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Jean Holm ( The Times Higher Education Supplement ) too noted the fast growth of conservative Christian schools but added that the book was also relevant in Britain , which was experiencing similar growth . She found the first few chapters somewhat repetitive as it expressed the uniformity of the school 's practices . Richard V. Pierard ( Christian Century ) felt that Peshkin wrote with " deeply respect " for the school and its community , but Pierard , himself an evangelical , was " disturbed " by the community 's " indoctrinated " values — " biblical absolutes " that are " part of a conservative program that has been read into Scripture " . Paul F. Parsons ( Christianity Today ) noted that Peshkin found the school successful by traditional terms , with standardized tests , orderly climate , and " fun @-@ loving " students , but lacking free exchange of ideas , as education is seen more as a transfer than a quest , and students do not learn " choice , doubt , suspended judgment , [ or ] dissent " . Parsons affirmed Peshkin 's findings as " remarkably representative " based on his own visits to " Christian schools in 60 cities " , though others are less absolutist . And while Julian McAllister Groves ( Journal of Contemporary Ethnography ) described the text as " beautifully written " and " poetic " , he doubted whether the school 's students were as converted as they said , and felt that Peshkin might have seen more " role distance " and examples of playing along simply for community acceptance had he stayed for lunch and other informal observations .
| 2df781d2c8b030ec8938751045494cb3 | 18,298 |
= Baltimore mayoral election , 1999 =
| c0a1760e6f3c697980d8e807d2520f40 | 18,301 |
On November 2 , 1999 , the city of Baltimore , Maryland , elected a new mayor , the 47th in the city 's history . Primary elections were held to determine the nominees for the Democratic Party and Republican Party on September 14 . Incumbent mayor Kurt Schmoke , a Democrat , opted not to run for reelection . Martin O 'Malley , a member of the Baltimore City Council , won the election to succeed Schmoke .
| c550ac1a128a3c223c92a6a5f7c251bd | 18,303 |
Because Baltimore 's electorate is overwhelmingly Democratic , whoever won the Democratic primary election was seen as the favorite over the Republican nominee in the general election . Baltimore 's large African American population initially made it seem likely that the next mayor would also be African American . Kweisi Mfume was the preferred candidate of local politicians , but he opted not to run . Though Carl Stokes and Lawrence Bell , members of the City Council , declared for the race , local leaders were underwhelmed with the quality of declared candidates .
| 335afdcf1051615a68e09613bea6aa21 | 18,304 |
In 1999 , Baltimore experienced high rates of murder and unemployment , and had a failing city school system . O 'Malley declared his candidacy , focusing his campaign on a " zero tolerance " approach to crime . He received endorsements from many of the city 's African American leaders . After a close race , O 'Malley overtook both Stokes and Bell to win the Democratic nomination , which all but assured him of victory in the general election . He defeated Republican candidate David F. Tufaro in the general election by an overwhelming majority .
| 2b7656f4134d3486b1bf85effe72eb0d | 18,305 |
= = Background = =
| d514b18e9690308b2ac67a227be74a70 | 18,307 |
Kurt Schmoke , the incumbent Mayor of Baltimore , was serving his third term . He announced in December 1998 that he would not run for reelection the following year , the first time an incumbent Baltimore mayor did not run for reelection since 1971 . Schmoke was the first African American mayor in Baltimore 's history .
| cc35691aeee293a25542ce65e36a7e35 | 18,309 |
Racial politics had long played a role in Baltimore . As the state of Maryland did not attempt to prevent African Americans from voting through Jim Crow laws , political coalitions often involved African American community leaders . Theodore McKeldin , who served as mayor from 1943 through 1947 and from 1963 through 1967 , was one of the first political leaders to work with African American community leaders . By 1999 , 63 % of Baltimore 's registered voters were African American , and 90 % were registered to the Democratic Party . Baltimore had not elected a Republican mayor since 1963 .
| ffbfc0184e76cadd99664e77f7b62359 | 18,310 |
As of 1999 , Baltimore experienced 300 murders a year , which was the fourth most in the nation . Unemployment was 9 % , twice the national average . Between 1990 and 1998 , Baltimore saw its population decrease by 12 @.@ 3 % , the second @-@ biggest decrease during that time period in the United States . This decrease led to its work force decreasing by one @-@ sixth . The city saw decreases in heavy @-@ manufacturing by 40 percent , distribution jobs by 35 percent , retail positions by 34 percent , and banking jobs by 28 percent . Also , the state of Maryland had taken over the city 's failing school system in 1996 , which upset African American politicians . State Senator Clarence M. Mitchell , IV called the takeover racist . Baltimore City Council members , including President Lawrence Bell and Martin O 'Malley , had opposed the handling of Baltimore 's high crime rate by Schmoke and Baltimore Police Department ( BPD ) Commissioner Thomas C. Frazier .
| 7cd659df1e2ae7cdba4e8e0597cb8619 | 18,311 |
= = Candidates = =
| 5552ef0ea2dfad8213817898cf062ec7 | 18,313 |
= = = Democrats = = =
| 9b099d3f71b2336c9e7369bfec3ef59f | 18,316 |
Bell was considered in February 1999 to be the front @-@ runner in the mayoral race . Other potential candidates included State 's Attorney Patricia Jessamy , former City Councilman Carl Stokes , City Comptroller Joan Pratt , and Joan Carter Conway , a member of the Maryland State Senate .
| edcd7800bc4fc02b5834341d28dcc858 | 18,318 |
City leaders , including Howard P. Rawlings , a member of the Maryland House of Delegates , and William Donald Schaefer , the Comptroller of Maryland and Schmoke 's predecessor as mayor , feared that none of the potential candidates had the vision to continue the urban renewal that took place under Schmoke and Schaefer . They hoped that Baltimore @-@ native Kweisi Mfume , the president of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) , would run . Mfume had previously served on the Baltimore City Council and in the United States House of Representatives . Schmoke called the race " his to lose " . However , Mfume lived in nearby Catonsville , Maryland , and did not move into Baltimore until March , which would leave him short of the one year residency requirement .
| 623838100d083770401b818ae9e4eb4b | 18,319 |
The state legislature passed a law shortening the residency requirement from one year to six months , which was signed into law by Democratic Governor Parris Glendening in April . Bell attempted to have the legislation overturned . The City Council , with Schmoke 's support considered raising the salary of the mayor in April , to make the position more enticing to Mfume . Also , 200 Baltimore citizens , including three former mayors , attempted to draft Mfume into the race . However , Mfume had signed a five @-@ year contract with the NAACP in 1996 . Mfume considered leaving the NAACP to run , but in May , decided to remain with the organization .
| 5bb064b0972f9e6f0a2fbbbf628ecd7d | 18,320 |
Stokes announced his candidacy in December 1998 . Bell announced his candidacy two days after Mfume passed on running , in May 1999 , promising to tackle crime and improve public safety . Community leaders who attempted to draft Mfume into the race began to back Stokes . Other declared candidates included Mary Conaway , the City Register of Wills , activists A. Robert Kaufman , Robert Marsili , and Phillip Brown . Jessamy stated that without Mfume in the race , she would consider running , but she opted against getting into the race .
| d561a2118df55ae28435d391e438d909 | 18,321 |
A June 1999 poll conducted by Gonzales / Arscott Communications Inc . , a polling firm based in Annapolis , Maryland , showed Schaefer ahead of Bell . Schaefer stated that he had no interest in running , and threw his support behind Bishop Robinson , the former BPD Commissioner . Robinson chose not to run .
| 37cc422f27ac576f3113fb306f899074 | 18,322 |
O 'Malley initially supported Bell 's candidacy . Bell urged O 'Malley to endorse him , and offered him the job of city solicitor in exchange for his support . However , O 'Malley began to distance himself from Bell , not appearing at Bell 's campaign announcement , due to disagreements on several bills debated at the City Council . Bell 's supporters attempted to convince O 'Malley to run for City Council President , but O 'Malley announced his decision to run for mayor in June , becoming the first major candidate in the race who was Caucasian . He began the campaign largely unknown outside of Northeast Baltimore .
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= = = Republicans = = =
| 55452d3f7d075dc6fc2441470a09232f | 18,325 |
On July 1 , David F. Tufaro , a real estate developer and lawyer from Roland Park , Maryland , announced his intention to run for the Republican Party nomination , joining three neighborhood activists who had already declared their intentions to run . Carl Adair , a public school teacher who had run unsuccessfully for the City Council and the Maryland House of Delegates on numerous occasions , was also a candidate for the Republican nomination .
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Republican Party officials quickly began to back Tufaro , who criticized the Democratic Party by pointing out that Democrats have led Baltimore in its decline .
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= = Campaign = =
| f077439f39350680a8a06df3b906eed8 | 18,330 |
Fifteen candidates ended up running in the Democratic primary . The front @-@ runners were considered to be O 'Malley , Bell , and Stokes . Schmoke made no endorsement in the race .
| 697cc83537bff0bd1bd6879f99da3123 | 18,332 |
O 'Malley and Bell called for " zero tolerance " to all crime , though Stokes felt this policy was biased against minorities . Stokes ran on the issue of education , as he was a former member of the Baltimore school board , in addition to the city council . Stokes vowed to reduce class sizes and reverse the trend of citizens of Baltimore leaving the city to live in nearby suburbs .
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O 'Malley faced initial difficulties based on race , as a community leader stated that his entrance into the race " created some tension , " and that O 'Malley 's potential victory " would be the worst thing that could happen in this city " and could " tear this city apart . " Some saw his entrance in the race as an attempt to split the African American vote . However , O 'Malley received endorsements from prominent African American politicians in August , including Rawlings , fellow state Delegate Kenneth Montague , and Conway . Rawlings credited O 'Malley 's " track record of empowering black Americans . " He also received an endorsement from Schaefer . Some African Americans charged Rawlings with " stabbing us in the back " over the endorsement .
| 5163b38dcda54cdb4fdcdb069b1d8f72 | 18,334 |
Bell attempted to portray himself as the heir apparent to Schmoke . However , disclosures from a lawsuit revealed Bell 's financial troubles , which included having his car repossessed . Bell lost support after he stated that voters should choose him because " I look like you . " Stokes began to lose support after he was charged with lying about having a college degree , when it was discovered that he did not graduate from Loyola University Maryland , as his campaign literature stated . It was also revealed that Stokes settled an income tax lien . Bell 's supporters rallied outside the offices of The Baltimore Sun , challenging that they were writing negative stories about African American candidates , and giving better treatment to O 'Malley during the campaign . Stokes was able to recover support when he received endorsements from The Baltimore Sun , the Baltimore Afro @-@ American , and the ministerial alliance .
| 6b389bfbcda177a04024365401b084b5 | 18,335 |
Bell led Stokes in a poll conducted early in the race , 33 % to 17 % , before O 'Malley declared his candidacy . By late August , Bell slipped in the polls to third place , with O 'Malley and Stokes tied . Bell and O 'Malley began airing television commercials supporting their campaigns in early August , while Stokes did not begin to air commercials until September . O 'Malley also advertised on the radio .
| c2c825d6f38b93bdc4c737ec11f8aaab | 18,336 |
Seven candidates , including Democrats Bell , Stokes , O 'Malley , and Conaway , and Republicans Adair , Tufaro , and Arthur Cuffie Jr . , met for a debate on September 8 . The debate focused on crime , with Bell , Stokes , and O 'Malley making their cases regarding " zero tolerance " , while Adair and Tufaro declared their support for Frazier .
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= = Results = =
| 168b0bcb77b78420ed9733e21dee1760 | 18,339 |
= = = Democratic primary = = =
| 520e00c8516ccd03a86c70dee43a1d2f | 18,342 |
The Democratic primary was held on September 14 . Turnout was high ; though the mayoral candidates expected about 100 @,@ 000 voters , about half of Baltimore 's 294 @,@ 000 registered voters voted in the primary elections .
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O 'Malley won the primary election with more than 50 % of the vote , though he received only 30 % of the African American vote . Bell and Stokes split a significant portion of the city 's black majority , but their combined total was less than O 'Malley . At his victory rally , O 'Malley called the election " a victory for diversity and a victory for inclusiveness " .
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= = = Republican primary = = =
| 312162639802b6626529930c9f99a7af | 18,347 |
In the September 14 Republican primary , Tufaro received over half of the votes cast . Adair finished in second place .
| 0671710086685a4d1b17c8b81a656694 | 18,349 |
= = = General election = = =
| c7b5b659cea0649f580e871ecfc79916 | 18,351 |
Despite the odds he faced in the general election , Tufaro promised to campaign against O 'Malley , not taking defeat as an inevitability . He pointed to Bret Schundler , the mayor of Jersey City , New Jersey , as evidence that a Republican could be elected in a heavily Democratic city . Schundler came to Baltimore to campaign for Tufaro .
| 5f0b7d733463b414818fb31d72675cda | 18,353 |
Regarding public housing , Tufaro called for renovations rather than demolishing vacant buildings , which drew criticism , as Housing Commissioner Daniel P. Henson III pointed out that renovating was more expensive than demolishing . O 'Malley promised to enforce provisions of the Community Reinvestment Act of 1977 , which require banks to invest in poor neighborhoods . Tufaro further proposed a plan for school vouchers and to drug test students , which drew opposition from the Baltimore Teachers Union and from O 'Malley , who favored expanding pre @-@ kindergarten and after @-@ school programs , while making summer school mandatory . When discussing the problem of HIV / AIDS in Baltimore , which disproportionately affects African Americans , both O 'Malley and Tufaro promised to continue the city 's needle exchange program .
| 7c1aaa371a7420c2a6e8a1c966387104 | 18,354 |
Tufaro criticized O 'Malley 's zero tolerance policy , suggesting it would lead to increased police brutality towards minorities . He instead proposed continuing Mayor Schmoke 's community policing strategy . Opponents of the zero tolerance policy tried to tie O 'Malley to the Baltimore Police shooting of an African American car theft suspect .
| 5114c2f1f11b4dd1d7ea1c3819208166 | 18,355 |
WMAR @-@ TV conducted the only poll of the general election with SurveyUSA , which showed O 'Malley leading with 87 % of the vote . On Election Day , O 'Malley easily defeated Tufaro in the general election , receiving over 90 % of the vote .
| 8030d941f3ff2dd35b8b1b1405a52fda | 18,356 |
= = Aftermath = =
| f8fa1b2e326f4dccda3b39c69a590a1d | 18,358 |
= = = O 'Malley 's political career = = =
| 6e4ea43d7ddbe4395ada840dcb832fcc | 18,361 |
Following his election , O 'Malley 's first personnel decision was to retain the director of the city 's economic development agency . O 'Malley had his transition team , and had them compile policy drafts by mid @-@ December , so they would be ready to compete for state funds when the Maryland State Legislature reconvened on January 12 , 2000 . He participated in the Newly Elected Mayors Program at the John F. Kennedy School of Government in mid @-@ November . By the beginning of December , he named five deputy mayors and filled most of his cabinet . He finalized his cabinet on December 7 , during his last session as a city councillor . He was sworn in as mayor later that day at the War Memorial Plaza , near Baltimore City Hall .
| 3f9c9d95f128170791bf1bb9968488dd | 18,363 |
In his first year in office , O 'Malley adopted a statistics @-@ based crime tracking system called CitiStat , modeled after Compstat . The system logged every call for service into a database for analysis . The Washington Post wrote in 2006 that Baltimore 's " homicide rate remains stubbornly high and its public school test scores disappointingly low . But CitiStat has saved an estimated $ 350 million and helped generate the city 's first budget surplus in years . " In 2004 , CitiStat accountability tool won Harvard University 's " Innovations in American Government " award . The system garnered interest from Washington , D.C. Mayor Adrian Fenty , as well as crime officials from the United Kingdom .
| b70ae4fadf15e9f67fc2619b5c8d5c0d | 18,364 |
O 'Malley considered a run for Governor of Maryland in the 2002 election , but decided not to run . He was reelected as Mayor of Baltimore in 2003 , and announced his candidacy for Governor in the 2006 election . The Baltimore Sun endorsed O 'Malley , saying : " When he was first elected mayor in 1999 , the former two @-@ term city councilman inherited a city of rising crime , failing schools , and shrinking economic prospects . He was able to reverse course in all of these areas . " The Washington Post criticized O 'Malley for " not solv [ ing ] the problems of rampant crime and rough schools in Baltimore " , but further said that " he put a dent in them . " . O 'Malley defeated incumbent Governor Bob Ehrlich 53 % -46 % in the November 7 , 2006 , general election . O 'Malley defeated Ehrlich in the 2010 election 56 % -42 % , receiving just over one million votes .
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O 'Malley was ineligible to run in the 2014 gubernatorial election due to term limits . O 'Malley publicly expressed interest in a presidential run in 2016 on multiple occasions . At a press conference at a National Governors Association meeting , O 'Malley stated he was laying " the framework " for a presidential run .
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= = = Depiction on The Wire = = =
| e2670c7a9af3b763823ea73a445d64c1 | 18,368 |
A fictionalized version of the events of this election were presented in third and fourth seasons of The Wire , a drama about crime and politics in Baltimore , which aired in 2004 and 2006 , respectively . Many saw the connection between O 'Malley and the character of Tommy Carcetti , a Caucasian Baltimore City Councillor who is elected mayor in an election against two African American opponents . Carlos Watson of MSNBC once introduced O 'Malley as " one of the real @-@ life inspirations for the mayor of the hit TV show The Wire " , to which O 'Malley responded that he was instead the show 's " antidote " .
| a9e0e0e5fc611a8d28bbc9bc9840558c | 18,370 |
Show creator David Simon denied that the character of Tommy Carcetti was supposed to be O 'Malley , though he did acknowledge that O 'Malley was " one of several inspirations " for Carcetti . He further stated that while Carcetti was " reflective " of O 'Malley , Carcetti was a composite drawing aspects from other local politicians that he had covered when he worked as a reporter for The Baltimore Sun .
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= Arikamedu =
| 6228b0543446a1afe3e8c1f653b8f5d8 | 18,374 |
Arikamedu is an archaeological site in Southern India , inKakkayanthope , Ariyankuppam Commune , Puducherry . It is 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the capital , Pondicherry of the Indian territory of Puducherry .
| a81f9b3485e92c7a138e6250cdc3ec5f | 18,376 |
Sir Mortimer Wheeler 1945 , and Jean @-@ Marie Casal conducted achaeological excavations there in 1947 – 1950 . The site was identified as the port of Podouke , known as an " emporium " in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and Ptolemy . Digs have found Amphorae , Arretine ware , Roman lamps , glassware , glass and stone beads , and gems at the site . Based on these excavations , Wheeler concluded that the Arikamedu was a Greek ( Yavana ) trading post that traded with Rome , starting during the reign of Augustus Caesar , and lasted about two hundred years — from the late first century BCE to the first and second centuries CE . Subsequent investigation by Vimala Begley from 1989 to 1992 modified this assessment , and now place the period of occupation from the 2nd century BCE to the 8th century CE .
| 60dd873bf480780c2086350d047b31b0 | 18,377 |
Significant findings at Arikamedu indlcude numerous Indo @-@ Pacific beads , which facilitated fixing the period of its origin . Red and black ceramics — known as megalithic stones or Pandukal in Tamil meaning " old stones " and used to mark graves — have existed at the site even prior to and during Roman occupation of the site , and also in later periods .
| 63aa0d03ee229b5e8ce37a16cfc6b0b0 | 18,378 |
= = Location = =
| 3a8742de6f3548a62d4303cac4457e11 | 18,380 |
Arikamedu is a coastal fishing village , under the Ariankuppam Panchayat , on the southeastern coast of India , 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from Pondicherry , on the Pondicherry @-@ Cuddalore road ; it was originally a French colonial town . It is located on the bank of the Ariyankuppam River ( for most part of the year the river is considered a lagoon ) , also known as Virampattinam River , which forms the northern outlet of the Gingee River as it joins the Bay of Bengal . As the site is located at the bend of the river it provides protection to sea @-@ going vessels that dock there . The site has been subject to extensive archaeological excavations . The archaeological site is spread over an area of 34 @.@ 57 acres ( 13 @.@ 99 ha ) and has been under the control of the Archaeological Survey of India since 1982 .
| fcc32a8f27b2c4e9ef7a0492c6027413 | 18,382 |
= = Etymology = =
| 7fea396da2a2c19c0da296faa651b7f5 | 18,384 |
The name Arikamedu , an archaeological usage for the excavated site , originates in a Tamil word that means Mound of Arakan , based on the figurine of an avatar ( incarnation ) of the Jain Tirthankara Mahavira found at the site . It is also linked with Viraiyapattinam or Virampattinam , meaning Port of Virai , a village next to Arikamedu . Virai , according to Sangam literature , was well known as a port and also for its salt pans during the Velir dynasty . Arikamedu @-@ Virampatnam together find mention as Poduke , a major port in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea in the first century CE and as Poduke emporion in Ptolemy 's Geographia of mid first century CE . Poduke is a Roman name and is also said to be a corrupted version of the Tamil name Potikai , meaning a " meeting place " , also known for the local Poduvar clan .
| 83c1f83c3ea0664b11a06509d4f4fdad | 18,386 |
= = History = =
| fd3fc667e330e6e3944a4f085f9ef39d | 18,388 |
The first mention about Arikamedu was in 1734 , in a communication from the Consul of the Indo @-@ French colony of Pondicherry . It informed the French East India Company that villagers were extracting old bricks from the Virampattinam . The earliest mention of the Arikamedu archaeological site was by Le Gentil of France , who the King of France had assigned to observe notable astronomical occurrences in the world . Gentil , after visiting Arikamedu , confirmed the earlier report of the Consul of the Indo @-@ French colony .
| 66636eb6d88c968146d11609575e7aa2 | 18,390 |
In 1765 , when he visited the ruins at the site , he found the people of the village collecting large ancient bricks exposed at the river bank . The villagers told him that they had retrieved the bricks from an old fort of the king the Vira @-@ Raguen . In 1937 , Jouveau Dubreuil , an Indologist , also from France , purchased gem stone antiquities from local children , and also gathered some exposed on the site 's surface . In particular , he found an intaglio carved with the picture of a man . As a numismatist , he identified the intaglio as Augustus Caesar . He also found fine beads and gems . He concluded that these antiquities belonged to the Roman Empire . Dubreuil informed the local Governor of Pondicherry about his find , and called Arikamedu " a true Roman city . " He published a short note about his findings .
| 270caf003829c2e388d088008839ecc0 | 18,391 |
In the early 1940s , Service des Travaux Publics carried out random excavations . Father Fancheux and Raymand Surleau , who were not qualified archaeologists , carried out the excavations at Arikamedu and sent a few antiquities to Indian museums , and also to the École française d 'Extrême @-@ Orient in Hanoi .
| 7fb2caf1af0f348616c9e297f27ac058 | 18,392 |
Sir R.E.M.Wheeler , the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India , in the 1940s saw a few potsherds of Arikamedu site displayed in the Madras Museum , which he identified as Arrentine ware , an expensive ceramic made until 50 CE in Arizzo , Italy . Thereafter , when he visited the Pondicherry Museum and saw more of the findings from the Arikamedu site , he was impressed and thought that he had found the links between the Classical Mediterranean and Ancient India . Soon thereafter in 1945 , the penultimate year of World War II , he mounted excavations in a scientific manner . He was looking for an archaeological site in India that could establish its cultural link , a datum of the Indian antiquities to the Greco @-@ Roman period , and this quest led him to the Arikamedu site . These excavations also involved Indian archaeologists , who were trained on the site .
| 186253129c1cca4b840030138388b83a | 18,393 |
Wheeler published his findings in 1946 . He noted that , for the local fishermen of the village , the antiquities were strange — as they consisted of lamps , glass items , gemstones , cutlery and crockery , wine containers , etc . He also observed that traders traveled from west coast and from Ceylon , Kolchoi ( Colchi ) and the Ganges area to trade goods such as gems , pearls and spices , and silk . He carried out excavations carefully , so that none of the antiquities were damaged . This was followed by investigations after the war , from 1947 – 1950 by Jean @-@ Marie Casal . His report of excavations was not as fully published as Wheeler 's . His report was not well @-@ known in India , as it was not written in English . However , his important conclusion was that the site belonged to an early megalithic period , as he had located megalithic burials marked by stones , locally known in Tamil as Pandukal close to the site .
| 19b4d434f1f629d21f2daa8948b9ba85 | 18,394 |
The excavations led to antiquities of Roman origin such as beads and gems , amphorae ( wine making vats ) with remnants of wine , a Roman stamp , big bricks recovered from an old wall , Arretine ware and so forth . From these antiquities Wheeler concluded that the site was related to a period of trading with Rome , and that it was first established by emperor Augustus . He also noted that this Indo @-@ Roman trade lasted for a period of about 200 years , till 200 CE . Wheeler also found the Chinese celadon , identified to belong to the Song @-@ Yuvan dynasty , and Chola coins from about the eleventh century , but these were rejected as despoiling items or remnants left by brick @-@ robbers . Items Chinese blue @-@ and @-@ white ware were also recovered from the site .
| 89371064746c19f0113e24423b336020 | 18,395 |
Wheeler noted that " rouletted Ware " found at the site ( designated as " Arikamedu Type 1 " in the scientific study under the " Arikamedu Type 10 Project : Mapping Early Historic Networks in South Asia and Beyond " ) was not of an Indian origin , but was from the Mediterranean region . A ceramic sherd , ( " Arikamedu Type 10 ) has also been investigated for its style and spatial distribution .
| 3165e87d670f123798143c99bf53c84f | 18,396 |
After a gap of several decades , in the early 1980s , Vimala Begley studied the ceramics find of the site and proposed a preliminary version of the chronology of the occupation of the site . At the same time she started researching on the beads , organized a proper sequential display of the artifacts of the site at the Pondicherry Museum , and brought out an information brochure .
| 1e53addb792a2d52abfd01d6ca5fba2f | 18,397 |
Begley obtained approvals to carry out excavations at the site in collaboration with the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Madras ; she and K.V. Raman were the directors of operation from 1989 to 1992 . Steven Sidebothom of the University of Delaware , who had back ground knowledge of Roman Egypt , was in charge of the trenching at the site . Further excavations were done during six working seasons from 1989 to 1992 , which led to a contradictory view that the brick structures and the wells investigated by Wheeler were of poor quality as they were founded on poor sandy foundations . The wood work was also noted to be of poor quality and the houses had no waterproofing . The excavations also lead to a view that Arikamedu 's Roman trading link was more of an inference . The excavations have now established that the trading with Rome extended to a period beyond that assessed by Wheeler ; that trading continued from the second century BCE to the seventh or eighth century CE .
| 198201884c158a1a7fb54bcf8e2e47e3 | 18,398 |
The extensive findings of glass and stone beads at the site provided Begley the link to Arikamedu 's history . She identified the beads as Indo @-@ Pacific beads crafted at Arikamedu . Based on the antiquities and structural features from the excavations , Begley and Raman established a revised sequence of six major periods of occupation of the site . Finds of new variety of Roman Amphorae ware also facilitated revision of the dates of occupancy . They have also inferred that the site has been in continuous occupation since at least 2nd or 3rd century BCE to much more recent times .
| 40fb078d5ef772d19f27d083fcc8bcf9 | 18,399 |
= = Excavations = =
| b893b7d5c239f53958edd4d18e3f4725 | 18,401 |
The excavated area of the mound was demarcated into two zones on the basis of occupation and elevation . Northern sector of the mound is nearer to the sea coast while the southern sector is farther away from the coast . The ceramic find of crockery and cooking vessels found in the northern sector were indicative of mass feeding of sailors and traders who camped there . Wine stored in amphorae was the principal item imported from the western countries during the later part of the 2nd century BCE .
| e31b0b36565289139883e2ada93711b8 | 18,403 |
According to Wheeler the finds from the northern and southern part of the mound belong to the period from later part of 1st century BCE to 1st and 2nd centuries CE . Identified structures include :
| 289f450299fffd50aeb499a88ded2a5e | 18,404 |
A brick and lime mortar plaster structure of oblong shape 45 metres ( 148 ft ) in length , with a divide wall , used as a storehouse in the southern part
| 10d242f9725f4987b9e24ec9aa1bff4d | 18,405 |
Two walled enclosures with ponds and drainage systems in the northern part of the mound that could indicate of dyeing operations that used vats to dye muslin for export
| 28c7bf5512dfe2d78dbf49ab0568ae74 | 18,406 |
Pottery , both local and Mediterranean , such as amphorae and Arrentine ware that belonged to the Terra Sigillata ( stamped pottery ) of 1st century BCE , which went out of use by 50 CE
| 31570d86ed9b3fdd553042a126941b5a | 18,407 |
Pink amphorae jars used to store wine or oil with two handles and a yellow slip , found in all layers of excavations
| 7bee5bb878f6c821899a0457e72db3ba | 18,408 |
Smaller objects include a wheel @-@ turned blackware ceramic , a few terracotta figurines , shell beads , gems , gold , terracotta , iron nails , copper percussion beater , red fragment of a Roman lamp shade , an engraved emblem of emperor Augustus , an ivory handle , and a wooden toy boat . Based on these antiquities Wheeler concluded that the Arikamedu was a Greek ( Yavana ) trading station . However , recent excavations by Begley have altered this assessment .
| 405e7201182475d39d554cbc26e095d4 | 18,409 |
The buildings in the northern part of the mound indicative urbanization , with people of different ethnic groups — Indian and non @-@ Indian — but it has not been possible to date them in view of the limited depth of excavations .
| a04874cce6c7c01a7ca488aafa4350ec | 18,410 |
= = Conservation = =
| 90f186624d12e3dacf552f2bfa6358eb | 18,412 |
An international conference that the Government of Pondicherry and the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs held in October 2004 decided to investigate the Arikamedu site jointly for conservation , as its ancient commercial link with the Romans has been established . During this conference , the Government of Pondicherry also decided to propose the site for status as a World Heritage Site of UNESCO . The Archaeological Survey of India also proposed the site for UNESCO Cultural Heritage Site status , under the title Silk Road Sites in India .
| e399af7d49a435a224d8234b7d283a1f | 18,414 |
= Hurricane Ingrid =
| c839c27b62a09a28c4d5536ba7fb9b74 | 18,417 |
Hurricane Ingrid was one of two tropical cyclones , along with Hurricane Manuel , to strike Mexico within a 24 ‑ hour period , the first such occurrence since 1958 . Ingrid was the ninth named storm and second hurricane of the 2013 Atlantic hurricane season . It formed on September 12 in the Gulf of Mexico from a broad disturbance that also spawned Manuel in the eastern Pacific . After initially moving westward toward Veracruz , Ingrid turned northeastward away from the coast . Favorable conditions allowed it to attain hurricane status on September 14 , and the next day Ingrid attained peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Subsequently , increased wind shear weakened the convection as the storm turned more to the northwest and west . On September 16 , Ingrid made landfall just south of La Pesca , Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico as a strong tropical storm , and dissipated the next day .
| 93e14e91dd944c58b6d89d8fe22ccda9 | 18,419 |
The combined impacts of hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel affected two @-@ thirds of Mexico , killing 192 people and causing $ 75 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 5 @.@ 7 billion USD ) in damage . Most of the effects were due to Manuel , though Ingrid was directly responsible for at least 32 deaths and $ 20 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 1 @.@ 5 billion USD ) in damage . The two storms produced 162 billion m3 ( 5 @.@ 7 trillion cu ft ) of water , the equivalent of filling every dam in Mexico . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 511 mm ( 20 @.@ 1 in ) in Tuxpan , Veracruz . The rains caused widespread flooding , damaging at least 14 @,@ 000 houses and hundreds of roads and bridges . In Tamaulipas , where the storm made landfall , the rainfall damaged crops and flooded rivers . The effects of the storm spread into southern Texas , causing high tides and some flooding . After the storm , the Mexican government declared several municipalities as states of emergency . Relief agencies distributed food and aid to the hardest hit areas , although in Tamaulipas , residents had to rely on assistance from the local Gulf Cartel . The names Ingrid and Manuel were both later retired due to their impacts .
| fc67de0524962c5d7e3a3953e7d038f1 | 18,420 |
= = Meteorological history = =
| fe82527ae426423900c55a793eed715f | 18,422 |
On August 28 , a tropical wave exited the west coast of Africa , which moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean without development . On September 2 , an area of convection , or thunderstorms , developed along the northern portion of the wave , but was eventually absorbed into Tropical Storm Gabrielle north of Puerto Rico . The wave continued westward through the Caribbean Sea into a large area of cyclonic flow at the surface , which extended across Central America into the eastern Pacific . Around September 9 , the broad system developed two areas of disturbed weather – one in the eastern Pacific would become Hurricane Manuel , and the other developing over the northwestern Caribbean . The latter system slowly organized , developing a low pressure area on September 11 . Subsequently , the system moved over the Yucatán Peninsula . Although land interaction prevented immediate development , conditions favored further development in the Bay of Campeche . Early on September 12 , the low emerged into the bay , and at 1800 UTC the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) assessed that Tropical Depression Ten developed about 280 km ( 170 mi ) east @-@ northeast of Veracruz . This was confirmed by a Hurricane Hunters flight indicating the presence of a closed low @-@ level circulation .
| 31f84807e03e354ad44dd2f5e6a26622 | 18,424 |
On September 13 , convection and organization increased and the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Ingrid , while weak steering currents resulted in little movement of the cyclone . Partially due to the presence of nearby Hurricane Manuel in the eastern Pacific basin on the other side of Mexico , significant wind shear existed in the vicinity of Ingrid . Nonetheless , strong convection and intermittent development of an eye allowed for strengthening of the storm on September 14 . Ingrid strengthened into a hurricane – the second of the season – that afternoon . Around that time , the hurricane turned sharply northeastward due to a trough over eastern Mexico and a ridge over the southeastern United States . Additional strengthening took place thereafter , and Ingrid reached a peak intensity of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) early on September 15 while starting to move northward and begin a northwest turn towards the Mexican coastline .
| 24c6e9aca67a3e54bd88a95e6c79b95e | 18,425 |
Afterward Ingrid reached peak winds , shear increased and began to weaken the hurricane as it approached the Mexican coast . The center became displaced to the edge of the convection , and NHC forecaster Daniel Brown noted that Ingrid " [ did ] not resemble a classic hurricane in satellite pictures . " At around 1115 UTC on September 16 , Ingrid made landfall just south of La Pesca , Tamaulipas in northeastern Mexico , after having weakened into a strong tropical storm with 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) winds . Near landfall , the Hurricane Hunters reported flight @-@ level winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) which , after adjusting to surface winds , confirmed the weakening . The storm moved ashore less than 24 hours after Tropical Storm Manuel struck the Pacific coast of Mexico on Michoacán , making it the first time since 1958 that tropical cyclones struck both coasts of the country within one day . Ingrid rapidly weakened into a tropical depression over land , and although convection temporarily reorganized , the circulation dissipated on September 17 .
| 372ca25a410a1309ebce2a00a0c82ddd | 18,426 |
= = Preparations and impact = =
| ba91aa14c8be2dd24cea83e65d7dc741 | 18,428 |
Several tropical cyclone warnings and watches were posted in anticipation of the storm . Upon the development of Ingrid into a tropical cyclone at 2100 UTC on September 12 , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning from Coatzacoalcos to Nautla , Veracruz . At 1500 UTC on September 13 , the tropical storm warning was extended northward to Cabo Rojo , Veracruz , with a tropical storm watch northward to La Pesca , Tamaulipas . Later , a hurricane warning was issued between Cabo Rojo to La Pesca , with a tropical storm watch to Bahia Algodones , Tamaulipas . Pemex , the oil company operated by the Mexican government , evacuated workers from three platforms in the Gulf of Mexico due to the storm . In Tamaulipas , classes were canceled in 27 municipalities , and all classes were temporarily canceled throughout Veracruz . The threat of the storm caused events for Mexican Independence Day to be canceled . After a restriction on the news in 2010 due to the local drug war , members of a citizen alert system in Tamaulipas used Twitter to notify about flooding , missing people , and the need for assistance .
| addeda5176980b7152600fa982bb9859 | 18,430 |
Early in its duration , Ingrid produced tropical storm force winds along the coast of Veracruz . While making landfall , it also brought tropical storm force winds along the northeastern Mexican coast . Sustained winds at La Pesca peaked at 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , with gusts to 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) . The NHC remarked that Ingrid " likely caused above normal tides " in northeastern Mexico , but there was no data to back up the statement . Interacting with Hurricane Manual on the Pacific coast and the broad cyclonic flow , Ingrid dropped heavy rainfall across eastern Mexico , primarily in Tabasco , Veracruz , and Tamaulipas states . In Tuxpan , Veracruz , rainfall totaled 511 mm ( 20 @.@ 1 in ) over 10 days , while at the Presa Vicente Guerrero dam in Tamaulipas , precipitation reached 502 mm ( 19 @.@ 8 in ) . Surface runoff from the storm spread to the Pacific coast of Mexico , producing flooding in Guerrero in combination with Manuel . The impacts from both storms produced 162 billion m3 ( 5 @.@ 7 trillion cu ft ) of water , the equivalent of filling every dam in the country .
| 60d6c28176b5554f22450a925318ed3a | 18,431 |
The combined effects of hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel affected about two @-@ thirds of Mexico . The rains from Ingrid caused flooding and landslides across Mexico , causing many rivers to rise , and isolating towns . In Veracruz alone , the rains flooded 68 rivers , which damaged 121 roads and 31 bridges , including two destroyed bridges . About 14 @,@ 000 houses were damaged to some degree . Heavy rainfall forced 23 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes , 9 @,@ 000 of whom went to emergency shelters , some forced to leave by the Mexican army in high risk areas . Evacuees who did not reside in shelters generally went to the houses of friends and family . Also in Veracruz , flooding killed about 20 @,@ 000 livestock . Along the coast of Tamaulipas , damage occurred from Soto la Marina to La Pesca . The Pánuco River in Tamaulipas rose above its banks , flooding two poor towns along its path and damaging adjacent roads . Also in the state , the storm damaged local sorghum fields . Two people in the state required rescue after their truck was swept away by a river .
| b1159192263c67f9a75bb29403713704 | 18,432 |
Throughout Mexico , Ingrid killed 32 people , mostly due to flooding and mudslides . The two storms collectively killed at least 192 people and caused $ 75 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 5 @.@ 7 billion USD ) . Manuel was responsible for majority of the overall effects , although Ingrid still left an estimated $ 20 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 1 @.@ 5 billion USD ) in estimated economic losses , according to AON Benfield ; insured damages totaled $ 3 billion pesos ( MXN , $ 230 million USD ) . A total of six fatalities occurred in the states of Hidalgo and Puebla . Three of which were caused after a vehicle was swept off a road , while three other people died after their home was buried by a mudslide ; another death occurred in Hidalgo after a house collapsed on a woman in the town of Tepehuacán de Guerrero . Twelve people died after a landslide smashed a bus in Altotonga , Veracruz , and three people died in Tamaulipas .
| 970eb9c53ae8c6c1d566150b2a4bb978 | 18,433 |
The fringes of the storm extended into southern Texas , where winds gusted to tropical storm force , and rainfall was around 25 – 75 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 2 @.@ 95 in ) . Thunderstorms and high tides affected the coastline , with tides reaching 0 @.@ 76 m ( 2 @.@ 5 ft ) above normal , causing beaches to close due to flooding .
| 9fc1138d70b005361a7597c7990c544a | 18,434 |
= = Aftermath and retirement = =
| 66ee82f8e8256e7059a47a646d7764f3 | 18,436 |
The twin impacts of hurricanes Ingrid and Manuel prompted officials in Mexico to declare a state of emergency in 155 municipalities in Veracruz , Tamaulipas , Chiapas , Oaxaca , Guerrero , and Chihuahua . The nation 's Health Ministry sent medical crews across the country to affected areas in an effort to prevent the spread of disease ; the agency also suggested residents boil their water . Officials opened shelters in Tamaulipas for residents whose houses were damaged , housing about 2 @,@ 000 people in the weeks following the storm . The Mexican food bank sent about 800 tons of food to the hardest @-@ hit parts of the country in Guerrero , Veracruz , and Sinaloa . In addition , the Mexican Red Cross delivered 186 tons of food to Veracruz alone . Volunteers delivered about 600 blankets and various cleaning supplies to the town of Pánuco . Following the storms , the National Civil Protection Coordination received the authority to prevent housing construction in areas at risk for mudslides and flooding ; the law had passed in 2012 , but initially lacked the authority to enforce it . Some residents in Tamaulipas complained at the slow pace of receiving aid . In response , the Gulf Cartel brought relief items to Aldama , with one columnist for El Universal suggesting that this was to gain favor with local residents .
| ed2ca75afec09c249d7dbd4626c7acc4 | 18,438 |
Because of the severe damage caused by the storm in Mexico , the name Ingrid was later retired by the World Meteorological Organization , and will never again be used for a North Atlantic hurricane . It was replaced with Imelda for the 2019 Atlantic hurricane season . The name Manuel was also retired from the Pacific naming list and was replaced with Mario .
| 7980c5889ac4a7e534332d9c5f04ba11 | 18,439 |
= Typhoon Imbudo =
| 9435d73bae83015187f0222533557391 | 18,442 |
Typhoon Imbudo , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Harurot , was a powerful typhoon that struck the Philippines and southern China in July 2003 . The seventh named storm and fourth typhoon of the season , Imbudo formed on July 15 to the east of the Philippines . The storm moved generally west @-@ northward for much of its duration due to a ridge to the north . Favorable conditions allowed Imbudo to intensify , gradually at first before undergoing rapid deepening on July 19 . After reaching typhoon status , Imbudo strengthened further to peak 10 – minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) on July 20 . The typhoon made landfall on northern Luzon near peak intensity on July 22 , but quickly weakened over land . Once in the South China Sea , Imbudo re @-@ intensified slightly before making its final landfall in southern China near Yangjiang on July 24 , dissipating the next day .
| 7955865a5d5dfbef9ae480c77d8732cf | 18,444 |
In the Philippines , Imbudo was the strongest typhoon in five years , causing widespread flooding and power outages in the Cagayan Valley for weeks . Damage was heaviest in Isabela province near where the storm struck . Most of the banana crop was destroyed , and other crops sustained similar but lesser damage . Imbudo disrupted transportation across much of Luzon . Nationwide , the storm damaged or destroyed 62 @,@ 314 houses , causing P4.7 billion ( PHP , $ 86 million USD ) in damage , mostly in the Cagayan Valley . There were also 64 deaths in the country . In Hong Kong , strong winds killed a man after knocking him off a platform . In China , damage was heaviest in Guangdong where the storm struck . Thousands of trees fell , and 595 @,@ 000 houses were wrecked . Hundreds of canceled flights stranded travelers across the region . In Guangxi , high rainfall increased water levels in 45 reservoirs to warning levels . In Guangxi and Guangdong , collectively 20 people were killed , and damage reached about ¥ 4 @.@ 45 billion ( CNY , $ 297 million USD ) .
| 9b6fa79d1920909d3974c19df74b6508 | 18,445 |
= = Meteorological history = =
| fe82527ae426423900c55a793eed715f | 18,447 |
The origins of Imbudo were from a disorganized area of convection near Chuuk in the open western Pacific in mid @-@ July . With weak wind shear , the system slowly became better organized . On July 15 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated that a tropical depression formed . The next day , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert ( TCFA ) , noting that outflow had increased due to an upper @-@ level low to the northeast . At 1800 UTC on July 16 , the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression 09W about 665 km ( 415 mi ) east of Yap . A subtropical ridge near Okinawa steered the nascent depression to the west @-@ northwest for much of its duration . With warm waters and favorable upper @-@ level conditions , the depression quickly organized , and the JMA upgraded it to Tropical Storm Imbudo on July 17 .
| c5e1ad4ece740d37e2781e4523194272 | 18,449 |
After becoming a tropical storm , Imbudo passed about 35 km ( 20 mi ) north of Yap . The JMA upgraded Imbudo to a severe tropical storm late on July 18 , around the same time that the JTWC upgraded it to a typhoon . An increase in outflow to the south and to the north from a tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) caused a 36 ‑ hour period of rapid development beginning on July 19 . During that time , the JMA upgraded Imbudo to typhoon status , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) began issuing advisories as the storm approached the Philippines , and a 30 km ( 20 mi ) wide eye formed . At 1200 UTC on July 20 , the JMA estimated peak 10 minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . At the same time , the JTWC estimated 1 minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , making it a super typhoon . By late on July 20 , the typhoon had developed concentric eyewalls , and the TUTT was moving away , thus diminishing outflow . Imbudo maintained peak winds for about 12 hours , before the innermost eye contracted to a diameter of 11 km ( 7 mi ) in the midst of an eyewall replacement cycle . At 0300 UTC on July 22 , Imbudo struck northern Luzon , with 1 minute winds estimated at 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) by the JTWC .
| 5085d6424b8250cebeac5f423e761ed9 | 18,450 |
Rapidly weakening over land , Imbudo emerged into the South China Sea about six hours after landfall . The JTWC estimated winds had decreased to 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , although the agency estimated Imbudo quickly re @-@ intensified to a secondary peak of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) in 1 minute winds . Dry air prevented convection from redeveloping significantly , and the eye had become large over open waters . At 0300 UTC on July 24 , Imbudo made its final landfall west of Macau , near Yangjiang , Guangdong . It was the strongest to hit the province since Typhoon Sally in 1996 , striking China with 10 minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , as estimated by the JMA . The storm rapidly weakened over land while moving over southern China . Late on July 25 , Imbudo dissipated near the border of China and Vietnam .
| 78dd2ef4dc8062f1dc6324c9f5051f49 | 18,451 |
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