers of tropical cyclones or in the occurrence of the most intense tropical cyclones has been found in the Australian region (Kuleshov et al., 2010).
However, sea-surface temperatures, which are important for cyclone formation, have been at or near record high values off the western Australian coast in recent years. These high sea-surface temperatures are a result of a significant warming trend of this part of the Indian Ocean in the past 50 years.
Tropical cyclones
No evidence of significant trends in the total numbers of tropical cyclones or in the occurrence of the most intense tropical cyclones has been found in the Australian region (Kuleshov et al., 2010).
However, sea-surface temperatures, which are important for cyclone formation, have been at or near record high values off the western Australian coast in recent years. These high sea-surface temperatures are a result of a significant warming trend of this part of the Indian Ocean in the past 50 years.
Bushfires
Many parts of Australia are prone to severe bushfires. Periurban communities in south-eastern Australia are particularly vulnerable to both forest and grassland fire as experienced through recent devastating bushfires in Canberra (2003), Victoria (2009), and Tasmania (2013).
We have evidence that the fire weather risk has been increasing resulting in a lengthened fire season. Australian fire agencies use a fire danger rating system to reflect the fire behaviour and the difficulty of controlling a particular fire. Analysis of one of these rating systems, the Forest Fire Danger Index (FFDI) showed the annual cumulative FFDI increased significantly at 16 of 38 Australian sites from 1973-2010 (Figure 1: Clarke et al., 2012). The number of significant increases is greatest in the southeast, while the largest trends occurred inland rather than near the coast. The largest increases in seasonal FFDI occurred during spring and autumn, while summer had the fewest significant trends.
Sea level and storm surges
Sea levels have increased globally: average mean sea level for 2011 was 210 mm (± 30 mm) above the level in 1880, the earliest year for which robust estimates of global-average mean sea level are available. Global average mean sea level rose faster between 1993 and 2011 (2.8-3.2 mm/year) than during the 20th century as a whole (1.7 mm/year) (Church and White, 2011). The observed global average mean sea-level rise since 1990 is near the high end of projections from the 2007 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report.
Increases in extreme sea level around Australia have been observed to be significant at most sites. Since 1993, the rates of sea-level rise to the north and northwest of Australia have been 7 to 11 mm per year, two to three times the global average, and rates of sea-level rise on the central east and southern coasts of the continent are mostly similar to the global average. These variations are at least in part a result of natural variability of the climate system.
The major reason for the rise in extreme sea level is the mean sea level rise, rather than changes in storm surges. El Niño is one of the most important factors responsible for the interannual variability of extreme sea levels, and this will have played a role in the extreme sea level trends. Tidal contributions to extreme sea levels are especially significant along the Australian coast (Menendez and Woodworth, 2010).
References
− Bureau of Meteorology. 2005. El Niño, La Niña and Australia's Climate. http://www.bom.gov.au/info/leaflets/nino-nina.pdf
− Bureau of Meteorology. 2008. Special Climate Statement 16. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/statements/scs16.pdf
− Bureau of Meteorology. 2009. The exceptional January-February 2009 heatwave in south-eastern Australia. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/statements/scs17d.pdf
− Bureau of Meteorology. 2010. Special Climate Statement 22. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/statements/scs22.pdf
−
http://www.bom.gov.au/announ
Bureau of Meteorology. 2013a. Annual Climate Summary.
cements/media_releases/climate/change/20130103.shtml
− Bureau of Meteorology. 2013b. Extreme January heat. Special Climate Statement 43. http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/statements/scs43c.pdf
− Bureau of Meteorology. 2013c. Australian Climate Extremes Trend Maps. http://www.bom.gov.au/cgibin/climate/change/extremes/trendmaps.cgi?map=R_30&period=1950
− Bureau of Meteorology. 2013d. Australian climate variability & change - Time series graphs. http://www.bom.gov.au/cgibin/climate/change/timeseries.cgi?graph=raindecile01&area=aus&season=0112&ave_yr=0
− Church J. A., White N. J., Hunter J. R., and Lambeck, K. 2008. Briefing: a Post IPCC-AR4 Update on Sea-level Rise. The Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre: Hobart, Tasmania. http://www.cmar.csiro.au/sealevel/downloads/797655_16br01_slr_080911.pdf
− Church J. A. and White N.J. 2011. Sea-level rise from the late 19th to the early 21st Century. Surveys in Geophysics, doi:10.1007/s10712-011-9119-1.
− Clarke, H., Lucas, C. and Smith, P. 2012. Changes in Australian fire weather between 1973 and 2010. International Journal of Climatology. doi: 10.1002/joc.3480.
− CSIRO. 2008. A summary of probable climate change impacts around Australia. http://www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/documents/resources/Climate_change_poster.pdf
− CSIRO. 2008. Water availability in the Murray-Darling Basin. A report to the Australian Government from the CSIRO Murray-Darling Basin Sustainable Yields Project. CSIRO, Australia. http://www.csiro.au/partnerships/MDBSY.html
− CSIRO. 2011. Climate Change: Science and Solutions for Australia. http://www.csiro.au/Outcomes/Climate/Climate-Change-Book.aspx
− CSIRO. 2012. Climate and water availability in south-eastern Australia: A synthesis of findings from Phase 2 of the South Eastern Australian Climate Initiative (SEACI), CSIRO, Australia, September 2012, 41 pp. http://www.seaci.org/publications/documents/SEACI-2Reports/SEACI_Phase2_SynthesisReport.pdf
− CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology 2007. Climate change in Australia. Technical Report. http://www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/technical_report.php
− CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology. 2012. State of the Climate. http://www.csiro.au/Outcomes/Climate/Understanding/State-of-the-Climate-2012.aspx.
− Gallant A.J.E., Hennessy K.J. and Risbey J.S. 2007. Trends in rainfall indices for six Australian regions: 1910-2005. Australian Meteorological Magazine, 56, 223-239.
− IPCC. 2012. Special Report on Extremes – Summary for Policymakers. http://www.ipcc-wg2.gov/SREX/images/uploads/SREX-SPMbrochure_FINAL.pdf
− Kuleshov Y., Fawcett R., Qi L., Trewin B., Jones D., McBride J., and Ramsay H. 2010. Trends in tropical cyclones in the South Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research, 115, D01101, doi:10.1029/2009JD012372.
− Leblanc, M., Tweed, S., van Dijk, A. and Timbal, B. 2012. A review of historic and future hydrological changes in the Murray-Darling Basin. Global and Planetary Change, 80, p. 226-246. doi: 10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.10.012.
− Lucas C., Hennessy K.J. and Bathols J.M. 2007. Bushfire weather in Southeast Australia: recent trends and projected climate change impacts. Bushfire CRC, Melbourne.
− Menéndez M. and Woodworth P.L. 2010. Changes in extreme high water levels based on a quasi-global tidegauge 58 data set, J. Geophys. Res., 115, C10011, doi:10.1029/2009JC005997.
− Stafford Smith M., Horrocks L., Harvey A. and Hamilton C. 2011. Rethinking adaptation for a 4 ° C world. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, 369, 196-216. doi:10.1098/rsta.2010.0277.
− Timbal B. and Drosdowsky W. 2012. The relationship between the decline of South Eastern Australia rainfall and the strengthening of the sub-tropical ridge, International Journal of Climatology, doi:10.1002/joc.3492.
b. Based on global warming scenarios outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation of 1 to 5 degrees by 2070:
(i) projections on the frequency of extreme weather events, including but not limited to drought, bushfires, heatwaves, floods and storm surges.
CSIRO's research, conducted both at global and national scales, has improved our understanding of projections in extreme climate events, which enable us to explore with increasing confidence the consequences for our climate of various levels of emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities. Two main uncertainties continue to qualify the projections of future climate: the level of humanity's future greenhouse gas and aerosol emissions; and the response of the Earth's climate system to those emissions. These uncertain factors will affect the speed and extent of expected climate change.
Without effective action to mitigate anthropogenic (human-induced) greenhouse gas emissions, it is likely that atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration will double (from pre-industrial levels) sometime this century (IPCC, 2007). Global CO2 emissions have risen by 1.9% per year in the 1980s, 1.0% per year in the 1990s and 3.1% since 2000 (Peters et al., 2012). These growth rates are at the high end of IPCC emissions scenarios (between SRES A1B and A1FI, and close to the new RCP8.5: Figure 2), which would lead to a global-mean warming of 4.2-5.0 o C by the year 2100 (Peters et al., 2012).
A Global Perspective
The IPCC (2012) report entitled Managing the Risks of Extreme Events and Disasters to Advance Climate Change Adaptation concluded that it is virtually certain that increases in the frequency and magnitude of warm daily temperature extremes and decreases in cold extremes will occur in the 21st century at the global scale. The IPCC (2012) also found:
* Warm spells or heat waves are very likely to increase in length, frequency, and/or intensity of warm spells or heat waves over most land areas. Based on medium-high emissions scenarios (A1B and A2), a 1-in-20 year hottest day is likely to become a 1-in-2 year event by the end of the 21st century in most regions. Under a low emissions scenario (B1), a 1-in-20 year event would likely become a 1in-5 year event.
* The frequency of heavy precipitation or the proportion of total rainfall from heavy falls it is likely to increase in the 21st century over many areas of the globe. Based on a range of emissions scenarios (B1, A1B, A2), a 1-in-20 year maximum daily rainfall event is likely to become a 1-in-5 to 1-in-15 year event by the end of the 21st century in many regions.
* Average tropical cyclone maximum wind speed is likely to increase, although increases may not occur in all ocean basins. For the number of tropical cyclones, the global frequency is likely to either decrease or remain essentially unchanged.
* Mean sea level rise is very likely to contribute to upward trends in extreme coastal high water levels in the future.
* There is medium confidence that droughts will intensify in the 21st century in some seasons and areas, due to reduced precipitation and/or increased evapotranspiration.
Extreme events will have greater impacts on sectors with closer links to climate, such as water, infrastructure, agriculture, forestry, health, and tourism.
Projections for Australia
Extreme temperatures and heatwaves
Under a low emissions scenario (B1), projections for 2070 give an annual mean warming of 1.0-2.5 o C over most of Australia (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2007). Under a very high (A1FI) emissions scenario, projections for 2070 give an annual mean warming of 2.2-5.0 o C over most of Australia (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2007). These changes will be felt through an increase in the number of hot days and warm nights, and a decline in cool days and cold nights (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2012).
Changes in the annual-average number of days over 35 o C have been estimated for 15 sites (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2007). Table 2 shows moderate increases for low (B1) emissions, e.g. from 9 days at present to 12-17 days by 2070 in Melbourne, from 17 days at present to 24-31 days by 2070 in Adelaide, and from 28 days at present to 36-46 days by 2070 in Perth. Much larger increases are estimated for very high (A1FI) emissions, e.g. from 9 days at present to 15-26 days by 2070 in Melbourne, from 17 days at present to 29-47 days by 2070 in Adelaide, and from 28 days at present to 44-67 days by 2070 in Perth. Large decreases in extremely cold days are also simulated (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2007).
Table 2: Average number of days per year above 35ºC at selected sites for the 'current' climate (average for 19712000), and for 2030 and 2070. In each case, the low scenario is the 10th percentile, the median is the 50th percentile and the high scenario is the 90th percentile. For 2030, results are presented for the A1B emission scenario only since there is little difference between warmings for this and other emission scenarios. For 2070, results are presented for the A1FI and B1 emission scenarios. Source: CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology (2007).
Extreme Rainfall
In Australia, despite the general tendency for decreases or little change in seasonal-average rainfall, increases in extreme daily rainfall are expected over most of the continent in future (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2007). Changes in extreme daily rainfall, with return periods of 10-50 years, have been
estimated by Rafter and Abbs (2009) for 11 Australian regions for 2050 and 2090, based on 12 climate models driven by the high (A2) emissions scenario. The global warming by 2090 in these models ranges from 2.5-3.7 o C. By 2090 most models simulate increases in the intensity of the 1-in-20-year event in most regions, e.g. changes of -1.4 to +30.2% in Victoria, -9.1 to 51.2% in eastern NSW, and -28.8 to +66.8% in south-east Qld.
Drought
Drought occurrence is projected to increase over most of southern Australia, especially in south-western Australia (Hennessy et al., 2008). Global climate models provide projections of the future frequency and areal extent of high temperature, low rainfall and low soil moisture conditions (Kirono et al., 2011). These data have been used to characterise future drought conditions across twelve different geographical regions of Australia to the year 2100. A method called the Reconnaissance Drought Index (RDI) was used to define drought conditions, which is the ratio between rainfall and potential evapotranspiration (Kirono et al., 2011). These results show that by 2030, it is likely (greater than 66% probability) that a 1-in-20 year drought during the 20 th century may become a 1-in-10 year drought over south west Western Australia. By 2050, this could include the Murray-Darling Basin, South Australia and Victoria, and by 2070 this could extend to eastern New South Wales and Tasmania. No significant increases in drought frequency are projected for the northwest WA or northern and central Queensland (Kirono et al., 2011).
Based on modelling undertaken in the CSIRO Murray-Darling Sustainable Yields Project (MDBSY; 20072009), Kirby et al. (2013) analysed projections for drought frequency and severity under climate change scenarios for 2030, in which the warming is about 0.5-2.0 o C.
The Murray-Darling Basin experiences frequent droughts and in recent year parts of the region experienced the worst drought in the 110 years of comparatively high-quality records. Climate change projections suggest that the Murray-Darling Basin will be on average drier in the future (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2007). The 1997-2009 drought period saw lower autumn and winter rain and higher temperatures than past droughts, resulting in the lowest runoff totals on record in recent years. While these features may be associated with climate change, they may equally be a result of large, long-term climate variability.
Given general expectations of a drier future for the south of the Murray-Darling Basin, the 1997-2009 drought raises the question: what may be expected of droughts in the future?
Kirby et al. (2013) focussed on drought in the river system: that is, it mainly considered runs of years with low runoff and river flow (relevant to irrigation diversions and environmental flows in the river system). However, runs of years of low rainfall (relevant to rain-fed agriculture) were also considered.
While the overall trend in projected rainfall for the Murray Darling Basin is one of decline, the uncertainties associated with modelled rainfall projections span small increases in rainfall to significant decreases so the study of Kirby et al. (2013) considered this range of possibilities. They concluded that:
* Under the dry extreme and median rainfall projections, droughts are longer, more frequent and more severe – that is, with greater rainfall, runoff and river flow reductions – than those in the past, strongly so in the case of the dry extreme scenario. As an example, focussing only on long droughts of five years or more, the Goulburn region experiences four long droughts in runoff under the median scenario, and six under the dry extreme scenario, compared to two such droughts historically. During these long droughts under the median scenario runoff is 62% of the historic median runoff, while under the dry extreme scenario runoff is 52% of the historic median runoff. Under historical long droughts runoff was 70% of the historic median runoff.
* A decline in rainfall leads to a proportionally greater decline in runoff and an even greater proportional decline in river flows. Thus water available in the river system for irrigation or environmental water flows is reduced by far more than the reduction in rainfall.
* The projected changes to the longer and more severe droughts are greatest in the south of the Murray-Darling Basin. For example, under the dry extreme scenario the Goulburn region is, in most years, in a state that is currently considered to be drought. Under the dry extreme scenario, flows
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in the Goulburn River are below the historic median for five years or more sequentially for 87 out of 111 years. The average flow during those 87 years is 37% of the historic median flow. Similarly, under the dry extreme scenario, surface water diversions are below historic median diversions for five or more years sequentially for 108 of the 111 years. Average diversions during those 108 years are 67 % of the historic median diversions.
* Under the wet extreme scenario, where rainfall is higher than the long-term historical average, droughts are generally of the same length as, and slightly less severe than, those that have been experienced historically.
Bushfires
Over southern and eastern Australia, warmer and drier conditions are expected in future (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2007). Consequently, an increase in fire weather risk is likely, with more days of extreme risk and a longer fire season.
The annual average number of extreme fire weather days at 26 climate stations in south-eastern Australia was estimated by Lucas et al (2007) for the current climate (1973-2007), using the Forest Fire Danger index (FFDI). Projected changes in daily temperature, humidity, wind and rainfall and daily weather observations were used to recalculate FFDI values for 2020 and 2050. By 2020, a 5-25% increase in the annual-average the number of extreme fire danger days was estimates for low (B1) emissions, and 15-65% for very high (A1FI) emissions. By 2050, the increase is 10-50% for low (B1) emissions and 100-300% for very high (A1FI) emissions.
Cyclones
For the Australian region, projections show a general trend towards a decrease in frequency but increase in intensity for tropical cyclones in northern and north-western Australia.
Global climate models have been downscaled to a 65 km grid using CSIRO's CCAM model (Cotton et al., 2001; Katzfey et al., 2009) for a high (A2) emissions scenario for a period centred on 2070, when the global warming is 1.35-3.60 o C (CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology, 2007). The CCAM projections show a strong tendency for a decrease in cyclone numbers in the Australian region (Abbs, 2010). On average, for the period 2051-2090 relative to 1971-2000, the simulations show an approximately 50% decrease in frequency, a small decrease (0.3 days) in the duration of a given cyclone and a southward movement of 100 km in the genesis and decay regions. On average, the southward movement in the decay region (the region into which weakened tropical cyclones migrate) is greater off the Queensland coast than off the coast of Western Australia.
The Regional Atmospheric Modelling System (Cotton et al., 2001) was used to further downscale to a gridspacing of 15 km for 40-year time slices centred on 1980, 2030 and 2070 (Abbs, 2010). For each time slice 100 cyclone events were modelled. These simulations show a distinct shift towards deeper atmospheric pressures (stronger cyclones) with a larger percentage of cyclones producing high wind speeds (exceeding 25 m/s) in the 2070 climate.
In Western Australia, Abbs (2012) found there could be a 50 per cent reduction in the number of storms from 2051–2090 compared to the period 1971–2000. These cyclones are also moving southward by one degree of latitude, or a hundred kilometres, meaning they are decaying closer to Perth (Abbs, 2012).
Sea Level and storm surge
Projected changes in extreme sea levels around southern Australia are likely to be dominated by the mean sea level rise, rather than changes in storm surges (Colberg and McInnes, 2012). For the high (A2) emission scenario, the range of mean sea-level rise by 2090-2100 is 23-51 cm. Figure 3 shows the estimated increase in the frequency of extreme sea-level events caused by a 50 cm mean sea-level rise for 29 Australian locations where good tidal records longer than 30 years exist (DCCEE, 2009). Extreme events that now happen every 10 years, on average, would happen about every 10 days in 2100, and become even more frequent around Sydney, with smaller increases around Adelaide and along parts of the Western Australian coast (DCCEE, 2009).
References
− Abbs, D. 2012. The Impact of Climate Change on the Climatology of Tropical Cyclones in the Australian Region. CSIRO Climate Adaptation Flagship Working paper No.11. http://www.csiro.au/en/OrganisationStructure/Flagships/Climate-Adaptation-Flagship/CAF-working-papers.aspx
− Bates B.C., Hope P., Ryan B., Smith I. and Charles S. 2008. Key findings from the Indian Ocean Climate Initiative and their impact on policy development in Australia. Climatic Change, 89:339–354
− Colberg F. and McInnes, K. 2012. The impact of future changes in weather patterns on extreme sea levels over southern Australia. Journal of Geophysical Research, 117, C08001, doi:10.1029/2012JC007919
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(ii) The costs of extreme weather events and impacts on natural ecosystems, social and economic infrastructure, and human health.
Extreme weather events, interacting with exposed and vulnerable systems, can lead to disasters (IPCC, 2012). In Australia, vulnerability to extreme weather events has been recently highlighted by:
* the south-east Australian heat wave in late January 2009, which resulted in 374 excess deaths in Victoria over what would be expected (Vic DHS, 2009);
* the Victorian bushfires in early February 2009, which killed 173 people and more than 1 million animals, destroyed more than 2000 homes, burnt about 430,000 hectares, and cost about $4.4 billion (Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission, 2010);
* the floods in Queensland in 2010-2011, which killed 33 people and affected more than 78 per cent of the state and over 2.5 million people, with 29,000 homes and businesses suffering some form of inundation, and a cost in excess of $5 billion (Queensland Floods Commission of Inquiry, 2011).
Two issues arise here: one is the level of impacts and costs of extreme events from the historical record; the second is how these costs may change in the future and to what extent adaptation actions may reduce these costs (i.e. the value of proactive disaster preparedness allowing for climate change). There is relatively little analysis of the latter in Australia, but CSIRO is undertaking a growing body of work presented here.
Risks and costs on settlements and infrastructure
CSIRO has investigated the current and projected costs of extreme events on some individual sectors or material, and in some specific locations. Our goal has been to provide these sectors and regions with information on which to base adaptation strategies.
Costs and benefits of planned adaptation to sea level rise in South East Queensland
CSIRO undertook a preliminary assessment of the costs and benefits of proactive, planned adaptation on built infrastructure in South East Queensland (SEQ) in 2009, a region recognised by both the insurance industry and governments to face a high risk of inundation. Costs and benefits have been investigated by estimating the population and economic effects of an historical 1-in-100-year inundation event and then exploring how these may change under different scenarios of settlement patterns in 2030 and 2070.
At present, an estimated 227,000 people in SEQ are at risk of inundation from a 1-in-100-year storm tide. If the population in SEQ does not change, sea level rise could see this number increase to rise to about 245,000 people by 2030 and 273,000 people by 2070. However the population is expected to increase from today's 2.69 million to 4.4 million by 2030, greatly compounding the impact of climate change if the population remains at its current pattern of settlement. Indeed the exposure to inundation is more strongly influenced by the current settlement patterns projected into the future than by the additional impact of sea level rise.
The value of adaptation in reducing these risks has also been assessed. Currently in SEQ 35,200 residential buildings are exposed to a 2.5 m storm tide (approximately a 1-in-100-year event), risking structure and content damage of about $1.1 billion. By 2030, with projected population increase and using the same planning and building regulations as today coupled with an additional 0.2m sea level rise over 1990 levels, the number of residential buildings at risk from a 2.5 m storm tide will increase to about 61,500 and the costs will increase to about $2.0 billion, while the exact number will be affected by the discount rate applied in the estimation. In 2070 this will affect approximately 121,000 residential buildings and cost about $3.9 billion (Wang et al., 2010). Altering future development patterns and planning regulations to reduce exposure will greatly reduce the costs of a 1 in 100 year inundation event.
Risk assessment of extreme wind events in Queensland
Economic analysis of the likely changes in wind extremes in areas of Queensland shows a 'no regrets' benefit of adapting houses or changing building codes sooner rather than later. Assuming 'business as usual' (no adaptation measures), a changing climate can increase mean cumulative wind damage direct losses (house and contents damage) for Cairns, Townsville, Rockhampton and South East Queensland by up to $3.8, $9.7 and $20.0 billion by 2030, 2050 and 2100, respectively, assuming a 4% discount rate. If indirect losses are considered, then mean cumulative wind damage losses for Cairns, Townsville, Rockhampton and South East Queensland can increase by up to $3.9, $9.9 and $20.5 billion by 2030, 2050 and 2100, respectively. There is a high likelihood of large potential economic losses if there is no change to building standards, and suggests that climate adaptation strategies are needed to ameliorate these losses (Stewart and Wang 2011; Stewart and Wang 2012; Stewart et al., 2012) .
Assessment of potential inundation on coastal settlements and transport infrastructures of selected hotspots in Queensland
Using 100-year ARI storm tides (with wave setups) of each hotspot (at current sea level) as the basis for comparison, the hotspots with the highest percentages of affected factors in QLD are shown in Table 3 (together with the projected sea level rises of 0.3m and 0.8m for years 2050 and 2100), respectively. The applied projected sea level rises followed the Queensland Coastal Plan (2011).The results indicate that Maroochy/Caloundra may be the most significantly affected hotspot in terms of geographic area, population, and streets. The other hotspots that may warrant further investigations are Brisbane, Gold Coast, Mackay, Moreton Bay, and Townsville due to the high percentage/amount of affected factors (Khoo et al., 2011).
Table 3: Hotspots with the highest percentages/amounts of affected factors at current 100-year ARI storm tides with wave setups (as well as projected sea level rises of 0.3 and 0.8 m for years 2050 and 2100, respectively, in these hotspots). Damage costs are given in terms of 2010 dollar values Source: Khoo and Wang (2011).
| Factor | Hotspot | | |
|---|---|---|---|
| | | Current | 2050 |
| Geographic area | Maroochy/Caloundra | 33.4% | 37.5% |
| Population | Maroochy/Caloundra | 23.6% | 31.6% |
| Residential buildings | Mackay | 12.9% | 16.5% |
| Commercial buildings | Townsville | 29.3% | 36.3% |
| Airports | Brisbane, Cairns, Mackay, Maroochy/Caloundra, and Townsville | 100.0% | 100.0% |
| Railway stations | Moreton Bay | 14.3% | 14.3% |
| Railway lines | Gold Coast | 17.1% | 21.4% |
Impacts of climate change on concrete
The impact of extreme events on Australia's infrastructure will further be exacerbated by the likelihood that the long-term structural reliability would be compromised by accelerated deterioration due to changing climate and increasing carbon concentration, for example, concrete, timber and steel structures.
Concrete deterioration is caused by a range of physical, mechanical and/or chemical factors. Two major threats are: 1) carbonation, which occurs when atmospheric CO2 penetrates into the structure to expose steel reinforcements to corrosion and 2) corrosion caused by chloride penetration causing cracking, delamination, or spalling, of the concrete especially in marine and coastal areas. Both corrosion mechanisms are influenced by climate change – in particular increasing temperatures and sea level rise. The time it will take for climate change to exacerbate carbonation and chloride-induced corrosion of concrete structures will depend on their location and level of exposure to the elements.
Impacts of heatwaves on the performance of building and infrastructure
Heatwaves which last for several days have significant impacts on how building and infrastructure perform; specifically how they maintain temperature for human comfort and safety, fire hazards or utility failures. Using historical temperature data from 548 temperature stations across Australia it was shown that heatwave events at many stations are increasing – not just in terms of numbers of hot days but also in numbers of hot spells longer than two days (Nguyen et al., 2011).
These hot spells affect buildings and urban infrastructure and preliminary work highlights some of these effects. For a typical house – one story brick veneer three bedroom home –the longer the hot spell the warmer the house interior (without air-conditioning) and more energy is used to cool the building. For power transmission in an electricity network the amount of power lost during the transmission process increases by more than 50% due to increased power demand. The study (Nguyen et al., 2011) also
contained an assessment of the thermal load and buckling of railways during the heatwave in Melbourne in January 2009 to better understand extreme heat impacts on the tracks (Nguyen et al., 2012).
Heatwave can significantly deteriorate the indoor thermal environment of buildings. This may particularly lead to significant consequences of low-incoming households, who normally have no air-condition to abate the impact of heat (Barnett et al., 2012).
Another study (Wang et al., 2010) showed how the extra energy load for heating and cooling would change with climate change in different cities across Australia. Although this study was not primarily concerned with extremes, it found that the meaningfulness of different energy star ratings will change with global warming.
Impacts of extreme events on human health
Extreme events such as heatwaves, storms and floods are likely to have a direct impact on the health of Australians, such as causing an increase in heat-related deaths. Indirect impacts of climate change will be through effects on biological processes such as infectious diseases and physical processes such as air pollution or altering insect activity increasing vector borne diseases.
Impacts of heatwaves on years of life lost in Brisbane
While it is often relatively easy to determine the human cost of extreme events such as bushfires or floods, deaths due to heat waves are less obvious. Researchers investigated an indicator used by the health sector as a novel measure of mortality in Brisbane. 'Years of life lost' is an indicator of premature mortality that accounts for the age at which deaths occur by giving greater weight to deaths at younger ages. Years of life lost were estimated by matching each death by age and sex to the Australian national life tables for the years 2002-2004.
It was found that the association between temperature and years of life lost is U-shaped, with increased years of life lost for cold and hot temperatures. This pattern occurs because the increased heat-related years of life lost are somewhat offset by the decreased cold-related years of life lost. For a 2 °C increase, we projected a total increase of 381 temperature-related years of life lost, as the decreases in cold-related years of life lost will not fully offset the increases in heat-related years of life lost. Assuming a 4 °C increase, the health consequences become very significant, with a projected net increase of 3,242 temperature related years of life lost in 2050 relative to 2000 (Huang et al., 2012).The temperature-related years of life lost will worsen greatly if future climate change goes beyond a 2 °C increase and without any adaptation to higher temperatures. This study highlights that public health adaptation to climate change is essential.
Impacts of heatwaves on years of life lost through cardiovascular deaths
Extreme temperatures are associated with cardiovascular disease deaths. Previous studies have investigated the relative cardiovascular disease mortality risk of temperature, but this risk is heavily influenced by deaths in frail elderly people. To better estimate the burden of extreme temperatures, years of life lost due to cardiovascular disease were estimated. It was found that the association between temperature and years of life lost due to cardiovascular disease was U-shaped, with increased years of life lost attributable to cold and hot temperatures. A significant added effect of heat waves implies that an extra risk arises when the exposure to extreme heat is sustained for two days or more (Huang et al., 2012).
Health impacts of climate change due to vector borne diseases
Health is also affected by climate change indirectly, principally through biological processes such as vectorborne and other infectious diseases and physical processes such as air pollution. For example, Australia can expect an increase in disease due to the spread of insect vectors, with 0.6 to 1.4 million more people exposed to dengue fever by 2050, as well as a rise in waterborne and food-borne diseases. Higher temperatures are likely to cause an increase in the concentrations of volatile organic compounds and ozone in the atmosphere. An analysis of future climate found that under an SRES A2 (relatively high emission) scenario, increased ozone pollution is projected to cause a 40% increase in the projected number of
hospital admissions by the period 2020–2030, relative to 1996–2005, and a 200% increase by the period 2050–2060.
References
− Barnett G. 2012. Pathways to climate adapted and healthy low incoming housing. NCCARF report.
− Beebe N.W., Cooper R.D., Mottram P., and Sweeney A.W. 2009. Australia's Dengue Risk Driven by Human Adaptation to Climate Change. Plos Neglected Tropical Diseases 3(5).
− Huang C., Barnett A.G., Wang X., and Tong S. 2012. Years of Life Loss due to Cold and Hot Climates in Brisbane, Australia. Nature Climate Change, 2: 265-270. doi:10.1038/nclimate1369.
− Huang C., Barnett A.G., Wang, X. and Tong S. 2012. Effects of extreme temperatures on years of life lost for cardiovascular deaths: a time series study in Brisbane, Australia. Circulation: Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes, 5: 609-614. doi:10.1161/circoutcomes.112.965707.
− Huang C, Barnett A.G., Xu Z., Chu C., Wang X., Turner L.R., and Tong S. Under review. Managing the Health Effects of Temperature in Response to Climate Change: Challenges Ahead. Submitted to Environmental Health Perspectives.
− Khoo Y. B. and Wang X. 2011. Assessment of Potential Inundation on Coastal Settlements and Transport Infrastructures of Selected Hotspots in Queensland. Published by CSIRO, Canberra. May, 2011. ISBN 978 0 643 10478 5.
− Nguyen M., Wang X. and Chen D. 2011. An investigation of extreme heatwave events and their effects on building and infrastructure. CSIRO Climate Adaptation Flagship Working paper No. 9. CSIRO, Brisbane. ISBN: 978-0-643-10633-8. http://www.csiro.au/en/Organisation-Structure/Flagships/Climate-AdaptationFlagship/CAF-working-papers/CAF-working-paper-9.aspx
− Nguyen M., Wang X. and Wang C-H. 2012. Reliability Assessment of Railway Track Buckling under Extreme Heatwaves. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F. Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit 226(5): 513-17. doi:10.1177/0954409712441743.
.
− Nguyen M., Wang X. and Leicester B. Under review. An Assessment of Climate Change Effects on Atmospheric Corrosion Rates of Steel Structures. Submitted to Corrosion Engineering Science and Technology.
− Queensland Floods Commission of Inquiry. 2011. Interim Report, 262 pp. http://www.floodcommission.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/8791/QFCI-Interim-Report-Preface,Introduction.pdf
− Stewart M.G. and Wang X. 2011. Risk Assessment of Climate Adaptation Strategies for Extreme Wind Events in Queensland. Published by CSIRO, Canberra. ISBN 978 0 643 10431 0.
− Stewart M.G. and Wang X. 2012. Risk Assessment of Climate Adaptation Strategies for Australian Housing Subject to Extreme Wind Events. Climatic Change. (Revised)
− Stewart M. G., Wang X. and Willgoose G.R. 2012. Indirect Cost and Benefit Assessment of Climate Adaptation Strategies for Extreme Wind Events in Queensland. Published by CSIRO, Canberra, May 2012. ISBN 978 0 643 10854 7.
− Victorian Bushfires Royal Commission. 2010. Final Report, Volume 1. Government Printer for the State of Victoria, Melbourne, 361 pp. http://www.royalcommission.vic.gov.au
− Victorian Department of Health Services. 2009. January 2009 Heatwave in Victoria: an Assessment of Health Impacts. http://www.health.vic.gov.au/chiefhealthofficer/downloads/heat_impact_rpt.pdf
− Wang C-H and Wang X. 2012. Vulnerability of Timber in Ground Contact to Fungal Decay under Climate Change. Climatic Change, 115:777-794. doi: 10.1007/s10584-012-0454-0.
− Wang X., Syme M., Nguyen M. and Stewart M.G. 2010. Analysis of Climate Change Impacts on the Deterioration of Concrete Infrastructure. CSIRO, Australia. http://www.csiro.au/Portals/Publications/Research-Reports/concrete-durability-report.aspx#a1
− Wang X., Stewart M., and Nguyen M. 2012. Impact of Climate Change on Corrosion and Damage to Concrete Infrastructure in Australia. Climatic Change, 110(3-4): 941-957. doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0124-7.
− Wang X., Chen D. and Ren Z. 2010. Assessment of climate change impact on residential building heating and cooling energy requirement in Australia. Building and Environment, 45(7):1663-1682.
− Wang X., Stafford Smith M., McAllister R., Leitch A., McFallan S. and Meharg S. 2010. Coastal inundation under climate change: a case study in South East Queensland. Report prepared for the South East Queensland Climate Adaptation Research Initiative. CSIRO Climate Adaptation Working paper 6, Canberra. http://www.csiro.au/en/Organisation-Structure/Flagships/Climate-Adaptation-Flagship/CAF-workingpapers/CAF-working-paper-6.aspx
c. An assessment of the preparedness of key sectors for extreme weather events, including major infrastructure (electricity, water, transport, telecommunications), health, construction and property, and agriculture and forestry.
CSIRO has investigated various sectors. In addition to those described in more detail below, this includes the mining sector (Hodgkinson et al., 2010), some aspects of the electricity sector (Wang et al., 2012),
Agricultural sector preparedness
The agricultural sector in Australia is highly affected by climate variability and climate extremes. Over two hundred years it has developed a wide range of innovative risk management strategies to cope with Australia's highly variable climate (Stokes and Howden, 2009). These are technological (such as droughtresistant crop varieties and zero-tillage), managerial (such as improved crop rotations or irrigation), financial (such as forward selling) and social (such as support networks). Notwithstanding this riskmanagement capacity, the scale of extreme climate events means that there are often substantial impacts such as reduced productivity and quality of product, damage to the natural resource base, and social and psychological disruption. Significant droughts can halve national wheat production, and significantly reduce production of other crops and livestock. The impacts flow through to the national economy with reductions in national GDP of 1-2% in years of severe drought (Leblanc et al., 2012). In 2007-08, 23 per cent of Australia's 143,000 farms received drought assistance, totalling over $1 billion, with some on income support continuously since 2002 (Productivity Commission, 2009). The seriousness of such impacts has resulted in a range of institutional responses such as establishment of Landcare groups, various drought policies, water resource policies and training each of which has enhanced preparedness and capacity. As the climate changes and with potential increases in frequency and severity of climate extremes (as noted above), these risk management and institutional approaches will likely need to change (Howden et al., 2010). New approaches to drought preparedness are being trialled that factor in added dimensions of climate change (e.g. DAFF's WA pilot of farm planning). These new approaches to planning and preparedness are necessary but they may not be sufficient to deal with the more systemic and transformative changes that will increasingly be needed under climate change (Howden et al., 2010). CSIRO has initiated research into these bigger change processes, understanding them, how they are triggered and what helps or hinders them so that we can help design support systems for the agricultural sector (Park et al., 2012). There is also ongoing research that will provide the technological options for farmers of the future to equip themselves for the climate they face such as climate-change-ready crops (Chapman et al., 2012) and livestock that are adapted to heat stress extremes (Nidumolu et al., 2011).
Property sector preparedness
Property prices in areas prone to inundation
For flood-prone urban areas, the prospect of increasing population densities and more frequent extreme weather associated with climate change is alarming. Proactive adaptation can reduce potential flood risks in theory however there is little research available to support such decisions making. Despite the vital important of the family home there have been few studies that have considered the loss in value of land, as a key asset, due to inundation. Yet in many urban areas the family home represents individuals' major asset, and with population growth land values are increasing as a proportion of value in residential housing.
For instance, in Australia the family home makes up over 40% of individual's total net assets and land values have increased as a proportion of value in urban residential housing from ~25% in 1990 to over 60% in 2010. Moreover, land values appreciate over time, so implementing adaptations now to protect against damage due to inundation in the future protects an ever more valuable asset. Within the residential sector, the financial impact of inundation on land values due to changing coastal inundation regimes under future sea level rise scenarios is expected to be of a similar magnitude to infrastructure damage by 2050. As such, including appreciating lost land values as well as infrastructure damage is important to accurately assess the potential benefits of adapting coastal residential communities to coastal inundation. Correctly accounting for these potential benefits will strengthen the case for greater investment in adaptation, sooner.
Closely related to the property sector is the insurance sector. This sector is particularly sensitive to a change in exposure of populations to extreme events (e.g. more people residing in vulnerable areas and to changes in frequency or intensity of extreme events.
Water sector preparedness
Floods, droughts, and climate change are the three most important influences of climate on Australia's water resources. Water resources are vulnerable to both climate variability and change; for example, runoff into Perth's reservoirs has declined by 55% since the 1970s and the 1997 to 2009 drought resulted in unprecedented decline in runoff and water use in the southern Murray–Darling Basin and Victoria. Climate change has played a part in recent reductions in rainfall and water resources, however its specific contribution is difficult to quantify. Climate change by 2030 is likely to reduce average river flows by 10% to 25% in some regions of southern Australia but further climate change could produce even more profound reductions of water resources in southern Australia. Climate and water scientists in CSIRO, the Bureau of Meteorology, and elsewhere continually work to improve projections of future water availability and streamflow characteristics, and these are used to inform the water reforms and water adaptation strategies across Australia (CSIRO, 2011).
The Bureau of Meteorology has been issuing seasonal weather outlooks since the 1990s, and in 2010 it launched a new service on seasonal river flow forecasting. This forecasting system is based on models developed by CSIRO that give probabilistic forecasts of river flow several months ahead, in particular flows to major water storages (CSIRO, 2011).
The Bureau of Meteorology is also responsible for issuing flood warnings and is planning to extend its current flood warning service to forecast river flows continuously up to 10 days ahead. The Bureau of Meteorology and CSIRO are jointly developing and testing a modelling system for this purpose combining hydrological and weather prediction models that use real-time data from climate stations, river flow gauging sites, and satellite data (CSIRO, 2011).
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− Wang X., Stafford Smith M., McAllister R., Leitch A., McFallan S. and Meharg S. 2010. Coastal inundation under climate change: a case study in South East Queensland. Report prepared for the South East Queensland Climate Adaptation Research Initiative. CSIRO Climate Adaptation Working paper 6, Canberra. http://www.csiro.au/en/Organisation-Structure/Flagships/Climate-Adaptation-Flagship/CAF-workingpapers/CAF-working-paper-6.aspx
− Wang C-H., Grozev G. and Seo, S. 2012. Decomposition and statistical analysis for regional electricity demand forecasting. Energy, 41, 313-325.
d. An assessment of the preparedness and the adequacy of resources in the emergency services sector to prevent and respond to extreme weather events.
CSIRO cannot present any assessment of the preparedness of emergency services as such, but we are undertaking a number of research projects to support more effective response to extreme events by the emergency services sector. They include improving better prediction of how extreme events 'behave', and better information and communications systems. These aim to contribute to improved efficiency or efficacy in some areas of operations.
Predicting bushfire behaviour
Understanding the factors—and the interactions between these factors— that influence the behaviour of bushfires is essential to the development of robust tools for predicting the behaviour and spread of bushfires across the landscape. While the existing systems for predicting the likelihood of the occurrence, spread and impact of bushfires in Australia, developed in the 1960s, are adequate for determining the mean behaviour of bushfires over a number of hours, the highly chaotic nature of bushfires means
instantaneous behaviour of bushfires can be more unpredictable than the mean value. This can result in short-lived, but extremely hazardous, conditions that can imperil the safety of not only the general public threatened by a raging bushfire but also the firefighters tasked with protecting them and their property.
CSIRO research focuses on the science and tools needed by rural fire authorities and land management agencies to better prepare for and respond to bushfire emergencies. This includes: the development of improved tools for predicting the behaviour of bushfires burning in forest fuels under dry summer conditions; development of tools for the prediction of behaviour of fires burning in mallee-heath scrub; assessment of the effectiveness of video-based fire detection technology; reconstruction of the behaviour and spread of the Kilmore East Black Saturday fire that claimed 119 lives; development of models for predicting the maximum potential spotting distance from a crown fire in eucalypt forest and pine plantation; development of firefighting resource deployment tools; and the construction of a large combustion wind tunnel to enable the study of fire propagation mechanisms through bushfire fuel.
Better understanding flood and tsunamis through modelling
Improved flood modelling can support governments, planning groups, rescue and recovery agencies, municipal councils, insurance companies and communities to better cope with flood disaster events; from prevention, preparation, response to recovery.
New computational modelling techniques have been developed to better understand and prepare for flood disasters. Importantly, emergency services will be able to use this information to make sound decisions based on accurate data from real-life disaster scenarios. Geophysical flow events are difficult to study because solids and fluids move in large volumes over large areas, many physical processes are at work including erosion, sedimentation and deposition and they occur over an expanse of time and space.
CSIRO uses a combination of shallow water for large scale fluid flows, smoothed particle hydrodynamics for fluid-structure interaction and discrete element models for land and mudslides, to accurately model geophysical events using real 3D digital models of the surrounding landscape. The powerful modelling technique gives realistic water simulations that include difficult-to-model behaviours such as wave motion, fragmentation and splashing including fluid structure interaction. As well as being immensely important for disaster management and new infrastructure planning, the work could help Australian coastal councils and stakeholders prepare for extreme weather. This work has been applied to several prediction projects for the local government/councils in Australia and for various dam break scenarios in China.
Monitoring social media to alert authorities sooner
The 'sooner the better' for alerts to emergency services of natural disasters and CSIRO's Emergency Situation Awareness tool provides valuable intelligence to disaster coordinators and emergency managers about the impact of natural disasters on communities. We apply capabilities in statistical modelling, text mining and streaming data analysis to the challenges of extracting early signals, high-value messages and topics from Twitter during crises and emergencies.
The Emergency Situational Awareness Project (or ESA, http://www.csiro.au/en/Outcomes/ICT-andServices/Early-Adopters-Social-Media.aspx) has been deployed and in use by various emergency management authorities in Australia including – several federal agencies and at least one department responsible for Emergencies in each state and territory in Australia.
References:
− Albini F.A., Alexander M.E. and Cruz M.G. 2012. A mathematical model for predicting the maximum potential spotting distance from a crown fire. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 21, 609–627.
− Box P. 2012. Building Information Communities: Spatially Enabled Social Protection in Indonesia. Invited presentation at Information and Innovation in Service Delivery Conference 26-27 November 2012, Canberra.
− Cheney N.P., Gould J.S., McCaw W.L., and Anderson W.R. 2012. Prediction fire behaviour in dry eucalypt forest in southern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management, 280: 120-131.
− Cleary P. W. and Prakash M. 2004. Discrete element modelling and smoothed particle hydrodynamics: potential in the environmental sciences, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, 362, 2003-2030. doi:10.1098/rsta.2004.1428.
− Cleary P. W., Prakash M. and Rothauge K. 2010. Combining digital terrain and surface textures with large-scale particle-based computational models to predict dam collapse and landslide events. International Journal of Image and Data Fusion, 1(4), 337-357.
− Cruz M.G., Sullivan A.L., Gould J.S., Sims M.C., Bannister A.J., Hollis J.J., and Hurley R.J. 2012. Anatomy of a catastrophic wildfire: The Black Saturday Kilmore East fire in Victoria, Australia. Forest Ecology and Management, 284, 269-285.
− Ellis P.F.M. 2011. Fuelbed ignition potential and bark morphology explain the notoriety of the eucalypt messmate 'stringybark' for intense spotting. International Journal of Wildland Fire, 20, 897-907.
− Kostanski L., Atkinson A., Box P. and Watt, B. 2012. Feature Types for Global Gazetteers, paper submitted to the 10 th United Nations Conference on the Standardisation of Geographic Names, New York, August 2012. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/10th-uncsgndocs/econf/E_Conf.101_56_Add1_Feature%20Types%20for%20Global%20Gazetteers.pdf
− Matthews S., Sullivan A.L., Gould J., Hurley R., Ellis P. and Larmour J. 2012. Field evaluation of two image-based wildland fire detection systems. Fire Safety Journal, 47, 54-61.
− McCarthy G.J., Plucinski M.P. and Gould J.S. 2012. Analysis of the resourcing and containment of multiple remote fires: The Great Divide Complex of fires, Victoria, December 2006. Australian Forestry, 75:1, 54-63.
− McCaw W.L., Gould J.S., Cheney N.P., Ellis P.F. and Anderson W.R. 2012. Changes in behaviour of fire in dry eucalypt forest as fuel increases with age. Forest Ecology and Management, 271:170-181.
− Cameron M.A., Power R., Robinson B. and Yin J. 2012. Emergency situation awareness from twitter for crisis management. WWW (Companion Volume) : 695-698.
− Yin J., Lampert A., Cameron M., Robinson B. and Power R. 2012 Using Social Media to Enhance Emergency Situation Awareness. IEEE Intelligent Systems, 27(6), 52-59.
− Prakash M., Debroux F. and Cleary P. 2001. Three dimensional modelling of dam break induced flows using Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics. 14 th Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference, Adelaide, Australia, 10-14 th Dec 2001, 379-382.
− Prakash M. And Cleary P.W. 2011. Three dimensional modelling of lava flow using smoothed particle hydrodynamics. Applied Mathematical Modelling, 35(6), 3021-3035.
− Prakash M, Cleary P.W., Mead S., Bolger M., Tang X., Wang H., Ye F., Ouyang S. and LI S. 2011. Environmental Informatics for the Development of Landscape Scale Monitoring and Modelling Extension ― Field trip report, ACEDP Technical Report No: EP116571, 84 pages.
− Prakash M., Mead S., Cleary P.W., Lemiale V., Ye F., Ouyang S., Li Z., Wang H., and Tang X. 2011. Environmental Informatics for the Development of Landscape Scale Monitoring and Modelling Extension ― A risk framework for determining consequences of failure of earth dams, ACEDP Technical Report No: EP121485, 73 pages.
− Prakash M., Woolard F. and Mead S. 2012. Modelling and visualisation of inundation due to a potential storm surge in Townsville. 21 st NSW coastal conference, Kiama, NSW, 6-9 November 2012.
− Ye, F., Prakash M., Wang H., Ouyang S., Tang X. and Li Z. 2012. Spatio- temporal analysis and visualization using SPH for dam-break and flood disasters in a GIS environment. Geomatics for Integrated Water Resources Management, 19-21 Oct., Lanzhou, Gansu, China.
− Yin J., Karimi S., Robinson B. And Cameron M. 2012. ESA: Emergency Situation Awareness via Microbloggers ACM International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management, 2701-2703.
− Watt W., Kostanski L., Atkinson A. and Box P. 2012. Four Faces of Toponymic Gazetteers. Paper submitted to the 10 th United Nations Conference on the Standardisation of Geographic Names, New York, August 2012. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn/docs/10th-uncsgndocs/econf/E_CONF.101_57_The%20Four%20Faces%20of%20Toponymic%20Gazetteers.pdf
e. The current roles and effectiveness of the division of responsibilities between different levels of government (federal, state and local) to manage extreme weather events.
CSIRO's research has particularly focused on responses to extreme weather in the context of allowing for future change. In general terms, a survey of diverse sectoral representatives (both in government and outside) found that adaptation planning and implementation has to date been largely thematic, sectoral in nature or industry-based (Park et al., 2011). Taking such a narrow perspective potentially overlooks many complex economic, social and ecological issues and interactions, and may lead to unintended and maladaptive consequences. This includes clarification of roles and responsibilities, which have been the subject of studies in more specific contexts.
Integration between tiers of government over climate change
Abel et al. (2012) and Gorrdard et al. (2011) show how complex the institutional arrangements among tiers of government and of other players can be in Australia. Roles and responsibilities associated with planning for and managing the impacts of events such as storm surge and coastal inundation for instance need to be clearly articulated. While this is occurring to some degree between levels of government, it is restricted by current formal arrangements and therefore of imperfect effectiveness.
A key issue is that the ability of one tier of government to make a decision (within its respective responsibility) is constrained or even compromised by decisions at another level of government. For instance where local governments have statutory responsibilities for local planning and development controls, they do not generally have the capabilities to manage many of the legal and financial risks generated from those decisions. This is particularly the case in implementing planning controls on private property for storm surge events and coastal inundation where local governments have repeatedly looked to State Government to provide adequate legislative protection, regulatory clarity and or financial support to guard against legal action arising from local decisions made in the public good to limit risk (Inman et al., 2012; Harman et al., forthcoming).
In a similar vein, there have been high profile recent changes to coastal management policies (including the management of coastal flooding hazards) in the States of Queensland and NSW. Significant changes in state-level policy create considerable uncertainty and ambiguity for local government level decisionmakers, compromising their ability to develop clear rules and practices that persist over time and are accepted and understood by their communities. This is significant as it is the local tier of government that private property developers have the highest level of interaction with, including on strategies to limit risks from natural hazards associated with development projects (Taylor et al., 2012).
Government responsibilities in the coastal zone
The coastal zone is subject to particularly complex governance arrangements which make it difficult to manage for a changing climate. The nature of climate change in coastal systems means that no single policy, process or insight will result in effective coastal adaptation. The attribution of impacts and responsibilities and therefore investment in adaptation options needs coordinating across all levels of government and private actors to ensure that important but often unintended and indirect consequences of decisions are accounted for.
Existing decision-making and policy processes only consider a subset of possible futures and possible adaptation options and pathways because they do not adequately account for:
1. Changing values and preferences – that values and preferences of individuals and groups for the balance between nature and development will be different in the future to those currently held.
2. Small-probability high-impact events (i.e. extreme events), which, if seriously and appropriately considered in economic analyses, can lead to entirely different options being assessed as
preferable. These options may lead a community to delay or avoid defence and instead adopt a strategy of planned retreat.
3. Constraints on existing decision and policy spaces, and entrenched institutions and organisational arrangements (e.g. existing budgetary and short-term planning cycles) can unintentionally lock development into unwanted trajectories.
4. Diverse and changing cross-scale effects that can require problems and decision processes to be reframed.
References
− Abel, N., Gorddard, R., Harman, B., Leitch, A., Langridge, J., Ryan, A., and Heyenga, S. 2011. Sea level rise, coastal development and planned retreat: analytical framework, governance principles and an Australian case study. Environmental Science & Policy, 14, 279-288.
− Gorddard R., Wise R.M., Alexander K., Langston A., Leitch A., Dunlop M., Ryan A., and Langridge J. 2012. Striking the balance: Coastal development and ecosystem values. Report prepared for the Australian Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency and the CSIRO Climate Adaptation National Research Flagship. ISBN: 978-1-922003-38-6.
− Harman, B., Taylor, B. and Inman, M. Under review. Scaling-up, scaling-down, scaling-out: Local planning responses to sea level rise, Submitted to Geographical Research, November 2012.
− Inman M., Taylor, B., and Harman, B. 2012. Incorporating coastal inundation and SLR considerations into local and regional planning responses: A guideline to support good planning practice in the Sydney Coastal Councils Area, Prepared by CSIRO and the Sydney Coastal Councils Group, October 2012.
− Park S.E., Crimp S., Dowd A-M., Ashworth P. and Mendham E. 2011. Understanding climate change adaptation as a national challenge. CSIRO Climate Adaptation Flagship Working paper No. 8. http://www.csiro.au/Organisation-Structure/Flagships/Climate-Adaptation-Flagship/CAF-working-papers/CAFworking-paper-8.aspx
− Productivity Commission, 2012, Barriers to effective climate change adaptation, Productivity Commission Draft Report, April 2012.
− Taylor B.M., Harman B., Heyenga S. and McAllister R.R.J. 2012. Property Developers and Urban Adaptation: Conceptual and Empirical Perspectives on Governance. Urban Policy and Research, 30(1) 5-24.
− Wise R.M., Fazey I., Stafford Smith M., Parke S., Eakin H., Campbell B. and Maru Y. Under review. Reframing adaptation as pathways for managing change. Submitted to Global Environmental Change.
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February 2013 Horticulture/Vegetables/2013-01
Cosmos in the Garden
Sheriden Hansen and Dan Drost
Summary
Cosmos is native to Mexico with daisy like flowers that come in an array of colors. It is referred to by its genus name which was derived from the Greek word 'kosmos', which means order, harmony, or the world. Mexican priests cultivated the flower and named it Cosmos because of the evenly placed and orderly petals. Cosmos is the flower for the birth month of October and symbolizes balance and harmony. It attracts butterflies and is easily used as an attractive border or backdrop plant. Cosmos is simple and easy to grow from seed sown in the spring, readily reseeds itself, and tolerates a wide range of soil types. Once established, Cosmos needs little water, no fertilizer and not much care, which makes it well suited to Utah's climate.
Recommended Varieties
There are over 25 known species of Cosmos as well as numerous varieties and cultivars. Often referred to as Mexican Aster, it is a member of the Asteracea family. Two annual species most familiar to home gardeners include Cosmos sulphereus and Cosmos bipinnatus.
Yellow Cosmos (C. sulphereus) is native to the American meadows and grasslands and can range in height from 4 to 7 feet. Cultivated varieties include 'Crest Red', 'Lady Bird Dwarf' varieties, and 'Klondike'. Cosmos bipinnatus is usually a mix of purple, pink, and white flowers and can range in size from 1 to 6 feet tall. Cultivated varieties of C. bipinnatus include 'Candy Stripe Mix', 'Daydream', and 'Gazebo Mix'. Chocolate Cosmos (Cosmos atrosanguineus) has dark purplebrown flowers with a unique chocolate fragrance and deep rich color. There are many varieties for sale in local nurseries, garden centers and seed catalogs. Most grow well in Utah.
How to Grow
Soils: Cosmos prefers well drained soil with average to poor fertility with a neutral to slightly alkaline pH.
Soil Preparation: Because cosmos plants prefer poor soils, not much soil preparation is needed. Simply rake through the bed prior to seeding, loosening the soil and removing any weed material from the bed.
Plants: Plants are grown from seed sown directly into the ground once all danger of frost has passed. Plant once the soil has warmed to 65°F. Seeds germinate best at temperatures between 70-75°F and require 7 to 14
days to germinate. At temperatures above 80°F or below 65°F seed germination is reduced. Cosmos likes full sun, needing at least 8 hours of intense light. Cosmos is daylength sensitive and blooms best in late summer, when days get shorter.
Planting and Spacing: Plant seeds 1/8 inches deep. Scatter on soil surface then lightly raking them into the soil. If seeds are planted too deep, germination may be reduced. Keep the soil moist after seeding. Thinning is not really necessary though plant size is improved with more space. A plant spacing of 2 feet apart is recommended; however, cosmos spaced closer together provide support for one another or create a screen or full backdrop in the garden.
Water: Once seedlings emerge, reduce water to one time per week, watering deeply. Cosmos thrives in drier areas of the garden and blooming is reduced if overwatered or managed.
Fertilization: Do not fertilize cosmos. Soil that is too nutrient rich produces plants that are weak-stemmed, late blooming and flower sparsely. Plants tend to flop over as they mature. Avoid soil that has been heavily amended with fertilizer and compost and avoid feeding the plants.
Problems
Very few production problems are associated with Cosmos. The most likely problem is its ability to self seed. In many texts Cosmos is referred to as a weed due to heavy seed production and self sowing. To avoid this problem, plant in an area where you want it to naturally reseed. Encourage re-blooming by simply cutting the plants back to 12 to 18 inches high. Deadheading spent blossoms will promote heavy flowering throughout the season and may also reduce self sowing. Plants will be back in bloom in a month.
Weed control is important during germination and early establishment. Once plants are established, weed competition is rarely a problem. Few insects and diseases affect Cosmos.
Harvest and Storage
To harvest Cosmos, cut stems of complete flowers in full bloom. Blooms can be harvested throughout the season. The stems and flowers of Cosmos make a very nice cutting plant that can be used in arrangements or dried. To store seeds, dry flowers completely, then remove seeds from heads and place in a paper bag in a cool dry location. Cosmos readily reseeds itself, so it may be unnecessary to save seeds.
Dry the blooms in a well ventilated area, away from sunlight or use a food dryer. Flowers should dry in 1 to 5 days when dried naturally. Store blooms in a moisture tight container in a cool, dark place.
Uses
Ornamental uses of Cosmos include cut flowers and as backdrop or border annual. Cosmos has a pleasant aroma and attracts butterflies to the garden. Small finches are attracted to the seeds. Cosmos can be used to attract beneficial insects to the garden including lacewing, tachnid flies, hoverflies, and various parasitic miniwasps, all which prey on destructive insects.
Medicinally, Cosmos has been used to treat jaundice, fever, and other disorders. There is little evidence of medicinal uses for this plant, though some suggest Cosmos has antioxidant properties and has a protective effect against oxidative DNA damage.
References
Cosmos - The Flower Expert - Flowers Encyclopedia. http://www.theflowerexpert.com/content/aboutfl owers/tropicalflowers/cosmos-pink
Cosmos - Mexican Aster. In: Encyclopedia of Plants. http://www.botany.com/cosmos.html .
Jang, In-Cheol, Jae-Hee Park, Eunju Park, Hae-Rong Park, and Seung-Cheol Lee. 2008. Antioxidative and Antigenotoxic Activity of Extracts from Cosmos (Cosmos bipinnatus) Flowers. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 63: 205-210.
_____________________________________________________
Utah State Universityis committedto providing an environment free from harassment and other forms of illegal discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age (40 and older), disability, and veteran's status. USU's policy also prohibits discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in employment and academic related practices and decisions.
Utah State University employees and students cannot, because of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, disability, or veteran's status, refuse to hire; discharge; promote; demote; terminate; discriminate in compensation; or discriminate regarding terms, privileges, or conditions of employment, against any person otherwise qualified. Employees and students also cannot discriminate in the classroom, residence halls, or in on/off campus, USUsponsored events and activities.
This publication is issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Noelle E. Cockett, Vice President for Extension and Agriculture, Utah State University
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Mental Health Screening
NAMI's Position
NAMI's public policy platform supports mental health screening and notes that only a fraction of youth who have mental illnesses are identified and receiving services. NAMI's platform states that "mental health screening is essential to address this gross under-identification of youth with mental illnesses. Research shows that early identification and intervention leads to better outcomes and may lessen long-term disability. It also avoids years of unnecessary suffering."
NAMI believes that federal, state and local leaders should take steps to ensure that children and adolescents are screened for mental health conditions.
NAMI's platform also "urges states to follow the broad mandate included in the federal Medicaid law that requires states to provide early and periodic screening, diagnosis and treatment (EPSDT) for Medicaid eligible children and adolescents. Under EPSDT, Medicaid-eligible children are entitled to health care screenings, including mental health screens, and access to all medically necessary mental health services necessary to improve the child's condition."
NAMI's full Public Policy Platform on mental health screening is available at nami.org/policy.
Overview
Mental illness takes a heavy toll on young Americans. One in eight youth ages eight1 to 15 lives with mental illness. Fifty percent of chronic mental illness begins by age 14 and three-quarters by age 24, yet there are average delays of years between first symptoms and when people get treatment. Mental health screening is essential to identify and intervene earlier to improve the lives of children, youth and young adults who live with mental illness. Health care screenings are a well-established practice in this country and mental health screening should be no exception.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommends pediatricians screen children and youth for mental illness and the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends physicians screen youth for depression because of the failure to identify this serious condition. Moreover, Medicaid requires states to screen Medicaid-eligible children for mental health conditions under the Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnosis and Treatment (EPSDT) mandate in federal law, yet many states do not follow the law's provisions.
Schools can also play a key role in the early identification of mental health conditions and in linking students with mental health services and supports. School personnel and administrators should be trained to recognize the early warning signs of emerging mental illness, in building links to the community mental health system and in effectively communicating with families about mental health concerns.
Advocacy Priorities and Goals
* Ensure primary care professionals provide early and regular mental health screening for all children, youth and young adults and link to and coordinate with comprehensive mental health assessment and treatment services.
* Enforce the Medicaid Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnosis and Treatment (EPSDT) requirement to provide Medicaid-eligible children regular mental health screenings in every state.
* Pass the federal Mental Health in Schools Act (H.R. 628/S. 195) to provide mental health early identification and intervention services for youth in schools.
— March 2013
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Oh, you just had a birthday.
Elia Dimayuga-Bruggeman Narrator
Lorena Duarte Interviewer
November 1, 2010 Brooklyn Center, Minnesota
Elia Bruggeman -EB Lorena Duarte -LD LD: Today is Monday, November 1, 2010. I‟m Lorena Duarte and I will be conducting the interview today. I am here with Elia Bruggeman at Northwest Suburban Integration School District in Brooklyn Center. I‟m here to conduct an interview for the Latino Oral History Project for the Minnesota Historical Society. So first of all, Elia, thank you so much. I know you‟re very, very busy so we really appreciate you taking the time to give us your oral history. EB: Yes. LD: Okay. So first of all if you could start off with your name and how to spell it. EB: Okay. Elia Dimayuga-Bruggeman. It‟s hyphenated. LD: Okay, great. And what is your date of birth? EB: Oh, I have to think. [Laughter] I was born October 15, 1958. LD: EB: Yes, yes. LD: ¡Feliz cumpleaños! [Happy birthday!] EB: Gracias! Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
LD: Okay. Tell me a little bit about where you were born and your family, the names of your parents, and if you had any siblings.
EB: Yes. I was born in Mexico in the small town of Las Mesas. And my father, he actually worked on the farm. We had a farm, and my mother had a little restaurant. And I do have lots of siblings. I have fourteen brothers and sisters.
LD: Oh, my goodness!
EB: [Chuckles]
LD: And where are you in the order?
EB: I am actually number seven.
LD: Okay, you‟re right in the middle.
EB: [Chuckles] In half, yes. And one of my sisters was adopted, so in total we are fifteen with me. Yes, there are lots of children. LD: Wow. And what was that like, growing up on a small farm and with so many siblings? EB: I‟ll tell you, I was born on the farm. But after I was born, we moved to town, to the town of Las Mesas. LD: Okay. EB: And we actually moved because by then my father was in the Bracero Program. It was in that program that he came to the U.S. to work, and he used to come to Missouri to work in the cotton fields. So then when I was born, he wasn‟t there, he was here, in the United States. So then is when my mom came into town, and we came to stay with my grandma and grandpa. We stayed there until my father actually came back. The contracts were for certain months, and so that meant that he came back and forth. Growing up with lots of brothers and sisters was actually great. We all shared our bunk beds, you know, and shared the clothing. And my father always told us, "You are not going to have a TV in your room, you will never have a car. What you will get is your education." And, basically, he gave us all an education. He only had, you know, up to sixth grade education. LD: Yes. Wow. EB: Yes. But we were, and we still are, a very close family; fourteen children is a lot of children, so we older siblings helped the younger ones. Like my older siblings helped me. After the Depression and that, my father educated the first three. And then the rest, we educated each
EB: Yes. But we were, and we still are, a very close family; fourteen children is a lot of children, so we older siblings helped the younger ones. Like my older siblings helped me. After the Depression and that, my father educated the first three. And then the rest, we educated each other, along with his guidance and his help, of course.
LD: Sure. Yes. And what kind of a kid were you? What did you like to do? Were you studious, did you like sports? What did you like as a kid?
EB: Actually, I did like to study and I liked sports. I played soccer and I also played basketball and I played volleyball. I was also part of the poetry club and folklore dancing club.
LD: Oh, wow.
EB: When I was in ninth grade I took the championship in our state for folklore dancing. So I loved folklore dancing. And I continued to study folklore dancing until I finished preparatory school up to twelfth grade, which is equal to high school here. The folklore dancing classes took place in the evening through the plazas comunitarias. I got a certificate to teach Mexican folklore dancing for adults or children.
LD: Oh. EB: That‟s one of my loves that I have always had. And I still do—well, later on I will tell you what I did teaching folklore dancing here in Minnesota! [Chuckles] LD: Sure, sure. That‟s wonderful. So tell me about your studies. Obviously, your field is education. So I‟m just curious, what did you like to study? Was there any particular thing that you focused on? And what was high school, etcetera, like? EB: Well, in high school I did like to study a lot the world languages. I studied English, because my dream was actually to become an international lawyer. LD: Oh. EB: I didn‟t achieve that—and we will talk about that later on when I tell you why. However, the one subject that I didn‟t really like was math. But the social studies, the English, the sciences, I loved all those subjects. And especially the arts. You know, in Mexico you go through your secondary school trying some clases--what we call tallers. This type of classes gives you the opportunity to try various types of hands on careers. LD: Yes. EB: Where you try different set of skills and interest, kind of like vocational and technical college, to focus on the area that you want to enter once you get to college. When I was in ninth grade, because English was my favorite subject, I asked my father if I could become a foreign exchange student. LD: Oh.
EB: And prior to that, my family works in the fields. My dad told me that he was going to send me to the U.S. to study English, but it was going to be in the form of a foreign exchange student. Because he said that when he was here he saw a lot of discrimination that went on. And he said, "I‟m not going to send you to go to school where you‟ll have to stay there as a migrant worker." He said, "You‟re going to see how different you are going to be treated." And Boy, did I see the difference when I came.
LD: Really.
EB: Thinking back when I came, and when I was young and living here, migrant students are treated different than foreign exchange student. Seeing what some of the kids go through, I can see the difference in how is it that students are treated. Anyway, so I came for a whole year, and I came to the community of Sleepy Eye, Minnesota.
LD: When you were in the ninth grade?
EB: In ninth grade, yes. LD: Okay. EB: I came as a foreign exchange student when I was sixteen. LD: You were sixteen. Do you know why you went to Sleepy Eye? Was that just what your school had set up or did you have family here? EB: No. No, actually, I came through a program called Youth For Understanding (YFU). And the community that I had chosen to go to was in Michigan, in northern Michigan. However, when they bring the profiles of the students to the people who are interested in having foreign exchange students, I was chosen by a family from Sleepy Eye. I remember coming on the plane saying, but I don‟t want to go to Minnesota, I‟m supposed to go to Michigan! [Laughter] And then the airline stewardess would say, "But you will love Minnesota, it‟s a beautiful state, they have so many lakes. And you‟re going to like it better than Michigan." And yes, when I came I did like it. It was cold though. LD: Oh, yes! EB: You know, coming from Acapulco where it never gets below seventy-five degrees to come to cold weather. [Laughs] I remember getting off the plane with my winter coat and my Mexican big hat that I had on. LD: [Laughter] So tell me about that first impression and that year that you spent here as a fifteen-year-old. What was that like? I imagine there was some, not just the climate, but there was some culture shock as well. EB: Yes.
LD: Tell me a little bit about that.
EB: Well, it was especially hard not being able to speak English. I could read English but I couldn‟t speak it.
LD: Yes.
EB: I remember when people would go by and I would say, "I, I." I wasn‟t pronouncing the „H‟! [Laughter] In Spanish the „H‟ is silent. So I was going, "I, I," when I was supposed to be saying, "Hi." [Laughter] So anyway, it was a good experience for me as a foreign exchange student. I was having gatherings each monthly, organized by YFU with other foreign exchange students from around the world, and also the family that I had was great, a very loving, caring family. They had only two children, and I had come from a family of, you know…
LD: Fifteen.
EB: Of fifteen. And I had my own room! [Laughs] LD: Oh, my gosh. EB: And at school, I took all the subjects assigned plus ESL classes. The school where they placed me was a Catholic school. It was a private school, and there were some nuns there, and they helped me with my English. I was tutored. At that time, in the community of Sleepy Eye, there wasn‟t many Hispanics when I came in 1974. And as I mentioned before with my folklore dancing, I think that I won over the people from Sleepy Eye by performing. At school I would dance when they had assemblies or their pep fests. I performed my folklore dancing. [Chuckles] I actually brought the costume to dance, and I had a Mexican "charro" hat. LD: Yes. EB: I was invited by community members to perform and closed their meetings with the Mexican Hat Dance, such as the Newcomers Club or the Eagles Club; I was invited to share the culture of Mexico. LD: Sure. EB: So I had a good experience. I played volleyball in the school when I came. That was the only sport they had for girls, actually, at that Catholic school. [Chuckles] LD: Oh, my gosh. EB: But it was a good experience. LD: So then you went back to Mexico and finished up high school?
EB: Yes. I went back to Mexico.
LD: And then what did you do then?
EB: Well, when I went back, I actually finished high school and took some college classes at night, because I was pretty sure I wanted to become a lawyer. I also took more English. And I also worked. I was working in a hotel, and I was working as a travel agent dealing with the tours as well as the reservations of tickets. It was nice to practice my English and to conduct the city tours. And I was living, actually, in Acapulco with one of my brothers.
LD: Okay.
EB: One of my older brothers. As you know in the Mexican culture it is customary in Mexico to have family kind of help each other, and our family is very close in that sense. The colleges in Mexico don‟t have actual dorms. I went to finish high school in Acapulco because in my home community we only had up to ninth grade. So I had to leave to go to preparatory school.
community we only had up to ninth grade. So I had to leave to go to preparatory school. LD: And how far away was Las Mesas from Acapulco? EB: About, oh, probably an hour and a half, because of the roads. They are so wavy up to the mountains. But if you were to be in a place like Minnesota, it was probably forty minutes. LD: Okay. EB: But it took longer because of the road conditions. LD: So from the point when you were, you know, a pretty young woman, you were kind of independent. EB: Yes. Actually, my secondary school did not take place in Las Mesas, it took place in Ayutla. So at sixth grade I left my hometown and lived with an aunt in Ayutla. Again, we did have up to ninth grade in Las Mesas, but in the school system of Las Mesas, the teachers were always on strike. LD: Oh, I see. EB: So my father sent all of us to the next community, which was like an hour away, We went to Ayutla, to an aunt that we lived with. LD: Wow. EB: So all of us (my brothers and sisters) actually left our community in the sixth grade. LD: Tell me a little bit about after that. You were going to school at night and working. And
LD: Tell me a little bit about after that. You were going to school at night and working. And what did you do? Did you finish college in Mexico?
EB: No. No.
LD: Okay.
EB: I did not finish college in Mexico, I finished college after I got married. I met my husband when I was a foreign exchange student and we kept in touch after I went back to Mexico. My husband's name is Mark Bruggeman.
LD: Oh, my goodness.
EB: Yes. We met in Sleepy Eye, and then he went back and forth to Mexico. We got married in Mexico and then came back. I finished my college here at Mankato.
LD: Oh, wow. EB: Mankato State University. LD: That‟s quite a love story. EB: Yes. [Chuckles] LD: That you met at sixteen. EB: Yes. LD: How old were you when you came to Minnesota, when you came back permanently? EB: To live? I was nineteen. LD: Nineteen. EB: Yes. LD: And you went to Mankato State, you said. EB: Yes. It‟s Minnesota State University-Mankato now. When we got married, we moved back here. And then I started working in a factory, a calendar factory in Sleepy Eye. It‟s now called Norwood, and at that time I think it was called AUI. They made calendars, so I was counting calendars. After I was there for six months I told my husband, "you know, my dream has not been to be counting calendars all my life. I want to do something else." And we both decided— because he wasn‟t finished with college either—we both decided that we were going to go to school at night. He was working at Del Monte Corporation.
LD: Yes.
EB: And I was working at Norwood, AUI at that time. So we actually both finished college by taking night classes.
LD: Wow. And how long did that take?
EB: I didn‟t graduate until 1985 with my Bachelor‟s. I started going in 1979, so in between there, we had two kids. [Chuckles]
LD: Ah. And tell me the names of your kids.
EB: My oldest daughter is Vanessa and my second one is Erica. And then we had our son William and our daughter Brianna, who is the youngest.
LD: Beautiful names. EB: Oh, when I enrolled at college I met a woman by the name of Maria Wellman, who used to work with the Minnesota Migrant Program. LD: Yes. EB: When I met her, I had started first at a vocational school. I didn‟t go to Mankato State the first year, I went to a technical college. LD: Oh, okay. EB: I went to a technical college because I told my husband, I need to learn more English if I‟m going to go on to a 4 year university. We didn‟t want to spend a year on tuition at the university level, so instead I went to a technical college for a year and I took the secretarial shorthand program. It was less tuition and at the same time, too, they had some intensive English classes. It was at Mankato Technical Institute where I met this woman, Maria Wellman—who has now passed away—who used to work with the Migrant Council. At that time, I wasn‟t really looking at going to college right away because my husband and I needed to work. However, Maria Wellman approach me to go on to college. She said, "Well, what have you done in the past?" And prior to working at Norwood, I did work walking beans and also at Del Monte, and I had just moved to Minnesota. She said, "Well, you probably would qualify for some programs under the migrant farm workers program." And then I told her, "my father came all the time with the Bracero Program." My husband was also working at Del Monte, so we had that income and I did qualify for the migrant program for a year to start college and to help me out with college expenses. LD: Like a grant?
EB: Yes, and especially this grant was going to help with the expenses of commuting back and forth from Sleepy Eye and Mankato.
LD: Sure.
EB: It wasn‟t very much money, but it did help with the transportation and the food and part of the tuition at the technical college.
LD: Okay.
EB: I don‟t think I could have done it without that program.
LD: And how long did you participate in that program?
EB: For a year.
LD: Just the first year. EB: Yes, for a year. LD: And when you started college, what did you want to do? EB: When I started college, as I said, I always wanted to be a lawyer. And I knew that to be able to do that I would have to come up to the Twin Cities, and it wasn‟t feasible then. So I went into the business area, which is what I entered at Mankato State University. But once I entered there, I actually tested out of all my Spanish classes, because I already had some of my Spanish literature and all of my Spanish grammar classes - I had those in Mexico. LD: Sure. EB: So then I had all those credits, and I decided to also go into education. I was taking the business classes for the international business area, and also the education to become a Spanish teacher. Eventually I finished with a degree in Business Education--grades 7-12, and Spanish 712, with a minor in International Business, and also a concentration in Ethnic Studies. LD: Wow. EB: I switched to education, especially Spanish, because I knew that in our community and in surrounding communities there was a need for ESL [English as a Second Language] teachers and there was a need for Spanish teachers. I decided that I wasn‟t a single student, but I was already settled in the area; therefore, teaching Spanish was a good choice to get a job in the community. So I pursued a career in education. LD: Because you saw the need and you saw yourself kind of filling that need.
EB: Yes.
LD: And so, that‟s amazing. So you‟re working, you‟re raising two babies, and you‟re going to school. And you graduated in 1985, you said.
EB: 1985, yes.
LD: What did you start doing? You started teaching?
EB: Yes. When I graduated, right away I got a position with Saint James Public Schools. But prior to that, actually, during my last year at Mankato, the community college in Worthington contacted Mankato State University because they needed someone to teach some Spanish classes at the college level. So because I was so close to finishing the program—this was during the spring and I graduated during that summer—the university recommended me to teach Spanish at Worthington Community College-- a night class.
LD: Yes.
LD: Oh. EB: So I worked at Worthington for about a year and a half teaching night classes. Later on, in August, right after I got my degree, I was recommended to go over to Saint James Public Schools because they had an ad for a Spanish teacher. I was employed by Saint James Public Schools to teach Spanish. The position was shared with Butterfield and Mountain Lake, so I‟d travel from Saint James to Butterfield and to Mountain Lake the first year. LD: Wow. EB: And then the second year the program grew, so I only traveled between Saint James and Butterfield. And by the third year, the program grew so much that I only was employed at Saint James. LD: Wow. So you saw quite a growth from when you had first come when you were fifteen. EB: Yes. LD: But even in those first three years, you wanted to get into the changes in the community. But first, tell me what being a young teacher was like. EB: Oh, it was interesting and good. And remember, at that time even though I was a young teacher, and new to the profession, I was much older than the normal teacher. LD: Sure. EB: With children and a husband. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project
EB: So, although I think that many young teachers are mature, I had experience teaching at the college level. And when I was a student at Mankato State University, I volunteered to help at the Children‟s House teaching Spanish to pre-Kindergarteners. I had good mentoring
LD: Sure.
EB: I connected with the professors very well, and they were also mentoring me as a teacher. I think that in the teaching profession sometimes we miss mentoring new teachers.
Teaching in Spanish, for example, was a source of pride for me, because it is important to teach language and culture. I used the language by speaking Spanish in the classroom, but also the culture so students were familiar with the culture and traditions as well as a background of the Latino people. I also did start teaching some night classes for ESL, because in Saint James we had a lot of Hispanic students.
LD: Yes. EB: At that time, there was not a developed ESL program at St. James Public Schools, and I was helping Latino students with their English after school. I was getting home quite late some nights, but I had such a good husband who always helped me with the kids and with supper, and that was great! [Chuckles] So in talking about my experience as a teacher, I had an excellent experience. Being able to help some of the Latino kids in the school with their English gave me a great satisfaction, and being able to assist them with some of their homework in order to be successful was wonderful! LD: So tell me . . . I‟m torn between two. I want to hear about the growth of the community, but maybe it‟s better to reflect on that after. Because I want to know then how did you move on? Because you eventually became principal. EB: Yes. LD: Tell me a little bit about that journey. EB: When I was teaching at Saint James, I decided to do my Master‟s program. I went back to Mankato, and while teaching, I took some night classes. So I did my Master‟s in Spanish Literature and Culture. I finished, and while I was still teaching at Saint James, I felt that I could make a difference in education if I actually became an administrator. I had so many ideas about how we could help students. As a teacher, your hands are tied in developing educational programs. As a principal you have more flexibility with program development in order to increase academic achievement, and parental involvement. As an administrator, you can do a little bit more to develop things that are needed in the school and community. LD: Sure.
EB: I decided then to pursue a career in Educational Leadership--School Administration, and at that time it was a Six-Year Certification program. I went back to school, I started night classes again, and now I had a third child. [Laughter] And, you know, I went to Mankato, back and forth. Prior to finishing the program, I was contacted by the Sleepy Eye School that there was a position open as a Dean of Students.
So then I left, let‟s see, in 1996. That‟s when my fourth child, my daughter Brianna was born. I actually took a leave of absence after she was born. And that‟s when the position became available in Sleepy Eye. I decided then to apply for the position, was interviewed, and I was hired as the Dean of Students.
LD: Wow.
EB: So it was great to be hired by Sleepy Eye Public Schools; I was now back home, back to my community. It was a community that at that time had about ten percent Hispanic students in the district, grades K-12. LD: Yes. EB: That was my home, and a year later, the position became open for a High School Principal. I applied , and then they moved me up as an Interim Principal. I actually finished up that degree within a year after I was hired and became the principal. I was there for ten years - from 1996 to 2006. Now, while I was there as a principal, I saw the community grow from ten percent Hispanic students to thirty-eight percent. Most of the students were migrant children. It was great for me to work with the population and develop programs. It was wonderful and challenging not just to work with the migrant population and the families, but also with the community. Sleepy Eye is a community with people of German background--all white, and as you know, when you have a massive influx of a minority group, it can be kind of scary for a community. LD: Sure. EB: I worked with the community, and worked with city leaders, and worked with the school administration, and families, to eventually become a community that embraced diversity. LD: Yes. EB: That was great for me to do. LD: Yes, tell me more about that. What were some of those challenges on both sides? In the established community and for the folks who were newcomers to the town. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
EB: Well, first, we saw a lot of the kids were not graduating, students were not prepared and many children did not speak English, you know. Migrant education has about a seventy percent dropout rate nationwide, I believe this is due to mobility of migrant families.
LD: Wow.
EB: And those are children that are moving from district to district, from state to state, from school to school facing challenges in our education system in the U.S., especially in Minnesota, we don‟t have a set curriculum statewide like Texas does. When the migrant families/children are moving, there is the lack of school records following them and many migrant students are
repeating subjects which they did not complete in previous school districts because of mobility . I became interested in following the migrant students, and to find ways to improve their education at Sleepy Eye Schools, so eventually, I applied for a federal grant to bring in a migrant program to Sleepy Eye Schools. We applied in the year 2000, and we got the grant in 2001. At the same time, we proposed being a Migrant Head Start site and we combined the migrant education federal grant with a migrant Head Start program at the state level. So during the summer we converted the school into a summer school, for six weeks, to serve everyone from babies up to twenty-one years old. We did work with migrant students and provided that missing curriculum that was needed for them to be ready in the fall to enter our school.
LD: Wow.
LD: Yes. EB: And with this grant, we employed a lot of people from the community plus high school and college students. We had about eighty employees in this migrant summer program--with the Head Start program and K-12 migrant education program. We employed teachers, paraprofessionals, kitchen staff, bus chaperones, cleaning staff, outreach workers, office workers, tutors, people in charge of supervision, etc. For the community of Sleepy Eye, the migrant funds brought in employment and educational programs which helped students in the area of remediation and preparation in order to have success at school. However, I needed to go out into the community and explain about the migrant funding awarded to the school because part of the community was saying that we were operating the summer programs with the funding that we generated during the school year, and some community members commented we were spending all the money on the migrant children. That was a challenge that we needed to face so I developed PowerPoint presentations, and the finance director and I went into clubs, private organizations, the Chamber of Commerce, businesses, to explain how the funding was generated for the migrant program and how it was spent. As school administrators, we were also very creative in combining migrant funds with other grants to provide different types of programs for all students needed summer school. Furthermore, we communicated to the community how the funding that the migrant students were generating during the school year was also helping the students overall in our community in other programs/classes--Hispanic students were bringing not just the regular state aid as they walked into the building, but they also were generating funding such as ESL, free and reduced meals, compensatory, integration funding, and of course, migrant education funding, etc. To make things more clear, if a child, a non-minority student in Sleepy Eye, was generating, let‟s say, five thousand dollars, a migrant student was generating probably about ten thousand dollars. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
EB: So when we informed the community, it really changed the mindset of the community. And I didn‟t only give this type of presentation to community members but I also made presentations to the students at school, especially to juniors and seniors. I showed them how the classes that we added, such as the College in the Schools courses, the AP [advanced placement] classes, and the vocational program benefitted all of them because by having migrant students enrolled in these courses, we were able to be creative with the funding for these programs. Overall, we were able to offer small AP class sizes with only five students by being creative with funding which might not be otherwise offered.
LD: Wow.
EB: So then when the parents and community were aware, they started to appreciate more our migrant population and to embrace diversity. Furthermore, the citizens were also told about the economy in our community and the contributions of migrant parents to the economy -- migrant parents worked at Del Monte Corporation, Norwood--a calendar making factory, in the farms, nursing homes, etc.
EB: In my building, I only had about four hundred fifty, which was grades 7-12. And in the elementary it maybe like about three hundred fifty. So you were talking at that time about eight hundred students. Right now, I think that the district probably only has maybe about six hundred students.
LD: Right. EB: If those companies go under because of the lack of workers, what is the unemployment going to be in the community? Where will a factory that employs people year round get its employees? Will Norwood survive as a business without the migrant population? LD: Wow. EB: The companies are surviving because they are employing the parents of migrant children. It was an interesting journey to work with the community, to talk about the economy, and to explain the funding sources for programs at school and how we needed the migrant students at our school in order to keep from merging with another school district. LD: Yes. EB: Sleepy Eye Schools would have been joined with another district because of not having enough students. And Sleepy Eye schools actually only had about forty-eight percent of the students population in the City of Sleepy Eye--there were two private schools also: Saint Mary‟s Catholic School, K-12, and Saint John‟s Lutheran School, K-8. So Sleepy Eye Public Schools hosted forty-eight percent of the student population. LD: And how many students were there? Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
LD: And you mentioned that you made these presentations to the students themselves. We were talking about some of the tensions within the community. Was there tension within the school itself? Was there tension between students?
EB: There was at first, and then we brought in some programs that helped ease the tension among the students dealing with embracing race and diversity . And if you actually go to Sleepy
Eye School now, you will see how everyone is getting along and it is a great environment. Different programs and strategies were created within the school, including staff development and community partnerships; we make sure that we were talking about cultural competencies and cultural proficiency.
One example of a program that worked well in the school (I always talk about when I give presentations), was the Student Advisory committee. As you know, in most schools, there is a Student Council and some other student committees, the Student Council officers are chosen by popularity--which hardly any minority students were elected at Sleepy Eye High School. So by creating the Student Advisory committee for grades 7-12 (which I was the advisor of and was assisted by the Dean of Students), we had the opportunity to be very inclusive and train students on leadership skills. The composition of this committee included two minority students per grade level, the student council president, and the senior class president; we also brought in the student with the most records for missing school (attendance), most suspensions, and also the one with the most police records--due to drugs, alcohol, or whatever reason. We needed to teach these students to be role models, we needed to empower them to have leadership skills, and turn things around. This Student Advisory committee was in charge of the Student Handbook. That‟s such a powerful tool to be in charge of in order to provide input on school rules and regulations. Furthermore, this committee was also involved in assisting in the development of programming. LD: Yes. Really. EB: We started talking about the needs of the district by seeking student input, it was the students talking to each other on ideas for improving (student's perspective) the Student Handbook or programs. For example, if we wanted to improve students attendance at school, we gather information from students that were absent from school. We analyzed the problem and provided the committee with training to take the leadership in turning around the kids who were being absent--students talking to students. Some comments being said by some students who had an addiction (alcohol or drugs) were "Well, I need to get some help, and if he (a member of the committee) can be on that committee, and it‟s actually an important committee, so can I!" You know, things had started turning around, and students started to get along. We brought in mentoring programs with participation from the business community; we provided training in the area of mentoring for the high school football team (and other sports teams) to mentor some selected elementary and junior high students-- by the way, the football team had a lot of the Hispanic kids. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
I will tell you, sports teams are a very important part of the school and community--it is such a powerful tool to have to bring parental involvement, and also for the community to really see what all kids can do together and be proud of, sports and other co-curricular activities are so important!
LD: Yes.
EB: When you win a state championship, and some of your leaders on that football team are minority students, that community is going to come around, you know. [Chuckles]
LD: Yes, yes, yes. How did you involve them into the sports?
EB: Well, a lot of the reasons why the kids were not going out for extracurricular activities, was because the physical was too expensive to pay, and they could not pay for the athletic fees. And also, too, they had to take care of their siblings. So it took a lot of talking to parents about the importance of their students to be involved in school activities, and on how important it was to retain their culture and language, but also equally important was the fact that if their children were going to be going to schools in Minnesota or the U.S., they needed to take a look at what their children needed to do to be part of the main culture in the community they were living. We can‟t keep our children isolated and need to participate in school activities.
EB: I asked, What about teaming together and providing some checkups for our migrant school students for free? We--the school-- will provide in writing verification of this service provided so you can use this document for your taxes. We also approached the dentists in the community with the same concept to provide some free dental checkups for migrant students. This request was granted and now it still goes on.
LD: Yes. EB: In order to help out the families were high school students were taking care of their siblings, we started to ask the churches to provide some babysitting funds for families for the students that were involved in sports. Some parents had jobs but their earnings was not enough to pay for babysitting--yet other families relied on other family members and friends. LD: Right. EB: Also, I asked the school board to allow for every student across the board who would qualify for free and reduced meals to be able to participate in extra-curricular activities free of charge. The school board made that rule possible, and then things were more accessible to the students because most of our Hispanic students qualify for free and reduced meals. So they didn‟t have to pay for the fee. And then, we needed to find a way to pay for the sports physical. LD: Yes. EB: Most of the Latino students were migrant students and qualified for the migrant program; so I approached the doctors at the clinic and I asked them to help. One of the things that I said, "we are so good as a country to go out to other countries to bring aid to people who are in poverty. But we have poverty in our own community and our own country." LD: Yes. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
LD: Wow.
EB: So then every student who was a migrant received a free checkups. I printed out the Minnesota High School League form that students needed to play sports in order for the physicians to sign. I collected the forms and the beginning of the school year, when the school had started, I presented the form to the coaches. I met with the students and indicated to them that they had physical in place, to go out for football, go out for volleyball, go out for tennis, whatever you want to do. The sports fees were waived, the sports physical was completed--the coaches were so happy since there was a lack of student participation. And some of the comments were "oh boy, do we have a team!" It‟s best to keep those kids involved in extracurricular activities; research shows that there is a correlation among extra-curricular activities and academics--students perform better in their subject areas.
EB: I provided some sewing machines--got some swing machines to use from friends in the community, and the dresses were made for all the kids. It was good for all the parents involved to actually see the kids learn folklore dancing, it was an activity that integrated students. For nonLatino students to learn about other culture, and for Latino students to learn about their own culture.
LD: Yes. Now do you think that having you, a Mexican immigrant yourself, as the Principal of the school, do you think that impacted the students, as well as the community? EB: Perhaps, I could communicate with them in their first language. I think that it impacted the students to have a role model with the same background as them--I always talked to them about my family being migrant workers, how I got to be a Principal, and how I did work in the fields. And also, too, I think that impacted the parents, because I could speak the language. LD: Sure. EB: One of the groups I met with once a month were Hispanic mothers. Many of them were single mothers, and many of them were very young mothers. I talked to them about how the educational system works in this country and trained them on how to navigate the system at school. We talked about parental involvement and how it is that they could be more connected to the school. I started a folklore dancing group, and I taught any student in the school who wanted to join. Most of the students who joined were from the elementary. The Latino parents sewed the dresses for the group and got involved in supervising this activity. LD: Oh. EB: Many Latino parents know how to sew. LD: Sure. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
LD: Yes.
EB: This group made a difference in the school and community. On Cinco de Mayo the students put on a program, and I made sure that the cafeteria had all Mexican food, with recipes that were given by the families. Latino families would feel comfortable to come to school and they also will volunteer to read in the classroom--in Spanish, of course, if they could not speak English
LD: Yes.
EB: It‟s one thing that I always told the students: Spanish is your first language and you need to be proud of and you also need to learn to read and write Spanish. We had a class that was Spanish for Hispanics. I convinced the board that some of our kids were not doing well because their first language was not developed. Many of the students from Texas, they spoke Spanish, but they did not know the academic part of the language. Therefore they could not transfer the academic skills to the English language and were not learning English as fast as were expecting
LD: Actually, this reminds me of something you said earlier, and going back to what your father had said about you‟re going to go, not as a migrant child, but as a foreign exchange student. And you said there was a big difference.
LD: Right. EB: It was the same thing with their English skills. Students were missing the academic part of the English language. The board went ahead and gave me the okay to start this class--Spanish for Hispanics. We taught them how to write and read in their first language; we saw how this group of 8th grade students were passing the MCAs in reading. LD: What is MCA? EB: It‟s the Minnesota Comprehensive Assessment, which are State tests. LD: Right. EB: The kids were making a connection from their first language and analyzing the English language, and they were learning English much faster. I always place myself as an example, when I came to the US I could hardly speak the language. Within six months I was dreaming in English. I learned English in one year. But my first language was developed, because I went to school in Mexico. Look at what happens to foreign exchange students. When they come here, they come to develop the skill in the English language, whether they are coming from Germany or Italy, etc, they come to develop their academic skills and their first language is already developed. So when they leave our schools after being here-- in the US--for one year as foreign exchange students, they speak better English than our ESL kids right now. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
EB: Yes.
LD: Tell me a little bit more about that.
EB: Well, I pride myself on how I was treated when I was in the school as a foreign exchange student and all the attention I was given.
LD: Yes.
EB: And if you really look overall at the contrast on how we treat foreign exchange students vs. how we treat our own ESL students in our school and communities, there is a big difference!
EB: Many times when children don‟t want to come to school, they are absent because they are not welcomed in the school. When I spoke previously about the group of students who were involved in the Advisory Committee and in charge of the handbook, it was about providing selfesteem, about providing leadership. And also for me, as the school Principal, it give me the opportunity to ask them, and for them to tell me what we needed to do in the classroom and at school overall to improve our school environment and for everyone to get along and be welcome.
LD: Yes. EB: ESL students, in many instances, are suffering sometimes from racism, discrimination, when the foreign exchange students are not. LD: What do you think that‟s about? EB: Perhaps it could be about socioeconomic classes; I came from a poor family; however, I came into school in the U. S. as part of a foreign exchange student program, so people at school did not know my background. LD: Yes. EB: And students who come here as foreign exchange students are more likely to be better off financially in their home country than our migrant families, per se. LD: Sure. EB: For me to be part of the foreign exchange student program, my family had to borrow money. And my older brothers and sisters were working and contributed together for me to come. LD: Yes. EB: We definitely need to develop more programs to increase student achievement in our ESL programs. We need for schools to embrace them, and we need communities to embrace diversity. LD: Yes. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project
LD: Yes.
EB: Keep in mind that the Student Advisory Committee was just not the minority students, it had non-minority members also. Plus, the student council and the senior class president were also part of this committee--we needed input from everybody.
LD: Yes.
EB: So there were a few programs that we put together in the district, like an after school program and the summer programs, for which we really combined a lot of funding to make them work. There was the international club, and the Spanish club. And also, too, we had a soccer program as part of targeted services which was combined with an after school class where the kids had the chance to be involved in playing soccer, but yet spend an hour to do some reading or writing in English. Programs like this were combine to benefit students through grants. LD: Yes. EB: We brought in a curriculum on diversity (grant) also; this curriculum was placed in the social studies classes for a whole year. It wasn‟t just about class on cultural diversity or ethnic diversity, but it was also diversity to deal with lesbian and with gay issues and it focused on "peace". Because, let‟s face it, in a small community we need to teach about diversity overall. We needed to make sure that students needed to be respectful of every kind of diversity. It was a good curriculum. LD: You mentioned you had that tremendous growth from ten percent to thirty-eight percent of Hispanic students. And you mentioned that that kind of helped keep the school open. EB: Yes. LD: What were some of the other contributions that the students made to the school but that also their parents made to the community? What were some of the contributions that you saw? EB: Well, I think that, for the parents, for example, they volunteer a lot into the community, especially in the churches. But I think the economic contribution was actually tremendous, because those people are the ones who actually do the shopping in the community; they don‟t go too far. So they keep our clothing store and our grocery stores open. LD: Yes.
EB: Until now, then Wall-Mart came around Sleepy Eye-- in New Ulm, which is around the area. But shopping locally was a big contribution by the Latino community, and not only that, as I mentioned before, parents were part of the workforce for Del Monte and Norwood. Also in Sleepy Eye there are a lot of farms, and these migrant families are the ones who walk the beans and pick up the rocks. Sleepy Eye is also known for a lot of pigs and corn in the area-Christensen Farms.
LD: Yes.
EB: So there are families who work with the hog production, others in the canning factory; there were jobs that many of the natives from Sleepy Eye didn‟t care to do. And it was those migrant families who were doing the jobs. That‟s probably the reason they actually came into the community, because of all those jobs that were available and that kept the community going. During hard economic times, the town of Sleepy Eye did not lose many businesses and I believe it is because of the contribution that those people made. And as far as the students, we incorporated into the summer migrant program projects for the ESL and migrant students to do.
Integration programs benefit all students. This funding is part of Minnesota's Desegregation that requires schools and communities to work together to design effective, voluntary strategies for positive learning environments, focusing on closing the achievement gap. Even though the programs and funding are generated by protected students (minority students), in Sleepy Eye, these are the migrant and Latino students. Because of them, we were identified as a school that had over twenty percent of students of color and eligible to receive integration funding. We developed a plan and submitted it to the State. We created programs to help students with their assignments at the cultural center. We also had some cultural activities, and programs overall that embraced diversity and helped in student achievement. Once students were finished with their homework at the cultural center, we allowed them to play some games as their reward. [Chuckles]
Some students were going to nursing homes to help out, others played cards with the elderly--I have some pictures and a PowerPoint showing how they volunteered during the migrant program. These were activities where we called to the attention of the newspapers, and show what great things Latino students were doing in the community, because in some instances the newspapers reported negative news. LD: The negative things. EB: Right. LD: Yes, yes. EB: They needed to report the good things that students were doing. So that‟s one thing we need to do--to make sure newspapers report the positive happening with minority students. With our folklore dancing, I think that we contributed not just to the community of Sleepy Eye, but we also performed at neighboring schools, and did mini-cultural workshops. In Sleepy Eye the integration funding came around--it was in 2002 when we were eligible to receive integration funding. We had a cultural center in the community where our outreach worker was Hispanic, and we kept the center open to the public for students whose parents were not home after school. Students could come in and do their homework. The center was used by the community, even by the other schools. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
LD: Yes, yes! [Chuckles]
EB: Oh! And popcorn. We made popcorn for them.
LD: So, in the midst of all this busyness, what was it like for you? I mean, you have four kids now. What were some of the challenges that you had? And what was it that kept moving you forward?
EB: As I said before, I think it was to make a difference. By now I was involved in different committees at the state level. In 2002, I became a board member for CLAC, the Chicano Latino Affairs Council, and I also participated in presentations across the state on improving the academic achievement of Latino students, and also presented at the national level about migrant education. And I saw the need, the need that exist especially with our Hispanic population. As I mentioned before, there is a seventy percent dropout rate with migrant education, and most of them are Hispanic children. And also the pregnancy rate with our Latino girls, the dropout rate once students reach ninth grade. So I needed to do more research and find out more about
EB: Well, I think that I was making a difference. It was a year when, I think it was 2003-2004— I would have to check the record—but that year we, at Sleepy Eye Schools, achieved a one hundred percent graduation rate. LD: Wow. EB: And, to me, that was a reward. LD: Yes. EB: Yes. And you know, personally, I didn‟t quit the schooling yet, while I was working at Sleepy Eye I went back to school and I got my superintendent‟s degree. LD: Oh. So during all this time you‟re still going to school? EB: Yes. [Chuckles] LD: Wow. And so when did you finish that degree? EB: It was 2003. Also, I was certified as a Principal only for grades 7-12, so I went back and picked up the K-12 Principal licensure. LD: Oh, wow. EB: So I finished both degrees in 2003. LD: What kept pushing you? Why did you keep going back? I mean, some people might say, "I‟m principal. I‟m doing well. You know, I have four kids, I‟m very busy." What motivated you to keep going? Lideres Latinos Oral History Project
programs and develop more strategies to help with our Latino students. I think that we have a crisis.
LD: Talk to me a little more about that crisis. What is the crisis nationwide like and what is it here like in Minnesota?
EB: I believe that definitely nationwide, when it comes to migrant education, we need to develop a better system to follow the students. We had a system in Sleepy Eye where we kept in touch with the schools where the students were coming from, communications made a difference. We were working with the curriculum in Sleepy Eye, not just for state testing--MCA's in Minnesota, but also with the Texas tests. The tests were - at that time - the Texas Assessment of Knowledge Skills. So we wanted to prepare students for either tests. As a principal, I was calling principals in the schools in Texas to see what help we needed to provide for migrant students for their graduation plan. Texas has a state curriculum, and the schools I called had three plans--Minimum Plan, recommended Plan, and Distinguished Achievement Plan. So we were working with the highest plan to prepare the students; we didn‟t know if they were going to graduate from Minnesota or from Texas. We were also working with the University of Houston through online learning to provide some of the curriculum for the students. This made the difference in graduating students from high school. LD: Yes. EB: I think that in Minnesota, too, we definitely need to make personal learning plans for all students, we need to make it a priority to educate all children. And when it comes to the Hispanic children, there is mobility, there is poverty, there are language barriers -- we need to open our doors to Latino parents. Staff development needs to happen. We need to bring in more educational programs at each school to closed the achievement gap. It can be achieved. I did it in Sleepy Eye. It is hard work and we definitely need to prepare all students. I‟ve seen the statistics now, and it isn‟t just our minority children, but even the percentage of our non-minority students is declining in high school graduation. According to some 2009 data I have seen from the MN State Demographer (percent of 9th graders who will graduate within 5 years) it‟s projected that overall we‟re only going to reach around eighty percent or less of high school graduates! I mean, that‟s for Minnesota. That‟s not good. LD: Eighty percent graduation rate?
EB: Graduation rate.
LD: Wow.
EB: It is alarming that in Minnesota we‟re looking at eighty percent or less overall. Hispanics probably do not even make up twenty percent! But we need to work hard; we need to work with programs that involve more parental involvement and post-secondary and business/community partnerships because the schools cannot do it alone.
LD: Yes.
EB: You know, there is a saying that it takes a whole village to raise a child. I am a real believer in that. The schools can work together with our communities, again we have to form partnerships with businesses, with universities, with other organizations, with churches. We need to make sure we are involving families.
sure we are involving families. LD: You were just saying that we have eighty percent graduation rate in Minnesota and then Hispanics, you said something, twenty percent? EB: No, I‟m saying that it is predicted that overall it‟s going to be only about eighty percent or less of the high school students that will be graduating from Minnesota. LD: And then so in the Hispanic Latino students? EB: It‟s much, much lower. LD: How much, do you think? EB: I am thinking it is about 20%; however, let me check what it is and you‟ll get the figures for sure. LD: Sure. Okay. EB: Actually, I can give you a copy of the PowerPoint from the State Demographer. And other information I have from the state about the MCA's and TEAE tests for ESL students. LD: Yes. EB: Many of the ESL students in this data are the Hispanic students. When it comes to the TEAE reading test at the high school level for ESL students, we‟re not even at the twentieth percentile. LD: Oh, my.
EB: And when it comes to the ESL writing at the high school level, we‟re not even to the fortieth percentile. Again, overall for ESL students in the state.
LD: Wait. Forty percent?
EB: For the writing.
LD: So forty percent of where they should be?
EB: Of one hundred percent. Right.
LD: Okay.
EB: We‟re not even at the fortieth percentile for the writing area for ESL students in grades 912th in the state of MN.
While at Minnesota State University-Mankato, at the same time, I was working at Shattuck-Saint Mary‟s--which is a private school in Faribault, Minnesota where I started working as a department chair in the world language department; they were in need of bringing somebody in to help them to bring back their world languages classes, including the ESL program. My son was going to school there. Shattuck is well known for hockey and my son played hockey. He went over there in ninth grade. And then a year later, I joined the staff. This was a good opportunity for me to work for a private school over my three-year leave of absence.
LD: I see. EB: At the elementary level ESL students do better; it goes up and down per grade. So that‟s alarming. LD: Yes. EB: Again, we have a lot of work to do. And definitely we have to take a look at best practices. We need to look at schools that are achieving. We need to replicate those best practices, so we can help students achieve. I am interested in the academic achievement of all students but particularly interested in the Latino population because they have the largest dropout rate in Minnesota. LD: I want to go back to some of these achievement gaps. I want to go back to the achievement gaps in just a moment. But you finished as principal in Sleepy Eye in 2006, correct? EB: Right. LD: Okay. So what did you do after that? And why did you leave? EB: I took a leave of absence. And I took a leave of absence to work on my doctoral program. I went over to Minnesota State University-Mankato. Actually, I joined the Education Leadership Department and I taught classes in the area of curriculum supervision for people studying to become principals. I also had a cohort of sixteen aspiring principals in the metro area. And one interesting thing, there aren‟t many minority Hispanics going into those positions, and I think that‟s where we can make a difference, having minority teachers going into school administration.
Shattuck-Saint Mary‟s is one of the best private schools that we have in Minnesota and I believe in this country. I thought, I want to see what student programs they have to be one of the best. After being the world language department chair for two years, I became their academic dean also till I left.
LD: Yes.
EB: So I did that for a year at Shattuck-St. Mary‟s. Shattuck is a preparatory school that has a lot of international students, so their ESL program is very large and based on the international student population. As I mentioned before, it is important for ESL students to have their first language developed and the international students at Shattuck did--which made it easier for them to learn English fast. For many Hispanic students in MN, their first language is not developed, (which is also true for many ESL students in our public schools) so it makes it harder for them to become English proficient. I oversaw the ESL program under the world language department, it was an excellent program with very dedicated staff. When I go and speak, I talk about this program which aimed at passing the TOEFL test--I think that if we could replicate this model, students in our public schools would do much better. LD: Oh. EB: The TOEFL test is the test that you must take for international students to get into a college or university. LD: Right. EB: Well, if we can have our students proficient in English when they finish high school, they‟ll be okay at the university level! [Chuckles] LD: Right, right. EB: The curriculum that the ESL program at Shattuck has, involved some classes for ESL social studies, and we were looking into Science ESL. These two areas have lots of reading. English grammar and classes in math are more universal. LD: Yes. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
EB: When I was the principal at Sleepy Eye, I saw that ESL students were having a hard time in the science area due to the fact that in science there‟s a lot of new vocabulary. Even the native English speaking students had a difficult time in science. For our ESL students in science, lesson plans were shared days before with the ESL teacher to prepare students for the upcoming science vocabulary. ESL students were grouped for science labs and they were provided a paraprofessional to assist the science teacher.
LD: Yes.
EB: Again, having the ESL teacher communicate and work with the science teacher to prepare the students for their science classes helped. And you know, nowadays, we‟re really not attracting too many students of color into the science area, and especially STEM. And if you really think about it, that‟s where a lot of the jobs are at this point in time. So my mission is to encourage students of color into STEM.
LD: Which is science, technology, engineering and math [STEM].
EB: Yes. LD: Okay. EB: Anyway, I was at Shattuck for four years and while there, I was also working at Minnesota State University-Mankato. I was teaching night classes. I worked at MNSU for one and a half years, until I finally said, I am not Superwoman. LD: [Laughs] EB: I can‟t have the full time position at Shattuck and teach classes at MNSU. When I became the academic dean at Shattuck, it was more responsibility and administration. So then I let the position at MNSU go. I do visit the university and speak once in a while there. I would visit and do some lectures and also speak for some of the classes. But the most rewarding and fun time about working with MNSU-Mankato, which I do miss, was working with aspiring principals. As I worked with aspiring principals, I had the opportunity to analyze and share some data with them on where we are with the ESL population or with the minority students, and things that they could do to better their programs as they became principals. So I think that when I retire from this position, that‟s where I‟m going to head. I will move towards working for a university, working with programs where you‟re training principals. I think that that‟s my last goal, while I am in education. [Chuckles] LD: And then you‟ll go and rule the world. [Laughs] And then you‟ll become an international lawyer. [Laughter] EB: I don‟t know about that. [Laughs] Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
LD: No, I‟m glad to hear you say that you realized you weren‟t Superwoman, because what you‟ve done is really amazing.
EB: [Chuckles]
LD: All that you‟ve accomplished while you‟re raising kids, while you are, you know, responsible for all this. So, glad to know you‟re human. [Laughs]
EB: Yes. You know, I have to say though, too, that while I raised my kids I had much support from husband and his family. I had a sister [Delen] who came and lived with me while she attended high school.
LD: Ah.
EB: So it kind of helped me to have a sibling here.
EB:
LD: Sure. EB: As you know, in our culture we always help each other. LD: Yes. EB: And then while my sister Delen attended the university, I also had a brother [Jose Guadalupe] that came and lived with us when my son was younger. And then another sister [Ledi] came. These siblings came throughout the years and lived with us for a year or two, to learn English. LD: Yes. EB: And this is an example, as I mentioned before, how in the Mexican culture, we always help each other. LD: Yes. EB: Instead of going through a program, we--my husband and I--brought them directly to us, in our home. And it was better for me, because then I had a sibling, with me. LD: Yes. EB: I had family. LD: Yes, yes. That‟s so funny, too, that I know your sister Delen and I didn‟t know you guys were related! EB: Yes.
LD: So then, from there, from Shattuck-Saint Mary‟s - is that when you came here to NWS?
EB: Yes. While at Shattuck, I enjoyed being the Academic Dean. Shattuck is a wonderful private school; the campus is beautiful, and they offer excellent programs. However I decided to leave this past summer. I came to NWS in August.
LD: In August of this year?
EB: 2010.
LD: 2010. Oh, so very recently.
EB: Yes.
LD: So tell me about this position now and what you do here and why you came.
EB: We must make sure student achievement is taking place within our programs such as Jobs for American Graduates (JAG)-- which is offered mainly to juniors and seniors and targets the bottom twenty-five percentile of those students in schools. The program covers thirty seven competencies, and involves much data collection. Advancement Via Individual Determination [AVID] is another NWS programs which targets the middle 50% of students and provides support and encouragement to students in order to take rigorous coursework through its curriculum and tutorial, especially minority students. Many AVID students are prepared to enroll in Advanced Placement [AP] and college courses in their high schools in order to be prepared for college. Then we have Future Educators Club, which is working with students providing opportunities in job shadowing, etc. in order to encourage them to study a career in education. Our Magnet School programs which are coordinated by NWS are of high rigor and they follow three thematic areas--Visual and Performing Arts, International Baccalaureate, and STEM. Other programs such as the Multicultural Resource Center and our Family and Community Empowerment benefit school staff and families
EB: I love the position at Northwest Suburban; my title is Director of Educational Services. One of the reasons I enjoy my job is because I enjoy developing programs leading to integrating best practices for student achievement. I believe in the planning, we staff at NWS, are doing to assist our member districts and families in order to further improve our existing programs. I like to seek new opportunities for collaboration around desegregation efforts through coordination of our existing programs. We serve as a resource for professional development and facilitate opportunities for parents to became engage, familiar, and build understanding of our educational system in order to help their students. Furthermore, it has been fun and interesting to seek opportunities for partnerships with various colleges and universities. LD: Wow. EB: I feel that with my background in public and private education, I could do a better job at working with programs for students who are at risk, who are not achieving, specially Latino students. And I really felt that I needed to go back into the public school system and make a difference, especially for our Latino community--public schools is where most of them are enrolled. So I took this position; I believe in integration and the collaboration among the member districts. I like the programs the district offers focusing on creating culturally inclusive learning environments in order to increase student achievement. LD: Yes. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
When I was in Sleepy Eye, we also had integration funding; we had a collaborative there also so I was familiar with the funding. When this position opened, I thought, what a great position it would be to actually work for the northwest part of the metro area, assist in programming, and make a difference.
LD: Yes.
EB: That‟s what attracted me to this position. Right now, for example, we‟re looking at programs where we can work with parents - especially immigrant, and minority parents. Providing some workshops to them in the area of school graduation and integration as I did in Sleepy Eye. Getting them familiar with the school, teaching them about how the educational system works in Minnesota, and also to became familiar with state testing. Teaching them about parenting the children, and how to get connected with the school, because they can make a difference in the education of their student in order to facilitate student achievement. Also, it is great working with teachers, administration, and the overall staff, bringing them different types of workshops to enrich the classrooms--programs that are a two- or three-year commitment and involves partnerships with other organizations such as differentiating instruction for ESL students, and absent narratives--through a partnership with the Minnesota Humanities Center. LD: Yes. EB: Absent narratives. You know, which will be professional development for teachers designed to provide cultural awareness and teach the missing curriculum-- the culture of people of color, their lived experiences, etc., through stories in the area of art, music, history, etc. These absent narratives are left out of our main curriculum and it is important for all children to know the cultural background, experiences, and perspectives that make-up the students in the classroom. We‟re also talking about workshops in inquiry into science for students of color. We need more kids to go into those areas. We are also planning to offer some cultural workshops through the schools and we will start with the Latino culture, because we‟re having an influx of Hispanic students that is actually rather new to schools such as Elk River, Buffalo, Rockford, and Anoka. Some of our schools like Brooklyn Center or Fridley, and Osseo, they have had a few Latino students within this decade, the last ten years. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
Again, in our other schools, we are growing in this area, and if I can make a difference in providing services to them, I think that the kids will be better off - the minority kids, the Hispanic kids. If we can mentor some of the teachers, and also work with administrators on best practices and provide my experience as what I have done in the past, I think that we can make a difference for the students.
LD: Let me think. You‟re so eloquent. [Chuckles] I have about like five questions and you answered them all in one.
EB: [Chuckles]
LD: Tell me some of the changes that you‟ve seen. Well, first of all, so do you live here? Because Sleepy Eye, how far is Sleepy Eye from here?
EB: About two hours.
LD: So are you commuting?
LD:
EB: No. LD: [Chuckles] Because? EB: We bought a condominium in Minneapolis. LD: Oh, okay. [Laughs] I was going to say, that‟s a really long commute. EB: Yes, but my husband is still in Sleepy Eye. He lives in Sleepy Eye, and our home is in Sleepy Eye. I go home on weekends or he comes to Minneapolis. LD: Oh, okay. EB: Or he comes over here on weekends. LD: Okay. And you don‟t have any more kids at home? EB: We have one. LD: You have one, okay. EB: Yes. She‟s here with me, going to school here. And the other ones, oh, one is married. I have two grandchildren. As I say, one more coming, and actually any day. I‟m hoping that he or she waits through the weekend! [Laughter] And then my daughter Vanessa is also here and my son is in college in Ohio. LD: Congratulations on the upcoming baby! EB: Oh, thank you.
LD: So what are some of the changes that you‟ve seen? I guess really, I mean, you‟ve been working here not as long as you had been working in Sleepy Eye, etcetera. So talk to me first about there. What are some of the big changes? Obviously, demographics. I mean, ten percent to thirty-eight percent Latino students in the schools, but what are some of the other changes that you‟ve seen?
EB: I think that in Sleepy Eye what I have seen is that now, it‟s a community that embraces diversity. You know, that was a big change. And often I have been asked if this model can be replicated into areas of the Twin Cities, like Minneapolis, where we have so many students that dropout of school, especially with the Hispanic population. And I always say, we could replicate that model on a smaller scale if we really get involved with the churches.
One of the changes that I‟m seeing right now from Sleepy Eye is that some districts are not tapping into partnerships with our community‟s resources. And we have to keep in mind that we, schools, can‟t do it alone. We really have to, you know, partner with the churches, with businesses. I have been on committees - I was part of the K-16 science standards committee. We had some people from business in this committee from the science industry. They would say, "You know, we haven‟t been asked by the schools to come in and partner." And I think that our business organizations as well as other community organizations are waiting for that. I do think, and hope that in some of our member districts, partnerships are happening. LD: Yes. EB: Keep in mind that we have eight districts. By looking at data from the state and our own data, we are seeing how students are doing. This is probably another trend that I have seen in education, along with the demographics, I think that we as schools are more inclined now to collect data and analyze the data to see how students are performing. I think that the programs are growing for our Hispanic students. They‟re certainly growing. You know, aside from the demographics, I think that I‟ve seen, too, a lot of mobility, and that‟s with our undocumented students. There is a lot of mobility, and I think that if we could just teach families that if they just stay in one area their students will benefit a great deal, that in Minnesota every child has the right to go to school. LD: Yes. EB: The school has no right to ask you about your immigration status. And the more you settle in one area and have your students finish at a school, they do much better than moving. There is a correlation between mobility and dropping out of school for our Latino population. But you know, of course, along with that is the economics - the jobs that are out there for the parents. And the moving, the changes in housing, right now it is probably because of the economy. The impact is tremendous with families. Right now many of our families are going through hard times and so is our country and state.
LD: Right. I kind of want to wrap up, start to wrap up. Really, truly, you‟re so eloquent. [Chuckles] We‟ve gone through so much in a relatively short amount of time. What are some satisfactions for you? Certainly, you‟ve talked about some of them. But what are some of the things that have sustained you through being Superwoman and working many jobs and going to school? What are the things that you really hold onto, and that you‟re proud of?
EB: Well, I think the fact that, you know, I‟m a person that has worked in the fields, I am an immigrant who believes that education certainly opens the door to success for anyone. I used to share my story with many of our Latino community and Latino students, to show that they can do it. It‟s hard work. But they certainly can go ahead. With the right mentorship, we can certainly get our children through. Because we definitely - in our schools, we all are charged to mentor all our students.
There certainly are opportunities out there to do it. I think that also being part, for eight years, of the Chicano Latino Affairs Council, an agency that can introduce legislation, and actually must introduce bills and see that education is a must. We really can‟t turn our backs to our students. They are our future.
EB: I think that, personally, my hope for the future is, of course, is to be healthy. And someday, I keep telling my husband I am going to finish that doctoral program—which I haven‟t yet. And of course getting my children through all their schooling and again, living a healthy life. And someday return to Sleepy Eye! [Chuckles]
LD: Yes. EB: Pretty soon, if we don‟t do that, we are going to be in a state where we are going to be not only bringing in goods from China, but also people. You know, we‟ve got to educate all our students here so that our kids in Minnesota can take all those luxurious jobs of the future. I think that what keeps me going is the fact that we have to work hard and we have to work together. You know, not just the school district community, but also as a state and provide the necessary resources that we need to graduate our kids from high school and move them on to post-secondary education and employment. We certainly don‟t want them to be out there on the streets, because when they are on the streets, they are turning to gangs. LD: Yes. EB: And a lot of times they turn to crime because they haven‟t found themselves and they don‟t have an adult mentor. We need to do a better job at mentoring our young people. LD: One more question. [Chuckles] Like, I really could ask you many, many more. EB: I must also say that also what keeps me going is, actually, my family and my husband. My husband, if I didn‟t have his support, I wouldn‟t be where I am. LD: Sure, absolutely. Absolutely. I was going to say, I could ask you about a hundred more questions. [Laughter] I wish I had about five hours with you. But what are your hopes for the future? Personally, and as a member of the Latino community in Minnesota. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project Minnesota Historical Society
LD: You really love it there.
EB: Oh, yes. Yes. Someday I‟ll return to Sleepy Eye. And my hope for the Latino community is that it‟s not time to be alone, it‟s a time to pull our resources together and work together to educate our Hispanic children. Because we certainly cannot have this dropout rate.
LD: It makes you emotional.
EB: Yes. It‟s, it‟s too much.
LD: Tell me. Tell me why does it touch you so? EB: [Pauses] LD: We can take, we could pause if you want. EB: Yes. LD: Okay. [Brief recording interruption] LD: Okay, let me start again. EB: I think that, you know, it is hard to see kids out there who drop out of school. Many of them are children raising children. There are so many Latino students who drop out in the ninth grade. They are getting married, having children. And I mean, then what is it that we‟re going to expect of them? Again, we have a long journey ahead of us in order for our Latino children to finish high school and to attend college. And also for them to have, certainly, a better life. As a Latino community we value our culture and we value our history. And we can lose track of that. We need to model our examples on those families that strive to have a better life. That is so important. Whether they remain in Minnesota or they go back to other states where it‟s warmer, it doesn‟t matter. The dropout rate is nationwide. And we certainly need to work with our Latino kids. They just have to have a better life. LD: Yes. Yes, as I said, when I paused the recording, it‟s really heartening to see someone like you that has that kind of passion. Because I was one of those young Latino kids. And it‟s because of people like you, the passionate educators, that I was able to have a better life. So it is beyond the context of what we‟re doing.
EB: Yes.
LD: You know, I thank you for having that passion. Is there anything else that you want to talk about? We‟ve covered a lot. [Chuckles]
EB: Yes, yes. I think that this project you guys are working hard to put together, as I told Jim [Fogerty] before, it‟s wonderful. Because by showing Latino students in the schools that there are people with the same background as them who are successful, I think that you‟re going to get those students excited. We need to get this project into the school system, where kids need to learn that there are people out there with similar histories like them, who made it.
LD: Yes.
EB: Latino people who came from poverty, who came from working hard, whose parents immigrated and went through hard times and good times as they (students) are going through now.
LD: Yes. EB: But as we say, " Sí, se puede [yes, we can]." They certainly can achieve! So I think that all your work is wonderful on behalf of our Latino children. And I do want to give you copies of the PowerPoint I have, and you can take a look, you know, with the data that I talked about. LD: Absolutely. Well, on behalf of the Historical Society, once again, thank you so much. I know you‟re very, very busy. And this is a fantastic, fantastic interview, and truly a wonderful resource for those kids and for people who want to know about our community. So, really, I want to thank you so much. EB: Yes. Thank you. Lideres Latinos Oral History Project
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Bullying Prevention Task Force to Hold Listening Session for Students in Metro
On Monday, June 18, a listening session for students will be held at the Minnesota Department of Education in Roseville. This will be the sixth listening session held by the task force. Members of the Governor's Task Force for the Prevention of Bullying are convening listening sessions across the state to hear from Minnesota students, educators and community members on the issue of bullying and school climate.
The student listening session will be convened by members of the Task Force. The listening session will take place at the Minnesota Department of Education and offer students an opportunity to weigh in on this important issue.
Any students interested in attending the listening session should contact Nancy Riestenberg at firstname.lastname@example.org or 651-582-8433.
Created through executive order by Governor Dayton, the task force is comprised of 15 members charged with examining best practices and policies that currently exist to prevent bullying. The panel is further tasked with providing future recommendations to the Governor and the legislature on this subject. The listening sessions will provide the opportunity for stakeholders to provide information and insight to task force members that will inform the group's final recommendations to Governor Dayton and the legislature.
Members of the taskforce include the Commissioners of the Department of Education, the Department of Human Rights and members of the legislature. Governor Dayton also appointed additional members with experience or expertise in psychology, education, pediatrics and antibullying advocacy.
What: Governor’s Task Force for the Prevention of Bullying Student Listening Session
Who: Task Force members
When: Monday, June 18, 2012 at 9:30 - 11:30 am.
Where: Minnesota Department of Education, 1500 Highway 36 West, Roseville, MN 55113, Conference Center A
###
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Glen Canyon Dam – Adoption of NonNative Fish Control Program Through 2020
CURRENT STATUS: The Bureau of Reclamation has completed all environmental compliance requirements associated with adoption of a research-based program to control NonNative Fish in the Colorado River below Glen Canyon Dam from 2012 through 2020.
BACKGROUND: Biological opinions for the operation of Glen Canyon Dam include requirements that Reclamation control non-native fishes that prey on endangered native fish in the Colorado River below Glen Canyon Dam. These Endangered Species Act-based requirements contemplated lethal removal of non-native fishes that prey on native fish in order to benefit the native fish – primarily the endangered humpback chub.
Based on the sacred status of the Colorado River, including particularly the confluence of the Little Colorado River and the Colorado River, the Pueblo of Zuni and other Tribes involved in the Glen Canyon Dam Adaptive Management Program expressed concern over the proposed lethal fish removal. In order to address Tribal concerns, in 2010 Reclamation cancelled planned fish removal trips, reinitiated ESA Section 7 consultation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and began a public process to analyze potential alternatives to address both the concerns of the Tribes and Reclamation's ESA obligations.
Reclamation has conducted extensive government-to-government Tribal consultations and analyses to ensure the non-native fish control actions required under the biological opinion are implemented in a way that respects Tribal perspectives. Reclamation has moved the location of the proposed mechanical removal upstream and away from the Little Colorado River reach (an area many tribes consider sacred), and will test reducing emigration of rainbow trout and brown trout from source populations in Glen and Grand Canyon through removal in areas closer to Lees Ferry. To address the Tribal concerns over the taking of life (prior mechanical removal trips killed the non-native trout), fish that are removed would be kept alive and stocked into waters as sport fish in areas that have approved stocking plans. If live removal proves to be infeasible, Reclamation anticipates fish removed would be euthanized for later beneficial use identified through continued Tribal consultation.
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STATE OF NEW HAMPSHIRE
CONCORD 03301
EXECUTIVE ORDER NUMBER 91-1
an order establishing January 20, 1991 as Martin Luther King, Jr., and civil rights celebration day.
WHEREAS, the State of Mew Hampshire, in spirit and in law, strives to protect civil rights and has always been opposed to discrimination with regard to age, sex, race, creed, color, and national origin; and
WHEREAS, anti-discrimination laws of our State and Nation were cherished by the late American clergyman Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.; and
WHEREAS, Dr. King was the leader of the civil rights movement in the United States during the 1950's and 1960's -- h e helped introduce t h e strategy of civil disobedience to the black struggle for equality and turned the struggle into a mass movement; and
WHEREAS, his magnificent speaking ability enabled him to effectively express the demands of black Americans for social justice; and
WHEREAS, his eloquent pleas won wide support for the civil rights movement and resulted in laws being abolished that barred integration; and
WHEREAS, while serving as president of the successful boycott protesting the segregated bus system in Montgomery, Alabama, Dr. King emphasized that, "The Great glory of American democracy is the right to protest for right;" and
WHEREAS, Dr. King and other civil rights leaders led the massive March on Washington, comprised of Americans from throughout the country of all faiths, races and creeds -- this demonstration led to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibiting discrimination in public places and calling for equal opportunity in employment and education; and
WHEREAS, the high point of the March on Washington was Dr. King's electrifying "I Have A Dream " speech which defined the moral basis of the civil rights movement and his hope for the time when the evils of prejudice and segregation vanish; and
WHEREAS, in 1965 Dr. King helped organize protests that led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965; and
WHEREAS, Dr. King's tremendous contributions to advancing civil rights in our society were formally recognized with the Nobel Peace Prize for his leadership of nonviolent demonstrations; and
WHEREAS, during this month of Dr. King's birthday, it is important to remember and celebrate the progress he made, and the improvements made in our State and Nation, to protect the freedoms and equality of our citizens;
NOW, THEREFORE, I, JUDD GREGG, GOVERNOR of the State of New Hampshire, by virtue of the authority vested in me under Part 2, Article 41, of the New Hampshire Constitution, do hereby establish January 20, 1991 as MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR., and CIVIL RIGHTS CELEBRATION DAY.
Given under my hand and seal at the Executive Chambers this 15th day of January, in the year of our Lord, one thousand nine hundred
and ninety-one.
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Idaho Infant Toddler Program
Individualized Family Service Plan – Part 1 Assessment and Planning Tool
The mission of the Idaho Infant Toddler Program is to provide quality early intervention support and services to enhance the capacity of families to meet the needs of children birth to three years of age who have developmental delays or disabilities.
We would like to begin by gathering some information about your child and family. This information will be shared with your team and will help in making decisions about eligibility and recommendations for possible services.
If your child is found eligible, this information will be used to develop the Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP). This information also serves as the Service Coordination Assessment.
Demographic Information
Child's Name: _________________________________________ Date of Birth: _______________
Female Male
Parent/Guardian: _________________________________________ Relationship: ________________________________
Address: __________________________________ City: _________________________State: ________ Zip: _________
Phone Number: __________________________ (w)
(h) (c)
E-mail Address: ____________________________
Phone Number: ___________________________ (w)
(h)
(c) _________________________ (w)
(h) (c)
2 nd
Contact: ______________________________________________ Relationship: ________________________________
Address: __________________________________ City: ____________________ State: ____________ Zip: _________
Phone Number: __________________________ (w)
(h) (c)
E-mail Address: _____________________________
Family's Primary Language: ____________________________
Health Information
Primary Care Physician:____________________________________________ Medicaid #:_________________________
Clinic Name: _____________________________________________________
Address: __________________________________ City: ____________________ State:___________ Zip: __________
Phone Number: ________________________ FAX: _________________Email Address:___________________________
Healthy Connections? Y
N
Insurance Company: ___________________________ Policy #: _______________
Service Coordination Information
Service Coordinator:____________________________________ Agency: _________________________________________
Agency Address: ____________________________ City: __________________________ State: _____ Zip: _________
Phone Number:_____________________________________ Email Address:____________________________________
Intake Only
Initial IFSP
Annual IFSP Date of Original IFSP: ___________________
Date Completed: _______________
Family Information
Please describe the concerns that brought you to the Infant Toddler Program:
Have you discussed this concern with your child's doctor or other professionals? Please explain.
What do you hope to see happen for your child and/or family as a result of your involvement with the Infant Toddler Program?
Child lives with:
Other Caregivers:
Foster Care
Child typically spends the day with:
Siblings / age:
Pets:
Other important people:
Additional important information:
Does child use or need any assistive technology like hearing aids, orthotics, or positioning supports?
HEALTH HISTORY
Medical Records/ Information Available:
Medical records
Medical/Social Report
Current Annual History and Physical Exam Date:
Dental, Hearing or Vision Providers:
Medications (name, dosage, frequency):
Other:
Please describe your child’s prenatal and birth history, birth weight/length, medical conditions, illnesses, injuries, hospitalizations, immunizations, allergies, sleep patterns, etc. Is there a family history of physical or mental illness, disability, vision or hearing loss?
Date Completed: _______________
CHILD/FAMILY ROUTINES & ACTIVITIES
Related Resources:
Interest-Based Everyday Activity Checklist
ABC Matrix RBI-SAFER Combo
Other:_____________________________
What are the things your child enjoys most (including toys, people, places, activities, etc) or does very well?
What does your family enjoy doing together and why? Who is involved? When does this occur?
What activities/routines do you do throughout the day? How does your child participate? How satisfied with the activities/routines are you?
Are there any routines or activities that you find difficult or frustrating for you or your child? Or are there activities/routines that your family is not currently involved in because of your child’s needs, but you are interested in doing now or in the near future?
Have you or your child participatedin any of the following programs?
Department of Health and
Welfare
Health Services
Other
Medicaid
WIC Nutrition Program
Early Head Start/Head Start
Food Stamps
High Risk Infant or Maternal Care
Idaho Migrant Head Start
Financial Assistance
Immunizations (Baby Shots)
Indian Health Services
Home Care for Certain Disabled
Children (Katie Beckett)
Family Planning Clinic
EPSDT Well Child Check
Maternity Clinic
Social Security
Child Protection
Children's Special Health Program
IESDB
Personal Care Services
Ages and Stages Questionnaires
Adult or Children's Mental Health
Family Supports
Comments:
Date Completed: _______________
RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
Related Resources:
Ecological Family Mapping (ECO Map)
Your family’s strengths and resources can support your child’s learning. To best serve your child, it is helpful to know about issues or concerns that are important to you. You may share as much or as little family information as you choose.
What types of resources and supports can your family count on?
Ecological Family Mapping (ECO Map)
Your family’s strengths and resources can support your child’s learning. To best serve your child, it is helpful to know about issues or concerns that are important to you. You may share as much or as little family information as you choose.
What types of resources and supports can your family count on?
Do you have concerns about meetingthe needs of your child or family? Please check any items below that apply.
Physical (food, shelter, transportation, etc.)
Therapy (adaptive equipment, assessments, scheduling)
Medical (vision, hearing, dental, immunizations and
physical health)
Personal (recreation, stress management, respite, legal,
etc.)
Health & Safety (nutrition, feeding, environmental,
Child or Adult Protection, etc.)
Long Range planning (changes that will occur, transitions, continued service coordination, etc.)
Educational (parenting/discipline, child development, developmental disabilities, parent rights/safeguards, transitions, English as a second language, obtaining
GED, Vo-Tech, etc.)
Financial/Benefits (income, bills, Medicaid, SSI, Katie
Beckett, etc.)
Translation/Interpretation services
Social & Emotional (support groups, playgroups,
nurturing, etc.)
Other:
Family needs and supports (how to communicate
about child's disability, recreation, respite, counseling,
etc.)
Please describe items checked abo ve. Describ e other resources about which you’d like more information:
Social Information– Psychosocial Stressors/Events(check all that apply within the past year)
Recent Death
Physical/Sexual/Emotional Abuse
Recent Hospitalization
Custody/Placement Issues
Child or Family Legal Issues
Financial Difficulties
Parent Separation/Divorce
Change in Living Situation
Other (please describe):
None
Would you like information on possible resources related to any items you’ve identified?
Date Completed: _______________
Ecological Mapping
1. Each member can be represented by a color that they have chosen.
3. Activities that the family does together can be depicted by another color that will extend from the center of the circle to the activity outside the circle. (Please see supplemental document for instructions and examples)
2. Document relationships and supports.
Lines joining the circles show connections:
Male □
Female Ο
Strong connection —————
Weak connection - - - - - - - -
Stressful connection ┼—┼—┼—┼
Energy flow into and/or out of family
unit or individual
Description of Child
Present Level of Development (Information required for each domain)
| Area of | Parent/Caregiver Input |
|---|---|
| Development | |
Vision/Hearing Screenings (Check all that apply)
Vision
Concern Y
N
Screening Requested
Screening Results:
Passed Referred
Date of Screening: _________________
Screening Completed By: ______________________
Follow Up Needed:___________________________
Hearing
Concern Y
N
Newborn or Other Screening Requested
Newborn or Other Screening Results:
Passed Referred
Date of Screening: _________________
Screening Completed By: ______________________
Follow Up Needed: ____________________________
Idaho Infant Toddler Program
Individualized Family Service Plan – Part 2 Plan Development
The development of an Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) is a process in which family members and service providers work together as partners. Together we will create a plan of action to support your family in meeting your child's developmental needs.
Child/Family Photo
Specialists from a variety of backgrounds and qualifications are available to work with and support your family in promoting your child's development and learning. The following people are members of your early intervention team.
| Name | | Role | Agency/Address | Phone | Email |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | Parent | | | | |
| | Service Coordinator | | | | |
EARLY INTERVENTION TEAM PHOTOS (OPTIONAL)
Initial IFSP
Annual IFSP
6 Month Review Date of Original IFSP: ___________________
Outcomes for Child
Now that we have identified your child's interests and needs we will focus on what you would like your child to do.
Outcome #:
What specifically do we want your child to do in the next few months? (Functional Outcome)
What is your child doing now? (Child’s current level of function related to this outcome)
The progress statement must be measured within the context of everyday learning activities.
How will we know we're making progress? What will be different?
When do we hope to have this completed? (Progress Statement/Criteria for Success)
How did we do? (Review of Progress Statement/Criteria for Success)
Date: ____________
Achieved: We did it!
Date: ____________ C
ontinue: We are part-way there. Let's keep going.
The situation has changed:
Date: ____________
Discontinue: It no longer applies.
Date: ____________ R evise: Let’s try something different.
Comments :
Date: ____________
Updated Outcome / Date:______________ *Parent Initials: ______
* Parent’s Initials indicate agreement with the changes noted on this page.
Addendum / Date: _______________
What strategies and resources will we use to make this happen?
(Who will do what during which regular activities and routines, and where will it occur?)
Who will be involved? (Include names of all who will be involved)
Outcomes for Parent/Caregiver
This page documents what you and your family would like to achieve in order to support your child's development.
Outcome #:
What specifically do we want to accomplish? (Functional Outcome)
What is happening now?
How will we know we’re making progress? What will be different? When do we hope to have this completed? (Progress Statement/Criteria for Success)
How did we do? (Review of Progress Statement/Criteria for Success)
Date: ____________ Achieved: We did it!
Date: ____________ Continue: We are part-way there. Let's keep going.
The situation has changed:
Date: ____________ Discontinue: It no longer applies.
Date: ____________ Revise: Let's try something different.
Comments:
Date: ___________
Updated Outcome / Date:______________ *Parent Initials: ________
* Parent’s Initials indicate agreement with the changes noted on this page.
Addendum / Date: _______________
What strategies and resources will we use to make this happen? (Who will do what during which regular activities and routines, and where will it occur?)
Who will be involved? (Include names and phone numbers)
Outcomes for Service Coordination
Service Coordination is provided to all families enrolled in the Idaho Infant Toddler Program. A Service Coordinator will help your child and family access resources and supports. This page will outline steps and activities to assist you and your child as you move through the early intervention system.
Outcome #1What do we want to accomplish? (Desired Outcome)
Start Date:
Target Date:
Who will do what? (Strategies/Activities)
Review Date: Progress Code: Comments:
Outcome #: What do we want to accomplish? (Desired Outcome)
Start Date:
Target Date:
Who will do what? (Strategies/Activities)
Review Date: Progress Code:
Comments:
Outcome #: What do we want to accomplish? (Desired Outcome)
Start Date:
Target Date:
Who will do what? (Strategies/Activities)
Review Date: Progress Code:
Comments:
This box outlines what steps the family can take in an emergency.
Emergency Contact Plan:
Review Date: Progress Code: Comments:
Progress Review Codes:
N = New
C = Continue
A = Achieved R= Revised
D = Discontinued
Updated Outcome / Date:______________ *Parent Initials: ______
* Parent’s Initials indicate agreement with the changes noted on this page.
Addendum / Date:
Transition Planning
This page describes transition activities that you and your family can participate in over the next several months. Transitions are big changes that occur in your family's life. Things like: bringing your child from the hospital to home, changing a child care provider, or going to preschool. Please help us develop a plan to explore options you are interested in for your child after age three and to meet your child's and families transition-related needs.
| Transition Steps/Services Identified by Family | | |
|---|---|---|
| (Includes discussions with, and training of parents, as appropriate, regarding the future | Who is | Proj. Start |
| placement and steps to prepare a child for changes in services and settings and any | Responsible? | Date |
| necessary transition services for a child and his/her family) | | |
Progress Review Codes:
N = New
C = Continue A = Achieved R= Revised D = Discontinued
Transition Steps For Children Who May Be Eligible For School District Services
(Include steps to be taken and who will do what)
Notify school district of potentially eligible child
Proj. Start Date:
Date Completed:
Schedule and hold transition conference (between 9 months and 90 days before child’s 3 rd birthday)
Proj. Start Date:
Date Completed:
Complete evaluations as determined at transition conference
Proj. Start Date:
Date Completed:
Schedule family visits at school and/or community settings, as determined during transition planning
Proj. Start Date:
Date Completed:
Post Transitional Activities including completion of Early Childhood Outcomes
Proj. Start Date:
Date Completed:
Other
Proj. Start Date:
Date Completed:
School District # __________ Contact Information: _______________________________________
Summary of Services
Start Date
Length(time service provided)
Frequency(# of days or sessions)
Funding
N
Early
Intervention Services
Person(s)/Agency(ies)
Responsible
End Date
(Duration)
Intensity(individual/group)
Method(how service provided)
Location(place of service)
Source
If Medicaid,
MID #
*NE
Y
Other services the child or family needs or is receiving through other sources that are not required or funded by the Infant Toddler Program (Part C of IDEA)
*NE: If No, please complete the Natural Environment Justification page.
Diagnosis Description:
Condition Code:
ICD-9 Code:
Consent by Parents/Guardians for Provision of Services
I participated in the development of this plan. I understand that:
* With receipt of my Procedural Safeguards, this plan serves as Prior Written Notice for evaluation, placement, and/or the provision of listed services.
* If there is an increase in the frequency or intensity of services, I will be provided with a copy of the Infant Toddler Program’s System of Payment Policy.
* The provision of listed services includes the completion of ongoing assessments.
I give informed consent for this Individualized Family Service Plan (IFSP) to be carried out as written. SIGN
Parent/Guardian Signature: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________
Parent/Guardian Signature: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________
Physician Signature and Financial Authorization
I have reviewed the above health-related services and certify that they are medically necessary. SIGN
*Physician Signature: __________________________________________________ Date: _________________
(*Required for Medicaid reimbursement if other MD order not on file)
I have reviewed and authorize payment for the above listed early intervention services as defined in the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) Reauthorization, Public Law 108-446, Part C. SIGN
Lead Agency Authorizing Signature: _______________________________________ Date: __________________
Date of IFSP: ________________
6 Month review: ______________
Initial Annual
Addendum / Date:__________________________
Reason for Addendum:
SIGN
Justification for Services Outside a Natural Environment
Supports and services must be provided in settings that are natural or typical for children of the same age. If, as a team, we decide an outcome cannot be achieved in a natural environment, we need to describe why we made that decision and what we will do to move services and supports into natural environments as soon as possible.
Early Intervention
Services
Outcome #
Setting
(Setting where service(s)/support(s) will be provided)
Explanation of Why Outcome Cannot be Achieved in a Natural Environment:
Plan and Timeline for Moving Service(s) and/or Support(s) into Natural Environments:
Projected Review Date: ____________________
Date of Review:
IFSP Team Participants (including Parents/Caregiver):
Recommendations:
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Fayetteville State University DigitalCommons@Fayetteville State University
Collegiate Learning Assessment Instructors' Reports
Academic Affairs – Quality Enhancement Plan
7-1-2009
CLA Report
Angela Taylor Fayetteville State University, firstname.lastname@example.org
Elvira White Fayetteville State University, email@example.com
Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.uncfsu.edu/div_aa_wp
Recommended Citation
Taylor, Angela and White, Elvira, "CLA Report" (2009). Collegiate Learning Assessment Instructors' Reports. Paper 27. http://digitalcommons.uncfsu.edu/div_aa_wp/27
This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Academic Affairs – Quality Enhancement Plan at DigitalCommons@Fayetteville State University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Collegiate Learning Assessment Instructors' Reports by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@Fayetteville State University. For more information, please contact firstname.lastname@example.org.
Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA) Instructor's Assessment Report
Angela P. Taylor
Department of Criminal Justice, Fayetteville State University
1. Course information
The Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA) was administered in CRJC 420, Criminological Theory, which is an upper-level class in the major. There were 11 students enrolled in the class: 6 seniors, 4 juniors and 1 sophomore. Ten students participated in the assessment (5 seniors; 4 juniors, and 1 sophomore).
2. Performance task
The performance task was modeled after the one demonstrated in the fall workshop, and was developed with Dr. Elvira White, also in the Department of Criminal Justice. Students were asked to evaluate and choose between two options for addressing a health problem faced by the fictional state of Columbia, U.S.: an increase in the number of citizens becoming infected with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Students asked to place themselves in the role of an advisor to the state's governor, and make a recommendation for action based on their assessment of two alternatives. In the first option, a Dr. Jones recommends the establishment of needle-exchanges in cities with high levels of intravenous (IV) drug use. The second option, presented by Dr. Harris, was to increase the number of slots in drug treatment facilities. He challenges Jones's view that the increase in HIV is linked to drug use, and asserts that needle exchanges should not be developed since they encourage drug use.
Neither option was ideal. The accompanying documents were created so that a careful reader should be very skeptical of the drug treatment option. Regarding the proposal for needle exchange, at the very least, students should be open to the idea of investigating the possibility, even while recognizing that the documents lacked enough information to fully endorse that choice.
Students were asked to consult 7 documents in their assessment. The documents contained both quantitative data as well as narrative description. The students were told to use all of the documents in their evaluation of the two options.
Document A was a letter to a judge by a drug treatment provider, expressing excitement about the prospect of drug enhanced treatment in the state. This letter was designed to get students to see how personal bias can influence advocacy. Document B was a newspaper article that talked about the positive effects of a drug treatment program in Switzerland that pushed for drug treatment. This document contained anecdotal information presented by a small number of non-experts. Further, the setting in which drug treatment took place was different from that in the United States.
Document C consisted of three tables providing varying types of information about HIV cases and drug use. Table 1 described HIV cases detected over a 5 year period, broken down by modes of transmission. The first table was designed to get them to see that there were changes in the mode of transmission of HIV over time, with more and more cases linked to IV drug use, compared to sexual and other means of transmission. Table 2 presented prevalence data describing a) HIV/AIDS cases among and b) drug use by residents of the state. Table 3 was intake data from a drug treatment facility that broke down the drug of choice among those who were first-time entrants into the facility. This table was designed to express the point that most individuals who enter drug treatment were not heroin users, implying that generalized increase in the availability of drug treatment might not be the most efficient way to target the form of drug use that is specifically linked to HIV.
Document D was a press-release from a business group touting virtues of needle-exchange as a cost-effective means of controlling HIV and potentially reducing crime. This document should have prompted skepticism, both as a press release and also given its lack of details on studies supporting the efficacy of needle-exchange.
Document E was a chart presenting data from Dr Harris showing a correlation between HIV cases and the presence of needle-exchanges. The origins of the data were not revealed, which students were supposed to notice. Students were supposed to recognize three things: 1) correlation does not mean causation; 2) the data were of unknown origin and, 3) the data were presented by someone with an interest in undermining the needle-exchange option. Document F was a chart presenting a cross-tab of the data from Table 2, showing a lack of a clear pattern between changes in the level of drug use and those in HIV cases over time.
Finally, Document G presented three abstracts of journal articles on drug treatment. Each abstract presented data on the value of drug treatment that was faulty in some way. The first abstract described drug treatment efforts in three cities. The second abstract was a review arguing against harm reduction methods, such as needle exchanges. The third abstract presented the results of an experiment comparing the utility of medically enhanced drug treatment compared to standard treatment Because the experiment was not a true experiment, findings were to be viewed as limited.
3. Performance Task Administration
The performance task administration was administered on February 23, 2009. Two hours were taken from class time to allow students to complete the assessment. Nine students hand-wrote their responses in the classroom. One student completed the assessment on a laptop in a classroom at Bladen County College, where the class was being televised. Prior to class, this student was emailed both the performance prompt and documents. She emailed her completed document at the end of class.
Student scores on the assessment were not used in the calculation of their final class grade. As an incentive for participation, each student who completed the task was given 15 extra credit points, to be added on top of points earned throughout the semester.
4. Student Performance
Strengths: Most students did review the documents; there were only two who wrote their assessment without directly referring to any of the documents. Students generally wrote their answers in a coherent fashion, with some sort of structure to their argument. This may in part be linked to the decision by some to use the documents as a external structure for outlining their response (that is, in their discussion, they first referred to Document A, Document B, etc.)
Weaknesses – All of the students made judgments using unsupported personal opinion. As a group, they appeared to be most heavily influenced by the letter and the article on drug treatment in Switzerland. While almost every student, referred to the table, and noted the link between IV drug use and the rise in HIV, they still used the information to support the drug treatment option, while rejecting the needle exchange one out of hand. Overall, there was insufficient skepticism of the information given unless it contradicted their point of view. For instance, one student rightly pointed out that there was not enough information on the efficacy of needle exchange for it to be completely endorsed, yet at the same time used the chart demonstrating a correlation between HIV cases and the presence of needle exchange as a counter-argument against needle exchange.
Overall, while students did use the documents in forming their judgments, they often took the information presented at face value, using it to bolster a pre-existing set of opinions.
It should be noted that their uncritical use of the documents may have been a result of the structure of the questions they were asked. The two questions asking students to assess each option were similar in structure to those used in the fall CLA workshop. Specifically, they were asked whether they agreed with either Dr. Harris or Jones, and to explain why or why not. Perhaps if the students were directly instructed to consider the strengths and weaknesses of each argument, they would have reviewed the documents in a more critical manner.
5. Recommendation and follow up
The performance of the students of CRJC 420 on this version of the CLA prompts me to think critically about adjusting my teaching strategies to bolster the skills and competencies tested by this assessment. Specifically, I will develop activities that call for students to evaluate information in a critical fashion, specifically calling for them to address both the strengths and limitations of a given information source. These activities will also encourage students to look past emotional appeals, pushing them instead to focus more on facts and to maintain a skeptical stance toward their own initial judgments.
These skills are an important component of most courses offered at Fayetteville State University; thus, it is not unrealistic to call for other faculty members to adopt similar strategies in their own classrooms.
Problem Scenario
The state of Columbia, USA is facing a rising rate of HIV cases. The newly elected governor, Ms Smith, has been presented with two options for dealing with the problem. The first, proposed by Dr. Jones, is to push for the passage of a law that would allow needle exchanges to be established in cities within the state that have high IV drug use. She asserts that IV drug use is an increasingly important element in the rise of HIV and AIDS in Columbia.
A different option is offered by Dr. Harris. He argues that the link between the number of HIV cases and drug use is not very strong. Further, he feels that needle exchanges will only encourage drug use, and thus increase, rather than decrease, the spread of the disease. He argues that, if there is indeed a problem, the solution should be for the Governor to provide funding to expand the number of slots in drug treatment facilities to decrease drug use, and thus decrease the spread of HIV in the state.
As a trusted advisor of the governor and a member of her Advisory Committee on HIV Prevention, you have been put in charge of looking at the data and making a recommendation to the Governor Smith based on the two questions below. You have been given a collection of documents related to this issue. Read and examine them thoroughly. Use the evidence they present to answer the following questions.
Question 1: Do you agree with Dr. Harris' proposal that the state should increase the number of drug treatment slots to help reduce the spread of HIV? Why or why not?
Question 2: Do you agree with Dr. Jones that the state should establish needle exchanges in order to help reduce the spread of HIV. Why or why not?
Explain the reasons for your conclusions, and justify those conclusions by referring to the specific documents, data, and statements on which your conclusions are based. Your answers to the questions should include the evidence necessary to support your position. Your answers will be judged not only on the accuracy of the information you provide, but also on how clearly the ideas are presented, how effectively the ideas are organized, and how thoroughly the information is covered. While your personal values and experiences are important, please answer all of the questions solely on the basis of the information provided in the documents.
You have 90 minutes to complete this task.
Document A
To: The Honorable Sherry Brown
From: Sister-in-law
Dear Sherry,
I am so excited to hear about the possibility of the state of Columbia's interest in expanding drug treatment programs for the state. I am sure that you know this has been a passion of mine for several years and I conducted extensive research on this subject while I was studying for my master's degree. I am attempting to get my outpatient drug treatment program up and running and if I could acquire a state contract, it would be an excellent start in the business. It would be great if the legislature would pass a resolution to fund more outpatient drug treatment centers and begin accepting RFP's. I know that you would have to recuse yourself from the proposal process so that there would not be any hint of impropriety or bias on your part, but any suggestions that you could make for a successful proposal would be great.
Looking forward to going camping this weekend with your and your family!!!!
With love,
Sister-in-law
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Big Cypress
National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior
Big Cypress National Preserve
What's the Big Black Bird?
Ever wondered, "Is that a cormorant or anhinga? These birds are often confused for each other at first glance due to their similar appearance. Both birds are primarily black and approximately the same size. The cormorant is 33 inches long with a 52 inch wingspan; the anhinga is 34 inches long with a 48 inch wingspan. Both feed by gracefully diving below the surface for fish, but look closer and you'll see that the two birds are very different.
Thirty-seven different species of cormorants exist in the world, six occur in North America, but only the Double-crested lives in Big Cypress. Double-crested cormorants look for realty in a variety of habitats, shopping for open water from swamps to the ocean. Take a look at one here, and then try and find one back home. Just like many of us like to migrate south to escape cold winters, many of these cormorants also spend summers in the north and winters in the south. Between their different homes, and migration in between, Double-crested cormorants can be found in every state at some point during the year.
Four different darter species exist worldwide and only the anhinga, pronounced an-hing-GA, makes its home in the Southeastern United States. The anhinga is a darter which is a tropical waterbird with a long thin neck and thin pointed bill. Typically anhingas live in freshwater wetlands, but can also survive in brackish and saltwater habitats.
Cormorants and anhingas both make Big Cypress National Preserve home year-round. Look for these intriguing residents perched or swimming in the Preserve's freshwater canals and learn how to distinguish one from its look-a-like.
More than just a big black bird...
Invader Patrol: Unfortunately, non-native fish such as walking catfish and oscars have invaded Big Cypress Swamp. The anhingas and cormorants eat many of these fish, helping reduce these invasive populations.
Who's making an appearance today?
In the field, when not posing side-by-side, it can be a challenge to tell them apart. With these helpful hints, can you detect which bird you are looking at?
Bill Shape: Both birds have relatively thin, long bills. Focus your binoculars on the bill's tip. The cormorant's bill is hooked at the tip. The anhinga's bill comes to a sharp point.
If you're still not sure: Take a look at the neck. It's harder to see when not posing side-by-side, but the anhinga's neck is longer and skinnier than the cormorants.
Environmental Detectors: A healthy number of cormorants and anhingas indicates a healthy environment. In the 1960s, cormorant populations declined significantly due to DDT and other contaminants, but have recovered.
Fishing Frenzy
Eating small fish, cormorants and anhingas plunge below the surface for a tasty meal. However, just like you may argue with your fishing buddy which jig is best, cormorants and anhingas have very different fishing techniques.
Propelling themselves underwater with their webbed feet, cormorants grab their meal with their bill in as deep as 60 feet of water! Coming to the surface they swallow the fish head first. Watch their throat as their meal travels down the long neck with a few gulps.
Anhingas also fish underwater, but spear their fish. They retract their neck into an "S" shape and thrust it forward like a spear. Their long, sharp bill can pierce fish. Once the fish is speared, the anhinga comes to land and works the fish off its bill by slapping it around and finally tosses the fish into the air swallowing it head first. Dinner is served.
Strike a Pose!
Take a stroll down a Big Cypress boardwalk and you might find a bird perching on a branch wings spread wide open. It seems as though it is posing for you to take the perfect picture. But what is it really doing?
The anhinga makes use of another benefit of outstretched wings, thermoregulation. Cormorants have a layer of feathers that act as a warm blanket. Anhingas lack these insulating feathers and often stay outstretched to soak in the sun's heat.
While Swimming
Look! There's a snake in the water! Or is it an anhinga? Anhingas are also called snakebirds because of their swimming style. When swimming, only their neck and head stay above the water and their body sinks below the surface. With a quick glance, their long, skinny neck might look like a swimming snake. Cormorants, on the other hand, float on the water's surface like a duck.
Did you know...
You can easily determine the gender of anhingas. Typically you cannot tell the gender of diving and wading birds just by coloration. That's not the case for anhingas! The male has a black neck and head; the female has a golden brown neck and head.
Most aquatic birds have natural oils on their feathers. The oils help keep birds dry and warm, but also acts like a life jacket keeping birds buoyant. Diving birds, like cormorants and anhingas, produce lower oil levels to reduce buoyancy. In addition, water floods into small spaces in the anhinga's feathers, helping them sink even easier. After a fishing trip, the bird must dry off so it perches on a branch with its wings outstretched.
References
The Sibley Guide to Bird Life and Behavior, David Allen Sibley, 2001
The Sibley Guide to Birds, David Allen Sibley, 2000
Florida Atlantic University website www.ces.fau.edu
University of Florida website www.lakewatch.ifas.ufl.edu
All unlisted images: courtesy of Jan Shirey, NPS/VIP
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Naming ceremony
The world and the people in it are changing. Whilst many people still hold strong beliefs and favour a formal religious welcome for their child, there is an increasing demand for other alternatives.
What is a naming ceremony?
A naming ceremony is a fantastic opportunity to celebrate the birth of a child, to welcome adopted children or children from previous relationships and make them feel part of your family. This happy occasion is a unique opportunity for everyone to feel involved as they promise love and support for the new arrival and their parents.
Please note: the ceremony has no legal status and may not be used to change a child's name.
Can I choose my ceremony?
Of course you can. Each ceremony is tailored individually. You will work closely with one of our celebrants, choosing options available to create your own special ceremony which your family will remember and treasure in the years that follow, as your children grow.
Who may arrange a ceremony?
Any parent, legal guardian or person with legal responsibility for the child/children may arrange a ceremony. Parents do not have to be married to do so.
What happens at a naming ceremony?
Each ceremony is divided into sections giving you the chance to create something personal and very special.
* Introduction and welcome
* Parents promises
* Naming of child / children
Published November 2012
* Grandparents / supporting adults promises
* Signing and presentation of certificate
* Readings and music
* Closing words
You do not need to include all these in your ceremony, it is designed to reflect your wishes and be as simple or as complex as you wish.
You will be presented with a commemorative certificate as a keepsake of your ceremony and may wish to pay for extra certificates for grandparents and other guests.
May we have religious references in the ceremony?
Yes, we can include small readings if you wish.
Where can I hold a ceremony?
At any of our main register offices in the county and also at venues approved by the County Council.
Our list of approved venues is available at www.nottinghamshire.gov.uk/registrars or by phoning 0300 500 80 80.
Contact information
Phone: 0300 500 80 80
Web: www.nottinghamshire.gov.uk/registrars
We offer a wide range of ceremonies which may be of interest to you or people you know, including civil marriages, civil partnerships, renewal of vows and civil funerals.
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www.ksre.ksu.edu
K-State Research and Extension engages Kansas people and Kansas communities by working with them on their issues, in their neighborhoods, in ways they can understand and through education to improve the quality of their lives.
4-H Equips Youth with Science, Engineering, and Technology Skills
Tomorrow's leaders are learning science, engineering, and technology through a variety of 4-H Youth Development activities. For example, applying lessons learned in 4-H allows Kansas youth to assist local emergency and homeland security officials charged with integrating global positioning and geographic information (GPS and GIS) technologies into the state's 4-H educational experiences.
When Leavenworth County officials attended a 4-H demonstration on geospatial literacy, the director of emergency management saw the potential for collaboration and invited the 4-H tech team to map herds of 100 or more cattle, sheep, and other cloven-hoofed animals. The teens' project, titled a "Foreign Animal Disease Biosecurity Map," supplements county resources and is intended to aid emergency management and homeland security.
Senior Health Insurance Counseling for Kansas (SHICK) Benefits Residents
In 2011, K-State Research and Extension agents and trained volunteers offered Senior Health Insurance Counseling for Kansas (SHICK) educational programming, which saved Medicare beneficiaries the highest annual amount reported in the last six years. The state's seniors saved thousands of dollars by comparing plans, making informed decisions, and changing coverage.
* In Marshall County, one client saved $86,667.09 — even while paying a 67 percent penalty above the premium, the deductible, and drug costs. Through the educational program, 10 people learned they were eligible and applied for Extra Help (Low Income Subsidy/Medicare Savings Program).
* A River Valley Extension District client was concerned because her Medicare Part D plan was ending coverage of three medications, and her husband's health issues involve large out-of-pocket expenses. Through education and counseling, they enrolled in a different plan that covers the drugs and will save $6,102 in out-of-pocket costs for 2012.
* A Sedgwick County man qualified for the low-income subsidy provided through Social Security and Medicaid, but the pharmacy he needed to use didn't recognize the plan in which he was automatically enrolled. After learning more about options, the man changed plans, saving $9,000 a year.
Weed Management in Field Crops Adds to Profitability
At weed-management schools, practitioners and crop advisers improved their understanding of sustainable management practices that minimize weeds' effects on field crops and maximize long-term profitability.
More than 150 participants who represented management of approximately 860,000 acres responded to surveys after the meetings at six of the 10 schools last year. Survey participants indicated that the knowledge gained from the meetings was expected to increase cropland profitability by $4.25 per acre, for a total of more than $3.5 million.
Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service
Mission Statement: K-State Research and Extension is dedicated to a safe, sustainable, competitive food and fiber system and to strong, healthy communities, families, and youth through integrated research, analysis, and education.
Smoke Management Education a Cooperative Effort
The Kansas Flint Hills Smoke Management Plan, which debuted in spring 2011, was met with some skepticism. The skepticism provided an opportunity for public education about the need for fire to preserve the native prairie ecosystem as well as the economic effects of burned versus unburned rangeland.
Ranchers gained awareness of where the smoke from their pasture fires went and who was being affected. Participants learned that the smoke wasn't simply a local problem but also had far-reaching effects — not only to Wichita residents, but also to those living in Kansas City, Topeka, and Lawrence, and even as far away as Omaha and St. Louis.
Participants at prescribed burning workshops increased their knowledge of reasons for burning; safety issues including fire behavior, smoke management, and weather considerations; and how to plan and conduct a burn. The workshops were a cooperative effort of K-State Research and Extension, the Farm Services Agency, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and the Kansas Department of Wildlife, Parks, and Tourism.
A survey indicates that most producers use the website information just before conducting prescribed burns and that timing and wind direction are considered.
Family Nutrition Program Fights Food Insecurity in Kansas
Rates of household food insecurity in Kansas have risen since 1999, and have remained consistently higher than national levels. Nutrition education helps Kansans connect with the food and services they need to keep themselves and their families healthy.
In the Family Nutrition Program, nearly 60,000 low-income Kansas children, youth, and adults received direct nutrition education lessons in fiscal 2011. Through the Expanded Family Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP), 7,686 adult and youth participants (72 percent of whom were at or below the federal poverty level) averaged nearly 14 lessons each during nine visits. After completing the lesson series, adult Kansas EFNEP participants averaged an increase of 9 points on the Healthy Eating Index (USDA's single summary measure of dietary quality), compared to their average score before the lessons. In addition, 85 percent of the state's adult participants improved in at least one indicator of ability to manage their food resources after completing the series.
These examples reflect the K-State Research and Extension commitment to local programming in agriculture and natural resources, family and consumer sciences, community and economic development, and 4-H Youth Development program areas. For more information, see http://www.ksre.ksu.edu
Kansas Association
Darren Hibdon, 2011–12 President of County Agricultural Agents
Kansas Extension Association of Family and Consumer Sciences
Phone: 785-229-3520 Fax: 785-229-3527
Linda Beech, 2011–12 President e-mail:
email@example.com
Kansas Association of Extension 4-H Agents
Phone: 785-628-9430 Fax: 785-621-2002
e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org
Epsilon Sigma Phi
Phone: 785-309-5850 Fax: 785-309-5851
Sarah Maass, 2011–12 President e-mail:
email@example.com
Sandra Wick, 2011–12 President
Phone: 785-282-6823 Fax: 785-282-5121
e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org
500 - 4/12
Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service
K-State Research and Extension is an equal opportunity provider and employer. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work, Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, as amended. Kansas State University, County Extension Councils, Extension Districts, and United States Department of Agriculture Cooperating, Gary Pierzynski, Interim Director.
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INQUIRY INTO THE STATUS, HEALTH AND
SUSTAINABILITY
OF AUSTRALIA'S KOALA POPULATION
SUBMISSION REGARDING FIRE AND KOALAS IN SOUTH-EASTERN AUSTRALIA
Yuri Alan Wiedenhofer Tanja NSW
CONTENTS
Inquiry into the status health and sustainability of Australia's koala population
The Committee Secretary Senate Standing Committee on Environment and Communications PO Box 6100 Parliament House CANBERRA ACT 2600 Australia
Email: firstname.lastname@example.org
8 February 2010
Please accept my submission as a personal overview of what I see as an increasingly dire situation for koalas facing logging and fire.
1 My background
* For over twenty years I have been living in forest sharing a boundary with Mumbulla State Forest, east of Bega, NSW. Coming from an urban environment with an interest in native plants, fire and animals, I made it a goal to understand my new surroundings. The forested property has woodland encroaching on redundant grazing land of Forest red gum (E. tereticornis). This was prime koala country. I have imposed a new regime of management, allowing rainforest to reach out of gullies, while culling pyrophytes and holding fire. Remnant rainforests here contain such key species as Giant stinging tree, Sassafras, Muttonwood, Lilly-pilly, Scentless rosewood, Sandpaper fig, Rusty fig, Kurrajong, Mock-olive, Native clerodendrum, Sweet pittosporum and Blackfellow's hemp. The aim is to modify fire behaviour on my doorstep. I am a keen observer.
* As a potter sourcing most materials from the landscape, my art practice includes the study of natural clay, wood fuels and their combined effects after days of fire activity inside a tunnel kiln. Fire generally, is a strong interest.
* I am a long-standing, active member of the Rural Fire Service, with some degree of experience in the field. I have studied standard fire fighting procedure and have read fire histories and major reports.
* Three or four years ago, I began work as a volunteer on koala surveys, focusing my efforts primarily on the Mumbulla koalas. Some activity now continues on a contractual basis with DECCW. I have experience collecting commercial quantities of eucalypt seed in State Forests.
2 Terms of reference
I wish to address my submission with specific reference to:
c. knowledge of koala habitat,
d. threats to koala habitat such as logging, land clearing and poor management etc…., with respect to knowledge of fire.
3 Prelude
I understand good science begins with imagination, followed with hypotheses and testing—that interpreted results should always remain provisional. Interpretation is paramount—but mostly seems a little grey. Our laboratory is landscape itself—a changeable, dynamic system, particularly with respect to fire. The following is based on years of reading and reflecting on the past, and interpreting the past and the present in the landscape. My knowledge of koala habitat centres near Bega, on Mumbulla Mountain, NSW. A very similar geomorphology and important koala gene pool 1 are found in the Strzelecki Ranges of Victoria's Gippsland. They have more in common. About mid-way between these two koala habitats is Eden—wood-chip heaven. My humble submission offers a serious perception of fire in logged, fractured habitat as it directly affects koalas.
4 Introduction to Koala
I used to walk through open forest to swim at a waterhole in Mumbulla State Forest. The coupe was effectively clear-felled around 1995 and to this day remains thick, hazardous scrub. 2 A nearby coupe of old-growth forest on the Wapengo creek flats was also targeted, but evidence of koalas fortunately led to the termination of logging after a day or two. This incident was a shock introduction to the idea of koalas in my backyard. The idea quickly lapsed into myth—a possibility always—until a reported public sighting triggered action by DECCW. 3 The Mumbulla koalas are recognised as one of the few remaining pockets of original, endemic koala life in the southeast of Australia. They are distant family to another original population still hanging on in the Strzelecki Ranges Bioregion. Both populations are of significance for their robust genetic diversity. They inhabit comparable country and face similar threats of logging and fire. Since the days of fur trading and shooting for dog meat came to an end, our koala population continue to signal their world is declining.
1 Koala populations elsewhere in south-eastern Australia are known to have limited genetic diversity (Houlden, 1999; Seymour et al., 2001). The majority of koalas in Victoria originate from four Strzelecki animals 'saved' over a century ago to islands, and since translocated back to the mainland.
3 In 2007, a systematic survey began by using the regularised Grid-based Spot Assessment Technique (RGBSAT). The survey became probably one of the largest undertakings of its kind, involving FNSW, indigenous organizations, educational institutions, community groups and individuals.
2 Clear-felling of moist, wet sclerophyl forests in southern Australia led to the development of dense stands of regrowth saplings that provided more fuel than if the forest was not clearfelled (Whelan1995; Lindemayer et al. 2009)
* Within this fifteen-year time frame, some previously known locations of koala activity in the Bega district have apparently become extinct. I wish to now briefly and simply suggest how perhaps the Mumbulla koalas have hung on.
Anecdotally, some of the last koalas in the Bega Valley decades ago are said to have hung on at Angledale, on the edge. An adjacent escarpment leads up to Biamanga Aboriginal Place to the north of here, and to the east two kilometres away, are today's remnant Mumbulla koalas. The steep and relatively undisturbed escarpment could well have historically provided an important refuge from logging. Looking at a 1967 Adastra aerial photo in my possession, there are clearly three distinct zones of logging intensity across the coastal forests. Minimal to no significant logging impacts can be seen on the escarpment, with similar light disturbance over the area where the Mumbulla koalas exist today. A zone of medium intensity disturbance extends down to power-lines running east-west, and from here further south to the Bega river, it is obvious the forests had been severely devastated by wholesale logging. Furthermore, a 1999 aerial photo (Brogo Map, Land Information Centre) shows that the darkest, most undisturbed vegetative cover across the landscape happens to coincide with the area of current koala activity. It is not unreasonable to conclude that our remnant koala population was but one or two logging operations away from termination. 4 It is a furphy to suggest logging is good for koalas, as has been claimed.
It is believed the rich alluvial and agricultural lands—settled areas—were the prime habitat of koala, natural parklands and lowlands. Yesterday's perhaps secondary, less preferable habitat has by force of necessity become today's prime habitat—the rangelands. Places like the Strzelecki Ranges and Mumbulla Mountain foothills, where wet-sclerophyll forests have until relatively recent times remained fairly undisturbed. Tall, wet and intact, these forests will naturally moderate fire frequency and intensity. Rainforest repels and resists fire intrusion. But fragmentation, acts of repeatedly stripping back forest cover to bare soil and incorporating promiscuous fire use, now represents the final straw for the koala. The situation is altogether more precarious for koala on ranges and foothills, where a culture of modern industrial logging practice tends to operate with impunity, despite controls. 5 Unfortunately, the system of oversight and enforcement of proscriptions is lax.
* The story now compartmentalises. Various elements and pairings have been isolated in an attempt at a logical succession of ideas. I now try to tell my story of the koala in simple, sometimes poetic terms. This way, I hope to render a more accessible picture of koala threats.
4 Forests NSW staff acknowledged that logging entire compartments between 1968 and 1976 in the region has undoubtedly reduced koala numbers. (Jurskis and Shields 1996)
5 Press Release 11/2/11; South East Forest Rescue: "Recent audits have exposed illegal logging of rainforest, habitat of threatened and endangered native animals, old growth, endangered ecological communities, rocky outcrops,'' said spokesperson Lisa Stone. "We have proven systemic, recurring breaches on the South Coast that show a pattern of non-compliance." See also SMH: 14/4/10.
Fire—Through A Landscape of Koala—Talk
5 The art of wood fire
Weathered from rock long ago, clay is a living, natural material. A furnace fire of white heat will re-mineralise clay back to stone. Repeatedly exposing a jumble of clay surfaces to a week or more of wood-fuelled fire will exercise the imagination—fertile ground in supposing processes of fire in landscapes. The richness or poverty of clay and earth materials treated with fire is a result of complex, cyclical interactions over time.
6 Landscape fire
Fire thought of in terms of an equilateral triangle—with fire at the top, fuel and air at the bottom—is too simplistic. To think of fire in the landscape—our theatre and laboratory—a star symbol is more appropriate. The points of the star must represent other input factors such as topography, human action, weather systems, Chance and Time. Fire's behaviour is chaotic, displaying individual characteristics from moment to moment. In the landscape, fire is not a singularly knowable, stable entity. Feeding on fear, it can never be grasped. Fire is released energy from sunshine.
7 Sunshine
Penetrating the landscape, the sun's energy conducts itself into bare earth, or strikes forests that mostly absorb and degrade it. Forests dissipate the sun's heat to coolness, while a tiny fraction converts to biomass and some is reflected. A tree is best understood as a giant degrader of energy, a humidifier. Trees are like big water fountains, spewing out water in the form of latent heat. The sun's radiation is mostly swallowed. But simply soaked into soil, sand and rocks, heat will radiate quickly back to air mass, and from deserts can deliver heatwave conditions across distance. Grasslands can also annually threaten a release of energy; swiftly moving fires. The wholesale destruction of forest cover through logging must have a heating and parching effect—globally. Sand and rocks—the bones of the earth—the natural end.
8 Forest fire
Across the landscape, topography broadly determines surface impacts and response to events. If one takes a Google Earth trip across the Strzelecki Ranges or Mumbulla Mountain, one sees a network of green arteries. Each healthy artery carries the potential to snuff creeping fires, and as a living system, has proved resilient to extreme events. These rainforests have historically survived all fires, safe in contoured shelters. Since the natural lifespan of tall eucalypts is measured in centuries—height and diameter reaching such proportions as to filter sun and wind—these noble structures also promise a shield. The wet-sclerophyll rainforests are a hand in glove arrangement of fire protection, of inter-dependence among species of diversity. The koala is at home here in an inter-tidal zone of passive fire.
Rainforest species rot down well, logs like water-sodden sponges strewn about in ferny irrigation channels—the earth bare. Exposed dry-sclerophyll is subject to occasional fires, perhaps skipping across ridge-tops, while other fire eases gently down through wet-sclerophyll, toward pure rainforest, cleansing.
Extreme events are the greatest shapers. Catastrophic fire had visited itself upon the Strzelecki Ranges infrequently, measured at intervals approaching many hundreds of years. Once officially crowned the tallest flowering plant in the world, 6 Mountain Ash (E. Regnans) rise up from ash beds into even-aged stands after extreme events. Old stands are archives of triumph against fire. As a prime agent of change across the whole topography under discussion, fire has historically impacted heavily only at intervals of many centuries. 7 At all other times its character and affects have been relatively benign. Deep, tall rainforests and water bring and sustain life. Fire is misunderstood if only considered a rejuvenator of landscapes. Fire stimulates and destroys. Water stimulates and brings life.
9 Logging fire
Arriving on the back of drought-breaking floods, water bodies expand over landscapes—short-term features—like the compartments of rising and falling forests. The drought-breaking rains re-charge ground-waters and promote extraordinary grassland growth, while the falling and razing of forest brings tinder-dry slash, promotes dense sapling regrowth and a charging, penetrating fire. It's often claimed that logging episodes simply mimic a fire event. The notion may well come from observations of Ash-type forests returning phoenix-like after complete stands are burned out—but time-scales at work here could not be more different. Stand knockout fires are infrequent in natural, mature forest. A regenerating stand of Ash if left in place thins itself and matures into centuries. Industrially kick-starting the regeneration process continuously across logged landscapes is reckless and fraught with danger. Density must again reside safely in girth and height in moist forests, not standing sticks. Logging mimics more closely the effect of fuel-loaded grasslands after phenomenal rain events, by promoting an equally extraordinary growth of thick, fine standing fuel—a hazardous 'super-grass'.
Industrial logging practice incorporates fire into a system of management. But brought together, these twin agents of change represent an altogether new mechanism, an unprecedented kind of power with a devastating effect on habitat. Fire and logging share in common the ability to convert biosystems— quickly—in tandem, they desiccate and impoverish with triple the power and double the certainty. The cumulative impact of industrial logging and fire on landscapes is most extreme. 8 The fragmentation of what were once very fireshy landscapes allows now a more certain penetration.
6 The world's largest tree was the Ferguson Tree—Mountain Ash (E. Regnans)— at over 500 feet (154m) near Healesville, Victoria, as measured by Surveyor Ferguson in 1872.
8 Logging in the moist eucalypt forests of southeastern Australia has shifted the vegetation composition toward one more characteristic of dryer forests that tend to be more fire prone (Mueck & Peacock 1992).
7 Fire was previously extremely rare in moist forests where natural fire regimes tend toward low frequency, stand replacing events (Whelan 1995; Odion et al. 2004; Bradshaw et al. 2009)
10 Promiscuous fire
Stags—hollow long-dead remnant giants, ancient standing skeletons of the forest and full of life, are lost to promiscuous fire. The idea sometimes heard, that as soon as the bush is dry enough to burn, it should be made to burn, is an argument driven by fear and misunderstanding. Fire dispersed annually across a landscape forces conversion to simple grasslands—at best with eucalypts. Under certain conditions, the release of a measured quantity of fire is expected to behave in a particular fashion—hazard reduction prescriptions. Offering little stimulation, repeated cool burns are destructive of ecosystems. When fuel reduction and fire prevention fails, we plan our attack against fire with more fire. We draw the line and recruit a brand of fire to operate for us in our theatre of war. In the campaign for control, our enemy is understood to be lurking out there—potentially everywhere. Our ally can switch sides any time.
Like a long, drawn out explosion, fire in the landscape is a fierce, malleable phenomenon of nature. Bombs wrought with certainty are sparingly employed, limited weight given to water. Our arsenal means to cast friendly fire, 9 we fall back to new lines, new strategies and incendiary bombing. Fire and fear is magnified. 10 Just as warm waters feed cyclonic energy, energy and water released in the heat of combustion develops a phenomenon of pyrocumulonimbus thunderstorm. Nature so stimulated and having had her fill, throws spears and quenches the fire. Heads roll, and we continue to sustain our assault on the landscape—before, during and after fire.
11 Wild fire meets anthropomorphic fire
Ancient wild fire had long laid down discernable patterning—pristine caresses over millennia. In the Dreamtime, anthropomorphic fire was aware, listening to the land. The story was there, written in sodden land; contrast in wild fire. 11
Native fire was intelligent fire, informed by long, unbroken lore. Seasoned and barefoot, this cool fire followed a living, human pattern inside the landscape. This fire had bounds, keeping to traditionally frequented and cleansed sites. It was a fire of coastal headlands, river plains and harbour, a fire of pathways and ridge-tops. It sang the song-lines. Tall, moist forests escaped treatment; unvisited places left. Rainforest was not burned. While landscape features of significance and culture informed and shaped native fire use, climate and topography continued to shape the more powerful wild fire. Extended periods
9 The Age 12/2/2009: Sam the Koala was rescued after preventative CFA back-burning operations, conducted during the week leading up to Australia's deadliest bushfires. D. Tree was reunited with Sam after she'd been taken to the Mountain Ash Wildlife Shelter for bandaging. "We got off scot-free in our home town," said Tree.
11 Geology (2011) T. J. Cohen: Continental aridification and the vanishing of Australia's mega-lakes. "Certainly this suggests that Australia had quite a lot of moisture on it after humans arrived, but much less than it had many thousands of years beforehand," says co-author Professor Gerald Nanson.
10 The "Black Saturday" fires that occurred in Victoria (February, 2009) significantly reduced the available Koala habitat in the Strzelecki Ranges; together, the Boolarra and Churchill fires affected approximately 7500 ha of forest in the area. The frequency and intensity of such fire events is predicted to increase under the influence of climate change (Hennessey et al. 2006) says Lindenmayer.
of high precipitation led to mega-lakes, vast inland waters, all joined-up. Natural, patterned scapes continued to evolve as water reigned, and then fire.
12 Mega-lakes to mega-fires
The most recent appearance of lakes Mega-Frome and Mega-Eyre occurred around 800 to 1000 years ago. Significant flooding rains filled and held these mega-lakes to levels many, many times higher than the waist-deep waters generated in early 1974. Come early spring, the cured grasslands burned for months across the whole country—a third of the top-end. While the country had burned fiercely after a piddle, the mega-lakes had tanked for decades.
With the arrival of Europeans, fire activity in the landscape was substantially increased. 12 For the early settlers, a baptism of water was followed by a judgement of fire. Author Patrick White, in The Tree of Man, inflicts on his settlement flood and then fire. "Fact was—the fighters had become not only exhausted but fascinated by the fire. There were very few who did not succumb to the spell of the fire. They were swayed by it, instead of it by them… Because they had looked into the fire, and seen what you do see,"
The failed wood chip industry—still flogging quality native forest—is already disastrous on a grand scale, on borrowed time. 13 But Australian wildfire in an already changed climate—heat records tumbling all over the globe—ups the ante. The Mega-fire is undoubtedly here. A 'big wet' won't save us quickly. We're in more trouble, more regularly already. Intense dry-land growth, plus existing 'super-grass' stands across a logged and altered, dryer more fireprone landscape, is bad news. 14 But wet periods will assist, and may indeed provide the panacea for a task of amelioration.
13 Consuming fire
The plant and animal kingdoms of our terrestrial ecosystems are represented conventionally as a pyramid, with the weight of biomass production at the bottom—the forests. At the top sits the consumer of biomass, the lion. But the ultimate consumer of terrestrial biomass is fire—fire rules. Fire stalks both
12 University of NSW (website news) 6/12/10; First Australians did not boost fire activity: A new study indicates that Australia's earliest settlers arriving around 50,000 years ago did not significantly increase the fire activity on the continent, although the arrival of Europeans after 1788 resulted in a substantial increase in fire activity, according to palaeoecologist Dr Scott Mooney.
13 There may be a strong case to exclude logging from those areas where past human disturbances (like timber harvesting) have been limited (Cochrane & Barber 2009). This is because logging induced alterations in landscape cover patterns can take prolonged periods to reverse and hence associated changes in fire susceptibility also may be long lived (Perry 1998; Lindemayer et al. 2009)
14 It has been argued by some, "industrial logging was a source of almost unprecedented holocausts…" (Pyne 1992, p.182) in the past. (Contrary to the beliefs of industrial lobby groups) logging is likely to make some kinds of forests (moist & rainforest) more, not less prone to an increased probability of ignition (Krawchuk & Cumming 2009) and increased fire severity and/or fire frequency (Uhl & Kaufman 1990; Thompson et al. 2007; Bradshaw et al. 2009; Mahli et al. 2009; Lindemayer et al. 2009)
kingdoms with a potency of supreme power. Biomass contracts simply, mineral products and water vapour.
14 Remedial fire
Restoring the healthy green arteries of forests—our lungs, the carbon sinks, reticulation plants and fire moderators of habitat—is priority. Remedial fire means holding fire, actively allowing the regeneration of moist forests across the greater landscape. The wet gullies and creeks must be given over to generations of regeneration to form natural mitigators once more—soakhoses snaking throughout the land. Existing plant communities must dictate the use of fire or not at a micro-scale, and they must be recognised. Burns must always occur only on dry-sclerophyll, never wet-sclerophyll and never in tree-fern gullies. Wild fire comes soon enough. Pioneer rainforest plants over decades without disturbance will re-emerge from retreats and re-modify a proneness to burn. 15 Cast widely the seeds of Brush kurrajong (Commersonia Fraseri) and Pittosporum Undulatum, the sweet pioneers of moist, wetsclerophyll forests, long misunderstood. Blackfellows hemp, synonymous with the Brush kurrajong is most valuable. As for the towering, long-lived wattles of rainforests, let them age with grace. Tall Maiden's wattle (Acacia Maidenii), and Blackwood (Acacia Melanoxylon)—still taller—are important under-story of twenty metres plus. A dry burning reign of wood chip logging in wetsclerophyll forest must cede to a rain of transpiration.
15 End of story
I have endeavoured to explain the impact of elemental fire as it had previously occurred—rather benignly, mostly—and as it manifests itself in habitat today. Serious investigation of industrial logging practice and its dire effects are long overdue. 16 Through an unbiased and clear lens, forensic evidence of the true situation can simply be seen, written all over and through the forests—the whole of landscape.
Fire cannot really be taught through textbooks—words simply symbolic. There is no true 'rule book' on fighting fire—not possible to master campaigns. If there was ever a fire discipline understood, it was that understood by the indigenous people and the land itself. Fire can be read—can speak from land in warm voice—but two feet must always remain planted firmly in the ground. Fire can be grasped—in degrees. And like a tree—the total war on landscape must be dropped. 17 A moral imperative insists that a new Eden be restored.
15 Forests and their susceptibility to fire are characterised by a continuum of precipitation and humidity ranging from relatively moist to relatively dry (Lindenmayer et al. 2009).
16 To the best of our collective knowledge, there has been to date no detailed published review of how industrial logging policies and practices can alter fire regimes (Lindenmayer et al. 2009).
17 Encounter, ABC Radio National (30/1/11): Something Happened To Darwin, (theologian Paul Collins in conversation with Tim Flannery). 'Be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth and subdue it and have dominion over every living thing that moves upon the earth.' Yes, I've in fact heard executives of Australian mining companies quote that very text to justify a kind of bulldozer—it's a kind of a bulldozer theology…
16 References
O.S. Rye, The Art of Woodfire (2011), Mansfield Press, Gulgong NSW 2852
Eric D. Schneider and Dorion Sagan, Into The Cool: energy flow, thermodynamics, and life. University of Chicago Press 2005
David B. Lindenmayer, Malcolm L. Hunter, Philip J. Burton & Philip Gibbons 'Effects of logging on fire regimes in moist forests' (2009), available at, http://soln.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/effects-of-logging-on-fire-regimes-in-moist-forests.pdf
DECCW (2010) Koala surveys in the coastal forests of the BermaguiMumbulla area: 2007-2009—an interim report, available at, http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/threatenedspecies/10116koalabermmum.pdf
Biolink Ecological Consultants, report to NSW Dept. Environment & Climate Change, Jan. 2008; P.O. Box 196 Uki NSW 2484 http://www.biolink.com.au
E. Stalenberg, Nutritional ecology of the Mumbulla koala (Honours Thesis Summary 2010) Supervised by W. Foley and I. Wallis, Statistical advisor: R. Cunningham, ANU (unpublished)
Stephen J. Pyne © 1991, Burning Bush: a fire history of Australia, Allen & Unwin (1992)
Leon Fuller, Wollongong's Native Trees, Kingsclear Books, Alexandria, NSW 2015
http://www.gippsland.monash.edu.au/science/aboutus/people/academics/strzeleckikoala.pdf http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2010/02/11/2816526.htm?topic =
http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/first-australians-did-not-boost-fire-activity/
http://www.realdirt.com.au/2008/11/10/a-better-way-of-burning-climate-change-bushfires-indigenousknowledge http://www.southcoastskat.com/
http://www.abc.net.au/rn/encounter/stories/2011/3120525.htm#transcript http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2011/02/01/3127020.htm?site=science&topic=latest
http://www.theage.com.au/national/koala-man-footage-not-what-it-seems-20090212-85rr.html http://www.naroomanewsonline.com.au/news/local/news/general/mass-gathering-and-chainedprotestors-halt-mumbulla-logging/1834343.aspx?storypage=0
http://www.hancock.forests.org.au/docs/rainforest.htm http://www.flickr.com/photos/southeastforestrescue
http://home.vicnet.net.au/~frstfire/docs/Jurskis.pdf
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ODE EMIS MANUAL
Section 2.13: Student Special Education Record (GE)
Version 3.1
November 26, 2013
REVISION HISTORY
The revision history provides a means for the readers to easily navigate to the places in the manual where updates have occurred. Where there has been a significant change or update it will be highlighted. Minor changes, such as typos, formatting, and grammar are not highlighted.
| Version | Date | Effective Date | Change # | Description |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| | | (FY & Reporting | | |
| | | Period) | | |
| 2.0 | 3/7/13 | Student Record Exchange (X) | 921 | |
| 2.0 | 3/7/13 | Student Record Exchange (X) | 921 | |
| 3.0 | 6/7/13 | FY13K | 938 | |
| 3.0 | 6/7/13 | FY13K | 920 | |
| 3.1 | 11/16/13 | FY13N | 933 | |
2.13 STUDENT SPECIAL EDUCATION RECORD
Required Reporting Periods
The Student Special Education Record is to be reported for the October (K), Yearend (N) and Special Education Federal Follow-up (S) reporting periods, and the Student Record Exchange (X) collection request.
General Guidelines
A separate Special Education Record is to be reported for students with a disability and students suspected to have a disability.
For all students that are reported during the October reporting period, a Special Education Record is to be reported for all events that occur from June 1st of the prior school year through December 1st of the current school year. When reporting for the Student Record Exchange (X) special collection request, the district may report all available special education events that are valid for the current school year.
The record is only reported for students attending a public school and for students placed in a non-public school by a public school district., and for parentally placed non-public students receiving special education services from the public school district. Beginning in FY13, for parentally placed nonpublic students, report all events that occurred during the current reporting timeframe at the district resulting in an ISP, including non-ISP event types (CNST, RFRL, etc.)..
All EMIS reporting entities except JVSDs and ESC's, who either provide education or services to a student with a disability or are the resident district must report this record. There are two exceptions to this requirement:
- Student attends another district for Contract Career Technical education only – the district where the Contract Career Technical education is being provided does not submit this record; or
- Student is enrolled in Department of Youth Services (DYS) – the resident district does not submit this record for events which occur while the student is attending DYS.
This record is reported for an "event" that occurs on a "date" with an "outcome" that may or may not have happened within a "compliance" timeline. This section of the manual describes each of these four data elements.
The Outcome Beginning Date and Outcome End Date Elements for some events will be reported through EMIS. These dates are only collected for IIEP, IISP, RIEP, RISP, TIEP, and TETR event types.
Each year, every student with a disability should have at least one event to report. Some students, especially those in the process of determining the absence or presence of a disability for the first time, will have multiple events to report within a school year. The focus on an event date and the variable number of records for each student makes the structure of this record more like the structure of the Student Discipline Record than the structure of other student records.
The record reports all event dates related to determination of the student's disability and his/her planned services. Districts are expected to record each event as it occurs throughout the year. The Office for Exceptional Children has created an optional data collection form to assist with reporting this record. It can be found on their home page and linked to from the EMIS Other Resources web page.
When to report an event is determined by the reporting period From/To date range. The table below illustrates the From/To date ranges to be used for October (K) and Yearend (N) reporting periods.
Table 1. Date ranges are inclusive
| | Reporting Period | | From | | To |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| October (K) | | 6/1 of previous school year | | December 1st of the current school year | |
| Yearend (N) | | 6/1 of previous school year | | 5/31 of current school year | |
Dates are reported for the following events:
- Preschool Transition Conference
- Referral for Evaluation
- Parent / Guardian Consent for Evaluation
- Evaluation Team Report Completion (Initial, Reevaluation or Transfer)
- Individualized Education Program Completion (Initial and Periodic Review)
- Final IEP Team Meeting Prior to Graduation
- Transfer Student IEP Adoption Date
- IEP consent withdrawn by parent
- Amended IEP
- ISP
The reported dates for events are dates on which the event occurred, and not necessarily when the event(s) will be effective. A district may report an event date in the current reporting period but not report some consequences of that event until future reporting periods. For example, if an IEP is written this spring and will not be effective until next school year, only the event would be reported in the current year's Yearend data. Any related changes to the special education services are not reported until they are actually effective.
Federal and State laws mandate that certain special education events occur within specific timeframes. Whenever the dates of any of these events are known to be non-compliant according to the required timeframes, districts should report an out of compliance reason.
For information concerning Federal and State special education requirements, please consult with your local Special Education staff or contact the ODE Call Center at (877) 772-7771 and ask to be connected to the Office of Exceptional Children.
Report all events that are the district's responsibility. The event is to be reported in the reporting period that coincides with the period date range.
For students with a disability who are newly enrolled for the current school year in the district, report the dates and events for all events completed by the district, including any prior to the usual June 1 start date.
For school age students with a disability and who are newly enrolled in the district report a minimum of the student's current IEP and ETR dates (completion or adoption).
The IEP Test Type format on the Student Special Education Record is only reported for students with disabilities when a Date Type of IIEP, RIEP, or TIEP is reported. The IEP Test Type format reported is the required format for all assessments taken by a student with a disability. The IEP Test Type format must be reported for all students with an IEP.
Although every reported date will require a date type, only certain outcomes and non-compliance IDs can be reported with certain date types as shown in the table below.
Table 2. Date Type and Outcome Combinations
| | Date Type | | Outcome ID | | Non Compliance ID | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | | | | | * * | | 0 1 | | 0 2 | | 0 3 | | 0 4 | | 0 5 | | 0 6 | | 0 7 | | 0 8 | 0 9 |
| PSTC – Preschool Tran- sition Conference Date | | **** | | √ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| RFRL – Referral for Evaluation | | **** | | √ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| CNST Parent/Guardian Consent for Evaluation Date | | CNGI CNGO CNGR CNGT CNRF CNNR CNDP | | √ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| IETR – Evaluation Team Report Completion Date- Initial | | ETNE ETDP ET01-ET16 | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | |
| IIEP – IEP Completion Date-Initial | | IENS IEPR IEDP IE13-IE72 | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | |
| IISP – ISP completion Date – Initial | | IE39 | | √ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| RIEP – IEP Completion Date-Periodic Review | | IENS IEPR IEDP IE13-IE72 | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | |
| RISP – Evaluation Team Report Completion Date - Reevaluation | | IE39 | | √ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| FIEP – Final IEP Team Meeting Prior to Gradua- tion | | **** | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | |
| RETR – Evaluation Team Report Completion Date-Reevaluation | | ETEX ETDP ET01-ET16 | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | √ | | |
| | Date Type | | Outcome ID | | Non Compliance ID | | | | | | | | | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | | | | | * * | 0 1 | 0 2 | 0 3 | 0 4 | 0 5 | 0 6 | 0 7 | 0 8 | 0 9 |
| TETR – Evaluation Team Report Completion Date-Transfer | | ET01 – ET16 | | √ | | | | | | | | | | |
| TIEP – Transfer Student IEP Adoption Date | | IE13-IE72 | | √ | | | | | | | | | | |
| CIEP – IEP consent withdrawn by parent | | IEPR | | √ | | | | | | | | | | |
| AIEP – IEP Amended Completion Date | | IE13-IE72 | | √ | | | | | | | | | | |
Student Special Education Record Data Elements
The following portion of this section discusses each of the data elements within the Special Education Record. The elements are organized alphabetically.
☼ Date Element
Record Field Number GE110
Definition
Date an event occurred.
Valid Options
YYYYMMDD Year, Month, Day.
Reporting Instructions. Report the date when the event reflected by the GE100 Date Type Element occurred.
☼ Date Type Element
Valid Options
PSTC Preschool Transition Conference Date
This is the date of the preschool transition conference arranged by the Early Intervention Service Coordinator (Department of Health) with the school district. The conference is for a student who is suspected of having a disability and may be transitioning from Part C (Early Intervention/Help Me Grow) to Part B preschool special education services. It is federally mandated that the district attend this conference. The conference generally occurs between 90 and 120 days before the child's 3rd birthday.
This option can be only used for preschool students that are suspected of having a disability and may be transitioning from Part C (Early Intervention /Help Me Grow) to Part B preschool special education, NOT to be used for school-age children.
RFRL Referral for Evaluation Date
The date the PR04-Referral for Evaluation form is received by the District. This date should be reported for all students referred for evaluation since the last reporting cycle.
CNST Parent/Guardian Consent for Evaluation Date
The date the parent/guardian grants/refuses consent for evaluation, from PR05Parent Consent for Evaluation Part 1 (Grant Consent) or Part 2 (Refuse Consent). This element should be reported with an Outcome ID to indicate status (e.g., Consent Granted, Consent Refused, etc.).
IETR Evaluation Team Report Completion Date-Initial
The date the PR06-Evaluation Team Report is completed (from Part B, PR06). This element should be reported with an Outcome ID to indicate status (e.g., Student was determined to be eligible for services; Student was determined to NOT be eligible for services, etc.). If the Evaluation Team Report initial completion date does not meet mandated federal time lines then a Non-compliance ID is required.
RETR Evaluation Team Report Completion Date-Reevaluation
The date the PR06-Evaluation Team Report is completed (from Part B, PR06). This element should be reported with an Outcome ID to indicate status (e.g., Student was determined to NOT be eligible for services, student was determined to have Autism, etc.). If the Evaluation Team Report reevaluation completion date does not meet mandated federal time lines then a Non-compliance ID is required.
TETR Transfer Evaluation Team Report Completion Date
Date the district adopted an ETR developed by another public educational entity WITHOUT modification. This element should be reported with an Outcome ID to indicate status.
IIEP IEP Completion Date-Initial
The meeting date when the Individualized Education Program was completed. From page 1, PR07-Individualized Education Program meeting date. If the Individualized Education Program initial completion date does not meet mandated federal time lines, then a Non-compliance ID is required.
RIEP IEP Completion Date-Periodic Review
The meeting date when the Individualized Education Program was completed. From page 1, PR07-Individualized Education Program meeting date. If the Individualized Education Program reevaluation completion date does not meet mandated federal time lines, then a Non-compliance ID is required.
TIEP Transfer Student IEP Adoption Date
Date the district adopted an IEP developed by another public educational entity WITHOUT modification. IF district chose to modify the IEP for a transfer student they should report the date the IEP was modified as an "IEP Completion Date-Periodic Review" (RIEP).
FIEP Final IEP Team Meeting Prior to Graduation
A meeting of the IEP team where no changes in services are made to the existing IEP since the student has met graduation requirements, will graduate, and the content in the existing IEP is appropriate for the days remaining until graduation.
CIEP IEP consent withdrawn by parent
The date the parent/guardian withdraws consent for a previously written IEP that is still in effect.
AIEP Amended IEP
The meeting date when an existing IEP was amended that resulted in changes to data that must be reported to EMIS. From page 1, PR07-Individualized Education Program meeting date. No Non-compliance ID is required. The "begin date" reported must be on or after the date of the amendment; the end date must be the same as or earlier than the most recent previous IEP.
IISP ISP Completion Date-Initial
The meeting date when the Individual Service Plan was completed. This element should be reported with an Outcome ID Element value of "IE39".
RISP ISP Completion Date-Periodic Review
The meeting date when the Individual Service Plan was completed. This element should be reported with an Outcome ID Element value of "IE39".
Reporting Instructions. Report the date type that correctly identifies the event corresponding to the date being reported. For example, if reporting a Parental/Guardian Consent for evaluation event, this element would contain CNST.
Date type PSTC is to be reported only for first time enrolling preschool students transitioning from Part C to Part B services. Preschoolers NOT transitioning from Part C to B service will not have a preschool transition conference date; therefore districts will not have to report this event for these students.
Final IEP Team Meeting. Beginning in FY10, an FIEP is reported when an IEP team meeting is held for a special education student with an IEP who will be graduating shortly after the anniversary date of the previous IEP. The use of this Date Type indicates that there will be no change of service(s) between the date of the last IEP and graduation; therefore, the IEP document completed at the IEP team meeting contains no new goals, objectives, or services. If the IEP team decides that there will be a change in services prior to graduation then a new IEP must be written and a different Date Type must be reported. Many graduates will not have an FIEP event reported before graduation.
When a FIEP Date Type is reported, the only other Student Special Education Record data elements reported with a value other than "Not Applicable" are the Date Element and Non-Compliance ID Element, if applicable.
Transfer IEP/ETR. For students that transfer from another public district (Ohio or out of state) districts may accept the ETR and/or IEP from the other district and serve the child accordingly. Adoption of a previous ETR and/or IEP is independent of one and another. When accepting an IEP/ETR the receiving district is also accepting the timelines in effect on the IEP/ETR. The Outcome Beginning Date (GE140) would be the date the IEP/ETR was adopted by the district. The Outcome End Date would be
the date shown on the adopted IEP. For the ETR, the Outcome End Date would be the date the original ETR will expire (e.g., three years minus one day after the ETR was originally completed).
If the district does accept the ETR, the next ETR done by the district must be an RETR. If you do not accept the ETR from out of state, the district must begin the eligibility process from the start resulting in an IETR.
If a student is placed at DYS, then DYS assumes all special education reporting requirements. If the student leaves DYS and enters an Ohio district, the district may adopt the ETR and/or IEP as if the student is transferring from another district.
IEP Consent Withdrawn by Parent. Beginning in FY10, a CIEP is reported when a parent/guardian of a special education student with an IEP withdraws consent to the current IEP. CIEP cannot be reported unless a TIEP, RIEP, or IIEP is already in effect.
Once a CIEP Date Type is reported, the student immediately becomes a non-special education student. Accordingly, if a parent changes their mind after withdrawing IEP consent, the student will go through the same process as a student entering special education for the first time.
Once a CIEP Date Type is reported, modifications to the FD record and/or the Accommodations Elements on all applicable tests may be needed.
When a CIEP Date Type is reported, the only other Student Special Education Record data element reported with a value other than "Not Applicable" is the Outcome ID and Date Elements.
Amended IEP. AIEPs may be reported when there is a change to an existing Outcome ID Element (GE120), a change in IEP Test Type Element (GE160), a change to the Secondary Planning Element (GE170), or for a change in the exemption from consequences of OGT (Exemption Flag Element (FE100)).
☼ IEP Test Type Element
Reporting Instructions. This is only reported on IEP events (with the exception of a FIEP or CIEP), and is reported regardless of the grade level of the student. IEP Test Type Element applies to testing in general, including but not limited to the state tests.
"***" is used when an event that is reported is not an IEP event, when an FIEP or CIEP event is reported, or when an IIEP or RIEP event is reported with an outcome of IEDP, IENS, or IEPR. If an IEP with an outcome that requires reporting does not specifically mention test type and/or accommodations, "STR" should be reported as a default.
☼ Non-Compliance ID Element
Reporting Instructions. This element is used to report non-compliance with federal time lines, and should always be reported when a required timeline for an event has not been met. Non compliance determination is made by Special Ed staff, who will supply this value whenever appropriate.
The element must be reported with the appropriate value for the outcome ID and date type. See table above for valid combinations.
For events that do not require a non-compliance ID, report "**". Example, Preschool Transition Conference, Parent/Guardian Consent for Evaluation, Referral for Evaluation, and Transfer Student IEP Adoption Date do not require an outcome ID. Report "**" for non-public students reported with Date Type Element (GE100) of IISP or RISP.
The "09" option allows the district to indicate that the preceding event was either reported incorrectly or not reported via EMIS at all. In order to check for event compliance, ODE looks at the current record being reported AND the prior event reported to determine if the required federal timelines were met.
For example, an IEP evaluation was completed in April, 2007 and the event was not reported in FY07 Yearend (N) EMIS. In April 08, a new evaluation is completed. Since the previous IEP (07 IEP) would not have come into ODE, the IEP record for 08 will appear out of compliance as far as ODE is concerned (because there is no prior record).
Therefore, the district would need to use the '09' code when reporting the 08 event record to let ODE know that the 08 event record was actually done on time even though ODE does not have the prior event.
☼ Outcome Beginning Date Element
Valid Options
00000000 Not Applicable
CCYYMMDD Year, Month, Day
Reporting Instructions. The Outcome Beginning Date Element is only reported when a student's IEP is completed or when reporting a Date Type of TETR. The IEP team determines the Outcome Beginning Date. When the outcome of the IEP is IEDP, IENS, or IEPR report the EVENT DATE in this element. An Outcome Beginning Date of May 2, 2007 is to be reported as 20070502.
☼ Outcome End Date Element
Valid Options
00000000 Not Applicable
CCYYMMDD Year, Month, Day
Reporting Instructions. This date is recorded on the IEP. The IEP team determines the Outcome End Date. An End Date of May 2, 2007, is to be reported as 20070502.
The Outcome End Date is reported at the same time an event is reported, even if it is a date in the future. There cannot be more than a one-year time span between the Outcome End Date and the Outcome Beginning Date of the IEP. When the outcome of the IEP is IEDP, IENS, or IEPR report the EVENT DATE in this element. The Outcome End Date is also reported when a Date Type of TETR is reported. For the ETR, the Outcome End Date would be the date the original ETR will expire (e.g., three years minus one day after the ETR was originally completed).
When reporting a TIEP event, the adopted IEP has an End Date, and that End Date is the date that has been accepted and the date that should be reported.
☼ Outcome ID Element
Valid Options
**** Not Applicable
CNDP Consent Moved to Due Process
CNGI Consent Granted for Initial Evaluation (IETR)
CNGO Consent Granted for Other Special Education Activity (Neither IETR nor RETR)
CNGR Consent Granted for a Reviewed Evaluation (RETR)
CNNR Consent Not Returned
CNRF Consent Refused
ETDP ETR Resulted in Due Process
ETEX Exiting Special Education
ETNE Not Eligible for Services
ET01 Multiple Disabilities (other than Deaf-Blind)
ET02 Deaf-Blindness
ET03 Deafness (Hearing Impairment)
ET04 Visual Impairments
ET05 Speech and Language Impairments
ET06 Orthopedic Impairments
ET08 Emotional Disturbance (SBH)
ET09 Cognitive Disabilities (Formerly Mental Retardation or Developmentally Handicapped)
ET10 Specific Learning Disabilities
ET12 Autism
ET13 Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
ET14 Other Health Impaired (Major)
ET15 Other Health Impaired (Minor)
ET16 Developmental Delay
IEDP IEP Resulted in Due Process
IENS IEP Complete – Not Served
IEPR IEP Complete – Parental Refusal
IE13 Special Education outside the regular class less than 21% of the day.
Student with a disability receiving special education and special education services outside the regular classroom for less than 21% of the school day. This may include placement in:
- Regular classes with special education/special education services provided within the regular classes;
- Regular classes with special education/special education services provided outside regular classes;
- Regular classes with special education services provided in resource rooms.
IE14 Special education outside the regular class at least 21% of the day and no more than 60% of the day.
This may include placement in:
- Resource rooms with special education/special education services provided within the resource room;
- Resource rooms with part-time instruction in a regular class.
IE15 Special education outside the regular class more than 60% of the day.
Student with a disability receiving special education and special education services outside the regular classroom for more than 60% of the school day. Students who receive education programs in public or private separate day or residential facilities should NOT be reported with this code. This category may include:
- Self-contained special classrooms with part-time instruction in a regular class;
- Self-contained special classrooms with full-time special education instruction on a regular school campus;
- Students with disabilities whose parent(s) have opted to home-school them and who receive special education at public expense.
IE16 Public Separate School
Student with a disability receiving special education and special education services, at public expense, for greater than 50% of the school day in public separate schools. This may include:
- Students with disabilities attending County Boards of MR/DD;
- Ohio School for the Deaf, Ohio State School for the Blind (if the student does not reside there during the week);
- Public day schools for students with disabilities;
- Public day schools for students with disabilities for a portion of the school day (greater than 50%) and in regular school buildings for the remainder of the school day.
This does not include:
- Students being educated at a Community School.
IE17 Private Separate School
A student with a disability receiving education programs in private separate day school facilitates. This includes children with disabilities receiving special education and special education services, at public expense, for greater than 50% of the school day in private separate schools. This may include:
- Private day schools for students with disabilities;
- Private day schools for students with disabilities for a portion of the school day (greater than 50%) and in regular school buildings for the remainder of the school day;
- Private residential facilities, if the student does not live at the facility.
IE18 Public Residential Facility
A student with a disability receiving education programs and living in a public residential facility during the school week. This includes children with disabilities receiving special education and special education services for greater than 50% of the school day in public residential facilities. This may include children placed in:
- Ohio School for the Deaf, Ohio State School for the Blind (if the student resides there during the week);
- Public residential schools for students with disabilities;
- Public residential schools for students with disabilities for a portion of the school day (greater than 50%) and in separate day schools in regular school buildings for the remainder of the school day;
- Correctional facilities such as Department of Youth Services (DYS) or Ohio Central School;
IE19
Do not include students who received education programs at the facility, but do not live there during the week (see public separate facility).
Private Residential Facility
A student with a disability receiving education programs and living in a private residential facility during the school week. This includes children with disabilities receiving special education and special education services, at public expense, for greater than 50% of the school day in public residential facilities. This may include children placed in:
- Private residential schools for students with disabilities;
- Private residential schools for students with disabilities for a portion of the school day (greater than 50%) and in separate day schools or regular school buildings for the remainder of the school day.
Do not include students who received education programs at the facility and not living there.
IE20 Homebound/Hospital
A student with a disability receiving education programs in a homebound/hospital environment includes children with disabilities placed in and receiving special education and special education services in:
- Hospital programs;
- Homebound programs.
Do not include children with disabilities whose parents have opted to homeschool them and who receive special education at public expense.
IE21 Correctional Facility
A student with a disability receiving education programs who are incarcerated at a correctional facility other than Department of Youth Services (DYS) or Ohio Central School during the school week. This may include but is not limited to children with disabilities placed in:
- County jails;
- County detention centers; and
- Community-based correctional facilities.
IE38 A student with a disability placed in a state-approved nonpublic school by a public school district and receives services through an IEP.
IE39 A student with a disability who was enrolled by his/her parent(s) or guardian(s) in a regular parochial or other state-approved nonpublic or private school and whose basic education is paid for through private resources and who receives special education and special education services at public expense from an LEA under a Services Plan.
Include children whose parents chose to home school them but who receive special education and special education services at the nonpublic school at public expense. Do not include children who are placed in private schools by the LEA.
IE51 Regular Early Childhood Program 10 or More Hours per week and most services in EC program
Children attending a regular early childhood program at least 10 hrs per week and receiving the majority of special education and special education services in the regular early childhood program.
IE53 Regular Early Childhood Program Less Than 10 Hours per week and most services in EC program
Children attending a regular early childhood program less than 10 hrs per week and receiving the majority of special education and special education services in the regular early childhood program.
IE55 Regular Early Childhood Program 10 or More Hours per week and most services not in EC program
Children attending a regular early childhood program at least 10 hrs per week and receiving the majority of special education and special education services in some other location.
IE56 Regular Early Childhood Program Less Than 10 Hours per week and most services not in EC program
Children attending a regular early childhood program less than 10 hrs per week and receiving the majority of special education and special education services in some other location.
IE60 Pre-School – Special Education Program – Separate Class
A special education program where a special education student is in a class with 51% or more students with disabilities. Do not report if student is also enrolled in Regular Early Childhood Program.
IE62 Pre-School – Special Education Program – Separate School A special education program in which a student receives all of his/her special edservices in an educational program in public or private day schools designed specifically for children with disabilities. Do not re-
ucation and special education port if student is also enrolled in Regular Early Childhood Program.
IE64 Pre-School – Special Education Program – Residential Facility
A special education program in which a student receives all of his/her special education and special education services in a publicly or privately operated residential school or in a residential medical facility on an in-patient basis. Do not report if student is also enrolled in Regular Early Childhood Program.
IE70 Pre-School–Home
A program in which a child receives all of his/her special education and special education services in the principle residence of the child's family or caregivers and who did not attend an early childhood program or a special education program provided in a special class, separate school, or residential facility. Included are children who receive special education BOTH at home AND at a service provider location.
IE72 Pre-School – Service Provider Location
A program in which a student receives all of his/her special education and special education services from a service provider and did not attend an early childhood program or special education program provided in a separate class, separate school, or residential facility. For example, speech instruction is provided in private clinicians' offices, clinicians' offices located in school buildings, hospital facilities on an outpatient basis, libraries, and other public locations.
Reporting Instructions. Report a valid Outcome ID for the corresponding date type; see Date Type and Valid Combinations Table for valid combinations. For date types PSTC, FIEP and RFRL, report "****".
When reporting CIEP, the only valid Outcome ID Element (GE120) is IEPR.
When reporting a value of IEPR, the district should also end the disability category reported for the student in the Disability Condition Element (FD130) by reporting a value of "**".
When reporting IISP and RISP, the only valid option for the Outcome ID Element (GE120) is "IE39".
Note. The event date for Outcome ID Element ETEX is considered the date on which the student exited Special Education. Once a student has exited Special Education "**" is reported in the Disability Condition Element on the Student Attributes-Effective Date Record (FD).
☼ Secondary Planning Element
Valid Options
**** Not Applicable
TPNP Transition Plan Not in Place
TFYG (FYG-Four-Year Grad) Transition Plan in Place. Student plans to meet graduation requirements four years after entering ninth grade.
TMYG (MYG- Multi-Year-Grad) Transition Plan in Place. Student plans meet graduation requirements more than four years after entering ninth grade.
TPCE (PCE – Planned Continuation of Ed services) Transition Plan in Place, student has met graduation requirements but needs additional education services prior to enrollment in college or employment and will continue to be enrolled and receive service as a Grade 23 student.
Reporting Instructions. Determining when a student will have completed coursework and will graduate, or will have completed coursework but needs additional education services in preparation for employment or enrollment in college, is a decision made by the IEP team and documented on the transition plan. The decision can be made any time PRIOR to the start of the student's last year.
This decision may include, but is not limited to, IEPs that specify the student will need more than one year to complete the requirements for a single grade level. For example, option TMYG would be used if a student's IEP specifies that the student needs two years to complete the coursework that is needed to move from ninth to tenth grade.
For a student to be reported with a grade level 23 in September, the IEP meeting date must precede the graduation date of the district, or for practical purposes, prior to Yearend (N) reporting. The IEP must include special education services. For example, a student with OHI disability can't simply be code 23, and take all courses via PSEO.
Report "****" for parentally placed non-public students receiving special education services from the public school district.
Defining a Unique Record
Each EMIS record has specific fields that must be unique on each row of data reported to ODE. For the Student Special Education Record, each combination of values in the following fields must be unique.
2.13 STUDENT SPECIAL EDUCATION RECORD (GE) FILE LAYOUT
| Number | Position | Name | PIC/Size |
|---|---|---|---|
| | 1-8 | Filler | PIC 9(8) |
| GE010 | 9-10 | Sort Type | PIC X(2) |
| | | Always “GE” | |
| | 11 | Filler | PIC X |
| GE020 | 12-15 | Fiscal Year, e.g., 2010 (CCYY) | PIC X(4) |
| GE030 | 16 | Reporting Period | PIC X |
| | | K – October N – Yearend S- Special Education Federal Follow-up X –Student Record Exchange | |
| GE040 | 17-22 | Building IRN | PIC X(6) |
| GE050 | 23-31 | EMIS Student ID | PIC X(9) |
| GE100 | 32-35 | Date Type | PIC X(4) |
| GE110 | 36-43 | Date (format CCYYMMDD) | PIC X(8) |
| GE120 | 44-47 | Outcome ID | PIC X(4) |
| GE130 | 48-49 | Non-compliance ID | PIC X (2) |
| GE140 | 50-57 | Outcome Beginning Date Element CCYYMMDD | PIC 9(8) |
| GE150 | 58-65 | Outcome End Date Element CCYYMMDD | PIC 9(8) |
| GE160 | 66-68 | IEP Test Type Element | PIC X(3) |
| GE170 | 69-72 | Secondary Planning Element | PIC X(4) |
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Jefferson County is predicted to continue to grow in population over the next 30 years. However, Jeffco's rate of growth may not be quite as fast as some of our neighboring counties such as: Adams, Arapahoe and Douglas County. This may be because the majority of the land area left to develop in Jefferson County is in the mountains, which is very constrained in terms of water and sanitation and geography.
Population Comparison with Other Metro Counties
Source: Colorado Department of Local Affairs, State Demography Office, Population Forecast by Region, 2000 - 2040
* For 2012, Jefferson County is considered the forth most populated county in Colorado. By 2040, Adams, Arapahoe, Denver, and El Paso Counties are all forecasted to contain more people than Jeffco.
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Georgia Performance Standards: Picasso to Warhol Grades K-12
Tour
Assembled exclusively for the High from The Museum of Modern Art in New York, this exhibition is a who's who of twentieth-century artists. While engaging with some of modern art's most important works, students will learn what makes a work of art a masterpiece and what makes an artist a master. While learning how modern artists expanded the definition of art, students will discover the many connections between modern art and their classroom curriculum.
A tour of Picasso to Warhol: Fourteen Modern Masters can support the following Georgia Performance Standards:
Kindergarten
Visual Arts
VAKMC.1 Engages in the creative process to generate and visualize ideas.
VAKMC.2 Formulates personal responses.
VAKMC.3 Selects and uses subject matter, symbols, and/or ideas to communicate meaning.
VAKCU.1 Identifies artists and offers ideas about what art is and who artists are.
VAKCU.2 Views and discusses selected artworks.
VAKAR.1 Discusses his or her own artwork and the work of others.
VAKAR.2 Utilizes a variety of approaches to understand and critique works of art.
VAKC.1 Applies information from other disciplines to enhance the understanding and production of artworks.
VAKC.2 Develops life skills through the study and production of art.
Science
SKP1 Students will describe objects in terms of the materials they are made of and their physical properties.
SKP2 Students will investigate different types of motion.
Social Studies
SSKH2 The student will identify important American symbols and explain their meaning.
SSKH3 The student will correctly use words and phrases related to chronology and time to explain how things change.
Mathematics
MKG1
Students will correctly name simple two- and three-dimensional figures, and recognize them in the environment.
MKG2 Students will understand basic spatial relationships.
Reading/Language Arts
ELAKR1 The student demonstrates knowledge of concepts of print.
ELAKR5 The student acquires and uses grade-level words to communicate effectively.
ELAKLSV1 The student uses oral and visual skills to communicate.
Grade 1
Visual Arts
VA1MC.1 Engages in the creative process to generate and visualize ideas.
VA1MC.2 Formulates personal responses.
VA1MC.3 Selects and uses subject matter, symbols, and/or ideas to communicate meaning.
VA1CU.1 Identifies artists as creative thinkers who make art and share ideas.
VA1CU.2 Views and discusses selected artworks.
VA1AR.1 Discusses his or her artwork and the work of others.
VA1AR.2 Uses a variety of approaches to understand and critique works of art.
VA1C. 1 Applies information from other disciplines to enhance the understanding and production of artworks.
VA1C. 2 Develops life skills through the study and production of art.
Social Studies
SS1G2 The student will identify and locate his/her city, county, state, nation, and continent on a simple map or globe.
Mathematics
M1M1 Students will compare and/or order the length, height, weight, or capacity of two of more objects by using direct comparison or a nonstandard unit.
M1G1 Students will study and create various two- and three-dimensional figures and identify basic figures (squares, circles, triangles, and rectangles) within them.
M1G2 Students will compare, contrast, and/or classify geometric shapes by the common attributes of position, shape, size, number of sides, and number of corners.
M1G3 Students will arrange and describe objects in space by proximity, position, and direction (near, far, below, above, up, down, behind, in front of, next to, and left or right of).
Reading/Language Arts
ELA1R5 The student acquires and uses grade-level words to communicate effectively.
ELA1LSV1 The student uses oral and visual strategies to communicate.
Grade 2
Visual Arts
VA2MC.1 Engages in the creative process to generate and visualize ideas.
VA2MC.2 Formulates personal responses.
VA2MC.3 Selects and uses subject matter, symbols, and ideas to communicate meaning.
VA2CU.1 Identifies artists as creative thinkers who make art and share their ideas.
VA2CU.2 Views and discusses selected artworks.
VA2AR.1 Discusses his or her artwork and the work of others.
VA2AR.2 Uses a variety of approaches to understand and critique works of art.
VA2C. 1 Applies information from other disciplines to enhance the understanding and production of artworks.
VA2C.2 Develops life skills through the study and production of art.
Mathematics
M2G1 Students will describe and classify plane figures (triangles, squares, rectangles, trapezoids, quadrilaterals, pentagons, hexagons, and irregular polygonal shapes) according to the number of sides and vertices and the size of angles (right angle, obtuse, acute).
M2G2 Students will describe and classify solid geometric figures (prisms, pyramids, cylinders, cones, and spheres) according to such things as the number of edges and vertices and the number and shape of faces and angles.
M2G3 Students will describe the change in attributes as two- and three-dimensional shapes are cut and rearranged.
Reading/Language Arts
ELA2R2 The student acquires and uses grade-level words to communicate effectively.
ELA2LSV1 The student uses oral and visual strategies to communicate.
Grade 3
Visual Arts
VA3MC.1 Engages in the creative process to generate and visualize ideas.
VA3MC.2 Formulates personal responses to visual imagery.
VA3MC.3 Selects and uses subject matter, symbols, and ideas to communicate meaning.
VA3CU.1 Investigates and discovers the personal relationship of artist to community, culture, and world through making and studying art.
VA3CU.2 Views and discusses selected artworks.
VA3AR.1 Discusses his or her artwork and the work of others.
VA3AR.2 Uses a variety of approaches to understand and critique works of art.
VA3C.1 Applies information from other disciplines to enhance the understanding and production of artworks.
VA3C.2 Develops life skills through the study and production of art.
Reading/Language Arts
ELA3R2 The student acquires and uses grade-level words to communicate effectively.
ELA3LSV1 The student uses oral and visual strategies to communicate.
Grade 4
Visual Arts
VA4MC.1 Engages in the creative process to generate and visualize ideas.
VA4MC.2 Formulates personal responses to visual imagery.
VA4MC.3 Selects and uses subject matter, symbols, and/or ideas to communicate meaning.
VA4CU.1 Investigates and discovers the personal relationship of artist to community, culture, and world through making and studying art.
VA4CU.2 Views and discusses selected artworks.
VA4AR.2 Uses a variety of approaches to understand and critique works of art.
VA4AR.3 Explains how selected elements and principles of design are used in artworks to convey meaning and how they affect personal responses to and evaluation of the artwork.
VA4C.1 Applies information from other disciplines to enhance the understanding and production of artworks.
VA4C.2 Develops life skills through the study and production of art.
Reading/Language Arts
ELA4R3 The student understands and acquires new vocabulary and uses it correctly in reading and writing.
ELA4LSV1 The student participates in student-to-teacher, student-to-student, and group verbal interactions.
ELA4LSV2 The student listens to and views various forms of text and media in order to gather and share information, persuade others, and express and understand ideas.
Grade 5
Visual Arts
VA5MC.1 Engages in the creative process to generate and visualize ideas.
VA5MC.2 Formulates personal responses to visual imagery.
VA5MC.3 Selects and uses subject matter, symbols, and/or ideas to communicate meaning.
VA5CU.1 Investigates and discovers the personal relationship of artist to community, culture, and world through making and studying art.
VA5CU.2 Views and discusses selected artworks.
VA5AR.2 Uses a variety of approaches to understand and critique works of art.
VA5AR.3 Explains how selected elements and principles of design are used in artworks to convey meaning and how they affect personal responses to and evaluation of the artwork.
VA5C.1 Applies information from other disciplines to enhance the understanding and production of artworks.
VA5C.2 Develops life skills through the study and production of art.
Social Studies
SS5H8
The student will describe the importance of key people, events, and developments between 1950 and 1975.
Reading/Language Arts
ELA5R3 The student understands and acquires new vocabulary and uses it correctly in reading and writing.
ELA5LSV1 The student participates in student-to-teacher, student-to-student, and group verbal interactions.
ELA5LSV2 The student listens to and views various forms of text and media in order to gather and share information, persuade others, and express and understand ideas.
Grade 6
Visual Arts
VA6MC.1 Engages in the creative process to generate and visualize ideas.
VA6MC.2 Identifies and works to solve visual problems through creative thinking, planning, and/or experimenting with art materials, tools and techniques.
VA6MC.3 Interprets how artists communicate meaning in their work.
VA6MC.4 Engages in dialogue about his or her artwork and the artwork of others.
VA6CU.1 Discovers how the creative process relates to art history.
VA6CU.2 Investigates and discovers personal relationship to community, culture, and the world through making and studying art.
VA6AR.2 Critiques personal artworks as well as artwork of others using visual and verbal approaches.
VA6AR.3 Reflects and expands use of visual language throughout the artistic process.
VA6C.1 Applies information from other disciplines to enhance the understanding and production of artworks.
VA6C.2 Develops fluency in visual communication.
VA6C.3 Expands knowledge of art as a profession and/or avocation.
Social Studies
SS6G11 The student will describe the cultural characteristics of Europe.
Reading/Language Arts
ELA6LSV1 The student participates in student-to-teacher, student-to-student, and group verbal interactions.
ELA6KSV2 The student listens to and views various forms of text and media in order to gather and share information, persuade others, and express and understand ideas.
Grade 7
Visual Arts
VA7MC.1 Identifies and works to solve problems through creative thinking, planning, and/or experimenting with art methods and materials.
VA7MC.2 Identifies and works to solve problems through creative thinking, planning, and/or experimenting with art methods and materials.
VA7MC.3 Interprets how artists create and communicate meaning in and through their work.
VA7MC.4 Participates in dialogue about his or her artwork and the artwork of others.
VA7CU.1 Discovers how the creative process relates to art history.
VA7CU.2 Investigates and discovers personal relationships to community, culture, and the world through creating and studying art.
VA7AR.2 Critiques personal artworks as well as artwork of others, using visual and verbal approaches.
VA7AR.3 Reflects and expands the use of visual language throughout the artistic process.
VA7C.1 Applies information from other disciplines to enhance the understanding and production of artworks.
VA7C.2 Develops fluency in visual communication.
VA7C.3 Expands knowledge of art as a profession and/or avocation and increases personal life skills through artistic endeavor.
Reading/Language Arts
ELA7LSV1 The student participates in student-to-teacher, student-to-student, and group verbal interactions.
ELA7LSV2 The student listens to and views various forms of text and media in order to gather and share information, persuade others, and express and understand ideas.
Grade 8
Visual Arts
VA8MC.1 Engages in the creative process to generate and visualize ideas.
VA8MC.2 Identifies and works to solve problems through authentic engagement (thinking, planning, and experimenting) with art methods and materials, exploring the nature of creativity.
VA8MC.3 Demonstrates how artists create and communicate meaning in artworks.
VA8MC.4 Participates in aesthetic dialogue about his or her artwork and artwork of others.
VA8CU.1 Discovers how the creative process relates to art history.
VA8CU.2 Investigates and discovers personal relationship to community, culture, and world through making and studying art.
VA8AR.1 Critiques personal artworks as well as artwork of others, using visual and verbal approaches.
VA8AR.2 Reflects and expands the use of visual language throughout the artistic process.
VA8C.1 Applies information from other disciplines to enhance the understanding and production of artworks.
VA8C.2 Develops fluency in visual communication.
VA8C.3 Expands knowledge of art as a profession and/or avocation and develops personal life skills through artistic endeavor.
Reading/Language Arts
ELA8LSV1 The student participates in student-to-teacher, student-to-student, and group verbal interactions.
ELA8LSV2 The student listens to and views various forms of text and media in order to gather and share information, persuade others, and express and understand ideas.
Grades 9–12
Visual Arts
VAHSVAMC.1 Engages in the creative process, imagines new ideas by using mental and visual imagery, conceptualizes these ideas by using artistic language and contextual understandings in assessing
learning, and develops a personal artistic voice that gives unique form to these concepts.
VAHSVAMC.2 Finds and solves problems through open-ended inquiry, the consideration of multiple options, weighing consequences, and assessing results.
VAHSVAMC.3 Cultivate critical thinking and logical argumentation in aesthetics.
VAHSVAMC.4 Analyzes the origins of one's own ideas in relation to community, culture, and the world.
VAHSVACU.1 Articulates ideas and universal themes from diverse cultures of the past and present.
VAHSVACU.2 Demonstrates an understanding of how art history impacts the creative process of art making.
VAHSVAAR.2 Critiques artwork of others individually and in group settings.
VAHSVAAR.3 Develops multiple strategies for responding to and reflecting on artworks.
VAHSVAC.1 Applies information from other disciplines to enhance the understanding and production of artworks.
VAHSVAC.2 Develops twenty-first-century life and work skills and habits of mind for success through study and production of art.
VAHSVAC.3
Utilizes a variety of resources to see how artistic learning extends beyond the walls of the classroom.
Sociology
SSocIC1 Students will analyze forms of social inequality.
SSSocC2 Students will evaluate how cultures develop and evolve.
United States History
SSUSH16 The student will identify key developments in the aftermath of World War I.
SSUSH21 The student will explain the impact of technological development and economic growth on the United States from 1945 to 1975.
SSUSH22 The student will identify dimensions of the Civil Rights Movement, 1945-1970.
SSUSH24 The student will analyze the impact of social change movements and organizations of the 1960s.
World History
SSWH13 The student will examine the intellectual, political, social, and economic factors that changed the world view of Europeans.
SSWH17
The student will be able to identify the major political and economic factors that shaped world societies between World War I and World War II.
SSWH18 The student will demonstrate an understanding of the global, economic, and social impact of World War II.
Reading/Language Arts
ELA9RC3,
ELA10RC3 The student acquires new vocabulary in each content area and uses it correctly.
ELA9LSV1,
ELA10LSV1,
ELA11LSV1,
ELA12LSV1 The student participates in student-to-teacher, student-to-student, and group verbal interactions.
Reading and American Literature
ELAALRL3 The student deepens understanding of literary works by relating them to their contemporary context or historical background as well as to works from other time periods.
AP English Language and Composition
ELA11LSV1 The student participates in student-to-teacher, student-to-student, and group verbal interactions.
ELAALRL3 The student deepens understanding of literary works by relating them to their contemporary context or historical background as well as to works from other time periods.
Reading and World Literature
ELAWLRL3 The student deepens understanding of literary works from around the world by relating them to their contemporary context or historical background as well as to works from other time periods.
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ZIMBABWE will hold a referendum on the draft constitution on March 16 and it looks pretty certain that it will become the supreme law of the land. While this development comes as a relief to the nation that has endured the long-drawn constitution-making saga for four years now, the wisdom of asking people to vote is questioned on the basis that the outcome of the referendum is a foregone conclusion.
Just a handful of Zimbabweans have openly said they will campaign for a no vote.
The Parliament of Zimbabwe has already given its approval.
The endorsement by Parliament, a body that is made up of individuals who represent the people, meant in all intents and purposes that the draft constitution has the support of the people since Members of Parliament are the voice of the people across the political divide.
Political parties outside the Government have also been quick to give their backing of the draft constitution. Some non-governmental organisations that have been critical of the leadership of Zimbabwe have also given their approval. Civil society organisations have banged the drum in support of the draft constitution.
Only the National Constitutional Assembly (NCA) led by Professor Lovemore Madhuku is against the draft constitution. The NCA used to have influence when it used to bed MDC-T but the decision by the MDC-T to be for the draft constitution means that the NCA is a voice crying the wilderness.
The three political parties that make up Government commanded well over 97 percent of the registered voters in the last election, meaning that it is a foregone conclusion that the referendum will be a formality — a ritual that will cost the nation $80 million when the consensus view is already known.
But can we afford to blow $80 million on what is set to be a mere rubber-stamping exercise? Is the referendum worth such expenditure? Considering that the Government is broke, wouldn't it have been wise to use the money for the referendum to revive industries, to buy drugs and medical equipment for hospitals?
Does the law prevent Zimbabwe from foregoing the referendum and take the endorsement by Parliament as a sign that the people approve the draft constitution? Is the referendum not a repetition of the process?
Mrs Cynthia Banda of Selbourne Park low-density suburb said Parliament has the right to approve the draft on behalf of the nation.
"The only logical thing to do is to forego the referendum since the draft has been endorsed by MPs on behalf of their constituents as is done with Constitutional amendments. This is so that we go for elections without incurring unnecessary costs. Parliament has the right to endorse the draft constitution," said Mrs Banda.
Mr Michael Ndlovu believes the referendum is just not an issue with the vast majority of Zimbabweans. He is convinced that the Government is only holding the referendum because it made a promise to do so.
"If one was of a devious mind, you would presume the Government was using this referendum to gauge the numbers of people who are likely to vote in the general elections. The referendum is also a distraction from the controversies that are likely to occur when the parties are having their primaries," said Mr Ndlovu.
Professor Geoff Feltoe, a lecturer in the Department of Public Law at the University of Zimbabwe, said holding the referendum was a prerequisite as it is a universally accepted practice.
"The approval by Parliament does not mean the draft constitution does not have to go to the people. It's a must for people to decide on the constitution. It would be wrong for us to think for
the people, let them decide what they want," said Prof Feltoe.
Dr Lawton Hikwa, the Dean of the Faculty of Communication and Information Science at the University of Science and Technology, agreed that the Copac outreach programme and the endorsement by Parliament means the draft constitution has by and large been given the thumbs up by Zimbabwe but said a referendum was necessary.
"Ideally the outreach programme and endorsement by Parliament would be enough but procedurally a referendum is a must. We need to know if everyone buys in the idea of having a new constitution. It's a procedural requirement, a democratically accepted practice in a democracy.
"You need to remember that it's not everyone who took part in the outreach programme and it's not everyone who is represented by the Members of Parliament, we have people who are affiliated with parties that are not part of Government. It's not all Zimbabweans who want a new constitution. In that light it is necessary to have a referendum, if the majority wants a new constitution let the referendum show us that," said Dr Hikwa.
The former secretary general of Mthwakazi Liberation Front, Mr John Gazi, was of the opinion that a referendum is a legal requirement when voting for or against having a new constitution.
"Having a referendum is the legal way of doing things. It is done to get people's approval or disapproval. You cannot say with certainty that the people want a new constitution; the outreach programme and Parliament do not give us iron bound assurances. A document of that magnitude cannot be adopted on the basis of assumptions, it has to go through a referendum," said Mr Gazi.
Mr Thomas Sibanda believes it would be wrong not to hold the referendum on the assumption that the outreach and endorsement by Parliament automatically means people will grant their approval.
"It would be wrong to do so. Even if the constitution gets popular approval, it will not have a ringing endorsement. Less than one-third of eligible voters will turn out. There will be voter apathy and the margin of assent will be slim. You need to remember that some of the most pertinent wishes of the people were removed from the draft constitution, the biggest being devolution which is wanted by five provinces. Instead of voting against the draft constitution such disillusioned people will choose to stay away in protest because they do not know that, once written, a constitution is hard to change back," said Mr Sibanda.
Critics of the referendum say that millions have already been spent in the making of the draft constitution and they are alarmed that the Government plans to spend more millions of taxpayers' money on a referendum whose result is a foregone conclusion. They shake their heads in disbelief that so much expenditure has been deemed worthy for a referendum.
In their eyes the Government's position on the referendum is tactically shrewd but strategically flawed as that $80 million would have been used for welfare purposes.
Prof Feltoe refused to reveal his thoughts on the referendum expenditure.
He said: "I think the best people to talk about that are from the ministry in charge of the referendum. I cannot comment on that."
Dr Hikwa is of the standing that for a referendum to be a success the Government has no choice but to splash the money.
He said: "Democracy is expensive, it comes at a cost. There is a need for us to incur expenses because we want an uncontested outcome. You must also remember that the expense is not money only; there are resource expenses that will be incurred. In elections we spare no change so why must we not do the same with a referendum. We are talking about the supreme law of the country here, it is priceless."
Mr Gazi believes that Zimbabwe is spending millions of dollars on the referendum because it wants to speed up the process to elections. He said the three political parties in Government
want to put an end to the Government of National Unity so they are prepared to spend heavily to get past the constitution hurdle.
"Does the Government need to spend so much money on a referendum? My answer is a definite no. But they have no choice but to do so because it's a hurried process. 16 March is around the corner, it's just about 30 days away. That is not enough time to educate the people about the draft constitution; it does not give people enough time to study the document.
"While a significant amount of money is bound to be spent on a referendum I believe we could have spent less if we gave ourselves enough time to prepare for the referendum. But looking at the timeframes, people are likely to be given less than five weeks from the publication of the Constitution to voting in the referendum, which is not adequate for the electorate to acquaint themselves with the contents of the draft," said Mr Gazi.
Mr Sibanda was of the viewpoint that spending a lot of money on a referendum was necessary but there was a need for transparency as the public has the right to know how their money is being spent.
He said: "I don't have a problem with the Government spending a lot of money on a referendum but the cost estimates should not be too high without a valid reason. The people who are in charge of the referendum should be held accountable for every penny to prevent needless overspending. As long as the money being spent is justified it would be foolish to criticise but if they just came up with a figure without a breakdown of how much this and that will cost then we have a problem."
Mrs Banda is of the opinion that the decision to go ahead with the referendum regardless of the cost was predictable but a shame. She believes it makes the Government look needlessly arrogant and defensive.
"The vast majority of Zimbabweans are going to vote YES because they support the three political parties in Government. Yes it is hard not to give people a direct say on the constitution but this is an exception, Zimbabwe is broke, people can settle for the approval by Parliament. Politically, the Government is right in portraying the draft constitution as a document that people must vote on. Economically this position is foolish, we are flushing money down the toilet," said
Mrs Banda.
Mr Ndlovu fails to find reason why the political parties in Government have decided to spend $80m on a referendum after they have decided to skip the delimitation of constituencies, a development that saw the poll budget being revised downwards from US$220 million to US$192 million.
"These people made a decision not to carry out the delimitation exercise, which is an important exercise by the way. This is not the only shortcut they took; they have been taking shortcuts all the time in Government. Of all the shortcuts made since 2008, why did they feel honour-bound to have a referendum?"
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{rokbox title=|Natural and architectural beauty in a region with an entrepreneurial spirit.|}images/stories/congresoseincentivos/congresosyconvenciones/Triangulodelcafe/tours/fil andia-quindio.jpg{/rokbox}
Natural and architectural beauty in a region with an entrepreneurial spirit. /Photo. Flickr user Naty Rive .
Filandia is probably the place where the basis of the Antioquenian colonization has been better preserved.
Its carved wooden balconies are famous and its María Inmaculada church is known because it was first constructed in bahareque (small wood covered by earth) and later covered with metal sheeting.
In 1988, a keen, demanding jury declared Filandia the prettiest town in the department of Quindío. By all means, visitors should go to the Filandia observation tower to see municipalities in four departments: Valle, Quindío, Risaralda, and Caldas.
1 / 1
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Minnesota Comprehensive Assessments (MCA)
DRAFT Mathematics
Test Specifications for MCA-III, Grade 11
and MCA-Modified, Grade 11
January 23, 2014
Based on the
Minnesota K-12 Academic Standards in Mathematics (2007 version)
MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
DRAFT Mathematics Test Specifications for MCA-III, Grade 11 and MCA-Modified, Grade 11
An updated version of this document will be published annually, typically in August, until the 2014 operational administration of the test.
For a copy in an alternate format, contact
Division of Statewide Testing Minnesota Department of Education 1500 Highway 36 West Roseville, MN 55113-4266 Phone (651) 582-8200 • Fax (651) 582-8874 firstname.lastname@example.org
Last Revised January 23, 2014
The department thanks the Test Specifications Committee, as well as all of the panelists and teachers who reviewed this document in draft form, for their hard work and continued involvement.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
This page left intentionally blank.
MCA MATHEMATICS TEST SPECIFICATIONS
Introduction
Mathematics test specifications for grade 11 of the Minnesota Comprehensive Assessments Series III (MCA-III) and grade 11 of the MCA-Modified are presented in this document. The reader is encouraged to read the introductory information carefully because many important concepts are presented, including the purposes of the MCA-III and MCA-Modified in Mathematics, a description of the cognitive levels and other information about the format of the test specifications.
Purpose of the Minnesota Comprehensive Assessments
The purpose of Minnesota assessments is to measure Minnesota students' achievement with regard to the Minnesota Academic Standards. Assessment results can be used to inform curriculum decisions at the district and school level, inform instruction at the classroom level and demonstrate student academic progress from year to year.
MCA-III
The passage of the No Child Left Behind Act (2000) 1 required that students be assessed in grades 3–8 and high school. The Minnesota K–12 Academic Standards in Mathematics were adopted in 2003; the Minnesota Comprehensive AssessmentsSeries II assessed these standards. The 2006 Minnesota Legislature approved the 2006 Omnibus Education Policy Act (see Minn. Stat. § 120B.023, subd. 2b). This legislation required the revision of the state's academic standards in mathematics in the 2006–2007 school year. The legislation also required that beginning in the 2013–2014 school year, state mathematics tests given in grade 11 align with the revised 2007 academic standards in mathematics. The revision to the standards was significant enough that a new series of the MCA assessments was necessary. Thus, the Mathematics MCA-III are aligned with the 2007 Minnesota K–12 Academic Standards in Mathematics.
1 At the time of publication, the federal government was reviewing ESEA for changes and reauthorization. Information in this document is up-to-date based on time of publication. If changes are made to ESEA that affect this document, then this document will be revised accordingly in a timely manner.
MCA-Modified
The Mathematics MCA-Modified (MCA-M) is an alternate assessment based on modified achievement standards. It is designed for a small group of students whose disability has precluded them from achieving grade-level proficiency but who do not qualify to take Minnesota's other alternate assessment, the Minnesota Test of Academic Skills (MTAS). The MCA-Modified differs from the MCA-III in a few key ways:
* The student must have an Individual Education Plan (IEP). The IEP team is responsible for determining, on an annual basis, how a student with a disability will participate in statewide testing. This decision-making process must start with a consideration of the general education assessment.
* The MCA-Modified may only be administered to a student who currently receives special education services, though participation in the administration is not limited to any particular disability category.
* Students must meet all eligibility requirements for the MCA-Modified before it is selected by the IEP team. Eligibility requirements for the MCA-Modified are:
1. The student demonstrates persistent low performance as defined by performance at the lowest achievement level on the MCA (Does Not Meet the Standards) for the past two years.
OR
The student meets or exceeds the standards on the MTAS and the IEP team determines that the student is most appropriately assessed with the MCA-M.
2. The student has access to instruction on grade-level content standards.
3. The student has an IEP based on grade-level content standards in the content area(s) being assessed by MCA-M.
4. The IEP team determines that the student is highly unlikely to achieve proficiency on the grade-level content standards within the year the test is administered, even with specially designed instruction.
a. Objective and valid data from multiple measures should be collected over time to confirm that the student is not likely to achieve proficiency on grade-level content standards within the year. Examples of objective and valid measures include state assessments, district-wide assessments, curriculum-based measures and other repeated measures of progress over time.
b. Appropriate accommodations, such as assistive technology, are provided as needed on evaluations of classroom performance, and the student's accommodation needs are carefully considered before the IEP team makes a determination that the student is not likely to achieve proficiency on grade-level content standards.
Purpose and Overview of the Test Specifications
The primary purpose of test specifications is to help test developers build a test that is consistent over time. The DRAFT Mathematics Test Specifications for MCA-III, Grade 11, and MCA-Modified, Grade 11 are also meant to serve as a source of information about the test design for teachers and the general public. Test specifications do not indicate what should be taught; the Minnesota academic standards do. Test specifications do not indicate how students should be taught; the classroom teacher does. Test specifications indicate which strands, standards and benchmarks will be assessed on the test and in what proportions. In addition, test specifications provide the types of items to be included, number of items and distribution of cognitive levels. Test specifications also clarify, define and/or limit how test items will be written.
As with any test, the MCA-III and MCA-Modified assess a sampling of student knowledge and do not test every standard or benchmark. There are standards and benchmarks that cannot be assessed with a standardized test. That does not mean that these skills should not be taught or assessed. Teachers need to instruct and assess
their students on all of the academic standards. Standards and benchmarks that are not assessed on the MCA-III are indicated in this document with the phrase "Not assessed on the MCA-III or MCA-Modified." In addition, not all assessable benchmarks will be included on every assessment and some benchmarks are embedded within the assessment of other benchmarks.
Panels consisting of members of the Minnesota Academic Standards Committee and classroom teachers were convened to develop the Mathematics MCA-III Test Specifications. Many of the classroom teachers were recommended to the Minnesota Department of Education (MDE) by various education organizations, school districts and other stakeholder groups. For the MCA-Modified, recommendations proposed in focus groups conducted with special educators are incorporated in these specifications.
Item Specifications
Item specifications are provided for each assessed benchmark. The item specifications provide restrictions of numbers, notation, scales, context and item limitations/requirements. The item specifications also list symbols and vocabulary that may be used in items. This list is cumulative in nature. For example, symbols and vocabulary listed at grades 3 through 8 are eligible for use in grade 11. So, symbols and vocabulary listed at grades 3 and 4 are eligible for use in MCA-Modified in grades 5 through 8 and 11.
Item Specification Considerations
There are broad item-development issues addressed during the development of test items. Each of the following issues is considered for all of the items developed for the Mathematics MCA-III and Mathematics MCA-Modified.
1. Each item will be written to measure primarily one benchmark; however, other benchmarks may also be reflected in the item content.
2. Items will be appropriate for students in terms of grade-level difficulty, expected knowledge of grade-level mathematical vocabulary, life experiences and reading level.
3. At a given grade, items will range in difficulty from easy to challenging for the intended population.
4. Items will not disadvantage or disrespect any segment of the population with regard to age, gender, race, ethnicity, language, religion, socioeconomic status, disability or geographic region.
5. Items will be written to meet benchmark calculator requirements as specified in the academic standards and/or test specifications.
6. Each item will be written to clearly and unambiguously elicit the desired response.
7. For the Mathematics MCA-III, a reference sheet of appropriate formulas and conversions is provided to students in grades 5–11 for use during testing. For the Mathematics MCA-Modified, appropriate formulas and conversions are provided to students with items in addition to the formula sheet.
8. Items will be written according to the MDE Guidelines for Test Construction.
9. Advisory Panels will review items as specified in the MDE Vendor Guide to Advisory Panels.
10. Items will be written using principles of Universal Design (see the linguistic modification report from the U.S. Department of Education LEP Partnership 2 ). These principles include the following:
a. Use active voice rather than passive voice.
b. Avoid negation.
c. Avoid proper nouns.
d. Avoid using general language terms that have a special meaning in math contexts.
e. Reduce written context and be as universal as possible.
f. To the extent possible, write sentences that are simple and in standard word order.
11. A read-aloud of items is provided via built-in audio in the online assessment.
The MCA-Modified assesses the same grade-level standards as the MCA-III, but the achievement expectations are less rigorous than those on the MCA-III. The same content is covered in the MCA-Modified but with less difficult questions. To meet the goal of providing a test that is accessible yet challenging for the population of students whose disability has prevented them from attaining grade-level proficiency, several design modifications have been made. In addition to the issues outlined and
2 Abedi, J. & Sato, E. (2008). Linguistic modification. Part I: Language factors in the assessment of English language learners: The theory and principles underlying the linguistic modification approach; Part II: A guide to linguistic modification: Increasing English language learner access to academic content. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education: LEP Partnership. Available online at http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/files/uploads/11/abedi_sato.pdf
referenced above, the following guidelines should also be used for the MCAModified.
1. Items will be written using language simplification principles.
a. Use high-frequency, familiar vocabulary and short word lengths.
b. Use short, syntactically non-complex sentences in subject-verb-object order.
c. Use simple, common verb tenses/moods (infinitive, present indicative, past, simple future); present tense is preferred. Use past participles as adjectives.
d. Limit use of pronouns; ensure that referents are clear.
e. Avoid idioms and colloquialisms.
f. Avoid unnecessary words with multiple meanings.
g. Avoid long noun and prepositional phrases.
2. Page and item layout will focus on a simplified design.
a. Increase white space in pages and screens.
b. Use a single-column format when appropriate.
c. Stack sentences in stimuli.
d. Increase size of graphics.
e. Use simple graphics.
f. Use uncomplicated art to support item context and meaning.
g. Limit scrolling in computer-delivered items and two-page layouts in paper forms.
3. The number of operational items within a form are reduced from that used by MCA-III while maintaining the proportion of content coverage across strands, and standards.
4. All items are three-option, multiple-choice questions.
5. Key words are presented in boldface in some items to help students identify the main task to be completed in the item.
Cognitive Complexity
Cognitive complexity refers to the cognitive demand associated with an item. The level of cognitive demand focuses on the type and level of thinking and reasoning required of
the student on a particular item. MCA-III and MCA-Modified levels of cognitive complexity are based on Norman L. Webb's Depth of Knowledge 3 levels.
A Level 1 (recall) item requires the recall of information such as a fact, definition, term or simple procedure, as well as performing a simple algorithm or applying a formula. A well-defined and straight algorithmic procedure is considered to be at this level. A Level 1 item specifies the operation or method of solution and the student is required to carry it out.
A Level 2 (skill/concept) item calls for the engagement of some mental processing beyond a habitual response, with students required to make some decisions as to how to approach a problem or activity. Interpreting information from a simple graph and requiring reading information from the graph is a Level 2. An item that requires students to choose the operation or method of solution and then solve the problem is a Level 2. Level 2 items are often similar to examples used in textbooks.
Level 3 (strategic thinking) items require students to reason, plan or use evidence to solve the problem. In most instances, requiring students to explain their thinking is a Level 3. A Level 3 item may be solved using routine skills but the student is not cued or prompted as to which skills to use.
Level 4 (extended thinking) items require complex reasoning, planning, developing and thinking, most likely over an extended period of time. Level 4 items are best assessed in the classroom, where the constraints of standardized testing are not a factor.
Using these cognitive complexity levels to categorize items ensures that the complexity of the test items matches the complexity of the content domain assessed. Based on the benchmarks included in the Mathematics MCA-III and Mathematics MCA-Modified, Table 1 indicates the target proportion of test items at each cognitive level included in each test.
3 Webb, N. L. Alignment of science and mathematics standards and assessments in four states (Research Monograph No. 18). Madison: University of Wisconsin – Madison, National Institute for Science Education, 1999.
TABLE 1. Cognitive Level Target Minimum Distribution of Items in Mathematics for the MCA and MCA-Modified
| | Grades | | Level 1 | | Level 2 | Level 3 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 11 | | 20% | | 30% | | |
Calculator Designation
For Grade 11, there are no non-calculator benchmarks. A calculator will be available for student use on all items of the Grade 11 MCA-III and MCA-Modified.
Test Design by Grade Level
A variety of item types will be used on the Mathematics MCA-III, including multiplechoice (MC) items and technology-enhanced (TE) items. Technology-enhanced items may consist of the following types of responses: type-in (student will type numerical answers in a box), graphing (student will plot data to complete various mathematical displays), drag-and-drop (students will formulate, rather than select, a response using drag-and-drop response options) and hot-spot (students will select multiple correct responses or will mark locations on mathematical graphics and displays).
Table 2 indicates the number of operational items appearing on the paper and online form of the Mathematics MCA-III, as well as the range of items within a test form aligned to each strand. Table 3 indicates the same information for the MCA-Modified.
TABLE 2. Range of Items per Strand for Online and Paper Mathematics MCA-III Grade 11
| | Number of | | Geometry & | Data Analysis |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Grade | | Algebra | | |
| | Operational Items | | Measurement | & Probability |
TABLE 3. Range of Items per Strand for Mathematics MCA-Modified, Grade 11
| | | | Number of | | | | Geometry & | Data Analysis |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | Grade | | | | Algebra | | | |
| | | | Operational Items | | | | Measurement | & Probability |
| 11 | | 40 | | 17–21 | | 11–13 | | |
Table 4 indicates the type and number of items for the online Mathematics MCA. Table 5 indicates the type and number of items for the paper Mathematics MCA. As stated previously in this document, the MCA-Modified will use only three-option multiple-choice (MC) items.
TABLE 4. Type and Number of Items for Online Mathematics MCA-III Grade 11
| | | | | | Technology- | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | | | MC Items | | | |
| | Grade | | | | Enhanced Items | Total Items/Points |
| | | | (1 point) | | | |
| | | | | | (1 point) | |
| 11 | | 48–54 | | 2–8 | | |
TABLE 5. Type and Number of Items for Paper Mathematics MCA-III Grade 11
| | | Fill-In/Gridded | |
|---|---|---|---|
| | MC Items | | |
| Grade | | Response Items | Total Items/Points |
| | (1 point) | | |
| | | (1 point) | |
The minimum and maximum numbers of operational items by standard for the online and paper Mathematics MCA-III and the MCA-Modified are shown in Tables 6A and 6B.
TABLE 6A. Online and Paper MCA-III Grade 11 Minimum and Maximum Item Counts by Standard
TABLE 6B. Online MCA-Modified Grade 11 Minimum and Maximum Item Counts by Standard
A Guide to Reading the Test Specifications
Strand 3—Geometry & Measurement
(28–32%)
Standard 9.3.1 : Calculate measurements of plane and solid geometric figures; know that physical measurements depend on the choice of a unit and that they are approximations.
Benchmarks
126.96.36.199
Determine the surface area and volume of pyramids, cones and spheres. Use
measuring devices or formulas as appropriate.
Item Specifications
Vocabulary allowed in items: sphere and vocabulary given at previous grades
188.8.131.52
Compose and decompose two- and three-dimensional figures; use decomposition to determine the perimeter, area, surface area and volume of various figures.
Item Specifications
Vocabulary allowed in items: regular polygon, sphere, compose, decompose and vocabulary given at previous grades
184.108.40.206
Understand that quantities associated with physical measurements must be assigned units; apply such units correctly in expressions, equations and problem solutions that involve measurements; and convert between measurement systems.
Item Specifications
Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
220.127.116.11
Understand and apply the fact that the effect of a scale factor k on length, area and volume is to multiply each by k , k 2 and k 3 , respectively.
Item Specifications
Vocabulary allowed in items: scale factor, magnitude and vocabulary given at previous grades
Grade 11 Standard - The second level of strand organization.
Standard
The second
level of strand
organization Arrow from Standard boxArrow from Benchmark boxBenchmark - The specific knowledge or skills that students should acquire by the end of that grade level.
Benchmark
The specific
knowledge or
skills that
students should
acquire by the
end of that
grade level Arrow from Item Code box to 18.104.22.168Item Code box
Item Code
9.
Grade
(
represents
grades 9-11)
3.
Strand
1.
Standard
3.
Benchmark Arrow from Item Specifications box to Item SpecificationsArrow from Stand box to Strand 3-Geometry & Measurement heading.Strand - The general category of content organization
Strand
The general category of content organization Arrow from Percent Range by Strand box to (28-32%) in heading.Percent Range by Strand - The percentage of items that test this strand for this grade, listed by test.
Percent Range by Strand
The percentage of items that test this strand for this grade, listed by test Item Specifications - The clarification, definition or restriction of items assessing this benchmark.
Item
Specifications
The clarification,
definition or
restriction of
items assessing
this benchmark
An Explanation of Terms Related to the Grade-Level Tables
Strand: This is the most general categorization of content in the Minnesota Academic Standards.
Standard: Standards describe the expectations in mathematics that all students must satisfy to meet state requirements for credit.
Benchmark: The purpose of benchmarks is to provide details about "the academic knowledge and skills that schools must offer and students must achieve to satisfactorily complete" the standards (Minn. Stat. § 120B.023 (2006)). Benchmarks are intended to "inform and guide parents, teachers, school districts and other interested persons and for use in developing tests consistent with the benchmarks" (Minn. Stat. § 120B.023 (2006)). Each standard is divided into several benchmarks.
Item Code: Test developers use this code to identify the strand, standard and benchmark to which a test item is aligned.
Item Specifications: These statements provide more specific clarifications, definitions or restrictions for the benchmark as it is assessed on the MCA.
Percent Range by Strand: This range is the possible percentage of items that will be on the operational form from a specific strand.
Mathematics MCA-III Test Specifications Grade 11 Level Tables
Strand 2—Algebra
(45–52%)
Standard 9.2.1: Understand the concept of function, and identify important features of functions and other relations using symbolic and graphical methods where appropriate.
Benchmarks
Understand the definition of a function. Use functional notation and evaluate a function at a given point in its domain.
22.214.171.124
Item Specifications
* Vocabulary allowed in items: relation, domain, range and vocabulary given at previous grades
126.96.36.199
Item Specifications
Distinguish between functions and other relations defined symbolically, graphically or in tabular form.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: relation, domain, range and vocabulary given at previous grades
188.8.131.52
* Vocabulary allowed in items: relation, domain, range and vocabulary given at previous grades
Find the domain of a function defined symbolically, graphically or in a real-world context. Item Specifications
184.108.40.206
* Vocabulary allowed in items: relation, domain, range and vocabulary given at previous grades
Obtain information and draw conclusions from graphs of functions and other relations. Item Specifications
220.127.116.11
Item Specifications
Identify the vertex, line of symmetry and intercepts of the parabola corresponding to a quadratic function, using symbolic and graphical methods, when the function is expressed in the form f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c, in the form f(x) = a(x – h) 2 + k, or in factored form.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: line of symmetry, parabola, quadratic, vertex and vocabulary given at previous grades.
Item Specifications
Identify intercepts, zeros, maxima, minima and intervals of increase and decrease from the graph of a function.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: maximum, minimum, interval, zeros and vocabulary given at previous grades
18.104.22.168
* Vocabulary allowed in items: asymptote and vocabulary given at previous grades
Understand the concept of an asymptote and identify asymptotes for exponential functions and reciprocals of linear functions, using symbolic and graphical methods. Item Specifications
22.214.171.124
Item Specifications
Make qualitative statements about the rate of change of a function, based on its graph or table of values.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
126.96.36.199
Item Specifications
Determine how translations affect the symbolic and graphical forms of a function. Know how to use graphing technology to examine translations.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
Standard 9.2.2: Recognize linear, quadratic, exponential and other common functions in real-world and mathematical situations; represent these functions with tables, verbal descriptions, symbols and graphs; solve problems involving these functions, and explain results in the original context.
Benchmarks
Represent and solve problems in various contexts using linear and quadratic functions. Item Specifications
188.8.131.52
* Vocabulary allowed in items: quadratic and vocabulary given at previous grades
184.108.40.206
Item Specifications
Represent and solve problems in various contexts using exponential functions, such as investment growth, depreciation and population growth.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: growth factor, decay, exponential and vocabulary given at previous grades
Item Specifications
Sketch graphs of linear, quadratic and exponential functions, and translate between graphs, tables and symbolic representations. Know how to use graphing technology to graph these functions.
* Items do not require the use of graphing technology
* Vocabulary allowed in items: quadratic, exponential and vocabulary given at previous grades
220.127.116.11
* Vocabulary allowed in items: recursive, geometric series, common ratio and vocabulary given at previous grades
Express the terms in a geometric sequence recursively and by giving an explicit (closed form) formula, and express the partial sums of a geometric series recursively. Item Specifications
18.104.22.168
Item Specifications
Recognize and solve problems that can be modeled using finite geometric sequences and series, such as home mortgage and other compound interest examples. Know how to use spreadsheets and calculators to explore geometric sequences and series in various contexts.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
22.214.171.124
* Items do not require the use of graphing technology
Sketch the graphs of common non-linear functions such as f(x)=√x, f(x)=IxI, f(x)=1/x, f(x)=x 3 and translations of these functions, such as f(x)=√(x-2) + 4. Know how to use graphing technology to graph these functions. Item Specifications
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
Standard 9.2.3: Generate equivalent algebraic expressions involving polynomials and radicals; use algebraic properties to evaluate expressions.
Benchmarks
Evaluate polynomial and rational expressions and expressions containing radicals and absolute values at specified points in their domains.
126.96.36.199
Item Specifications
*
Vocabulary allowed in items: polynomial and vocabulary given at previous grades
188.8.131.52
Item Specifications
Add, subtract and multiply polynomials; divide a polynomial by a polynomial of equal or lower degree.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: polynomial, degree of a polynomial and vocabulary given at previous grades
Item Specifications
Factor common monomial factors from polynomials, factor quadratic polynomials, and factor the difference of two squares.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: polynomial, monomial and vocabulary given at previous grades
184.108.40.206
Item Specifications
Add, subtract, multiply, divide and simplify algebraic fractions.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
220.127.116.11
Item Specifications
Check whether a given complex number is a solution of a quadratic equation by substituting it for the variable and evaluating the expression, using arithmetic with complex numbers.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: complex number and vocabulary given at previous grades
18.104.22.168
* Vocabulary allowed in items: n th root and vocabulary given at previous grades
Apply the properties of positive and negative rational exponents to generate equivalent algebraic expressions, including those involving n th roots. Item Specifications
22.214.171.124
Item Specifications
Justify steps in generating equivalent expressions by identifying the properties used. Use substitution to check the equality of expressions for some particular values of the variables; recognize that checking with substitution does not guarantee equality of expressions for all values of the variables.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
Standard 9.2.4: Represent real-world and mathematical situations using equations and inequalities involving linear, quadratic, exponential and nth root functions. Solve equations and inequalities symbolically and graphically. Interpret solutions in the original context.
Benchmarks
Represent relationships in various contexts using quadratic equations and inequalities. Solve quadratic equations and inequalities by appropriate methods including factoring, completing the square, graphing and the quadratic formula. Find non-real complex roots when they exist. Recognize that a particular solution may not be applicable in the original context. Know how to use calculators, graphing utilities or other technology to solve quadratic equations and inequalities.
126.96.36.199
Item Specifications
* Vocabulary allowed in items: quadratic, n th root and vocabulary given at previous grades
* Items do not require the use of graphing technology
* Items do not require the use of graphing technology
Represent relationships in various contexts using equations involving exponential functions; solve these equations graphically or numerically. Know how to use calculators, graphing utilities or other technology to solve these equations. Item Specifications
* Vocabulary allowed in items: exponential and vocabulary given at previous grades
188.8.131.52
* Vocabulary allowed in items: quadratic, complex, non-real and vocabulary given at previous grades
Recognize that to solve certain equations, number systems need to be extended from whole numbers to integers, from integers to rational numbers, from rational numbers to real numbers, and from real numbers to complex numbers. In particular, non-real complex numbers are needed to solve some quadratic equations with real coefficients. Item Specifications
184.108.40.206
Item Specifications
Represent relationships in various contexts using systems of linear inequalities; solve them graphically. Indicate which parts of the boundary are included in and excluded from the solution set using solid and dotted lines.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: boundary and vocabulary given at previous grades
220.127.116.11
* Vocabulary allowed in items: constraint, boundary, feasible region and vocabulary given at previous grades
Solve linear programming problems in two variables using graphical methods. Item Specifications
18.104.22.168
Item Specifications
Represent relationships in various contexts using absolute value inequalities in two variables; solve them graphically.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
22.214.171.124
Item Specifications
Solve equations that contain radical expressions. Recognize that extraneous solutions may arise when using symbolic methods.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: extraneous and vocabulary given at previous grades
126.96.36.199
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
Assess the reasonableness of a solution in its given context and compare the solution to appropriate graphical or numerical estimates; interpret a solution in the original context. Item Specifications
Strand 3—Geometry & Measurement
(28–32%)
Standard 9.3.1: Calculate measurements of plane and solid geometric figures; know that physical measurements depend on the choice of a unit and that they are approximations.
Benchmarks
Determine the surface area and volume of pyramids, cones and spheres. Use measuring devices or formulas as appropriate. Item Specifications
188.8.131.52
*
Vocabulary allowed in items: sphere and vocabulary given at previous grades
184.108.40.206
Item Specifications
Compose and decompose two- and three-dimensional figures; use decomposition to determine the perimeter, area, surface area and volume of various figures.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: regular polygon, sphere, compose, decompose and vocabulary given at previous grades
220.127.116.11
Item Specifications
Understand that quantities associated with physical measurements must be assigned units; apply such units correctly in expressions, equations and problem solutions that involve measurements; and convert between measurement systems.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
18.104.22.168
Item Specifications
Understand and apply the fact that the effect of a scale factor k on length, area and volume is to multiply each by k, k 2 and k 3 , respectively.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: scale factor, magnitude and vocabulary given at previous grades
22.214.171.124
Item Specifications
Make reasonable estimates and judgments about the accuracy of values resulting from calculations involving measurements.
* Assessed within 126.96.36.199 through 188.8.131.52
Standard 9.3.2: Construct logical arguments, based on axioms, definitions and theorems, to prove theorems and other results in geometry.
Benchmarks
Understand the roles of axioms, definitions, undefined terms and theorems in logical arguments.
184.108.40.206
Item Specifications
* Assessed within 220.127.116.11 and 18.104.22.168
Item Specifications
Accurately interpret and use words and phrases such as "if…then," "if and only if," "all," and "not." Recognize the logical relationships between an "if…then" statement and its inverse, converse and contrapositive.
* Allowable notation: p → q (if p then q)
* Vocabulary allowed in items: inverse, converse, contrapositive, negation and vocabulary given at previous grades
22.214.171.124
Item Specifications
Assess the validity of a logical argument and give counterexamples to disprove a statement.
* Assessed within 126.96.36.199
188.8.131.52
* Allowable notation: CPCTC (Corresponding Parts of Congruent Triangles are Congruent), CPCFC (Corresponding Parts of Congruent Figures are Congruent), SAS (Side-Angle-Side), SSS (Side-Side-Side), ASA (Angle-Side-Angle)
Construct logical arguments and write proofs of theorems and other results in geometry, including proofs by contradiction. Express proofs in a form that clearly justifies the reasoning, such as two-column proofs, paragraph proofs, flow charts or illustrations. Item Specifications
* Vocabulary allowed in items: contradiction and vocabulary given at previous grades
184.108.40.206
Item Specifications
Use technology tools to examine theorems, make and test conjectures, perform constructions and develop mathematical reasoning skills in multi-step problems. The tools may include compass and straight edge, dynamic geometry software, design software or Internet applets.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: angle bisector, perpendicular bisector, midpoint of a segment and vocabulary given at previous grades
Standard 9.3.3: Know and apply properties of geometric figures to solve real-world and mathematical problems and to logically justify results in geometry.
Benchmarks
Know and apply properties of parallel and perpendicular lines, including properties of angles formed by a transversal, to solve problems and logically justify results.
220.127.116.11
Item Specifications • Allowable notation: ⏊ (perpendicular), ∥ (parallel) • Vocabulary allowed in items: transversal, interior, exterior, corresponding, alternate and vocabulary given at previous grades
Item Specifications
Know and apply properties of angles, including corresponding, exterior, interior, vertical, complementary and supplementary angles, to solve problems and logically justify results.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: transversal, interior, exterior, corresponding, alternate, vertical and vocabulary given at previous grades
18.104.22.168
Item Specifications
Know and apply properties of equilateral, isosceles and scalene triangles to solve problems and logically justify results.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: equilateral, isosceles, scalene and vocabulary given at previous grades
22.214.171.124
Item Specifications
Apply the Pythagorean Theorem and its converse to solve problems and logically justify results.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
126.96.36.199
Item Specifications
Know and apply properties of right triangles, including properties of 45-45-90 and 30-6090 triangles, to solve problems and logically justify results.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
188.8.131.52
Item Specifications
Know and apply properties of congruent and similar figures to solve problems and logically justify results.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
184.108.40.206
Item Specifications
Use properties of polygons—including quadrilaterals and regular polygons—to define them, classify them, solve problems and logically justify results.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: regular polygon, isosceles and vocabulary given at previous grades
220.127.116.11
* Vocabulary allowed in items: arc, central angle, inscribed, circumscribed, tangent, chord and vocabulary given at previous grades
Know and apply properties of a circle to solve problems and logically justify results. Item Specifications
Standard 9.3.4: Solve real-world and mathematical geometric problems using algebraic methods.
Benchmarks
Understand how the properties of similar right triangles allow the trigonometric ratios to be defined, and determine the sine, cosine and tangent of an acute angle in a right triangle.
18.104.22.168
Item Specifications
* Vocabulary allowed in items: trigonometric ratios, sine, cosine, tangent and vocabulary given at previous grades
* Items do not include context.
22.214.171.124
Item Specifications
Apply the trigonometric ratios sine, cosine and tangent to solve problems, such as determining lengths and areas in right triangles and in figures that can be decomposed into right triangles. Know how to use calculators, tables or other technology to evaluate trigonometric ratios.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: trigonometric ratios, sine, cosine, tangent and vocabulary given at previous grades
126.96.36.199
* Assessed within 188.8.131.52 and 184.108.40.206
Use calculators, tables or other technologies in connection with the trigonometric ratios to find angle measures in right triangles in various contexts. Item Specifications
220.127.116.11
* Vocabulary allowed in items: midpoint and vocabulary given at previous grades
Use coordinate geometry to represent and analyze line segments and polygons, including determining lengths, midpoints and slopes of line segments. Item Specifications
18.104.22.168
Item Specifications
Know the equation for the graph of a circle with radius r and center (h, k), (x – h) 2 + (y – k) 2 = r 2 , and justify this equation using the Pythagorean Theorem and properties of translations.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
22.214.171.124
Allowable notation: P' (P prime)
Use numeric, graphic and symbolic representations of transformations in two dimensions, such as reflections, translations, scale changes and rotations about the origin by multiples of 90˚, to solve problems involving figures on a coordinate grid. Item Specifications
* Vocabulary allowed in items: pre-image, image, isometry and vocabulary given at previous grades
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
Use algebra to solve geometric problems unrelated to coordinate geometry, such as solving for an unknown length in a figure involving similar triangles, or using the Pythagorean Theorem to obtain a quadratic equation for a length in a geometric figure. Item Specifications
Strand 4—Data Analysis & Probability
(18–26%)
Standard 9.4.1: Display and analyze data; use various measures associated with data to draw conclusions, identify trends and describe relationships.
Benchmarks
Describe a data set using data displays, including box-and-whisker plots; describe and compare data sets using summary statistics, including measures of center, location and spread. Measures of center and location include mean, median, quartile and percentile. Measures of spread include standard deviation, range and inter-quartile range. Know how to use calculators, spreadsheets or other technology to display data and calculate summary statistics.
126.96.36.199
Item Specifications
* Vocabulary allowed in items: box-and-whisker plot, quartile, percentile, inter-quartile range, standard deviation, central tendency and vocabulary given at previous grades
188.8.131.52
* Vocabulary allowed in items: quartile, percentile, inter-quartile range, standard deviation, central tendency and vocabulary given at previous grades
Analyze the effects on summary statistics of changes in data sets. Item Specifications
184.108.40.206
Item Specifications
Use scatterplots to analyze patterns and describe relationships between two variables. Using technology, determine regression lines (line of best fit) and correlation coefficients; use regression lines to make predictions and correlation coefficients to assess the reliability of those predictions.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: regression line, correlation coefficient and vocabulary given at previous grades
220.127.116.11
Item Specifications · Allowable notation: 𝑥 (mean of a sample) · Vocabulary allowed in items: standard deviation, normal distribution, normal curve and vocabulary given at previous grades
Use the mean and standard deviation of a data set to fit it to a normal distribution (bellshaped curve) and to estimate population percentages. Recognize that there are data sets for which such a procedure is not appropriate. Use calculators, spreadsheets and tables to estimate areas under the normal curve.
Standard 9.4.2: Explain the uses of data and statistical thinking to draw inferences, make predictions and justify conclusions.
Benchmarks
Evaluate reports based on data published in the media by identifying the source of the data, the design of the study, and the way the data are analyzed and displayed. Show how graphs and data can be distorted to support different points of view. Know how to use spreadsheet tables and graphs or graphing technology to recognize and analyze distortions in data displays.
18.104.22.168
Item Specifications
* Not assessed on the MCA-III
22.214.171.124
Item Specifications
Identify and explain misleading uses of data; recognize when arguments based on data confuse correlation and causation.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: causation and vocabulary given at previous grades
126.96.36.199
* Items do not require students to design experiments.
Design simple experiments and explain the impact of sampling methods, bias and the phrasing of questions asked during data collection. Item Specifications
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
Standard 9.4.3: Calculate probabilities and apply probability concepts to solve real-world and mathematical problems.
Benchmarks
Select and apply counting procedures, such as the multiplication and addition principles and tree diagrams, to determine the size of a sample space (the number of possible outcomes) and to calculate probabilities.
188.8.131.52
Item Specifications
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
184.108.40.206
* Vocabulary allowed in items: simulation and vocabulary given at previous grades
Calculate experimental probabilities by performing simulations or experiments involving a probability model and using relative frequencies of outcomes. Item Specifications
220.127.116.11
* Vocabulary allowed in items: simulation and vocabulary given at previous grades
Understand that the Law of Large Numbers expresses a relationship between the probabilities in a probability model and the experimental probabilities found by performing simulations or experiments involving the model. Item Specifications
* Items do not require students to generate random numbers
Use random numbers generated by a calculator or a spreadsheet, or taken from a table, to perform probability simulations and to introduce fairness into decision making. Item Specifications
* Vocabulary allowed in items: simulation and vocabulary given at previous grades
18.104.22.168
Item Specifications
Apply probability concepts such as intersections, unions and complements of events, and conditional probability and independence, to calculate probabilities and solve problems.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: intersections, unions, complements of events, conditional and vocabulary given at previous grades
22.214.171.124
Item Specifications • Allowable notation: ∪ (union), ∩ (intersection) • Vocabulary allowed in items: intersections, unions, complements and vocabulary given at previous grades
Describe the concepts of intersections, unions and complements using Venn diagrams. Understand the relationships between these concepts and the words AND, OR, NOT, as used in computerized searches and spreadsheets.
126.96.36.199
Item Specifications
Understand and use simple probability formulas involving intersections, unions and complements of events.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: intersections, unions and complements of events and vocabulary given at previous grades
188.8.131.52
* Vocabulary allowed in items: vocabulary given at previous grades
Apply probability concepts to real-world situations to make informed decisions. Item Specifications
184.108.40.206
Item Specifications
Use the relationship between conditional probabilities and relative frequencies in contingency tables.
* Vocabulary allowed in items: conditional and vocabulary given at previous grades
|
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9. Significant Irreversible Changes Due to the Proposed Project
Section 15126.2(c) of the CEQA Guidelines requires that an Environmental Impact Report (EIR) describe any significant irreversible environmental changes that would be caused by the proposed project should it be implemented. Implementation of future projects within the specific plan would involve the following long-term irreversible environmental impacts:
- Development of future projects within the specific plan would include construction and demolition activities that would entail the commitment of nonrenewable and/or slowly renewable energy resources; human resources; and natural resources such as lumber and other forest products, sand and gravel, asphalt, steel, copper, lead, other metals, and water. Demolition of existing light industrial uses would occur over time and would be irreversible.
- Future development in accordance with the proposed specific plan is a long-term irreversible commitment of existing developed land in the City of Pasadena. Operation of the project, which would allow an additional 500,000 square feet of commercial uses and 91 residential units, would result in the commitment of limited nonrenewable resources such as natural gas, electricity, petroleum-based fuels, fossil fuels, and water. Natural gas and electricity would be used for lighting, heating, and cooling of buildings and operation of facilities.
- The project would also require an increased commitment of public services (e.g., police, fire). Such commitments are currently required for the operation of the existing development but would be increased due to the more intense development allowed. Though it would not be irreversible or require new infrastructure, the increased commitment of public services would be a long-term obligation.
- Growth related to implementation of the proposed project would increase vehicle trips over the long term. Emissions associated with such vehicle trips would continue to contribute to the South Coast Air Basin's nonattainment designation for ozone and particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5).
- Given the low likelihood that the project site would revert to a less intense land use requiring fewer services, energy, or physical resources in the future, implementation of the proposed project would generally commit future generations to these environmental changes.
9. Significant Irreversible Changes Due to the Proposed Project
This page intentionally left blank.
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Drawing and Sculpture & Construction
Drawing
(Special Education)
This class is a great way to express yourself! Drawing builds hand to eye coordination, develops the mind's ability to see the objects around you, enhances creativity, and social abilities. Each week we will be working on projects in a variety of drawing mediums including pastels, conté crayon, graphite, and chalk. Every student will be assessed and tutored depending on their skill level. A $15 supply fee due to the instructor the first day of class.
Sculpture & Construction
(Special Education)
Students will be taking art beyond the easel by trying projects using a broader variety of media and tools. Practicing art allows the brain to develop neural pathways between short term and long term memory and promotes creative open thinking. All our projects will be hands-on and include mediums such as paper mache, plaster, and sculpture. A $15 supply fee due to the instructor the first day of class.
A guardian may need to be present at all times during these classes.
Register online at www.cityofcarrollton.com/signupnow
Classes are held at Crosby Recreation Center 1610 E. Crosby Rd, Carrollton 75006 972-466-9810
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CRICUT ® : WHAT WAS USED
Cricut Expression®
Machine
OTHER MATERIALS NEEDED
Cricut Craft Room® design tool
12" x 12" magnet board
Markers
Magnets
Adhesive
Light orange pattern paper (1)
STEP 1
Classroom October & November Cartridge
1. Jack-O-lanterns
a. Two black shadows (3 ½" Shadow + <JckOLntrn>)
b. Two light orange pattern jack-o-lanterns (3 ½" <JckOLntrn>)
2. Jack-O-lantern magnets
a. Three black shadows (3" Shadow + <JckOLntrn >)
b. Three orange pattern jack-o-lanterns (2 ¾" <JckOLntrn>)
3. Main phrase: Happy Birthday
a. Black phrase (4 ½" Phrase + <WitchHat>)
4. Phrase: October
a. Black shadow (1" PhraseShadow + <JckOLntrn>)
b. Light orange pattern phrase (4 ½" Phrase + <JckOLntn>)
STEP 2
Use paper trimmer to cut two 12" x 1 ½"" pieces of black pattern paper, one 1 ½" x 12" piece of chevron pattern paper, and one 1 ½" x 12" orange dot pattern paper. Adhere to magnet board edges.
STEP 3
MAGNETIC BIRTHDAY BOARD
Design by: CricutDesignTeam (436 Projects) About me: The Cricut Design Team is a collection of Cricut projects brought to you by Provo Craft's talented designers! We hope you find these projects to be an inspiration for all of your crafting needs!
Project skill level: moderate
Project time: 30 minutes to 1 hour
Project tags: Birthday Wall
Décor/Wreaths/Banners Fall Halloween Holiday Holiday Décor
Celebrate your birthday month in style!
Cricut Craft Room®
Exclusives, Classroom – October & November
Orange pattern paper (1)
Orange dot pattern paper (1)
Orange chevron pattern paper (1)
Black pattern paper (1)
Black cardstock (1)
Create jack-o-lanterns from cuts 1a-1b. Layer together. Adhere to magnet board.
STEP 4
Create jack-o-lantern magnets from cuts 2a-2b. Layer together. Use marker to write names as desired. Adhere magnet to the back of each jack-o-lantern.
STEP 5
Create main phrase from cut 3a. Adhere magnets to back.
STEP 6
Create phrase from cuts 4a-4b. Layer together. Adhere magnet to back.
STEP 7
Place finished pieces onto magnet board.
RELATED PROJECTS
http://www.cricut.com
Dress Card
View details
"6 Today" Card
View details
Happy Birthday Card - Giraffe
View details
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Childhood Obesity: The Need for Practice Based Solutions – A South African Perspective
A.E. Pienaar and G.L. Strydom North-West University, Potchefstroom Republic of South Africa
1. Introduction
Obesity is a complex problem with no simple solutions. In the quest to find possible solutions for this growing problem among children, literature has already indicated a gap between evidence-based research and practice-based intervention (Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2008). This chapter will provide a focus on childhood obesity in South Africa, and will discuss the extent of this problem within the complex context of the South African demographics. It often happens that when researchers have published the results of intervention studies or clinical trials, they may walk away totally satisfied with positive and promising results. The challenge however, remains to translate these research results for practitioners to be used as "tools" in addressing the existing problem. This chapter, therefore, intends to deal with practice-based solutions and recommendations suggesting some strategies in this part of the world.
In order to understand the problem of childhood obesity better in the context of this country (South Africa) it is important to shortly review the socio-economic conditions that currently prevail in this part of the continent as demographic background information.
2. Demographic background
Human growth and development do not take place in a biological vacuum, but in an environmental context where several factors, including genetic potential can affect the development of the child (Cameron, 2005). It is also proved that many so called "developing countries" around the world, of which South Africa is one, at present, are undergoing epidemiological transition (Goedecke et al., 2006). This process is associated with some typical health risks, not only for the adult population, but also for children (Cameron, 2005). Although South Africa is a country with high potential, and many efforts are made to improve the health and well-being of the people living here, many challenges exist to the health and optimal development of children growing up in this country. This country with 50 million people is described as a developing and middle-income country with high socioeconomic disparities (46.3% low socio-economic, 53.7% in middle to high socio-economic) (Zere & McIntyre, 2003), where more than 14 million people were beneficiaries of income support in 2010 and 24.8% were living below the food poverty line in 2008 (Millenium Development Goals, Country Report, 2010). Statistics show that 40% (18.3 million) of the South African population are 18 years and younger. African children accounted for 84% of the total child population, while white (5%) coloured (9%) and Indian (2%) children comprise the rest (South African Child Gauge, 2008/2009). In 2007, two thirds of these children lived in income poverty and about 40% in a household where no adult is employed.
Another health burden is HIV, the epidemic that affects health, livelihoods, economic growth, demographic futures, as well as impacting on the lives of individuals, families and workplaces (Millenium Development Goals, Country Report, 2010). HIV and AIDS have had a significant negative impact on life expectancy in South Africa, and have left many families and children economically vulnerable and often socially stigmatized and continue to leave South Africa with a legacy of young adult deaths. AIDS orphans are socially and economically vulnerable children (South African Child Gauge, 2008/2009). The adult incidence of HIV and AIDS for sub-Saharan Africa was 5.2% compared to a global total incidence of 0.8% in 2008. The proportion of HIV positive babies in 2009-2010 was 9.4% and statistics further show that the HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15– 24 years is 22.8%, with an overall national transmission rate of 11% of HIV to babies born to HIVinfected mothers. HIV is also associated with other life threatening conditions, with tuberculoses being the most common opportunistic infection, with rates exceeding 70% (Millenium Development Goals, 2010). All of the above contribute to South Africa having a high <5 years child mortality rate that is reported to be still much higher than the set target for South Africa by 2015. It is, therefore, not strange that the main priorities of this country are to alleviate poverty and improve primary health care among children in an effort to decrease early childhood mortality.
3. Obesity – A health burden
Recent statistics obtained by the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in the USA indicate 21.5% overweight and 10.4% obesity among 2-5 year olds (Ogden et al., 2010a), while increasing tendencies are also reported in this age group in Europe and Australia (Baur, 2001; Maffeis et al., 2006; Apfelbacher, 2008; Cretikos et al., 2008). Even bigger increases are reported in developing countries such as Thailand (WHO, 2010) and Chili (Kain et al., 2002). Although this disease is not life threatening during the childhood years, and mainly the result of lifestyle related habits, it is prevalent among affluent and less affluent families and has lifelong consequences with an increasing burden on the healthcare system of a country as the child grows older. This growing epidemic of childhood obesity can, therefore, not be ignored in the health care focus of any country. The Medical Research Council of South Africa (Steyn, 2007) reported that health services spend 8 billion rand per annum involving direct and indirect costs resulting from lifestyle related diseases such as heart disease and stroke (Steyn, 2007). Pienaar (2009) argues that disease prevention is as important as the treatment thereof and should receive high priority in the country. This researcher recommends that strategies should be put in place to prevent diseases from a very young age as research indicates that exposure to health risks due to physical inactivity, which is one of the main causes of childhood obesity, already start in childhood, although the consequences or clinical symptoms may only occur in mid- to later life when the individual reaches the clinical horizon (Rowland, 1990). Kruger et al. (2005) also highlight that obesity needs to be viewed as a disease in its own right and one that warrants intervention even when comorbidities are not present.
Furthermore recent data in the USA, where the national obesity rates have tripled among children and adolescents over the last 30 years, suggest that obesity is now responsible for more disability and activity limitations than smoking. As a direct result of this obesity epidemic, doctors are noticing a significant rise in chronic illnesses among children. Obese children are also more than twice as likely to develop type 2 diabetes than children of normal weight (CDPH, 2010). In California, cost attributable to physical inactivity, obesity and overweight in 2006 was estimated at $41.2 billion. This suggests, however, that a 5% improvement in each risk factor could result in annual savings of nearly $2.4 billion (CDPH, 2010). This burden is also indicated in many other countries around the world, viz: Australia and UK. In South Africa it is estimated that 30% of ischaemic heart disease, 27% of colon cancer, 22% of ischaemic stroke and 20% of type 2 diabetes were attributable to physical inactivity (Joubert et al., 2007). Thus, considering the major burden/health concern of obesity in child and adulthood as well as the complex co-morbidities originated from obesity, it is imperative that more focus should be directed on the developing child to reinforce healthy lifestyles in order to reduce the burden of non-communicable diseases of adulthood.
Kruger et al. (2005) indicated that obesity prevention initiatives should be focused on children to ensure the adoption of a healthy lifestyle from an early age. The challenge to deal with this epidemic should, therefore, rather be to prevent it, highlighting childhood as a critical developmental phase. It is agreed that besides genetic predisposition, lifestyle habits are determined in the first years of a child's life. During this critical phase of human development some developmental "windows of opportunity" occur (Gabbard 1998). When optimal stimulation is not received during these critical periods, the opportunity passes, leaving the individual in many cases with some developmental restrictions. Intervention later in life can improve the situation but the individual may never reach his/her optimal potential in the specific area. The words of the previous Surgeon General of the USA, Dr. Everette Koop, sum up this situation viz. (1996): "Everything we have ever done in health education, as good as it might be, always has one fault: It's too late.", again emphasizing that the period of childhood is a critical phase on which to focus.
4. Prevalence of childhood obesity in South Africa
A worldwide increase in childhood obesity is reported, including in South Africa. Kruger et al. (2005) reported in this regard that earlier South African studies (1996-1998) showed a prevalence of about 10% of overweight and obesity among children in this country. More recent statistics indicate higher incidences that are similar to that of developing countries a decade ago (Steyn et al., 2005; Armstrong et al., 2006). Differences are also reported between urban and rural environments, indicating that urbanisation plays a role in the prevalence of obesity, while ethnic and gender differences are also evident from reported statistics.
The results of a nationally representative study ("National Food Health Consumption Survey" (Labadarios, 1999) of 1-9 year old children indicated that 6.7% of them were overweight and 3.7% were obese. When international BMI standards as proposed by Cole et al. (2000) were applied to these results, 17.1% of the children were classified as overweight and obese (Steyn et al., 2005). Another comprehensive study among 6 and 13 year old children and also based on the same cut-off values indicates a prevalence of 14% and 3.2% of overweight and obesity among boys, while 17.9% and 4.9% of girls were overweight and obese respectively (Armstrong et al., 2006). Statistics in a regional representative sample of
7-year old children in one of the nine provinces of South Africa, the North West Province, indicates an overweight and obesity prevalence of 11.64 % (overweight =7.84%; obesity =3.80%) (Kemp et al., 2011), with significant differences between gender and children growing up in different socio-economic environments. The prevalence of obesity is reported to vary between rural and non-rural communities (Monyeki et al., 1999) with higher percentages reported in the non-rural areas. Monyeki et al. (1999) reported the prevalence of overweight in 3 to 10 year old children in disadvantaged communities in the Limpopo Province as low (0% - 2.5% and 0% - 4.3% among boys and girls respectively) while Steyn et al. (2005) reported the highest prevalence of overweight (20.1%) in urban areas and the lowest in farming communities.
Studies on overweight and obesity among boys and girls show a gradual increase as girls get older, with significant differences between genders. Statistics on 10-12 year old girls living in the North West Province of SA, indicating 16.52% to be overweight and 4.93% to be obese (Pienaar et al., 2007). The "International Obesity Task Force" reported that 25% of all SA girls in the 13-19 year age group are overweight, compared to 7% of boys (Somers et al., 2006). Somers et al. (2006) further indicated that overweight among 10-16 year old girls (21.1%) was significantly higher than among boys (8.4%), with no significant differences with regard to obesity. A possible explanation is that girls are more prone to overweight and obesity, especially before the onset of the growth spurt at about 10-years of age and after menarche has commenced (Armstrong et al., 2006).
Differences are also reported between ethnic groups and those living in different socioeconomic conditions (McVeigh et al., 2004 & Armstrong et al., 2006). These researchers reported that White boys and girls showed the highest BMI values, although after the age of 11 years, black girls presented with the highest BMI values. The incidence of overweight and obesity among Black girls increased from 12% at the age of 6-years to 22% at the age of 13-years, while a decreasing trend from 25% to 15% was found among White girls. The "South African Youth Risk Behaviour" study reported the incidence of overweight and obesity among Black, White and Indian girls in the 13-19 year old group as 30%, 34% en 41% respectively (Steyn, 2005). Pienaar et al. (2007) found ethnical differences in a representative sample of 10-12 year old girls living in the North West Province of South Africa, where White girls showed the highest percentage of overweight (21.28%), followed by Indian (17.39%), Black (15.81%) and Coloured girls (9.10%). Indian girls showed the highest prevalence of obesity (8.7%) followed by White (8.51%) and Black girls (4.35%), with no obesity found among coloured girls in this age group. Somers et al. (2006) investigated the prevalence of overweight and obesity among 10-16 year old children in rural environments in the Western Cape Province of South Africa, and found that 15.7% of the children were overweight and 6.2% obese. The prevalence of overweight was also much higher among Black children (21.8%) than Coloured children (13.7%), with similar trend regarding obesity in the two ethnic groups (5.8% versus 6%). Black girls showed the highest percentage (30.8%) of overweight especially in the 16-year old children.
5. Causes of childhood obesity in South Africa
The problem of childhood obesity is very complex in this country due to some historical, socio-economic and other circumstances. Kruger et al. (2005) suggested that various socioeconomic and cultural factors may contribute to the obesity epidemic in South Africa. It is, therefore, not limited to a specific ethnic, age or socio-economic group, indicating that cultural, environment and genetic factors should also be taken into consideration when causes of childhood obesity are analysed. Further some of the major factors that may be relevant in this regard will be outlined briefly.
5.1 Poverty
Obesity in the general population is much more likely to result from excess calories consumption and sedentary lifestyle than from any other factors (Kimm, 2004). Most commonly, obesity (overnutrition) leads to an accelerated growth rate and tall stature during childhood with early achievement of normal adult height. Poverty and unemployment on the other hand, generally result in poor levels of nutrition, increased levels of food insecurity and incidences of malnutrition (Millenium Development Goals, 2010). A reasonable proxy for income poverty and hunger is child under-nutrition. It is reported that 2.7 million children live in households that reported child hunger (South African Child Gauge, 2008/2009). The underweight-for-age incidence rate (a weight less than 60% of estimated 'normal' weight-for-age) is generally higher than the severe malnutrition incidence rates of a country. Severe malnutrition is reported to average over the period 2001 to 2010 to be between 4.4% and 13.3% for the <5 year old in the different provinces of South Africa (District Health Information System in the Department of Health). These poor levels of nutrition contribute to growth deficiencies such as stunting (retarded growth) and wasting (low weight-for- age). In this regard the Barker hypotheses implicates the fetal in-utero environment as a significant determinant of risk for major chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes and obesity, later in life (Kimm, 2004). In a study done on a Fillipino group of children, low birth weight was associated with higher blood pressure and heavier bodyweight during adolescence (Kimm, 2004). Small stature associated with obesity during child and adulthood can, however, result from a diverse set of conditions (Kimm, 2004). These include being born small for gestational age, postnatal malnutrition, hormone abnormalities such as deficiencies of growth hormone or thyroid hormone, late effects after childhood, cancer, certain medications, and genetic syndromes. Common features of growth disorders in the context of obesity include limited growth hormone or thyroid hormone or their action, or limited sensitivity to insulin. Abnormalities of leptin and newly identified appetite-regulating peptides may also lead to poor growth and overweight. Popkin et al. (1996) were the first to highlight that the prevalence of childhood obesity was greater in children who were stunted in communities undergoing nutritional transition. In this regard Naude et al. (2008) reported higher BMI, fat percentages and intra-abdominal fat storage among stunted children compared to non-stunted children in South Africa. From the previous discussion it is obvious that children born under these difficult conditions suffer a high risk of stunting during infancy, and that growth retardation during early childhood is associated with significant dysfunctional improvement during adulthood (Cameron, 2005) including obesity (Popkin et al., 1996). This phenomenon was also supported by a study of Ravelli et al. (1976) on the importance of adequate nutrition during the prenatal period in children born under famine conditions. The most famous of these was the "Dutch Hunger Winter" beginning in October 1944 when food suppliers to the Dutch cities were reduced due to German occupation of the Western Netherlands (Cameron, 2005). During this time the average per capita daily ratio of approximately 1800 kcal/day dropped to 600kcal/day. In the follow-up study of Ravelli et al. (1976) it was indicated that in men (Dutch military conscripts) exposed to famine in the first two trimesters of pregnancy, the prevalence of obesity was dramatically increased compared to those exposed to famine in the third trimester or postnatally. A possible mechanism underpinning this phenomenon is not yet well established but may be linked to the so-called "intra-uterine programming" (Cameron, 2005). Following birth this programming caused them to respond adversely to changes in lifestyle that may result in obesity in later life (Cameron, 2005).
Other indicators of overweight and obesity are mothers that smoke and the absence of breastfeeding (Burke, 2006). To minimize mother-to-baby transmission of the HIV virus, breastfeeding practices are not recommended among HIV positive mothers. A link was also confirmed between low educational level and a higher BMI in a group of economically active South Africans representing four different ethnic groups in the country (Senekal et al., 2003).
5.2 Urbanisation and diet
Kruger et al. (2005) reported that the obesity epidemic in South Africa reflects globalization which is the primary driving mechanism towards nutritional transition. These researchers indicated that more freedom of movement of especially the black population and an increase in exposure to the global market economy led to a shift from traditional foods, low in fat and rich in fibre, towards meat and diary products containing high levels of saturated fats and more highly refined foods. Globalization may, therefore, increase the risk amongst the urban population by creating an evironment which is conducive to the consumption of food rich in fat and sugar (Bourne et al., 2002; MacIntyre et al., 2002). Urbanisation is also linked to a higher income which contributes to a higher fat intake and an increase in sedentary behaviour (Kain et al., 2004; Van der Merwe, 2004). It is further indicated that in townships and among street vendors, cheap fatty meat and snacks and few fruit and vegatables are sold (Kruger et al., 2005).
5.3 Cultural differences
The diverse culture of the 4 major ethnic groups in South Africa (Asian, black, coloured and whites/Caucasian) contributes to deepen the complexity of the problem. Kruger et al. (2005) indicate that culture shapes eating habits. In some cultures social gatherings encourage overeating and certain foods (luxurious foods rich in fat and energy) are associated with social status and become more acceptable among urban South Africans. In some of the groups, overweight (and obesity) reflects the "good" life viz, wealth, good standing, attractiveness and absence of HIV/AIDS, which is associated with respect, dignity and affluence, therefore, a bigger body size is more acceptable (Senekal et al., 2001; Puoane & Hughes, 2005). In this scenario a paradigm shift is necessary to convince individuals about the health consequences of obesity and overweight.
5.4 Sedentary behaviour and physical inactivity
Sedentary behaviour is identified as one of the most important contributing factors of childhood obesity (Steyn, 2005). Dodd (2007) reported that the increased prevalence among children can mainly be attributed to a decrease in energy expenditure and increased sedentary behaviour. Although South Africa has high percentages of children living in poor socio-economic circumstances, 53.7% are brought up in middle to high socio-economic conditions (Zere & McIntyre, 2003). Children growing up in such households are more likely to participate in passive pastimes such as TV watching and computer games. Television viewing of more than 3 hours per day and the absence of Physical Education in SA schools are reported to contribute to more sedentary behaviour and obesity among school going children (Medical Research Council, 2002). In addition, Van der Merwe (2004) indicated that 40% of all advertisement during TV programmes for children, is about food products with a high fat and or suger content, which encourage a higher energy intake. Trends have also changed where in most households, both parents are working and children have to stay at daycare centres or in after-school programmes, which restrict them to participate in after school activity programmes (Pienaar, 2009). High crime rates, unsafe environments and stranger fear is a reality in South Africa with a profound effect on children moving freely and unrestricted around and playing outside (Bourne et al., 2002; Sabin et al., 2004). This contributes to parents being afraid of using public transport which decreases walking and bicycling activities among children.
In South Africa 17% of primary school children and 29% of secondary school children have to travel more than 30 minutes to reach the school nearest to them. Many children in low socio-economic situations have to walk to school by necessity, and benefit from this activty, but this is associated with hardship and when such children have an option later in their life, they will choose easier options to commute, contributing to a more sedentary lifestyle (Lennox et al., 2007). Very high percentages of TV watching (especially watching soap operas) is also reported among adolescents living in poor socio-economic circumstances, especially girls. This behaviour provides an easy escape from their daily reality, but contributes to sedentary lifestyles (Lennox et al., 2007). This trend is similar in America which indicates the highest percentages of obesity among children living in poor socioeconomic conditions (Ogden et al., 2010b).
5.5 Familial obesity
Studies indicate that parental overweight and obesity are the biggest risk factor for overweight and obesity among children (Van der Merwe, 2004). The "American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry" indicates that when both parents are obese, the risk for the child to be also obese is 80%, and 50% when one parent is obese (AACAP, 2010). This relationship is also reported to be higher with the mother (Padez et al., 2005). The cultural perception of overweight and obesity as acceptable, make this factor an important contributing factor to overweight in this country.
6. Evidence-based practice to intervention-based practice
This part will focus on a summary of research findings regarding the success of different intervention strategies and the knowledge that practitioners can gain from these results in order to treat childhood obesity more effectively. Successful strategies, barriers and challenges will be further identified in the treatment process of childhood obesity.
Before commencing with this discussion it is, however, important to provide a conceptualization of the health paradigms. In order to understand the roles of various health disciplines in illness, health and well-being, and to understand how the treatment of childhood obesity and the manifestations of this condition fits into the illness/well-being continuum and health paradigm, it is important to discuss the illness/well-being continuum briefly and its position in the various health paradigms viz. the pathogenic and fortogenic paradigm. This will provide the reader with a better understanding of where practitioners that treat childhood obesity are positioned in this health paradigm and of the specialized training and skills that such practitioners need to treat this condition effectively.
6.1 The health paradigms – A conceptualisation
The World Health Organisation (WHO) already postulated a definition of health in 1947 indicating that "Health is a condition of optimal physical, psychological and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease". From this definition it is clear that illness and well-being focus on two different entities in the individual's health and well-being. This is clearly illustrated in the illness/well-being continuum as illustrated by Robbins et al. (1991)(Fig 1.).
In the past the responsibility for the individual's health was solely the responsibility of the doctor. When any signs, symptoms and illness occurred the patient went to the doctor for medical attention in order treat the signs/symptoms and to restore life to the neutral point where no signs of the illness is noticeable. However, in this scenario no effort is being made from the patient's side to improve his own health and well-being by embracing a healthy lifestyle such as healthy eating habits and regular exercise.
To combat the problem of obesity among children, the primary focus should be on the right hand side of the continuum (Fig. 1). This comprises of providing the child with the necessary developmentally appropriate motor skills and creating an understanding of healthy behaviour and convert the knowledge and behaviour into effective strategies for health enhancement (Crawford, 2008), hereby educating the child and allowing him/her to grow to eventually accept self-responsibility for his/her own well-being. It is in this respect that Dr Koop, former Surgeon General of the USA, suggested that this health and well-being "message" should reach the very young child in order to develop healthy lifestyle habits. It is, therefore, clear that the main focus of a profession dealing with childhood obesity should fall on the right hand side of the continuum, which is focused on health promotion and, therefore, primarily can be described in the fortogenic paradigm which seeks "strong" (healthy) points to be enhanced ('Forte' means 'strong'). To understand the role of pediatric exercise science in the various health paradigms, the following conceptualisation (Fig. 2) may be useful.
In Fig. 2, the three constructs regarding health, viz, illness care, illness prevention and health promotion are arranged into the two paradigms namely the pathogenic and fortogenic paradigm. In the concept "illness care" it is suggested that a pathology is already present and the main focus is to cure the problem. In the case of illness prevention no pathology existed, only the threat of a pathology is present (immunisation against a certain illness such as polio is a typical example). In both constructs, because pathology forms the main focus of the treatment, the traditional health care professionals such as doctors, nurses and physiotherapists may be mainly responsible for treatment. In the health promotion construct no pathology or threat is present, and the aim is purely to improve health and well-being. This construct falls exclusively within the fortogenic paradigm where the aim is primarily to improve health and well-being by taking self-responsibility. As stated earlier the primary focus of Kinderkinetics falls in this paradigm. However, it is important to understand that the application of this discipline is also relevant in the pathogenic paradigm where the actions may be more of therapeutic value indicated by areas that overlap (Fig 2).
Area A (Fig 2) would, therefore, suggest the rehabilitation or improvement of a pre-diagnosed condition. A child suffering from type 1 diabetes mellitus (which is associated with obesity) is a typical example in this scenario. While the pathology is medically treated and managed by the traditional health care professionals, the young child is motivated to participate in scientifically designed exercise programmes, tailored for his/her developmental needs, taking into account the barriers imposed on the child by the specific pathological condition. By participating in physical activity the pathology (type 1 diabetes) will not be totally cured but the benefits of exercise for this condition are already well described. It may also motivates the child to lead a physically active life into adulthood, preventing various health threats associated with a sedentary lifestyle (hypokinetic diseases) and strive to improve quality of life. It may also be during this phase when the young child is introduced to physical activity that the perception that the illness which is present (diabetes) need not be an ordeal but that the child may lead a 'normal' and productive life and that it is his/her responsibility to follow the necessary precautions to manage the disability. In many cases the perception of the child being a "disabled" as a result of the illness is a major obstacle for the parents to overcome, as they tend to be overprotective of such a child. Participating in a specialized environment and in programmes conducted by specialised trained health professionals, the parents may have peace of mind that the person who is working with the child is adequately trained.
Area B (Fig. 2) suggests a situation where the child may suffer from a pre-diagnosed condition that may be positively affected by physical activity so that it may lead to a possible improvement of the condition. An example here is the obese child. An increase in physical activity may improve the condition and also lead to improvement of the child's well-being. In Area C no pathology is currently present but the threat existed, which may lead to health consequences if the problem is ignored. An example in this case is the clumsy child. If such children are not exposed to activity provided by a trained professional who can assess their developmental barriers and can treat them effectively by equipping them with appropriate motor skills, a love for activity and an understanding of the importance of an active lifestyle, the clumsy child may continue to withdraw himself from movement and physical activity, eventually suffering from various hypokinetic diseases later in life.
6.2 Evidence-based intervention – Successes, challenges and principles 6.2.1 Successes
In this section the outcomes of different obesity intervention studies on children with regard to the nature, the extent, the successes and the challenges will be discussed briefly, after which important principles that can guide the intervention process will be highlighted. Campbell et al. (2001) reported a research environment that is still void of current statistical power to set clear guidelines for the prevention of obesity across a variety of risk groups. Obesity prevention is, however, recommended as the best strategy in the combatting of obesity among children (Bosch et al., 2004; Boon & Clydesdale, 2005), although in reality this strategy is not always possible. The literature describes obesity treatment in prevention or curative settings, and as treatment based on singular (physical activity, diet or behaviour modification) or multi-component aspects (combinations of the aforementioned three components). Furthermore, studies report the results of childhood obesity treatment in clinical, family or school based settings.
A systematic review of 7 studies (4 shorter and 3 over a longer period) by Campbell et al. (2001) and 28 studies by Connelly et al. (2007) (11 successfull, 17 unsuccessful) indicated mixed success rates. However, it was concluded by Connoly et al. (2007) that the factor that contributed most to the effectivenes of the treatment was compulsory physical activity with a moderate to high intensity. An overview by Jerum and Melnyk (2001) of randomised controlled studies that focused on the prevention of childhood obesity indicated that health workers such as doctors and nurses should play a more prominent role in the prevention of obesity and that multi-component treatments are more successful than single component treatment. The importance of parent involvement is also highligted over the whole spectrum of obesity intervention (Jerum & Melnyk, 2001; Golan et al., 2006).
It seems that multi-disciplinary interventions that include physical activity, diet and behaviour modification, contributed to better results in comparison to studies that only focused on singular aspects. School-based programmes are found to be effective in combatting obesity by increasing the physical activity levels of the children and improving healthy eating habits. It can, therefore, be concluded that physical activity plays an important role in the prevention and treatment of overweight and obesity and the the type of treatment as well as the intensity and duration of the activity are very important.
The treatment of established obesity is, however, more complex and needs more intensive treatment. Clinical intervention based on a multi-disciplinary approach seems to be succesful (Eliakim et al., 2002; Nemene et al., 2005; Sacher et al., 2005; Korsten-Reck et al., 2005; Dreimane, et al., 2007; Eneli et al., 2008; Knöpfli et al., 2008; Weigel et al., 2008). It is also reported that interventions are more successful when the child is motivated to lose weight (Boon & Clydesdale, 2005), and that interventions on obese children with concerned parents are more successful than for instance school-based multi-disciplinary interventions where children sometimes are not even aware of the fact that they have a weight problem. Studies indicated that at least 12 weeks and a frequency of 3-5 times per week are required to provoke positive effects. Most studies use weight loss as a precursor of the success of the treatment. However, it is reported that obesity intervention has more advantages than only a positive change in body composition. An overall decrease of the metabolic syndrome was for instance reported among 10 to 17-year old children with a mean body fat percentage of 37.5%, after an intensive 2-week in-patient intervention in which no changes were found in the body fat percentage (Chen et al., 2006). A literature review by Eneli et al. (2008) showed similar results with only a small change in BMI, although improvements were seen in the lipid profile, blood pressure and insulin resistance.
6.2.2 Challenges
Obesity treatment requires considerable lifestyle related modifications which has to be sustainable in order to be successful. The sustainability of the effects of childhood obesity treatment is however reported as poor. The maintenance of the effects after the treatment phase is therefor a major challenge to overcome (Crawford, 2008). It often happens that when a controlled treatment ends, which is usually in the form of research, children are expected to follow a home programme by themselves. A main challenge for obese children is then to stay committed to make time to participate in the prescribed regular daily physical activity of moderate to high intensity level for at least 30 minutes, on their own, and sometimes in an unsympathetic environment. In addition, their expectations and setting of realistic goals are usually unrealistic, and because of this they can easily become frustrated. A possible reason for this might be that children younger than 12 years are still in the preoperational and concrete mental-operations stages of cognitive development as described by Piaget (Sherrill, 2004). This implies less mature stages of thinking and reasoning without abstract thought. With regard to health behaviour, Crawford (2008) states that children in these stages of cognitive development will experience barriers to plan for the future because they cannot form mental images of the positive and negative consequences of certain health behaviours. These reasoning skills are in turn, needed to assume a more internal locus of control regarding their own personal health management choices. Children thus require different techniques to get them to take responsibility for their health. In addition they also tend to be more extrinsically motivated in general and it is not clear when they shift to a more internal motivation with regard to health goals (Crawford, 2008). As obese children are often negative towards participation in physical activities, this is a major challenge to overcome because of the importance of physical activity in their treatment. The content of the physical activity program should therefore be scientifically grounded but delivered in such a manner that the child will associate movement with enjoyment in order for this part of their treatment to provide enough external motivation to them to persist with it. Without a positive attitude towards participation in physical activity, it will be hard to motivate obese children to increase their activity levels and to stay active.
Furthermore, obese children with co-morbidities are at risk for contra-indications and should not participate in unsupervised physical activity programmes with high intensities which is required for weight loss. In addition, the development of age appropriate motor skills, strength, fitness and proper body posture are important goals in the treatment of obese children in order to equip them with the necessary motor repertoire based on their developmental level and abilities to be able to participate in sports programmes and recreational activities with their peers. They should therefore be assessed and a programme should be described to them based upon this assessment which is tailored to their specific needs. It is therefore imperative that the health care professional should have a thorough scientific background and understanding of the obese child regarding the physical, emotional, cognitive and physiological barriers these children have to deal with and which they have to overcome in order for an intervention to be sustainable and to contribute to permanent lifestyle changes. In this regard high levels of social support (network of family, friends, health professionals and community resources by providing appropriate information and encouragement) and self efficacy are indicated to be important predictors in adherence (Crawford, 2008).
6.2.3 Principles of prevention programmes
Kruger et al. (2005) provide important recommendations and discussed various principles for the treatment of obesity in South Africa. However, the applicability of some of the recommendations will be more challenging and will need some adaptations to be effective when applied to children. They reported that at the first WHO Expert Consultation on Obesity, the development and implementation of effective obesity prevention strategies were identified as an immediate action priority. To guide this process, these researchers indicated that South African researchers and health workers should take note of the proposed principles upon which obesity prevention should be based. These principles will be used as a guide in the discussion of the way forward.
1. Interventions should focus on education and address environmental and social factors to promote and support behaviour change.
2. Increased physical activity.
3. Sustainability of programmes is crucial to ensure positive change in diet, activity and obesity levels over time.
4. Political support, inter-sectoral collaboration and community participation are essential for success.
5. Local actions within the context of national initiatives allow programmes to meet needs, expectations and opportunities.
6. All parts of the population must be reached.
7. Programmes must be adequately resourced.
8. Integration of new programmes within existing initiatives.
9. Programme planning should be evidence-based.
10. Programmes should be properly monitored, evaluated and documented to ensure dissemination and transfer of experience.
Kruger et al. (2005) also report that the US Institutes of Medicine suggested three levels of prevention to ensure the correct focus for obesity prevention which include:
1. Universal prevention interventions, focused on everyone in an eligible population irrespective of their current level of risk. This may be family-based, school-based, work site-based or community-wide. Secondly, selective prevention interventions, focusing on the prevention of obesity in selected high-risk groups, based on known biological, psychological or social/ cultural risk factors, which will focus on the development of lifetime behavioural patterns that will prevent obesity, and thirdly, targeted prevention that focuses on individuals who are overweight and aims to prevent weight gain, as well as the development of co-morbidities.
Different modes of delivery of prevention programmes are also reported by Kruger et al. (2005). These include:
1. Do-it-yourself in self-initiated or group settings. This self-help programmes are seen as lowintensity, cheaper intervention methods, associated with better longer term compliance but poorer weight loss outcomes than higher-intensity methods.
2. Non-clinical programmes provided to individuals/groups by trained professionals, not necessarily registered healthcare professionals. Information on diet, exercise and behaviour modification is provided at regular meetings. These programmes are popular and often commercially franchised.
3. Clinical programmes provided by registered healthcare professionals with specialized training in weight management. These could involve a consultation with a dietician, medical doctor or a multi-disciplinary team.
Kruger et al. (2005) finally stressed that all obesity treatment programmes should aim to empower individuals/groups to take responsibility for making permanent lifestyle changes towards healthy dietary intake and physical activity through behaviour modification, and recommend the inclusion of the following essential components in such programmes.
For effective implementation of the above treatment principles among children, specific recommendations should, however, be added with regard to the weight goals and eating habits and physical activity components because children have developmental limitations on different levels. With regard to weight goals and healthy eating patterns, it should be remembered that children's bodies are in a growing phase and that weight loss will not necessarily be the most suitable goal, depending on the extent of the obesity problem. Although individual differences and circumstances should always be taken into consideration, it is suggested that the eating habits and patterns of young children should rather be managed by lifestyle changes which incorporate changing of eating habits rather than they being expected to follow a strict diet. Steyn (2007) reports in this regard the National guidelines of the Department of Health which states that the weight of children aged between 2 and 7 years who have no complications should be maintained, because there will be weight loss as a result of an increase in length. If there are however, complications such as high blood pressure, insulin resistance or orthopaedic problems, weight loss will be necessary. In children over 7 years, weight loss should be started when the BMI of the child' lies above the 95 th percentile, or otherwise the international age specific cut-off values for obesity of Cole et al. (2000) can be used as a quick screening method. The AED (2011) also recommends that interventions should aim for the maintenance of individually appropriate weights, that is, that children will continue to grow at their natural rate and follow their own growth curve, underscoring that a healthy weight is not a fixed number but varies for each individual. The South African version of the stoplight (robot) diet is suggested for use among children towards healthier dietary intake (Steyn, 2007). Foods are categorised in this diet in categories of use, in limited, moderate or restricted amounts, and parents and children are asked to keep record of all that is eaten, which makes them aware of the quantity and quality of foods being consumed. The guidelines of the ACSM (2000) for the structuring of obesity programmes are also valuable with regard to the weight and eating management of obese children. This includes a recomendation of maintaining a minimal intake of about 1200 calories per day, and engaging in a daily exercise program that expends 300 or more calories per day. For weight-loss goals, exercise of long duration /moderate intensity is generally considered best (ACSM, 2000). The AED (2011) highlights that weight is not a behaviour and therefore not an appropriate target for behaviour modification in school and community based intervetions. They recommend that interventions should be weight-neutral, thus not have specific goals for weight change but aim to increase healthy living at any size. Children across the weight spectrum benefit from limiting time spent watching television and eating a healthy diet.Children therefore need education to understand what realistic goals are with regard to weight management and that they will have to make a commitment to adhere to their goals, also with regard to participating in physical activity.
Regarding the guidelines for physical activity component of treatment programmes, the developmental needs of obese children regarding their motor skills development or the lack of it because of their overweight problem, should receive attention. This is a unique requirement of childhood treatment programmes in comparison to adult programmes. The activities included in a programme, therefore, need to focus on increased levels of participation in conjunction with opportunities to enhance basic motor skills that are needed for sport participation or recreational activities. Weight bearing activities which can improve bone health should also be included in the activity programme. Guidelines as suggested by Short et al. (1999) for aerobic functioning among 6-17 year old children can be use as a guideline in determining the intensity level of the physical activity programme of obese children or with regard to daily physical activity that is expected from them, depending on their age (Table 1). Parizkova (2005) report in this regard that exercise must be vigorous enough to impose an adequate training load on the cardiorespiratory system, and stress that this part of a programme should be adequately monitored.
Lastly with regard to the behavioural and psychological component of treatment programs, the immature cognitive understanding and reasoning skills of children as described earlier, might influence children's commitment to changes in their personal health management. The Academy for Eating disorders (2011) recommend that the ideal intervention should be based on an integrated approach that addresses risk factors for the spectrum of weight-related problems, including screening for unhealthy weight control behaviours; and promotes protective behaviours, such as decreasing dieting, increasing balanced nutrition, encouraging mindful eating, increasing activity, promoting positive body image and decreasing weight-related teasing and harassment. Behavioural changes that are expected from them should, therefore, be carefully managed. The AED (2011) also recommend that interventions should also be created and led by qualified health care providers who acknowledge the importance of a health focus over a weight focus when targeting lifestyle and weight concerns in youth. In this regard, the modes of delivery of prevention programmes as suggested by Kruger et al. (2005), will also be challenging for children because they are mostly based on selfhelp programmes and the implementation of knowledge gained from regular meetings. Delivery of programmes in this way will be challenging for children to comply with or to understand. Sustainable programmes, especially with regard to physical activity, managed by a trained health care professional who understands the limitations of children and who can adress it appropriately within a supportive family environment (Steyn 2007), might be the only workable solutions to adress these developmental deficiencies of children.
*These values represent moderate physical activity; ideally, this level will be exceeded to vigorous levels at times.
Table 1. Guidelines for developing aerobic functioning
Reprinted, by permission, from F.X. Short, J. McCubbin, and G. Frey, 1999, Cardiorespiratory endurance and body composition. In The Brockport physical fitness training guide, edited by J.P. Winnick and F.X. Short (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics).
7. Practice-based solutions – The way forward
As described, childhood obesity is a challenging problem to combat especially in a country like South Africa where the health care system is challenged with numerous complexities. From the above discussion it is clear that it is important to intervene at a young age in order to establish a healthy lifestyle among children. However, children cannot be treated as miniadults, because of their developmental needs and limitations on various levels that have to be taken into consideration when addressing this problem. Intervention of childhood obesity (prevention and treatment), therefore, calls for comprehensive and innovative strategies. A few practice-based solutions that are implemented successfully in this country will be discussed in the following section.
7.1 Paediatric exercise science – The development of a new health care profession in South Africa
In combating the obesity epidemic among children, an increase in physical activity plays an important role, both in primary and secondary intervention. A real challenge is to provide evidence-based physical activity intervention to children during early childhood (3-12 years). For the very young child, a physical activity intervention should be age and developmentally appropriate. Therefore, the professional who administers the intervention during this stage should be thoroughly trained in childhood development and paediatric exercise science. The literature has already indicated a gap between evidence-based research and practice-based intervention (Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 2008). It is often seen that when researchers have published the results of their intervention studies or clinical trials, they walk away totally satisfied with positive and promising results. The challenge, however, remains for somebody to translate these research results for practitioners to be used as "tools" in addressing the existing problem.
The treatment offered should be based on an individual assessment of each child and then tailored to the requirements of the developmental stage and the severity of the problem. This should i.a include the following: obtaining a medical and family history, a physical activity profile and information about the eating habits of the child to determine possible reasons for his overweight problem. Situational influences relevant to the health behaviour such as cultural influences should also be taken into consideration. Secondly, his body composition (weight, height, hip and waist-circumferences, skinfolds and BMI), current motor and physical abilities (strength, strength endurance, cardiovascular endurance and flexibility) and basic motor skills needed for sport participation as well as his body posture should be assessed to determine individual goals for treatment. Thirdly, the baseline principles of intervention strategy with regard to frequency, duration, mode of delivery and type of activities should be followed (Parizkova, 2005). Older children may be requested to select preferred sporting activities that can be included as a part of their treatment regime in order to make it more enjoyable for them making them feel part of the decision making process of their treatment. Such a programme should be offered in a controlled and childfriendly environment with considerable support from the health care professional who conducts the programme. The basic and underlying philosophy of treatment in this regard is to expose the young child to physical activity adapted to his/her individual needs while creating a child-friendly atmosphere. In this environment professionally trained individuals have to support and motivate the child to participate and enjoy the prescribed activities within a scientifically based programme. If any health risks associated with obesity such as hypertension or other cardiovascular risks are identified during the initial screening process, such a child should be referred to a medical practitioner who has to clear the child clinically for participation in an exercise programme.
This approach calls for a comprehensive strategy managed by an appropriately qualified professional. In South Africa a new field of study has developed over the past 2 decades, seeking to bridge the gap between research and implementation. From this field of study a "new health profession" has emerged, called "Kinderkinetics" – derived from the terms "kinder" as in "children" and "kinesis" as in "movement". The focus of this profession primarily falls on the field of pediatric exercise science – using exercise/activity as a therapeuticum, profilaticum and health promotion modality.
Students in this profession are trained at 4 South African Universities/tertiary institutions following a 4 year degree integrated with laboratory and practical experience in various centres, which requires hands-on experience in order to obtain professional registration. At present, qualified professionals are registered by a professional body, the South African Professional Institute for Kinderkinetics (SAPIK) to practice as Kinderkineticists. The scope of this discipline falls primarily within the health promotion paradigm (fortogenic), providing scientifically-based exercise programmes to stimulate the young child according to his/her psycho-physical developmental stage in order to obtain optimal development. However, the scope also includes children with pre-diagnosed clinical problems such as obesity, diabetes mellitus, HIV, Down Syndrome and other ailments where children may have special needs and/or barriers regarding their physical activity and motor development, hence overlapping in the pathogenic paradigm.
This fairly new discipline (Kinderkinetics) has already gained substantial recognition as a potential health discipline and more than 150 practitioners are already working in this field, ranging from self-employment in private practices to employment in school and pre-school environment. In practice many referrals are received from other health professionals, such as paediatricians, general practitioners, occupational therapists, teachers and parents. The SAPIK is currently in the process of applying for official recognition of this profession from a Statutory Health Professions Council in South Africa in order to ethically legalise referrals from other health practitioners mentioned, as ethical rules of those health professionals prohibit mutual referral and cooperation between registered versus unregistered practitioners. These negotiations with the Statutory Health Professions Council are already in an advance stage and will hopefully be successful.
7.1.1 Applied research
The profession of Kinderkinetics is guided by applied research where the growth and motor development and physical activity of children, as well as interventions to improve shortcomings that are identified in this regard, have already been extensively researched within the field of pediatric exercise science. In this regard obesity among children of different age groups and from different perspectives for a better understanding of the problem have been published. This i.a include the prevalence of childhood obesity in different age groups (Du Toit & Pienaar, 2003), relationship of childhood obesity with the motor (Du Toit & Pienaar, 2003); fitness, (Truter et al., 2010); psychological (Pienaar & Eggar, 2007; Kemp & Pienaar, 2010), physiological (Kemp & Pienaar, 2010) and academic abilities (Du Toit et al., 2011), as well as relationships of obesity with diagnosed motor delays such as Developmental Coordination Disorder among children (Pienaar et al., 2007). The most recent study that will be published shortly indicates significant relationships between hypertension, overweight and obesity among a representative group of 7-year old children in this country (Kemp et al. 2011, in press).
After accumulating all this evidence, the next action taken was the planning of research in which an obesity intervention programme could be developed and assessed. A programme based on the principles of physical activity participation, behaviour modification and dietary guidelines was then compiled and the outcomes evaluated. The energy expenditure of the group was monitored by Actical software in order to determine the effectiveness of the intensity of the physical activity part of the programme, but also to analyse the activity patterns of the children during the week and weekend and to determine possible changes in their activity patterns resulting from the programme. This intervention on 9-12 year old children was conducted over a period of 13 weeks at a frequency of three times per week with a home program and parent meetings regarding school lunch boxes and physical activity guidelines. The physical activity intervention was delivered on two days of the week, while behaviour modification regarding their eating patterns, self perception and physical activity habits was the focus of the third day of the week. Dietary modification by means of empowering the children with knowledge of different foods, healthy eating patterns, improvement of self-perception and goal setting strategies to improve physical activity were addressed through play and activity themes on this day. A home program was provided to them that they had to follow for the two additional days of the week. Significant improvement was found in the children's body composition (body fat percentage) while, waist- and upper arm-circumferences decreased significantly. A non-significant decrease of 2.9 kg was also found in body weight. The self-perception of the group improved significantly as assessed by the Harter Scale (Kemp & Pienaar, 2010). The compliance to the programme decreased when the supervised part ended, again highlighting the need for professional supervision and sustained motivation of children in obesity treatment regimens. This protocol is now implemented as an obese intervention by Kinderkineticists, with specific adjustments with regard to age appropriateness of the level, selection and inclusion of motor activities and the intensity level of physical activities. The treatment programme can also be used effectively for inactive children by only modifying the intensity of the programme, as it incorporates all the necessary fitness components such as strength and strength endurance, cardiovascular endurance, flexibility and the development of basic motor skills needed for sport participation.
7.1.2 Implementation
The need for the expertise, provided by this discipline in this country with its extreme diversity, not only in population and ethnic groupings, but also in socio-economic status, is substantial. Challenges to bring this service to the deep-rural and remote areas of the country still ask for innovative thinking. A first step in childhood obesity treatment will have to be national initiatives acknowledging the severity of the problem, policy support and community engagement on the level of implementation. The training of mid-level professionals, who can assist the Kinderkineticist in the screening and recruiting process and in the sustainability of programmes by supervising and monitoring it is essential. The training of such workers is envisaged as a sub-register that will be part of the professional registration of Kinderkinetics in the future. The training of multi-skilled professionals who can work multi-disciplinary with the Kinderkineticists such as nurses in health care clinics or in the school system or of Life Orientation teachers who can do screening for abnormalities, is also a possibility to ensure early identification and referral of obese children, as well as of other children at-risk for developmental problems.
7.2 Obesity prevention
The important message of obesity prevention by embracing a healthy lifestyle should be echoed through the school system, as most children can be reached through the school curriculum. The AED (2011) recommends that interventions should not be marketed as "obesity prevention", but rather interventions should be referred to as "health promotion," as the ultimate goal is the health and well-being of all children, and health encompasses many factors besides weight. Physical education (PE) was, however, phased out of South African schools to make more time available for the "so-called" academic subjects, and with that, teachers with the necessary training to make children aware of the importance of a healthy lifestyle and to provide them with the necessary skills and physical activity, also declined. Since 2010 PE was reinstated in the school curriculum where this message can be portrayed, and screening for overweight can be done with the necessary education or referral for help. Interventions should focus on making children's environments healthier rather than focusing solely on personal responsibility, which include serving healthy meals, providing opportunities for fun physical activities, implementing a no-teasing policy, and providing students and school staff with educational sessions about body image, media literacy, and weight bias (AED, 2011). However, this is going to be a long process as teachers for this profession have to be trained from scratch and schools have to be equipped with the necessary resources to teach this subject effectively.
7.3 Improved sustainability of obesity intervention
Kruger et al. (2005) report that lifestyle modification as an isolated tool for weight management has a high drop-out rate with less than 5% of patients remaining successful after 5 years. If lifestyle modification is this challenging to adults, young children will need much more encouragement, support and supervision to change their lifestyle because of their poorer cognitive understanding of the consequences of the problem of overweight and hence the lack of self-responsibility and commitment to do something about it. It can, therefore, hardly be expected from overweight and obese children to comply with a treatment programme which includes lifestyle modifications including physical activity, dietary and behaviour modification on different levels, on their own. Health promotion awareness campaigns that urge children to be more active because of the health consequences of physical inactivity will hence not be enough to motivate them to become more active and stay active. Practitioners need to design programmes and apply it in such a way that it is attractive to these children and thereby motivate them to participate as part of their understanding and commitment to a lifestyle change. Obese children are normally not keen to be active for various reasons such as physical discomfort, previous negative experiences, anxiety and a low self-esteem (Parizkova, 2005). Obesity treatment also requires many changes on different levels which make it difficult for children to stay motivated while engaging in such programmes, especially the part that requires high levels of physical exertion. All these changes that are required from them, can thus be overwhelming and will require several emotional coping responses from the child to deal with it. Boon and Clydesdale (2005) recommend in this regard that changes should be introduced one at a time because the ability of children to concentrate on one change will then be easier as fewer rules have to be remembered. Continuous support of children by means of re-assessment and the setting of realistic goals is therefore imperative. The younger the child the bigger the challenge will be for results because of their developmental limitations and the higher the need for a ongoing and supervised treatment programme will be. Interventions should also focus on making children's environments healthier rather than focusing solely on personal responsibility (AED, 2011). It is also recommended that obese children should participate in small groups as this is conducive to the need for group activities with peers of a similar size and shape, and provide support and opportunity for social interaction. In so doing such children do not feel isolated or different from their peers as they are matched with children with similar abilities and problems which make it easier to participate in activities that are strenuous.
Research experience (Kemp & Pienaar, 2010; Truter et al., 2010) indicate that although many children were identified as obese and invited to participate in an obesity intervention, free of charge, parents were still hesitant to provide permission for their children to benefit from this opportunity. It is understandable that parents want to protect their children from unnecessary labels that could affect their emotional development or self-confidence negatively. Main obstacles are, therefore, the acknowledging of the problem of childhood obesity by parents as well as the urgency to address it, and further to support the child once overweight or obesity is established as a health concern that needs to be addressed. Family involvement on various levels is considered to be critical in the treatment of childhood overweight. Practitioners must remember that when parents provide informed consent for their child to participate in a treatment programme, it should not necessarily be considered as active involvement on the part of the parent. Parental involvement is considered to be critical to influence the home environment (dietary modification) and to monitor and motivate children to comply with programmes and to support them to change their lifestyle behaviour and physical activity modification. It is reported in this regard that if the family is not ready to support the programme, success will be unlikely (Kain et al., 2004; Crawford, 2008).
The accessibility of facilities where treatment programmes are offered is important for the sustainability of programs. In the USA it is already indicated that clinical options at hospitals are not effective in the challenge of childhood obesity among children living in poor socio-economic environments (California Department of Public Health, 2010). They claimed that the service should rather be delivered in the environment of the child living in lower socio-economic circumstances. Nearby community centres, churches or school yards are recommended as possible venues with mid-level workers who can assist in non-clinical programmes. Health care facilities in remote areas can also be used for basic screening and to provide education and referral help for the parents.
Specific knowledge of the target populations and the best way to engage them in change is essential, therefore, specific issues, and social and cultural values (cultural view of 'ideal body image') need to be taken into consideration. The question of what will increase the probability of the group to be motivated to participate or comply with changes is essential to be answered in this regard.
Awareness campaigns that stress the urgency of dealing with this problem by taking action and the responsibility of the parent in this decision are, therefore, much needed priorities. Kruger et al. (2005) indicated that stakeholders from government (Departments of Education, Health and Safety and Security) need to understand the factors contributing to decreased physical activity among children and the effects of inactivity on health and should initiate programmes to increase physical activity among South Africans, while stakeholders from the health professions, non-government organisations and communities should also become involved in these efforts.
7.4 Community engagement
The majority of children in South Africa live in environments that are not conducive to their health and well-being and it is, therefore, a challenge to reach these children who are in many areas considered at-risk and in need of developmental help. Statistics show that nearly 40% of children live a long distance from their nearest primary health care clinic (South African Child Gauge, 2008/2009). Strategies to improve community engagement for the purpose of primary prevention should, therefore, be implemented. Expanding high quality preventative services in both clinical and community settings are, therefore, important for successful prevention. In this scenario it is anticipated that a qualified practitioner can make a significant contribution as he/she is specifically trained. Midlevel workers that can assist this healthcare professional in providing more basic services for the obese child, and multi-skilled workers such as nurses who can be trained to do basic screening and risk field analysis and to refer the child for help in remote areas is recommended. In this regard it is indicated that in all interventions aimed at preventing and managing overweight and obesity, systematic assessment and evaluation should form a routine procedure. The incorporation of BMI and waist-circumference as part of a risk factor analysis to be used at primary healthcare level may be the first step in the recognition of chronic, non-communicable diseases by the Department of Health (Kruger et al., 2005). Traditional and community leaders should be involved in providing strategies and support. The AED recommend in this regard that representatives of the community should be included in the planning process to ensure that interventions are sensitive to diverse norms, cultural traditions, and practices. Furthermore, clinical training grants should be provided by the government for in-service training and nongovernmental initiatives should be seek to obtain resources, to ensure successful service delivery at community level. These also include commitments from the government to making neighborhoods safer, providing access to nutritious foods, constructing sidewalks and bicycle lanes, building safe outside play areas, and encouraging parents to serve regular family meals, create a non-distracting eating environment, and provide more active alternatives to TV viewing (AED, 2011).
8. Conclusion
Pienaar (2009) stated that the 20 st century will challenge movement specialists worldwide, to not only provide services and support to children who are diagnosed with serious activity/movement deficiencies and who meet the legal requirements to be classified as disabled, but also to address other individual needs of children that require professional help. Therefore, children who are not identified by government for special assistance, but who have individual needs that require specialized assistance, should also be able to acquire the specialised knowledge of trained health care professionals such as Kinderkineticists in SA. These will include children with poor fitness levels, overweight and obese, insufficient motor development, poor motor skills or individuals with poor functional posture, injuries or specific medical conditions.
Childhood obesity will never be easy to address, but passionate and specialised professionals who understand the level of problems of children who battle with overweight and who can support them on a scientific and professional level in their quest to overcome the problem, may make a considerable contribution to improve the health burden. The need of children in South Africa for this important impetus in their overall development as a human being inspires professionals to keep on convincing government and other officials to take national action, and hopefully to get the necessary policies and resources in place, to ensure the implementation of a scientifically-based service to a very vulnerable population.
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Strydom, G.L., Wilders, C.J., Moss, S.J. & Bruwer, E. (2009). A conceptual framework of Biokinetic procedures and referral system: An integrated protocol for the various health paradigms. African Journal for Physical, Health Education, Recreation and Dance. Vol.15, No.4 (Dec 2009), pp.641-649
Truter, L., Pienaar, A.E. & Du Toit D. (2010). Relationship between overweight, obesity and physical fitness of 10 to 12-year old South African children. South African Family Practice, Vol .52, No.3, pp. 227-233
Van Der Merwe, M.T. (2004). Childhood Obesity. South African Family Practice, Vol.46, No.6, (2004), pp.16-19
Weigel, C., Kokocinski, K, Lederer, P., Dotsch, J., Rascher, W. & Knerr, I. (2008). Childhood Obesity: Concept, Feasibility, and Interim Results Of A Local Group-Based, LongTerm Treatment Program. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behaviour, Vol.40, (2004), pp.369-373
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2010). Obesity. 08/09/2010, Available from: <Http://Www.Who.Int >
Zere, E & Mcintyre, D. (2003). Inequities in Under-Five Child Malnutrition in South Africa. International Journal For Equity In Health. Vol.2, No.7, (Sept 2003), pp.1-10
Childhood Obesity
Edited by Dr. Sevil Ari Yuca
ISBN 978-953-51-0374-5
Publisher
Hard cover, 236 pages
Published online 28, March, 2012
InTech
Published in print edition March, 2012
This book aims to provide readers with a general as well as an advanced overview of the key trends in childhood obesity. Obesity is an illness that occurs due to a combination of genetic, environmental, psychosocial, metabolic and hormonal factors. The prevalence of obesity has shown a great rise both in adults and children in the last 30 years. It is known that one third of children who are obese in childhood and 80% of adolescents who are obese in their adolescent years continue to be obese later in life. Obesity is an important risk factor in serious illnesses such as heart disease, hyperlipidemia, hyperinsulinemia, hypertension and early atherosclerosis.
How to reference
In order to correctly reference this scholarly work, feel free to copy and paste the following:
A.E. Pienaar and G.L. Strydom (2012). Childhood Obesity: The Need for Practice Based Solutions - A South African Perspective, Childhood Obesity, Dr. Sevil Ari Yuca (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-51-0374-5, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/childhood-obesity/childhood-obesity-the-need-for-practice-basedsolutions-a-south-african-perspective
InTech Europe
InTech China
Unit 405, Office Block, Hotel Equatorial Shanghai No.65, Yan An Road (West), Shanghai, 200040, China
Phone: +385 (51) 770 447
University Campus STeP Ri Slavka Krautzeka 83/A 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
Fax: +385 (51) 686 166 www.intechopen.com
Fax: +86-21-62489821
Phone: +86-21-62489820
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The restoration of the Belene Marshes brings back the
Dalmatian pelicans
Title The restoration of the largest marsh on the Bulgarian part of the Danube was done in 2008 with the financing of the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), as part of a World Bank managed project. ?Wetlands Restoration and Pollution Reduction?. The project was the first of its kind under the umbrella of the GEF Black Sea/Danube Strategic Partnership ?Nutrient Reduction Investment Fund which aims to control or mitigate nutrient inflow to the Black Sea. Thus the marsh situated on the largest of the Danubian islands, and part of the Ramsar site Belene Islands Complex (IBA BG017), is once again rebuilding its position of a birds? paradise. That is more than a welcome development, bearing in mind the inherent sombre reputation of this place, used as a deadly prison for the political opposition to the former Communist regime of the country. BSPB/BirdLife Bulgaria in partnership with the Persina Nature Park and the WWF-Bulgaria are monitoring the ecological effects of the wetland restoration project on biodiversity. As part of a conservation project and with the help of the Park management a fixed platform of reeds was built to stimulate the breeding of the Dalmatian pelicans. Two months after the platform was constructed it was already used by a group of 20 Dalmatian pelicans for roosting. Public access to the island is still very limited, which helps to ensure a minimal human disturbance, a critical factor for the pelicans to start breeding. Observations from the last three years show that more than 200 Dalmatian pelicans from the Srebarna Lake (IBA BG033) and the Danube Delta (IBA RO081) breeding colonies use this area after their breeding season. BSPB hopes that the pelicans will adopt the marshes as a breeding site next year when a second bigger platform will be built. ?We are eager to see the Dalmatian pelicans returning to breed in the Belene Marshes, but even now it is already obvious that the restoration of the wetland was a blessing for biodiversity in the region?, Emil Todorov, Coordinator of BSPB in the region says. ?With every monitoring visit we witness the return of many water birds here, including at least 62 species of European conservation concern?. The site is known for protecting one of the largest breeding concentrations of grebes, herons, ducks along the lower Danube. During the spring and autumn the restored wetland is an important stop-over area for many migratory species. Thousands of geese use it as a quiet roosting place during the cold winter months.
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Berry College International Programs What students are saying about
Costa Rica — ULACIT
Who this program is for
* Students who want to learn Spanish
* Students who enjoy Latin American culture
* Students who like beauti ful beaches, hiking, water falls, volcanoes, and cheap travel
Ways to Interact with Ticos
* Live with a hostfamily
* Work as a volunteer
* Play fútbol in one of the many public parks
* Attend a local church
Other interesting information
* "There were many volunteer opportunities, [and] I worked in a clinic as a volunteer."
* "I have come to appreciate and embrace independ ence. I learned that I can do what I put my mind to."
Who this program is NOT for
* Students who do not speak any Spanish
* Students who do not like living in cities
* Students who have never lived away from home
Money
* It is possible to travel quite inexpensively in Costa Rica
* It is recommended that students take $1000$2000
* It is possible to use major American credit and debit cards
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Dr Monja Proctor
Dr Edwin Hatch
Umbilical Hernia
What is an umbilical hernia?
A hernia is a bulging of tissue through an opening in the abdomen. An umbilical hernia is when fluid or intestine pushes through the ring of muscle surrounding the belly button. You will notice a bulge or swelling under the skin in the belly button. In children this hernia forms during development if the ring of muscle around the umbilical cord. This kind of hernia is present at birth.
What are the symptoms?
An inguinal hernia causes a bulge or swelling that you can see under the skin in the belly button. Most children with a hernia seem to be comfortable and act like they usually do. In rare cases the intestine in the hernia can get stuck (incarceration), causing severe pain and intestinal blockage. Your child may have severe pain or vomiting. If this happens call your surgeon immediately. An umbilical hernia is usually first noticed after the umbilical cord falls off the infant. It is normal for the hernia to look larger and harder when your child is straining or crying.
The surgeon will carefully examine your child's abdomen to feel if a hernia is present. No special Xrays or tests are needed.
Will my child's umbilical hernia go away?
Most umbilical hernias will go away by themselves over time and no treatment is necessary. This may take a few years. Most children will have no symptoms from the hernia.
How is an umbilical hernia treated?
If the hernia does not go away by itself by 3-5 years of age or if the size of the opening in the abdomen is very large it will be surgically repaired. If the hernia is never repaired and does not go away, your child will have an hernia even as an adult. For women the risk of incarceration increases in pregnancy. For this reason it is recommended that children, especially girls whose hernia has not closed by itself, have the surgery to fix it.
How is an umbilical hernia repaired?
Your child should drink plenty of fluids and a light diet the evening after surgery. The next day your child can resume a normal diet as tolerated.
An umbilical hernia is usually repaired as a same day outpatient surgery at the hospital. Your child will have a general anesthesia for the surgery. This means we will give your child medicine to make him/her sleep and have no pain during the surgery. The surgery is done through a small half circle cut (incision) along a belly button skin crease. The surgery involves gently pushing the intestine back into the abdomen and closing the circle of internal tissue around the belly button. The incisions are closed using stitches that dissolve. These stitches can not be seen from the outside and do not need to be removed.
How do I care for my child at home?
Incision
Keep the incision clean and dry for 48 hours after surgery. The incision will be covered with clear surgical glue or steristrips. Sometimes an overlying dressing is applied and this can be removed after 48 hours after surgery.
The stitches will dissolve and do not need to be removed.
Some swelling and/or slight bruising of the belly button is normal.
Diet
When fully awake your child may have clear liquids like 7up, Jell-O, popsicles and apple juice.
Nausea and/or vomiting are common after surgery. If this occurs a clear liquid diet given slowly will help.
If your child tolerates fluids then advance to a light diet and then regular diet as tolerated.
Notes
Comfort
Following surgery pain and discomfort is normal especially when moving. Give painkillers as prescribed by the surgeon. Some children need more medicine than others. Gas pains are common.
Activity
Your child may shower or sponge bathes 48 hours after surgery. No tub baths or swimming for one week after surgery.
Infants and toddlers resume activity as tolerated. Older children limit their own activity and resume to normal activity as they feel comfortable. Avoid rough play, contact sports, bicycle riding and playground climbing equipment for 2-4 weeks and until pain free.
Return to school when child feels comfortable. School excuse notes are available on request.
Follow up
The surgeon will see your child 2 weeks after surgery.
When do I call the doctor?
Fever (greater than 101 degrees Fahrenheit) Redness, swelling or persistent pain at the incision.
Redness that spreads from the incision site. New bleeding or drainage from the incision site. Inability to urinate within 8-12 hours after surgery.
Vomiting
Please call the pediatric surgery office at 206-215-2700 if you have any questions or concerns.
Pediatric General Surgery 1101 Madison, Suite 800 Seattle, WA 98104
©2008 SWEDISH HEALTH SERVICES
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CITY OF SANTA CRUZ Public Works Department
STORMWATER MANAGEMENT UTILITY
Questions and Answers
Why did the City create a Stormwater Management Utility?
T he City of Santa Cruz is required by the federal Environmental Protection Agency and the state Department of Water Resources to address water pollution associated with stormwater runoff from streets and properties in the City. Studies indicate that stormwater runoff is a major contributor of pollutants to the San Lorenzo River and Monterey Bay. In addition to pollution control requirements, the City faces significant flood control commitments for the San Lorenzo River Flood Control Project.
The City created the Stormwater Management Utility and established utility fees to pay for the City's share of costs for stormwater pollution prevention and flood control projects. Stormwater related pollution abatement programs are estimated to cost around $200,000 per year on an ongoing basis. Total costs to implement the San Lorenzo Flood Control Project are estimated at over $57 million, shared between the federal government, state and City, with the City's share of costs estimated at around $9.7 million. These costs include the reconstruction of four bridges, levee raising, river landscaping, and the Laurel Street Extension/Third Avenue Riverbank Stabilization Project.
What is the City's plan to address stormwater pollution?
What is the Citywide Stormwater Management Fee?
T he City has developed and is implementing programs to monitor stormwater for pollutants, improve stormwater system maintenance, and provide educational activities to individuals, businesses and agencies impacting stormwater. The City recently adopted a Stormwater Ordinance establishing standards for keeping stormwater clean. Best management practices for specific areas such as retail, industrial, and construction activities are being developed and implemented. In combination, these programs will reduce stormwater pollution. These activities support the goal of the City to minimize the pollutants from the City storm drain system entering Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary.
Need more information?
City of Santa Cruz Public Works Deptartment 809 Center Street, Room 201 Santa Cruz, CA 95060
Mary Arman Principal Administrative Analyst (831) 420-5162
Astormwater management fee is charged to each property within the Santa Cruz city limits. The stormwater fee is based on the average stormwater runoff from various land use types within the City and on property size. Property land uses which have a high percentage of area covered by buildings and pavement generate more stormwater runoff than vacant land or uses with less coverage. Therefore those properties with more impermeable area are charged a higher user rate per acre.
Parcels with single-family residences are charged a flat amount of $21.24. All other rates are based on acreage. A vacant parcel is charged at $5.28 per acre. An average commercial parcel would be charged around $85 per year, based on the $261.08/acre rate. Citywide fees fund stormwater pollution reduction programs and the City's share of bridge improvements on the San Lorenzo River.
City Stormwater Management utility fees are billed on the property tax statements mailed by the Santa Cruz County Tax Collector. The fees should be paid with property taxes. Fees collected by the County are then turned over to the City.
STORMWATER MANAGEMENT UTILITY
Questions and Answers continued on back…
CITY OF SANTA CRUZ
Public Works Department
STORM WATER MANAGEMENT UTILITY
Questions and Answers
What will the Flood Levee Improvement Project do?
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the City of Santa Cruz have agreed to jointly fund a project to raise the height of the San Lorenzo River levees from one to five feet, depending on location, and to restore riparian habitat along the levees. The San Lorenzo River Flood Control and Restoration Improvements project has been in the works since 1978, and is estimated to cost over $16 million. The City's share of this cost is $2.7 million.
The improvements will be built in several phases depending on Congressional funding. Congress approved $4.8 million in the Fiscal Year 2000 federal budget and construction of Phase I began in August, 1999. Phase I of the project extends from Highway 1 to Water Street and Soquel Avenue Bridge to Riverside Bridge. A small section of the levee was raised in 1998 near Highway 1 behind the new Gateway Shopping Center. Phase II covers Water Street to Soquel and Riverside to the River mouth. Both phases are substantially complete. The State Legislature in 2000 passed legislation authorizing State assistance to the project. This assistance will cover a large percentage of the required City share of the Corps portion of the project.
A second part of this project was replacement of the Riverside Avenue Bridge, the northern two lanes of Water Street Bridge, the Soquel Avenue Bridge, and retrofit of the Broadway/Laurel Bridge. The new structures are higher and allow freer flow of flood waters. Bridge construction is funded by a separate Federal program and the City's share has been financed from the citywide stormwater fees, since all City residents benefit from the improved bridges.
The third part of the project is the Laurel Street Extension/Third Street Riverbank Stabilization. This project will construct a natural rock form wall along this section of the river to prevent the collapse of these streets into the river. Vegetation will be planted along the toe of the wall adjacent to the river. Design is 60% complete and additional funding is being sought.
Which properties are affected by levee improvements?
All parcels which lie within the 100-year floodplain of the San Lorenzo River within the Santa Cruz city limits will receive increased flood protection from the levee improvements. About 1600 parcels lie within the floodplain.
What are the flood insurance benefits to affected parcels?
Most properties within the 100-year floodplain are required by the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) to purchase flood insurance. Annual premiums for a single-family home range from $200 to $300. In 2002, FEMA recognized that the levees are already providing increased flood protection and granted an interim A99 flood zone designation to most parcels in the 100year floodplain. This designation allows flood insurance premiums to be reduced by 40-50%. Property owners can get more information on this change at the City website: www.ci.santa-cruz.ca.us or by contacting their insurance agent. Once the river levee project is completely finished, the City will apply to FEMA to have the 100-year floodplain boundary revised. This will remove the FEMA flood insurance requirements for most properties. Most property owners will save money when this happens; they will pay less in annual stormwater fees for the levee project than they now pay for flood insurance premiums.
What is the flood levee improvement fee?
Those parcels which lie within the 100-year floodplain are charged a stormwater utility fee to pay the City's share of the flood levee project. This fee is in addition to the existing citywide stormwater utility fee which is financing bridge improvements and stormwater pollution reduction. Both fees were approved by the City Council in 1994. The fees are based on the average amount of stormwater runoff for the various land uses and on parcel size.
The primary purpose of the project is to reduce flood damage and loss within the City of Santa Cruz 100-year floodplain. According to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the December 1955 flood caused over $40 million in damage. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers estimates that today a 100-year flood in the downtown area would cause $86 million in damage.
The City Flood Levee Improvement utility fees are billed on the property tax statements mailed by the Santa Cruz County Tax Collector. The fees should be paid along with annual property taxes. Fees collected by the County are turned over to the City.
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Small Aquariums: The Perfect Gift to Beautify the Home or Office
Drs. Foster & Smith Educational Staff
Have you considered bringing the beauty and therapeutic benefits of an aquarium to your home or office? Perhaps you decided against it thinking, "I don't have room or time to set up an aquarium... especially during the holidays." Thanks to today's small desktop aquariums, adding the colorful and wonderful beauty of tropical fish is easier than ever.
Glass bowls are a thing of the past
Technological advances have brought about lightweight acrylic aquariums that dramatically redefine the concept of small aquariums. Sophisticated, streamlined, and designed for convenient set up, many desktop aquariums now feature an all-inclusive hood with built-in filtration and lighting. These integrated systems save time by simplifying equipment selection and fish enjoy much healthier water conditions.
Fun new pets and learning opportunities for everyone
A new desktop aquarium makes a perfect gift for children or budding hobbyists of any age. Not only are they beautiful to look at, aquariums are fun, educational tools that parents and children can enjoy together. The excitement generated over an aquarium spurs eager minds to share what they learned with family members and friends.
Optimal office enhancement
More workplaces are realizing and enjoying the benefits of aquariums. Desktop aquariums offer great rewards, yet require minimal effort to set up and maintain. These benefits range from stress relief to the beautification and revitalization of any workspace.
The soothing sound of water and the calming effect of colorful fish gliding effortlessly through the water help lower blood pressure and reduce stress levels. Lower stress levels translate to greater creativity and higher productivity. Furthermore, a beautifully set up desktop aquarium is an excellent "ice-breaker" and conversation piece, sure to spark the interest of any business client. These and other benefits make desktop aquariums a wise investment for any office environment.
Deck your halls with a bright, dazzling new aquarium
Brighten your holiday season (and the rest of the year) with a fun, attractive, educational aquarium. Whether you know aquarium veterans looking to expand their collection, or "first-timers," a small home or office aquarium is a great gift that brings much-needed color, relaxation, and fun.
Here are a few great starter aquariums:
Small Aquariums: The Perfect Gift
Fan-Cooled Nano Cube Aquariums
AquaPod Aquarium Systems
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Safe kids J Healthy kids J Happy kids
Watch for Bullying Behavior in Your Middle School Child
Despite anti-bullying campaigns in schools, bullies continue their mean behavior. During middle school, pre-teens and young teens report a peak in this meanness. You can help your child avoid bullying behavior if you understand your middle-school child.
Peers and friends are important to middle-school kids. Young teens:
Are often insecure. • Sometimes, hurting others makes them feel better.
sadness or depression may be a part of a child's decision to bully someone weaker. It makes him feel powerful – important.
Decrease your child's risk for being a bully or a bystander who supports bullying.
Need friends and do not • want to be alone. Adopting a group's behavior makes kids feel like a part of the group.
Want to be like others. • Children reflect this when they dresses, talk and act like their peers.
Lack self-control. If a child • is part of a group of kids bullying someone, she may not know when to stop.
Are impulsive. This makes • them vulnerable to the mob mentality. "If my friends are doing it, so will I".
Live in the "here and now." • They do not consider the long-term consequences of their actions.
Parents do not want their children to bully others. Yet, bullies continue to cause hurt. Parents often ignore signs that their child is a bully. Many make excuses for their child. "It's her friend's fault". "That boy is weird. It is no wonder kids pick on him".
Some parents have no idea of their childrens' thoughts and feelings. Most targets and bystanders do not tell an adult. Unaware of daily school threats, parents believe all is well and ignore problems.
For more information on bullying, log onto www. parenthelpline.org and find the Bullying section.
Are often unable to cope • with their emotions. Anger,
Be a good role model • . Treat your child and others with respect.
Teach empathy. • Discuss how words and actions affect others – hurt or help them.
Have chats • about school and friends.
Ask your school • counselor for help if you suspect your child is involved in bullying.
Brought to you by Parent Help Line and St. John's Children's Hospital
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Founding fathers vs. politicians
Written by Neil A. Davis Wednesday, 14 July 2010 21:45 -
The Second Continental Congress met on July 1, 1776 to discuss separation of the American colonies from Great Britain. An impassioned speech against separation was delivered by John Dickinson, who felt it to be premature. He blamed their oppression on Parliament and thought reconciliation could still be made with King George. A speech by John Adams was received with more enthusiasm by the majority. Dickinson could not in good conscience vote for the measure, but would not vote against it either and left the meeting. Did he go to join the British? No, he went to join his regiment in New Jersey.
On July 2, Congress voted to approve a resolution of independence that had been proposed by Richard Henry Lee of Virginia. After debate and revision, final approval came on July 4. By the time most delegates were actually signing the Declaration on Aug. 2, Dickinson was fighting for the very cause he could not support in Congress.
His unpopularity for not signing the declaration, hampered his advancement in military rank. Because of this, he had an on/off relationship between military service and politics. Dickinson did not discard his principles for popularity's sake nor let his unpopularity prevent him from doing great things.
Some of his accomplishments included: chief justice of Pennsylvania, author of most of the state papers of the Continental Congress, author of the Articles of Confederation, delegate at the Federal Constitutional Convention and signer of the Constitution. He (like the rest) put himself, his family and property at great risk. The bottom line was, all these men were about the future of our country, our freedom and liberty. It was not about their personal agendas.
To compare politicians of today to the founders, seems to me a criminal act. The Democrat party should be wearing orange jumpsuits. Their House members are full-blown socialists. They pass laws in the middle of the night without letting anyone read what's in them. The only concerns these spineless reprobates have are their personal agendas and re-elections. Since the "immaculation" of Obama, the Constitution has been held in total disregard. Four members of the Supreme Court voted against the First and Second Amendments. They are now pushing a court nominee (Elena Kagan) who believes we have no rights, save those given to us by government. When she reads the declaration, the words "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness" don't appear. I don't believe the oppression we face from this group, to be any less than that which the colonists faced. How about these words from the declaration—governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.
1 / 2
Founding fathers vs. politicians
Written by Neil A. Davis Wednesday, 14 July 2010 21:45 -
To celebrate the 100th anniversary of our independence, France gave us the Statue of Liberty. It was a gift of mutual respect for freedom and democracy. It was also a symbol of the French people's pride for their part in our revolution. Two weeks ago Obama tried to turn it into the Statue of Immigration. I'm tired of him trying to re-write our history.
After passage of the declaration, John Adams wrote a letter to his wife saying, the day should be "solemnized with pomp and parade, with shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires and illuminations, from one end of this continent to the other, from this time forward forever more." Enjoy your fireworks while you can. Under Obama, the E.P.A. is probably looking at banning them.
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Basic Commands: Teaching Your Puppy
Drs. Foster & Smith Educational Staff
Teaching your puppy basic commands "Come," "Stay," "Sit," "Heel," and "Down" - is essential to your relationship and the safety of your pup. As you prepare to work with your dog on obedience training, it is important to remember a few basic rules to make the process an easy and effective one.
You may think you can do it on your own, but there's a right way and a wrong way to train. Starting out the right way is much easier than trying to retrain after bad habits are already formed.
Teach the action first, then the command -
As you begin training, you really don't need to say much at all, because your voice commanding "Come" or "Sit" will just be confusing for the pup. In all training, a dog should know and understand the action demanded of a command before you ever add human language to it.
Keep training sessions short - Even though
everything you do should be regarded as training in one way or another, structured command training should be done in short sessions - several repetitions is enough - at least three times a day. You want to keep your pup enthused about training and, like children, their attention span is
short.
Be consistent - Each family member should use the exact same words each time. It should be "Come," not "Come here girl," and "Stay," not "Stay right there, don't move."
Never get angry - It will only increase the time necessary for training and will always affect the trust your puppy has for you. Remember, like dealing with your children, deep breaths, count to ten . . . .
Praise each success - Let them know they please you when they perform a command by gently rubbing or petting them over the back or shoulder. Keeping a small handful of treats is also a good way to slip your pup some positive reinforcement. Verbal praise is okay, like saying "good dog" - but be careful not to overdo it or you will lessen the effect of future praise.
Praise or correct behavior immediately - So they can associate their behavior with either the positive or negative reinforcement. Don't automatically discipline them if they don't follow a command. They may not understand what you want them to do, which could be the fault of the teacher, not the student.
Patience, patience - This is going to take time. The most common mistake is moving too fast. Your puppy should know and respond to each command. "Good enough" is rarely good enough.
Many communities offer dog handling courses like Kindergarten Puppy Training and Obedience Classes, which are great resources for puppies and owners alike. Some even award successful doggie graduates with framed diplomas! There are also a number of excellent books available to help you find the right training methods.
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Fleas Pose Dangers You Will Want to Prevent
Drs. Foster & Smith Educational Staff
Fleas are eager to form a close relationship with your cat. These common parasites feed on your pet (and even on you) for the blood meals they need to survive.
Problems worth preventing
FLEA ALLERGY DERMATITIS - Many cats are allergic to flea saliva. Although fleas will make any cat scratch, the intense iching of this allergy causes vigorous scratching, inflammation, lesions, and hair loss.
TAPEWORM INFESTATION - Fleas can harbor immature D. caninum tapeworms, which they pass on to your cat.
ANEMIA - Large numbers of fleas ingesting large amounts of blood can cause anemia, especially in kittens. Severe anemia can be fatal.
FLEA-TRANSMITTED DISEASES
Feline Infectious Anemia affects the red blood cells of cats, causing anemia, depression, appetite loss, and fever.
Bubonic Plague is a sometimes fatal disease in humans that causes enlarged lymph nodes and fever.
Monthly preventives
Monthly preventives are the easy way to avoid flea infestation. These safe and effective products are specially formulated to prevent fleas from ever landing on your pet or invading your home.
Most popular are topicals, which are applied directly onto your pet's skin. Oral preventives are usually liquid for cats (or tablets for dogs.
Recommended Flea Control Products
Doctors Foster and Smith
Advanced Formula
Flea & Tick Shampoo
for Cats
Fleas Pose Dangers You Will Want to Prevent - Page 1 of 1
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Thirty Years Serving Dharma Category : January/February/March 2009 Published by dharmalingam on May. 04, 2009
Publisher's Desk
Thirty Years Serving Dharma
We celebrate Hinduism Today's productive past, introduce a few design changes and explore our impact and digital innovations
By Satguru Bodhinatha Veylanswami
Audio Only:
The idea for hinduism today magazine came as an inspiration to Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami in the late 1970s during his extensive global travels to visit hundreds of far-flung Hindu communities. His own words tell the tale: "I made several world tours, visiting Mauritius, Sri Lanka, India, South Africa, Malaysia, England and other countries where I spoke to hundreds of thousands of people. I discovered that Hindus in each country were totally unaware of, or did not care about, what was happening within the realms of their religion in other places in the world. Out of these tours came the mission of Hinduism Today, to strengthen all the many diverse expressions of Hindu spirituality and to give them a single, combined voice, because everywhere else their voices were individualized. Through this magazine, we delineated the boundaries of Hinduism and placed this great and oldest religion alongside Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and the many other religions of the world. We showed the strength of Hinduism in articles by top writers and some of the finest photographers in the world, such as for our articles on the Kumbha Mela, the largest human gathering ever on planet Earth. We have been able to bring forward and honor a 'Hindu of the Year' and to listen to the wisdom of swamis and swaminis in our 'Minister's Message.'"
Like Hinduism itself, the message of Hinduism Today, as articulated by Gurudeva and the editors, has not changed over its thirty-year existence. However, the form the message has taken continues to evolve and improve with computer technology. Our first black-and-white newspaper issue when placed next to our latest four-color magazine shows a quantum leap in the use of computer technology. And certainly one of the reasons the magazine is greatly appreciated by our readers is its page 1 / 5
world-class graphic excellence. Readers feel that the magazine's aesthetic craftsmanship portrays well the richness and grandeur of the Hindu religion.
Our editorial staff is constantly finding ways to make improvements. In July of 1986 we moved the entire production platform from process cameras and light tables to that inventive little device, the Macintosh. In December of 1996 we changed from being a broadsheet newspaper to a full-color magazine. In 1998 we were among the first in the industry to adopt computer-to-plate technology, bypassing the old film-to-plate method. Since 2000 the image quality has skyrocketed as photographers have migrated to ever-evolving digital cameras. In 2006 we collaborated with our printer in Missouri to better control the color calibration and correction standards.
In celebration of our 30th year, the editors have made some small but significant changes. You will notice the cover type and art have been adjusted for better readability, and the page backgrounds have been lightened. Those who publish tend to love typography, and our team are avid typophiles. They have found a new font, called Relato, which is more distinctive and legible than the adaptation of New Caledonia, which we used since 1996. New Caledonia (used to set this one sentence) was designed in 1938 by William Addison Dwiggins of Linotype fame, whereas Relato was designed in 2005 by the contemporary Spanish typographer Eduardo Manso. Our team used some high-end tools to add diacritical marks to the font and make some kerning improvements that augmented Relato's versatile, legible and graceful presence on the page. When we asked Eduardo to describe Relato from a designer's perspective, he waxed poetic: "Relato has a low contrast and 'muscular' structure that makes it useful for setting longer text. In display sizes it has a variety of details that lend it a unique and personal expression. The formal principle of the serif, the variety of terminal strokes and the combination of curves and semi-straight lines gives Relato a more 'human' flavor. Relato is a decidedly contemporary typeface, proposing individual ideas on the design of type."
Through our type and tools, our resources and writing, we are determined to keep Hinduism Today on the cutting edge of communication technology as the flagship magazine for Hinduism around the world.
Those efforts are not confined to the world of print. Hinduism Today also enjoys a growing digital presence. We have an HTML archive of the magazine available on our website, going all the way back to 1979. It is an ideal resource for searching page 2 / 5
back articles, something I myself often use. In 2006 we launched our digital edition of the magazine. Using an elegant software delivery system we developed, you can download and manage all the PDF files of each edition right on your computer. We know of some readers, residing in countries where the print edition is not available, who exclusively peruse the PDF version. The digital version has additional audio and video features that enhance some of the articles.
Our latest expansion is into the realm of video and was launched in 2008 by opening a YouTube channel ( www.youtube.com/hindu ismtodayvideos). After each issue is sent off to the printer, our editors produce a 10-minute video summary of the major articles, and I read my Publisher's Desk article on camera. Thousands of people who have never seen this magazine are learning about Hinduism through our YouTube videos. Now and then we add recordings of presentations our editors have given at conferences, including "Religion and the Media" and "The California Textbook Controversy." We produced our first major video in 2007, a three-part documentary on the amazing Thai Pusam festival in Malaysia. It still holds the record for the most views among our YouTube postings.
To extend the distribution of Hinduism Today's content, we print extra copies of key Educational Insight sections as 16-page booklets that can be purchased online and easily used in Hindu religious classes. One of the most popular is "Ten Questions People Ask About Hinduism." Back in the spring of 1990, a group of teens from Chicago sent a request to Hinduism Today for "official answers" to nine questions they were commonly asked by their peers. These questions had perplexed the youth themselves; and their parents had no convincing answers. Hinduism Today founder Gurudeva took up the challenge and composed thoughtful answers to the nine questions. In 2004 we added a tenth dialog on caste, since that is the most relentless criticism Hinduism faces today. In the question-and-answer session of lectures I give, one or more of these questions is inevitably asked, which shows that the answers provided in this booklet continue to be useful.
In 2004 quite a furor developed around the California State Board of Education's questionable approval of material on Hinduism for its sixth grade social studies textbook. The controversy still continues in the form of an active lawsuit. Our own response to the matter was to research, design and write a model 16-page lesson on Hindu history, beliefs and practices for sixth graders, written from the Hindu page 3 / 5
point of view. It is historically sound, having been reviewed by prominent Hindu historians, and acceptable in content and tone to the various denominations of the global Hindu community. It, of course, is a popular educational booklet with a distribution to date of some 35,000 copies. The first lesson covers the period from ancient times to 300ce. Lesson two of this series, published in the Oct/Nov/Dec, 2008, issue, covers the period 300 to 1100ce. Additional lessons are planned over the next few years. This is an important way that the editorial staff is reaching out to the broader community, both Hindu and non-Hindu, to present an authentic view of Hinduism that will be understood and appreciated in the West.
An inspiration came to me in 2007 to create a book out of Hinduism Today. Specifically, I envisioned the best of our Educational Insight sections compiled into a book called What Is Hinduism? Approached from scratch, such a book would take a large team years to produce, especially with the level of artistry, research, patience and care that is found in each chapter. The serendipitous beauty of the project was that the necessary thousands of hours of loving attention had already gone into researching and designing its chapters over the last ten years by our talented team of writers, editors and photographers. All that was needed then, in 2007, was to gather the best features and assemble them in a way that offers a thorough yet highly readable introduction to Hinduism. Voila! In all, 46 Educational Insights comprise the book and create a user-friendly way to read them versus a pile of 46 magazines!
The book What Is Hinduism? has been introduced to Hindus through dozens of my lectures, highlighting the book's rich graphics and clear presentations. Thousands have attended these seminars over these last two years. The book has also been successfully used at major Hindu summer camps. The students can take the book home with them and continue to refer to it, helping them remember the teachings over the subsequent months. It is yet another way the magazine is impacting Hinduism.
Hinduism Today has become a resource for mainstream America, a place where people can find authentic and reliable information on Sanatana Dharma, and our editorial team is often called upon for hard-to-find answers to questions that few other institutions seem inclined to take the time to address. Harvard University is engaged in a CD-based Pluralism Project which teaches high school children about other cultures and religions. Prof. Diana Eck, head of Harvard's religion department, invited Hinduism Today to participate in the Hindu expressions. In 1997 the former editor of Christianity Today, Terry Muck, invited us to collaborate on a chapter of his new Doubleday book, A Guide to Religions in America.
page 4 / 5
We often get calls from religion editors in America, and was lauded as a solid source of Indian spirituality in a book published by John Dart of the Los Angeles Times called Deities and Deadlines. Time Magazine called years back to verify a story on Deepak Chopra's phenomenal success. Indeed, Hinduism Today has gained a reputation for credibility, access to authentic information and a commitment to objective, unexaggerated reporting.
But that's just the beginning and doesn't explain why a select committee seeking the Hindu view on the ethics of human cloning for a report to US President Bill Clinton called our editorial offices in March of 1997 or why the Ford Foundation sponsored two of our editors to join fifty prominent religion editors in the US at a meeting in Atlanta, Georgia, or why we were asked to write a chapter on Hindu medical ethics for the Southern Texas Medical Association... you get the idea; as interesting as our past has been, we think the future is going to prove even more remarkable.
page 5 / 5
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December Nos. 1&2 2008
FORTIFIED WATER
You're in the gym and you stroll over to the refreshment counter and say "Can I have a bottle of water please?" The seller asks "What kind?" You repeat, "Bottled!" He points to the wide variety of water bottles on display in the refrigerator – the colours are catchy, the labels are bold and you become confused when you are faced with the decision – plain water or water fortified with calcium, vitamin C or fibre? Sweetened with sugar or sugar substitutes? Grapefruit, lime, cucumber, mango or strawberry flavoured? The natural element from the earth is not as simple as it once was and our expectations of it have grown.
water" being offered to consumers thirsty for the nutritional benefit they claim to offer.
What is Fortified Water?
Fortification is the addition of one or more essential nutrients to a food, whether or not it is normally contained in the food, for the purpose of preventing or correcting a demonstrated deficiency of one or more nutrients. Fortified water, also known as enhanced or functional water, has been modified to incorporate not only nutrients but also other dietary
Over the years, consumers have got accustomed to seeing an increasing variety of bottled waters on the market. This has now been taken to a new level, with a new generation of "fortified factors that it would not normally contain. The variety of products available list among the ingredients fruit and vegetable extracts, vitamins, minerals and electrolytes, herbal supplements, caffeine, and antioxidants. There are specialty products for sports enthusiasts, expectant mothers, menopausal women and even dogs.
By most standards, products marketed as bottled or packaged drinking water should contain no added ingredients except for fluoride and antibacterial agents. This means that many of the products on the market with added sweeteners and flavourings fall into a category of drinks called water beverages.
The Evolution of Fortified Water
The idea of water fortification is not an entirely new phenomenon. As long as 7,000 years ago, the
wine made from fermented grapes would be mixed with water. This wine helped kill microorganisms that lived in the water, lengthened storage time and enriched the water with the vitamins and minerals from the grapes. This wine/water mixture was also regarded as having medicinal properties and was used as a pain reliever, disinfectant and digestive supplement.
Lime and lemon juices added to drinking water were used in the 18th century to prevent or treat scurvy (the result of vitamin C deficiency) in British sailors on long journeys out at sea. Problems similar to this inspired the development of modern-day fortified water. Today, a look at supermarket shelves in the Caribbean will reveal a growing number of fortified water brands with varying additives.
Is Fortified Water Beneficial to Health?
Many manufacturers of fortified water make elaborate health claims, much of which are yet to be scientifically proven. Claims are made about various products' abilities to improve memory, promote weight loss, and lessen the effects of hangovers. Others are said to relieve sore muscles or tension and strengthen the immune system.
What has, in fact, been demonstrated is the role of water in hydration, and the role of fortified water in the replacement of electrolytes lost during endurance activities, and as an effective inexpensive intervention in preventing and controlling deficiencies of micronutrients such as fluorine, iodine and iron.
Hydration and Replenishment
Water is essential for chemical reactions in the body, for the release of energy from foods, in the digestive process, in the transport of nutrients and in the removal of waste products from our bodies. Water is involved in the regulation of the body's temperature via the production of sweat, and is a component of the body fluids that lubricate the joints and provide a cushion for the spinal cord, brain and babies in the womb. Getting enough fluids each day is therefore very important in order for the body to carry out all these functions. These fluids can come not only from plain water but also from drinks, soups and other foods such as fruits and vegetables. Failure to take enough fluids can lead to dehydration and its consequent complications.
Hydration is a good thing and fortified water, with its enhanced flavours and purported health benefits, has encouraged some people to drink more. Whether intentionally or unintentionally, enhanced water is able to promote the drinking of water instead of calorie laden sodas and sweetened juices and therefore offers benefits when compared with these alternatives.
Fortified water enhanced with electrolytes such as sodium, chloride and potassium helps to replenish those electrolytes lost during physical activity such as high intensity exercise for 60
minutes or more. However, exercising at moderate levels for short periods does not result in significant losses of electrolytes, and hydration with plain water is sufficient.
Prevention and Control of Deficiency Diseases
At the 1992 International Conference on Nutrition (ICN), among the strategies and actions recommended for the alleviation of micronutrient malnutrition was the fortification of water (along with foods) with necessary micronutrients when feasible, if existing food supplies fail to provide adequate levels in the diet. Research shows that the use of potable drinking water as a vehicle for nutrient fortification is a highly effective approach to combating deficiency diseases, particularly among low socioeconomic populations. An example of this is the widespread fluoridation (addition of fluorine) to public water supplies to improve dental health, and iodisation for the control of iodine deficiency disease (IDD) in some countries.
Recent studies also confirm that this approach can also be used in the control and treatment of iron deficiency anaemia – the most common form of anaemia in the world, affecting approximately 1.62 billion people worldwide. Young children form one of the population groups most affected by iron deficiency anaemia, and in a study conducted in Brazil in 2001, 221 pre-school children aged 6-59 months participated in a large-scale intervention study
investigating the feasibility and logistics of long-term iron fortification of drinking water. Results revealed that daily consumption of iron-fortified drinking water in daycare facilities was an effective means of reducing and controlling moderate and severe anaemia in pre-school children. Interventions such as the fortification of water within institutions have the potential for widespread benefits, since water fortification is simple, inexpensive and easily distributed, and its consumption can readily be monitored.
Fortified Water – Too Much of a Good Thing?
New research predicts that bottled water in its various forms may soon overtake carbonated sodas as the world's number one beverage. Though this may initially seem to be a good thing, consumers may be surprised to find out that a search of the ingredients listed on the labels of fortified water reveals that many are more like soft drinks since they are often sweetened with sugar or artificial sweeteners. Regular consumption of products sweetened with sugar can contribute to health problems such as high blood sugar levels, and the high calorie content leads to obesity. Consumers therefore need to read labels more carefully to see if they can afford these extra calories that may lead to increased fat deposition.
The large variety of fortified water brands now available could mean that many people are getting too much of certain vitamins and minerals, which can have adverse health effects. For instance, consumption of calcium enriched water in diets that already meet calcium requirements can lead to other minerals such as zinc and iron competing with each other. Intakes above the approved maximum levels of vitamin D and calcium may increase the risk of developing kidney stones. In many cases, also, the form of the fortificant (the added nutrients) used may not be very useful to the body. Iron for instance, if added in insoluble form, is flushed from the body without benefit.
Additionally, it is arguable whether some types of enhanced water offer much benefit in the Caribbean setting. Protein enriched water, for instance, is not very relevant to the diets of many persons in the Caribbean whose protein intakes exceed dietary recommendations.
For further information contact:
Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute UWI Campus, P.O. Box 140, Kingston 7 Jamaica, W.I.
Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute UWI Campus, St. Augustine Trinidad, W.I.
Visit us at our website: http://www.paho.org/cfni
There is No Substitute for a Healthy Diet
Overall, the decision to regularly consume fortified water is a personal choice and one that should be made only after knowing all the accurate facts. If consumers decide that fortified water is their water of choice, they must be prepared to read the labels to get information on serving size and ingredients. The fact is that nutrition and health claims on many of these beverages have not been substantiated and more research is needed on their benefits.
Fortified water should not replace a balanced diet. In comparison to a balanced diet or vitamin and mineral supplements which provide a greater concentration of nutrients, these drinks are very expensive. Prices are typically higher than that of regular bottled water and several times higher than tap water, which in most countries of the Caribbean is safe to drink, particularly after boiling or other purification.
There is no simple solution to a healthy disease-free life. The best approach remains the combination of a balanced diet, physical activity and adequate rest and relaxation.
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General Information on Hungary
Area:
93,030 km 2
Population: 10,196,000 (as of February 1, 2001)
Population density: 109.6 per km
2
Capital: Budapest
area: 525 km 2
population: 1,774,000 (as of February 1, 2001)
density: 3,378 per km
2
Time zone:
GMT + 1 hour
Daylight savings time: +1 hour from the last weekend in March to the last
weekend in October
Official language:
Hungarian
Form of government:
republic
Administrative regions: 19 counties and Budapest
Hungary in a nutshell
Hungary is located in the Carpathian Basin in Central Europe. Its greatest distance is 268 km north to south, and 528 km east to west. Nearly half of the country's area is plains: the Great Hungarian Plains occupying the entire eastern half of the country, the interstream area between the Danube and Tisza rivers, and the Western Hungarian Lowlands along the northwestern border. West of the Danube is the Transdanubian Central Range with altitudes of 400-700 meters (the Keszthely, Bakony, Vértes, Gerecse, Pilis and Visegrád ranges), and to the east of the Danube the Northern Central Range is to be found with altitudes of 500-1000 meters (Börzsöny, Cserhát, Mátra, Bükk, Cserehát and Zemplén ranges). The country's highest altitude is Kékestető (1014 m) in the Mátra Mountains. The country's two most important rivers are the Danube (Hungarian segment 417 km) and the Tisza (598 km). The Transdanubian region west of the Danube is made up of rolling hills, with the warmest lake in Central Europe, Lake Balaton, located in the centre of the region. Two other lakes are Lake Velence in Transdanubia, and Lake Tisza in the east.
Tourism in Hungary 1990-2002
Hungary has plenty of natural riches, and the visitor can enjoy unspoilt nature in ten national parks. The country is uniquely rich in hot springs, and medicinal baths are one of the most important attractions, together with therapeutic and thermal open-air baths, and the related therapeutic hotels. In addition, Hungary also offers excellent opportunities for enthusiasts of horse riding, cycling, hiking, fishing, hunting, water sports and golf.
In the history of Hungary, eastern and western cultural influences are welded with the traditions of a thousand-year old state. Budapest is often known as the Queen of the Danube, and its unequalled situation, its monuments, museums, theatres, concert halls and opera house, its coffee houses, pubs, and jazz clubs make it one of the most beautiful and exciting cities in the world. Hungary can justly be proud of her sparkling cultural life, of which music is one of the most important elements: the musical heritage of Bartók and Kodály, just as operetta, gypsy music and folk music. Over the year countless arts festivals are held throughout the country.
Of all the colourful folk art of Hungary, its motives and colours, the folk art of Kalocsa and Matyó is the best known. The finest examples of folk architecture are on display in the open-air museums, known as skanzen, at several locations in the country.
Hungary is famous for its gastronomy and is excellent wine, produced in twenty-two historical wine growing regions.
To date, eight locations in Hungary have been added to the UNESCO World Heritage list: Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst, Fertő/Neusiedlersee Cultural Landscape, Old Village of Hollókő and its surroundings, Hortobágy National Park – the Puszta, Early Christian Necropolis of Pécs (Sopiane), Millenary Benedictine Abbey of Pannonhalma and its Natural EnvironmentBudapest, including the Banks of the Danube, the Buda Castle Quarter and Andrássy avenue and Tokaj Wine Region Historic Cultural Landscape.
Tourist Regions
In terms of tourism the country can be divided into nine tourist regions:
1. Budapest and Central Danubian Region,
2. Lake Balaton,
3. Central Transdanubia,
4. Western Transdanubia,
5. Southern Transdanubia,
6. Northern Hungary,
7. Northern Hungarian Plains,
8. Southern Hungarian Plains and
9. Lake Tisza (and environs).
CLIMATE
Hungary has a temperate continental climate. The coldest month is January (the average daily temperature is -1ºC), and the hottest is August (the average daily temperature is +21.3ºC). The annual number of sunshine hours is 1,785.
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¯
Land Cover Categories (Ordered by Decreasing Acreage)
Corn
Agricultural
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W. Wht./Soy. Dbl. Crop.
Misc. Vegs. & Fruits
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296 S. Main Street - Taylor's
Classification:
Primary
Year Built:
1884
Style:
Commercial
This one story commercial building is rectangular in plan and has a flat roof with a parapet wall. The building is constructed of brick with a mock flagstone retail base. A concrete and brick pier foundation supports the building. The retail base has a recessed entry. There is a decorative blind arcade on the front elevation. A storefront added to the south elevation was later covered over. The mock flagstone was added in 1962 and the canopy was removed from the building. A neon "Coca-Cola" sign hangs from the southeast corner of the building. The building faces east on the corner of South Main Street and Monmouth Street and is in good condition. The building was built by financiers H. Hirschberg and Rosedorf around 1884. The Sandborn Map indicates that an agricultural merchandising store was located in the building in that year. Hirschberg was a prominent businessperson and built the Independence National Bank in 1889. By 1888 a hardware store had replaced the agricultural store and a small addition was added to the rear. Max Goldmen owned a grocery store which was located in the building in 1913. The Sylvester Drug store occupied the building in the 1930's and was purchased by Ed and Leila Taylor in 1944. The drug store has been an important gathering place for the citizens of Independence and still retains a soda and lunch counter. The store also has an extensive collection of authentic Coca Cola trays, believed to be one of the larger collections in the country. Taylor's closed in 2006 after over 60 years in business.
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296 S. Main Street
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296 S. Main Street - Taylor's
Published on The City of Independence Oregon - Official Website (http://www.ci.independence.or.us)
Independence, OR 97351
See map: Google Maps
Source URL (retrieved on 2014-03-08 06:18): http://www.ci.independence.or.us/historic/296-s-main-street-taylors
Page 2 of 2
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April 3, 2013 USOE Educational Equity Section SEA Civil Rights Monitoring Office
Executive Summary Section 504
Dear Colleague Letter Regarding Equality in Sports for Student's with Disabilities (January 2013)
Dear Colleague:
The following is a summary of suggested "best practice" guidelines to follow when providing equal access to athletic activities.
If the school is unable to effectively meet the interest and abilities of some students with disabilities in the school districts existing extracurricular athletic program, the school district *should create additional opportunities for those students.
If those circumstances occur, a school district *should offer students with disabilities with other opportunities for athletic activities that are separate from those offered to non-disabled students.
Emerging Q's and A's
1. Does OCR require districts to create disability specific teams or activities for students with disabilities?
- No, you will be required to make a decision based on the individual needs of each student just like every decision made with 504 or IDEA.
2. How can school districts expand athletic opportunities to students with disabilities?
- Schools can organize their own programs.
- They can combine their program with other schools in their district.
- Find an adaptive program in the community that offers modified sports or have activities for individuals with disabilities.
- An alternative if the student doesn't meet the criteria to participate in a team sport, they may participate in the team as a team manager or work out with the team during practice (Make sure the student wants to participate as manager or just practice with the team).
- If they do not want to participate another way, you may consider looking for an intramural team in the community that does not have a competitive cut off.
3. If you create separate teams for students with disabilities, will it constitute discrimination?
- Only separate students in separate programs if it is impossible to include them with everyone else.
- However, if a group of kids within the school or district express interest in starting a wheelchair track team for example, the district should consider it.
- Schools or districts run a risk of violating Section 504 by creating separate teams.
- Comply with current Section 504 as it is written.
Note:
This document is a USOE-specific summary of information from guidance material adapted from the January, 2013 Section 504 Compliance Advisor, Volume 17, Issue 2
*Should, comes directly from the Dear Colleague Letter January 2013, article IV, pg.11
This document, while containing information cited from OCR, is not a formal statement of OCR policy, and should not be relied upon, or construed as such.
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CM1 BATHING WATER QUALITY
Key policy question: Do Malta's bathing waters meet international standards?
A high level of bathing water quality is crucial for public health and the environment, and in this regard Malta must comply with standards under the EU Bathing Water Directive 34 and the Barcelona Convention. 35 In the 2009 bathing season Malta began to assess and report on bathing water quality under the new EU Bathing Water Directive, in which bathing waters are classified on the basis of 2 quality parameters. 36 The results are expressed in terms of excellent, good, sufficient, and poor quality or temporarily closed. In 2009, 37 based on 4 years data (2006 – 2009), 93.1% of coastal bathing waters qualified as of excellent quality, while 6.9% were of good quality, maintaining the high standards recorded in previous years, as indicated in the chart. The Barcelona Convention also changed classification parameters 38 and bathing waster is classified as very good, good, fair or poor. In 2009, 98% of the 87 sites were classified as good or very good (95% and 3% respectively).
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MINORITY VIEW
Joanne Yatvin, Ph.D.
Oregon Trail School District, Sandy, Oregon
The charge from Congress to the National Reading Panel (NRP) was to "assess the status of researchbased knowledge, including the effectiveness of various approaches to teaching children to read." In explicating that charge, the National Institute of Child Health and Development (NICHD), which convened the Panel, listed seven questions for the Panel to address. They were:
7. What important gaps remain in our knowledge of how children learn to read, the effectiveness of different instructional methods for teaching reading, and improving the preparation of teachers in reading instruction that could be addressed by additional research?
1. What is known about the basic processes by which children learn to read?
2. What are the most common instructional approaches in the United States to teach children to learn to read? What are the scientific underpinnings for each of these methodologic approaches, and what assessments have been done to validate their underlying scientific rationale? What conclusions about the scientific basis for these approaches does the Panel draw from these assessments?
3. What assessments have been made of the effectiveness of each of these methodologies in actual use in helping children develop critical reading skills, and what conclusions does the Panel draw from these assessments?
4. Based on the answers to the preceding questions, what does the Panel conclude about the readiness for implementation in the classroom of these research results?
5. How are teachers trained to teach children to read, and what do studies show about the effectiveness of this training? How can this knowledge be applied to improve this training?
6. What practical findings from the Panel can be used immediately by parents, teachers, and other educational audiences to help children learn to read, and how can the conclusions of the Panel be disseminated most effectively?
1
From this charge, it seems reasonable to infer that Congress's goal was to settle the "Reading Wars," putting an end to the inflated rhetoric, partisan lobbying, and uninformed decisionmaking that have been so widespread and so detrimental to the progress of reading instruction in America's schools. Clearly, the main thrust of the charge is toward determining which of the many teaching methods used in schools, and promoted by advocates, really work best.
Whether a review of the existing reading research literature could have provided answers to all of Congress's questions, the Panel's obligation was to dig in and find out. I am filing this minority report because I believe that the Panel has not fulfilled that obligation. From the beginning, the Panel chose to conceptualize and review the field narrowly, in accordance with the philosophical orientation and the research interests of the majority of its members. At its first meeting in the spring of 1998, the Panel quickly decided to examine research in three areas: alphabetics, comprehension, and fluency, thereby excluding any inquiry into the fields of language and literature. After some debate, members agreed to expand their investigations to two other areas: computer-linked instruction and teacher preparation. Five subcommittees were formed, and within the chosen areas, each selected a number of topics of interest. As work on the initial choices of topics proceeded, however, it became apparent that the Panel had insufficient time and support personnel to cover all it had identified. Ultimately, the Panel subgroups produced reviews of the research on the following topics: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, comprehension strategies, vocabulary development,
Minority View
Minority View
computer technology and reading instruction, teacher preparation in general, and teacher preparation to teach comprehension strategies. In addition, the Panel developed a set of criteria and procedures for evaluating reading studies, which all subgroups used and which the Panel hopes will serve as future guidelines for other researchers.
These reviews show comprehensive and painstaking work by the subcommittees. They will prove valuable, I think, to other experimental researchers as they seek to expand the body of knowledge on those topics and fill in the gaps. On the other hand, the reviews are of limited usefulness to teachers, administrators, and policymakers because they fail to address the key issues that have made elementary schools both a battleground for advocates of opposing philosophies and a prey for purveyors of "quick fixes." And, unfortunately, the reviews are of even less use to parents because they do not touch on early learning and home support for literacy, matters which many experts believe are the critical determinants of school success or failure.
To have properly answered its charge, the Panel had to look at the field of reading both horizontally and vertically, examining the basic theoretical models of reading, the methods that grow out of them, and the processes of learning that begin in infancy and continue through young adulthood. (See Appendix A for definitions and descriptions of the three models underlying methods of instruction in American schools today.) The scientific basis for each of these models needed to be examined, then the effectiveness of the methods they have generated. The research on language development, pre-reading literary knowledge, understanding of the conventions of print, and all the other experiences that prepare young children to learn to read also demanded the Panel's attention. And finally, the changing needs and strategies of adolescent readers called for a review of the existing research.
If the Panel could not cover the whole field—as, in fact, it could not because of time and resource limitations—it should have concentrated on topics of highest interest and controversy in the public arena. Or, as professionally distasteful as the task might have been, it should have assessed the validity of the claims of various commercial programs being sold as cure-alls to
2
schools and parents. (In order to be specific about topics the panel did not cover, I have included two lists in Appendix B.) The panel chose not to pursue any of these approaches.
Furthermore, to have fully answered its charge, the Panel needed to assess the implications for practice growing out of research findings. As a body made up mostly of university professors, however, its members were not qualified to be the sole judges of the "readiness for implementation in the classroom" of their findings or whether the findings could be "used immediately by parents, teachers, and other educational audiences." Their concern, as scientists, was whether or not a particular line of instruction was clearly enough defined and whether the evidence of its experimental success was strong. What they did not consider in most cases were the school and classroom realities that make some types of instruction difficult—even impossible—to implement. Outside teacher reviewers should have been brought in to critique the Panel's conclusions, just as outside scientists were to critique its processes. Despite repeated suggestions that this be done, it was not.
In fairness to the Panel, it must be recognized that the charge from Congress was too demanding to be accomplished by a small body of unpaid volunteers, working part time, without staff support, over a period of a year and a half. (The time Congress originally allotted was only 6 months.)
Congress did not realize—and the Panel itself did not fully comprehend at the beginning of its labors—how large, uneven, and intractable the field of reading research really is. The Panel's preliminary electronic searches of databases uncovered thousands of articles on some topics, hundreds on others, only a handful on some. Their completed reviews on several topics disclosed that the critical question of generalizability (i.e., Does a skill or strategy taught and learned carry over to new experiences?) often was not answered by researchers. The reviews show, in addition, that questions relevant to the success of an instructional technique, such as "how much" to teach and "when," were not even examined in most studies.
Also in fairness to the Panel, I must acknowledge that a few of the topics I have identified as neglected are included in some of the reports. Still, they receive only peripheral attention when public interest demands much more. In the review on phonemic awareness, for example, the critical question of whether all children need special training in phonemic awareness was not addressed, even though several studies suggest that many children grasp the concept and are able to apply it through ordinary reading instruction. Other topics of interest, such as students' need for "direct instruction," appear in reviews only as assumptions about successful practices, but are never tested against their philosophical opposites.
In the end, the work of the NRP is not of poor quality; it is just unbalanced and, to some extent, irrelevant. But because of these deficiencies, bad things will happen. Summaries of, and sound bites about, the Panel's findings will be used to make policy decisions at the national, state, and local levels. Topics that were never investigated will be misconstrued as failed practices. Unanswered questions will be assumed to have been answered negatively. Unfortunately, most policymakers and ordinary citizens will not read the full reviews. They will not see the Panel's explanations about why so few topics were investigated or its judgments that the results
3
Minority View
of research on some of the topics are inconclusive. They will not hear the Panel's calls for more and more fine-tuned research. Ironically, the report that Congress intended to be a boon to the teaching of reading will turn out to be a further detriment.
As an educator with more than 40 years of experience and as the only member of the NRP who has lived a career in elementary schools, I call upon Congress to recognize that the Panel's majority report does not respond to its charge nor meet the needs of America's schools. In spite of the Panel's diligent efforts and its valuable findings on a select number of instructional practices, we still cannot answer the first and most central question of the charge: "What is known about the basic processes by which children learn to read." We still do not know what types of instruction are suitable for different ages and populations of children. We still do not know the relative effectiveness of the three models of reading as bases for instruction. We do not even know whether the existing body of research can answer those questions. Therefore, I ask Congress not to take actions that will promote one philosophical view of reading or constrain future research in the field on the basis of the Panel's limited and narrow set of findings.
Minority View
AppendixAAppendixAAppendixAAppendixAAppendixADefinitions
W Word Identification Model of Reading ord Identification Model of Reading
The word identification model hypothesizes that readers read by matching letters to sounds, then blending sounds into pronounceable words. In asserting that children who have mastered the skills of decoding "can read anything," it separates word pronunciation from word understanding and defines the former as reading. Instructional materials evade the issue by using mostly decodable words in stories that reflect familiar life experiences of children and have only literal meanings.
Although proponents of this model recognize that readers need vocabulary knowledge and skills of analysis and interpretation to understand advanced and specialized materials, they believe that the job of developing those skills properly belongs in subject matter classes. Getting students to understand the main idea of a short story, for example, is the business of the literature teacher, not the reading teacher, and is better left to middle and high school grades.
This model does not consider the factor of reader motivation. At all levels the reader is viewed as a passive recipient of content. Children should learn to read because adults want them to. They should remember the facts in a text and accept the teacher's interpretation of meaning. Because of these beliefs, there are few attempts to make reading an interesting or rewarding experience for children.
W Word Identification Plus Skills Model of Reading ord Identification Plus Skills Model of Reading
In this model, learning to read is a two-tier process. The first tier is very much like that of the previous model, except that it defines reading as understanding words as well as pronouncing them. Children are able to read sentences, paragraphs, and whole texts by stringing together the pronunciations and meanings of individual words.
The second tier of the process is "reading to learn." As readers gain speed and automaticity in recognizing words and verbalizing sentences naturally, they free up their mental abilities to deal with larger vocabulary loads and implied meanings. However, because this model, like the first, views readers as recipients of content, they need direct instruction in comprehension strategies. Through instruction, readers learn how to deal with different kinds of texts and their increasing length, complexity, and subtlety.
4
Reader motivation is a part of this model, but it is seen mostly as an external factor: What must the teacher do to move children to read this story and do the accompanying activities?
Integration of Language and Thinking Model of Reading
According to this model, children begin acquiring the knowledge and skills needed for reading long before they face the challenge of decoding print. Even at the earliest stages of reading, they are able to use what they know about language, literature, and the world to perform multiple operations in dealing with a text. Reading means not only recognizing words and knowing their meanings, but also understanding how they fit into a context of grammatical structure, speech phrasing and intonation, literary forms and devices, and print conventions.
Because readers bring their own skills and knowledge to any text, and because written language is redundant, they are able to orchestrate their own reading experiences. When one skill or knowledge source is weak in relation to a particular text, such as life experience would be in reading about the history of a foreign country, stronger skills, such as vocabulary, may carry the reader through. In this model, learning to read and reading to learn are inseparable.
Although this model also recognizes the need for reader strategies in dealing with more difficult texts, it views strategies as the products of individual needs and purposes, sometimes devised by the reader and sometimes prompted or provided by others at the point of need. Motivation, then, needs to be intrinsic. The teacher's job is to create or allow situations where children want to read and are willing to work hard at it.
Learning to read in this model involves "others" in many ways. Readers expand their vocabularies and background knowledge through listening to the teacher read stories aloud and conversing with their peers. They adopt and adapt strategies modeled by others. They modify their understanding of texts by listening to what others have to say. At the same time, roles continually change: the questioner is questioned, and the explainer is corrected. Thus, social interaction is a necessary component of this model.
AppendixBAppendixBAppendixBAppendixBAppendixB
Below are two lists of topics not investigated by the National Reading Panel. The first is drawn from a survey of leaders in reading from across the United States done by the International Reading Association (Reading Today, December 1999). These leaders were asked to identify what topics they perceived to be "hot" in the field today. The second list is my own view of topics that teachers and parents are concerned about, either because they are now in wide use or are being advocated for inclusion in the reading curriculum.
International Reading Association List of "Hot" of "Hot" TTTTTopics opics
* Balanced reading instruction
* Decodable text
* Direct instruction
* Early intervention
* Performance assessment
* Standards
* State/national assessment
* Volunteer tutoring
My List of My List of TTTTTopics of Public Concern opics of Public Concern
* Direct instruction
* Use of decodable texts
* Embedded skills instruction
* Reading aloud to children
* Invented spelling
* Use of predictable texts
* Early language development (vocabulary, grammar, and literary language)
* Integrated reading and writing
* Home-teaching programs
* Access to quality literature
* Whole-class instruction
* Scripted instruction
* Teacher modeling
* Children's understanding of print conventions
5
Minority View
Minority View
AppendixCAppendixCAppendixCAppendixCAppendixC
Dear Panel Members:
I spent most of Friday and yesterday at the annual conference of the Oregon Reading Association. Although I was not scheduled to speak, I was introduced at the first general session as a member of the National Reading Panel (NRP). Because of that introduction, I was later approached by a number of teachers who thanked me for representing them and who expressed the hope that the Panel's report would relieve the pressure from the state legislature and local school boards to adopt one-sided commercial programs that would take away their authority to decide what is best for their students and that would consume most of the time allocated for reading over several years of schooling. I did not have the heart to tell them that the NRP Report would probably open the door to increased pressure rather than lessen it.
I was also engaged in conversation by two reading researchers who testified at the Panel's regional meeting in Portland in 1998. They called then for the inclusion of ethnographic research in the Panel's investigations and have since learned that it was not included. They could not see any logic or fairness in that decision. I did not tell them that their appeals at the Portland meeting and those of like-minded colleagues at other regional meetings were not even mentioned in the Panel's Executive Summary.
In addition, I attended a presentation by Patricia Edwards, a member of the International Reading Association (IRA) Board, who has done research on the effects of home culture on children's literacy development. She did not have to persuade me; this area of early language development and literary and world experience is the one I believe is most critical to children's school learning, and the one I could not persuade the Panel to investigate. Without such an investigation, the NRP Report's coverage of beginning reading is narrow and biased.
Over the past 2 months, I have wavered about whether it was useful or right for me to submit a minority report. I waver no longer. I hereby reiterate my request that the minority report I submitted in January and include in this e-mail (with minor revisions), be sent to Congress along with the majority report. Only in that way can I honorably serve the teachers and children I represent.
Joanne Yatvin
February 27, 2000
6
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Well-Baby Check-Ups
It is important for your baby to see a doctor even when she is not sick. Routine visits to the doctor are called well-baby check-ups.
These check-ups:
Allow the doctor to monitor your • baby's growth and development.
Do you have any other concerns • about your baby's body? For example, a birthmark or head shape.
Provide a time for your baby to get • his immunizations.
Give parents a chance to ask the • doctor questions and discuss concerns.
A visit to the doctor's office makes many people nervous. Your baby may cry, which could be upsetting. You have questions, but forget to ask. Prepare for your baby's visits to the doctor.
Plan to arrive at least 10 minutes 1. early to fill out forms.
Check with your health insurance 2. company about coverage of wellbaby check-ups and a possible co-pay.
Make a list of questions and 3. concerns to take to the doctor:
Is my baby growing and developing • normally?
Does she need any immunizations? • Will they make her cranky or sick?
Ask about feeding concerns. If • bottle feeding your baby, always talk with your doctor before switching formula.
Discuss concerns about bowel • movements, sleeping patterns or crying.
Ask about the schedule for • return visits for check-ups and immunizations.
Ask about your doctor's policy on • after-hour calls. What number should you call? What would he want to know, such as baby's temperature?
Tell your doctor about any family • health information that might be helpful.
Your doctor wants to know if you are having any problems in caring for your baby.
Tell your doctor if you:
Feel you are unable to nurture or • care for your baby.
Do not feel like yourself or have • unusual thoughts about your baby.
Cannot emotionally connect with • your baby.
Feel very sad or depressed. •
Have a history of depression or • were ever treated for depression.
The Parent Help Line volunteers can help you prepare for a call or visit to the doctor. Also, our phone line offers support to tired parents of newborns. Parents can call with any concern or question.
If you have a newborn, ask about • the umbilical cord stump and circumcision. Are they healing OK?
When to Call the Doctor
Never be afraid to call your doctor if you have concerns about your baby. Trust your instincts. You know your baby better than anyone. Call your doctor right away if:
You think 1. your baby is dehydrated. Babies should have 4 – 6 wet diapers per day.
Your baby 2. has diarrheafrequent, watery bowel movements.
Your baby has 3. an unusual cry for more than a few hours.
Your baby's 4. rectal temperature is higher than 100.4.
Your baby does 5. not wake for feedings or seems too tired to eat.
Call the Parent Help Line. We listen. We can find you help. 1-217-544-5808 or 1-888-727-5889, 10 a.m. to 10 p.m. , 7 days a week or log onto www.parenthelpline.org
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Ann Fienup-Riordan, ed. Qaluyaarmiuni Nunamtenek Qanemciput / Our Nelson Island Stories: Meanings of Place on the Bering Sea Coast. Translated by Alice Rearden. Seale: University of Washington Press, 2011. Illustrations, maps. 496 pp. $50.00 (paper), ISBN 978-0-295-99135-1.
Reviewed by Ross Coen (University of Alaska Fairbanks) Published on H-Environment (December, 2011) Commissioned by David T. Benac
For two decades the Calista Elders Council (CEC), a heritage organization in the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta of southwest Alaska, has sought to document and share the traditional knowledge of the Yup'ik Eskimos who live in the region. Led by a nine-member board of Yup'ik speakers and composed of translators and anthropologists, the group has developed an effective technique for accomplishing its work. Rather than conduct sit-down, one-on-one interviews, which oen restrict the conversation by placing the onus for topic selection on the often nonlocal interviewer, the CEC instead holds gatherings where elders are encouraged to speak with one another in their native tongue. According to Alice Rearden and Ann Fienup-Riordan in the new book, Qaluyaarmiuni Nunamtenek Qanemciput / Our Nelson Island Stories, the technique requires "long and careful listening" since the form is as important as the content: "Beyond facts, elders teach listeners how to learn. ey share not only what they know, but also how they know it and why they believe it is important to remember" (p. xxiii).
is significant book documents the Nelson Island Natural and Cultural History project, launched in 2006 with funding from the National Science Foundation. Recognizing that stories of place would be more meaningful if told in the places themselves (as opposed to a conference table in a tribal hall), the CEC undertook a circumnavigation of Qaluyaat (the Yup'ik name for Nelson Island) in summer 2007. e 843-square-mile island sits 90 miles west of Bethel on the Bering Sea Coast between the Yukon and Kuskokwim river deltas, a marshy plain the size of Kansas with innumerable birds, fish, and marine mammals on which the Native people have subsisted for thousands of years.
e Nelson Island project was unique from previous CEC elder gatherings in that it included physical scientists who were invited to help establish links between environmental change and cultural history. While biologists, geologists, archaeologists, and others documented the physical characteristics of the environment, Qaluyaarmiut elders from five island villages provided historical and cultural perspectives on changes to the land, ocean, and animals. At the elders' insistence, the party of twenty included a number of young students. For the youth the trip would be "like going to college," they said (p. xxiv). For two weeks that summer the group visited dozens of historic and prehistoric sites on the island. At each stop the tape recorder was pulled out.
e book features a bilingual text–Yup'ik on one page, the English translation on the facing page–with a brief but sufficient explanation of the Yup'ik language, its different dialects, and the authors' strategy and process for transcribing and translating the text. e book's six chapters are organized by geographic region: "Qaluyaat / Nelson Island," "Negtemiut-Nunakauyarmiut-llu / Nightmute and Toksook Bay," "Imarpik / e Ocean," "Qalvinraaq Avayai-llu / Qalvinraaq River and Its Tributaries," "Cevv'arnermiut / Chefornak," and "Niugtarmiut Tununermiut-llu / Newtok and Tununak." Each chapter consists of transcribed dialogue. Some stories are short, only a few pages. Others include lengthy descriptions of a geographic feature, its name, and how it came to be bestowed, why, and by whom; the animals that were traditionally harvested there; and other cultural information.
Rearden and Fienup-Riordan note that the effort did not begin as a mapping project or aempt to catalog place-names, yet the elders quickly demonstrate how features of a landscape, including their names, are powerful reference points for holding and transmiing knowledge. Where a nonindigenous cartographer might assign a single name to an entire river, for example, Native residents have distinct, descriptive names for every bend, bluff, and sandbar, oen in reference to some long ago event that happened there. (A particularly interesting juxtaposition
noted by the authors is that the U.S. Geological Survey lists only a handful of place-names for the entire region, most, like Cape Vancouver, Baird Inlet, and Nelson Island itself, named for non-Native men with no cultural ties to the area.)
incorporates the modern, not the other way around.
In the book's highly descriptive introduction, the authors identify historical changes to Nelson Island that started only in the 1940s, including the introduction of missionaries, schoolteachers, and gas-powered boats and snowmobiles. ese transformations came relatively late to the Qaluyaarmiut compared to others in rural Alaska– a fortuitous consequence of the region's lack of gold, oil, and other valuable extractable resources. at such sweeping lifestyle changes all occurred within a single generation has allowed for their interpretation by an intact and still relevant Yup'ik perspective. "eir language and subsistence paerns have remained vital and viable," the authors write, "supplemented rather than supplanted by new organizational configurations … and new ideological paerns" (p. xxi). Cultural preservation and transmission is made easier when the Native perspective
is concept is made clear by the layaarmiut elders' descriptions of environmental change. ey do not draw distinctions between human behavior and changes to the land, sea, and animals, nor do they insert caveats in their language as do physical scientists whose conclusions are usually reductionist in nature. e elders oen repeat the Yup'ik adage, "e world is changing following its people," to emphasize the connection between humans and the environment (p. xxvi). e book makes clear that the layaarmiut view these changes with a distinctly Yup'ik perspective.
One cannot possibly describe or even summarize the varied topics about which the elders speak. ere are simply too many. It suffices to say that their stories cover the breadth of historical, cultural, and personal experiences living on Qaluyaat, each memory tied to a place with a meaningful name. is book is an invaluable resource for researchers in a variety of disciplines, but particularly so for the Qaluyaarmiut themselves whose relationship with the island is ongoing.
If there is additional discussion of this review, you may access it through the list discussion logs at: hp://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl.
Citation: Ross Coen. Review of Fienup-Riordan, Ann, ed., Qaluyaarmiuni Nunamtenek Qanemciput / Our Nelson Island Stories: Meanings of Place on the Bering Sea Coast. H-Environment, H-Net Reviews. December, 2011. URL: hp://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=33941
is work is licensed under a Creative Commons Aribution-NoncommercialNo Derivative Works 3.0 United States License.
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Globe-Trotting Sannyasin Inspires Hindus in Muslim Gulf Monarchy
Category : October 1992
Published by Anonymous on Oct. 01, 1992
Globe-Trotting Sannyasin Inspires Hindus in Muslim Gulf Monarchy
One-sixth of Oman's 3,000 Hindus came on each to ten consecutive days from July 1-10 to receive the special darshan of the dedicated sannyasin, Swami Paramanand Bharati. It's often a challenge for Hindus in non-Hindu nations to maintain a good understanding and practice of their religion. Swamiji spent many years as an accomplished teacher prior to becoming an exemplar sannyasin, and his talents were put to good use, explaining with crystal clarity the Hindu heritage, including the existence of God, the aim of life, the theory of rebirth and the origin of the Vedas and Vedanta.
Swami Bharati is one of a new breed of sannyasins who travel worldwide to promote Hindu causes. For such outreach work, he was named Hindu of the year in 1990. He drew international attention when he led hundreds of the world's spiritual, scientific and political leaders, including Mikhail Gorbachev, in chanting the sacred Sanskrit mantram AUM three times in Moscow's Kremlin during the Global Fourm for World Peace in 1990. The Soviet Union has since disappeared, but reverberations of AUM continue to resound wherever Swamiji travels.
Oman is Muslim monarchy facing the Arabian sea. It has a population of nearly one million. Muslim-ruled countries are not often known for their religious tolerance, yet Oman is an exception. Oman's Sultan in the early 1800's was a practical man who opted to cater to the needs of wealthy Hindu traders who sailed there with ships full of Indian goods. He even built a Shiva temple for them on the palace grounds which still stands today. The parent Sultan, His Majesty, Sultan Qaboos Bin Said, is equally hospitable in seeing to the needs of Hindus who have settled there.
Article copyright Himalayan Academy.
page 1 / 1
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FIDES SERVICE - FIDESDIENST - AGENCE FIDES - AGENZIA FIDES - AGENCIA FIDES - FIDES SERVICE – FIDESDIENST
AMERICA/HONDURAS - "March for Peace", a traditional Via Crucis to stop the violence in the country
Comayagua (Agenzia Fides) – On 22 March the "Caminata por la Paz" (Peace March) will start from the parish of
The theme of peace is very much felt in a Country where, as reported in a note sent to Fides, violence is experienced at all levels, from family to civil society. In recent years in particular, there is increasing violence against women: in 2012 417 were killed. (see Fides 21/02/2013). (CE) (Agenzia Fides 21/03/2013)
St. Gaspar Taulabé (Comayagua), the procession of thousands of faithful who come from all over Honduras. "This event is a tradition born at the time of the missionary Manuel de Jesus Subirana and has become an expression of the deep spirituality of our people, that in this way share the pain, the grief and anguish, with the certainty of receiving comfort, forgiveness and the strength to continue to live in our own community," said Father Eduardo Mendez, a pastor who organized the event, which also includes the celebration of the Way of the Cross.
Pagina 1/1
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It's not enough to find a cool fossil—we want to share it with the world! This process is multifaceted; designing an exhibit and sending out a press release are certainly the most visible to the general public. But, publication in an academic venue is essential in order to receive long-term recognition and credibility in the eyes of the scientific community. Few outside the scientific community know what this entails, so come along for the (sometimes bumpy) ride to publication!
Scientific journals constitute a permanent record of new discoveries and interpretations, accessible to the world through libraries and the internet. Scientists—including Alf Museum paleontologists in collaboration with Webb students—submit their work for consideration by the journals in a process called "peer review." The first step is to research the topic, write the manuscript and prepare all of the illustrations showing the new find. This can take weeks, months, or even years, depending on the complexity of the project. We delve into the previous literature to place finds into broader historical and scientific context—for instance, our recent paper on a 75 million year old alligator from Utah (now in the final stages prior to publication) references papers published between 1789 and 2013! We then have to choose which journal to send the paper to, out of numerous options. Depending on the topic, this may be a journal of international scope, a regional publication, or perhaps a chapter in a book.
The next step is to send in the paper for peer review. An editor for the publication chooses recognized independent experts who can evaluate the research in question, and provide feedback. Based on the feedback, the editor makes a recommendation. Occasionally, if the paper isn't deemed of sufficient interest for the journal or if the reviewers felt there were deep flaws in the research, the paper is rejected. More often, the paper is returned with suggested revisions. This is sometimes a painful process—it's easy to get attached to a particular idea or turn of phrase—but the constructive feedback inevitably improves the paper. Sometimes the reviewers want additional comparisons with other fossils, or suggest alternative interpretations. These are all incorporated into a revised manuscript that is then sent back to the editor. If they're satisfied, it's on to the next step!
Production staff at the journal turn the word processing files and raw images into a pretty,
1 / 2
The Long Road to Publication
Written by Andrew Farke
Tuesday, 01 October 2013 08:37 - Last Updated Tuesday, 01 October 2013 08:49
formatted document. They may do some slight edits, so "page proofs" are sent to us for one final check. Once that's clear, it's finally time for publication! Where hard copies of journals were once the norm, electronic-only formats are on the ascent. When these publications are "open access", it means that they are freely accessible anywhere by anyone with an internet connection; in order to improve dissemination of our research, Alf Museum publications are increasingly using this option.
Once a paper is officially published, we'll help to promote it by emailing copies to colleagues and posting it on Twitter or Facebook . In turn, the papers are cited by other researchers in their own work, and sometimes even lead to collaborations or visits to our collections. A recent paper on a flying reptile bone in our collection resulted in a collections visit request within days after publication! For a museum like the Alf, there are few things better than having other scientists read and build upon the work that we do.
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Report to the Public 2007-2008
Color Color Color Color Colorado ado ado ado ado Color Color Color Color Colorado ado ado ado ado
Air Quality Control Commission Air Quality Control Commission
UNION
CONSTITUTION
A N D
Colorado Department
of Public Health
and Environment
Colorado Air Quality Control Commission Report to the Public 2007-2008
The Report to the Public is issued by the Colorado Air Quality Control Commission and prepared by the Air Pollution Control Division of the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment,
4300 Cherry Creek Drive South
Denver, CO 80246, (303) 692-3108
Editor/Designer: Robert True, email@example.com
On-Line: www.cdphe.state.co.us/ap/rttplinks.html
Statutory requirement for public report
Colorado Revised Statutes, Title 25, Health
25-7-105. Duties of the Commission subsection (4) of this section, the commission shall prepare and make available to the public a report which shall contain the following specific information:
(4)(a) The commission and the state board of health shall hold a public hearing during the month of October of each year in order to hear public comment on air pollution problems within the state, alleged sources of air pollution within the state, and the availability of practical remedies therefor; and at such time the technical secretary shall answer reasonable questions from the public concerning administration and enforcement of the various provisions of this article, as well as rules and regulation promulgated under the authority of this article.
(a) A description of the pollution problem in each of the polluted areas of the state, described separately for each such area;
(b) To the extent possible, the identification of sources of air pollution in each separate area of the state, such as motor vehicles, industrial sources, and power-generating facilities;
(c) A list of all alleged violations of emission control regulations which shows the status of control procedures in effect with respect to each such alleged violation.
(5) Prior to the hearing required under
Colorado Air Quality Control Commission
www.cdphe.state.co.us/op/aqcc/
Douglas A. Lempke, Administrator
Theresa Martin, Program Assistant
Bill Ritter, Governor James B. Martin, Executive Director
STATE OF COLORADO
COLORADO AIR QUALITY CONTROL COMMISSION
http://www.cdphe.state.co.us/op/aqcc/
4300 Cherry Creek Dr. S. OED-OPPI-A5 Denver, Colorado 80246-1530 Phone (303) 692-3100
Fax (303) 691-7702
October 1, 2008
Dear Fellow Coloradan:
The Colorado Air Quality Control Commission presents this annual report to share information about the quality of our air, to present ongoing activities that protect air quality in Colorado and to summarize the challenges that we all face.
The commission is the state agency responsible for developing and adopting regulatory programs to protect and improve air quality in Colorado, but there are many organizations that work to help improve the quality of our air. For example, the Air Pollution Control Division implements the air quality programs adopted by the commission and works with numerous federal, state and local government agencies to ensure good air quality throughout the state. Nongovernmental organizations, as well as businesses and industries regulated by the programs, also contribute to air quality protection.
In addition, Colorado citizens play an increasingly important role in the quality of our air. Everyday actions such as reduced driving, vehicle maintenance and energy conservation can significantly improve air quality – especially when we all take part. As we address the challenges of achieving and maintaining good air quality in the future, individuals will be called upon, more than ever, to help in these efforts.
During the past year, the commission has worked to adopt and better understand programs that:
* Reduce air pollutant emissions from oil and gas exploration and development
* Reduce ozone pollution in the Denver area and throughout the state
* Address air pollution related ecosystem impacts in Rocky Mountain National Park
* Reduce mercury emissions at coal fired electric utilities
* Improve visibility in Colorado national parks and wilderness areas
* Identify and repair high polluting motor vehicles
In the coming year, there remain difficult challenges that must be addressed, which include:
* Reducing elevated ozone concentrations in the Denver metropolitan area and northern Front Range
* Completing a plan to improve visibility in national parks and wilderness areas
* Adopting a plan to repair high polluting cars and light-duty trucks
* Investigating impacts of climate change
I encourage you to become educated about the quality of the air in our state, to attend and participate in the monthly commission meetings and to express your views on air quality issues. Meeting agendas, minutes and more information are available on our web site: www.cdphe.state.co.us/op/aqcc/
Sincerely,
Cynthia Peterson Chair
Table of Contents
ir Quality Overview
Colorado, like many states, has experienced numerous issues with air quality, but has been successful in providing good public health protection and improving air quality. Since the time that air pollution monitoring began in the 1970s, Colorado has improved poor air quality in areas of the state where violations of the national standards were recorded and preserved those improvements over time.
A
Denver Metro Ozone (O 3 )Trends
NREL Golden Monitor, 4 th maximum 8-hour values
PM10 Trends
24 hour average
* site discontinued for 2007
PM2.5 Trends
th
98 percentile value, 24-hour average
In 2002, Colorado accomplished a milestone by achieving compliance with all federal air quality standards and having the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designate all areas of Colorado in compliance. Since that time, areas of the Front Range, specifically the Denver metropolitan, Greeley and Fort Collins areas, have fallen out of compliance with the national standard for ozone. At the same time, EPA has lowered the national standard for ozone, making the challenge to maintain compliance that much greater. Colorado will need the combined efforts of state and local governments, business and industry, as well as the citizens of the state to meet the challenge of reducing ozone pollution.
In addition to ozone, Colorado is working to address air pollution from a variety of sources to ensure we maintain healthy air quality and continue to protect the natural resources in all areas of the state. Colorado is working to address air pollutant emissions from oil and natural gas development, emissions from cars and light duty trucks, visibility in our scenic places and deposition of nitrogen bearing compounds in Rocky Mountain National Park.
*site discontinued for 2007
Colorado is currently undergoing a significant increase in oil and gas development in many areas of the state. While Colorado has historically been an area of oil and gas development, the recent increase has presented some air quality challenges. Emissions from oil and gas sources have been significantly reduced along the Front Range as well as other areas of the state, and additional emission reduction controls are being evaluated. Reducing emissions from oil and gas will help reduce ozone pollution and improve visibility, as well as reduce odors and exposure to air toxics.
Carbon Monoxide (CO) Trends
2nd 8-hour maximum value
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO X ) Trends
Annual Average, CAMP station, 2105 Broadway, Denver
Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2 ) Trends Annual Average
Air pollutant emissions from cars and light duty trucks as well as heavy-duty vehicles collectively contribute to adverse air quality in Colorado. High emitting vehicles or vehicles with engine system malfunctions contribute disproportionately large amounts of pollution. The state implements a vehicle emissions testing program in the Front Range and is working to more efficiently identify and require repairs for high emitting vehicles. Continuing to reduce vehicle emissions will help to reduce ozone concentrations as well as carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen air pollution.
The state is also working to develop and adopt plans to reduce air pollutant emissions that obscure visibility in our National Parks and Wilderness Areas. The state has adopted several measures to improve visibility under the requirements of the federal regional haze program. Emission reductions from major sources of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen will be implemented in the next several years to help achieve this goal. Impaired visibility is a regional air quality issue that will require emission reductions from numerous sources across broad regions of the country and will take several years to accomplish. Colorado is working within the state as well as with other western states to reach this objective.
In Rocky Mountain National Park, the state is working with EPA and the National Park Service to address nitrogen deposition in the park from oxides of nitrogen and ammonia. Oxides of nitrogen are typically generated from the burning of fuel such as coal, oil, gasoline and natural gas. Ammonia is typically produced from agricultural operations such as livestock management and fertilizer application. Ammonia is also produced from the urban application of fertilizer on lawns and gardens. Excess nitrogen deposition in the park works as a fertilizer and creates adverse impacts to the park's natural ecosystems. The state is working to significantly reduce nitrogen deposition by working with the agricultural community to reduce ammonia emissions. The state also is developing NOx emission control strategies in the Front Range to provide a benefit for numerous air quality improvement programs.
Causes of ozone pollution in Colorado
Ozone pollution is formed through complex photochemistry involving volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) in the presence of sunlight. Emissions from motor vehicles, industry and even vegetation contribute to ozone formation.
Ozone can cause breathing difficulties and respiratory infections in the elderly, the young and those with pre-existing ailments such as asthma. Even healthy people who exercise or work outdoors can experience respiratory effects from ozone.
Ozone is colorless and odorless at ambient concentrations. In the upper stratosphere, ozone helps protect the earth from ultraviolet radiation.
The highest ground-level ozone concentrations occur in the summer when hot, still days cause reactive pollutants to form ozone.
Point Sources: Emissions that come from a stationary source such as factories and industrial sources and oil and gas production sites.
Mobile Sources: On-road motor vehicles.
The Air Quality Control Commission has been analyzing ozone reduction efforts and will be considering an ozone reduction plan in 2008. For more information see page 9, and www.cdphe.state.co.us/ap/ozone.html.
Off-Road Engines: Lawn and construction equipment, off-road vehicles, locomotives, airplanes, etc.
Area Sources: Emissions that do not include point or mobile sources.
Biogenic Sources: Naturally occurring emissions from vegetation, including trees, plants and crops.
Sources of carbon monoxide pollution in Colorado
Carbon monoxide is produced primarily during incomplete combustion of fuels used in transportation and heating. It is the largest single fraction of pollutants found in urban atmospheres. About 90 percent of carbon monoxide in the Denver area comes from motor vehicles. Other sources are woodburning, aircrafts and locomotives, construction equipment, power plants and space heating.
Carbon monoxide deprives the body of oxygen and especially affects people with cardiovascular conditions.
In Denver, the daily concentration peaks occur after morning and evening rush hours. The problem is more severe in winter when cold weather causes engines to run less efficiently and meteorological conditions trap pollutants near the ground.
Point Sources: Emissions that come from stationary sources such as factories and industrial sources.
Denver has not violated the carbon monoxide standard since 1995. Carbon monoxide has continued to decrease due to cleaner motor vehicles and residential burning regulations.
Mobile Sources: Both on- and off-road motor vehicles and any engines that are mobile and give off emissions.
Area Sources: Emissions that come from a broad area that do not include point or mobile sources, including emissions from heating, woodburning fireplaces, forest fires and controlled burns.
Sources of particulate matter pollution in Colorado
Denver PM2.5 Contributions
PM10 Contributions Typical Mountain Community
This chart represents average source and chemical contribution to the 24-hour average PM2.5 concentration at a north Denver area monitoring station during the winter.
PM2.5
PM2.5 is composed of a mixture of particles directly emitted into the air and particles formed in the air by the chemical transformation of gaseous pollutants. This chemical transformation principally leads to ammonium sulfate and ammonium nitrate formed in the air from gaseous emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOX) reacting with ammonia. The main source of SO2 is combustion of fossil fuels in boilers, and the main source of NOX is combustion of fossil fuels in boilers and motor vehicles. Some secondary particles also are formed from semi-volatile organic compounds which are emitted from a wide range of combustion sources.
This chart represents typical source and chemical contributions to PM10 during a high pollution day in the winter. Data are averaged from studies of five mountain communities in Colorado.
PM10
PM10 refers to particulate matter that is 10 microns in diameter or smaller. The particles, consisting of solid or semi-solid material suspended in the atmosphere, are created from road dust, automobile and diesel engine exhaust, soot, and sulfates and nitrates from combustion sources.
The dust portion of PM10 includes windblown sand and dirt from roadways, fields and construction sites. Man-made particulates are created during the burning of fuels associated with industrial processes or heating. These particles include fly ash from power plants, carbon black from automobiles and diesel engines, and soot from fireplaces and woodstoves.
PM2.5 particles have an aerodynamic diameter of 2.5 microns or less. A micron is approximately one-seventh the width of a human hair. Particles this small can be inhaled deeply into the lungs where they can damage tissue and lead to lung cancer and other respiratory diseases. PM2.5 also results in visibility degradation and haze.
When inhaled deeply into the respiratory system, PM10 can affect lung and heart function, and weaken immune system defenses. The environmental effects of PM10 range from visibility degradation to climate changes and vegetation damage.
* Ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate are formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions as opposed to being emitted directly into the air. The North Front Range Air Quality Study (www.nfraqs.colostate.edu) concluded that the majority of ammonium nitrate is caused by motor vehicles, and three-fourths of sulfur dioxide, a precursor to ammonium sulfate, comes from coal-fired power stations.
Sources of regional haze in Colorado
Regional haze is a term for the veil of white or brown haze that obstructs vistas in many parts of the country, including areas of Colorado. The haze is caused by fine particles including sulfates, carbon, soils and nitrates. These particles are produced by power plants, industrial sources, motor vehicles, fires, and windblown dust and dirt. The particles are carried by the wind, sometimes for hundreds or even thousands of miles (in the case of transcontinental transport of pollutants).
In our nation's scenic areas, the visual range has been reduced substantially by air pollution. In the West, visual range has decreased from an average of 140 miles to 35-90 miles, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
areas, and a plan that demonstrates how the first phase of goals will be met by 2018. A major part of the federal rule requires improved emissions controls on certain types of major industrial sources of regional haze. These emissions controls are known as Best Available Retrofit Technology, or BART. The
ultimate goal of the federal Regional Haze Rule is to achieve "natural conditions" for visibility by 2064 in all Class I Areas.
The Colorado Air Quality Control Commission adopted a planning process in 2004 to meet the requirements of the 1999 federal Regional Haze Rule. In response, the Air Pollution Control Division is developing a Regional Haze State Implementation Plan to meet the EPA's 2008 deadline. The process requires a detailed analysis of regional haze for 12 wilderness areas and national parks in Colorado that have been designated "Class I" for visibility protection by the EPA. The process also requires the establishment of reasonable progress goals for each of these
Makeup of fine particles in haze in rural Colorado Class I areas
A preliminary regional haze plan was developed and approved by the Air Quality Control Commission in 2007.
More regional
Source: IMPROVE Report haze planning will be undertaken in the near future. For more information see: www.cdphe.state.co.us/ap/regionalhaze.html.
Sources of air toxics in Colorado
Toxic air pollutants, also known as hazardous air pollutants, are those pollutants that are known or suspected to cause cancer or other serious health effects. Hazardous air pollutants can increase risk of cancer, sterility and nervous system disorders.
The EPA and states are monitoring levels of air toxics, and evaluating their sources and potential control measures.
Air toxics are a legal category of pollutants separate from the six criteria pollutants for which National Ambient Air Quality Standards have been set. While no standards have been set for air toxics, EPA has identified 33 "priority" air toxics, which are found in many urban and/or highvehicle traffic areas.
Sources of HAPs include automobile exhaust, power plants, refineries, gas stations, and many industrial and home-use solvents, coatings, material preservatives and other chemicals.
Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment staff are completing a risk assessment of air toxics at five sites in Colorado, including three sites in Denver and two in Grand Junction.
In addition to monitoring and inventory work, the Air Pollution Control Division works to reduce air toxics through a variety of programs, including requiring fees for emissions from stationary sources; automobile inspection and maintenance programs; and the Mercury-free Colorado program. A new effort to expand diesel school bus retrofitting statewide also is in development.
NOx pollution contributes to ozone, haze
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) is the generic term for a group of highly reactive gases that contain nitrogen and oxygen in varying amounts. NOx play a major role in the formation of ozone, particulate matter, haze and acid rain.
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO X ) Trends
Annual Average
Ninety-five percent of NOx are made up of Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitric oxide (NO). NO2 is a reddish brown, highly reactive gas that is formed in the ambient air through the oxidation of NO.
Reductions in emissions of NOx in some cases can
lead to an increase in ozone. This is due to the complex chemistry of ozone formation. In the immediate vicinity of the NOx emissions, NO scavenges ozone. However, the NO2 that is formed can photolyze and reform ozone further downwind.
The major sources of man-made NOx emissions are high-temperature combustion processes such as those that occur in automobiles and power plants. Home heaters and gas stoves can also produce substantial amounts of NO2 in indoor settings.
Health and Environmental Effects
NOx react in the air to form ground-level ozone and fine particle pollution, which are associated with adverse health effects.
NOx can increase respiratory problems, cause mild symptomatic effects in asthmatic individuals and increase susceptibility to respiratory infections.
NOx contribute to a wide range of environmental effects directly and when combined with other precursors in acid rain and ozone.
Increased nitrogen inputs to terrestrial and wetland systems can lead to changes in plant species composition and diversity. Similarly, direct nitrogen inputs to aquatic ecosystems can lead to eutrophication (a condition that promotes excessive algae growth, which can lead to a severe depletion of dissolved oxygen and increased levels of toxins harmful to aquatic life). NOx also contribute to visibility impairment.
Trends in NO 2 Levels and NOx Emissions
NOx are monitored at two sites in Colorado: downtown Denver's CAMP station and in Welby just north of Denver. Monitoring results show no significant trend in NOx since monitoring began in 1974, though NO 2 shows a downward trend in Colorado (see additional graph on page 2).
Nationally, monitored levels of NO 2 have decreased 21 percent. Nationally, average NO 2 concentrations are well below the NAAQS and currently are at the lowest levels recorded in the past 20 years. During the past 20 years, national emissions of NOx have declined by almost 15 percent.
Colorado's air quality management plans
During the 1970s and 1980s, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designated many Colorado cities and towns as nonattainment areas because the areas violated nationwide air quality standards. By the mid1990s, all these areas came into compliance with the various standards.
Ozone Early Action Compact Plan
All areas have been redesignated, but due to persistent ozone problems a nine-county Front Range area was designated nonattainment for the 8-hour ozone standard in 2007and a plan is being developed to bring the area into compliance.
Colorado Governor Bill Ritter issued several challenges to the Denver metropolitan area's Regional Air Quality Council in 2007 to propose a plan that would provide better public health and environmental protection from ozone sooner than would otherwise be required under the federal program.
State Implementation Plans (SIPs) are the plans that bring nonattainment areas into compliance with air quality standards. These plans describe the nature of the air quality problems and the probable causes. The plans show projections of future pollutant levels and identify strategies to reduce these pollutants to acceptable levels. The plans can be viewed online at www.cdphe.state.co.us/ap/ attainmaintain.html.
8-Hour Ozone Nonattainment Area
1-Hour Ozone Attainment Area
Colorado Air Quality Control Commission www.cdphe.state.co.us/op/aqcc/
The Colorado Air Quality Control Commission has among other responsiblites the development and adoption of a regulatory program to protect and improve air quality in Colorado. Typically, the commission is involved in the maintenance of the regulations through modification and revision. Much of the air quality management program currently is in place and has been adopted over time. New programs are occassionally considered by the commission as needed to address specific problems.
The commission oversees the implementation of the air quality programs. The commission is responsible for hearing appeals of the Air Pollution Control Division's implementation of the programs through permit terms and conditions and enforcement actions.
Colorado's air quality management program regulates air pollutant emissions from stationary industrial sources, cars and light duty trucks, burning practices, street sanding and sweeping activities, and the use of prescribed fire.
The air quality program also is focused on visibility, odor and transportation planning impacts to future air quality.
Commission meetings typically are conducted on the third Thursday of each month and may extend into the next day. The commission encourages members of the public to attend these meetings and express their views.
Ozone reduction efforts underway
Ozone is a secondary pollutant, not directly emitted from sources, but formed from chemical reactions of several pollutants in the air. High levels of ozone present health concerns for both healthy adults and for sensitive people, especially the elderly, young children and those with asthma and respiratory ailments.
facilities, oil and gas operations, gasoline vapors and chemical solvents are the major human-made sources of the NOx and VOC emissions. Reducing VOC emissions tends to provide a direct benefit to ozone reduction. Reducing NOx emissions can lead to localized increases in ozone, but overall contributes to reduced ozone formation.
The national standard for ozone has been revised several times to be more protective of human health. Compliance with the national standard has presented challenges for Colorado, particularly along the Front Range and in the Denver metropolitan area.
Elevated ozone levels kept the Front Range at the edge of nonattainment of the federal standard for many years, with levels that exceeded the standard in 1998 and 2003. In 2004 EPA deferred a nonattainment designation to give Colorado a chance to meet the standards through an accelerated ozone action plan. Unfortunatley, high ozone levels during the summer of 2007 led to another violation of the federal ozone standard, resulting in a nonattainment designation from the US EPA.
Elevated ozone levels are caused by traffic growth and industrial growth combined with meteorological conditions that create ozone.
Colorado Governor Bill Ritter issued several challenges to the Denver metropolitan area's Regional Air Quality Council to propose a plan that would provide better public health and environmental protections sooner than would otherwise be required under the federal program.
Ozone Formation
Ground-level ozone is not emitted directly into the air, but forms when emissions of, primarily, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react with sunlight to form the pollutant. Weather is often considered the most significant factor of ozone formation. Hot stagnant days with upper atmospheric high-pressure systems tend to favor ozone production and increased ozone concentrations. The role of weather helps to explain why some summers have high ozone levels while other summers have relatively low levels.
Power plants, motor vehicle exhaust, industrial
Violation of Standard
The highest levels of ozone have been monitored in the Front Range Area, with violations of the federal 8-hour ozone standard in 2003 and 2007. However, relatively high ozone levels have been recorded in many areas of the state. Prior to 2003 and 2007 the Denver metro area violated the 1-hour federal ozone standard in 1987.
In April 2004, EPA designated the Denver and North Front Range area (Adams, Arapahoe, Boulder, Broomfield, Denver, Douglas, Jefferson and parts of Larimer and Weld counties) as nonattainment for the 8-hour ozone standard. EPA deferred the federal requirements because of a commitment from the State of Colorado, the Regional Air Quality Council and others to implement ozone control measures to return the area to compliance with the federal standard sooner than would otherwise be required by the Clean Air Act.
In July 2007 the Denver/North Front Range Area violated the federal standard of .085 parts per million (ppm) of ozone and EPA subsequently designated the area as nonattainment in November 2007, requiring Colorado to develop a plan to demonstrate long-term compliance with the federal standard. This plan must bring the area into compliance with the .085 ppm federal standard by the end of 2010.
Nonattainment Implications
A federal designation of nonattainment means that an area is exceeding the value of the federal standard at one or more of the monitoring stations in the area several times per year, usually in the summertime season. The nonattainment designation also means that citizens are at risk of being exposed to higher levels of ozone in their normal daily activities. The federal nonattainment designation imposes additional restrictions on transportation planning, permitting of new and expanded sources of air pollutants, and greater federal oversight of air quality management. Once designated as nonattainment state and local governments are required to develop and submit plans for approval to reduce pollutant concentrations and show how they will be maintained at acceptable levels for two ten-year planning periods.
Governor's Challenge
Shortly after Colorado violated the standard in July 2007, Governor Bill Ritter issued a challenge to the Denver metropolitan Regional Air Quality Council to propose a plan to the Commission to do more than simply comply with the federal ozone standard, and to do it sooner than would otherwise be required.
The Regional Air Quality Council has developed many plans in the past in its role as the lead air quality planning agency for the Denver metro area. The Regional Air Quality Council is working with the North Front Range Transportation and Air Quality Planning Council to develop a proposal for the Commission's consideration at a December 2008 rulemaking hearing.
The Governor challenged the Regional Air Quality Council to:
* Propose measures to reduce ozone further in the 2008 summer season,
* Submit a proposed plan to the Air Quality Control Commission by September,
* Set a goal of reducing or eliminating ozone levels above 80 parts per billion,
* Consider further ozone reductions to meet EPA's newly issued ozone standard.
In 2008 more stringent vehicle emission cutpoints were put into effect, a program to detect high emiting vehicles began in Denver, stricter regulations on the oil and gas industry went into effect, and a public outreach program by the RAQC promoted voluntary efforts.
Ozone Plan
The ozone plan will contain emission control measures that will become federally enforceable as well as emission control measures that will be reserved for enforcement by the state only. Keeping some emission control measures as "state only" maintains state flexibility to make future changes to the program. Otherwise, changes to the plan would require federal approval.
The ozone plan will define how the region will demonstrate compliance with the federal ozone standard and the specific emission reduction measures that will be relied upon to achieve this goal. Emissions reduction measures being considered at the time of this report's development include:
* Removal of existing exemptions from sources not required to meet VOC limits,
* Further reducing emissions of NOx from large stationary sources,
* Requiring stricter permitting and emissions control requirements for new or modified sources of VOC and NOx emissions,
* Reducing emissions from new and existing oil and gas development storage and handling equipment,
* Vehicle emissions inspection and maintenance programs in the North Front Range,
* Lower volatility fuels,
* High emitting vehicle identification and repair programs.
The ozone plan will rely on the emission reductions to be realized from the continued implementation of several federal programs, primarily mobile source programs. Vehicle fleet turnover will bring new pollution control technologies into the fleet on the road and will provide a significant benefit to reducing ozone concentrations in the Front Range region.
The focus of the ozone plan is to return the Denver/North Front Range area to compliance with the federal standard. However, emission reduction programs are being considered statewide. Statewide reductions will prevent ozone nonattainment from occurring in other areas of the state and will improve Front Range air quality.
The ozone plan will define how the nonattainment area will achieve reduced ozone concentrations to meet the federal ozone standard by December 2010 and will demonstrate longterm compliance with the federal standard. The plan will also include emission reduction strategies that drive the region's ozone concentrations even lower toward the level of the newly-issued federal ozone standard.
New Ozone Standard
In March 2008 EPA issued a new, more stringent, ozone standard. The standard continues
with an 8-hour averaging time and will be measured as an average of the fourth-highest values over a three-year period. The numerical value of the standard has been tightened from 0.08 parts per million to 0.075 parts per million. Many monitoring locations in the Front Range are projected to violate the new standard based on historical data. Monitoring locations elsewhere in the state appear to narrowly meet the new standard.
If the Denver/North Front Range region violates the new standard the state will be required under the federal Clean Air Act to submit a plan to EPA to show how the Denver/North Front Range area will demonstrate long-term compliance with the new federal standard.
The plan will likely be due in 2013. EPA will set a date for compliance with the new standard in a separate rule.
EPA adopted the new ozone standard as a part of its requirement to review all National Ambient Air Quality Standards every five years to determine if the standards are protective of public health and the environment.
Ozone Monitoring and Analysis
Six new ozone monitors have been installed during the past year by the division in areas where ozone is a concern. Three of these monitors are on the Western Slope in Palisade, Rifle and Cortez. The others are in Aspen Park, Masonville west of Fort Collins, and at the Aurora Reservoir. Fifteen pre-existing ozone monitors are operated by the division in the Front Range. Many other ozone monitors are operated in Colorado by other agencies or individiduals.
While ozone is understood to primarily be a summertime problem caused by hot, stagnant air that bakes pollutants, ozone has also been observed in the winter. "Cold pools" can form in valleys where pollutants are trapped in shallow layers where sun reflection from snow leads to high ozone levels. While these conditions have been observed in oil and gas development areas in Wyoming, more study is needed to better understand the phenomenon.
Oil and gas industry included in ozone plan
The oil and gas industry is the largest source category of human-caused ozone precursor emissions in the state. The industry made up 40 percent of human-created VOC emissions statewide in 2006, and is projected to make up 54 percent of those emissions in 2010.
The industry is developing rapidly, especially in western Colorado. The Colorado Oil and Gas Commission issued 6,368 drilling permits in 2007, up from 2,245 in 2003.
On the Western Slope, a significant amount of the development activity is taking place in Garfield County. On the Front Range, Weld County makes up the majority of well sites. These two counties also have the highest levels of VOC emissions from the oil and gas industry.
Emissions sources from oil and gas development sites include condensate tanks, dehydrators, reciprocating internal combustion engines and valves.
Emission Controls
The Air Quality Control Commission has taken action since 2004 to address the impact of emissions from the oil and gas industry, including:
* 2004: Condensate tanks, dehydrators and existing engines controls for the Front Range,
* 2006: Additional condensate tank controls for the Front Range and statewide controls for dehydrators, condensate tanks and new engines.
Control strategies specific to the oil and gas industry are being considered in the ozone planning process. These include:
* Increase condensate tank controls to 95 percent of emissions controlled,
* Require low/no bleed valves on all new and existing pneumatic valves,
* Place statewide controls on existing reciprocating internal combustion engines.
Environment and Public Health
The Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission, the industry's main regulatory body, has been adopting rules to implement laws passed in the last legislative session requiring that the environment, wildlife and public health and safety be given more consideration when approving new development.
What you can do to prevent air pollution
Everyone has an important part to play in reducing air pollution. Here are a few suggested ways you can make a difference in your own community.
equipment, such as weed trimmers, since they emit a disproportionate share of air pollution.
* Use a funnel to refuel equipment — avoid even small spills and drips.
* Reduce lawn watering and fertilizing to discourage excessive lawn growth.
* Xeriscape to reduce lawn area, or change to native Western
grasses to reduce the need for irrigation and mowing.
* Plant trees. Trees not only add oxygen, they reduce dust and act as natural heat contollers, providing shade in the summer and allowing sunlight in the winter.
On the Road
* Drive a fuel efficient and low polluting vehicle.
* Keep your car tuned up and tires well inflated to increase mileage and reduce the need for refueling.
* Refuel in the evening, so fuel vapors will not have a chance to "cook" into ozone.
* When refueling, stop at the click — when the nozzle clicks off. Don't overfill or drip fuel. Fuel creates ozone-causing vapors as it evaporates.
Reduce Driving
* Delay trips.
* Combine errands into one trip.
* Shop close to home.
* Carpool.
* Walk or bike.
* Use public transportation.
* Telecommute or teleconference.
Around the Yard
* Wait till evening to mow when cooler temperatures create less ozone.
* Use a new earth-friendly lawn mower — an electric- or battery-powered mower, a nonmotorized push mower, or a new gasolinepowered mower.
* Maintain your mower to help it run cleaner — change the air filter, oil and spark plugs at least once each season. Keep the underside of the mower free of grass build-up.
* Avoid using two-stroke gasoline-powered yard
* Choose an alternative to charcoal grilling.
* Don't use charcoal lighter fluids, which emit harmful vapors. Use an electric starter or charcoal chimney instead.
Around the House
* Avoid solvent-based products, which have pollution causing vapors. Use water-based paint, stain and sealants.
* If you must use a solvent-based product, avoid
using it on ozone action alert days or use it in the evening.
* Avoid spray paints, most of which are solvent based. Very fine spray also can become airborne. Use paint brushes and rollers instead.
* Tightly cap all solvents (gasoline, paint thinners, strippers, degreasers) and store in a cool place to avoid evaporation.
* Plan major painting, stripping and refinishing projects for spring and fall to avoid summer heat and sun which
react with vapors to create ozone pollution.
* Avoid use of flammable household products, such as some floor wax, furniture polish, fabric cleaners and insect foggers, most of which contain solvents.
* Don't burn wood, including in-home woodburning stoves or outdoor burning devices. If you must burn use only EPA certified devices for low emissions.
Conserve energy
If we use less energy the power plants burn less coal and oil.
* Insulate and weatherstrip.
* Take quick showers. They use less hot water than baths.
* Close doors to unused rooms and don't heat or cool them.
* Keep your home cooler in the winter and warmer in the summer.
* Wash clothes in cold water.
* Hang laundry out to dry instead of using a clothes dryer.
* Run dishwashers and washing machines only when there is a full load.
* Turn off unused lights and appliances.
* Use fluorescent lights instead of incandescent bulbs.
* Recycle everything you can (paper, glass, metal cans, aluminum and plastic). It takes less energy to recycle than to create new material.
Get Involved
* Get involved in your local government processes related to air pollution and offer your input.
* Visit websites listed in this report to learn more about air pollution.
* Pay attention to news reports about air pollution and follow the sugges-
tions listed here on high pollution or ozone alert days.
* Report problems. If you think you see an air pollution problem report it to your local or state agency.
Vehicle emissions inspection program
The following is a summary of the automobile Inspection and Maintenance Program for 2007. A more detailed report can be requested by calling (303) 692-3125 or viewed on-line at: www.cdphe.state.co.us/ap/down/IMreport.pdf.
year to determine whether the vehicle has passed or failed.
The Automobile Inspection and Maintenance (AIR) Program's purpose is to reduce motor vehicle-related pollution through the detection and repair of high-emitting vehicles. Motor vehicles are a major source of hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) and a predominant source of carbon monoxide (CO) in the Denver metro area.
Program Requirements
Emission testing of gasoline vehicles is required when registering, renewing registrations, or selling vehicles more than three model years old, within the seven county Denver Metro Area.
The environmental benefit from the program is derived primarily from the emission reductions when vehicles failing the initial test are repaired, with additional benefit from pre-inspection maintenance and repair to ensure compliance with program requirements.
While most vehicles pass the testing requirements, the vehicles that fail disproportionately contribute to the overall emissions of the vehicle fleet.
The AIR Program consists of three types of vehicle emissions tests: the I/M 240 test, which applies to 1982 and newer light-duty gas vehicles; the two-speed idle test, which applies to 1981 and older gas vehicles, heavy-duty gas vehicles and gasoline fleet vehicles; and the clean screen test using remote sensing technology, which is used to exempt out vehicles that would otherwise be required to pass an I/M 240 test.
Each of these tests is designed to measure a vehicle's emissions, but do so in very different ways. The I/M 240 is a four-minute test that measures tailpipe CO, HC and NOx emissions on a mass basis. The test is run on a dynamometer to simulate driving conditions. Emissions established during the test, expressed in grams of pollutant per mile driven, are compared against established cutpoints for vehicle type and model
The two-speed idle test also measures tailpipe CO, and HC emissions, but does so based on the concentration of the emissions in the exhaust stream. The test is run with the engine at idle, with no load, rather than under simulated driving conditions. In addition to the tailpipe portion of the tests, vehicles undergoing I/M 240 and twospeed idle testing must also pass a visual inspection of the emission control equipment and a gas cap inspection designed to ensure that there is not excessive leakage of gas vapors.
The clean screen test uses remote sensing technology to measure a vehicle's CO and HC exhaust emissions as the vehicle is driven on a public roadway. Unlike the I/M 240 or two-speed idle tests, the clean screen test is not used to fail vehicles. Instead, the test is used to identify clean vehicles, which are then exempted from the requirement to undergo I/M 240 testing.
Program Results
During 2007, approximately 742,000 vehicles underwent I/M 240 and 73,000 vehicles underwent two-speed idle tests. Among these vehicles, 5.8 percent failed the I/M 240 test, and 11.4 percent failed the two-speed idle test.
Based on the EPA approved MOBILE6.2 emission modeling, the AIR Program resulted in a 6 percent HC reduction, a 10.8 percent CO reduction and a 1.8 percent reduction of NOx for the entire fleet on a typical summer day. This equates to a 6.6 ton per day (tpd) HC reduction, a 103.72
tpd CO reduction and a 1.9 tpd NOx reduction. Modeling results for a winter day show a CO reduction of 141 tpd.
I/M 240 test data for 2007 show a 12.6 percent reduction in HC and a 15.9 percent CO reduction over the entire year, but because of a number of limitations in this data, the tested reductions do not necessarily indicate that MOBILE6.2 is underestimating emission reductions from the program.
Cost of Program
The estimated net cost of the AIR Program for 2007 was $26.4 million dollars based on inspection and registration fees, the estimated cost to repair vehicles and the estimated fuel savings from required repairs. Based on these estimated costs and benefits, the cost effectiveness of the program for 2007 was $7,070 per ton of ozone precursor during the summertime ozone season, and $513 per ton of CO during the wintertime CO season.
The program made significant strides in increasing the use of remote sensing in 2007. For the year, 109,014 vehicles were screened by remote sensing and identified as clean. This compares to 43,095 vehicles in 2006 and 19,293 vehicles in 2005. The growth in remote sensing has significantly improved the convenience of the program to the motoring public.
Future Changes
In October 2007, the Air Quality Control Commission promulgated regulations for the implementation of a pilot program to use remote sensing to identify high emitting vehicles. The Air Pollution Control Division began implementing the pilot program in December 2007 and will continue to operate the program throughout 2008. The division will periodically update the commission on the progress and effectiveness of the program.
Implementing effective air quality programs
The Air Pollution Control Division
www.cdphe.state.co.us/ap/
The Air Pollution Control Division is responsible for implementing the air quality management programs adopted by the Air Quality Control Commission and acts as staff in the regulatory development process. The division is housed within the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment. This section of the report includes a description of each of the air quality management programs and highlights of recent work.
Mobile Sources
* Automobile Inspection and Maintenance Program
The Aurora High Altitude Vehicle Emissions Laboratory conducts nationally recognized vehicle emissions testing.
* Alternative Fuels
* RapidScreen Program
* Diesel Emissions Control
* Oxygenated Gasoline Program
The Mobile Sources Program controls and reduces motor vehicle emissions that contribute to air quality degradation. The program evaluates, investigates, and administers programs aimed at improving vehicle emissions. It conducts research, modeling and planning on the causes and effects of mobile source air pollution.
The staff jointly administers the Automobile Inspection and Readjustment (AIR) Program in the seven-county Denver metropolitan area with the Colorado Department of Revenue, along with solely administering two separate diesel opacity inspection programs, one designed for large fleets, and the other for individual diesel vehicles. As part of the AIR program, mobile sources innovated the use of remote sensing technology in its "cleanscreen" program, and is currently piloting a remote-sensing based high-emitter program.
The Mobile Sources Program is involved in understanding the contribution motor fuels play in mobile source emissions and their affect on air quality. As a result, an oxygenated gasoline program reduces wintertime carbon monoxide emissions from gasoline powered cars and trucks. More recently, the program has focused on the effect fuel volatility has on ozone precursor emissions.
The program also operates a series of vehicle technical centers in support of the AIR Program. These centers provide customer assistance to motorists failing emissions inspection, and outreach to the public and vehicle repair industry. The center's technicians are recognized experts in their field and contribute to ensuring that the motor vehicle repair industry has access to the latest technical information on vehicle emissions repair procedures and technology.
Planning and Policy
* Emissions Program Public Information
* Community-Based Air Quality Protection
* Environmental Education
* High Pollution Advisory Program
* Natural Events Action Plan
* Nonattainment/Maintenance Air Quality Planning
* Pollution Prevention
* Transportation Planning
The Planning and Policy Program is responsible for a cross-section of air quality planning, policy, education and community outreach tasks. Included among the program's responsibilities are: air quality plan development and implementation; assisting in the development of transportation conformity analysis; participating in air-qualityrelated transportation planning; policy development; community-based environmental protection; pollution prevention; public information; and air quality education in schools.
Stationary Sources
* Construction Permit Program
* Inventory Program
* Operating Permit Program
* Field Services Program
* Hazardous Air Pollutants
* Oil and Gas Team
* Regulatory and Compliance Assistance Program
* Wood Stove and Open Burning Programs
The Stationary Sources Program evaluates and develops permits for stationary sources such as gas stations, dry cleaners, auto finishers, electric utilities, mining operations, construction projects and oil and gas development sites. Staff members inspect these sources to determine their compliance with regulations and permit conditions, and maintain a computerized inventory of air pollution emissions in Colorado. The Stationary Sources Program is working to streamline permitting through the use of general permits and improve compliance by using self-certification in conjunction with traditional inspection programs.
More than 10,500 sources are registered in Colorado, and the Stationary Sources Program administers inventory and permitting programs to ensure federal and state regulations are met. The Stationary Sources program operates robust compliance assistance and small business assistance programs emphasizing pollution prevention to improve regulatory compliance.
Indoor Air Program
* Asbestos Control Program
* Chlorofluorocarbon Program
* Indoor Air Quality
* Lead Based Paint Abatement Unit
The Indoor Air Program provides technical assistance on indoor air pollutants. The program also regulates ozone-depleting compounds (chlorofluorocarbons). Asbestos activities are included within the program through the regulation of asbestos removal and demolition activities, and the review of school asbestos management plans. The program also regulates the removal of lead-based paint from child-occupied facilities.
Technical Services
* Ambient Air Monitoring
* Modeling, Meteorology and Emission Inventory Unit
* Visibility Program
* Smoke Management Program
The Technical Services Program is responsible for the collection and analysis of ambient air quality data throughout the state. Particulate and gaseous monitors are operated in many Colorado communities to keep track of air quality trends, population exposure to pollutants and compliance with air quality standards.
The program also is responsible for providing complex air quality modeling analysis to determine the impacts various sources of air pollution will have on air quality. These models are used to create and evaluate air pollution control strategies for State Implementation Plans to meet federal air standards. The modeling provides a basis for health risk assessments.
The program manages the state's visibility program to protect visual air quality in both urban and rural areas, including national parks and wilderness areas.
The program manages smoke through a burn permit process and by working with fire managers to review and approve plans and practies for controlled burns.
The program maintains real-time and historic air quality data on the Internet at www.colorado.gov/airquality/.
Administrative Services
* Manages fiscal and business matters.
* Develops a comprehensive budget.
* Interacts with legislative processes.
* Ensures payment of bills.
* Develops contracts.
* Coordinates hiring.
The Administrative Services Program manages the business services of the division, including budgeting, billing, contracts, hiring and computer support.
Air quality management program highlights
Regional Haze
www.cdphe.state.co.us/ap/regionalhaze.html
EPA promulgated a regional haze rule in 1999 that directed states to develop plans to meet a national goal of protecting the visibility in national parks and wilderness areas by 2064. These national parks and wilderness areas are designated "Class 1 Areas" for regional haze reductions. Colorado has twelve Class I Areas, a number equal to the states of Oregon and Arizona, and only exceeded by California.
The pollution that causes regional haze comes from a number of sources including power plants, industrial sources, motor vehicles, energy development activities and natural sources such as wildfire. Small particles of soot, dust, sulfate and nitrate can be transported many miles to affect national parks and wilderness areas.
In 2007 and 2008 the Air Quality Control Commission held public hearings on the state's proposed plan for regional haze. The EPA rule requires the states to address several requirements in the plan.
First, certain types of major pollution sources that have minimum air pollution controls must install retrofit controls. This requirement is called Best Available Retrofit Technology (BART). Secondly, states must set "reasonable progress" goals for each Class I area to meet the 2064 national goal. Then, states must adopt measures necessary to meet these goals.
The commission in December 2007 held the first of two public hearings to adopt the air division's proposal for a Regional Haze State Implementation Plan (SIP). At this hearing, the commission approved all chapters of the plan except chapter eight and bifurcated the hearing to continue discussion on chapter eight in January 2008.
The portion of the plan approved by the commission was then approved by the Legislature and transmitted to EPA in June 2008.
The remaining portion of the plan, chapter eight, describes a process and schedule to address the "reasonable progress" requirement in the EPA rule. During the January rulemaking hearing, the commission vacated the proceedings and ordered the division to convene a stakeholder process to address requirements related to "reasonable progress."
In early 2008, four stakeholder meetings were convened, conference calls were held, and the division and stakeholders developed extensive technical materials.
To date, the result of this stakeholder process has been a full discussion about whether and how the division will propose a regulation to establish reasonable progress pollution controls for significant sources and reasonable progress visibility goals.
This process was put on hold in April 2008 to allow division staff to commit all resources to completion of the ozone SIP for the northern Front Range. When the ozone SIP is complete, work will continue on this phase of the regional haze SIP.
Four Corners Task Force
www.nmenv.state.nm.us/aqb/4C/
Members of the Four Corners Air Quality Task Force met on August 20 at San Juan College in Farmington, NM, to review progress in implementing established air quality priorities and a variety of other efforts either currently underway or planned.
The task force originally convened in 2005 to discuss the impacts that oil and gas production, existing and planned coal-fired power plants, growth and other factors are having on air quality in the Four Corners Region. The task force is a broadly representative group that includes federal land managers, federal and state environmental regulators, representatives from industry and tribal nations, and interested residents.
The task force concluded a two-year effort in November 2007 with the finalization of a report on a broad list of options for improving air quality in the region. The report is a resource for regulatory agencies to manage air quality impacts. The task force reconvenes periodically to check on progress. A future meeting has been planned for February 2009 in Durango, Colorado, to provide additional progress updates and discuss air quality modeling results.
Rocky Mountain National Park Initiative
www.cdphe.state.co.us/ap/rmnp.html
An initiative to improve air quality and reduce the effects of nitrogen and acidic deposition at Rocky Mountain National Park is continuing. For a number of years, the National Park Service has studied and expressed concerns about loss of visibility, increasing ozone concentrations, and nitrogen and acidic deposition at many national parks, including Rocky Mountain National Park.
An initiative to address air quality at the park began in 2004 that included participation from the Air Quality Control Comission, the Air Pollution Control Division, the National Park Service and the U.S. Enivronmental Protection Agency.
During the last several years the Rocky Mountain National Park Initiative compiled and analyzed data, and discussed emission control options. The focus of the initiative has been on nitrogen reduction.
The initiative most recently has been developing a contingency plan in the event that ongoing and expected pollution reduction efforts don't provide the improvements needed. Some of these expected improvements will come from new federal standards for motor vehicles, fuels and engines, and from regional haze and ozone reduction efforts now being addressed by the commission.
The initiative also has been researching and developing best management practices for the agricultural industry, which is a significant contributor to nitrogen impacts at the park.
Climate Action Plan
www.cdphe.state.co.us/op/aqcc/specialclimate.html
Colorado Governor Bill Ritter released The Colorado Climate Action Plan (CAP) in November 2007, which commits the state to reducing emissions of greenhouse gases by 20 percent from 2005 levels by 2020, and by 80 percent by 2050. The Air Quality Control Commission will be involved in helping to achieve those goals, as will all Coloradans.
The CAP includes the following efforts:
Agricultural Offset Carbon Market
A carbon dioxide emission reduction credit and trading program would give agricultural operators credits for carbon sequestration practices such as no till agriculture.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Reporting
Colorado has joined The Climate Registry, a voluntary greenhouse gas emissions reporting system. The registry provides a mechanism for businesses, state agencies, local governments and others to voluntarily measure and report their greenhouse gas emissions.
Regulations seeking mandatory reporting of greenhouse gas emissions from major stationary sources will likely be proposed by the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment to the Colorado Air Quality Control Commission in early 2009.
Mobile Source Emissions Reductions
The Governor has asked the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment to assess Clean Car tailpipe emissions standards for new passenger cars and light duty trucks. The department is conducting broad stakeholder outreach and assessing the effect of federal legislation that strengthens mileage standards.
Western Climate Initiative
Colorado has joined the Western Climate Initiative as an "observer" to stay abreast of the development of a greenhouse gas emissions trading program that could eventually be implemented in Colorado. The trading program would establish a cap on greenhouse gas emissions.
Renewable Energy and Efficiency Measures
The Climate Action Plan includes a goal of reducing emissions from electric utilities by 20 percent. Meeting the state's renewable portfolio standard goal of 20 percent by 2020, and increasing energy efficiency in the utility sector are key to achieving that goal. The Governor's Energy Office (GEO) is establishing the Colorado Carbon Fund, a statewide voluntary carbon offset program to help finance new clean energy and greenhouse gas mitigation projects. GEO is also partnering with local governments, utilities, and non-profits to implement the ENERGY STAR New Homes program that helps homebuilders build energy efficient homes.
Air program fiscal data: July 2007-June 2008
Revenues: $18.54 million
Expenditure History
Number of Employees: 160.2
Employment Level History
Administration 4.5
Regional air quality perspectives
Areas of the state differ greatly from one another in landscape, weather conditions, population, motor vehicle traffic, amount of industry and burning practices.
This section of the report separates Colorado into six regions to more clearly address each region's specific air quality conditions and activities. Many local and regional environmental and planning agencies have submitted information for this section of the report.
Currently, the following local health departments have contracts with the department and division to perform specific air quality activities in their respective areas: Boulder County, Broomfield County, City and County of Denver, Delta County, El Paso County, Jefferson County, Larimer County, Mesa County, Montezuma County, Pueblo City-County, Routt County, San Juan County and Weld County.
The Air Pollution Control Division is the lead agency for implementing the state's air quality management program. However, it could not accomplish its work alone. Many local health departments and planning agencies throughout the state have air quality management programs which they operate either independently or under contract with the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment.
In addition, the following organizations have been designated as the lead air quality planning entities in their respective areas: the Regional Air Quality Council (Denver-metro area), the Pikes Peak Area Council of Governments (Pikes Peak Region) and the North Front Range Transportation and Air Quality Planning Council (Fort Collins and Greeley areas).
Northern Front Range Region
MOFFAT
ROUTT
JACKSON
RIO BLANCO
GARFIELD
EAGLE
SUMMIT
RIO GRANDE
PITKIN
MESA
CHAFFEE
DELTA
GUNNISON
MONTROSE
FREMONT
OURAY
SAGUACHE
SAN MIGUEL
MINERAL
HINSDALE
DOLORES
MONTEZUMA
COSTILLA
CONEJOS
LA PLATA
CUSTER
ARCHULETA
LAKE
SAN
JUAN
ALAMOSA
GRAND
PUEBLO
HUERFANO
LAS ANIMAS
PARK
EL PASO
TELLER
WELD
LARIMER
SEDGWICK
MORGAN
PHILLIPS
WASHINGTON
YUMA
KIT CARSON
ELBERT
LINCOLN
CHEYENNE
CROWLEY
KIOWA
BENT
OTERO
PROWERS
BACA
LOGAN
BOULDER
CLEAR
CREEK
ADAMS
ARAPAHOE
DOUGLAS
DENVER
JEFFERSON
GILPIN
BROOMFIELD
West Slope Region
South Central Region
Eastern High Plains Region
Pikes Peak Region
Central Front Range Region
Carbon Monoxide
PM10
Colorado Springs
Greeley
Fort Collins
Longmont
Aspen
Steamboat
Springs
Telluride
Pagosa Springs
Lamar
Canon City
Attainment/Maintenance Areas:
Ozone
Lead
Nitrogen Dioxide
Central Front Range Region
The Central Front Range Region includes Adams, Arapahoe, Boulder, Broomfield, Clear Creek, Denver, Douglas, Gilpin and Jefferson counties. It has a population of 2.4 million (2000 census), most of whom live and work in the Denver-Boulder area. This region is the most densely populated in the state. The land varies from rolling prairie to rugged mountains.
In the past, the Denver-metropolitan area has violated health-based air quality standards for carbon monoxide, fine particles and ozone.
In response, the Regional Air Quality Council, the Colorado Air Quality Control Commission and the Air Pollution Control Division have developed, adopted and implemented air quality improvement plans to reduce each of the pollutants.
Air Pollution Sources
In the Central Front Range Region, air pollution comes from a variety of sources. Substantial emissions occur as a result of motor vehicle use.
In this area, the Regional Air Quality Council and a number of local health departments have air quality control programs.
Air Pollution Control Measures
The control of air pollution in the Central Front Range region has been the result of local, state, and federal programs that target emissions from automobiles and mobile sources, power plants and industrial sources, woodstoves, and emissions from street sanding and sweeping.
CO: Carbon Monoxide
NOx: Oxides of Nitrogen
VOC: Volatile Organic Compounds
PM10: Particles less than 10 microns in diameter
SO2: Sulfur Dioxide
Boulder County Public Health
www.BoulderCountyAir.org
Boulder County Public Health (BCPH) staff inspects a variety of stationary sources of air emissions to ensure compliance with state and federal regulations, and responds to air quality complaints such as odor, emissions, open burning, residential burning and fugitive dust through a contract with the Colorado Air Pollution Control Division.
Staff also inspects chlorofluorocarbon sources, such as motor vehicle repair shops, building air conditioning repair shops, and stationary air conditioning and refrigeration equipment. BCPH issues open burning permits and prescribed fire permits to residents and land management organizations within Boulder County.
BCPH operates and maintains an air quality monitoring network in the cities of Boulder and Longmont, as well as near Eldorado Springs in conjunction with the division and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The network monitors ozone, particulate matter and carbon monoxide. Boulder County Public Health utilizes an integrated pollution prevention strategy in its work with businesses. Staff members help businesses save money and reduce environmental impacts, assist with permitting requirements, ensure compliance with air pollution regulations, and provide information to the public on a variety of issues.
In 2006, BCPH received a $500,000 grant from the EPA to study air toxics. Five monitoring locations across the county will provide information on the impact of upslope winds and mountains at the urban/rural interface. Previous studies have shown higher concentrations of hazardous air pollutants along the mountain ranges than in the urban plains and corridors. Monitoring has begun and preliminary results are pending.
BCPH coordinates the annual Clean Air Challenge contest in partnership with the Boulder County Clean Air Consortium, which includes members from the private and public sectors. Participants leave their cars at home during the summertime high-ozone season. The contest provides cash and other prizes to participants. Last year, participants reduced 134,000 miles of vehicle travel in three months.
BCPH provides consultation to the public regarding indoor air quality issues, assists other municipalities in resolving indoor air quality concerns, and provides the community with informational seminars on indoor air quality and methamphetamine lab cleanup.
Boulder County Public Health's Air Quality/ Radon Program continued research on radon in homes in Boulder County. In 2006, with a grant from the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment, BCPH staff evaluated existing radon mitigation systems in 20 homes.
Boulder County Public Health promotes employee travel reduction programs, including walk/bike to work events, telecommuting/ teleworking, Ecopass mass transit passes and flexible work schedules. BCPH also participates in the Regional Air Quality Council's ozone outreach program and in the Rocky Mountain National Park Initiative Subcommittee with the Colorado Air Quality Control Commission.
-- Revised 2008
Denver Department of Environmental Health www.denvergov.org/DEH/
Denver's air quality management program is conducted by the Environmental Quality Division (EQD). The EQD engages in technical advisory services for businesses; inspection and surveillance of air pollution sources; enforcement of city, state and federal environmental laws; and pollution prevention activities. EQD staff manages the city's air quality improvement programs; conducts air quality improvement projects; and responds to complaints about violations of the Colorado Indoor Air Quality Act for tobacco smoke.
The EQD implements state regulatory activities on behalf of the Colorado Air Pollution Control Division by contract. These activities include inspections and enforcement of air emission sources, chlorofluorocarbon sources and asbestos projects; operation of air quality monitoring stations; issuance of open burning permits; and response to air pollution complaints. Denver also protects ambient air quality through its smoking
and idling vehicle and residential burning ordinances, as well as a GreenFleets Executive Order, which reduces greenhouse gas emissions and fuel consumption through efficient management of the municipal fleet.
Denver continues to implement an industrial environmental review process that began in 1991. The process minimizes the community and environmental impact of pollutant emissions from new and expanding industrial operations. The EQD also has received grants to perform ambient air toxics monitoring, refine air quality modeling, and conduct education and outreach about vehicle idling. The EQD is also active in air quality rulemakings and stakeholder processes.
EQD supports Mayor John Hickenlooper's Greenprint Denver Initiative. Greenprint Denver is a long-term, citywide initiative to promote the importance of sustainable development and ecologically-friendly practices throughout the community. The EQD has partnered with the University of Colorado at Denver to develop a greenhouse gas inventory and implement the City's Climate Action Plan adopted in October 2007.
-- Revised 2008
Jefferson County Department of Health and Environment
www.co.jefferson.co.us
Jefferson County is the second most populous county in Colorado, with more than 527,000 residents. More than 770 square miles in size, the county stretches from suburban plains to the mountainous foothills more than 10,000 feet in elevation. Within this diverse area are a variety of potential air pollution sources, from large-scale manufacturing plants to dusty, unpaved mountain roads.
Each year, the Jefferson County Department of Health and Environment inspects a variety of stationary sources of air emissions to ensure compliance with state and federal regulations. Staff also inspect asbestos removal projects, and refrigeration and air conditioning businesses that use or handle chlorofluorocarbons. The department investigates citizen concerns about radon gas, indoor air quality and fugitive dust. Staff also issue open burning permits.
-- Revised Prior to 2008
Regional Air Quality Council www.raqc.org
The Regional Air Quality Council (RAQC) is the air quality-planning agency for the seven county Denver-metropolitan area. The RAQC's mission is to develop effective and cost-efficient air quality planning initiatives with input from local governments, the private sector, stakeholder groups and citizens of the Denver-metro region. Its primary task is to prepare state implementation plans for compliance with federal air quality standards for ozone, carbon monoxide and particulate matter.
The council consists of 11 members appointed by the Governor. Five are citizen members selected for their knowledge of and interest in air quality and related issues. Two are local government representatives in the Denver area and one is a local government representative from the North Front Range area. One locally elected official represents the Denver Regional Council of Governments. The two remaining members are executive directors of the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment and the Colorado Department of Transportation.
The RAQC also coordinates several voluntary emissions reductions programs. One of those is a summer ozone outreach, awareness and education program in place since 1999 in an effort to keep the Denver area in compliance with the federal ozone standard. In addition, the RAQC also coordinates a large diesel emissions reduction program focused on retrofitting large diesel engines including both on- and off-road vehicles.
-- Revised Prior to 2008
Air Quality Index for metro Denver
The Air Pollution Control Division uses an air quality reporting method called the Air Quality Index (AQI). The Air Quality Index provides health officials with a simple, uniform way to report daily levels of air pollution.
Denver-metro maximum AQI readings with predominant pollutant identified
July 2007 through June 2008
Year round, division staff collect current information about the levels of carbon monoxide, ozone and fine particles for index reporting.
After analyzing the data, staff convert the information into numbers on the Air Quality Index scale. On this scale, the National Ambient Air Quality Standards equal 100 for carbon monoxide, ozone and PM10, and 150 for PM2.5. Air Quality Index readings greater than these values indicate exceedances of a pollutant's standard.
The bar chart on the right shows the monthly maximum index levels recorded during a recent 12-month period in the Denver-metro area. In each bar is the pollutant that caused the monthly maximum.
Trends in Denver-metro area Air Quality Index
The Air Quality Index (AQI) is divided into six air quality categories. These include good, moderate, unhealthy for sensitive groups, unhealthy, very unhealthy and hazardous.
Denver-metro maximum AQI values
According to the index, any reading between 0-50 indicates good air quality, 51-100 moderate air quality, 101-150 unhealthy for sensitive groups, 151-200 unhealthy, 201-300 very unhealthy and above 300 hazardous air quality.
The chart to the right summarizes and compares index readings for the past 12 years.
The Visibility Standard Index for metro Denver
The visible aspect of air quality is reported by the Visibility Standard Index. The visibility standard is set at an extinction of 7.6 percent or more of light in a kilometer of air over a fourhour average from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. The standard was set by 200 Denver area citizens and adopted by the Colorado Air Quality Control Commission in 1989.
Visibility Trends
A monitor called a transmissometer measures visibility. Readings between 0-50 are good, 51-100 fair, 101-199 poor and 200-plus extremely poor. The chart at right shows the percentage of time in each category. On the visibility scale, a value of 101 is "poor" and equates to the .076/km standard.
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
Determining the Visibility Standard Index reading can be complicated by precipitation, relative humidity of 70 percent or greater, fog, blowing dust, smoke, etc. When such conditions are present, readings are excluded.
Trends Show Improvement in Visibility Over Time
While Denver and other Front Range cities continue to experience visibility problems and haze, visible air pollution has decreased in recent years and more improvements can be expected in the future.
In 2003 the Air Pollution Control Division reprocessed its visibility data and
determined that a 28 percent improvement in visibility had occurred since 1991. This improvement can be attributed to cleaner burning motor vehicles and fuels, reductions in residential burning, reduced wintertime street sanding and voluntary emissions reductions at area power plants.
In the future, visibility should continue to improve as stricter emissions standards for gasoline and diesel motor vehicles are put in place.
The studies have shown that the Denver "brown cloud" is caused by local, not regional emissions, and that chemical reactions in the atmosphere turn sulfates, nitrates and organic carbon into particles that cause the brown cloud. Denver's meteorology and topography contribute to the brown cloud when pollutants are trapped in the Denver basin by air inversions. The largest single source of the brown cloud is motor vehicle use.
Five major studies of Denver area visibility have occurred since the 1970s, with the most recent study done by Colorado State University from 1996-98 (See www.nfraqs.colostate.edu for more information).
The Colorado Air Quality Control Commission and the Air Pollution Control Division will continue to analyze and monitor visibility to better understand what we can do to improve the visible aspect of air quality.
Eastern High Plains Region
The Eastern High Plains Region encompasses the counties on the plains of eastern Colorado. The area's population is approximately 138,447 (2000 census). Its major urban centers have developed around farming, ranching and trade centers such as Sterling, Fort Morgan, Limon, La Junta and Lamar. The agricultural base includes both irrigated and dryland farming.
Air Pollution Sources
There are a number of industries in this region that cause air pollution. These include agricultural processes, gravel pits, power plants and natural gas pipeline compression stations. Because of the region's semiarid nature, fugitive dust from agricultural operations dominates air pollution in the region. Residential burning is a minor contributor to air pollution in the region.
Air Pollution Control Measures
In this region, the control of air pollution is accomplished through the cooperative efforts of state and local health departments in enforcing state emission regulations on stationary sources. In addition, the City of Lamar has taken steps to maintain and improve its air quality.
LOGAN
•Sterling
PHILLIPS
Ft. Morgan•
MORGAN
WASHINGTON
YUMA
KIT CARSON
ELBERT
•Li-
mon
LINCOLN
CHEYENNE
KIOWA
CROWLEY
OTERO
BENT
•Lamar
PROWERS
BACA
SEDGWICK
City of Lamar
The City of Lamar's role in air quality has been to continue addressing dust abeyance at its source, continue planting trees and grass, and implementing programs to encourage cleaner yards and streets.
Lamar was approved in 2001 by the Colorado Air Quality Control Commission as an attainment area for the federal particulate matter standard. The area has not violated the standard since 1992.
Additionally, the City of Lamar has joined efforts with the Air Pollution Control Division and Prowers County to develop a community survey that will gauge public perception of air quality and the public's willingness to utilize public funds to improve local air quality.
Prowers County also works closely with the City of Lamar to ensure that developments within close proximity of the city do not impact air quality.
-- Revised Prior to 2008
CO: Carbon Monoxide
NOx: Oxides of Nitrogen
VOC: Volatile Organic Compounds
PM10: Particles less than 10 microns in diameter
SO2: Sulfur Dioxide
North Front Range Region
The North Front Range Region is comprised of Larimer and Weld counties. The population of these two counties is approximately 500,732 (State Demography Office, 2005). The two major urban areas are Fort Collins in Larimer County and Greeley in Weld County. The city of Loveland also is included in this region. Larimer County has irrigated farmland in its eastern half and mountains in its western half. Weld County is predominantly grassland and irrigated farmland.
Air Pollution Sources
The main pollutant of concern in the North Front Range is ground-level ozone. Precursors to ground-level ozone are emissions containing volatile organic hydrocarbons (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NOX). Major contributors of these emissions are oil and gas field production facilities and mobile sources (on and off road motor vehicles and equipment). Emission inventories compiled in the North Front Range Region also indicate pollution influences from industry, manufacturing, power plants, cement plants, and mining.
Residential burning, dust from unpaved roads and agricultural operations also contribute to air pollution in the Fort Collins and Greeley areas.
The North Front Range continues to grow and add new businesses. Some of these businesses are minor air pollution sources that require emission permits from the Air Pollution Control Division. The Fort Collins and Greeley areas have been designated as attainment/maintenance areas for carbon monoxide. Emissions from this pollutant have been reduced dramatically.
Air Pollution Control Measures
In Fort Collins and Greeley a number of strategies are being implemented to control air pollution. The Larimer County and Weld County health departments and the cities of Fort Collins and Greeley all have worked toward implementing these strategies.
CO: Carbon Monoxide
NOx: Oxides of Nitrogen
VOC: Volatile Organic Compounds
PM10: Particles less than 10 microns in diameter
SO2: Sulfur Dioxide
The North Front Range Transportation and Air Quality Planning Council is the air quality planning agency in the Fort Collins and Greeley areas and partners with other agencies to determine strategies to reduce air pollution.
City of Fort Collins
www.fcgov.com/airquality/
The Natural Resources Department takes a lead role in addressing air pollution problems in Fort Collins in accordance with the city's Air Quality Plan. The plan focuses on air pollution caused by motor vehicles, commerce and industry, residential burning and indoor air pollutants. The Air Quality Plan is implemented primarily through education and outreach. Data collection and monitoring help assess current programs and provide guidance for periodic reviews and updates. The city strives to demonstrate clean air practices in its own operations. A regulatory approach is employed when necessary.
The city has taken actions to reduce traffic growth through alternative transportation choices and land use planning to reduce dependency on automobiles. The city's education and outreach efforts provide information about the connection between air quality and automobile use.
The city has an action plan to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from Fort Collins. The plan identifies strategies to lower greenhouse gas emissions to 30 percent of the predicted 2010 levels, and save money for the city, its citizens and businesses. In addition, the city is working with 29 area businesses that have committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through a local voluntary program called Climate Wise.
The city's air quality education and outreach efforts target diverse audiences through various methods. Students participate in activities such as the DriveLess Contest. The contest is an incentive program for high school students and school staff to use alternative modes of transportation. Also, the Air Care Trunk is available for checkout by teachers. The kit contains materials and lesson plans to teach elementary students about clean air. Regular articles, advertisements, and participation in public events keep air quality messages in public view.
-- Revised Prior to 2008
Larimer County Department of
Health and Environment www.larimer.org/
The Air Quality Program for the Larimer County Department of Health and Environment includes ambient air quality monitoring, source inspection, enforcement actions, planning, educational presentations, and public information and outreach efforts.
Staff work as agents for the Colorado Air Pollution Control Division. Cooperation with other local agencies including the North Front Range Transportation and Air Quality Planning Council occurs regularly. A county air quality control review is conducted for all new land development.
Larimer County personnel perform inspections and enforcement activities for minor stationary sources and chlorofluorocarbons, and conduct ongoing ambient air quality monitoring for criteria pollutants. Air quality complaints received from the public are investigated. Larimer County operates the PM2.5 and PM10 particle samplers in the Ft. Collins area along with carbon monoxide and ozone monitors.
-- Revised Prior to 2008
North Front Range Transportation and Air Quality Planning Council www.nfrmpo.org/
The North Front Range Transportation and Air Quality Planning Council was established in 1988 as the metropolitan planning organization for the Greeley and Fort Collins areas. In 1993 the council was designated by the governor as the lead air quality planning organization for both of these areas. The council is responsible for the development and implementation of the Fort Collins and Greeley elements of the state implementation plan (SIP) for attainment of air quality standards and for other transportation related air quality planning projects in the North Front Range region.
Voting membership on the Council includes Larimer and Weld counties, Berthoud, Eaton, Evans, Fort Collins, Garden City, Greeley, Johnstown, LaSalle, Loveland, Milliken, Severance, Timnath, Windsor, the Colorado Air Quality Control Commission, and the Colorado Transportation Commission.
-- Revised Prior to 2008
City of Greeley
www.greeleygov.com
The City of Greeley employs a number of strategies to address air quality within its urban growth area. The Air Quality and Natural Resources Commission, a seven-member citizen advisory board appointed by City Council, provides quasi-judicial oversight of the city's ordinances related to outdoor odors that emanate from sources within the city limits. This program has reduced odor complaints from over 600 per year to less than 20 per year since its inception in 1996.
The commission also reviews city programs related to air and natural resources and makes recommendations to staff and city council for existing and new programs related to these resources. Staff from the Natural Resources Division of Community Development participates in local and regional strategies to address air pollution issues related to ozone. Staff also reviews development proposals for potential impacts to air quality. -- Revised 2008
Weld County Department of Public Health and Environment
www.co.weld.co.us/
The Environmental Health Services of the Weld County Department of Public Health and Environment implements many of the air quality programs for the Colorado Air Pollution Control Division. The Weld County programs listed here help protect ambient air quality and keep Weld County in attainment of state and federal air quality standards.
Services
Inspections of air pollution sources are conducted.
Weld County residents' complaints about air quality are investigated and resolved.
Residents' requests for open burning permits are evaluated and either issued or denied. The program is discouraging burning while encouraging composting.
Colorado Air Pollution Control Division monitoring equipment for particulate matter, carbon monoxide and ozone in Greeley and Platteville are maintained and operated jointly by staff members of Weld County Environmental Health Services.
Assistance is provided to small businesses that need help in complying with air regulations.
Environmental Health Services works with communities within the county and recommends air quality-related land use provisions which may then be adopted by county and local governments.
Greeley and Weld County participate in a Clean Cities program that promotes alternative modes of transportation and the use of cleaner burning fuels.
Environmental Health Services conducts investigations of asbestos and chlorinated hydrocarbon issues.
-- Revised Prior to 2008
Pikes Peak Region
The Pikes Peak Region includes El Paso, Teller and Park counties. The area has a population of approximately 552,007 (2000 census). The Colorado Springs-metro area is one of the more rapidly growing areas in the state. Eastern El Paso County is rural prairie, while the western part, along with Park and Teller counties, is mountainous.
Air Pollution Sources
As in other urbanized areas in Colorado, pollutants in the Pikes Peak Region originate primarily from stationary and mobile sources. Major sources in the region include power plants, ready-mix concrete plants, electronics manufacturing facilities, quarries and extensive military operations. Other sources include motor vehicle emissions, residential burning, street sanding operations, PM10 emissions from unpaved roads and construction activities.
Air Pollution Control Measures
In this region, the management of air pollution is led by the Pikes Peak Area Council of Governments. In addition, the El Paso County Department of Health and Environment provides air quality monitoring, and enforcement and public education activities in accordance with the Colorado Air Pollution Prevention and Control Act.
CO: Carbon Monoxide
NOx: Oxides of Nitrogen
VOC: Volatile Organic Compounds
PM10: Particles less than 10 microns in diameter
SO2: Sulfur Dioxide
Pikes Peak Area Council of Governments
www.ppacg.org
The Pikes Peak Area Council of Governments (PPACG) is designated as the metropolitan planning organization and lead air quality planning agency for the Pikes Peak Region. The region primarily covers the Colorado Springs urbanized area.
PPACG reviews current and emerging air quality issues, develops plans to improve air quality, and is responsible for development and implementation of the carbon monoxide maintenance plan to ensure the region meets federal carbon monoxide standards. In May 2008 an Air Quality Monitoring and Trends Report was developed which provides an overview of the spatial and temporal trends for the six EPA criteria pollutants.
The region currently meets the new ozone standard of 0.075 ppm (based on 2005 through 2007 data) and voluntary programs are being implemented to reduce ozone concentrations. A link to these voluntary programs is provided on the website along with the Ozone White Paper which provides background information on ozone issues in the Colorado Springs region.
All transportation related projects are reviewed to demonstrate compliance with air quality standards and their ability to manage congestion. The 2035 Long Range Transportation Plan and 2008 - 2013 Transportation Improvement Program were approved by the Board in February 2008.
PPACG is governed by a board of directors composed of elected officials from El Paso, Teller and Park counties; cities of Colorado Springs, Fountain, Monument, Manitou Springs, Palmer Lake, Woodland Park, Alma, Cripple Creek, Victor, Calhan and Green Mountain Falls; the Colorado Air Quality Control Commission and the Colorado Transportation Commission.
-- Revised 2008
El Paso County Air Quality Section
www.elpasocountyhealth.org
The Air Quality Section of the El Paso County Department of Health and Environment has the responsibility for enforcement, monitoring and educational aspects of the Colorado Air Pollution Prevention and Control Act.
Inspections are conducted on minor sources of air pollution such as auto body repair shops, earthmoving activities and chlorofluorocarbon sources.
Complaint investigations are conducted on asbestos, odors, fugitive dust and general air quality sources.
The department also is responsible for the operation and maintenance of the air-monitoring network in El Paso County in cooperation with the Air Pollution Control Division. The department collects air quality data from the monitoring sites in accordance with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency requirements.
An air quality index report is prepared by staff and reported to the public twice a day via a website and a telephone hotline.
Presentations about local and state air quality issues are given to civic groups and schools in El Paso County.
The department also is responsible for enforcement of a local air quality regulation which covers emissions from fugitive dust sources such as earth moving, demolition, sandblasting and open burning.
-- Revised Prior to 2008
South Central Region
The South Central Region is comprised of Pueblo, Huerfano and Las Animas counties. Its population is approximately 164,541 (2000 census). Major urban centers include Pueblo, Trinidad and Walsenburg. The region has rolling semiarid plains to the east and is mountainous to the west.
Air Pollution Sources
Pollution in this area comes from various sources, including fugitive dust (area contribution), mobile sources and stationary sources. The criteria pollutants including carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide and PM10, and volatile organic compounds have been modeled for the region. Modeling shows that the two significant contributors to air pollution are mobile and area sources. Point sources are a minor contributor. Examples of mobile sources are motor vehicle emissions. Area sources are dust from unpaved roads and open burning. Point sources include facilities such as power plants, concrete batch plants, and sand and gravel mining and processing operations.
•Pueblo
PUEBLO
HUERFANO
Walsenberg•
LAS ANIMAS
•Trinidad
Air Pollution Control Measures
The Pueblo City-County Health Department, under a contract with the Colorado Air Pollution Control Division, conducts inspections of more than 20 stationary sources annually. This contract also provides for chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and asbestos field inspections. CFC inspections include air conditioning and appliance service and repair shops. Asbestos inspections primarily are in response to citizen complaints. Monitoring occurs for particulate matter in two size ranges: PM10 and PM2.5.
Historically and currently, all of the South Central Region is in compliance with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) through past and current efforts in inspection, monitoring, enforcement and education.
CO: Carbon Monoxide
NOx: Oxides of Nitrogen
VOC: Volatile Organic Compounds
PM10: Particles less than 10 microns in diameter
SO2: Sulfur Dioxide
Pueblo City-County Health Department
www.co.pueblo.co.us/pcchd
The community in Pueblo continues to show an interest in a variety of air quality related issues. Public awareness and concern has been heightened by a number of events, including the construction of a large cement manufacturing plant, a major expansion of the Comanche Power Plant in 2004, ongoing plans to destroy the mustard agent stored at the Pueblo Chemical Depot, and two major asbestos spills in 2007.
A 2006 mercury warning posted at Brush Hollow Lake in a nearby county also increased public concern surrounding mercury and mercury emissions from local industries. Rocky Mountain Steel Mills, a local industry which contributes mercury air emissions, has been participating in a program to receive scrap metal from facilities that participate in a mercury removal program. In this program, automobile dismantlers remove the mercury-containing light switches from scrap vehicles prior to the vehicles being flattened and then shredded at scrap recycling facilities.
For the past several years, the local air quality program also has focused on dealing with fugitive dust originating from land development and construction activities by adjusting the municipal code. This ordinance modification allowed for more effective dust control, especially during drought and gusty winds.
In the city, land developers whose activities involve from one acre to less than 25 acres are required to submit an application with a dust control plan and are issued a permit that requires them to adhere to the dust control plan. Construction activities typically occur on areas less than one acre, which require an agreement that the developer control dust.
The Pueblo City-County Health Department is currently constructing a new building that will be Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certified. The building will include LED task lighting, and low-toxics emissions from paint, carpet and wood. The building will also include low water consumption fixtures. Twenty percent of the building materials will originate within a 500 radius of Pueblo.
The new building will improve air and water quality, and conserve natural resources while reducing long-term operating costs. The results of energy modeling show the building will avoid emissions of 376 tons of carbon dioxide per year.
-- Revised 2008
Western Slope Region
The Western Slope Region for air quality planning is composed of the counties lying west of the Continental Divide, and several counties just east of the Divide. The population of counties west of the Divide is projected to be 585,313 by 2010, according to the State Demographer's Office, a 25 percent increase from 2000.
Mountains, mesas, plateaus and broad valleys are the predominant features in much of this region.
Air Pollution Sources
Air quality concerns in this region primarily are from the impacts of a recent surge in energy development. In the 1990s, air quality concerns primarily were related to woodstoves, unpaved roads and street sanding. These "area" sources were addressed in many Western Slope communities and are no longer as significant as the impacts from energy development, including direct emissions, support service impacts and associated growth.
MOFFAT
GRAND
RIO BLANCO
GARFIELD
EAGLE
Vail•
MESA
•Aspen
MONTROSE
SAN MIGUEL
DOLORES
SAGUACHE
ROUTT
Steamboat
Springs•
JACKSON
SUMMIT
•Grand
Junction
DELTA
•Delta
PITKIN
LAKE
CHAFFEE
GUNNISON
Montrose•
FREMONT
•Canon City
CUSTER
OURAY
HINSDALE
SAN
JUAN
MINERAL
RIO
GRANDE
ALAMOSA
COSTILLA
CONEJOS
ARCHULETA
LA PLATA
Durango•
MONTEZUMA
Controlled and uncontrolled burns are a significant source of air pollution in this region.
Air Pollution Control Measures
Many Western Slope communities have taken aggressive action to control residential burning emissions. The municipalities of Aspen, Crested Butte, Steamboat Springs, Telluride and Vail, and Pitkin, San Miguel, Summit, Mesa and Eagle counties have adopted either mandatory or voluntary control measures to reduce residential burning pollution during
winter seasons. Increased awareness of visibility impacts and fine particle levels spurred the installation of new air monitoring equipment to gauge those impacts. The region also has a number of local agencies that conduct air quality control programs.
CO: Carbon Monoxide
NOx: Oxides of Nitrogen
VOC: Volatile Organic Compounds
PM10: Particles less than 10 microns in diameter
SO2: Sulfur Dioxide
City of Aspen Environmental Health Department
www.aspenpitkin.com
The City of Aspen's Environmental Health Department helps local businesses and citizens to reduce air pollution and improve their pollution prevention efforts, and enforces idling vehicle, smoking vehicle, and other environmental laws. The department conducts a number of air quality improvement programs:
With 83 percent of Aspen's PM10 on high pollution days coming from traffic, the department focuses on trip reduction measures. Incentives and disincentives include a large, free bus system, a bus-only lane exiting town during evening rush hour, a bus lane now being constructed coming into and out of town, and parking fees to provide a financial incentive to carpool or take the bus.
Aspen's new sustainability effort, the ZGreen Program (named after Aspen's highly coveted original ZG license plates) includes a business certification program. Certification requires tracking energy use, and reducing air pollution, solid waste, and greenhouse gas emissions. ZGreen also has a citizen program in which citizens commit to five measures each year to reduce their environmental impact. The final component is a ZGreen event program. Several city events have been certified as ZGreen events by composting food waste, using biodegradable or recycled content products, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Next year, all of the city's permitted special events are expected to be ZGreen events.
Aspen's greenhouse gas emission reduction program, dubbed the "Canary Initiative," has several ongoing efforts. The emissions inventory is being updated, and voters approved a new microhydro plant to bring Aspen Municipal electric's renewable energy percentage to 83 percent.
The city is subsidizing home energy ratings, providing increased rebates for efficient appliances, and installing solar panels on its water plant and parks trash compactors.
The city manager has directed each department to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by one percent per year for the first four years, and two percent per year beginning next year, despite increased staffing and annexations. Employees receive significant financial bonuses if their department, and the city as a whole, meets these goals.
To meet the goals, the police department switched to hybrid electric vehicles, and several buildings have had extensive efficiency upgrades.
Unlike most landfills, Pitkin County's largest volume of solid waste is construction and deconstruction materials. To extend the life of the landfill, thereby preventing increased air pollution from long hauls to other landfills, the department is working to require additional recycling, diversion, and volume reduction of construction materials.
This winter, US Forest Service monitoring on top of Aspen Mountain showed the highest ozone level yet recorded on the Western Slope (high enough to exceed the new standard if confirmed). Aspen has requested a monitor to determine ozone levels near town and will then need to determine how much of the sources are upwind oil and gas development, local and regional traffic, and natural sources.
-- Revised 2008
Cañon City www.canoncity.org
In March 1988, Cañon City officially adopted a series of local measures to reduce particulate matter produced from street sanding. Street sand was the city's main source of particulate pollution. The program of street sweeping on a regular basis began in the winter of 19871988 and has continued since.
Cañon City has shown attainment of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards for particulate pollution. Cañon City has been awarded a Congestion Mitigation/Air Quality Program grant for the past five years. These funds have been used each year for the paving of unpaved streets. Since 1999, these grant funds have been used to pave almost three miles of gravel streets.
In addition, Cañon City annually treats more than three miles of gravel streets with magnesium chloride to further reduce fugitive dust.
-- Revised Prior to 2008
Delta County
www.deltacounty.com/
The Delta County Environmental Health Division acts in a supportive role to the Colorado Air Pollution Control Division in the following areas:
* A community-based task force for air quality discusses air quality issues and makes plans to improve air quality in Delta County.
* The Delta County Health Department offers rebates for old woodburning stoves that are replaced with clean burning units.
* The Environmental Health Division operates a PM 2.5 sampler and a PM10 sampler located in Delta.
* The Environmental Health Division works with the Mesa County Health Department to issue "No-Burn Advisories" during the winter heating season.
* The Environmental Health Division enforces the Delta County Open Burning Regulations.
* Stationary source pollution complaints for fugitive dust control, odors and stack emissions are investigated and referred to the Colorado Air Pollution Control Division.
-- Revised Prior to 2008
Eagle County
www.eaglecounty.us/envHealth/
Eagle County considers clean air one of its most valuable assets. By being proactive, the county remains in attainment of ambient air quality standards as established by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Wood Burning
Eagle County's Board of County Commissioners adopted a regulation to control pollution caused by wood smoke in 1992 virtually eliminating conventional, open-hearth fireplaces in new construction. The regulation limits the number of wood burning devices per residential building while requiring cleaner burning, more energy efficient technologies. In addition to these requirements, partnerships between Eagle County and its municipalities, especially Vail, Avon, Eagle and Basalt continue to promote change-out programs and provide public information on how to burn a clean, hot fire.
Open Burning
Open burning permits are coordinated by our new Wildfire Mitigation Specialist in conjunction with local fire districts. Permits are issued for virtually every open burn, even agricultural irrigation ditch burning, which enables better management of air quality impacts.
Fugitive Dust
Eagle County has many sources of fugitive dust from industrial aggregate mining to large development projects. The Environmental Health Department is directly involved in local land use approval process to assure locally-enforceable fugitive dust abatement plans are implemented for site disturbance.
The road and bridge department has an ongoing road surfacing program which includes either paving or treatment with magnesium chloride to control dust emissions on more than 200 miles of roads annually.
Transportation
ECO Transit contributes to air quality by providing public transportation opportunities to commuters as well as getting visitors from the Eagle County Regional Airport to their resort destinations.
Eagle County continues to pursue cleaner burning fuels and vehicles for the bus system and motor pool fleet.
Other Efforts
Eagle County created and ad-hoc Air Quality Forum whose membership consists of representatives of the gravel and gypsum mining industries as well as local governments.
The group is developing mutually agreed upon industry standards of operation that raise the bar in Eagle County for cleaner air. The Air Quality Forum is broadening its scope by researching Best
Available Demonstrated Technologies for other industries, and lobbying local governments to take regulatory action aimed at controlling emissions.
Other actions taken by Eagle County under the ECO Green Initiative program reduce greenhouse gas emissions. These efforts include incorporating 20 Toyota Prius hybrid vehicles in the motor pool fleet; constructing a photovoltaic farm at the airport; implementing an ECO Build program; making changes to land use regulations to encourage the use of clean, renewable resources; and implementing the recommendations of an energy audit conducted on major facilities.
Indoor Air Quality
Eagle County has one of the strictest smoking ordinances in the country. The ordinance eliminates second-hand smoke exposure to the general public at workplaces, restaurants and bars, etc. The ordinance also applies to outdoor public events, ski lift lines, ski race spectator areas, special events and the county fair and rodeo.
-- Revised 2008
Garfield County Public Health
www.garfield-county.com
Garfield County completed a two-year ambient air quality study in 2007 designed to gather baseline air quality data and to address local concerns about air quality degradation related to continued expansion of the natural gas industry and community growth. The study report and several supporting documents are available at www.garfield-county.com/index.aspx?page=1117 .
Although no violations of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards were observed, a subsequent screening level risk assessment by the CDPHE Disease Control and Environmental Epidemiology Division and an Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry health consultation suggest that the available data somewhat indicate a potential for benzene impacts across the oil and gas areas, based on the VOC monitoring results at an oil and gas site and at grab sampling locations. These reports are available on line at www.garfield-county.com/Index.aspx?page=1127 .
The Saccomanno Research Institute of St. Mary's Hospital in Grand Junction concluded a Community Health Risk Assessment in June 2008. This study group integrated air quality monitoring data and emission rates and modeled potential environmental exposures to gain a better understanding of human health risks from oil and gas emission sources. All reports and presentations are available at www.garfield-county.com/ Index.aspx?page=1127 .
The results of these studies and a strong collaboration with the Air Pollution Control Division have resulted in several enhancements to the Garfield County Air Monitoring Program for 2008-2009.
Garfield County continues to fund air toxics monitoring. The county conducts air sampling for toxics in the most impacted urban areas and in two oil and gas development and production areas.
CDPHE continues to support PM10 monitoring in Parachute and Rifle and has provided funding to Garfield County for installation of continuous ozone, PM10 and PM2.5 monitoring equipment in Rifle. The Rifle site also includes enhanced meteorological and visibility monitoring.
Additionally, Garfield County Public Health received an EPA Regional Geographic Initiatives Grant in 2007, and is partnering with several oil and gas companies to conduct targeted air monitoring of active drilling and well completion sites. The goal of this work is to better characterize the emissions generated from these activities and to better understand exposure risks.
The Garfield County Air Quality Technical Work Group, assembled by the Garfield County Public Health Department in early 2006, examines air quality issues in the county. The group is made up of individuals from federal, state and local government, the oil and gas industry, and the private consulting sector. It meets regularly to discuss air monitoring data, monitoring systems, emission inventories, and human health risks.
Environmental health staff also works closely with local land use agencies, the CDPHE Air Pollution Control Division and the Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission on evaluating land use proposals and investigating a variety of local air quality complaints.
During late 2007 and early 2008, Garfield
County Public Health partnered with the Garfield County Energy Advisory Board and Colorado Mountain College to provide community information and education about air quality. The Smart Citizen Series on Air Quality enlightened community members on subjects ranging from general air quality to local monitoring and health risks. A community forum during one meeting allowed citizens to raise issues of concern to local officials. These presentations are available at http:// www.garfield-county.com/Index.aspx?page=1119 .
Garfield County Public Health also continues to partner with local fire authorities to develop and distribute educational materials to county residents about trash burning, agricultural open burning alternatives and smoke management best practices.
-- Revised 2008
Mesa County
www.health.mesacounty.us/environment
The Mesa County Health Department Environmental Health Division has contracted with the Colorado Air Pollution Control Division for nearly 30 years to provide a number of air quality services to the community.
These services currently include inspecting stationary sources, issuing state open burning permits, providing technical assistance to sources for obtaining and submitting air pollution emission notices and permit applications, and monitoring ambient air for the Grand Valley airshed.
Air Monitoring
Air monitoring includes periodic and hourly sampling of coarse (PM10) and fine (PM2.5) particulates. A speciation sampler helps identify the sources of fine particulates as part of a national trends assessment. Particulate sampling occurs in downtown Grand Junction and on the south edge of Clifton just east of Grand Junction.
A carbon monoxide analyzer is located in downtown Grand Junction, and an ozone analyzer is located at the Palisade Water Treatment Plant on Rapid Creek Road. The downtown monitoring site also supports a National Air Toxics Trend Station site, one of only seven such sites in the country.
Air toxics sampling includes volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds, carbonyls, and toxic metals.
Other Services
In addition to contract services, Mesa County Health Department also provides a number of community-based programs not funded by the state air division.
These include issuing local open burning permits and providing oversight for five local fire protection districts in coordinating permits, implementing burn and no-burn seasons, responding to complaints and providing enforcement.
Fugitive dust and odor issues not related to state permitted sources are also addressed by the department.
A recently formed indoor air quality program provides outreach primarily for radon, mold and lead problems in households and apartments.
During the winter months, the Western Slope Air Watch program provides daily air quality advisories to Mesa, Delta and Montrose Counties for the use of woodstoves and fireplaces. During the growing season from March through October, an airborne allergen reporting program provides twice weekly updates on pollen and spore levels.
All advisories and reports are posted to the health department's web site.
The Mesa County Air Quality Planning Committee (MCAQPC) serves as an advisory committee on air quality planning issues to the Mesa County Board of Health. This 13-member committee has met quarterly for 15 years and focused on issues such as wood stoves, road dust and street sweeping guidelines, air shed boundaries, open burning, oil and gas development, and industrial odor emissions. The air program director for the county health department serves as the technical secretary for this committee.
-- Revised 2008
Routt County
www.co.routt.co.us/
The Routt County Department of Environmental Health maintains an air monitoring program on behalf of the Colorado Air Pollution Control Division for the Steamboat Springs air shed. The department manages five PM10 monitors (one real-time monitor) and one PM 2.5 monitor.
The Steamboat Springs airshed has been in PM10 compliance since 1996. An air quality attainment plan has been developed and approved by the Colorado Air Quality Control Commission. Required approvals by the legislature, the governor's office, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency were completed and Steamboat Springs was designated an attainment area in 2004.
-- Revised Prior to 2008
San Miguel County
www.sanmiguelcounty.org/environm.htm
The San Miguel County Planning and Environmental Health Departments administer regulations aimed at protecting county air quality.
The county has banned installation of solidfuel burning devices in a 27-square mile area around Telluride to limit particle emissions. Paving is required for all new streets in this area to prevent pollution from vehicle re-entrained dust. The county also has approved plans to pave existing roads as necessary to protect air quality and has installed permanent traffic counters at its most active highway segments to aid in correlating traffic volumes with pollution levels.
A computer model ("Wyndvalley 3") is being developed to help the county understand pollutant dispersion in the Telluride airshed and improve prediction of future pollution levels. A Graseby Beta Gauge, which provides real-time air quality monitoring, has proven beneficial in charting daily patterns of accumulation and dispersion of particles.
Improved street sweeping, sanding and chemical de-icing practices by the town of Telluride, and a free gondola system linking Telluride and Mountain Village, have helped reduce particle emissions to the lowest levels measured in the region since monitoring began in 1973.
Telluride was redesignated as an attainment area for the federal PM10 standards in 2001.
-- Revised Prior to 2008
2007 Air Pollution Levels
Central Front Range: counties of Adams, Arapahoe, Boulder, Broomfield, Clear Creek, Denver, Douglas, Gilpin, Jefferson.
Eastern High Plains: counties of Baca, Bent, Cheyenne, Crowley, Elbert, Kiowa, Kit Carson, Lincoln, Logan, Morgan, Otero, Phillips, Prowers, Sedgwick, Washington, Yuma.
Northern Front Range: counties of Larimer, Weld.
Pikes Peak Region: counties of El Paso, Park, Teller.
South Central: counties of Huerfano, Las Animas, Pueblo.
Western Slope: counties of Alamosa, Archuleta, Chaffee, Conejos, Costilla, Custer, Delta, Dolores, Eagle, Fremont, Garfield, Grand, Gunnison, Hinsdale, Jackson, Lake, La Plata, Mesa, Mineral, Moffat, Montezuma, Montrose, Ouray, Pitkin, Rio Blanco, Rio Grande, Routt, Saguache, Summit, San Juan, San Miguel.
* For carbon monoxide, the site with the highest second maximum value is used for consistency with standards. For the eight-hour ozone standard, the site with the highest three-year average of the fourthmaximum value is used for consistency with standards. For PM2.5 the site with the highest three-year average of the 98th percentile concentration is used for comparison to the standard.
* * All values are directly comparable to actual standards. For example, particulate matter and eight-hour ozone values are the three-year average values for consistency with standards. In addition, the 24-hour PM2.5 standard was changed effective December 18, 2006 from 65 to 35 micrograms per cubic meter. Comparisons to the PM2.5 standard in these tables are based on the 35 micrograms per cubic meter standard. See the appendix for complete descriptions of standards.
Regional Air Quality Agencies
Central Front Range Region
Eastern High Plains Region
Regional Air Quality Council 1445 Market St., Ste. 260 Denver, CO 80202 (303) 629-5450 www.raqc.org
Boulder County Health Department 3450 Broadway Boulder, CO 80304 (303) 441-1100 www.BoulderCountyAir.org
Clear Creek County Environmental Health Specialist P.O. Box 2000 Georgetown, CO 80444 (303) 679-2335 www.co.clear-creek.co.us/
Denver Department of Environmental Health Environmental Protection Division 1391 Speer Blvd., Ste. 700 Denver, CO 80204 (303) 285-4053 www.denvergov.org/deh/
Gilpin County Environmental Health Officer County Courthouse Central City, CO 80427 (303) 582-5214 http://co.gilpin.co.us/
Jefferson County Department of Health and Environment 1801 19th St. Golden, CO 80401 (303) 271-5755 www.co.jefferson.co.us
Tri-County Health Department (Adams, Arapahoe and Douglas counties) 7000 E. Belleview, Ste. 301 Englewood, CO 80111 (303) 220-9200 www.tchd.org
City of Lamar 102 E. Parmenter Lamar, CO 81052 (719) 336-4376 www.ci.lamar.co.us/
Southeastern Land and Environment
109 W. Lee Ave., Ste. 1
Lamar, CO 81052 (719) 336-8988
Northeast Colorado Health Department 700 Columbine St. Sterling, CO 80751 (970) 552-3741 www.nchd.org/
Otero County Health Department County Courthouse, Rm 110 La Junta, CO 81050 (719) 384-2584
Northern Front Range Region
North Front Range Transportation and Air Quality Planning Council 210 East Olive St. Fort Collins, CO 80524 (970) 221-6608 www.nfrmpo.org/
City of Fort Collins Natural Resources Division 281 N. College Fort Collins, CO 80522 (970) 221-6600 www.fcgov.com/airquality/
City of Greeley 1000 10th St. Greeley, CO 80531 (970) 350-9783 www.greeleygov.com
Larimer County Department of Health and Environment 1525 Blue Spruce Fort Collins, CO 80524 (970) 498-6775 www.larimer.org
Weld County Department of Health 1555 N. 17th Ave. Greeley, CO 80631 (970) 304-6415 www.co.weld.co.us/
Pikes Peak Region
Pikes Peak Area Council of Governments 15 S. Seventh Ave. Colorado Springs, CO 80905 (719) 471-7080 www.ppacg.org
El Paso County Department of Health and Environment 301 S. Union Blvd. Colorado Springs, CO 80910 (719) 578-3137 www.elpasocountyhealth.org
Park County Environmental Health Officer P.O. Box 216 Fairplay, CO 80441 (719) 836-2771 www.parkco.us/
Teller County Environmental Health Officer P.O. Box 118 Woodland Park, CO 80863 (719) 687-3048 www.co.teller.co.us/
South Central Region
Pueblo City-County Health Department 151 Central Main Pueblo, CO 81003 (719) 583-4323 www.co.pueblo.co.us/pcchd
Las Animas-Huerfano District Health Department 412 Benedicta Ave. Trinidad, CO 81082 (719) 846-2213 --and-119 E. 5th St. Walsenberg, CO 81089 (719) 738-2650 http://la-h-health.org/
Western Slope Region
Archuleta County Box 1507 Pagosa Springs, CO 81147 www.archuletacounty.org/
City of Aspen 130 S. Galena Aspen, CO 81611 (970) 920-5075 www.aspenpitkin.com
Chaffee County Environmental Health Officer P.O. Box 699 Salida, CO 81201 (970) 539-2124 www.chaffeecounty.org
Delta County Health Department 255 W. 6th St. Delta, CO 81416 (970) 874-2165 www.deltacounty.com
Eagle County Environmental Health Division P.O. Box 850 Eagle, CO 81631 (970) 328-8755 www.eaglecounty.us/envHealth/ Fremont County and Cañon City P.O. Box 1460 Cañon City, CO 81215-1460 (719) 269-9011 www.canoncity.org
Garfield County Environmental Health Officer 109 8th St., Ste. 303 Glenwood Springs, CO 81601 (970) 945-2339 www.garfield-county.com
Gunnison County Environmental Health Officer County Courthouse Gunnison, CO 81230 (970) 641-4100 www.gunnisoncounty.org
Lake County
Environmental Health Department P.O. Box 513 Leadville, CO 80461 (719) 486-1796 www.co.lake.co.us
Mesa County Health Department
P.O. Box 2000
Grand Junction, CO 81502
- or -
510 29 1/2 Rd.
Grand Junction, CO 81504
(970) 248-6960
www.health.mesacounty.us/environment
Moffat County and Rio Blanco County Sanitarian 221 Victory Way Craig, CO 81624 (970) 824-2643 www.co.moffat.co.us
Montezuma County Health Department County Courthouse Cortez, CO 81321 (970) 565-3056 www.co.montezuma.co.us
Montrose County Environmental Health Officer P.O. Box 1289 Montrose, CO 81401 www.co.montrose.co.us
Pitkin County 0405 Castle Creek Rd. Aspen, CO 81611 (970) 920-5070 www.aspenpitkin.com
Routt County
Environmental Health Department Box 770087 Steamboat Springs, CO 80477 (970) 879-0185 www.co.routt.co.us
San Juan County 1557 Greene St. Silverton, CO 81433 www.sanjuancountycolorado.us/
San Miguel Environmental Health Department P.O. Box 4130 Telluride, CO 81435 (970) 728-0447 www.sanmiguelcounty.org
Summit County Environmental Health Department Box 626 Frisco, CO 80443 (970) 668-0727 www.co.summit.co.us/
Town of Vail 75 S. Frontage Rd. Vail, CO 81657-509 (970) 479-2138 www.vailgov.com/
Appendix
Colorado Air Quality Regulations Health-Related Air Pollutants Enforcement Report Summary, 2007-2008
Colorado Air Quality Regulations
www.cdphe.state.co.us/ap/regoverview.html
Odor Control
Procedural Rules
The rules that the commission operates under for its regular monthly meetings and public hearings.
Ambient Air Quality Standards Regulation
This regulation establishes ambient air quality standards for the state of Colorado and dictates monitoring procedures and data handling protocols. It also defines nonattainment area boundaries for locations in the state which historically have violated federal and state air quality standards. In addition, the regulation contains the state's urban visibility standard and sets emission budgets for nonattainment areas.
State Implementation Plan Specific Regulation
This regulation defines specific requirements concerning air quality control strategies and contingency measures for nonattainment areas in the state.
Particles, Smoke, Carbon Monoxide and Sulfur Oxides Regulation No. 1
Regulation No. 1 sets forth emission limitations, equipment requirements and work practices (abatement and control measures) intended to control the emissions of particles, smoke and sulfur oxides from new and existing stationary sources. Control measures specified in this regulation are designed to limit emissions into the atmosphere and thereby minimize the ambient concentrations of particles and sulfur oxides.
Regulation No. 2
Regulation No. 2 sets standards for allowable odor contaminants for different land-use areas in the state and outlines control measures that can be taken to bring violators into compliance.
Air Pollution Emission NoticesPermits
Regulation No. 3
Regulation No. 3 requires air pollution sources to file Air Pollution Emission Notices. It also requires that new or modified sources of air pollution – with certain exemptions – obtain preconstruction permits. Very large facilities also are required to obtain operating permits.
Woodburning Controls
Regulation No. 4
Regulation No. 4 requires new stove and fireplace inserts to meet federal certification in specified areas of the state.
New Source Performance Standards
Regulation No. 6
Regulation No. 6 sets standards of performance for specific new stationary sources in Colorado. The regulation is designed to bring new sources into compliance with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's New Source Performance Standards. In addition, the regulation sets standards for new industries that are unique to Colorado for which the EPA has not yet set standards.
Volatile Organic Compounds Control
Regulation No. 7
Regulation No. 7 controls the emissions of volatile organic compounds, primarily in the Denver-metro area. It sets standards and mandates controls for specific types of volatile organic compound sources.
Hazardous Air Pollutants Control Regulation No. 8
Regulation No. 8 sets forth specific work practices, emission control requirements and standards for hazardous air pollutants.
Open Burning, Prescribed Fire and Permitting
Regulation No. 9
Regulation No. 9 applies to all open burning activities throughout the state to control smoke and emissions from such fires. The regulation sets forth requirements for permitting including prescribed fires, controlled burns and significant users of prescribed fires.
Transportation Conformity
Regulation No. 10
Regulation No. 10 defines the criteria the Colorado Air Quality Control Commission uses to evaluate the consistency between state air quality standards/objectives, and transportation planning and major construction activities across the state, as defined in state implementation plans.
Motor Vehicle Inspection Program Regulation No. 11
Regulation No. 11 requires automobile emission inspection and maintenance programs to be implemented in specified areas of the state for gasoline-powered on-road vehicles. These programs apply to businesses, industry and the general public.
Diesel Vehicle Inspection Program Regulation No. 12
Regulation No. 12 defines the state's dieselpowered vehicle emission inspection and maintenance program for on-road vehicles.
Oxygenated Fuels Program Regulation No. 13
Regulation No. 13 requires the use of oxygenated fuels in gasoline-powered motor vehicles in Colorado's Automobile Inspection and Readjustment program areas, except Colorado Springs, from Nov. 1 through Feb. 7.
Chlorofluorocarbons Regulation No. 15
Regulation No. 15 identifies the requirements to control emissions of ozone-depleting compounds from both stationary and mobile sources.
Street Sanding and Sweeping Regulation No. 16
Regulation No. 16 sets specification standards for street sanding material and street sweeping practices in the Automobile Inspection and Readjustment program area, and the Denvermetro fine particle nonattainment area.
Acid Rain Control
Regulation No. 18
Regulation No. 18 sets forth the requirement for implementing the state's acid rain program. This program is adopted by reference from the federal program found in 40 C.F.R., Part 72 as in effect on Jan. 6, 1994.
Lead Based Paint
Regulation No. 19
Regulation No. 19 defines the requirements for certifying lead abatement professionals and work practice measures.
Pollutants
Health Effects
Areas Affected in Colorado
| Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas. It results from incomplete combustion; its major sources in urban areas are motor vehicle emissions and woodburning. | Carbon monoxide affects individuals by depriving the body of oxygen. It enters the body through the lungs and inhibits the body’s ability to transport oxygen. Carbon monoxide can reduce a healthy person’s ability to perform manual tasks, and it can affect pregnant women, fetuses, anemic individuals and persons with cardiovascular diseases. | No violations statewide since 1995. |
|---|---|---|
| Particulate Matter (PM) describes the tiny particles of solid or semi-solid material found in the atmosphere, often referred to as dust. It is classified according to size: •TSP= total suspended particles •PM10 = particles smaller than 10 microns •PM2.5= particles smaller than 2.5 microns | Particulate matter can reduce lung function, aggravate respiratory conditions and may increase the long-term risk of cancer or development of respiratory problems. | Elevated PM levels occur in high-density urban areas and communities where blowing dust or residential burning is a problem. The most recent exceedances were in Alamosa and Lamar in 2002 and Denver in 2001. |
| Ozone (O ) is a highly reactive form of 3 oxygen; it is not emitted directly from a source, rather it is formed from the reaction of pollutants with sunlight. Ground-level ozone (photochemi- cal smog) should not be confused with strato- spheric ozone – the protective ozone layer located in the upper atmosphere. | Exposure to high concentrations of ozone can impair the function of lungs; it may induce respiratory symptoms in individuals with asthma, emphysema or reduced lung function; it potentially can reduce immune system capacity; and it can act as an irritant to mucous membranes of eyes and throat. | Suburban areas down- wind of urban areas are most affected. Violation of the eight-hour standard in the Denver- metro area last occurred during the summers of 2007 and 2003. |
| Sulfur Dioxide (SO ) is a colorless 2 gas with a pungent odor at high concentrations; it is highly soluble with water and is a major contributor to “acid rain.” It is emitted primarily from combustion sources. | Sulfur dioxide can aggravate an individual’s respiratory tract, impair pulmonary functions and increase the risk of asthma attacks. | All of Colorado has met the standard. |
| L e a d ( P b ) exists in the atmosphere primarily as an inhalable particulate; its primary source is motor vehicles that burn leaded gasoline. | Lead can impair an individual’s production of hemoglobin; cause intestinal cramps, peripheral nerve paralysis, anemia and severe fatigue. | All of Colorado has met the standard. |
| A s b e s t o s is a mineral fiber found in building materials and automobile brake linings. | Asbestos can cause respiratory problems and increase the risk of lung cancer. It can cause asbestosis – a scarring of the lung tissue which restricts breathing; it also can cause mesothelioma – cancer of the lung and intestinal lining. | Buildings where asbestos has been used are of primary concern, particu- larly during removal or renovation. |
| Nitrogen Dioxide (NO ) is a 2 gas contributing to photochemical smog (ozone) production. It is a by-product of oxides of nitrogen emitted from combustion sources and motor vehicles. | Nitrogen dioxide can increase respiratory problems, cause mild symptomatic effects in asthmatic individuals and increase susceptibility to respiratory infections. | All of Colorado has met the standard. |
| Hazardous Air Pollutants are pollutants known or suspected of causing cancer or other serious health effects. | Hazardous air pollutants can increase risk of cancer, sterility and nervous system disorders. | Statewide |
State & Federal Air Pollutant Standards
Two state and federal carbon monoxide standards exist. Both standards average the concentration of carbon monoxide across specified time periods – one hour and eight hours. The 1-hour standard is set at 35 parts per million and the 8-hour standard is set at 9 parts per million.
PM2.5 Standards:
* Annual mean standard must not exceed 15 micrograms per cubic meter averaged over three years. • 24-hour standard is 35 micrograms per cubic meter applied to the 3-year average of the 98th percentile value.
PM10 Standards
* 24-hour standard of 150 micrograms per cubic meter cannot be exceeded more than once per year on average over three years
Eight-hour standard: An area will attain the standard when the 4th highest daily maximum 8hour concentration, averaged over three years, is equal to or below 0.085 parts per million (0.075 ppm effective May 27, 2008).
One-hour standard: An area violates the standard when the hourly peak ozone concentration is 0.125 ppm or greater more than three times in three years.
Three state and federal sulfur dioxide standards exist. Each considers average concentration levels across specified time periods. An annual standard is set at 0.03 parts-per-million, a 24-hour standard is set at 0.14 ppm and a 3-hour standard is set at 0.5 ppm.
The federal lead standard is averaged across 3-month time periods. During any three months, the lead concentration is not to exceed 1.5 micrograms per cubic meter. The state lead standard is averaged across 1-month time periods and is not to exceed 1.5 micrograms per cubic meter.
The state standard for asbestos is set at 0.01 fibers per cubic centimeter or 70 structures per square millimeter depending on the measurement method.
The nitrogen dioxide standard averages concentration levels on an annual basis and allows up to 0.053 parts per million of nitrogen dioxide per year.
Approximately 20 federal and state standards exist and are control technology based.
State & Local Programs/Strategies To Reduce Air Pollutants
Enhanced Automobile Inspection and Maintenance Program, Oxygenated Gasoline Program, transportation planning, travel reduction programs, residential burning controls, stationary source controls and pollution prevention programs, High Pollution Advisory Program.
Diesel Emissions Control Program, street sanding and street sweeping improvements, transportation planning, Basic and Enhanced Automobile Inspection and Maintenance Programs, travel reduction programs, residential burning controls, stationary source controls and pollution prevention programs, High Pollution Advisory Program.
Enhanced Automobile Inspection and Maintenance programs, gasoline transfer controls, substitution of nonreactive hydrocarbons, solvent control and pollution prevention programs, stationary source controls and summertime Ozone Advisory Program.
Colorado Air Quality Control Commission regulations control sulfur dioxide emissions from industry.
Leaded gasoline phase out and stationary source controls.
Colorado Air Quality Control Commission Regulation No. 8 controls asbestos removal and abatement statewide.
Colorado Air Quality Control Commission regulations control the emissions of oxides of nitrogen.
Residential burning controls and state/local pollution prevention programs reduce the prevalence of hazardous air pollutants.
Stationary Sources and Indoor Environment Program Enforcement Update
Purpose
This portion of the report is intended to satisfy the requirement in section 25-7-105(5)(c), CRS, which requires the Colorado Air Quality Control Commission to prepare and make available to the public a report that includes a list of all alleged violations of emission control regulations, and show the status of control procedures in effect with respect to each such alleged violation.
The full enforcement report is available on-line at www.cdphe.state.co.us/ap/enforcerept.html. A summary of enforcement statistics is provided on the following page.
Enforcement Program
The Field Services Unit regulates stationary sources, including open burning and odors. The unit has been focusing more on early settlement agreements in lieu of issuing Notices of Violation and Compliance Orders. Upon discovery of a violation, the inspector typically will draft and send a Compliance Advisory (CA) to notify the source of the noncompliance issues. The Compliance Advisory includes a statement that the company should contact the inspector to discuss the noncompliance issues. Upon discussing the issue internally and with the company, unit staff will decide whether to dismiss the violation, issue a Warning Letter, proceed with early settlement discussions or proceed with a formal enforcement action (issue a Notice of Violation). Many of the cases are settled prior to issuance of a Notice of Violation.
The Chlorofluorocarbon Unit enforces Regulation No. 15 concerning the control of chlorofluorocarbons. Most of the enforcement actions by this unit involve notification and certification requirements. As a result, the Chlorofluorocarbon Unit often sends out early settlement agreement offers and Compliance Advisories. It issues few Notices of Violation.
The Asbestos Unit regulates companies involved in the abatement of asbestos. Building owners and schools also are affected by asbestos control rules. In regulating schools, the Asbestos Unit issues Notices of Noncompliance (NONs) which require the school to take certain steps to come into compliance. Typically, if the school comes into compliance within the stated time period, the division does not require the school to pay a civil penalty. The Asbestos Unit is not legally required to, but typically does issue a Notice of Violation (NOV) at the onset of an enforcement action. After a Notice of Violation conference is held, the Asbestos Unit issues a Warning Letter, dismisses the action, attempts to reach an early settlement agreement in the form of a Compliance Order on Consent (COC), or issues a Compliance Order (CO).
The table on the following page is a summary of the number of enforcement documents.
Enforcement Statistics July 2007 - June 2008
Glossary of Terms
Compliance Advisory (CA): The division issues these to provide timely notice to a facility of apparent violations found during an inspection. The division may or may not initiate a formal enforcement action, depending on the type of violation and the response of the facility.
Compliance Order (CO): If the division determines that a violation or noncompliance did occur after a notice of violation conference, it may issue a compliance order. The order includes the final determinations of the division regarding the violation or noncompliance, a summary of the proceedings at the notice of violation conference, and an evaluation of the evidence considered by the division in reaching its final determination of law.
Compliance Order on Consent (COC): A settlement agreement or express terms, mutually agreed upon in writing, between the recipient of an informal notice of noncompliance, notice of violation, or compliance order and the division, resolving the discovered noncompliance issues.
Noncompliance Penalty (NCP): A penalty assessed pursuant to § 25-7-115(5), C.R.S., to ensure a source does not reap the economic benefit of noncompliance with a federal requirement, as required under 42 U.S.C. § 7420.
Notice of Noncompliance (NON): Issued to a school and requires the school to take certain steps to come into compliance. If the school comes into compliance within the stated time period, the division does not require the school to pay a civil penalty.
Notice of Violation (NOV): Issued by the division to provide specific notice to a company of the provisions alleged to have been violated, and the division's factual basis and legal conclusions for the allegations.
Warning Letter: A written notification to a source that the division has documented a violation, that further recurrence could result in enforcement action being taken, but that no further enforcement action will result directly from the instant violation.
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Looking at the calendar on the wall one can see that Spring officially began March 20. Soon the grass will be turning a deep green and spring flowers will be popping up from their winter slumber. Winter is officially over and it is time to think Spring. When we think of the idea of a fresh beginning many tend to begin working in their yards removing the last of what winter left.
When you begin working in your yard to prepare for the return of Spring you may also want to remember your loved ones. Spring is a perfect time to clean up the grave sites of loved ones. "This is a good time to spruce up the grave sites of the loved ones we have already lost. We can go in and take off the old flowers we had decorating the stones throughout the winter months," stated David Abbott, President of the Clark County Cemetery Commission.
Clark County has over 200 cemeteries throughout the county. The Cemetery Commission meets quarterly to discuss the upkeep and maintenance of the local cemeteries. The Clark County Cemetery Commission's mission is to protect the cemeteries from being destroyed or forgotten. Local Trustees contract the mowing of the cemeteries. Danny Rodden, Clark County Sheriff, also has helped with the upkeep. The sheriff has allotted prisoners to clean up the cemeteries through the work release program.
Another issue for the Clark County Cemetery Commission is the lost and abandoned cemeteries. There are some cemeteries in Clark County that have been almost forgotten. "It hurts me when someone takes me to one of the cemeteries and I look around and see that someone has taken the time to plant beautiful flowers and now it is grown up with weeds. You can see the little flowers popping up and know that someone put a lot of care into that cemetery and now it has almost been forgotten," Abbott said.
"Danny has done a fine job helping us and the needs of our local cemeteries. Danny has come to our rescue on several occasions when we have truly needed a cemetery to be cleaned up," Abbott stated. "We also have had local boy scout troops come help us out as they work on community projects. We are also grateful to the boys and their leaders for helping us when we needed them."
The Commission recently purchased several more signs to identify cemeteries throughout the county. Jerry Callam has been working to install some of the signs purchased. Callam has worked with the Clark County Cemetery Commission focusing on the cemeteries in Borden. Callam, a life-long resident of Borden, was installing a sign on a recent Saturday afternoon, with the help of Abbott and Stanley Hurst. The trio installed a green sign with reflective lettering to identify the African American Cemetery located on Daisy Hill Road in Borden. Motorists passing by the cemetery would have no idea since it is located in a yard with no markers or fences to show the boundaries of the old cemetery.
"When I was a kid I remember there being several tombstones still standing in the cemetery,"
1 / 3
Callam recalled as he looked over the now abandoned cemetery. "There were supposed to be several tombstones from here but we were only able to locate one."
"This once was a business location and the business owner, I guess, removed the tombstones. I was told the cemetery is about 15 feet from the roadway and just on the other side of the trees," Callam explained as he pointed out the boundaries of the cemetery. "This used to be an orchard that was the line for the cemetery."
The recovered tombstone for the African American Cemetery was dated 1864.
Callam, a 2005 retiree, enjoys working with the Clark County Cemetery Commission along with his wife, Lena. He became involved through the Borden Historical Society, which meets the last Thursday of each month at the Historical Society in Borden at 6:30 p.m.
S Callam gets a some help from the Wood Township Trustee, Joann Sullivan, but the majority of the cost of the maintenance and upkeep of the cemeteries he works on is from his own wallet. He does the mowing and upkeep for the Whitson, Howlett and Dow Cemeteries. "I just started doing it out of the kindness of my heart. I knew nobody else was going to do it, so I might as well," a humble Callam added. "When I first started, Dow Cemetery (on Highway 60), you couldn't even tell there was a cemetery there, it was all grown up. I finally got it cleaned up." Callam just has one more sign to install at Deam Lake and the signs for the cemeteries in Borden will all be installed.
"It kinda just dropped on me. I might as well do it, nobody else is," he answered as why he was involved in the upkeep of the local cemeteries.
"This is a story I hear all the time. I hear where people are taking care of these old family cemeteries out of the kindness of their hearts. Some have relatives buried in the cemeteries, some live close to them and others are doing the upkeep because nobody else will. I take my hat off to these people. They truly are great patriots. There is a lot of work and expense keeping the cemeteries cleaned up and well maintained," Abbott added.
Meurer, a retired librarian, was quick to guide people to the DNR website regarding historical cemeteries and preservation.
Callam and Abbott are just two members of the Clark County Cemetery Commission. Abbott is currently the President of the Cemetery Commission, Tamsie Meurer is Secretary and Board Members include Jerry Callam, John Prall of Henryville and Joann Sullivan, Wood Township Trustee. The Commission also welcomes Paul and Pat Coffman and Dan and Betty Johnson to meetings. Paul Coffman is a past board member and along with his wife, Pat, have completed cemetery inventories while the Johnsons are credited with lots of hard work and dedication in the early stages of implementing the Clark County Cemetery Commission.
"I attended a cemetery restoration workshop and learned of the website. I have a paper copy of the manual but anytime a Boy Scot Troop wants to work within a cemetery, I always reference them to the website. You can also do damage in restoration as well as do good," Meurer stated. "The website has cemetery resources, how to make mortar, just lots of information that can be useful with historical cemeteries."
When asked why Abbott was involved he stated, "I was appointed to the Cemetery Commission when Dan Johnson was the President. Dan then retired and I was then voted as President. I am glad to be a part of this Commission and serve the community on different boards. This has truly opened my eyes up to the importance of maintaining and protecting local cemeteries," Abbott added.
The website located at www.in.gov/dnr/historic/2807.htm, will give you tons of information about historic cemeteries.
2 / 3
Abbott concluded, "Let's make sure we all take the time in our busy schedules to clean up our loved ones gravesites."
The Clark County Cemetery Commission meets quarterly at the Sellersburg Library. The next meeting will be held on April 9 at 7:30 p.m. The Sellersburg Library is located at 430 N. Indiana Avenue in Sellersburg. The public is invited and encouraged to attend.
If your organization or Boy Scout Troop would be interested in cleaning up the abandoned cemetery on Tunnel Mill Road please call Abbott at 502-931-4669.
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Two Step Problems
Solve each problem.
Name:
Answers
1) A donation center had filled up 35 small bins with canned food with each bin containing 42 cans. They plan to send the cans out to 6 food banks but want to give each food bank the same number of cans. How many cans should they give to each food bank?
1,470÷6
2) Sarah's mother had 16 small photo albums filled with 21 photos in each. In order to save some space she bought 7 larger albums with each album having 20 pages. If she wanted to put all her pictures into the large albums, with the same number of pictures in each, how many pictures should be in each album?
21 × 16
336÷7
3) An industrial machine made 1,629 cans of diet sodas and 6 times as many regular sodas over the course of 46 minutes. The regular sodas were then placed into 3 shipping boxes with each shipping box containing the same number of sodas. How many regular sodas were in each shipping box.
1,629 × 6
9,774÷3
4) Frank developed a game for phones that he sold for $2. After the first week he discovered he had 5,456 downloads from girls and 4 times as many boys download the game. Of the boys who downloaded it he only had 1/8 who bought the full game. How many boys bought the full game?
5,456 × 4
21,824÷8
5) A restaurant owner bought 3 boxes of disposable cups for $148, with each box containing 4,050 cups. If he wanted to divvy up the cups among his 9 restaurants, with each restaurant getting the same number of cups, how many cups should each store get?
4,050 × 3
12,150÷9
6) A developer was buying land. He bought 5 acres at $1,836 per acre. He then split the land he purchased into 6 lots. How much should he sell each lot for just to break even?
1,836 × 5
9,180÷6
7) Mike and Olivia were comparing their Halloween candy. Mike received 4 times as much candy as Olivia received. Mike then split his candy evenly into 8 piles to eat later. If Olivia received 24 ounces of candy, how many ounces of candy would be in each of Mike's piles?
24 × 4
96÷8
8) At Gwen's bakery over the course of a year she sold 78 birthday cakes for $76 a cake. At the end of the year she determined that for each cake she sold she had spent 1/6 of the sale price on ingredients. How much money did she spend on ingredients for cakes?
78 × 76
5,928÷6
1.
245
2.
48
3.
3,258
4.
2,728
5.
1,350
6.
1,530
7.
12
8.
988
Math www.CommonCoreSheets.com
2
42 × 35
1-8 88 75 63 50 38 25 13 0
Solve each problem.
Answer Key
Answers
1)
A donation center had filled up 35 small bins with canned food with each bin containing 42 cans. They plan to send the cans out to 6 food banks but
3)
4)
6)
8)
42 × 35
www.CommonCoreSheets.com
1,470÷6
1-8
245
88 75 63 50 38 25 13
Math
2
0
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Article from BuddhasPlace.com
What Stress Does to You
Faced with pressure, challenge or danger, we need to react quickly, and our bodies release of the "fight or flight" hormones such as Cortisol and Adrenaline. These hormones affect the metabolic rate, heart rate and blood pressure, resulting in a heightened - or stressed - state that prepares the body for optimum performance in dealing with a stressful situation.
With a concrete defensive action (fight response) the stress hormones in the blood get used up, en tailing reduced stress effects and symptoms of anxiety. When we fail to counter a stress situation (flight response) the hormones and chemicals remain unreleased in the blood stream for a long period of time. It results in stress related physical symptoms such as tense muscles, unfocused anxiety, dizziness and rapid heartbeats. We all encounter various stressors (causes of stress) in everyday life, which can accumulate, if not released. Subsequently, it compels the mind and body to be in an almost constant alarm-state in preparation to fight or flee. This state of accumulated stress can increase the risk of both acute and chronic psychosomatic illnesses and weaken the immune system of the human body.
Very often, modern stresses do not call for either fight or flight. Nevertheless, the same stressing hormones are released as part of the reaction and this natural reaction to challenge or danger, instead of helping, can damage health and reduce the ability to cope.
Stress can cause headaches, irritable bowel syndrome, eating disorder, allergies, insomnia, backaches, frequent cold and fatigue to diseases such as hypertension, asthma, diabetes, heart ailments and even cancer. In fact, Sanjay Chugh, a leading Indian psychologist, says that 70% to 90% of adults visit primary care physicians for stress-related problems.
Medically, it has been established that chronic symptoms of anxiety and stress can reduce our body's immune system. It brings about changes in the body's biochemical state with extra epinephrine and other adrenal steroids such as hydrocortisone in the bloodstream. It also induces increased palpitation and blood pressure in the body with mental manifestations such as anger, fear, worry or aggression. In short, stress creates anomalies in our body's homeostasis. When the extra chemicals in our bloodstream don't get used up or the stress situation persists, it makes our body prone to mental and physical
Aging is a natural and gradual process, except under extreme circumstances such as stress or grief. The constant stressors or stress conditions result in a loss in neural and hormonal balance. This loss of balance will cause increased oxidative damage accelerating aging in our body. That's because, chronic disturbances in body homeostasis ultimately affect our hormone secreting glands, cell repair and col lagen in our skin and connecting tissues. Immune and neural degenerative diseases prevent this other wise inevitable process from following the normal and healthy course of events.
Recent research results suggest that long-term exposure to adrenal stress hormones may boost brain aging in later life.
Scientists at the University of in Lexington looked at the results of memory tests taken by elderly patients with high levels of the stress hormone cortisol, re leased by adrenal glands when the body is stressed. That high-level group scored lower than others with reduced levels of the hormone, researchers say.
The level of hormone released apparently affects the total volume of the brain's hippocampus—a major source of recall and memory function, in later life. Researchers found those with high levels of hormone release, had a hip pocampus volume 14 per cent less than those with lower levels.
The study results suggest that, "chronic stress may accelerate hippocam pal deterioration" leading to accelerated physical and brain aging.
Stress has long been suspected as a possible cause of miscarriage, with sev eral studies indicating an increased risk among women reporting high lev els of emotional or physical turmoil in their early months of pregnancy or just before conception. But while a relationship has been noted, researchers didn't know exactly how a woman's stress could cause miscarriage.
In what may prove to be a breakthrough finding, a team of scientists from Tufts Univer sity and Greece have identified a suspected chain reaction detailing exactly how stress hormones and other chemicals wreak havoc on the uterus and fetus. Their report, in the June issue of Endocrinology, may help explain why women miscarry for no obvi ous medical reasons and why some women have repeated miscarriages. And it could lead to measures to prevent miscarriage -- medically known as "spontaneous abortion."
Stress can be very bad both physically and mentally. But not all stress is bad.
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Written by Nancy Spencer Wednesday, June 12, 2013 11:32 PM -
Information submitted
AEP Ohio, a unit of American Electric Power, constantly has its eyes on the weather. The company’s internal meteorologists were monitoring the approaching storm that was expected to hit Ohio Wednesday evening.
AEP meteorologists agreed there was potential for the front to produce a squall line that could affect much of the AEP Ohio’s service territory, as well as neighboring states. This squall line was expected to produce severe weather accompanied by high winds gusting above 60 miles per hour, potentially causing widespread power outages in affected areas.
AEP Ohio crews were prepared to respond throughout the company’s service territory and the company is identifying the availability of additional resources.
What to do during a power outage:
* Unplug major appliances to protect them from a power surge when power comes back on.
* Leave a light turned on so you know when power is restored.
* Refuel heaters, lamps and generators outside and stay away from any flames or sparks. Wipe up fuel spills immediately.
* Contact AEP if using a generator — this protects the homeowner and AEP line workers as
Written by Nancy Spencer Wednesday, June 12, 2013 11:32 PM - they work to restore power. Be safe with backup generators.
* Never operate lanterns, heaters, or fuel-fired stoves without proper ventilation.
* Never burn charcoal indoors. It releases poisonous carbon monoxide.
* Avoid downed power lines or sparking equipment.
* Never remove debris that's within 10 feet of a power line.
* Prevent children from carrying candles or oil lamps.
Helping the elderly after severe weather conditions
From the
Ohio Department of Aging
As severe conditions approach and after they have passed, please check on your friends, family and neighbors in your community to ensure they have power, food, water, medicines and
Written by Nancy Spencer Wednesday, June 12, 2013 11:32 PM -
necessary supplies to stay safe and healthy until things return to normal. Also, staying cool will be a big concern, as older adults can be more susceptible to heat-related illnesses.
Older adults, people with disabilities and their families can call 1-866-243-5678 to be connected to their local area agency on aging’s resources and programs that can provide help in their communities.
When severe weather hits the community, please check on older neighbors, friends and relatives to make sure they have the resources they need to stay safe and healthy until conditions return to normal.
Communicate effectively
—Always treat adults as adults. If someone isn’t making sense, don’t assume it’s dementia. Dehydration, stress, and fatigue have similar symptoms.
— Use a natural tone of voice and conversational style of communication. Be calm and reassuring, speak slowly and distinctly, and make eye contact. Use positive language: Instead of “Don’t …” suggest what they should do.
— Ask open-ended questions. Instead of “Are you staying warm/cool?” ask “What are you doing to stay warm/cool today?” “Where will you go if the power does not come back on tomorrow?”
— Don’t ask “testing” or “challenging” questions. Instead of “Do you know your name?” ask “What would you like me to call you?” Instead of “Do you know where you are?” say “I’m glad that I came to visit you at your home today.”
— Don’t correct an adult who appears to be confused. For example, if the person calls you by someone else’s name, say “I haven’t seen ‘Joe’ lately but my name is … and I’ll stay with you until your family comes by” or “I’ll call someone so ‘Joe’ will know where you are.” Avoid
Written by Nancy Spencer Wednesday, June 12, 2013 11:32 PM arguing, but validate feelings.
Do a risk assessment
While visiting, observe his or her surroundings and ask questions that will help you determine if this person is healthy and safe, or if he or she may need some assistance.
— Does the person depend on oxygen?
— Does he or she need help walking?
— Does he or she need help getting to the bathroom?
— Does he or she have skin that is greyish? (If so, he or she may require medical attention.
Also check if individuals have what they will need for the next several days, including water, non-perishable food, temperature control and medications. Refrigerated food should be thrown out after two hours without electricity. Also, some medications may need to be refrigerated or stored on ice to remain safe and effective.
Make sure they can get help
Make sure the person is able to call for help if he or she needs it. Don’t assume the person’s phone is working: check the connection and battery charge. Some may not realize that cordless phones need electricity to work and/or charge. Instead of asking, “Do you have someone to call if you need help?” say, “Show me how you would call your daughter if you need her to come help,” will be more effective.
Written by Nancy Spencer Wednesday, June 12, 2013 11:32 PM -
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Roche Court Seminars
Art & Maths
Educational Friends of Roche Court
Art and Maths An Exploratory Seminar
Saturday 11 October 2003
Dr. Ulrich Grevsmühl with Michael Kidner Richard Long Jo Niemeyer Peter Randall-Page Gary Woodley
Art and Mathematics - - an exploratory seminar
A summary by Dr. Ulrich Grevsmühl
A mathematician, like a painter or a poet, is a maker of patterns. If his patterns are more permanent than theirs, it is because they are made with ideas…
(His) patterns, like the painter's or the poet's must be beautiful; the ideas, like the colours or the words, must fit together in a harmonious way. Beauty is the first test; there is no permanent place in the world for ugly mathematics.
Godfrey Harold HARDY (English Mathematician 1877-1947)
In October 2004 the New Art Centre organized a one-day interdisciplinary seminar on Art and Mathematics as part of its educational programme. Hosted in the superb surrounding of the Roche Court estate, it was an occasion which brought together 5 out-standing and world-famous artists and a mathematician in an inspiring and unforgettable event.
Dr. Ulrich Grevsmühl who is a mathematics educator and physicist at the revolved around the central theme: measure and measurements.
University of Education Freiburg in Germany had devised the day and led the audience through the stimulating discussions, workshops and activities which The morning sessions started off with the Golden Section and some of its applications. Grevsmühl gave an introduction to the subject and explained how the Golden Section and the Golden Angle is employed in the works of Jo Niemeyer, Michael Kidner and Peter Randall-Page. The afternoon sessions continued with the works of Richard Long and Gary Woodley and dealt with the interrelation of their works to measure and measurements.
The works of art, and in particular those of concrete and constructivist art, are of special interest for the teaching and learning of mathematics because of their mathematical, perceptional and conceptional implications.
Many of the works may be used as starting points for mathematical investigations and problem solving activities and offer the opportunity to experience art from the rational side. More than that mathematical relationships can be visualized much more directly and dynamically via the visual channel. In close cooperation with many artists in Europe and overseas Ulrich Grevsmühl has collected a large number of mathematical problems based on works of art and has done several publications on the interrelation of Mathematics and Modern Art since 1986.
The German artist Jo Niemeyer has been working in constructive-concrete art since 1970 and in land-art since 1988. At Roche Court he, with the assistance of his wife Tuula, created the new installation 2003, a series of reflecting square plates which invited the spectator to a journey around the earth in just 20 steps. Taking the Golden Section as a means to measure Niemeyer 's idea was to divide the circumference of the earth by the Golden Section and to repeat this process for each of the subsequently generated segments. For the mathematical formulation of the problem one has to take into account that every route around the earth is a natural fractal. Therefore the mathematical problem had to be formulated in terms of angles. Applying the golden section to the full circle yields the (minor) Golden Angle ø = 137.5° Repeated application of the golden section to each newly generated minor through the process of division provides the increasing elements of the minors series in degrees.
For the work of art only the proportions between the distances are essential in order to understand the laws of formation. Niemeyer says: There is no measure - only the proportion exists.
At Roche Court Niemeyer installed the first 8 steps over a distance of 147 meters where his installation amazed by its simplicity, harmony and beauty. Videos and computer simulations extended the series to the boundaries of the earth and indeed to macro and micro cosmos. In the workshop the participants were involved in several applications of the Golden Section like the making of an icosahedron by three intersecting Golden Rectangles.
Applications of the Golden Section to tilings and tessellations were dealt with in the workshop with Michael Kidner. Kidner employs the systematic approach, the constructive investigation both for creating and developing new ideas and making his works more comprehensible. His vast areas of work range from drawings and paintings to sculpture and installations combining the elements of rationality and feeling, order and beauty. He states: Mathematics is for me a word which suggests an attitude of mind rather than a skill - it offers a reference to my work which I find presently more acceptable than any alternative. Such an attitude allows me the freedom to organize and relate my colours and forms as abstract units but withholds the licence to do anything whatsoever that I choose.
In some of his more recent works Kidner has used the so-called Penrose prototiles as the mathematical basis for his drawings and paintings. These works are indeed inspired by one of the most remarkable discoveries in the theory of tiling which has taken place during the last 30 years. It concerns the existence of sets of prototiles which admit infinitely many aperiodic tilings of the plane. In the early seventies the mathematician Roger Penrose at Oxford discovered three sets of aperiodic prototiles.
In the workshop the participants engaged in trying out various Penrose tilings. In two beautifully spoken and inspiring talks Michael Kidner outlined the artistic impetus and implications of his works. Using the patterns as a vehicle for his feelings he said: I have a feeling about organization and chaos. Organization requires energy, chaos is no energy, in other words it is the story of life and death. His current interest is in deconstructing the pattern by the use of different colours and thus creating chaos.
Phyllotaxis is the teaching of the arrangement of leaves in the plant kingdom. It provides impressive examples for the occurrence of rational as well as irrational proportions. An application of the Golden Angle and of the Fibonacci numbers can be found in the spiral principle of arrangement of leaves. In many of his works Peter Randall-Page investigates the structures of organic growth and the patterns that occur in living nature. In his superb talk he gave an insight into the development of his work while the participants enjoyed analyzing various forms of leaf arrangements.
For Randall-Page geometry is the theme in nature's variations. He says:
Over the years my journey has been one from looking directly at objects in nature to actually trying to get a sense of what dynamics are at work that produce the things nature produces. … In the real world you never see the underlying geometry in its absolutely perfect state, it is always adapted to local conditions. Quoting an Indian philosopher RandallPage formulates his aim in the following way: Art should be ideal in the mathematical sense, like nature, not in appearance but in operation.
For him nature reveals a dynamic tension, a tendency to order and a tendency to disorder or chaos. Talking about his work he described the problems of mapping the surface of a the given, random boulder with a given, perfect geometrical structure and its implications to the geometry employed. He also discussed some of the technical and mathematical procedures that arise in the process of carving the sculptures and in projecting the genetic helix onto pieces of stone.
It was a rare opportunity for an audience to hear Richard Long speak about his work. In his talk Long gave a survey of his development as an artist. It was accompanied by more than 100 images. No wonder that the audience enjoyed the interaction with the artist and in particular the younger ones felt that they could ask all the questions they always wanted to.
A good work is the right thing in the right place at the right time. A crossing place. These words by Long apply well to his works of art which reveal a great affinity to landscape, to nature and particularly to walking in the landscape. His work uses measurement, ratio, relationships and symmetries. Fundamental to his art are his walks. Undertaken in many parts of the world, they form the link between the landscape and his outdoor or indoor sculptures, his photographs and map drawings. Very often his walks are accompanied and expressed in form of text works. Long says: By way of walking the world is a means of measuring the world.
Long gave various examples of the different types of walks and how he uses measurement and number. Often his measures are not necessarily standard measures like miles or kilometers. In fact, in his works there is an interplay of things that can be measured and things that are immeasurable. Long says: I like to use the symmetry of pattern between time, places and time, between distance and time, between stones and distances, between time and stones.
When asked if there is a message in his works Long denied this. But then he continued: One can make art anywhere in the world, in great solitude, in places of great wilderness, in places of inaccessibility, one doesn't have to make it in a studio or choose an art gallery. …This is one of the messages of my work.
And asked if he would make a work of art that no one would see, Long added: The whole idea of making art is to show it to someone else. Part of the chemistry of art is communication. But communication can be done in many different ways. Only the forms of communication vary.
There is no doubt: The trade mark of the constructivist Gary Woodley are his impingements. Woodley is a constructivist who has previously been concerned with various aspects of Euclidean space, of Hyperbolic space and of topological space. He takes a strong interest in mathematical shapes and surfaces and in methods of projecting them from one space to another.
Carrying out experiments with soap films and geometrical forms and figures Woodley became fascinated by the immaterial of geometrical concepts. An important theme which runs throughout his impingement works is therefore the visualization of intersections of ideal solids, such as spheres and ellipsoids, with the physical reality of an interior or exterior environment which he describes as intersections of material with immaterial. Often his works are large-scale 3-D drawings with tape and electroluminescent strips or just soft crayon which are performed in more or less empty rooms or outdoor sites. He says: I like the feeling that the work is really the trace of something that has been removed. The geometry that is passing, slipping through.
Woodley has developed his own methods of drawing and his own drawing tools for carrying out his sculptural constructions. In his earlier works he designed a pointing jig with flexible arms which enables him to draw regular curves, such as circles and ellipses, onto environmental surfaces and other irregular boundaries, very often with the use of a laser beam. Recently he has employed the computer for 3-D scanning of the environment (a whole building or part of it) and 3-D modeling enabling him for the first time to use very complex mathematical shapes and surfaces, like the Enneper surface, with which he had been fascinated for a long time but which were technically not possible before.
The audience were fascinated by the various activities with minimal surfaces of the soap film geometry and enjoyed his projective experiments in the Orangery at Roche Court.
Biography
Dr. Ulrich Grevsmühl read Physics and Mathematics at the Universities of Stuttgart and Liverpool. He was awarded a Florey European scholarship by The Queen's College Oxford and did his doctorate in Theoretical Atomic Physics at the University of Oxford in 1976. Today he is working as a Senior Lecturer of Mathematics at the University of Education Freiburg in Germany. He has a strong interest in interdisciplinary research. In cooperation with several artists has done many publications and seminars on the interrelation of Mathematics and Modern Art.
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CLASS: I
SUBJECT
ENGLISH
BOOK
English Reader
ARMY PUBLIC SCHOOL,KOTA ANNUAL EXAMINATION – 2020
SYLLABUS
Ch-5 Nida's Birthday Invitation
| | English Grammar | Ch- 5 One and Many Ch-10 Pronouns Ch-11 Describing words Ch-12 Opposite words Ch-13 A or An Ch-14 In, On, Under, Behind Ch-15 Formative Activities; Comprehension,Short Composition | | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| HINDI | fgna h ikBekyk | ikB&15 ¼vkS½ ikB&16 ¼va&tk[kw efanj½ ikB&17 ¼v¡&e¡x:½ ikB&18 ¼v%&ue%½ ikB&19 ¼= K J & _f’k dk vkJe½ ikB&20 ¼la;qDr v{kj½ ikB&21 ¼vPNk nksLr ry lr½ ikB&11 ¼u`Ik dk egy½A | | |
| | fgna h O;kdj.k | ikB&7 ¼fyax½ ikB&8 ¼opu½ ikB&9 ¼djuk&fØ;k½ ikB&10 ¼mYVs vFkZ okys “kCn½A vuqPNsn ¼ejs h xqfM+;k½] lIrkg ds uke] fxurh ¼31 l s 50 rd½] vifBr x | ka”k] vifBr i | ka”kA |
| MATHS | Maths Perfect Composite-1 | U-8 Working with numbers till 100 U-9 Pre Number Concepts –Part II U-10 Measurement U-11 Time U-12 Multiplication U-13 Money U-14 Data Handling Tables (2 to 10); Magic Square (Pg no. 154) | | |
| EVS | Think Green -1 | Ch- 6 My School Ch-14 Plants Around Us Ch-15 Animals Around Us Ch-16 The Earth and Sky Ch-17 Air and Water Ch-18 Weather and Clothes Ch-19 Our Nation Ch-20 Our Festivals All work done in book and notebook | | |
| COMPUTER | IT Planet -1 | Ch-6 The Keyboard Ch-7 The Mouse Ch-8 Starting with Paint Model Test Paper-2 (pg no.- 71,72) All work done in book and notebook | | |
| G.K. | | Page number- 44 to 70 | | |
| DRAWING | | Page number-26 to 40 | | |
SUBJECT BOOK
SYLLABUS
ENGLISH English Reader Ch-7 Blackie the clever crow
Ch-8 Ria's New Press
ARMY PUBLIC SCHOOL,KOTA
ANNUAL EXAMINATION – 2020 SYLLABUS
ARMY PUBLIC SCHOOL,KOTA ANNUAL EXAMINATION – 2020 SYLLABUS
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Preparing Your Performance
Please answer the following questions about your hip hop and Shakespeare passages as you prepare them for performance.
1. Will you perform each selection as a rap or as a dramatic reading?
Hip Hop: _________________________________________________________
Shakespeare: _____________________________________________________
2. What will be the tone of each piece?
Hip Hop: _________________________________________________________
Shakespeare: _____________________________________________________
3. What do you know about the speaker, based on the information the poet gives?
Hip Hop: _________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Shakespeare: _____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. What does the character want?
Hip Hop: _________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Shakespeare: _____________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
5. Has he or she accomplished his or her goals by the end of the piece?
Hip Hop: _________________________________________________________
Shakespeare: _____________________________________________________
© Folger Shakespeare Library 2007
© Folger Shakespeare Library 2007
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Active Schools Skipping Challenge
Teachers Notes
Introduction
Skipping is a fantastic activity for young people; it develops heart and lung fitness, coordination, balance, concentration – the list goes on!
One of the most positive aspects of a skipping programme is the massive improvements that young people can make in a short space of time – from being incapable of completing a couple of turns to competence can generally be achieved by regular practice. A key element in long term health is 'load bearing' activities such as skipping, running and walking. This encourages the development of bone density which is particularly significant for young girls, assisting with the prevention of conditions such as osteoporosis. Skipping also encourages healthy habits and shows children that keeping fit can be fun.
The aim of this project is to encourage all pupils on P4-P7 (Girls & Boys) to skip for a period of time every day for 4 weeks. Pupils will tick their wall chart in the classroom for everyday they have skipped. This could be done at break time, lunch time etc. At the end of every week each pupil will be challenged to skip for two minutes non-stop. They will then record their progression over the four week period. This could be done in pairs – with the partner counting the number of skips and then alternating. It would be great if teachers would get involved too – there are no better role models for young people - to see that physical activity is 'normal' for everyone! We will provide a simple warm up that can be used before the weekly timed skip.
Active Schools will supply your school with a wall chart for each classroom and enough Skipping Ropes for every pupil in P4, 5, 6 & 7 and a CD containing timed 2 minute music clips.
Your Active Schools Coordinator will offer an introductory talk and session to kick start the project
The Benefits of Skipping
Encouraging children in your classroom to take part in the Active Schools Skipping Project is simple; start by informing them of the number of health benefits including:
* Improved cardio vascular fitness
* Increased muscular strength
* Better endurance
* Improved body conditioning
* Improved coordination
* Stronger bones
Skipping can also improve your skills:
* Better timing and rhythm
* Improved balance
* Improved agility
Skipping may also bring additional benefits including:
* Increase in social skills through interacting with others
* Increase in self esteem through an easy to learn skill
* Fun and educational
* Opportunities to be creative
For the boys who may need some extra persuasion, talk about boxing and the importance of skipping as part of their training regime.
Active Schools Skipping Challenge Warm Up
Carry out this 3/4 minute warm up and stretch routine before each Friday Skipping Challenge. Using cones or playground markings set out an area were pupils will perform their warm up. We are happy to demonstrate this for you! Most of these exercises can be performed indoors too.
1. Straight ahead jogging or jog on spot - 15 seconds
2. Shoulders forward - Straight ahead skip with your arms moving around and forward from the shoulders - 15 seconds.
3. Shoulders back - Straight ahead skip - arms moving around and backwards from the shoulders - 15 seconds.
4. High Knees - Straight ahead jogging and on the teachers command pupils perform knees-up on the spot. Knees 90 degrees, arms pumping at the side - 15 seconds.
5. Heel Flicks - Straight ahead jogging and on the teacher's command pupils flick their heels towards their bottom – 15 seconds.
Mobility Exercises
Shoulder Circles
* Stand tall with good posture
* Raise your right shoulder towards your right ear, take it backwards, down and then up again with a smooth rhythm
* Perform this shoulder circling movement eight times and then repeat eight times in a forward
* direction and then same with the left other shoulder
Arm Circles
* Stand tall with good posture
* Lift one arm forward then take it backwards in a continuous circling motion, keeping your spine long throughout
* Perform this arm circling movement eight times, before repeating with the other arm and then repeating in opposite direction
* Avoid the tendency to arch your spin whilst carrying out the circling movement
Hip Circles
* Stand tall with good posture
* Have your feet slightly wider than hip-width apart, knees slightly bent, hands resting on hips
* Keeping your spine long and your hips facing forward, turn smoothly and slowly round to one side, then the other
* Repeat the sequence eight times in each direction
Ankle Circles
* Stand tall with good posture
* Have your feet slightly wider than hip-width apart, knees slightly bent
* Keeping your spine long and your hips facing forward, lift the right ankle and turn smoothly in a clockwise direction eight times and the same anti clockwise
* Repeat the sequence with the left ankle
Active Schools Skipping Challenge – Future Progressions
Upon completion of the 4 week Skipping Challenge there are a number of alternative ideas to enable pupils to continue skipping and progress their skills…??
* Encourage pupils to continue to improve on their 2 minute scores
* Encourage pupils to learn skipping rhymes
o Look up http://www.skip-hop.co.uk/skipping-rhymes-c21.html
* Encourage pupils to make up their own skipping rhymes
* Encourage pupils to research playground games of older generations
o Speak to parents, grandparents & relatives about their experiences
* Encourage pupils to learn skipping activities using 'double dutch' ropes for fun
o Introduce a second rope when pupils are confident using one
o Using the longer ropes pupils work in pairs to keep the rope going whilst someone skips in between
* Encourage pupils to try and learn some skipping tricks, as shown in the David Hayes boxing video provided
* Liaise with other schools to see how many total skips they managed throughout the challenge
* Pupils could organise a skipping event for charity ie. A Sponsored 'Skip-a-thon'
o Ie. British Heart Foundation - http://www.bhf.org.uk/get-involved/events/schoolsand-youth-groups/jump-rope-for-heart.aspx
Active Schools Skipping Challenge & A Curriculum for Excellence
Curriculum Levels: First & Second
Health & Wellbeing
FIRST SECOND
Mental, Emotional, Social & Physical Wellbeing
HWB 1-15a
HWB 2-15a
HWB 1-16a
HWB 2-16a
HWB 1-18a
HWB 2-18a
Planning for Choices & Change
HWB 1-19a
HWB 2-19a
Physical Education
HWB 1-21a
HWB 2-21a
HWB 1-22a
HWB 2-22a
HWB 1-23a
HWB 2-23a
HWB 1-24a
HWB 2-24a
Physical Activity & Sport
HWB 1-25a
HWB 2-25a
HWB 2-26a
Physical Activity & Health
HWB 1-27a
HWB 2-27a
HWB 1-28a
HWB 2-28a
Relationships, Sexual Health & Parenthood
HWB 1-45b
HWB 2-45b
HWB 1-48a
Active Schools Skipping Challenge & A Curriculum for Excellence (contd)
| | Skipping Challenge Activities | |
|---|---|---|
| | Aims | Description |
| • Increase awareness of physical activity • Increase levels of physical activity • Promote skipping as an alternative physical activity • Increase fitness levels of children • Increase number of positive role models for children • Create an opportunity for pupils to interact and work as an individual and as a team • Engage children in structured physical activity through a positive and fun experience | | |
| | Outcomes | |
| • Increase extra curricular physical activity • Develop motor skills • Develop sport-specific skills • Increase opportunities for pupils to engage in physical activity | | |
Active Schools Skipping Challenge & A Curriculum for Excellence (contd)
| | Skipping Challenge Activities Cross-curricular Links | | |
|---|---|---|---|
| | Health and Wellbeing | | Literacy and English |
| • Exploring a new sporting activity • Experience of using new equipment • Effects of physical activity on body, breathing, pulse rate etc • Motor development (balance, posture, coordination) | | • Recording participation & skips on classroom wall chart • Reading challenge instructions & rules • Communication with peer group • Creating own skipping rhymes | |
| | Expressive Arts | | Maths and Numeracy |
| • Movement to music | | • Counting number of skips within the 2 minute time frame • Counting skills (rhythm, number of steps) • Comparing scores – progress through the 4 weeks • Working with time – ie. how many skips in 5 minutes • Calculate average skips per minute • Graphs / Pie Charts of progress – individual & class • Calculate total no. of skips by class over course of challenge | |
| | Religious and Moral Education | | Science |
| • Encourage fair & safe play in playground • Respect for other playground users • Encourage pupils to help & support their peers through challenge | | • How the body works | |
| | Social Studies | | Technologies |
| • Discussion of playground activities of older generations • Following & understanding rules • Being responsible citizens in playground ie. Safe play • Respecting personal space & boundaries | | • Computer work to provide graphs / pie charts etc for progress for each day / week of the challenge | |
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St John's CE Middle School Key Performance Indicators
Pupils who are working at age related expectations at the end of the year will have a secure knowledge of these Key Performance Indicators.
Year 6 Art and Design
Ideas
- I can explore and research different cultures and develop personal ideas for my own work, which show curiosity, imagination and originality.
- I can plan ideas and design methodically, keeping the final product in mind.
Knowledge
- I understand the importance of correct storage handling and can tidy up accordingly.
- I can use key vocabulary when discussing my own work and that of other artists with confidence.
Making
- I can develop basic practical skills to create products and pieces with precision including cutting, gluing, drawing, photography, painting, rubbing and sculpting, paying attention to the final finish of my work.
Evaluating
- I can review my work and suggest appropriate improvements during the process and the finished product.
- I can use artists' work to improve and influence my own.
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CORPUS CHRISTI – June 23, 2019
Today we celebrate the Feast of the Body and Blood of Christ. It is the feast of Corpus Christi; the feast of the Holy Eucharist. We recall the presence of our Lord on our altars and in our tabernacles. We believe that Jesus is really, truly and substantially present under the appearances of bread and wine.
We also believe that our Lord is present in our world in one other marvelous, mysterious, miraculous way. We believe that whatever we do to the least of our brothers and sisters, we do to Him. He is present in each one of us.
Why do we believe that Jesus is present in the Eucharist? We believe because he said so. Why do we believe that he is present in the least of our brothers and sisters? Again, we believe because he said so.
It isn't possible to give reverence to Jesus in the Eucharist and at the same time ignore him in our brothers and sisters who are in need. And yet, there are some Catholics who do that. They miss the extended meaning of Corpus Christi. They miss the Mystical Body of Christ.
Let me share a story that is most fitting for this feast day. Several years ago, we buried a priest of our diocese, Father Tom Edwards. He was a man who could see Jesus in every single human being, rich and poor, young and old alike. He worked in an inner-city parish and every hungry person in town would wind up at his doorstep.
He once had a bunch of kids in the rectory for the weekly CCD class. He was teaching them about the real presence of Jesus in the Eucharist. In the middle of his presentation, a beggar showed up at the door. It was a man who was willing to work but was no longer able. He had been there before. Father Edwards knew him well.
One of the kids answered the door, came back into the room and announced to everyone. "There's a bum at the door." Father Edwards said, "That's not a bum. that's Jesus." After he gave the man something to eat, he came back to the class and said, "OK, what have you guys learned today?"
One of the kids who had studied the lesson said, "I learned that Jesus is really, truly and substantially present under the appearances of bread and wine." Another kid was able to see beyond the words in the book. He said, "I learned that it was Jesus who came to the door for food". One of the little girls said, "I learned that it was Jesus who gave him something to eat..."
It is the Feast of Corpus Christi. Jesus is truly present in the Blessed Sacrament. But that's not the only place you can find him. He is present in each one of us too.
For a few moments in silence, reflect on what you believe about the Eucharist, and what you believe about the "bums" who come to your door.
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HUMILITY
HOME SCHOOL VALUES
Talk about Humility together...
Humility is about trying to think of others before you think about yourself.
At home you could talk about how humility is:
* being able to encourage and praise other people when they have done something really well or tried very hard
* listening carefully to others and valuing their opinions as much as our own
* asking for help rather than thinking that we always know what to do and how to do it
Think together about Words of Wisdom
"Humility is not thinking less of yourself, it is thinking of yourself less."
This term we will be focussing in school on the value HUMILITY. We hope your family will find these ideas helpful as you explore the value and have fun together.
Read together…
The Roman Centurion
Flavius was a Roman centurion and a powerful man in the town of Capernaum. But Flavius was also a humble man. The Romans had conquered Jesus' country and now everyone had to pay taxes to them and abide by the strict laws that the Romans has passed to govern them.
Now Flavius had a servant, a kind, loyal and hardworking man. Flavius was very fond of him. One day the servant fell ill, the next day he was worse and hardly able to move. The next day, Flavius even thought the servant might die! He was distraught. There is only one chance, thought Flavius. I have heard the people speak of a man called Jesus who is somehow able to heal the sick. Even though I am an important man, I know that Jesus has power that I will never possess.
Without delay, he sent his friends to beg Jesus to come and make his servant well again. Jesus felt very sad when he heard the story and started out for Flavius' house, but before he arrived he was met by some messengers.
"Sir" they said to Jesus, "Flavius has sent us to give you this message, 'I do not deserve to have you come into my house neither do I consider myself worthy to come and meet you. I beg you just give the order and I know my servant will get well'."
Jesus was amazed at the faith and humility that Flavius had shown. "Even my own people do not show faith like this." When the messengers returned they found Flavius and his whole
household celebrating because the servant
Anon had been miraculously healed.
ed on Matthew 8:5-13
Quiz Crack the code
a
What was special about Flavius? (clue: the letters of the alphabet have been advanced, so when coded, e becomes g, f becomes h and so on)
Hncxkwu ujqygf itgcv hckvj cpf jwoknkva
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Making a difference
There are some household jobs that no one really enjoys doing.
* Which is the least popular household job? Who normally ends up doing it? Perhaps different members of the family could take it in turns doing this job for a fortnight!
* Go on a family litter picking walk to help clean up a part of your neighbourhood. Don't forget to wash your hands afterwards! Litter picking should be supervised by an adult.
Fascinating facts
Have you ever heard the saying to 'eat humble pie'?
* When someone 'eats humble pie' it means they have to admit to being wrong and sometimes give an apology.
* The phrase has been around for six centuries (600 years)!
* Back in the 15th century the tastier, more expensive cuts of meat were usually only eaten by rich people and were often roasted.
* The offal (liver, kidneys, heart, sweetmeats) was considered poorer quality meat and known as 'umbles'. It needed to be cooked more slowly and was often used in pies.
* The poorer people therefore made Umble Pie. Over time the pie became known as humble pie.
Maundy Money
The name "Maundy" which we use today comes from the Latin word mandatum, which means 'to love and serve'.
Each year on Maundy Thursday churches across the world remember Jesus' last supper with his friends before he died. At this special meal Jesus wanted to show his disciples how they should lead their lives –
by serving the needs of others. In those days it was usually the job of the most lowly servant in the household to wash the feet of visitors who had travelled on foot along the dirty, dusty roads. At the last supper, Jesus himself humbly took water and a towel and washed the feet of each one of his friends.
In the Middle Ages, English kings and queens followed Jesus' example and washed the feet of beggars, to show that in God's eyes everyone is equal. They also gave gifts and money to the poor.
Queen Elizabeth II carries on this tradition. On Maundy Thursday each year she visits a different cathedral and distributes money to people who have humbly and selflessly served their local communities in practical ways.
HALL OF FAME
Think of someone in your school community who works behind the scenes to make everything run smoothly. Draw his or her portrait in the frame.
Take it to school to display in the Challenge Gallery.
© IMAGINOR LTD. Reg No. 08009553
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An Introduction to Sourdough Baking By Mike Avery (A free 2 chapter sample)
Table of Contents
Note – this sampler contains significant portions of chapters III and IV of the SourdoughHome pamphlet, "An Introduction to Sourdough", the highlighted chapters above.
III Caring for your starter
Early sourdough cultures were kept on the back of the stove, in a barrel of flour, or even in a leather pouch under a miner's shirt. At these temperatures, sourdough cultures need to be fed several times a day to maintain their vitality. This is fine if you're going to bake some bread, rolls, or make pancakes every day. Bakeries that bake every day still use those techniques. However, most of us don't bake every day.
Luckily, refrigeration has come to our rescue. Sourdough starters can be stored in quart canning jars in the refrigerator. I put two cups of freshly fed starter in a jar, and don't tightly seal the jar. Scott and Wing in "The Bread Builders" call this a "storage starter". A storage starter can be kept in the refrigerator for weeks between uses, and some people have stored their starters for months. Of course, while it is in storage, the starter will be weakening. The yeast and lactobacillus will be dying. The longer the starter sits, the longer it will take activate it again, and the greater the chances that it won't revive easily. How to revive a reluctant starter is covered in the troubleshooting section.
When I start a baking session, I remove one of my starters from the refrigerator the day before I plan on baking. It may look much like the picture below. The layer of clear liquid above the cream colored layer is called "hooch" by oldtimers. Since yeast makes alcohol, and alcohol is lighter than water, it shouldn't be a big surprise that the hooch layer does in fact have alcohol in it. Some sources report the concentration of alcohol can reach 18%, which would be strong for a wine. It might not be a big surprise that only a lonely trapper would be interested in actually drinking the hooch. If the layer is an inch or less in depth, just stir it back into the starter when you use it. If it's more than an inch thick, pour it off and replace the liquid with water. If it has mold on it, you have a problem, and need to refer to the troubleshooting section of
this pamphlet. However, it is very uncommon for this to happen. If you feed your starter frequently, neither hooch nor mold will form. The starter shown to the left had been in storage for over 3 months without being used when the picture was taken. However, it revived without problems.
Any time you use the sourdough starter, it should be fully revived, and should be vigorous and lively. To revive it, you'll need to follow these simple instructions. I put two cups of filtered water into the bottom of a large mixing bowl. I use a water filter to remove chlorine and other unpleasantness from the water I use to revive my starter. Some people say that's not necessary, but I'd rather not risk killing my starter with a dose of chlorine. Then, I add my storage starter to the water. A rubber spatula will help get the last of the starter out of the canning jar. At that point, I whisk the starter and water together, making sure I whisk in lots of air. The oxygen helps the yeast revive in its early stages, and the whisking helps evenly distribute the yeast and lactobacillus in the starter. Once you have poured the starter from
the jar, it is time to clean it. Make sure you don't let the starter dry out on your utensils. It still hardens like cabin chinking, and once dry, your cleaning job is MUCH harder.
Once the water and storage starter have been whisked together, it is time to whisk in flour. The kind of flour you will use depends on the results you want. As the hippies – or was it Adele Davis - used to say in the '60's, "You are what you eat!" And it's true –
many people prize wild boars that have been eating acorns as it flavors their meat. The French force-feed geese special foods to flavor the goose's liver to make special pate foie gras. If it's true for a wild boar or a goose, it's true for single celled organisms. White flour is the blandest flour. When a culture is fed white flour, its characteristic sourdough taste will diminish. This isn't always bad, it depends on what sort of bread you are baking. Whole-wheat flour generates a more pronounced nutty
taste and adds a more assertive sour note, while rye flour provides the strongest taste. I usually use one cup of rye flour and two cups of white flour for most starters, although for other purposes, I will use all whole-wheat flour, or all rye flour. If you look at Europe, you'll see the farther north you go, the more rye flour is used in their breads, and the more flavorful the bread is. As you move south, less rye is used. This is largely due to what grains will grow where. Rye will grow in the colder northern climates and thrive, while wheat will not. In the southern areas, wheat will grow, and it is preferred. You can even see this inside some countries, such as Germany where rye is common, but the breads of northern Germany use more rye flour than the breads of southern Germany.
Once the starter has been refreshed, or fed, and whisked, it will have a thickness similar to heavy cream, or a light pancake batter. Once it is beaten, it is time to cover it, and set it aside. I like to use Saran Wrap "Quick Covers", as they are easy to use, and reusable. They keep out dust, insects, children, pets, and even cook's spills. The covered mixing bowl
is set into an oven with its electric light or pilot light on. In this area, that usually maintains a temperature between 85 and 90 degrees Fahrenheit. This lets the yeast and the lactobacillus
be fruitful and multiply. Since I work at home, I put the starter into the oven in the evening as I go to bed. The first thing in the morning, I will refresh the starter again, using the same type of ingredients as before. Shortly after breakfast, the starter will usually be fully active, and I start making some bread. I time things to coincide with my breaks. I mix the dough before I start work, punch it down on my coffee break, and bake it around lunch time.
The starter will have risen, it will be full of bubbles, and be light and frothy. At this time, it is ready for use. The first thing to do is to save
some of the starter for your next baking session. Whisk down the starter, and measure two cups into the jar. I label the lid of
the jar so I know which culture it is. Now that you have a healthy starter, it's time to make some bread….
IV Let's bake some bread
San Francisco Sourdough Bread.
In general, haste is the enemy of good bread. Slow development of your starter and slow risings allow the flavor of your bread to fully develop. Also, the longer you allow your bread to rise, the longer it will last. I'll give three variations on San Francisco Sourdough Bread recipe below, so you can try it different ways. While the slowest bread is the best one, I have to admit that sometimes I get in a hurry and I am very glad the quick recipe using more starter provides a very good bread quickly.
Unlike most San Francisco sourdough recipes I've seen, I use part whole-wheat flour. It makes the bread more interesting in color, texture, and taste. This is a very simple bread. Let's start with the ingredients:
| Ingredients | Mild | Flavorful | Very flavorful |
|---|---|---|---|
| Starter | 2 cups | 1 cup | ¼ cup |
| Whole Wheat flour | .5 cup | 1 cup | 1 cup |
| White bread Flour | 2 1/2 cups | 8 cups | 5 ½ cups |
| Water | 1/4 cup | 2 2/3 cups | 2 ½ cups |
| Salt | 1/2 tsp | 1 tsp | 2 tsp |
| Rising time | 2 hours | 7 hours | 12 – 14 hours |
| Yield | 2 – 1 lb loaves | 4 – 1 lb loaves | 2 – 1 lb loaves |
| Notes | Rise at 85 | Rise at 85 | Rise at room temp |
Start by measuring the starter you'll need. Remember the starter has flour and water in it, which affects the rest of the measurements, so using more or less starter isn't just a matter of changing the amount of starter you are using. Changing the amount of starter affects the flour to water ratio, which affects how the dough handles. Whisk the starter before measuring it, so you'll be measuring starter, not bubbles. Then whisk in the water called for in your recipe, the whole-wheat flour and then the salt. Set aside the whisk, and get a wooden spoon. Add the white bread flour a cup at a time, stirring as you go. After a while, the dough will become too stiff to stir. At that point, pour it out onto your kneading surface. Make sure you have floured your work surface before you turn the bread out,
and flour your hands before you start kneading. I like using a large wooden trough to knead in. If you find troughs somewhere, get a big one with as few knot holes as possible, and ask the vendor to flatten the bottom. Keep it oiled. Using a trough REALLY minimizes the mess of kneading.
Kneading bread is a topic of some debate. Some people almost feel it's the point of baking bread, others say it reduces their tension, gives them exercise, and makes them feel better. Other people feel it isn't necessary, and that it's a waste of time. I think the jury's still out, so I have included a no-knead sourdough recipe in the back of the pamphlet. I think the amount of kneading depends on what sort of bread you want to make. A wetter dough with less kneading will give you a more open texture. More kneading, with a dryer dough, and multiple risings will give you a dough with a finer texture. You can play with it and make the bread the way you want it to turn out. For this bread, we're going to knead about 15 to 20 minutes. I like the James Beard approach to kneading. I ball the dough in front of me, put my hands on it and push the dough away, and then fold it back over towards me. I repeat this 3 or 4 times, turn the dough ¼ turn and repeat the process. From time to time, I'll turn the dough over so the same side isn't always in contact with the kneading surface, and the flour. Keep adding flour as needed to keep the dough from sticking to the work surface.
However, don't get too carried away. Dough prefers to be a little too wet rather than a little too dry. A wetter bread rises better. You aren't interested in getting the bread to the point where it no longer sticks, but just to the point where it would rather stick to itself than to you or the work surface.
After 10 minutes or so, pull off a ball of dough about the size of a tennis ball. Roll it around in your hands, and then stretch it between your hands. You want it to stretch without tearing until you can see light through it. This is called the windowpane test, and it is appropriate for most medium-density breads. It is not appropriate for light French or Italian breads, or heavy rye breads. If your dough tears, give it another 5 minutes of kneading and then check again.
Once the bread is kneaded, let it rest for 30 minutes. Then form the bread into baguettes, boules, or pan loaves (see section V, "Forming Loaves"), and put them in the 85 degree oven to rise for about 2 hours.
Once the loaves have doubled in size, it's time to pull the loaves out of the oven and to preheat the oven to 375 degrees Fahrenheit. Once the oven is at the right temperature – use a thermometer to be SURE the oven is at the right temperature - slash the loaves with a razor blade, slide them into the oven, and put some water into a pan at the bottom of the oven. Allow to bake 45 minutes, or until the inside of the bread reaches 190 F.
Remove from oven, and let cool on wire racks before slicing. If your family will let you. I often vary this recipe by letting the bread rise once in a mixing bowl, punching it down, kneading it some more, and then forming loaves. The second rise takes about ½ as long as the first rise, and also adds to the flavor.
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The 8 th World Water Forum highlights the need for information sharing and global cooperation to confront shifting Water Security challenges
- Co-organized by the World Water Council and the Government of Brazil, the 8 th World Water Forum, held in Brasilia last week was attended by over 70,000 visitors, 12 Heads of State, 60 ministers and ten thousand water experts.
- By 2025, half of the world's population will be living in water-stressed areas.
- 80% of countries report insufficient funding to meet national drinking water targets.
- 40% of the world's population is affected by water scarcity.
- The World Water Council has prepared a Video News Release giving an insight into 8 th World Water Forum, which places water firmly at the heart of global development.
World Water Council, World Water Forum, 28 March 2018 – The 8 th edition of the world's biggest water-related event, the World Water Forum, came to a close at the Ulysses Guimarães Convention Center in Brasilia, Brazil, on Friday 23 rd March, a day after World Water Day. The World Water Council, in cooperation with the Government of Brazil, held its triennial World Water Forum in the Brazilian capital between the 18 th and 23 rd March. Over 10,000 delegates and experts participated in the summit, along with 12 Heads of State and 60 ministers, 134 parliamentarians, 150 local authorities, 83 judges and prosecutors, CEOs from several fortune 500 companies, representatives from the United Nations, the European Union, the World Bank, the Inter-American Development Bank, the OECD, and other international organizations. In addition, over 70,000 people visited the World Water Forum's Fair and Citizen's Village. More than 172 countries were represented across 300 thematic sessions.
"We had here a fundamental citizen participation, but most importantly we had the involvement of world leaders, ministers and Heads of State, mayors and governors, all working together with water professionals, and therefore we reached our objective," explained World Water Council and World Water Forum President, Benedito Braga.
One of the main purposes of the Forum is to raise political awareness and mobilization of decision-makers on water issues, linking technical issues to political action. Some major political outcomes during the World Water Forum included the Ministerial Declaration: An Urgent Call for Decisive Action on Water validated by ministries from over 100 countries, which recognizes that all countries must take urgent action to address challenges related to water and sanitation, including sharing knowledge and fostering cooperation across sectors. The Ministerial Conference also established multi-lateral cooperation through multi-stakeholder roundtable dialogues. The local and regional authorities declaration, Brasilia Local and Regional Governments Call for Action on Water and Sanitation, encourages local leaders to consider several recommendations to encourage fair and sustainable governance and management of water resources and decentralized funding, among others, as outlined in the guide for local and regional authorities, Start with Water . This publication seeks to provide strategies and support to help cities make concrete contributions to global agendas. Likewise, the Conference of Parliamentarians within the 8 th World Water Forum published its Parliamentarian Manifesto , emphasizing their role in proposing and defending legislation related to the right to water and sanitation. The Brasilia Declaration of Judges on Water Justice is a declaration of ten fundamental principles to promote water justice through the application of water law and the environmental rule of law.
In addition, the Sustainability Declaration highlights that current water policies will not be sufficient to reach the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and requests high-level decision makers within the water community to push for cooperative alliances, water reforms and financial innovations.
Many high-level panels also took place at the 8 th World Water Forum, aiming to influence decision makers and public policies in an endeavor to find solutions for water-related challenges, for example related to water security, financing, sanitation, climate change, or the interaction between freshwater and oceans.
Igniting action on water-related issues and reducing widespread water crises is paramount to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 6, ensuring access to safe drinking water and sanitation for all, by 2030. Across the globe, some of the most pressing problems surrounding water are not about quantity, but quality. This is a matter of life and death for many worldwide as 40% of the world's population faces water scarcity and 2.4 billion lack access to improved sanitation.
In particular, severely low levels of sanitation coverage are leading causes of death and disease across the globe; as recently as 2016, 8% of children under 5 died from diarrhea, which is usually caused by contaminated drinking water. Those without adequate sanitation access live primarily in Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean. Women and girls are affected the most by drinking water and sanitation issues, as they spend a collective 200 million hours per day collecting water.
"Let the experiences you have heard and learnt allow you to share and secure our water resources, and inspire you to take action to improve something - big or small - in your life, for your organization, or for your community. Let us create a ripple effect of the Forum's spirit across our countries. This will be the real legacy of this extraordinary week in putting water at the center of the global development agenda," explained World Water Council and World Water Forum President, Benedito Braga, during the closing ceremony.
About the World Water Council:
The World Water Council (WWC) is an international multi-stakeholder platform organization, the founder and co-organizer of the World Water Forum. The World Water Council's mission is to mobilize action on critical water issues at all levels, including the highest decision-making level, by engaging people in debate and challenging conventional thinking. The Council focuses on the political dimensions of water security, adaptation, and sustainability, and works to position water at the top of the global political agenda. Headquartered in Marseille, France, and created in 1996, the World Water Council brings together over 300 member organizations from more than 50 different countries. The seven previous World Water Forum editions were held in Marrakesh (Morocco, 1997), The Hague (Netherlands, 2000), Kyoto (Japan, 2003), Mexico City (Mexico, 2006), Istanbul (Turkey, 2009), Marseilles (France, 2012), and Gyeongju and Daegu (South Korea, 2015). More on www.worldwatercouncil.org @wwatercouncil #wwatercouncil
For more information:
Agnes Menuet – firstname.lastname@example.org +34 682 706 248
Nicolas Eliades –
email@example.com firstname.lastname@example.org
+34 638 475 221
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Scientific Name: Eleocharis acicularis(L.) Roemer & J.A. Schultes
Common Names: needle spike rush, needle spike sedge
Plant Description
Grass-like perennial herb with slender creeping rhizomes, forming dense mats and floating masses; loosely tufted culms, needle-like stems, 3 to 12 cm high, angled and grooved; small, inconspicuous needle-like square-tipped leaves located at stem base with pale reddish basal sheaths; single ovate to lanceolate flowering spike at stem tip, 2 to 7 mm long arranged spirally, somewhat flattened consisting of 3 to 15 flowers, reddish-brown scales with green centers; 3 stigmas; submerged plants are usually non-flowering (Moss 1983). Fruit/Seed: Whitish-straw coloured, slender obovoid achenes 0.7 to 1 mm long, with several longitudinal ridges and many fine transverse lines, tubercle conic with 3 to 4 bristles equal to or
Family:
Cyperaceae slightly longer than achene. Reddish-brown scales with margins and midribs of greenish to straw color (Moss 1983).
Habitat and Distribution
Wet places, marshes, sloughs, mudflats, shallow water of lakes, ponds and streambeds. Adapted to fluctuating water levels. Shade intolerant. Seral Stage: Establishes well in disturbed areas. Indicative of terrestrialization (Bornette et al. 1994).
Soil: Found on infertile sand and gravel shorelines. pH range of 6.1 to 7.0 (Day et al. 1988). Found in sandy soils, with low silt and clay content, and low phosphorous levels (Day et al. 1988).
Has a moderate salinity tolerance; intolerant to shade (USDA NRCS n.d.).
Distribution: Common and widespread across Alberta. Circumpolar: Alaska, Arctic coast to Baffin Island (Moss 1983, USDA NRCS n.d.).
Phenology
Flowers June to October (USDA NRCS n.d.).
Pollination
Wind pollinated.
Seed Dispersal
Seed fall off plant and sink in the water. Seed can only travel any significant distance if the water is running (Leck and Schutz 2005).
Genetics
2n=20 (Moss 1983).
Symbiosis
Forms arbuscular mycorrhizae (Barnola and Montilla 1997).
Eleocharis acicularis
seed
Seed Processing
Collection: Pick ripe seed head and place in paper bag.
Seed Weight: 0.044 g/1,000 seeds (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2008).
Storage/Longevity: Orthodox, 1 to 5 years in soil seed bank, little known on method (Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 2008).
Propagation
Natural Regeneration: Regenerates primarily by rhizomes, occasionally by seed (Cooper et al. 2006, Rook 2002).
Germination: 40% to 50% germination at warm temperatures (22 to 35°C) after pericarp removed (Yeo 1986).
Seed germinated at 15°C (Baskin and Baskin 2001).
Planting Density: 4,200 to 11,900 plants per hectare (USDA NRCS n.d.).
Pre-treatment: Remove pericarp via mechanical scarification (Yeo 1986).
60 day cold stratification required (Baskin and Baskin 2001).
Vegetative Propagation: 43% survival of rhizome cuttings the first year and 25% survival by year 2 in northeastern Alberta. It spreads extensively in the wet areas.
Micro-propagation: Are micro-propagated to use in decorative ponds, aqua gardens and fish tanks (LiveAquaria.com n.d.).
Aboriginal/Food Uses
Food: No literature found
Medicinal: No literature found.
Other: No literature found.
Wildlife/Forage Uses
Wildlife: Provides habitat for amphibians and fish. Seeds and stems are an important food source for waterfowl and mammals (Hamel and Parsons 2001).
Livestock: No literature found.
Grazing Response: No literature found.
Eleocharis acicularis
growing in sandy area
Reclamation Potential
Well-adapted to nutrient-poor, high-stress habitats. Tolerates stress due to its small stature, slow growth rate and evergreen tissues (Day et al.
1988). Spike-rush helps stabilize shorelines (Hamel 2001).
Hoang et al. (2009) found Eleocharis acicularis to accumulate heavy metals from contaminated mine sites and to be a hyper-accumulator of lead (Pb). Has also been found to accumulate Sb, As, Cu and Zn in a study by Ha et al. (2009).
Commercial Resources
Available from numerous Alberta and Saskatchewan nurseries.
Cultivars: None are known.
Photo Credits
Photo 1: Prairie Moon Nursery 2012.
Photo 2: Bernd Sauerwein @ Wikimedia
Commons 2012.
Line Diagram: John Maywood, used by permission of Bruce Peel Special Collections, University of Alberta.
References
Baskin, C.C. and J.M. Baskin, 2001. Seeds – Ecology, Biogeography, and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. Academic Press, San Diego, California, USA.
Barnola L.G. and M.G. Montilla, 1997. Vertical distribution of ectomycorrhizal colonization, root hairs, and below-ground biomass in three contrasting sites from the tropical high mountains, Merida, Venezuela. Arctic and Alpine Research 29: 206-212.
Bornette, G., C. Amoros, C. Castella and L. Beffy, 1994. Succession and fluctuation in the aquatic vegetation of two former Rhone River channels. Vegetation 110(2): 171-184.
Cooper, D. J., E.C. Wolf and E.A. Gage, 2006. Plant Establishment for Wetland Reclamation: A Review of Plant Establishment Techniques and Species Tolerances for Water Level and Salinity. Department of Forest, Rangeland and Watershed
Stewardship, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. 115 pp.
Day, R.T., P.A. Keddy, J. McNeill and T. Carleton, 1988. Fertility and disturbance gradients: A summary model for riverine marsh vegetation. Ecology 69(4): 1044-1054.
Ha, N.T.H., M. Sakakibara, S. Sano, R.S. Hori and K. Sera, 2009. The potential of Eleocharis acicularis for phytoremediation: Case study at an abandoned mine site. CLEAN - Soil, Air, Water 37(3): 203-208.
Hamel, K. and J. Parsons, 2001. An Aquatic Plant Identification Manual for Washington's Freshwater Plants. Washington State Department of Ecology, Olympia, Washington.
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/plants/planti d2/SpeciesIndex.html [Last accessed July 5, 2013].
Hoang, T.C., L.J. Schuler, E.C. Rogevich, P.M. Bachman, G.M. Rand and R.A. Frakes, 2009. Copper release, speciation, and toxicity following multiple floodings of copper enriched agriculture soils: Implications in Everglades restoration. Water Air and Soil Pollution 199: 79-93.
Leck, M.A. and W. Schutz, 2005. Regeneration of Cyperaceae, with particular reference to seed ecology and seed banks. Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 7(2): 95-133.
LiveAquaria.com, n.d. Dwarf Hairgrass (Eleocharis acicularis). Foster and Smith Inc., Rhinelander, Wisconsin.
http://www.liveaquaria.com/product/prod_display. cfm?c=768+2136&pcatid=2136 [Last accessed October 8, 2013].
Moss, E.H., 1983. Flora of Alberta. A manual of flowering plants, conifers, ferns, and fern allies found growing without cultivation in the province
of Alberta, Canada. 2nd edition. University of Toronto Press, Toronto Ontario. p. 158.
Rook, E.J.S., 2002. Eleocharis acicularis Needle spike rush. IN: Plants of the North. http://www.rook.org/earl/bwca/nature/grass/eleochari saci.html [Last accessed October 7, 2013].
Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, 2008. Eleocharis acicularis (L.) Roem. & Schult. Seed Information Database.
http://data.kew.org/sid/SidServlet?ID=8521&Num =Y9b [Last accessed June 14, 2013]. http://data.kew.org/sid/sidsearch.html
USDA NRCS, n.d. Eleocharis acicularis (L.) Roem. & Schult. needle spikerush. The PLANTS Database. National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. http://plants.usda.gov/core/profile?symbol=ELAC [Last accessed June 24, 2013].
Yeo, R.R., 1986. Dormancy in slender spikerush seed. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management 24: 11-16.
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7th Grade Math Assessment With Answers
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First Things First Week #1: Follow
Intro to this series
You don't want to get things out of order. First things first they say. If something is intended to be done first, then in must be necessary for what comes next. The order isn't randomly decided, like who kicks first in a game of kickball.
* Directions in putting together furniture.
* "Shoot, ready, aim" doesn't really work.
Church attendance is declining in America. Much like it did in Europe decades ago. Churches are being closed. So what do we do about that? We start some new churches.
Disciple comes before church. You make disciples, then you need a church.
We need to establish what a disciple is so that we can start there and then we can look at what to do about churches.
We move into Acts, where the church begins to multiply with the foundations of understanding first things first.
If you were to boil down what the Bible says about being a Christian, it is one word. It's disciple. If you don't like that word, try this one; apprentice .
A disciple/apprentice is someone who would have attached him or herself to a teacher or Rabbi. This disciple would spend time listening to the Rabbi, watching the Rabbi, and aligning his life with what the Rabbi teaches and the way the Rabbi lives.
What Jesus taught can be summarized in this phrase. This is what we use to challenge ourselves here at Eagle Ridge Church of God. A disciple is someone who is following Jesus, being changed by Jesus, and is committed to Jesus' mission.
We start with understanding what a disciple is and a disciple is someone who follows Jesus.
Let's look at one of the clearest examples of the first disciples of Jesus following him. I mean literally following him.
One day as Jesus was preaching on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, [ a ] great crowds pressed in on him to listen to the word of God. 2 He noticed two empty boats at the water's edge, for the fishermen had left them and were washing their nets. 3 Stepping into one of the boats, Jesus asked Simon, [ b ] its owner, to push it out into the water. So he sat in the boat and taught the crowds from there.
4 When he had finished speaking, he said to Simon, "Now go out where it is deeper, and let down your nets to catch some fish."
5 "Master," Simon replied, "we worked hard all last night and didn't catch a thing. But if you say so, I'll let the nets
down again." 6 And this time their nets were so full of fish they began to tear! 7 A shout for help brought their partners in the other boat, and soon both boats were filled with fish and on the verge of sinking.
8 When Simon Peter realized what had happened, he fell to his knees before Jesus and said, "Oh, Lord, please leave me—I'm such a sinful man." 9 For he was awestruck by the number of fish they had caught, as were the others with him. 10 His partners, James and John, the sons of Zebedee, were also amazed.
Jesus replied to Simon, "Don't be afraid! From now on you'll be fishing for people!" 11 And as soon as they landed, they left everything and followed Jesus. Luke 5:1-11
We aren't going to dig deep into this story because its power is in how simple it is. It's a story about following Jesus. There are two times in this story when they follow Jesus. Jesus leads or directs, and they follow.
Sometimes we use words or phrases all the time without really defining what they mean. We use words like love that mean almost anything. When a word means almost anything, from how I feel about Buffalo Wild Wings, to a college football team, to my wife, to my kids, to the one who died for me, then it no longer means anything. Love is what I say it is. Love is what is convenient for me in the situation.
It's like that with the phrase "follow Jesus" . We hear it and shake our heads yes to that being a good idea, but what it actually means to do it varies greatly. That
phrase has been used often to describe people with little evidence.
Or, it has been substituted for phrases like being saved, a Christian, church goer, or a believer. Those can be pretty vague but when you really look at following Jesus, it's pretty simple. Following means following.
* To go after.
* Travel behind.
* To head in the same direction as.
* Go after in order to observe or monitor.
What does it mean to follow Jesus?
Following is not a metaphor for something I feel.
* Much like love, becomes a feeling when it was always intended to be an action, a covenant.
Following is obedience
This is not a word we like as Americans. We think our kids should do it but we don't like to do it. It sounds very primitive and restrictive.
Let's look at the simple exchange between Peter and Jesus on the boat. 5 "Master," Simon replied, "we worked hard all last night and didn't catch a thing. But if you say so, I'll let the nets down again." Luke 5:5
It didn't make sense to keep fishing. It wasn't logical. They were fisherman. Jesus was a Rabbi/teacher. His other job was a carpenter.
12 Therefore, my dear friends, as you have always obeyed—not only in my presence, but now much more in my absence—continue to work out your salvation with fear and trembling, 13 for it is God who works in you to will and to act in order to fulfill his good purpose. Philippians 2:12-13 NIV
* Information alone cannot transform us.
* Following is something you do.
* The default Gospel of the American church teaches that you have to agree to some religious facts and then you are saved.
* Jesus let people walk away, even if they gave the correct answers about who he was. Mark 10:22
Following is continual alignment.
* Christ living his life through me.
* What in my life is not aligned to the way Jesus lived and loved?
Following is a willingness to change direction.
"Now go out a little deeper…"
* Repentance we view as a one-time thing when we make a decision for Jesus. It is an about-face.
* Not just one time.
* From something wrong to something right.
* From something good to something better.
Following is proof of trust.
Jesus replied to Simon, "Don't be afraid! From now on you'll be fishing for people!" 11 And as soon as they landed, they left everything and followed Jesus. Luke 5:10b-11
"Do you trust me? Then drop those nets."
* Sounds like a pretty big change of direction. It won't be the last one for these former fishermen.
* Sounds like a career change.
Jesus puts this act of dropping their nets in very profound terms. If you try to hang on to your life, you will lose it. But if you give up your life for my sake and for the sake of the Good News, you will save it. Mark 8:35
Hanging onto the nets at that point would have been the same as hanging on to their lives and that would have caused them to lose their lives.
Do you trust me? Then give up your right to self-determination. But that's the cornerstone of what we think it means to be human. It's the cornerstone of our culture as Americans. We are the captains of our own ships. The problem is, our ships are sinking and we don't even know it.
Sterling Gatlin…"Mary do you trust me? I'm retiring. That step led him around the world with the Gideons.
Following is not optional for a disciple.
* You cannot separate conversion from discipleship.
* False gospels always have discipleship as an option.
* It is one of 3 imperatives of the gospel , our responses to who Jesus is, and why he came.
27 And if you do not carry your own cross and follow me, you cannot be my disciple. 28 "But don't begin until you count the cost. For who would begin construction of a building without first calculating the cost to see if there is enough money to finish it? Luke 14:27-28 Here's Jesus again letting people walk away if they want to.
There were two times in this story where the disciples followed. It didn't have anything to do with their thinking being right, their theology being right. Actually, they didn't really know who Jesus was yet, but they followed.
The first was when the let their nets down one more time after much futility. This wasn't a huge life changing decision. He didn't ask them to go to Africa.
What would it mean for me to let down my nets again?
Is there something in God's word that is simple that you need to obey? You've convinced yourself that you don't have to.
The second time was when they left their nets. This one is bigger.
to go where Jesus is going?
What would it mean for me to leave my nets? Is there something you need t o walk away from in order
Use these two questions as your response to Jesus asking you to follow him. Take a step, just one, and see what happens. And it really doesn't matter if you have all or any of the right answers first. Just follow.
Let's sit in silence for a moment so that we can hear when Jesus calls us to follow him.
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13 th SUNDAY of ORDINARY TIME YEAR C – June 30, 2019
Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote on one occasion, "Our chief want in life is somebody who will make us do what we can." That's exactly what Elijah did to Elisha in the first reading today. He enabled him to do what he had the capacity to do.
That's what St. Paul did for the people in Galatia as we hear in the second reading today. And that's what Jesus did for the three people mentioned in the Gospel today.
Recall that wonderful story of the wizard of Oz. On her way to the Emerald City, Dorothy meets three friends - The scarecrow, the tin man and the lion.
The wizard gives them a seemingly impossible task to perform. They must capture the magic broomstick of the wicked witch and bring it to the wizard. In the process of doing that seemingly impossible task, the scarecrow discovers that he has a brain and he can think. The tin man discovers he has a heart and he can love. The lion discovers that he has courage and he is brave.
The wise old wizard had merely helped each of Dorothy's three friends discover what they already had. Jesus does the same thing for us.
When he asks us to put our hand to the plow and not look back, he's not asking us to abandon our families and our friends. He's asking us to be everything we have the capacity to be, by using all the gifts we already have.
We already have sanctifying and actual grace. We already have wisdom, understanding, knowledge, counsel, piety, fortitude and reverence for God. We already have faith, hope and charity. We already have prudence, justice, fortitude and temperance. We already have the charisms that are uniquely our own.
What Jesus did for the three people in the gospel, he does for all of us if we allow him to do it. Jesus helps us to discover that we have all we need to follow him, move forward and not look back.
Someone once said, "He who lives in the past is already dead." Jesus doesn't want us to live in the past. That's why he asks us to follow him, move forward and let go of the past.
For a few moments in silence reflect on this. Are you living in the past?
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The City of Minden supports Fair Housing
Please contact the Minden City Hall if you feel that you have been affected by the injustice of "housing discrimination" for assistance in filing a housing discrimination complaint.
The Fair Housing Act prohibits discrimination in housing on the basis of:
- Race or color
- National origin
- Religion
- Sex
- Familial status (families with children)
- Disability
Under the Fair Housing Act, the following activities are illegal
- Refuse to rent or sell housing
- Refuse to negotiate for housing
- Make housing unavailable
- Set different terms, conditions, or privileges for sale or rental
- Provide different housing services or facilities
- Falsely deny that housing is available for inspection, sale or rental
- For profit, persuade owners to sell or rent (blockbusting)
- Deny any access to or membership in a facility or service (such as a multiple listing service) related to the sale of housing
- Refuse to make reasonable accommodations in rules or services if necessary for a disabled person to use the housing
- Refuse to allow a disabled person to make reasonable accommodations to his/her dwelling
- Threaten or interfere with anyone making a fair housing complaint
- Refuse to provide municipal services, property insurance or hazard insurance for dwellings, or providing such services or insurance differently
What You Should Do if You Believe Discrimination has Occurred
When reporting a complaint, be sure to include the following information:
- Your name and address
- The name and address of the person your complaint is against
- The address of the housing involved
- A short description of the event that caused you to believe your rights were violated
- The date(s) of the alleged violation
- To file a complaint:
o http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD?src=/program_offices/fair_housing_equal_opp/online-complaint
o or call the local HUD office at (800) 743-5323.
Resources:
Nebraska Fair Housing Act http://www.neoc.ne.gov/HousingLaw.html U.S. Dept of Housing and Urban Development http://portal.hud.gov/hudportal/HUD
You have the right to fair housing. It's not an option. It's the law.
:
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REVIEW
Stereopsis in animals: evolution, function and mechanisms
Vivek Nityananda 1,2, * and Jenny C. A. Read 2
ABSTRACT
Stereopsis is the computation of depth information from views acquired simultaneously from different points in space. For many years, stereopsis was thought to be confined to primates and other mammals with front-facing eyes. However, stereopsis has now been demonstrated in many other animals, including lateral-eyed prey mammals, birds, amphibians and invertebrates. The diversity of animals known to have stereo vision allows us to begin to investigate ideas about its evolution and the underlying selective pressures in different animals. It also further prompts the question of whether all animals have evolved essentially the same algorithms to implement stereopsis. If so, this must be the best way to do stereo vision, and should be implemented by engineers in machine stereopsis. Conversely, if animals have evolved a range of stereo algorithms in response to different pressures, that could inspire novel forms of machine stereopsis appropriate for distinct environments, tasks or constraints. As a first step towards addressing these ideas, we here review our current knowledge of stereo vision in animals, with a view towards outlining common principles about the evolution, function and mechanisms of stereo vision across the animal kingdom. We conclude by outlining avenues for future work, including research into possible new mechanisms of stereo vision, with implications for machine vision and the role of stereopsis in the evolution of camouflage.
KEY WORDS: 3D, Camouflage breaking, Coarse and fine stereopsis, Range-finding
Introduction
Humans view the world from two front-facing eyes located approximately 6 cm apart. This offset location means that the two eyes see slightly different views of the world. For example, in Fig. 1, the person is fixating an apple, whose images therefore fall at the same location – the fovea – of both eyes. The nearer object, an orange, projects to the two retinae at slightly different distances from the fovea. This difference in retinal location is known as 'binocular disparity' (see Glossary). In 1838, Wheatstone demonstrated that these subtle disparities between retinal images are detected by the brain and provide a potent cue to the depth structure of the world around us (Wheatstone, 1838). This ability has come to be known as (binocular) stereopsis (see Glossary), or stereoscopic or stereo vision. Informally, it is also often called 3D vision.
1 Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Institute for Advanced Study, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin 14193, Germany. 2 Newcastle University, Institute of Neuroscience, Henry Wellcome Building, Framlington Place, Newcastle Upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK.
*Author for correspondence (firstname.lastname@example.org)
V.N., 0000-0002-2878-2425
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium provided that the original work is properly attributed.
In humans, stereopsis has become an attractive model system for understanding the link between neural activity and perception (Roe et al., 2007; Read, 2015a). We now have a good basic understanding of the different processes of primate stereopsis and the brain areas involved (Cumming and DeAngelis, 2001). Yet we know little about stereopsis in other species. Remarkably, stereopsis was not demonstrated behaviourally in any non-human species until 130 years after Wheatstone, with Bough's (1970) proof of stereopsis in macaque monkeys. We now know that many different species have evolved some form of stereoscopic vision. However, with the exception of a few model taxa, including macaques, cats and barn owls, we know very little about the abilities, function or neural basis of animal stereopsis.
This information is important for two quite different reasons. First, it is a prerequisite for understanding the evolution of stereopsis. As we shall see, although the basic idea behind stereopsis is straightforward, many different forms of stereopsis are possible, which make different demands on the animal and provide different types of information. We have to understand how stereopsis works in a given species before we can understand either the selective advantages it provides or the adaptations that other species may have evolved in response. Second, a less anthropocentric understanding of stereopsis could provide unexpected benefits in machine vision. Most current machine stereo algorithms are inspired to some extent by human stereopsis, which is powerful but also complex and costly. Other, more limited forms of stereopsis might be more appropriate in particular situations.
This Review aims to bring together recent developments in animal, human and machine stereopsis and show how a better understanding of stereopsis across the animal kingdom could provide fresh insights in diverse fields including ecology, evolution and engineering. We first consider the visual cues to depth and the distinctive benefits of stereopsis as compared with other ways of computing 3D structure. After discussing classic hypotheses about why stereopsis evolved, we review our current knowledge about which animals have stereopsis and the different techniques used to demonstrate this. We discuss the particular selective advantages which stereopsis may provide in different species, and consider different forms of stereopsis and how these could be implemented computationally. Finally, we outline possible future research avenues. These include investigation of new mechanisms of stereo vision in various animals, the contributions these could make to machine vision and the role of stereopsis in the evolution of camouflage.
Depth perception and stereopsis
All sighted animals face the problem of how to derive information about a 3D world from 2D retinal images. 2D images contain a range of depth cues which can, in principle, be used to derive information about 3D structure. Depth cues can usefully be grouped into three classes (Banks et al., 2016): light transport (e.g. shading), perspective (e.g. looming; see Glossary) and triangulation
Glossary
Accommodation
The ability of an eye to change optical power in order to keep objects at different distances in sharp focus.
Correspondence problem
The need to work out which points in the two eyes' images represent the same point in space. In Fig. 1, the corresponding points in the two eyes are those that both view the orange, or both view the apple. In a complex scene (e.g. Fig. 3) it can be challenging to work out which points correspond.
Disparity
Binocular disparity is the difference in the images of a single object as seen by the two eyes. In this paper, we define disparity as the difference in angular position on the retina, i.e. the angle α−β in Fig. 1.
Fixation point
The point in space viewed by both foveae (the location of the apple in Fig. 1).
Focal plane
For a simple eye, the set of locations in space where objects are imaged sharply on the retina.
Looming
The increase in the retinal size of an approaching object.
Simple eye
Like a human eye or a typical camera, where light is collected across a relatively large aperture and focused by a lens so as to form a sharp image on the photoreceptors.
Stereogram
A pair of images, one for the left eye and one for the right, constructed with disparities to create an illusion of depth. An example is shown in Fig. 3.
Stereoscope
An optical device for displaying stereograms using mirrors, prisms and/or lenses.
Stereopsis
We define this as the ability to gain information about the 3D structure of visual scenes by comparing information collected separately and simultaneously from different lines of sight to the same region of space. Other definitions exist; e.g. a few authors use the term to mean the perception of depth/solidity, however obtained.
Vergence
The vergence angle is the angle between the visual axes from the two eyes. The vergence angle needed to fixate an object depends only on the interocular separation and the distance to the object, meaning that vergence is a potential depth cue for mobile-eyed animals. In animals whose eyes move in the head, convergence refers to turning the eyes inwards to view near objects, while divergence refers to turning them back outwards to view more distant objects (cf. Fig. 1A and B).
(e.g. stereopsis; Fig. 1). Triangulation depth cues are based on comparing views of an object from multiple locations. This is a particularly reliable means of depth perception because it depends only on geometry, rather than on assumptions about the specific scene. Other cues require assumptions, e.g. about lighting (for shade cues) or object shape (for perspective), which can lead to incorrect perceptions when these assumptions are not met (Gregory, 1968). Indeed, light transport and perspective are jointly known as pictorial cues, because human painters exploit them to produce the illusion of depth on a flat canvas. Evolution has also discovered ways of fooling sensory systems that rely on pictorial cues, for example, countershading or forced perspective to mislead estimates of 3D shape and size (Cuthill et al., 2016; Endler et al., 2010; Rowland et al., 2008).
Perhaps the most basic triangulation cue is that provided by views collected at different times by an eye translating relative to an object or scene. When the eye is static, we refer to this as 'structure from motion'. When the eye is moving, we refer to this as 'motion parallax'. The term 'optic flow' is used to refer to the pattern of
motion across large regions of the visual field in either situation. This type of information is extremely powerful, and as far as we know all sighted animals use it to some extent. Its great disadvantage is that it requires motion. If the visual scene is static, an animal can access this information only by moving its eye in space, either while flying as bees do (Kirchner and Srinivasan, 1989) or with movements such as the bobbing head movements of birds (Frost, 1978) and the side-to-side peering head movements of insects (Poteser and Kral, 1995; Wallace, 1959). These movements risk giving away the animal's position to either prey or predators.
Less obviously, in simple eyes (see Glossary), light rays passing through different regions of the pupil also offer triangulation-type depth cues (Banks et al., 2016). Simple eyes are efficient because they collect light across a wide pupil, and use a lens to focus light coming from different directions onto different retinal locations, thus forming an image. However, this only works for objects at one particular distance, the focal plane (see Glossary). Objects nearer or further than the focal plane suffer defocus blur. Humans and some other animals, such as squid and chameleons, are able to use this depth cue (Chung and Marshall, 2014; Harkness, 1977; Ott et al., 1998). Monochromatic defocus blur is ambiguous about the sign of depth (whether the object is nearer or further than the focal plane) (Held et al., 2012). However, signed information is potentially available from higher-order optical aberrations. Defocus blur also varies with the wavelength of light, and this chromatic aberration could also provide a signed depth cue to species with colour vision. Humans exploit depth information from higher-order and chromatic aberrations (Fincham, 1951), but currently nothing is known about
whether other simple-eyed species use these cues. A related type of triangulation cue is focal accommodation (see Glossary). If a simple eye has the ability to vary its optical power, information about object distance is potentially available from the power required to bring the object into focus on the retina. Animals such as owls (Wagner and Schaeffel, 1991), toads (Douglas et al., 1986; Jordam et al., 1980) and chameleons (Harkness, 1977; Ott et al., 1998) use accommodation cues to help them judge distance.
The triangulation-class cue that is the focus of this Review is, of course, stereopsis. We adopt a slightly unusual definition of stereopsis as 'the ability to gain information about the 3D structure of visual scenes by comparing information collected separately and simultaneously from different lines of sight to the same region of space'. Note that our definition excludes blur, because blur pools information from different lines of sight, and excludes motion parallax because that uses information acquired non-simultaneously. Unlike most definitions of stereopsis, we do not specify that stereopsis should be binocular. Certainly, the different lines of sight in stereopsis usually are acquired by the two eyes (Fig. 1). But the compound eye of stomatopods collects light from intersecting lines of sight, potentiallyallowing triangulation within a single eye (Schiff et al., 1985). If this were proven, we would regard it as a form of stereopsis. However, because monocular stereopsis is currently only theoretical, in the rest of this Review we shall discuss binocular stereopsis.
Binocular vision and the evolution of stereopsis
Two views dominated the early discussion of the evolution of stereo vision. These have been classified as the special and general hypotheses (Fox, 1978). The former argued that stereo vision evolved in mammals and is most advanced in primates. The latter argued that 'stereopsis comes along with [binocular vision] as a sort of psychological windfall' (Walls, 1942), and so would be present in any animal with a substantial region of space viewed by both eyes. Several lines of evidence initially seemed to support the special theory of stereo vision evolution, including anatomical specializations in the visual systems of humans and monkeys (e.g. frontal eyes, semi-decussation of the optic tract; Fox, 1978) and the discovery of disparity-sensitive neurons in different mammals (Clarke et al., 1976; Ptito et al., 1991). Over subsequent years, several independent studies demonstrated stereo vision in multiple animals, including non-mammalian ones (Clarke et al., 1976; Collett, 1977; Fox et al., 1977; Nityananda et al., 2016a; Ptito et al., 1991; Rossel, 1983; Timney and Keil, 1999; van der Willigen et al., 1998), giving more support to the general hypothesis.
However, while it is clear now that stereo vision has evolved multiple times in different evolutionary lineages, this does not necessarily mean that every organism with a binocular overlap is capable of stereopsis. Binocular vision is costly, requiring additional photoreceptors and/or a reduced field of view and/or reduced acuity. But it offers advantages other than stereopsis: redundancy (the critical frontal region is still visible even if one eye is blinded; Jones and Lee, 1981), improved signal-to-noise ratio under poor lighting conditions, and the ability to see around occluders in a cluttered environment (Blake and Wilson, 2011; Harris and Wilcox, 2009; Changizi and Shimojo, 2008). These advantages could lead binocular vision to be selected for, even without the additional extraction of depth information. Although animals with a binocular overlap face the challenge of fusing the two images into a single view of the world, most neuroscientists no longer subscribe to Wall's (1963) view that stereopsis comes free as a 'psychological windfall' along with binocular single vision. The existence of stereoblind humans, who show no stereopsis despite good acuity in both eyes and binocular single vision (Richards, 1970), is evidence against that. In primates at least, stereopsis requires a costly neuronal architecture spanning several cortical areas (Cumming and DeAngelis, 2001; Welchman, 2016). Thus, even in animals that have a binocular overlap, further careful work is needed to demonstrate stereo vision.
Demonstrating stereopsis
As we have seen, many depth cues are potentially available, so it is surprisingly hard to demonstrate conclusively that an animal is using stereopsis. Preliminary behavioural experiments can compare animals' assessments of depth-based stimuli when viewed monocularly compared with binocularly. Such experiments, for example, showed that horses (Timney and Keil, 1999) and mantises (Maldonado and Rodriguez, 1972) made inaccurate depth judgements when viewing stimuli with only one eye. For a conclusive demonstration, however, we need a method of manipulating the disparity between the eyes, without affecting monocular information. One approach is to place prisms in front of the eyes so as to shift the images in opposite directions in each retina, altering binocular disparity without affecting the image's position averaged across both eyes. Prisms have been used in this way to demonstrate stereopsis behaviourally in toads and in praying mantises (Collett, 1977; Rossel, 1983). Toads fitted with prisms that manipulated disparity cues made more errors in estimating the distance of prey (Collett, 1977). In a similar experiment, Rossel (1983) placed prisms in front of the eyes of mantises and presented them with an approaching fly. Mantises in these experiments reached out to capture the fly based on disparity rather than nontriangulation-based depth cues. Prisms were also used in early neurophysiological experiments on sheep; these experiments indicated that the sheep cortex contains neurons tuned to binocular disparity (Clarke et al., 1976).
More general methods that allow arbitrary stimuli to be presented to each eye were developed first for humans. The oldest are the Wheatstone and Brewster stereoscopes (see Glossary), in which arrangements of mirrors, prisms and/or lenses direct different images to each eye (Brewster, 1856; Wheatstone, 1838). These have been widely used in primate behavioural experiments, where responses are typically given via eye movements, and in cat and primate neurophysiological experiments (e.g. Cumming and Parker, 1997, 1999).
More recently, optical filters have been developed where the left and right eye images are displayed on a single screen but are separated by spectral content, optical polarisation or time (Baker et al., 2016; Pastoor and Wöpking, 1997). These are much more convenient than stereoscopes using mirrors or prisms, but allow a certain amount of interocular 'crosstalk', where an image intended for one eye is partially visible to the other. Filters are particularly useful for behavioural experiments in which the animal is required to move. Most behavioural demonstrations of stereopsis have relied on training animals to differentiate between stimuli with different stereo content. This approach has been successfully used to demonstrate stereopsis in horses, owls, falcons and macaques (Fox et al., 1977; Poggio et al., 1985; Timney and Keil, 1999; van der Willigen, 2011; van der Willigen et al., 1998). In all these cases, animals were fitted with spectral or polarisation-based filters by which different views could be shown to each eye. Subsequently, the animals learnt to differentiate flat stimuli from stimuli where depth was conveyed using stereo cues, and to further distinguish between stimuli where these cues conveyed differing (non-flat) depths.
Spectral filters have also been used to investigate stereopsis in the praying mantis (Nityananda et al., 2016a,b), exploiting natural behaviour without the need for training. Mantises spontaneously strike at prey-like virtual stimuli when these are presented with a disparity indicating that they are within the animal's catch range. Stereopsis may also be present in two other insects – dragonflies (Olberg et al., 2005) and robber flies (Wardill et al., 2017) – but conclusive tests have not yet been performed.
There is thus a substantial body of literature demonstrating stereo vision in non-primate and non-mammalian systems. This has led to the conclusion that stereopsis has evolved independently at least four times: in mammals, birds, amphibians and insects (Pettigrew, 1986). The 'special' hypothesis for the evolution of stereo vision is therefore disproven. Stereopsis cannot have been inherited from the common ancestor of these taxa, because binocular vision evolved independently in mammals, birds and amphibians (Pettigrew, 1986), and eyes themselves evolved independently in insects. It remains unclear whether stereopsis has evolved in all animals with binocular vision, as postulated by the general hypothesis. In any case, stereo vision must have evolved because of the selective advantages it confers in particular ecologies. Below, we consider what these advantages may be.
The functions of stereopsis
The first species proven to have stereopsis were humans and other predators with front-facing eyes. This led some to hypothesise that stereopsis, and even binocular vision itself, evolved specifically to enable predators to detect prey (Cartmill, 1974). However, we now know that stereopsis has also evolved in lateral-eyed prey animals such as horses and sheep. In principle, stereo vision could perform several non-mutually exclusive functions (Fig. 2), which we discuss in more detail below.
Range-finding
Most obviously, stereopsis could enable an organism to judge the distance to objects in its environment (Fig. 2A). In primates, for example, a suggested adaptive value that might have led to the evolution of stereo vision is that it enables prehension, the ability to judge distances and grasp objects, e.g. when moving between branches (Collins, 1921). More generally, distance measurement or 'range finding' is important in several other contexts, including navigation, prey capture and predator avoidance. Distance estimates from stereopsis could therefore be useful for many different animals.
Distance estimation by stereopsis is particularly straightforward for animals such as insects, whose eyes are fixed in place on the head and unable to rotate. In such animals, there is a fixed mapping from retinal disparity to distance. That is, once we know the positions of an object's two images on the retinae, we can immediately deduce its three-dimensional position relative to the animal's head, including how far away it is. For animals with mobile eyes, such as primates, the situation is more complicated because the mapping depends on the current eye posture (Fig. 1). Information about relative depth (e.g. which of two objects is closer) is available even if the eye position is unknown, but information about absolute depth or position in space requires an estimate of eye position, specifically, vergence (see Glossary). In principle, this information could be extracted either from extra-retinal signals such as proprioception from the eye muscles, or from a more complex analysis of the disparity pattern across the retina (Hartley and Zisserman, 2004; Read et al., 2009). Alternatively, a mobile-eyed animal could estimate an object's distance from the vergence
Stereopsis for range-finding
Stereopsis for camouflage breaking
required to fixate it (Fig. 1), without needing to measure disparity. Thus, vergence and disparity are distinct stereoscopic cues, analogous respectively to the accommodation and blur focus cues, discussed above. In practice, humans have a poor-quality estimate of vergence, and accordingly a poor ability to estimate metric distance solely from stereopsis (Bradshaw et al., 2000).
Toads and praying mantises both have fixed eyes, and so it is perhaps not surprising that, in both, stereopsis has been clearly implicated in judging distance for prey capture (Collett, 1977; Nityananda et al., 2016a; Rossel, 1983). Stereopsis might have been particularly selected for in these animals because both lie in wait for prey, which they try to capture if at the right depth. Toads do so with projectile extensions of their tongue, while mantises make a dynamic extension of their forelegs called a strike. For both of these animals, reliable depth information is fundamentally important to be able to judge the distance of prey before launching their predatory attacks to the right position. Frogs, and very likely toads, can also use knowledge of the elevation of a prey image on the retina to measure distance (Collett and Udin, 1988). For an object on flat terrain, the further the object, the higher it is imaged on the retina and, provided that the animal knows its own eye height, image elevation can be transformed into distance. As we have seen, triangulation-class depth cues are particularly reliable, but motion parallax would give away the predator's position and provide early warning to the prey. Because mantises have compound eyes, they do not have defocus-type cues. Toads are an interesting example as their simple eyes can move their lenses to accommodate and, in the
absence of stereo cues, use this to gauge target distance. When present, however, stereo cues dominate over accommodation cues (Douglas et al., 1986; Jordam et al., 1980).
Contrast this with an animal such as the chameleon, which has exceptionally mobile, accommodating eyes. When a chameleon directs its eyes so that there is a binocular overlap, stereoscopic information is in principle available. However, because the eyes are highly mobile, there is no easy correspondence between the retinal position of the images in both eyes and the depth of an object. This would make computing depth in space from the retinal disparity extremely complex. Accordingly, chameleons have been shown to use accommodation cues (Harkness, 1977; Ott et al., 1998) and to lack stereopsis (Ott, 2001). Based on these arguments, we might therefore expect to find range-finding stereopsis in other ambush predators with fixed eyes that lack accommodation, like some species of spiders (e.g. crab spiders), and not in animals with accommodating, mobile eyes.
Combining stereoscopic distance information with the angular size of objects could allow animals to estimate absolute object size. This could be a strong selective force on animals that specialize on prey of particular size. Primates have such an ability (Tanaka and Fujita, 2015) – displaying a phenomenon called size constancy, where they can distinguish objects based on absolute size independent of the angle the objects subtend on the retina (McKee and Smallman, 1998). There is less evidence of this capability in other animals. Goldfish appear to be able to judge size even without binocular vision (Douglas et al., 1988) and toads seem to be able to judge the absolute size of gaps independent of the angle they subtend on the retina (Lock and Collett, 1980). In the praying mantis, by contrast, there appears to be no fixed preference based on a measurement of absolute prey size (Nityananda et al., 2016b). Instead there appears to be a response to smaller prey when nearby and larger prey when farther away.
Camouflage breaking
As we have seen, stereopsis can provide a particularly precise and unambiguous estimate of distance (or at least relative depth, for animals with mobile eyes), but there are other depth cues that can often achieve the job just as well. This raises the question of whether there are other selection pressures favouring the evolution of stereopsis. In the 1960s, Bela Julesz revolutionised the study of stereopsis by drawing attention to its value in breaking camouflage. Julesz was prompted by his experience with aerial reconnaissance, where 'the camouflaged target would jump out in vivid depth' when viewed through a stereoscope (Babington-Smith, 1958; Julesz, 1971) (Fig. 2B). Using computers, Julesz created what he called 'cyclopean' stereograms (see Glossary), where a target is perfectly camouflaged in each eye individually, and is defined purely by the disparity between a region in left and right images. Fig. 3 shows a simple example (for clarity of exposition, this image consists only of 64 square elements; a much better depth percept is produced by similar images made up of hundreds of squares). Not only humans, but several other animals, including macaques, cats, horses, falcons and owls, perceive depth in such ideally camouflaged images (Clarke et al., 1976; Fox et al., 1977; Ptito et al., 1991; Timney and Keil, 1999; van der Willigen et al., 1998). Julesz suggested that camouflage breaking – as in revealing the beetle in Fig. 2B – is the reason that stereopsis evolved, rather than distance perception per se. Even in natural scenes where objects are not perfectly camouflaged, stereo vision can be a valuable aid to scene segmentation (Dal Mutto et al., 2011); by identifying sudden changes in depth, which often occur at object boundaries, stereopsis
can help distinguish objects from their background and facilitate object recognition.
Julesz originally suggested that camouflage-breaking stereopsis 'probably evolved in our insectivore primate predecessors (e.g. lemurs), rather late in the evolutionary timescale, in order to counteract the freeze response of insects' (Julesz, 1995). The presence of camouflage-breaking stereopsis in herbivores such as horses obviously argues against this, and suggests that stereopsis may have evolved much earlier within mammals. Rather, it may be better to think more generally of stereopsis as aiding scene segmentation and providing 3D structure, with the ability to break camouflage arising as an extreme example of this. In primates and cats, this form of stereopsis is mediated by disparity-tuned neurons in primary visual cortex, which compute something close to the cross-correlation between local, filtered patches of the left and right retinal images (Cumming and DeAngelis, 2001; Qian and Zhu, 1997; Read, 2005). Similar matching metrics are also used in many machine vision 'dense stereo' algorithms (Scharstein and Szeliski, 2002). These correlation-based algorithms work well on most images, including natural scenes such as grass, where there is repetitive texture without particular objects or features. As Ives (1920) points out in a discussion of aerial reconnaissance, 'small local elevations and depressions cannot be distinguished from mere difference in colour or marking. But with stereoscopic views these features [such as undulations of ground] stand out in a striking manner.' One can imagine the selective advantages of this form of stereopsis to animals such as horses, which need to move at high speed over rough ground. The ability of horses to perceive perfectly camouflaged targets in cyclopean stereograms (Timney and Keil, 1999) may be a mere side effect.
How many forms of stereopsis are there?
We have seen that stereopsis is found in a wide variety of species and appears to have evolved independently at least four times. Thus, it is entirely possible that stereopsis may have evolved differently in different taxa, or evolved divergently in different clades even where it originated in a common ancestor. Indeed, different forms of stereopsis may coexist within a given species. Certainly, human stereopsis seems to consist of a number of distinct modules using different stereoscopic cues, although the relationship between these
is not yet entirely clear. In this section, we consider different forms of stereopsis.
Is correspondence necessary?
The basic geometry underlying stereopsis is triangulation: following the lines of sight back from the two retinal images of an object to find where they intersect in space. This requires us to know which parts of the retinal image correspond to the same object in space. In complex natural scenes, solving this correspondence problem (see Glossary) is often challenging (Marr and Poggio, 1979; Scharstein and Szeliski, 2002). Could stereopsis evolve without correspondence? For example, praying mantises use their stereopsis to strike at prey when its image is within range of their spiked fore-limbs, at which point it falls at the fovea of each eye (Fig. 4A). One possible design for such behaviour would be to have a monocular 'prey detector unit', triggered by stimuli with the appropriate retinal size, luminance, speed, etc., centred on each fovea, and launch a strike when both are triggered together. This crude system does not solve correspondence, and so would fall victim to false matches (Fig. 4B). In fact, praying mantises do show evidence of solving the correspondence problem, so their stereopsis is more complex than this crude system (Collett, 1996; Rossel, 1996). Presumably, false matches are a serious enough problem in visual scenes as to produce a selection pressure favouring the evolution of stereo correspondence.
This example in the fixed-eyed mantis is related to the use of vergence in animals with mobile eyes. At first sight, vergence might appear to be a stereoscopic depth cue that does not require a solution to the correspondence problem; it simply requires an animal to know its own eye posture. But in order for this to be useful, the animal has to make sure that both eyes are fixating the same object, just as in Fig. 4. This requires at least basic correspondence.
One form of human stereopsis exploits a lack of correspondence. If you hold a finger in front of your face and close first one eye then the other, you notice that the finger occludes different parts of the
Prey in catch range
False match
background in the two eyes. Natural scenes typically contain many such occluded regions, which by definition have no corresponding match in the other eye. Humans can make qualitative depth judgements based on the position of these monocularly occluded regions (Harris and Wilcox, 2009; Nakayama and Shimojo, 1990; Tsirlin et al., 2012). This ability is known as da Vinci stereopsis, and we do not know whether it exists in other species. However, da Vinci stereopsis also depends fundamentally on correspondence: the occluded regions are only detected because the correspondence problem has been solved successfully over the majority of the image, where occlusions do not occur.
However, a crude form of stereopsis is possible without any form of correspondence. An animal could discriminate whether it was approaching or receding from an object just by comparing the velocities in each eye (Harris et al., 2008). For example, leftward motion in the right eye and rightward motion in the left eye could indicate that the animal is approaching a surface head-on (Fig. 5A, B). This interocular velocity difference cue is closely related to the information available from a flow-field in a single eye (Fig. 5C), but is distinct because two different velocities are obtained for the same point in space. Primates appear to have a weak ability to detect motion in depth solely from this interocular velocity difference cue, although its independence from disparity is disputed (Harris et al., 2008; Shioiri et al., 2000; Czuba et al., 2014). Very little is known about whether other species use stereoscopic interocular velocity difference cues. Bees and flies do compare optic flow signals between their eyes (Srinivasan and Gregory, 1992; Hennig et al., 2011), but this is not a form of stereopsis, as it uses information from different regions of space, not the same region viewed from different angles. It is more closely related to the single-view flowfield shown in Fig. 5C, with the insect's lateral eyes effectively viewing different halves of the same visual sphere. In species with binocular overlap, the stereoscopic interocular velocity difference cue could potentially be an easy way to extract very basic information about the sign of stereomotion without solving the correspondence
Opposite motion in two eyes indicates approaching surface.
Radial expansion flow-field for surface approaching a single eye.
Fig. 5. Interocular velocity differences can indicate motion in depth without the need to compute disparity. (A) As a theoretical example, we show a praying mantis, which has head-fixed foveae whose lines of sight are shown with the coloured lines. A surface directly approaching the mantis creates rightward motion on the medial (inner) surface of the left eye and leftward motion on the medial surface of the right eye, as indicated by the arrows (A,B). This is analogous to the radially expanding flow-field produced in a single eye approaching a surface (C), but here we are comparing the velocities of the same points in space viewed from different lines of sight. This makes the interocular velocity difference a stereoscopic depth cue.
problem. However, information about the distance or speed of approach does require correspondence.
How animals solve the stereo correspondence problem
As we have seen, in order to extract more than the most basic stereoscopic information, a stereo system has to work out which parts of the retinal image correspond to the same object. In primate stereopsis, correspondence begins in the primary visual cortex. Many neurons in this cortical area are sensitive to disparity, even in cyclopean images like more complex versions of Fig. 3 (Cumming and DeAngelis, 2001). These neurons have binocular receptive fields, i.e. they are sensitive to the retinal stimulus within a small patch of the left retina and a small patch of the right retina, and detect the correlation between the images in the two patches. When the images in the left and right receptive fields correspond to the same object in space, this correlation will be high. This is true whether the image is a real scene with many depth cues, or a highly artificial cyclopean stimulus. This explains why primate stereopsis is able to break camouflage (Cumming and DeAngelis, 2001; Parker, 2007; Tyler, 1991; Welchman, 2016). In fact, many features of primate stereopsis can be traced back to the properties of these neurons (Read, 2015a). For example, they have receptive fields at very similar locations in the two eyes, generally offset on the retina by less than half a degree. Human stereopsis can break camouflage only for similarly small disparities. Stimuli with a retinal disparity of more than approximately 0.5 deg appear double (Panum, 1858), i.e. we perceive both left and right images individually, rather than fusing them into a single whole. This is easily demonstrated by holding up a finger close to one's face while fixating on a distant object behind it; you will perceive two fingers.
Contour versus cyclopean stereopsis
Intriguingly, however, human stereopsis does not fail altogether at large disparities. If a stimulus is briefly presented with a very large retinal disparity, up to 16 deg, it will appear double (Fig. 6A), but humans are still able to report the sign of its disparity – that is, whether it appeared nearer or further than the fixation point (see Glossary; Ogle, 1952a,b). This is only true for stimuli with relatively sparse, obvious monocular visible features, such as one or two thick lines marked on an empty background. This ability seems to be a completely independent form of stereopsis (Wilcox and Allison, 2009; Tyler, 1990; Read, 2015b). We shall refer to it as 'contour stereopsis' in order to discriminate it from the 'cyclopean stereopsis', which can break camouflage (although of course cyclopean stereopsis also works on stimuli with contours). Unlike cyclopean stereopsis, contour stereopsis does not appear to require a population of disparity-tuned neurons in primary visual cortex; it may be computed in sensorimotor and frontal cortices (Gamlin and Yoon, 2000). Intriguingly, it seems to operate in head-centric coordinates (Zhang et al., 2010). This means that retinal location is combined with estimated eye position in order to produce an estimate of head-centric direction, and depth is perceived based on this head-centric direction rather than the retinal disparity directly. Contour stereopsis may also be somewhat spared by disorders of binocular vision, such as strabismus and amblyopia, which are extremely disruptive to fine stereoacuity measured with cyclopean stimuli (Frisby et al., 1975; Giaschi, et al., 2013).
The purpose of this second, contour-based form of stereopsis may be to drive vergence. As we have seen, cyclopean stereopsis only works for a narrow range of disparities. Thus, before this fine, camouflage-breaking form of stereopsis can operate, our eyes must first fixate the object of interest. In the example shown in Fig. 6, the
Fig. 6. Double vision. Humans only experience single vision for a relatively small range of disparities. (A) Viewer fixates a distant point, so the visual axes (thicker lines) are parallel. Nearby objects, such as the tree shown, then appear double. Our coarse stereopsis can still use the monocular contours provided by the edges of the tree to recognise that the tree is nearby, but cannot extract the small disparity of, say, a beetle camouflaged against the bark. (B) Same scene after a convergence movement; now the viewer fixates the tree, bringing it within the operating range of fine stereopsis. Any lurking beetles can now be detected.
Double vision
Binocular fusion
Visual axes parallel
Converging on tree
tree initially appears double (Fig. 6A), but its disparity can be detected by the contour stereo system, enabling the visual system to programme a convergence movement which brings it to the fovea in both eyes (Fig. 6B). Once the object is within fusional range, cyclopean stereopsis also contributes to vergence control. Cyclopean stereopsis can then also detect fine depth structure, such as the ridges and furrows of the bark, and even reveal the presence of a beetle that is perfectly camouflaged in each eye's view individually.
These two forms of human stereopsis are interestingly reminiscent of machine (computer) vision stereo algorithms. In 'sparse' machine vision stereo algorithms, distinctive features are identified in each eye's image individually, and are then matched up between eyes, potentially without any knowledge of how the two cameras are oriented with respect to one another, including their vergence. These matches can be used via a process known as 'camera calibration' to deduce relative camera pose (orientation and translation), which greatly constrains the set of possible disparities, reducing stereo correspondence from a 2D to a 1D problem. In a second stage, a 'dense' stereo algorithm can then extract disparity at every point in the image. Thus the vergence deduced by sparse stereopsis, as the orientation component of the camera pose, is used to reduce the range of disparities needed for dense stereopsis, much as the vergence triggered by contour stereopsis reduces the range of disparities needed for cyclopean stereopsis. (In animals, the translation component of camera calibration is a fixed interocular distance, so can be regarded as known.)
Barn owls also have cyclopean stereopsis, which, like primates', is based on identifying regions of left and right images that are locally highly correlated, and whose underlying neuronal mechanisms seem to be very similar. This is remarkable given that owl and human stereopsis evolved independently for predators with two very different anatomies and ecological niches. The obvious implication is that this form of stereopsis is optimal for
animals with high acuity that are using stereopsis to extract 3D scene structure and/or detect camouflaged targets. We do not know whether owls also have a second, contour-based form of stereopsis. They may not need this because their ability to verge is extremely limited: no more than 4 deg, compared with up to 30 deg for humans. This gives them very limited scope to increase the range of their stereopsis by moving it around in space. Owl and primate cyclopean stereopsis both function over a range of disparities spanning approximately 1 deg (Nieder and Wagner, 2000). If owl eyes were completely fixed, these neurophysiology data imply that owl stereopsis would work from 40 to 170 cm and be optimised for a distance of 70 cm. Within this range, we would predict that owls should be better than primates at judging metric distances from purely stereoscopic information, because the mapping from retinal disparity to position in space would be fixed. In practice, owls' limited vergence may somewhat extend the range of distances over which their stereopsis is useful, with a corresponding decrease in the precision of metric distance estimates.
Non-spatial correspondence
In principle, there are many ways to identify corresponding points in the images. For example, correspondences could be found based on matching luminance, contrast, texture, colour, motion or change of any property over time. Stereopsis as we know it from primates, cats and owls finds correspondences based on matching patterns of contrast over space, and is relatively insensitive to luminance. Yet might other systems match different aspects of the visual input?
Interestingly, no known biological stereo system appears to use colour to aid correspondence, even though on the face of it this could be used to help disambiguate false matches, and indeed is so used in some computer stereo algorithms (Bleyer et al., 2008). The only known invertebrate to possess stereopsis, the praying mantis, is also highly unusual among insects in that it appears to have only one class of photoreceptor and thus lack colour vision (Sontag, 1971; Towner and Gaertner, 1994). This raises the possibility that the neural machinery that subserves colour discrimination in other insects has been taken over to subserve stereopsis in mantises, perhaps because both processes involve difference computations (comparing the response in L versus M cones, or left versus right images) (Zhaoping, 2014).
Another interesting possibility is stereo correspondence based on motion. Humans can judge depth based on the disparity of a motion boundary in binocularly uncorrelated images (Halpern, 1991; Lee, 1970), an ability Lee referred to as 'binocular-kinetic space perception'. Both of these can be viewed as examples of stereopsis based on disparity in the spatiotemporal rather than the purely spatial or contrast domain; 'disparity' here is the difference in position of a feature, such as a motion boundary, which does not correspond to an object in space. Very little is known about the neural basis of these forms of stereopsis, and – as in the discussion of interocular velocity difference above – it is not clear whether they reflect dedicated mechanisms which evolved to extract this form of information, or whether they are a side effect of purely spatial mechanisms. As a thought experiment, one can imagine training an artificial neural network to discriminate approaching/receding surfaces in dynamic random-dot patterns. Units within this network might well develop binocular space–time receptive fields that shift in opposite directions on the two retinae over time, in order to track changing disparity. If these units were then tested with uncorrelated stimuli, their shifting receptive fields would make them sensitive to depth defined by interocular velocity differences, even though these units had never previously been exposed to that cue and thus cannot have ' evolved ' to extract it. In the same way, depth perception based on interocular timing differences (Falk and Williams, 1980; Morgan and Thompson, 1975; Morgan and Ward, 1980; Pulfrich, 1922; Read and Cumming, 2005) is thought to be a side effect of mechanisms that extract disparity in natural scenes. As in the discussion of horses and camouflage breaking, even if it can be demonstrated that an animal can exploit a particular cue, it can be difficult to determine whether this ability was actually selected for.
Lee (1970) argued that an animal whose visual system 'is attuned to pick up the kinetic structure of the optic array directly' might evolve purely 'binocular-kinetic' stereopsis. That is, it might be sensitive to the disparity of objects and boundaries defined by retinal motion, even if it had no stereopsis at all for images that were static on the retina. This is an interesting suggestion, especially in the context of non-human stereopsis. Human vision is relatively unusual in having high spatial resolution but fairly poor temporal resolution; we see detail best in static scenes, and the peak of our contrast sensitivity function corresponds to a relatively low speed (approximately 2 deg s − 1 ; Barten, 1999), while our stereo vision has poorer resolution still (Kane et al., 2014; Norcia and Tyler, 1984). Accordingly, as Lee pointed out, research on stereopsis has concentrated on 'time-frozen purely spatial' optic arrays. Machine stereo algorithms also work almost exclusively on spatial information; for example, they are usually benchmarked by their performance on static pairs of images, rather than two streams of video information (Scharstein and Szeliski, 2002). Other animals have far better temporal resolution (e.g. approximately 170 Hz for dragonflies; Autrum and Gallwitz, 1951) and far lower spatial resolution. It might therefore make sense for them to base their stereopsis on temporal change, rather than the detailed pattern of contrast in the retinal images. However, at this point the existence of such a system remains speculative.
Machine stereopsis
Machine stereo algorithms also provide examples of different forms of stereopsis (Lazaros et al., 2008). Modern computer stereovision algorithms already exceed the abilities of human stereopsis in many ways. For example, machine stereopsis can produce a highresolution depth map across the visual field (Scharstein and Szeliski, 2002), whereas human stereopsis is limited to a narrow volume around the fixation point (Panum, 1858), deteriorates rapidly in the visual periphery (Blakemore, 1970) and has poor spatial resolution (Tyler, 1974). Machine stereopsis can be designed to work for arbitrary disparities and camera positions (Hartley and Zisserman, 2004), whereas human stereopsis is optimised for one particular eye posture and does not work at all for extreme eye positions (Phillipson and Read, 2010; Schreiber and Tweed, 2003). Machine stereopsis can benefit from chromatic information (Koschan et al., 1996), to which human stereopsis is largely insensitive (Lu and Fender, 1972).
However, human stereopsis outperforms machines in challenging situations such as detecting the disparity of a turtle on the river bed through a pattern of reflections on the water surface, or the disparity of a bird viewed through an interlacing pattern of leaves and branches at many different depths (Tsin et al., 2003). Thus, machine algorithms still have more to learn from human stereopsis. This process should be aided by the increasing level of detail at which computational neuroscientists are now able to describe the neuronal basis of primate stereopsis (Henriksen et al., 2016).
As we learn more about other species, it may prove that their stereopsis also has particular strengths that machine algorithms
could learn from, reflecting the particular constraints and requirements of that species. For example, it seems likely that insect stereopsis is limited in its abilities but cheap in terms of computational resources, which might make it appropriate for lowpower autonomous systems (Collett, 1996; Tippetts et al., 2016).
Conclusions and future research
Several outstanding questions remain about stereo vision in animals. Studies have focused on a few species without a clear phylogenetic approach to see when and how many times stereo vision might have evolved. It is likely that there have been at least four independent evolutions of stereo vision. However, in order to assess just how widespread stereo vision is, we need more comparative studies with a greater diversity of animals (especially invertebrates). Studies of closely related species with different behavioural ecologies would be of particular interest. This would provide invaluable data about how many times stereo vision has evolved or been lost in response to different ecological selective pressures. It would also test how general the general hypothesis of stereo evolution actually is – are all animals that have binocular vision capable of stereopsis?
A related question is: what selective pressures lead to the evolution of stereopsis? Answering this would require studying the different animals that are capable of stereopsis and testing them for the different functions (e.g. range-finding, camouflage breaking) that have been hypothesised as selective pressures for its evolution. This would allow us to establish whether different lineages have evolved stereo vision for different functions, or whether there is a common selection pressure that led to its evolution in every lineage. As discussed above, one candidate for such a selection pressure is camouflage breaking. Thus far, we have evidence of this ability from almost every mammal and bird in which stereo vision has been demonstrated. Experiments investigating this in other animals such as toads and mantises would therefore be of fundamental importance towards testing camouflage breaking as a primary selective force for the evolution of stereopsis. Given that these animals require local image motion to find targets, which already breaks camouflage, it may be that camouflage breaking was not the driving force for their stereopsis, potentially meaning that they could have evolved a quite different form of stereopsis from our own.
The relationship between stereopsis and camouflage is also interesting in another way. The evolution of camouflage is a growing area of study (Skelhorn and Rowe, 2016), but we know next to nothing of how this has been influenced by stereo vision. Because stereopsis enables camouflage breaking in several species, it would therefore be a huge selective pressure in arms races between predators and prey. We should expect prey to evolve defences in response to such a selective pressure. What these might be and how widespread these defences are remain completely unknown. As noted, triangulation cues are hard to fool, but there are situations where they can mislead. For example, the virtual image of a light source on a shiny convex surface appears with a stereoscopic disparity indicating that it is more distant than the surface (Blake and Bülthoff, 1990). Thus, sunlight reflected off the glossy wingcase of a beetle might be perceived as a more distant object, potentially causing a predator to neglect it as out of range (Fig. 7). This particular suggestion is pure speculation, but the area could be a productive field for future research.
Finally, studying stereopsis in different animals should provide a window into the variety of mechanisms by which it is achieved. This would provide inspiration for new classes of machine stereo vision, which at the moment is almost entirely dominated by human-style stereopsis. As we have seen, both birds and mammals have evolved
Fig. 7. Specular highlights on a convex surface appear behind the surface. In this example, a bird views a shiny black beetle. The glossy highlights on the beetle's wingcase appear at different angles in the two eyes, indicating a bright source much further than the beetle. Potentially, this could cause a predator to misestimate the distance of prey.
a form of 'cyclopean' stereopsis, which extracts spatial disparity based on the interocular cross-correlation of contrast information. Humans, and probably other mobile-eyed species, appear to have a second, 'contour-based' stereopsis system to aid in acquiring vergence. Other stereoscopic cues have been hypothesised, and some of these allow humans to perceive depth, albeit much more weakly. It remains to be seen whether any other animals have evolved distinctive forms of stereopsis primarily based on these or alternative mechanisms. In addition, it would be important to investigate how depth perception in different animals is aided by other non-stereoscopic cues and how depth processing is enabled by an interaction of stereo and non-stereo mechanisms in diverse animals.
Acknowledgements
We thank Toby Breckon for advice about machine stereopsis, and Ronny Rosner and two anonymous reviewers for helpful comments on the manuscript.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing or financial interests.
Funding
V.N. was supported by a College for Life Sciences fellowship at the Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Institute for Advanced Study, and a Leverhulme Trust Research Leadership Award RL-2012-019 to J.R.
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* Rom 15:4
The Fruit of Longsuffering/Patience
The study of language can be fascinating! How does a word come into use that is able to portray an idea to our mind? We understand that words are often started from a sound, or something that in common around us, or even taken over from another language. The English language has many words that have been taken over from the Latin or Greek languages. The Greek word "Bapto" originated from a sound that was made when garments were dipped into a pot of dye. If we can trace back to the origination of a term, we can usually gain a better insight with how it is being used. Longsuffering is a word that has this kind of a background 1 .
Sometimes we can reverse a word and it seems to give more emphasis to its usage, such as longsuffering or one who suffers long with another or with circumstances. In the Old Testament, the Hebrew for longsuffering is: EREKH HAPPAYIM; which means literally, "long of nose (or breathing)." Since anger is often indicated by a rapid and hard breathing through the nostrils, the origination would have been connected to the appearance of the person in anger— but he did not carry out his anger by outward actions of harm or hurt. Thus, the idea of being "long of anger," or more appropriately, "slow to wrath."
In the New Testament, the Greek for longsuffering is: MAKRO THUMIA; which means literally, "long of mind or soul." The term is translated "longsuffering" or "patient." There is another word in the New Testament that is a synonym to MAKRO THUMIA— HUPOMONE, which literally means, "to remain under." In most instances this word is translated "patience." The idea is that a person is not too quick to act, to punish, or to react to offenses and injuries of others; or, he endures long under hardships, misfortunes, or troubles without giving up or giving in to wrong reactions. This person is determined to see a thing through without giving up and admitting defeat. Observe the following passages with the above in mind:
HUPOMONE:
* Luke 21:19
* Heb 12:1
* Rom 12:12
* Rev 2:3
MAKROTHUMIA:
* Matt. 18:26, 29
* Rom 5:3
* Col 1:11 (both Gk words are used)
* James 1:3
* 1Pet 2:20
* Acts 26:3 26:3
* Eph 4:2
* Col 3:12
* 1 Cor 13:4
1 This study was taken from Paul Cantrell, amphillchurch.org/study_books/FRUIT%20OF%20THE%20SPIRIT,%20Bearing%20the.pdf
God is longsuffering with His creatures! His longsuffering shows His goodness, kindness, and forbearance toward those who persist in wickedness—and patiently calls him to repentance rather than to perish (Luke 13:3; 2 Pet. 3:9). As God appeared before Moses on Mt. Sinai, His character is portrayed in these graphic terms: "The Lord, the Lord God, merciful and gracious, longsuffering, and abundant in goodness and truth, keeping mercy for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, and that will by no means clear the guilty; visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children, and upon the children's children, unto the third and to the fourth generation." (Exo. 34:6-7). God's longsuffering with sinful man is clearly demonstrated in Genesis chapter six. The condition of men was so bad that there was no longer any hope for or reasons for their continued existence on earth; but, God gave them one hundred and twenty years to change their ways or else. His patience and long suffering came to an end and the great flood came that destroyed mankind from off the face of the earth—with the exception of eight souls! The following passages help to express the longsuffering of God:
* Luke 18:7
*Rom 2:4/ 9:22 18:7
The need for patience or to be willing to endure or suffer long is because we are not alone in this world. We are surrounded with people, things, events, catastrophes, etc., that challenge us. If everything was "sunshine" all the time there would be no need for this fruit of the Spirit. Thus, because of these things, we are challenged to handle these undesirable things with the same spirit with which God handles us—patience or longsuffering. The following Scriptures indicate the areas in which such is called for:
1. With life in General:
* Heb 6:12
* Heb 12:1
2. With General Circumstances beyond our control:
* Phil 4:11
3. With all kinds of afflictions, troubles, and misfortunes:
* James 5:10
* 1Pet 2:20
* 2 Cor 6:4
4. With one another in the body of Christ:
* Eph 4:2
The idea behind the concept of patience and longsuffering is the challenge of having the right attitude in showing such. This attitude is expressed in Col. 1:11-12: "strengthened with all might, according to His glorious power, for all patience and longsuffering with joy; giving thanks to the Father who has qualified us to be partakers of the inheritance of
*Rom 12:12
* Heb 10:36
the saints in the light." It is not enough to endure but endure whatever with joy and thanksgiving! We should be longsuffering towards all people and things or events, but it is critical that we are such to God's people; for by such we show that we are the children of God (John 13:35). God had the Apostle Paul to again say to the Colossians: "Therefore, as the elect of God, holy and beloved, put on tender mercies, kindness, humility, meekness, longsuffering; bearing with one another, and forgiving one another, if anyone has a complaint against another; even as Christ forgave you, so you also must do. But above all these things put on love, which is the bond of perfection." (3:1214).
http://camphillchurch.org/study_books/FRUIT%20OF%20THE%20SPIRIT,%20Bearing%20the.pdf
My Notes and Thoughts
What current mindset or attitude is hindering me from cultivating love?
__________________________________________________________
What is one new action you are adding to your life to increase your long suffering?
__________________________________________________________________
What do you like and not like about patience? _________________________________
What nugget did you get from this session?
_____________________________________
Remember fruit needs time to mature and grow, it doesn't happen overnight!
What is the most difficult aspect of patience for you?
__________________________________________________________________
Has your lack of patience ever hurt someone close to you? How did you resolve
it_____________________________________________________________
How do you see these 4 fruit so far working together?
__________________________________
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Background document and review of key South African and international literature on school dropout
Dr Andrew Hartnack July 2017
1. Introduction: Background and definition of school dropout
The South African Schools Act (Act 84 of 1996, section 3[1]) states that all children in South Africa must "attend school from the first school day of the year in which such learner reaches the age of seven years until the last day of the year in which such learner reaches the age of fifteen years or the ninth grade whichever comes first". Within this band of compulsory education from grades 1-9, South Africa has a very high rate of participation (over 95%), even by global standards (Branson et al. 2013: 12; Fleisch et al. 2009: 41; Sabates et al. 2010: 2). Moreover, national school attendance rates have improved by three percentage points since 2002, such that the "vast majority" of children of school-going age (97%) "attended some form of educational facility" by 2013 (Hall 2015: 119). Yet such a positive picture "tends to mask the problem of drop-out among older children", with attendance among children aged over 14 dropping steadily, especially after school ceases to be compulsory (ibid.).
School dropout (also known as early "withdrawal", or "attrition") has been defined as "leaving education without obtaining a minimal credential" (De Witte et al. 2013: 1). In South Africa, that minimal qualification is the National Senior Certificate (NSC), or "matric" qualification, written at the end of grade 12. Most school dropout in South Africa occurs in grades 10 and 11, resulting in 50% of learners in any one cohort dropping out before reaching grade 12 (Spaull 2015: 34). The situation is even more worrying when NSC graduation rates are taken into account. In 2013, only 40% of those who had commenced school 12 years previously passed matric, while in 2014 the figure fell to 36% (ibid. 36). 1 This pattern means that around 60% of young South Africans effectively drop out of school, with no school-leaving qualification to their names. This compares unfavourably with patterns in other countries: for example Turkey has a 53% graduation rate, Brazil and Chile have rates of 67% and 72% respectively (Gustafsson 2011; Spaull 2015: 36), while in the European Union 77.3% of young
1 These figures differ markedly from the NSC yearly pass rate, which sits at around 76% in recent years, but only reflects the 50% of learners who actually make it as far as writing matric (Spaull 2015: 36).
people graduate from high school, a level similar to that experienced in the United States of America (De Witte 2013: 1).
Levels of dropout in South Africa differ significantly by race, a result of racist colonial and apartheid social, spatial and economic policies which continue to produce injustice, exclusion and severe inequality in the present (see Moses et al. 2017). According to the results of the 2011 General Household Survey, "there are large racial inequalities in matric attainment: only 44% of Black and Coloured youth aged 23-24 had attained matric compared to 83% of Indian youth and 88% of White youth" (Spaull 2015: 35). There are also slight provincial differences in the number of young people attending school. Poorer provinces such as Limpopo, Mpumalanga and the Free State have a higher proportion of grade 1-9 children in school than wealthier provinces such as Gauteng, the Northern Cape and the Western Cape (Fleisch et al. 2009: 42). 2 More children tend to be out of school in cities compared to rural areas, although there are very high numbers of children out of school in the rural farming districts of the Western Cape (ibid.).
Understanding the causes and nature of dropout requires such historical, social and spatial nuances and complexities in South Africa to be taken into account, as must potential measures to address dropout in the country.
2. Causes and factors contributing to dropout
There is a consensus in local and international literature on school dropout not only that there "is no single risk factor that can be used to accurately predict who is at risk of dropping out" (Hammond et al. 2007: 1), but that dropout should not be understood as a single event, but rather the result of a long process of disengagement; a cumulative, multidimensional process caused by the convergence of a number of factors over time (Branson et al. 2013; De Witte et al. 2013; Dockery N.D.; Hammond et al. 2007; Sabates et al. 2010). In fact, over 40 different risk factors relating to dropout have been identified, which makes both identifying the cause of a specific case of dropout, and tracking such risk factors, a very difficult task (Dockery N.D.: 8).
In trying to make sense of this large number of risk factors, various authors (such as Rumberger 2004) have attempted to come up with analytical frameworks, such as the popular framework which distinguishes between "individual factors" causing dropout and "institutional factors" (related to the family, school or community) (De Witte et al. 2013: 7). Others, such as Sabates et al. 2010: 12) have made the distinction between "supply side causes of drop out" (at the school level), and "demand side" causes located in the community or individual. Ultimately, such binary frameworks risk putting too much weight on one set of factors, when such factors are "inextricably bound up with each other…[and] interact in
2 This apparent contradiction has been explained by the fact that schools in very poor and rural communities "provide food and shelter which act as substantial incentives to attend, especially for poor learners" (Branson et al. 2013: 12).
countless ways." (De Witte et al. 2013: 8). Understanding the causes – and risk-factors – of school dropout rather requires an analysis of how factors at community, family, school and individual levels interact during the process of disengagement and dropout. One useful way of trying to conceptualise the ways in which these complex risk factors interact is to identify and understand how "push-out factors" and "pull-out factors" (Dockery N.D. 11) interact. Pull-out factors refer to experiences and conditions outside of school which influence a learner's decision to drop out (e.g. community, family, peer and individual influences), while push-out factors refer to influences within schools which impact on dropout (e.g. school structure, policies, environment and "vibe", curriculum etc.). In the following discussion, pullout factors are discussed first, followed by push-out factors at school level.
2.1 Community/broader factors
International literature, primarily from the USA, on community-related factors focuses commonly on factors such as neighbourhood characteristics (high dropout rates for people from poor neighbourhoods where social amenities are limited, housing is run-down and rented rather than owned, crime is high etc.) (De Witte et al. 2013; November 2010); positive or negative influences of peers groups (high achieving and motivated peers versus peers involved with crime, drugs and violence) (Ekstrom et al. 1986; Hammond et al. 2007); the pull of early employment opportunities (especially in poor households where the opportunitycost of schooling is high) (De Witte et al. 2013; Rumberger 2004); and social discrimination and prejudice, especially that aimed at minority or underprivileged learners (Herbert and Reis 1999).
In South Africa, with its colonial/apartheid legacy of "separate development", labour migration, "Bantu education", family and social disarticulation, coupled with continued spatial injustice and extreme levels of inequality post-1994 (see Beinart 2001; Bond 2005), community-related factors of school dropout are particularly profound, and are inextricably linked to individual, family and school-related factors. Moses et al. (2017) show in detail how the structure of South Africa's economy perpetuates poverty along racial and spatial lines, with black South Africans living in former "Homelands" remaining the most poor, while black and coloured communities living in townships remain similarly marginalised. They argue, along similar lines to Spaull (2015), that most black and coloured South Africans are trapped in a spatial and structural position in which access to a quality education is nearly impossible, perpetuating their poverty and inability to be upwardly mobile.
Yet, as Dieltiens and Meny-Gibert (2009) argue, while absolute poverty does play a role in school dropout (inability to afford uniforms, transport and stationary – even when school fees are covered by the state), it cannot on its own explain why learners leave school early. 3 As discussed in the previous section, South Africa has very high participation rates in primary and
3 See Fleisch et al. (2009) on absolute poverty (the minimum standard of goods and services needed to meet basic needs) and its link to dropout.
early secondary schooling, with poor rural provinces experiencing the highest numbers of children in school. Dieltiens and Meny-Gilbert (2009: 49) argue that while absolute poverty may account well for why poor learners commence school late and repeat grades, "relative poverty" – and how children experience poverty in their daily lives – offers a much more convincing explanation for why learners leave school prematurely, as "inequalities between learners [make them] more vulnerable to drop out". For poor families, female learners may be forced to be habitually absent or even to drop out due to lack of access to sanitary pads during their menstrual cycles – which is a common problem throughout Africa (see Tegegne and Molla 2014).
For many black South Africans living in poor rural and urban communities, teenage pregnancy is a particular risk factor, and according to Spaull (2015: 37) it "accounts for 33% of drop-out amongst female learners". While it is against government policy to exclude pregnant learners from school (ibid.), many schools have continued to discriminate against those who become pregnant. Even where schools support pregnant learners and welcome young mothers back, other problems such as family, community or peer stigma, breastfeeding and other childcare responsibilities, and lost learning time among other things, may cause dropout (Mnguni 2014: 32).
Related to high levels of teenage pregnancy is the role of negative peer pressure, sucking young people into drug/alcohol abuse, anti-social or delinquent behaviour and negative attitudes towards remaining in school (ibid.). While De Witte et al. (2013) found that positive pressure from high-achieving peers can have a beneficial effect, the opposite is true where negative peer influences predominate, as they have been found to do particularly in poor urban communities in South Africa (Mnguni 2014). In the context of growing unemployment and the knowledge that the education on offer is highly unlikely to translate into opportunities for social and economic advancement, young people are facing a crisis of expectations, which can cause many to leave school early (Spaull 2015: 37; Moses et al. 2017: 3). With pressure on households to earn enough for survival and other pressing needs, young people withdraw from schooling early in search of income-generation opportunities (Gustafsson 2011: 23; Sabates et al. 2010: 13).
In South African townships, particularly in the Cape, drugs and gangsterism also pose a very powerful "pull-out" factor for school-going youth. The above-mentioned "crisis of expectations", where teenagers (and whole communities) lose faith in the value of school, and fail to envisage a healthy life and career path, not only pushes many into drug use, but also provides fertile soil in which gangs exploit young people with an alternative source of belonging, self-esteem and livelihood (Steinberg 2004; Pinnock 2016). The activities and culture established by these gangs also have profoundly negative impacts on individuals, families, and schools, reinforcing the risk of dropout on many levels. Even where gangsterism may not be pervasive, high levels of alcohol and substance abuse have also been linked to high rates of school dropout, for example in farming districts of the Western Cape (Fleisch et al. 2009: 41).
2.2 Family factors
Located within this broader context, family dynamics also provide a number of "pull-out" factors in relation to school dropout. Families of low socio-economic status, especially those with limited social capital, in socially and geographically marginalised positions, and where key adult members are unemployed (De Witte et al. 2013: 10), certainly struggle the most to keep their children in school – despite the government's provision of Child Support Grants and fee waivers to such families. According to Fleisch et al. (2009: 43-4), "65% of out-of-school children are not receiving social grants". They go on to argue that "These children in all likelihood are eligible for social grants, but their parents, grandparents or heads of household do not have the means to access them." Where families stay at some distance from the nearest school, and cannot afford transport, uniforms, stationary and other additional costs of schooling, dropout becomes a high risk (Branson et al. 2013: 17; Dieltiens and Meny-Gibert 2009; Sabates et al 2010: 12).
That some families cannot even access state social welfare is due to a number of factors, not least pervasive family disarticulation due to the legacies of labour migration and apartheid spatial and economic planning (Moses et al. 2017). Indeed, high family mobility – a phenomenon created by the colonial labour migration system and perpetuated after 1994 – has been found to be a key risk factor for school dropout (Hammond et al. 2007: 31). Likewise, family structure is important when it comes to staying-in or dropping out of school (Branson et al. 2013: 13): children living in a home "where the head of the household is a parent or grandparent are much more likely to attend school than those living in other types of homes". In international literature, it has been found that dropout is lowest amongst children growing up with two biological parents (Rumberger 1983). Learners with large numbers of siblings, however, have been found to be more at risk of dropping out (Hammond 2007: 4).
South Africa is a country which has experienced one of the highest rates of HIV infection, and deaths from AIDS, in the world. This disease, along with related illnesses such as tuberculosis, has had an impact on families – both in terms of the deaths of breadwinners and parentfigures, but also the burden this has placed on young people. As Richter (2004: 26) found, HIV/AIDS has placed a burden on children who have been needed not only to care for sick family members, but also to become breadwinners in their own right. Orphanhood is a major risk factor: as Fleisch et al. (2009: 44) found, 32% of children out of school have one or both parents dead (see also Case and Ardington (2006). Children living in child-headed households are also much more likely to be out of school, or drop out of school, than counterparts living with close adult relatives (Fleisch et al. 2009: 44). "Shocks" at family level, such as illness, death and loss of employment can play a major role in the decision to drop out (Branson et al. 2013: 12).
The educational levels of parents has also been found to be a key factor related to the risk of dropout (De Witte et al. 2013: 10), with studies showing that girls with more educated mothers received more schooling than those whose mothers were poorly educated (Sabates et al. 2010: 13). Similarly, Rumberger (1983) found that more reading material in the house resulted in less dropout (quoted in November 2010: 8). For marginalised communities in South Africa, with their multi-generation legacy of low quality "Bantu Education", low levels of education among older generations poses a very clear risk relating to school dropout. 4
Another important family factor is whether or not the family is relatively free from stressors, and is warm and supportive (Frank 1990). A family in which there is high stress and limited support and warmth creates an environment in which school dropout becomes more of a risk. Furthermore, the level of parental support and involvement with a child's education and life in general, as well as the "emotional climate" of the parent-child relationship has been found to impact school dropout, either positively or negatively depending on the nature of the relationship (De Witte et al. 2013: 11; Duchesne et al. 2009).
Lastly, children born outside South Africa – to migrant and refugee families – have been found to have a much lower attendance rate than South African learners (Fleisch et al. 2009: 44). Language and cultural differences experienced by minority learners, along with the risks experienced by them because of their family history and socio-economic situation, put them at higher risk of dropping out.
2.3 Individual factors
Absolute poverty (inability to afford basic resources), it has been suggested, may have a major role to play in delayed entry into school and high repetition rates (Dieltiens and Meny-Gibert 2009: 49). For individual learners, one of the most important predictors of school dropout "if not the strongest" (De Witte et al. 2013: 8) is grade retention, and being past the typical age in a grade (Entwistle et al. 2004; 2005). Not only do being older than classmates and the repeating of grades come with their own stigma, but older learners are more susceptible to other "pull-out" factors such as pregnancy and the need to work. In South Africa, where delayed school commencement is common, and there are high rates of grade retention – widely used as a strategy by schools to keep weaker learners from affecting their NSC results (Branson et al. 2013: 4) – this factor is particularly potent. The same authors (ibid.: 19) found that "learners who are behind for their age are 25 percentage points more likely to dropout of school without completing grade 12 than learners on track".
Of course, there are other reasons for falling behind and not keeping "on track", including learners who have learning disabilities or emotional disturbances (Hammond et al. 2007;
4 Yet it must be pointed out that children from families where parents are poorly educated have also been found to perform well enough in high school to qualify for university and go on to graduate with tertiary qualifications (see Hartnack and Muteti 2016, among others). Again, it is how family background interacts with a number of other factors (personal, school, community) which determines dropout.
Fleisch et al. 2009: 42). Yet in South Africa, much as cognitive disorders such as foetal alcohol syndrome have been found to cause learning deficits (Fleisch et al. 2009: 42), it is often simply the profound and widespread lack of basic foundational numeracy and literacy skills (due to poor participation in early childhood development programmes and the poor quality of early childhood education) which disadvantages children from an early age and ensures they struggle later in their school careers (Spaull 2015: 36). Physical disability can also present a problem because most schools are not able to meet the special needs of such learners, raising their risk of dropout. Fleisch et al. (2009: 43) found that "children with disabilities account for nearly 10% of the total number of children who are out of school", and that they had a much lower attendance rate than children without disabilities (22.5% were out of school).
Along with low achievement in class and grade retention, poor attendance or frequent absenteeism is a third important predictor of who is at risk of dropping out (Hammond 2007). This pattern of sporadic and irregular attendance has been called "stop out" (de Witte et al. 2013: 2) and can be caused by a number of issues at family, community, school or individual level. Other related individual predictors are lack of effort, no commitment to school, limited participation in after school programmes, and low educational expectations (Hammond 2007). On the latter factor, it has been found that "Perceptions of how education will influence lifestyle and career possibilities/probabilities [and] life chances in the labour market are shown to be factors in both early withdrawal and sustained access in different contexts" (Sabates 2010: 13). With the labour market shrinking in South Africa and young people losing faith that education will result in a good job (Moses et al. 2017: 9; Spaull 2015), many academically able young people are at risk of losing interest and drifting away from school before completing (Dockery N.D. 10).
For others, warning signs of disengagement are to be found in misbehaviour, early aggression and delinquency at school (Dockery N.D.; Hammond 2007; Wallace 2016), factors enhanced by academic struggles and grade retention/being older than peers. Being part of a high-risk peer group and engaging in high-risk social behaviour such as taking drugs and alcohol and engaging in early sexual activity also significantly increases the chance of dropout (Mnguni 2014). Teen pregnancy, discussed above, is a result of such high-risk social behaviours among teenagers, and contributes greatly to dropout rates of girls in particular (Gustafsson 2011: 212; Spaull 2015: 37; Mnguni 2014).
2.4 School factors
The "pull-out" factors discussed above interact in complex ways with "push-out" factors from within the school system. In South Africa, the most glaring reason for "push-out" is the poor quality of foundational, basic and secondary education available to the majority of people (Gustafsson 2011; Moses et al. 2017). Over 75% of learners in South Africa are from families of low socio-economic status, and attend schools which perform poorly and offer a poor quality education (Spaull 2015: 37). Struggling learners in schools which perform poorly in the NSC are at a much higher risk of dropping out than struggling learners in schools which perform better (Branson et al. 2013: 17) and it has been found that poor quality education after grade 9 is a particularly important causal factor in dropout among senior secondary school learners (Dieltiens and Meny-Gibert 2009: 48). Indeed, "By grade 9, learners in poor (mostly black) schools, have a [learning] backlog of approximately 3.5 years relative to their rich school counterparts" (Moses et al. 2017: 3). 5 Thus, while education system and schoollevel "push-out" factors are a factor globally (see De Witte et al. 2013), South Africa has a particularly potent mix of school factors contributing (in relationship with "pull-out" factors) to dropout.
The major factors contributing to the poor quality of education include large class sizes, which make teaching difficult, even for good and committed teachers (Gustafsson 2011: 42), and lack of resources such as desks, chairs and text books in under-resourced schools (ibid.: 41; De Witte et al. 2013: 12). In South Africa the quality of teaching in poor schools is also low, with research consistently showing that "teachers lack the basic content knowledge and pedagogical skill to teach the subjects they are teaching" (Spaull 2015: 39). Under-resourced schools also tend to be large and particularly difficult to manage, posing a great challenge to school Principals and management teams who may not have the skills or resources required to run a well-functioning and performing school, or create a positive and productive school atmosphere (Wills 2015). Indeed, a school environment in which there is bullying and violence, alcohol and substance abuse and other anti-social behaviours also plays a role in learner disengagement and withdrawal (De Witte et al. 2013; Gustafsson 2011: 24-6; Mnguni 2014). At many schools where the school environment is poor, there is also a deficit in "school social capital" (De Witte et al 2013: 13): the presence of caring teachers and others (such as social workers or counsellors) who may offer psycho-social support to at-risk learners. Even where these exist, the large number and overwhelming nature of psycho-social issues undermines their effectiveness (violence, pregnancy, drugs, deviance). A troubled learner is more likely to be "facilitated out" rather than helped in this environment (De Witte et al. 2013: 17; Dockery N.D. 8).
Pressure on schools to perform well in their NSCs also contributes greatly to pushing learners out of school in grades 10 and 11. A 2001 Department of Education directive setting national pass rate targets resulted in many struggling schools simply "culling" or "weeding" weaker learners out before they reached matric, either by retaining them in lower grades for multiple years (Branson et al. 2013: 4) or by pressurising them in other ways to leave prior to grade 12 (Dieltiens and Meny-Gibert 2009: 49). 6 Other authors (Gustafsson 2011: 39) have pointed to poor and inappropriate subject choice and combinations as a factor causing learners to disengage and leave school early. Pregnant learners, meanwhile, have also experienced
5 Spaull (2015: 36) argues that grade 9 learners at the poorest 60% of schools are "five years' worth of learning behind their wealthier peers".
6 A more recent directive has since stipulated that a learner may only be kept back for one year in any three year cycle (regardless of ability), effectively limiting the practice of "weeding".
pressure to leave school from school authorities, despite this being against policy (Spaull 2015: 37).
Finally, it is clear that for learners to remain committed to school, they need an engaging and diverse school programme and curriculum which is relevant to their cultural context and career aspirations and possibilities (De Witte et al 2013: 12). Some authors (e.g. Pinnock 2016: 235-6) argue that South Africa's adoption of a curriculum that is too heavily focussed on academics and "the Western view of what kind of knowledge is important" has disadvantaged many young people. Certainly, the curriculum's focus on maths and science skills, often at the expense of the arts and more practical skills, does make it difficult for learners whose aptitudes are not aligned to these priorities to remain engaged and to perform adequately (Gustafsson 2011: 43). Even though vocational subjects (e.g. tourism; engineering graphics and design; electrical technology) are offered, they are often not available as choices in the very schools where learners would benefit most from taking them (ibid.). In light of the changing labour market (Spaull 2015), young people are losing faith in school qualifications as a key to the future.
3. South African government policy and school dropout
South Africa's policy relating to the rights of children and youth, including to education, are guided by both international law and the South African Constitution. 7 Section 29 of the Constitution focusses specifically on the right to education, stating that "everyone has the right to a basic education, including adult basic education, and to further education, which the state, through reasonable measures, must make progressively available and accessible." The Children's Act (38 of 2005) gives effect to certain rights of children as contained in the Constitution, including education. It states that parental responsibilities include giving due consideration to a child's wishes in any decision that will impact on the child's education, bearing in mind the child's age, maturity and stage of development (section 31(1)b iv).
Legislation relating to education is further elaborated in the South African School's Act, which makes education compulsory from grades 1-9. According to section 3(6)5 a learner who is subject to compulsory attendance and fails to attend school can be investigated, leaving the parents or any other person who is preventing the learner from going to school liable for a fine or imprisonment of up to six months. According to section 5(3)a, no learner may be refused admission to a public school on the grounds that his or her parents are unable to pay the school fees. Language policy can be determined by the governing body of a public school, but may not be used as a form of racial discrimination (section 6(2)). Sign Language counts as
7 Relevant international policies to which South Africa is a signatory include the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child; the 2015 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs); and the African Charter of Rights and Welfare of Children (2011). The latter charter includes article 11(16), in which member states pledge to take "all appropriate measures to ensure that children who become pregnant before completing their education shall have an opportunity to continue their education".
an official language in this regard (section 6(4)). Section 9 outlines the process for suspension and expulsion, during which the interests of the learner must be safeguarded and, in the case of expulsion, a learner subject to compulsory attendance must be placed elsewhere in a public school.
According to the National Education Policy Act (27 of 1996), the Minister of Education is responsible for outlining any policy regarding education, and for the general functioning of the education system. This includes policy on education support services, including health, welfare, career and vocational development, counselling and guidance for educational institutions, as well as curriculum frameworks and learning standards (Act 27 0f 1996, section 3(4) L and O). Thus, the department of education is expected to play a crucial role in any policy regarding school dropouts.
As is apparent from the foregoing outline of key policy instruments, these legislative documents do not explicitly mention school dropout as an area of concern. While there are general regulations around the provision of education and the welfare of children, this does not include specific measures to address youth dropping out of school due to factors in the school system, or any others. However, there has been a growing recognition of the importance of this issue, with the current National Youth Policy 2015-2020 addressing "high drop-out rates and inadequate skills development" as its second situation analysis and challenge. Poor quality results in primary school are seen as the cause for weak participation in other school levels. Improving literacy and numeracy levels at the primary school level is seen as a key intervention to improve participation overall.
Several other pieces of legislation are relevant in so far as they attempt to improve the school environment and support learners who are at risk of dropping out. The most recent white papers on education, numbers 5 and 6 (2001), have addressed Early Childhood Development (ECD) and Special Needs Education respectively. The white paper on ECD is based on the premise that government is to help break the cycle of poverty by providing access to ECD programmes, which will help children from birth to nine years old to thrive and to reverse the effects of early deprivation and maximize the development of potential. The white paper on special needs education aims to address the situation where many learners with disabilities had fallen out of the system, because "the curriculum and education system as a whole have generally failed to respond to the diverse needs of the learner population, resulting in massive numbers of drop-outs, push-outs, and failures." To remedy this, the white paper advocates a single, inclusive education system integrating special needs and support services throughout the system.
The Guidelines for the Prevention and Management of Sexual Violence and Harassment in Public Schools (2008) have been developed to support schools and school communities in responding to cases of sexual harassment and sexual violence that are perpetrated against learners. The guidelines seek to create a "safe, caring and enabling" teaching environment, recognizing that sexual harassment or sexual violence can lead learners to suffer serious emotional consequences, amongst others, and create a general atmosphere of fear and aggression in the school environment. As discussed above, such school environments greatly increase the risk of dropout.
In March 2017 the Council of Education Ministers approved a National Policy for the Prevention and Management of Learner Pregnancy. The Policy addresses the high rates of pregnancy among learners; the familial and social context within which this occurs; options for reduction of unintended and unwanted pregnancies; management of its pre- and postnatal implications; limitation of associated stigma and discrimination; and, importantly, the retention and re-enrolment of affected learners in school. These guidelines supersede the 2007 Measures for the Prevention and Management of Learner Pregnancy, which focused heavily on prevention, and in the case of unplanned pregnancies emphasized the need to balance the pregnant learner's needs with those of the rest of the school (which in practice could potentially be interpreted as grounds to prevent a pregnant learner from attending school).
The National School Nutrition programme was implemented in 2010 to provide a school feeding scheme for primary schools whose student body is in need of additional food. The funding is supplied by national government and distributed through the provincial departments of education. On a daily basis 9.2 million learners are provided a meal at schools, in an effort to improve nutrition and encourage school attendance (South African Government Newsroom 23 April 2017). Although there are some accounts of corruption and delivery can be erratic, there are signs that the strategy is effective in improving nutrition and increasing classroom attendance (Graham et al. 2015: 49; Iversen et al. 2011: 75).
4. Important approaches and interventions for addressing dropout
International and, to a lesser extent, South African literature on school dropout make a number of recommendations regarding how school dropout should ideally be tackled. It has been pointed out (Rumberger 2004) that interventions can be aimed at systemic changes (e.g. to the school system, or social welfare system) or be programmatic, in that they try to effect change at family or individual level. As far as government efforts are concerned, the consensus in the literature is that "Any policy decision of relevance must necessarily focus on the whole aggregate of factors at the level of students, families, schools and the broader environment…there is neither a single or simple solution to be found" (De Witte et al. 2013: 15). In other words, both systemic and programmatic interventions are needed, and these must address structural, social and academic reasons for dropout. 8
8 See https://www.edutopia.org/student-dropout-retention-strategies for an overview of strategies used in the USA.
The George Washington University's Centre for Equity and Excellence in Education (GW-CEEE) (2012: 8) argues that there is a need for multi-level "tiered interventions" which include learners, teachers, peers, families and government agencies, to be effective. They point out (ibid.) that an "integrated approach to keeping students in schools [should replace] a patchwork of independent programs that often allow students to fall through cracks, or even work at cross-purposes with one another in a fragmented, ineffective manner". Furthermore, as Hammond et al. (2007: 47) point out, programmes aimed at addressing dropout must be evidence-based – designed based on evidence about the problem and its specific context, and gathering evidence on impacts on an ongoing basis.
The following approaches to tackling dropout are recommended in the literature:
4.1 Systemic Interventions
Restricting grade retention: Grade retention has been referred to as "the worst culprit among all student-related factors with regard to early school leaving" (De Witte et al. 2013: 15). There are therefore repeated calls in the literature to restrict grade retention (ibid.; Branson et al. 2013: 19) and to reduce the number of overage learners attending school (Sabates et al. 2010: 18). In South Africa, a recent Department of Education directive is seeking to limit retention by restricting schools from keeping struggling learners back for more than one year in any three year phase. This should help to reduce the practice of "weeding", but more needs to be done to ensure children start school at the correct age and keep up with their age cohort throughout their school journey.
Improved quality and access to Early Childhood Development: As Spaull (2015) argues, a national reading campaign targeted at early childhood is a crucial intervention for South Africa. De Witte et al. (2013: 16) agree that interventions to improve literacy and numeracy must start early and find ways of getting parents to become more engaged in the early childhood development and education of their children (see also November 2010). Programmes trying to achieve these goals, such as the Nal'ibali literacy campaign, 9 already exist in South Africa, but they must be taken to a scale where they can have a systemic impact.
Improving the quality of education and the school curriculum: The South African literature on dropout is united in its conclusion that the quality of education offered to marginalised learners must improve radically (Branson et al. 2013; Dieltiens and Meny-Gibert 2009; Gustafsson 2011; Moses et al. 2017; Spaull 2015). Amongst other interventions, Spaull (2015: 39) calls for improved teacher content knowledge and teaching skill and a countrywide audit of district officials and curriculum advisors. Going hand-in hand with better quality teaching is the need for a "curriculum that is relevant and keeps students engaged and motivated" GW-CEEE (2012: 4): it needs to encourage high standards and be relevant and better linked to the career prospects of learners from poor communities, as well as culturally relevant,
9 See http://nalibali.org/
rigorous and challenging (De Witte et al. 2013; Dockery N.D.: 32). According to Gustafsson (2011: 43) and Pinnock (2016: 235-6), more focus should be put on vocational training.
There is also a need for vastly improving school structure and systems, enabling "Schoolwide reform to enhance student engagement" (Dockery N.D.: 13;17) by creating a caring environment, a culture of support, a good school vibe, high expectations, a strong connection to post school options and "a cohesive, student-centred learning environment" in which there is a positive relationship between learners and teachers. School bullying prevention programmes and counselling for bad behaviour rather than expulsion (ibid.: 20) are recommended. De Witte et al. (2013: 16) argue that schools need to cater for the needs of a diverse range of students and be sensitive to minority learners (see also GW-CEEE 2012: 4). Of course, smaller schools with more manageable class sizes are the optimal environment in which to create a positive school and classroom environment (De Witte et al. 2013: 16); something of a luxury in many schools in South Africa.
Moreover, good school leadership is needed in order to foster an orderly and nurturing learning environment. In South Africa Partners for Possibility is a programme increasingly recognised as improving school leadership and thereby the whole learning culture and environment of participating schools. 10 Likewise, Columba Leadership (based on an exemplary programme from Scotland), attempts to have a similar impact on schools by fostering youth-adult partnerships which take action to improve school environments and the engagement of learners. 11 Both of these programmes have claimed to have had a positive impact on dropout in schools where they work.
Early warning tracking systems: Another dropout prevention strategy at a systemic level is to introduce tracking systems at school level, district level and provincial level to identify and track potential dropouts (Dockery N.D.: 13). Such early warning systems, it is recommended, should track a number of indicators over time relating to learner attendance, grade retention, academic performance, social engagement and behaviour, and "data must be up-to-date and easily accessible (ibid.: 14; GW-CEEE 2012: 3; 8). Although South African schools might struggle to implement and manage such systems, there are examples from the USA, such as the School-wide information system (SWIS), which helps schools track students and provides practical information about discipline issues (GW-CEEE 2012: 5). In the Western Cape, SAILI has been working with 20 schools since 2010, assisting them to better track data on learner performance and teacher effectiveness in order to improve learning outcomes. 12 SAILI is currently piloting an intervention to assist circuit managers to assist schools in a similar way.
10 See http://www.pfp4sa.org/
11 See http://www.columba.org.za/
12 http://saili.org.za/website/
4.2 Programmatic interventions
According to Dockery (N.D.: 23; 32) programmatic interventions should focus on schools, families and individual learners and focus not only where problems become noticeable – later in secondary school – but in the earlier grades where the process of disengagement and dropout has its foundations. Furthermore transitions, between grades and between junior and secondary school in particular need attention as learners need the most support in managing new environments, routines and expectations.
Academic interventions: Seemingly the most obvious interventions are those seeking to strengthen academic performance of learners still in school, particularly those who are struggling. Not only do teachers need to be equipped for high-quality instruction (GW-CEEE 2012: 4) but learning backlogs need to be addressed at all levels (Spaull 2015). Recommended interventions are one-on-one and small group tutoring; after school programmes and homework support; and catch up programmes for learners who are falling behind (De Witte et al. 2013: 15). Organisations such as Ikamva Youth are addressing the academic needs of struggling learners in South Africa through small-group tutoring led by peers and near-peers, and the model has had impressive results (Spaull 2015: 39). Other NGOs, including Columba Leadership, have fostered peer-to-peer academic support, while Vantshwa Va Xivono in Tzaneen, Limpopo, is piloting a catch up programme for grade 8 and 9 learners in maths and English. Another important model is that adopted by the Sumbandila Scholarship Trust, through its Outlier programme, in which learners from under-resourced schools around Makhado, in Limpopo, attend the private Ridgeway College for intensive holiday tutoring. 13 As important as academic interventions are in South Africa, a survey of 50 exemplary dropout prevention programmes in the USA found that only 26% incorporated academic support, including tutoring, homework support, computer laboratories and experiential learning (Hammond et al. 2007: 54).
Psychosocial and adult support: As the literature shows, dropout is as much about social, psychological and relational factors as it is about learning deficits. The provision of psychosocial support (PSS) is recommended, through the use of trained advocates (Dockery N.D.: 14) who, more than mentoring, "provide substantial support such as aligning services to address academic and social concerns, advocating for the students, communicating with parents and school personnel, and meeting frequently with the student." (ibid.: 15). Also important is to ensure that learners enjoy sustained and meaningful relationships with caring adults since this "is one way to promote student engagement in school and mentoring has reduced risky behaviours and absenteeism while promoting communication, social, and academic skills (ibid.; De Witte et al. 2013: 15; Sabates et al 2010: 14-16). GW-CEEE (2012: 8) call for adults and near-peer young adults to provide targeted and intensive support to learners, including home visits, social services referrals, counselling, group work and peer support. This work includes efforts to reduce absenteeism and truancy. Most of the
13 See http://sumbandila.org/
organisations involved with the current DG Murray Trust pilot project on school dropout are providing PSS along these lines, including the Community Action Partnership (Swellendam); National Association of Childcare Workers (Pietermaritzburg); James House (Hout Bay); Khula Development (Paarl) and Masibumbane (East London).
Social and life skills development: Developing the social skills of young people is another crucial aspect in dropout prevention, including communication skills, problem solving, emotional intelligence, goal setting, conflict resolution, peer resistance and appropriate behaviours (Charmaraman and Hall 2011; Dockery N.D.: 16; Hammond et al. 2007: 53). As De Witte et al. (2013: 15) point out, facilitating social attachment among learners, especially in key transitions periods, is important. Life skills programmes are also key (Mihalic 2005; Charmaraman and Hall 2011), and of 50 exemplary dropout programmes identified in the USA, lifeskills development was the most common activity (a core activity of 60% of interventions – Hammond et al. 2007: 53). It has been pointed out by Spaull (2015: 39) that life skills training around teenage sex and pregnancy is crucial to stem the prevailing problem of dropout caused by teenage pregnancy and childbirth. Equally important are programmes which encourage learners to develop a positive view of their future prospects, and what they must do to achieve realistic goals. Also part of the DG Murray Trust's dropout pilot programme, Bottom Up Social Development is trailing a "Futures Focussed" programme on the Cape Flats to this end.
After school programmes (ASPs): After school programmes are crucial in building social skills and life skills, in addition to contributing to academic and behavioural interventions. As Charmaraman and Hall (2011: 5) have found, "dynamic arts-based programming that engages youth" in community programmes and ASPs contribute positively in particular. The Western Cape Government have included ASPs as one of the priorities in its "Game-changer" initiative, and the Hout Bay Partnership is currently piloting an incentive scheme to involve more learners in ASPs.
Targeting high risk behaviours: Working with learners who display high-risk and anti-social behaviours, such as aggression, disruption, bullying, drug and alcohol taking, and sexual activity is also an important prevention measure. Active and strong school counselling services, peer education and dropout prevention taskforces are recommended approaches for addressing such behaviour in a way which does not drive troubled learners out, but rehabilitates them (Dockery N.D.: 19). In South African public schools, state social workers are available, but generally they must divide their time between all the schools in a particular circuit: often 20-30 schools. School leaders and teachers are thus left with the main task of dealing with troubled learners, a task they often lack the time and skills to perform effectively. Organisations such as Ikamva Youth are assisting to address behavioural problems in schools through its peer-to-peer model (Spaull 2015: 39), while LoveLife and other NGOs similarly work with youth to encourage positive behaviour and identity formation. Of identified exemplary programmes in the USA, 20% targeted behavioural interventions such as cognitive behavioural therapy. Most programmes include behavioural issues in a broader focus on life skills. For example, the Check and Connect and Check-in/Check out approaches (GW-CEEE, 2012: 8) involved close monitoring of at-risk learners to address the "ABCs" – absenteeism, behaviour and course failure. Another American example is the Positive Behavioural Interventions and Supports (PBIS) programme, which provides a school-wide prevention programme (ibid.).
Family intervention: Family interventions that build strong connections to learner's families are also a crucial aspect of dropout prevention and reintegration strategies, since the involvement of parents is vital (De Witte et al. 2013: 16; GW-CEEE 2012: 4). In the USA, 64% of exemplary school dropout programmes involve both learners and their families and family strengthening is the second most common characteristic in exemplary programmes (46% of programmes are involved in this activity) (Hammond et al. 2007: 54). Interventions include family counselling, parenting and family management workshops, communication skills workshops and parent discussion groups – with the aim of improving parenting skills and home environments (Dockery N.D.: 19; Hammond et al. 2007: 54). There is also a need for interventions which simply engage with parents or primary carers – from when their children are young – to encourage them to be as involved as possible in their child's life and education, and to have "high and unambiguous expectations" and assist their children academically (ibid.). In the current DG Murray Trust dropout pilot programme, most of the programmes are working with families, including James House (Hout Bay); Community Action Partnership; Khula Development; Bottom Up (Lotus River); NACCW and Masibumbane.
Re-engagement and reintegration: Much as dropout prevention is important, finding ways to re-engage and reintegrate those who have already dropped out is also crucial (Moore 2016), especially since their life and career prospects without a school-leavers certificate have been shown to be meagre (Moses et al. 2017: 42). Given that learners who are older than their classmates are at the highest risk of dropping out, and often become frustrated and cause disruptions, reintegrating dropouts back into the conventional schooling system is not easy. While in the USA re-engagement is becoming a large focus with some notable successes (see Moore 2016), schools without the human and financial resources, or the necessary systems (such as most under-resourced South African skills), might struggle to reintegrate dropouts to the same extent. Second-chance programmes which work with dropouts and those who are struggling to complete their NSC are one method by which to re-engage those who have dropped out (Hartnack 2014). 14 Organisations such as Gadra Matric (Grahamstown), Midlands Community College (Nottingham Road) and the Star Schools have achieved impressive results in their work with learners who have failed their NSC exams (ibid.). The National Youth Development Agency also supports learners looking to re-write their exams. As others have argued, including dropouts from the mainstream education
14 See http://dgmt.co.za/the-case-for-national-senior-certificate-second-chance-programmes-evidence-fromdg-murray-trust-partners/
system in vocational and experiential educational opportunities – so that they may obtain an "alternative credential" (De Witte et al. 2013: 17) is also crucial (Dichaba 2013; Gustafsson 2011; Pinnock 2016).
5. Emerging opportunities:
It is not easy to obtain a clear sense of emerging opportunities in addressing school dropout from either the international or South African literature – aside from the fact that there are increasing calls for more integrated approaches which combine interventions at all of the levels and from all of the angles discussed above. One emerging area of focus, however, has been highlighted by teacher-turned psychologist Angela Duckworth, who has found (in studies at schools and other settings) that talent is less important than a focussed persistence she calls "grit" (Duckworth 2016). 15 Duckworth calls for more attention on how to get vulnerable learners to develop the quality of "grit" – in other words, to develop a very clear sense of their long-term goals and to develop passion, determination and resilience to reach these goals, and never give up even when they face setbacks. Interventions which include "grit" as a focus – over and above PSS, academic supports and other aspects – are therefore highly advisable.
The South African literature is very much focused on learner performance and the school system (much is written by economists), often at the expense of a more holistic focus on all the factors which contribute to dropout. The DG Murray Trust's addressing school dropout pilot programme (October 2016 – January 2018) – in which nine organisations are piloting complex projects around South Africa – is in itself an emerging opportunity, with the lessons coming out of the programme set to clarify approaches which can work best in the South African context. It is clear that if South Africa wishes to address the fact that only 40% of learners who start school in grade 1 leave school with a National Senior Certificate, much must be done to address problems in the schooling system, and within communities, families and individual learners. Unlike in the USA, South Africa has no national dropout prevention taskforce. High participation rates in grade 1-9, and a misleadingly high NSC pass rate, mask the fact that 60% of learners effectively drop out of the school system from grade 10 onwards, and obtain no minimal credential. Given the magnitude of this problem, a national dropout prevention taskforce is a priority. There is also currently no national dropout prevention strategy. Drawing up such a strategy is clearly the first business that a dropout prevention taskforce must undertake.
15 See also her TED talk at: https://www.ted.com/talks/angela_lee_duckworth_grit_the_power_of_passion_and_perseverance
References
1. Academic texts
Beinart, W. (2001). Twentieth-Century South Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bond, P. (2005) Elite Transition: from Apartheid to Neoliberalism in South Africa, Second Edition, London and Pietermaritzburg: Pluto and University of KwaZulu-Natal Press
Branson. M., C. Hofmeyr, and D. Lam. (2013). "Progress through School and the Determinants of School Dropout in South Africa". SALDRU Working Paper 100.
Case, A. and C. Ardington. (2006). "The impact of parent death on school outcomes: Longitudinal evidence from South Africa." Demography, 43: 401-420.
Charmaraman, L. and G. Hall (2011). "School Dropout Prevention: What Arts-based Community and Out-ofschool-time Programs can Contribute." New Dir Youth Dev. 2011(Suppl 1): 9–27.
De Witte, K., S. Cabus, G. Thyssen, W. Groot, and H.M. van den Brink. (2013). "A Critical Review of the Literature on School Dropout." Tier Working Paper Series: Tier WP 14/14.
Dichaba, M. (2013). "School Drop-out and Success in the Trades: A Paradox or a Reality of South African Youths?" Journal of Social Science, 35(2): 89-96.
Dieltiens, V. and S. Meny-Gibert (2009). "School Drop-out: Poverty and Patterns of Exclusion." South African Child Gauge 2008/2009.
Dockery, D.J. (No Date). "School Dropout Indicators, Trends, and Interventions for School Counsellors. Virginia Commonwealth University.
Duchesne S., C.G. Ratelle, S.C. Poitras, and E. Drouin. (2009). Early adolescent attachment to parents, emotional problems, and teacher-academic worries about the middle school transition. Journal of Early Adolescence, 29, 743-766.
Duckworth, A.L. (2016). Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance. New York: Scribner.
Ekstrom, R. B., M.E. Goertz, J.M. Pollack, and D.A. Rock. (1986). "Who drops out of high school and why?" Findings from a national study. Teachers College Record, 87(3), 356-373.
Entwisle, D.R., K.L. Alexander and L. Steffel-Olson (2004). "Temporary as Compared to Permanent High School Dropout." Social Forces 82(3), 1181-1205.
Entwisle, D.R., K.L. Alexander and L. Steffel-Olson (2005). "Urban Teenagers. Work and Dropout." Youth Society, 37 (3), 3-31.
Fleisch, B., J. Shindler, and H. Perry. (2009). "Children out of School: Evidence from the Community Survey." South African Child Gauge 2008/2009.
Frank, J. R. (1990). "High School Dropout: A New Look at Family Variables." Social Work in Education, 13(1), 3447.
The George Washington University: Center for Equity and Excellence in Education (2012). "Evidence Based Resources for Keeping Students on Track to Graduation." Report prepared for the Virginia Department of Education. Found at:
http://www.doe.virginia.gov/support/school_improvement/title1/1003_g/resources/evidence_based_r esources.pdf
Graham, L., T. Hochfeld, L. Stuart, and M. Van Gent. (2015). Evaluation Study of the National School Nutrition Programme and the Tiger Foods Foundation In-School Breakfast Feeding Programme in the Lady Frere and Qumbu Districts of the Eastern Cape. Centre for Social Development, University of Johannesburg: Johannesburg.
Gustafsson, M. (2011) "The When and How of Leaving School: The Policy Implications of New Evidence on Secondary Schooling in South Africa." Stellenbosch Economic Working Papers 09/11.
Hall, K. (2015). "Children's Access to Education." South African Child Gauge 2015.
Hammond, C., D. Linton, J. Smink and S. Drew (2007). "Dropout Risk Factors and Exemplary Programmes: A Technical Report." National Dropout Prevention Center at Clemson University and Communities In Schools, Inc.
Hartnack, A. (2014). "The Case for National Senior Certificate Second Chance Programmes: Evidence from DG Murray Trust Partners." DG Murray Trust Learning Brief 56. http://dgmt.co.za/the-case-for-nationalsenior-certificate-second-chance-programmes-evidence-from-dg-murray-trust-partners/
Hartnack, A., and A. Muteti (2016). Success and Struggle: Employment and Career Prospects for Former Students Supported by the Rural Education Access Programme. Found at:
http://www.reap.org.za/pieces/reports/pdf/employability_research_project.pdf
Herbert, T.P., and S.M. Reis (1999). "Culturally Diverse High-Achieving Students in an Urban High School." Urban Education 34(4), 428-457.
Iversen, P.O., L. du Plessis, D. Marais, M. Morseth, and M. Herselman. (2011). Nutritional health of young children in South Africa over the first 16 years of democracy. South African Journal of Child Health 5(3): 72-77.
Mihalic, S.F. (2005). "The matrix of prevention programs." Boulder: University of Colorado at Boulder, Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science.
Mnguni, I.B. (2014). "Investigating the Causes of Learner Dropout at Secondary Schools in Johannesburg South, Gauteng." Unpublished Master of Education thesis submitted to the University of South Africa.
Moore, A.O. (2016) Reengagement: Bringing Students Back to America's Schools. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Moses, E., S. van der Berg, and E. Rich (2017). "A Society Divided: How Unequal Education Quality Limits Social Mobility in South Africa." Synthesis report for the Programme to Support Pro-poor Policy Development (PSPPD). RESEP: University of Stellenbosch.
November, M.R. (2010). "Assessment of the Neighbourhood, Housing, Family, and Personal Characteristics that affect whether Students Drop Out of High School." Capstone in Public Administration, Martin School of Public Administration, University of Kentucky.
Pinnock, D. (2016). Gangtown. Cape Town: Tafelberg.
Richter, L. (2004). "The impact of HIV/AIDS on the development of children". In Pharoah, R., L. Richter, B. Killian, G. Foster and S. Germann (eds.). A generation at risk? HIV / AIDS, vulnerable children and security in Southern Africa. Institute for Security Studies Monographs, Volume 2004, Issue 109. Johannesburg: Institute for Security Studies.
Rumberger, R. W. (1983). Dropping Out of High School: The Influence of Race, Sex, and Family Background. American Educational Research Journal 20(2): 199-220.
Rumberger, R.W. (2004). "Why students drop out of school?" In: G. Orfied (Ed.), Dropouts in America: Confronting the Graduation Rate Crisis, Cambridge. MA: Harvard Education Press, pp. 131-155.
Sabates, R., K. Akyeampong, J. Westbrook and F. Hunt. (2010). "School Dropout: Patterns, Causes, Changes and Policies." Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2011.
Spaull, N. (2015). "Schooling in South Africa: How Low-quality Education Becomes a Poverty Trap. South African Child Gauge 2015.
Steinberg, J. (2004). The Number: One Man's Search for Identity in the Cape Underworld and Prison Gangs Johannesburg: Jonathan Ball.
.
Tegegne, T.K. and M.M. Sisay (2014). "Menstrual hygiene management and school absenteeism among female adolescent students in Northeast Ethiopia". BMC Public Health 14:1118.
Wallis, C.M. (2016). "A High-school Dropout Prevention Programme for at-risk Students". Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Walden University.
Wills, G. (2015). "Improving the Calibre of School Leadership in South Africa". RESEP Policy Brief. Research on Social-Economic Policy, Department of Economics, Stellenbosch University.
2. Policy Documents
African Charter for Rights and Welfare of Children 2011 - http://www.achpr.org/instruments/child/#a11 Children's Act (38 of 2005) - http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/a38-05_3.pdf
Child and Youth Care Workers Regulation - http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/38135_rg10301_gon838.pdf
Domestic Violence Act (116 of 1998) - http://www.justice.gov.za/legislation/acts/1998-116.pdf
Department of Education. (2008). Guidelines for the prevention and management of sexual violence and harassment in public schools. www.thutong.doe.gov.za/ResourceDownload.aspx?id=44563
Education White Paper 5. 2001. Meeting the challenge of early childhood education in South Africa. Pretoria - http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/educ179_1.pdf
Education White Paper 6. 2001. Special Needs Education. Building an Inclusive Education and Training System. Pretoria - http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/educ6_1.pdf
Measures for the Prevention and Management of Learner Pregnancy. 2007 - http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/learner_pregnancy_0.pdf
National Education Policy Act (27 of 1996) - http://www.gov.za/sites/www.gov.za/files/Act27of1996.pdf
National Policy for Prevention and Management of Learner Pregnancy - https://www.moe.gov.na/files/downloads/99b_Learner%20Pregnancy%20policy%20final%202010-1018.pdf
National Youth Policy 2015-2020 - https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUK EwiW4bzX_pXVAhVkK8AKHduMD_8QFggxMAI&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thepresidency.gov.za%2Fdo wnload%2Ffile%2Ffid%2F58&usg=AFQjCNHi43fPCnUBkrgjiJdEkpECVnPgig
South African Constitution Chapter 2 Section 28 - http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-2bill-rights#28
South African Constitution Chapter 2 Section 29 - http://www.gov.za/documents/constitution/chapter-2bill-rights#29
South African Government Newsroom - http://www.gov.za/speeches/basic-education-holds-nationalschool-nutrition-programme-best-school-and-district-awards
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals - https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg4
Andrew Hartnack is the Projects Director & Senior Researcher at the Sustainable Livelihoods Foundation, a Cape Town based development research and advocacy non-profit company. Andrew is a social anthropologist who holds a PhD from the University of Cape Town. He has 16 years of experience in conducting social/developmental research and evaluations around southern Africa. Among other interests, Andrew's current focus is on understanding the challenges faced by young people in South Africa around obtaining a good education and developing positive and sustainable future prospects, and in identifying opportunities and solutions which may help them to overcome such challenges.
Table of key facts and issues
| Key fact | | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| School dropout (also known as early “withdrawal”, or “attrition”) has been defined as “leaving education without obtaining a minimal credential” | | De Witte et al. (2013: 1). |
| | The problem | |
| South Africa has a very high rate of participation (over 95%), in the compulsory grades 1-9 But most school dropout in South Africa occurs in grades 10 and 11, resulting in 50% of learners in any one cohort dropping out before reaching grade 12 In 2013, only 40% of those who had commenced school 12 years previously passed matric. Thus, 60% of young South Africans effectively drop out of school, with no school-leaving qualification to their names. “There are large racial inequalities in matric attainment: only 44% of Black and Coloured youth aged 23-24 had attained matric compared to 83% of Indian youth and 88% of White youth”. | | Branson et al. (2013: 12); Fleisch et al. (2009: 41); Sabates et al. (2010: 2) Spaull (2015: 34). Spaull (2015: 36) Spaull (2015: 35). |
| | The causes | |
| There “is no single risk factor that can be used to accurately predict who is at risk of dropping out”. Over 40 different risk factors relating to dropout have been identified: identifying the cause and tracking such risk factors is a very difficult task. Dropout should not be understood as a single event, but the result of a long process of disengagement; a cumulative, multidimensional process caused by the convergence of a number of factors over time. One useful way of trying to conceptualise the ways in which complex risk factors interact is to identify and understand how “push-out factors” (in the school) and “pull-out factors” (in the individual, family, society) interact. Causes can be identified at community, family, individual or school levels | | Hammond et al. (2007: 1) Dockery (N.D.: 8). Branson et al. (2013); De Witte et al. (2013); Dockery (N.D.); Hammond et al. (2007); Sabates et al. (2010). Dockery (N.D.: 11) |
are limited, housing is run-down and rented rather than owned, crime is high etc.);
* Positive or negative influences of peer groups (high achieving and motivated peers versus peers involved with crime, drugs and violence);
* The pull of early employment opportunities (especially in poor households where the opportunity-cost of schooling is high);
* Social discrimination and prejudice, especially that aimed at minority or underprivileged learners
* Most black and coloured South Africans are trapped in a position where access to a quality education is nearly impossible, perpetuating their poverty and inability to be upwardly mobile.
* Teenage pregnancy "accounts for 33% of drop-out amongst female learners" – schools are not supposed to discriminate but stigma is high.
* Female learners may be habitually absent or drop out due to lack of access to sanitary pads during their menstrual cycles.
* Negative peer pressure, sucks young people into drug/alcohol abuse, anti-social or delinquent behaviour and negative attitudes towards school.
* Drugs and gangsterism pose a very powerful "pull-out" factor for school-going youth.
Family factors
* Where families stay far from school, and cannot afford transport, uniforms, stationary and other additional costs of schooling, dropout becomes a high risk
* High family mobility (common in SA) is a key risk factor for school dropout.
* Family structure: Those living with a parent or grandparent are much more likely to attend school and dropout is lowest amongst children growing up with two biological parents. Learners with large numbers of siblings are more at risk of dropping out.
* HIV/AIDS: children need to care for sick family members and become breadwinners.
* Orphanhood: 32% of children out of school have one or both parents dead. Children living in child-headed households are also much more likely to drop out.
* "Shocks" at family level, such as illness, death and loss of employment play a role in dropout.
Ekstrom et al. (1986); Hammond et al. (2007)
De Witte et al. (2013); Rumberger (2004)
Herbert and Reis (1999)
Spaull (2015) Moses et al. (2017)
Spaull (2015: 37)
Tegegne and Molla (2014)
Mnguni (2014: 32)
Steinberg (2004); Pinnock (2016)
Branson et al. (2013: 17); Dieltiens and Meny-Gibert (2009); Sabates et al (2010: 12)
Hammond et al. (2007: 31)
Branson et al. (2013: 13) Rumberger (1983)
Hammond (2007: 4)
Richter (2004)
Fleisch et al. (2009: 44) Case and Ardington (2006)
Branson et al. (2013: 12)
De Witte et al. (2013: 10)
Sabates et al. (2010: 13)
* Parent's educational levels: Lower education levels increase the risk of dropout.
* More reading material in the house results in less dropout.
* High stress and limited support and warmth at home creates increases the risk of dropout.
* The "emotional climate" of the parent-child relationship also plays a role.
* Children born outside the country are more at risk of dropping out.
Individual Factors
* Grade retention and being past the typical age in a grade are one of the most important predictors of school dropout.
* "Learners who are behind for their age are 25 percentage points more likely to dropout of school without completing grade 12 than learners on track".
* Physical disabilities, learning disabilities and emotional disturbances, including foetal alcohol syndrome.
* Poor foundational learning: Lack of numeracy and literacy foundations by high school.
* Poor attendance and frequent absenteeism are an important predictor of who is at risk of dropping out.
* Low educational expectations and associated lack of effort, no commitment to school, limited participation in after school programmes.
* Misbehaviour, early aggression and delinquency at school.
* High-risk peer groups and high-risk social behaviour (drugs, alcohol, early sexual activity) significantly increases the chance of dropout.
School Factors
* Poor quality of foundational, basic and secondary education available to the majority of people.
* Struggling learners in schools which perform poorly are at a much higher risk of dropping out than struggling learners in schools which perform better.
Rumberger (1983) November (2010: 8)
Frank (1990)
De Witte et al. (2013: 11) Duchesne et al. (2009)
Fleisch et al. (2009: 44).
De Witte et al. (2013: 8) Entwistle et al. (2004; 2005)
Branson et al. (2013: 19)
Hammond et al. (2007) Fleisch et al. (2009: 42)
Spaull (2015: 36)
Hammond (2007)
Hammond (2007)
Dockery (N.D.); Hammond (2007); Wallace (2016)
Mnguni (2014)
Gustafsson (2011); Moses et al.
(2017)
Branson et al. (2013: 17)
Moses et al. (2017: 3)
* "By grade 9, learners in poor (mostly black) schools, have a [learning] backlog of approximately 3.5 years relative to their rich school counterparts".
* Large class sizes make teaching difficult.
* Lack of resources (desks, chairs, text books in underresourced schools.
* "Teachers lack the basic content knowledge and pedagogical skill to teach the subjects they are teaching".
* Large schools: Difficult to build a well-functioning and performing school, or create a positive and productive school atmosphere.
* Bullying and violence, alcohol and substance abuse cause learner disengagement and withdrawal.
* Lack of "school social capital": caring teachers, social workers or counsellors who offer psycho-social support to at-risk learners.
* The "facilitating out" of learners who might bring down the NSC result: the "culling" or "weeding" of weaker learners before they reached matric.
* Inappropriate subject choices.
* Pregnant learners being pressurised to leave school, despite this being against policy.
* Disengaging and irrelevant curriculum: too heavily focussed on academics, maths and science at the expense of the arts and more practical skills.
The Solutions
"Any policy decision of relevance must necessarily focus on the whole aggregate of factors at the level of students, families, schools and the broader environment…there is neither a single or simple solution to be found"
The only policy which specifically addresses policy is the National Youth Policy 2015-2020 where "high drop-out rates and inadequate skills development" as its second situation analysis and challenge. Improving literacy and numeracy levels at the primary school level is seen as a key intervention to improve participation overall.
Multi-level and integrated approaches work better than a patchwork of independent programmes Systemic Interventions
* Restricting grade retention: And limiting overage learners.
Gustafsson (2011: 42)
(Gustafsson (2011: 41); De Witte et al. 2013: 12).
Spaull (2015: 39)
Wills (2015)
De Witte et al. (2013); Gustafsson (2011: 24-6); Mnguni (2014)
De Witte et al (2013: 13)
De Witte et al. (2013: 17; Dockery (N.D. 8); Branson et al. (2013: 4)
Gustafsson (2011: 39)
Spaull (2015: 37).
Pinnock (2016: 235-6)
Gustafsson: 2011: 43).
De Witte et al. (2013: 15).
South African National Youth Policy 2015-2020
GW-CEEE (2012: 8)
De Witte et al. (2013: 15);
Branson et al. 2013: 19);
Sabates et al. (2010: 18)
* Improved quality and access to Early Childhood Development
* Improved quality of education and the school curriculum
* The curriculum must be more culturally relevant, rigorous and challenging with more focus on vocational training.
* Vastly improved school structure and systems, enabling "Schoolwide reform to enhance student engagement": creating a caring environment, a culture of support, a good school vibe, high expectations, a strong connection to post school options and "a cohesive, student-centred learning environment" in which there is a positive relationship between learners and teachers.
* School bullying prevention programmes and counselling for bad behaviour rather than expulsion are recommended.
* Early warning tracking systems: at school level, district level and provincial level to identify and track potential dropouts
Programmatic Interventions
* Focus on schools, families and individual learners and focus not only where problems become noticeable but in the earlier grades where the process of disengagement and dropout has its foundations. Transitions, between grades and between junior and secondary school need particular attention.
* Academic interventions: Improving teaching; addressing learner backlogs through catch-up programmes; small group tutoring, academic after school programmes; homework support; experiential learning.
* Psychosocial and adult support: Provision of PSS through trained advocates and the creation of meaningful and supportive relationships with adults; support through home visits, social services referrals, counselling, group work and peer support.
* Social and life skills development: Developing the social skills of young people, including communication skills,
Spaull (2015)
Branson et al. (2013; Dieltiens and Meny-Gibert (2009); Gustafsson (2011); Moses et al. (2017); Spaull (2015) De Witte et al. (2013); Dockery (N.D.: 32); Gustafsson (2011: 43); Pinnock (2016: 235-6)
Dockery (N.D.: 13;17)
Dockery (N.D. 20)
Dockery (N.D.: 13); GW-CEEE (2012: 3; 8).
Dockery (N.D.: 23; 32)
GW-CEEE (2012: 4); Spaull (2015); De Witte et al. (2013: 15); Hammond et al. (2007: 54).
Dockery (N.D.: 14); De Witte et al. (2013: 15; Sabates et al (2010: 14-16); GW-CEEE (2012: 8)
problem solving, emotional intelligence, goal setting, conflict resolution, peer resistance and appropriate behaviours. Life skills programmes are also key.
* After school programmes (ASPs): are crucial in building social skills and life skills, in addition to contributing to academic and behavioural interventions.
* Targeting high risk behaviours: Working with learners who display high-risk and anti-social behaviours. Active and strong school counselling services, peer education and dropout prevention taskforces.
* Family interventions: Family interventions that build strong connections to learner's families are crucial. Interventions include family counselling, parenting and family management workshops, communication skills workshops and parent discussion groups, to improve parenting skills and home environments.
* Re-engagement and reintegration: Finding ways to reengage and reintegrate those who have already dropped out is also crucial especially since their life and career prospects without a school-leavers certificate have been shown to be meagre. Second Chance programmes and the availability of an alternative minimal credential (vocational) are important.
Emerging Opportunities
Programmes which focus on inculcating "grit" into vulnerable learners.
South Africa must seriously consider a National School Dropout Taskforce, and draw up a National Prevention Strategy on School Dropout.
Charmaraman and Hall (2011);
Dockery (N.D.: 16); Hammond et al. (2007: 53).
Mihalic (2005); Charmaraman and Hall (2011).
Charmaraman and Hall (2011)
Dockery (N.D.: 19)
De Witte et al. (2013: 16); GWCEEE (2012: 4)
Dockery (N.D.: 19); Hammond et al. (2007: 54)
Moore (2016); Moses et al. (2017: 42)
De Witte et al. (2013: 17); Dichaba (2013); Gustafsson (2011); Pinnock (2016).
Duckworth (2016)
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The HOT CARS Act
(H.R. 3593 /S. 1601)
THE PROBLEM: More than 940 children have died in hot cars since 1990. Education and awareness are at an all-time high, yet the number of children dying in hot cars is also at an alltime high. Last year, hot car deaths reached a record high of at least 54 children. This year alone, 52 kids have already died in hot cars. Changes in routine, stress, sleep deprivation and other factors can predispose one's brain to go on "autopilot" during which a parent or caregiver loses awareness of a child (or pet) in the back seat of a car. Nearly 30% of hot car deaths are attributable to a child climbing into a vehicle on their own and becoming trapped.
THE SOLUTION: Inexpensive technology exists and is available today that can detect the presence of an occupant in a car and engage a variety of alerts in the form of honking horns, flashing lights, dashboard warnings, or even text messages. The 'detection' feature is necessary to address children who get into vehicles on their own. The HOT CARS Act directs the Secretary of Transportation to issue a rule requiring such technology in all new cars, with compliance by automakers required no more than two years after the rule is issued.
THE SUPPORT: The HOT CARS Act is supported by more than 70 diverse national organizations representing among others, pediatricians, nurses, law enforcement, auto safety and animal rights groups.
THE ACTION NEEDED TO SAVE LIVES NOW: Although automakers recently announced a non-binding, voluntary agreement to install rear-occupant alert systems by 2025, the agreement falls far short of what is needed. A "voluntary agreement" is just that, it is voluntary and unenforceable. Automakers are under no obligation to comply; detection technology is not required; there is no way to verify effectiveness of the system (minimum performance standard); and, the implementation deadline is beyond what is in the bill if the bill is enacted this year. Without technology, children will continue to die in hot cars. Congress should advance The HOT CARS Act immediately.
For more information, visit:
kidsandcars.org/hot-cars-follow-up-info
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Dynamic Soil Moisture Control System for Irrigation Using GSM
Rabiu Aminu and Deepthi Raveendrababu Sugathakumari
Abstract—Agriculture plays a significant role in economic development for the African continent. For example, 45% of the Kenyan revenue is generated from Agriculture. In Africa, agricultural activities are primarily dependents on rain which is an insufficient source and thus the need for irrigation. In order to enhance water utilization efficiency and increase crops productivity, a new system called Dynamic Soil Moisture Control System (DSMCS) for irrigation using Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) technology is introduced. The proposed system uses PIC16F877 microcontroller, dc motor, soil moisture and water level sensor to monitor any changes in the soil moisture content in the farm and water level in the irrigation tank. The GSM modem is configured using Attention (AT) commands to enable a real-time monitoring of the farm remotely. All the status of the farm are dynamically monitored using DSMCS and send to the farmer through short messages (SMS), which resolves the distance and range problem. From the results obtained, the proposed system ensures adequate irrigation to plants based on soil moisture content and thus minimized water wastage.
time are also wasted in the process. Thus, the automated irrigation technique needs to be designed to bring an advanced of technology into the area of agriculture which plays a significant role in the economic development of the African continent. This technique used soil moisture sensor to detect the moisture content of the soil and sends signal to the microcontroller and accordingly irrigates crops. This paper presents a dynamic soil moisture control system (DSMCS) for irrigation using Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM). The main objective is to provide adequate water to crops and at the same time minimize the water wastage by monitoring soil moisture changes. Soil moisture sensor measures changes in the moisture level of the soil and sends signal to the microcontroller and accordingly communicates to the user through GSM network. Water level sensor is added to this project to monitor the amount of water in the irrigation tank and sends the information to the user.
Keywords— DC motor, GSM modem, Microcontroller, Soil moisture sensor, SMS messages water level sensor.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Related works are summarized in section II. The working principle of the proposed system is described in section III, which includes the system block diagram, block diagram description, and components used. In section IV the system design is discussed. Experimental results are presented in section V. Finally, conclusion and recommendation are given in section VI.
I. INTRODUCTION
HE significant increasing demand for food has necessitated the rapid improvement in food production technology. The major source of income for most African countries is agriculture,[1], [2]. However, majority of these countries depend on rain for agricultural activities. This high dependency on rain reduces agricultural productivity in the continent. Only few farmers in the continent practice irrigation as an alternative way of supplying water to the crops. Most of these farmers use manual and traditional irrigation methods to provide water to their crops on regular basis. These include drip irrigation, ditch irrigation, sprinkler system etc. However, the manual and traditional irrigation techniques cannot ensure a stable supply of water to the crops, they consume time and are ineffective. Due to the lack of water management in the manual irrigation techniques, sometime the field become dry and sometime flooded with excess water. This might lead to the significant waste of water which is in the red alarm in countries like Kenya, Nigeria etc. Other resources such as man power, energy and T
Rabiu Aminu, Department of Electrical Engineering, Pan African University Institute of Basic Sciences Technology and Innovation, JKUAT, +254796217162 (email:email@example.com).
II. RELATED WORKS
Over the years, several semi-automated and automated irrigation control systems have been proposed to address water wastage and increase crops productivity. The most widely used irrigation control systems use timers, controllers and switches to irrigate crops for a specific interval of time regardless of soil moisture content. ZigBee, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are employed in this class of irrigation control systems. These systems have advantages over the manual irrigation techniques. The major drawbacks of these systems are limited range and lack of consideration for the soil moisture content of the farmland. However, soil moisture content has crucial impact on crops growth, reproduction and photosynthesis. Thus, getting information about soil moisture content accurately, effectively and timely plays an important role in guiding water saving irrigation [3]. The breakthrough of GSM technology and soil moisture sensors increased research interest in the area of remote control systems. With the use of GSM technology, the
Deepthi, School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Linton University College, KTG Education Group, 12,71700 Mantin, Negeri Sembilan Malaysia (email: firstname.lastname@example.org)
122
user and control system can communicate by sending and receiving Short Message Service (SMS) messages. Based on this technology many automated systems have been proposed, such as a remote monitoring through mobile phone using spoken commands [4], SMS controlled irrigation system with moisture sensor [5], internet based wireless home automation system for malfunctioning devices [6], a remotely controlled home automation system [7], etc.
Although, several irrigation control systems have been developed in the past years, most of them are semi-automated and do not use soil moisture sensor. Few automated irrigation systems that used moisture sensor can be found in [8], [9], [10], [11], and [12]. In general, GSM based automated irrigation control system has three important parts. The soil moisture sensor, which senses any change in the moisture level of the farm and sends the information to the control unit. The second part is the control unit. The microcontroller is the most widely used device for this purpose. It is the brain of the system, programmed to receive information from the sensing unit and communicates with the user. The microcontroller sends commands to different components of the system, handles real time data and takes timely decisions. The third part is the GSM modem, which is interfaced with the microcontroller using set of Attention (AT) commands. This device receives information from the microcontroller and sends it to the user's mobile phone through wireless communication.
To increase productivity and minimize water wastage numerous improved automated irrigation control systems have been presented recently. In [13], [14], and [15], a low cost automatic irrigation control system is introduced based on microcontroller and GSM technology. In [16], an automatic irrigation control system for smart city using Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition System (SCADA) is proposed. The system employed SCADA and fuzzy system to reduce the level of water wastage in irrigation. Namala et.al [17], presented a smart irrigation with embedded system. The system is based on the concept of Raspberry and soil moisture sensor. A solar powered automatic irrigation system on sensing moisture content using Arduino and GSM modem is introduced in [18], this system used solar energy, soil moisture sensor, GSM, and Arduino to supply adequate water to plants. In [19], Banumathi et.al presented an android based automatic irrigation system using Bayesian network with SMS voice alert. The system used Wireless Sensor Network (WSN), Arduino, and General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) module to provide water to the farms based on water level conditions. In [20], [21], an automatic irrigation systems based on Internet of Things (IoT) are proposed to minimize water wastage and human intervention in the irrigation process. Lastly, Kumar et.al [22] developed an automatic solar powered drip irrigation system using Wireless Sensor Network Technology (WSNT) by integrating Solar Photovoltaic System (SPV), Arduino microcontroller, soil moisture sensor, mobile Bluetooth, water tank, pump etc. The intension is to ensure uniform watering at right time without manual intervention and thus enhance quality and quantity of agricultural yields.
123
III. PROPOSED SYSTEM
Fig.1 shows the overall block diagram of Dynamic soil moisture control system for irrigation. The block diagram consists of three important parts: GSM modem, Microcontroller, and soil moisture sensor.
Fig.1: System block diagram
𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴𝑴
Controller
Soil Moisture Sensors
Water level sensor
L C D
Display
Driver
Circuit
D C Motor
Power
Supply
GSM
Modem
User
mobile
Phone
A. Block diagram description
The Dynamic soil moisture control system for irrigation block diagram comprises of microcontroller circuit, which acts as the central processing unit of the system. It is also interfaced with GSM modem, Liquid Crystal Display (LCD), moisture sensor and motor driver. Microcontroller is programmed with an embedded C- code to send commands to different components of the system and receives input data from soil moisture sensor and GSM modem. Through LCD a user can know the status of the field such as soil moisture content in the farmland, motor speed, and the amount of water in the tank. The GSM modem is used to describe protocols for digital cellular networks and interfaced with microcontroller to receive and send messages which indirectly control the entire system. GSM modem is controlled by a set of AT commands. Soil moisture sensor is as associated with the farm field to detect the moisture content of the soil. The data received from the sensor is sent to the microcontroller, which sends SMS messages to the user according to the received data. Water level sensor is added to this project to indicate the amount of water in the irrigation tank. The entire system is driven by 240V AC power supply.
B. Materials
The main materials needed for this study are described as follows:
1.1 Microcontroller
A microcontroller is a high integrated functional computer system-on-a-chip. It contains an integrated memory and programmable input/output peripherals. Microcontrollers often operate at a very low speed and consume relatively little power. Microcontroller is now available in different families such as Intel, Motorola, Peripheral Interface Controller (PIC), Atmel, and so on. The choice depends on the application and the company preferred. For this project PIC16F877 has been
selected, because of its additional features such Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (USART), Analogue to Digital (A/D) converters, Pulse with Modulation (PWM) module which are very vital for this project. The PIC16F877 is a high performance modified Harvard Reduced instruction set computer (RIC) chip manufactured by microchip technology. It has 40 pins, 8k flash of program Read Only Memory (ROM), 368 byte of Random Access memory (RAM) and 256 byte of nonvolatile EEPROM memory, 33 I/O pins, 8 multiplexed A/D converters with 10 bits of resolution, PWM generator, three inbuilt timers, UART internal interrupt facilities and so on. The ROM or code ROM is used for storing program and the RAM is used for storing data. Figure 3.6 shows the pin configuration of PIC16F877 microcontroller [23].
1.2 Soil moisture sensor
A soil moisture sensor is a two terminal Integrated Circuit(IC) which uses a simple principle of conduction between to wires in a medium. This IC consists of two wires one with the 5V supply and the other one was the ground. When there is water in the field, a medium being established between the wires and conduction will take place between the wires. The voltage at the microcontroller will go low indicating the wet condition of the field. In the wet condition the motor will be in off state. If there is no water in the field, there is no conduction between the wires and the voltage at the microcontroller will go high indicating the dry condition of the field and the motor will be in ON position
1.3 GSM modem
GSM modem is used in this project to provide a two way communication between the user and the irrigation system through SMS messages. It is interfaced through the serial port of the PIC16F877 microcontroller. A set of AT commands are sent to GSM modem through its serial port, which is triggered by the microcontroller during the instances at which the interaction between the system and user are required. For this project a GSM SIM900 is used because of its special features which are very important for this study. GSM modem SIM900 is a quad-band GSM/GPRS modem engine, works on the frequencies of 850MHz, 900MHz, 1800MHz and 1900MHz and is small in size. This modem has an inbuilt RS232 level converter circuitry which allows interfacing it to the PC serial port directly. The baud rate ranges from 9600-115200 which is configurable using AT commands. It has an internal Transfer Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) which makes it easy to connect with internet via GPRS. SIM900 is suitable for sending and reading SMS messages, calling as well as transfer of data application in Machine to Machine (M2M) interface. In addition, it needs only three wires that are Transmitter, Receiver and Ground (TR, RX, and GND) to interface with microcontroller and host Personal Computer (PC) [24].
1.4 DC motor
The main criteria to be considered when selecting a motor are the torque and speed of the motor. Many different motors such as servomotors, stepper motor, dc motors with and without gears are available in the market. These different motors are used according to their applications and requirements. For example, if we want high torque and precise speed we need to use servo motors, if we want to only position and if high torques not required then stepper motors are used. The motor can be selected once we know the torque and speed required for our application. A 12V DC motor is used for this project. The speed of this motor is counted in terms of rotations of the shaft per minute which is represented as RPM. The speed of this motor can easily be controlled by PWM (pulse with modulation) technique. By increasing and decreasing the duty cycle, its speed can be reduced to any desirable figure. This concept where the speed of the motor is controlled by monitoring the driven voltage ON and OFF time is called PWM technique of DC motor speed control [25]. A DC motor uses a permanent magnet to generate the magnetic field in which the armature rotates. Therefore, it can easily be modelled by using electrical circuit.
IV. SYSTEM DESIGN
The system design is divided into software and hardware design.
A. Software Design
The software used for writing the embedded C-program for implementing this project is MikroC Pro for PIC. This software makes the programming easier and the program can easily be run, built, compiled and debugged. To avoid errors when debugging the codes, the family of the needed devices is selected before writing the codes. Here PIC16F family is selected, one attribute about this software is that it support any category of PIC and for this project PIC16F877 is specifically selected.
The flowchart of the proposed system is depicted in Fig.2. The first step is to initialize the ports for LCD and motor as the outputs of the system, the PWM pin of the motor should also be initialized. The A/D converter port is declared for interfacing the moisture sensor and the serial port of the microcontroller is interfaced with GSM modem. When the system is in ON position, the soil moisture sensor will detect the soil moisture content and send the information to the microcontroller. The level of the moisture content will be displayed on LCD while at the same time sending a message to the farmer mobile phone about the status of the field (soil moisture is high or medium or low). Based on the received data, the farmer can send message to rotate the motor at the required speed. For example, the farmer can send message to rotate the motor at full speed if the field is dry, medium speed if the field has little moisture and to stop the rotation of the motor when the moisture is high. Since the process is continuous, after displaying the first outputs the microcontroller will continuously check the soil moisture content and send SMS message to the user to rotate the motor according to the received data. Anytime the soil moisture content changes, the system will communicate to the farmer instantly.
Fig.2: Flowchart of the proposed system
START
System initialization
Read data from soil moisture sensor
Check the soil moisture
level
NO
YES
Motor OFF
Is soil
moisture
high?
Moisture High
Is soil
moisture
medium
YES
Moisture Modera
te
Motor ON and control
the speed
Is soil
moisture
low?
NO
YES
Moisture Low
Motor ON at full speed
Send Message to the
mobile user
B. Hardware Design
The hardware implementation process involves schematic circuit design, breadboard testing, Printed Circuit Board (PCB) layout design, etching and finally system prototype testing.
1.1 Simulations diagram
The overall simulation diagram of Dynamic soil moisture control system for irrigation using GSM is shown in Fig.3.
1.2 AT commands testing
Before the breadboard testing, it is important to test the GSM modem to see if it can send and receive SMS message. In this project the test is carried out by connecting the GSM modem with computer via RS232 cable and hyper terminal software is used for verifying its functionality as shown in the Fig.4.
1.2 Breadboard testing
It is important before the PCB design, to build the circuit on the breadboard to test how the circuit behaves prior to the implementation. Fig.5 shows the breadboard connection of the system.
V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Experiment is conducted to determine the relationship between the analogue voltage, duty cycle and speed of the DC motor. The data is collected at various speed levels and corresponding voltage readings were measured using multimeter. The hardware performance is tested at various soil moisture levels. The motor speed is also recorded at high speed, medium speed and low speed.
A. Microcontroller input and output voltage
Fig.6 and Fig.7 show the voltage regulator input and output voltage measured using multimeter.
JKUAT Main Campus, Kenya
Table 1: Voltage regulator LM7805 input and output
| | SNO | | Parameter | | Voltage (V) | | Current (A) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | | Input | | 11.75 | | 1.95 | |
| 2 | | Output | | 4.89 | | 0.3 | |
As shown in table 1, the input current from the supply voltage is 1.95A and the corresponding output current is recorded to be 300mA. This means that the voltage regulator ensures 5V constant voltage is supplied to the microcontroller irrespective of the supply voltage fluctuation. The output current from the microcontroller is not enough to derive the dc motor. Thus, a motor driver is required to boost the current to the motor requirement.
B. DC motor driver input and output voltage
Since, the microcontroller output voltage cannot drive the dc motor due to the high current drawn by the motor when starting H-bridge driver is used. This will receive the microcontroller output as input and amplify the output current up to 2.2A which is enough to drive the motor as shown in the table 2.
Table 2: DC motor driver input and output
| | S/NO | | Parameters | | Voltage (V) | | Current (A) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | | Input | | 4.89 | | 0.3 | |
| 2 | | Output | | 10.82 | | 1.53 | |
As shown in table 2, whenever the output from the microcontroller is 0V the transistor inside the motor driver circuit will act as an open switch. The purpose is to set the driver output voltage to 10.82V. Similarly, if the output from the microcontroller is 4.89V the transistor acts as a closed switch hence 0V will appear across the driver circuit. This concept makes the motor driver to have enough current to drive the motor
C. Moisture level measurement with respect to voltage
The speed of the dc motor is measured using tachometer and the corresponding voltage at low, medium and high moisture level is recorded using voltmeter. The result is tabulated in the table 3.
127
JKUAT Main Campus, Kenya
Table 3: soil moisture level with voltage
| S/NO | Parameters | | Voltage | | Count | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | | | (V) | | Value | |
| 1 | High moisture | 0-0.63 | | 0-99 | | Moisture level high |
| 2 | Medium moisture | 1.34-0.6 | | 100-199 | | Moisture level Medium |
| 3 | Dried condition | 4.94 | | 200-255 | | Moisture level Low |
A shown in Fig.10 and Fig.11, the soil moisture sensor shows a count value of 200-255 when the voltage is 4.94V, 100-199 for 1.34V and when the voltage is 0-0.63 the count value is between 0 -99 as recorded in table 3.
As shown in table 1 to table 3, the moisture level increases with decrease in voltage.
C. System prototype operation
The system prototype is depicted in Fig.13
Fig.13 to Fig.15 shows the operation of the system under various conditions, Fig.13 shows the speed of the motor when the moisture is low. Fig.14 shows the motor speed when the soil
moisture is medium while Fig.15 shows the speed when the moisture is high and the motor running at high speed.
Fig.13: Moisture low motor running at High speed
128
VI. CONCLUSION
A Dynamic soil moisture control system for irrigation using GSM was successfully designed and implemented in this paper. The system notifies the user any changes in soil moisture content in the farmland and water level in the irrigation tank through SMS messages. The proposed DSMCS also provides feature to the farmer to select the speed at which the system should operate such as high, medium or low speed depends on the condition of the farm. Thus, the DSMCS proved that, the irrigation system can be controlled remotely and operated from far places. In addition, the developed system ensures effective irrigation to plants and thus minimized water wastage which is on red alarm in the African continent.
For future enhancement of this work, the system could be designed to use solar energy as its power supply which is one of the non-conventional energy sources, especially for some areas where the supply of electricity is not constant. Furthermore, instead of supplying water manually to the irrigation tank, the system can be modified in such a way that the irrigation water can be driven from the rain water harvesting (RWH) tanks installed on the farms. Moreover, the system can be enhanced so that the user can send an SMS message to the system to refill the irrigation tank when it is low. By rotating the motor to suck the water from the ground, this will save time and energy. The Dynamic soil moisture control system for irrigation using GSM could further be improved, so that if the water level reaches to the danger level, the motor will automatically start to ensure proper water in the farm field. The system could also be improved to use voice message so that even disabled community people especially those who lost their eyesight can operate the system.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank Petroleum Technology Development Fund (PTDF) for sporting this work. Our appreciation to all the lecturers of the School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Linton University College, KTG Education Group.
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Full-Lesson #8: Bird Beak Morphology
Overview of Outcomes
After being introduced to the Hawaiian forest bird species, students will be given various tools/utensils and an assortment of objects. The students will then be challenged to find the most appropriate equipment for picking up objects of different sizes and shapes. The goal of this lesson is to demonstrate the specialization of beak forms to accommodate different types of food. This will promote a basic, tactile understanding of the reasons behind different beak morphologies in Hawaiian forest birds.
Materials
Activity Worksheet http://kauaiforestbirds.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/Suppl_Lesson8.pdf Utensils (chopsticks, spoons, forceps, binder clips)
Plastic Cups
"Food Items" (Pennies, Toothpicks, Marbles are ideal)
Timers
Calculators
Activity Directions
1) Teachers will begin class with a review of Hawaiian forest bird adaptations, emphasizing the diversity of beak shapes found in Hawaiian honeycreepers. It may be beneficial for teachers to define the term morphology, as this will be the focus of the lesson. Teachers will then introduce the activity for the day, and talk about how the students will gain hands-on (beakson?) experience in learning about bird beak morphology. Teachers may prompt students to develop hypotheses about which beaks (utensils) will be best suited for certain items. (~15 minute introduction)
2) Teachers will pass out the supplies to groups of 3-5 students. Each student will have an opportunity to try out each utensil set (beak type) in picking up each food type (pennies = bugs, toothpicks = worms, marbles = fruit) and drop it in the plastic cup. The students will have 15 seconds per try. Students will then take the average of all group members' attempts. (20-25 minutes)
3) Teachers will bring the class together to talk about which "beak types" were best suited for picking up each item. Teachers can close class with a debriefing presentation on the diversity of beak shapes and functions in Hawaiian forest birds. Overall, it is important to communicate the specialization of Hawaiian forest birds for specific food types. Concepts such as ecological niches can be addressed here. Teachers may also prompt students to hypothesize what would happen if a bird's food source disappeared (this could be an effective preface for later lessons on species extinctions).
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STUDENT'S BOOK
Page 75
4.
1 wrote
2 flew
3 created
4 became
5 tried
6 invented
7 played, helped, stopped
5.
1 Christopher Columbus discovered America
2 Miguel de Cervantes created the character Don Quixote.
3 Angelina Jolie helped refugees in Cambodia
4 Antoni Gaudí designed many unusual buildings.
5 Michael Phelps won 22 Olympic medals.
6 Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web.
7.
Page 77
7.
1 False – Durón Miranda didn't come from Argentina.
2 False – The children didn't buy food at the rubbish dump.
3 False – The children didn't go to school every day.
4 True
5 True
6 False – He didn't become rich.
7 False – He didn't buy a house.
8 True
8.
KEYS ON EXERCICIES FOR 1º ESO – B FOR UNITS 6 &7
UNIT 6
9.
1 Where did Kate Winslet and her children go in 2011? To the Virgin Islands
2 How did the children get out of the house? Kate took them outside
3 Why did Kate carry her friend's mother? Because she was old and it was difficult for her to walk
4 Did the car stop after the accident? No, it didn't
5 Did Tom Cruise help the woman? Yes, he did
6 How did the woman get to hospital? In an ambulance
WORKBOOK
Page 48
1.
1 apple
2 cake
3 time
4 school
5 television
2.
1 donates
2 discover
3 receives
4 compete
5 saves
6 creates
7 design
8 organises
3.
1 discover –b
2 helps – e
3 invent – c
4 collect – f
5 change – a
6 looks after – d
4. Students' answers
Page 49
1.
2.
1 wrote
2 was
3 gave
4 sang
5 travelled
3.
5 had
4. Possible answers
1 Rihanna donated over £1 million to a hospital in Barbados.
2 My friends and I collected money for a dog shelter.
3 The band One Direction helped poor children in Ghana.
4 My parents decided to go to a film last night.
Speaking
1 Cleopatra ruled Egypt.
2 Robin hood helped poor people.
3 Neil Armstrong walked on the moon.
4 George Washington became the first president of the USA.
5 Christopher Columbus travelled to America.
6 Marie Curie discovered polonium.
Page 50
1.
1 didn't draw
2 didn't become
3 didn't write
4 didn't invent
5 didn't teach
6 didn't send
2. Possible answers
1 People didn't use computers in Ancient Rome.
2 People didn't go rollerblading.
3 People didn't talk on mobile phones.
4 People didn't wear trousers
5 There weren't planes in Ancient Rome.
3.
1 Did children play games? Yes, they did
2 Did people build large buildings? Yes, they did
3 Did people buy fruit? Yes, they did
4 What did people wear on their feet? They wore sandals
4.
1 died
2 didn't have
3 opened
4 was
5 heard
6 decided
7 did … do
Speaking
1. C 2. A 3. D 4. B
8 took
9 washed
10 didn't want
11 didn't stop
12 organised
13 became
STUDENT'S BOOK
Page 91
5.
1 were looking
2 was wearing, was asking
3 were opening
4 was throwing
5 were running, were holding
6.
1 Easter
2 Halloween
3 Christmas
4 La Tomatina
5 Pancake Day
7.
1 were sitting
2 were eating
3 was giving
4 wasn't eating
5 wasn't helping
6 was talking
7 was waiting
8 weren't making
9 were sleeping
10 were wearing
11 were singing
12 were carrying
The texts are describing Thanksgiving and Saint Lucy's Day.
Thanksgiving is celebrated in the USA and Saint Lucy's Day is celebrated mainly in the Scandinavian Countries and in Italy.
8. Students' answers.
Page 93
7.
1 Was Jake writing his food blog two years ago? No, he wasn't. He started his food blog a year ago.
2 When was Jake visiting New Orleans? Last month/ on the 14 th October
3 Where were people eating ants with chocolate? At the Audubon Butterfly Garden in New Orleans.
4 Why was Jake travelling in Cambodia? There isn't any information in the text.
5 Was the food vendor in Cambodia cooking tarantulas in his home? No, he wasn't. He was at a street market cooking the tarantulas on an open fire and selling them to the tourists as snacks.
6 What were tourists buying in Cambodia? They were buying bags of spiders.
8.
1 Why was she running?
2 Who was singing in the shower last night?
3 Where were you living in 1998?
4 Why were they screaming?
UNIT 7
5 When were you writing the story?
6 What was your dad doing at 7 o'clock this morning?
7 What were you all doing at midnight?
8 Were you playing cards at 9 o'clock last night?
9.
1 was reading
2 was waiting
3 was explaining
4 were … eating
5 were making
WORKBOOK
Page 57
1. Possible answers
1Kate wasn't leaving the party. She was serving hamburgers.
2 Laura and Max weren't dancing. They were talking.
3 Andi wasn't playing the guitar. She was leaving the party.
4 Jake wasn't dancing. He was drinking.
5 Rosie and Tom weren't cutting the cake. They were dancing.
6 Helen wasn't serving hamburgers. She was cutting the cake.
2. Students' answers.
3.
1 was putting
2 wasn't preparing
3 were waiting
4 was enjoying
6 was shouting
7 was sitting
8 was smiling
9 were … laughing
5 was taking
Speaking
1. B 2. A 3. D 4. C
Page 58
1.
1 What was Tony doing at 3.00 in the morning?
2 Where was Toy's dad having lunch?
3 What were the businessmen eating?
4 Were they drinking cola?
5 What were other people buying?
6 What was Tony's dad doing at 10.00 this morning?
2.
1 He was sleeping.
2 at a McDonald's restaurant.
3 They were eating shrimpburgers with chips.
4 No, they were drinking green-tea flavoured milkshakes.
5 Other people were buying hamburgers, chicken nuggets and fish fillets.
6 He was leaving Tokyo for Nagoya on a bullet train.
6 weren't using
7 were preparing
8 were … serving
9 were selling
10 were … drinking
3.
1 Where were your parents working when they met?
2 Why was Bob walking?
3 Was dad watching TV at 8.30?
4 What was mum making/doing at 12.00?
5 When were you playing basketball?
6. Were they living in Oxford in 1999?
Speaking
1 were… doing
2 was helping
3 was waiting
5 was looking
6 were shopping
7 were … buying
4 was getting
8 was working
PRACTICE AND CONSOLIDATION ACTIVITIES ON THE PAST SIMPLE AND PAST CONTINUOUS.
a) Complete the text with the Past Continuous affirmative form of the verbs in the box.
Monday
The phone call
At 9 o'clock last night I was relaxing at home with my family. We were sitting on the sofa in the living room. I was writing a letter to my Spanish penfriend. My parents were watching the news on television. My sister was chatting to her boyfriend on her mobile phone.
My little brother was reading a sports magazine, and my big brother was studying for his maths exam. My friends were going to the cinema, but it was raining so I didn't want to go out. Then he rang.
b) Write sentences using the Past Continuous negative.
1. We/ not drive/ to London/ at 6 o'clock. We weren't driving to London at 6 o'clock
2. I/ not eat/ at 9 o'clock. I wasn't eating at 9 o'clock
3. My brother/ not sit/ in the living room. My mother wasn't sitting in the living room
4. My cousins/ not live/ here last year. My cousins weren't living here last year
5. You/ not tidy/ your room at 3 o'clock. You weren't tidying your room at 3 o'clock
6. It/ not snow/ yesterday. It wasn't snowing yesterday
c) Write the words in order. Then write true answers.
1. studying/ your classmates/ Were/ this morning? Were your classmates studying this morning?
2. it/ raining/ yesterday?/ Was/ in Seville Was it raining in Seville yesterday?
3. you/ an exam/ at 9 o'clock?/ Were/ taking Were you taking an exam at 9 o'clock?
4. watching TV/ your teacher/ last night?/ Was Was your teacher watching TV last night?
5. last Saturday?/ Were/ working/ your parents Were your parents working last Saturday?
d) Complete the sentences using the Past Simple or Past Continuous form of the verbs in brackets.
1. The sun was shining (shine) all morning yesterday. There were a lot of people on the beach.
2. Jack's friends weren't waiting (not wait) when he arrived. He was very late.
3. I went (go) to Gandía on holiday last year.
4. Henry didn't finish (not finish) the exam. It was very difficult.
5. Did you watch (you/ watch) that new comedy last night? It was really funny.
6. Were you driving (you/ drive) home when I sent you a text message?
e) Circle the correct answer.
1. We were walking in the mountains when we b) a strange animal.
a) were seeing
b) saw
c) did see
2. Jerry had an accident while he a) football.
a) was playing
b) play
3. c) your homework when I arrived?
a) Did you do
b) Was you doing
c) played
c) Were you doing
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Special Needs Inclusion Project (SNIP)
TIPSHEET #5: Communication
An Inclusion Resource Sponsored by:
Regular, positive communication develops trust among students, staff, and families. Trust allows you to work through challenging moments together to build an inclusive environment.
HOW?
Effective communication is consistent, clear, honest, and includes non-verbal cues (smiling, nodding) and visual supports. In particular, communicating about your program's predictable routines and clear expectations is important for all students to feel safe and therefore more able to participate positively.
For more information, check out our Visual Supports Toolkit and our Power of Positive Messages Tip Sheet.
Quick tips for positive communication Greet your tudents << Quick Tips >> For positive communication
PREVENTING CHALLENGING BEHAVIOR AND PROMOTING POSITIVE BEHAVIOR:
Communicating clear expectations before problems develop is critical but when you see a student heading toward a challenging behavior, intervene early. Cooperation is more effective than coercion in the long run, however. For example, provide students with an opportunity to come up with their own solution by giving information with accurate, simple and non-judgmental statements: "Paste dries up when the lid isn't put back on." "When we feel upset, we take deep breaths." If the child solves the problem, acknowledge it with labeled praise (see flip side).
SNIP is a program of:
individually at the
little "wins" Call or write home with good news, Acknowledge small changes and little "wins"
beginning of every day Acknowledge small changes and Greet your students individually at the beginning of every day
not just bad Say "hello", "buen provecho", or "zài Call or write home with good news, not just bad
jiàn" to students, co-workers and families, even when you're busy Say "hello", "buen provecho", or "zài jiàn" to students, coworkers and families, even when you're busy
Special Needs Inclusion Project (SNIP)
ADDRESSING "MISSBEHAVIOR"
When you do need to redirect challenging behavior, avoid blame and shame messages ("you always talk out of turn…," "why can't you …?," "how many times do I have to tell you?") and lecturing or berating. Instead, replace them with more effective, brief and simple "I" or "we" messages (e.g., "We all need to care for our tools – put the lid on the paste before going out to recess," or "I need quiet in this room right now"). Give the student a timeframe, walk away and come back ("I'm going to check on another student, and I'll be back in 30 seconds to see how you're doing").
USING PRAISE EFFECTIVELY
When you "catch students being good" with labeled praise they learn positive ways to get adult attention. This is especially important early in your day, and immediately after redirecting a student. Be genuine. These tips are only useful if you mean what you say. That may mean you have to think really, really, really hard to find a success or positive moment in a student's behavior – but there is always something, especially if you catch them early and look for little wins.
REMEMBER!
Everyone is here for the children: ASP staff, school-day teachers, administrators, and families. When conversations get difficult, be patient and intentional. "Say what you mean, and mean what you say." (Responsive Classroom)
Find additional Tip Sheets and more information about the Special Needs Inclusion Project (SNIP) at: www.SNIPSF.org SNIP is a program of:
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Measuring Length
Instructions: Measure the length of each line segment to the nearest cm.
Measuring Length Answers
Instructions: Measure the length of each line segment to the nearest cm.
3 cm
2 cm
11 cm
5 cm
12 cm
6 cm
10 cm
9 cm
8 cm
7 cm
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