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Southern South American cougar ( P. c. puma ) Molina , 1782 :
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includes the previous subspecies and synonyms araucanus , concolor , patagonica , pearsoni , and puma
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Incerta sedis
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Florida panther ( P. c. coryi )
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The status of the Florida panther remains uncertain . It is still regularly listed as subspecies P. c. coryi in research works , including those directly concerned with its conservation . Culver et al. noted low microsatellite variation in the Florida panther , possibly due to inbreeding ; responding to the research , one conservation team suggests , " the degree to which the scientific community has accepted the use of genetics in puma taxonomy is not resolved at this time . "
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= = Biology and behavior = =
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= = = Physical characteristics = = =
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Cougars are slender and agile members of the cat family . They are the fourth @-@ largest cat ; adults stand about 60 to 90 cm ( 24 to 35 in ) tall at the shoulders . Adult males are around 2 @.@ 4 m ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) long nose @-@ to @-@ tail and females average 2 @.@ 05 m ( 6 @.@ 7 ft ) , with overall ranges between 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 75 m ( 4 @.@ 9 to 9 @.@ 0 ft ) nose to tail suggested for the species in general . Of this length , 63 to 95 cm ( 25 to 37 in ) is comprised by the tail . Males typically weigh 53 to 100 kg ( 115 to 220 lb ) , averaging 62 kg ( 137 lb ) . Females typically weigh between 29 and 64 kg ( 64 and 141 lb ) , averaging 42 kg ( 93 lb ) . Cougar size is smallest close to the equator , and larger towards the poles . The largest recorded cougar , shot in 1901 , weighed 105 @.@ 2 kg ( 232 lb ) ; claims of 125 @.@ 2 kg ( 276 lb ) and 118 kg ( 260 lb ) have been reported , though they were most likely exaggerated . On average , adult male cougars in British Columbia weigh 56 @.@ 7 kg ( 125 lb ) and adult females 45 @.@ 4 kg ( 100 lb ) , though several male cougars in British Columbia weighed between 86 @.@ 4 and 95 @.@ 5 kg ( 190 to 210 lb ) .
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The head of the cat is round and the ears are erect . Its powerful forequarters , neck , and jaw serve to grasp and hold large prey . It has five retractable claws on its forepaws ( one a dewclaw ) and four on its hind paws . The larger front feet and claws are adaptations to clutching prey .
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Cougars can be almost as large as jaguars , but are less muscular and not as powerfully built ; where their ranges overlap , the cougar tends to be smaller on average . Besides the jaguar , the cougar is on average larger than all felids apart from lions and tigers . Despite its size , it is not typically classified among the " big cats " , as it cannot roar , lacking the specialized larynx and hyoid apparatus of Panthera . Compared to " big cats " , cougars are often silent with minimal communication through vocalizations outside of the mother @-@ offspring relationship . Cougars sometimes voice low @-@ pitched hisses , growls , and purrs , as well as chirps and whistles , many of which are comparable to those of domestic cats . They are well known for their screams , as referenced in some of their common names , although these screams are often misinterpreted to be the calls of other animals .
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Cougar coloring is plain ( hence the Latin concolor ) but can vary greatly between individuals and even between siblings . The coat is typically tawny , but ranges to silvery @-@ grey or reddish , with lighter patches on the underbody , including the jaws , chin , and throat . Infants are spotted and born with blue eyes and rings on their tails ; juveniles are pale , and dark spots remain on their flanks . Despite anecdotes to the contrary , all @-@ black coloring ( melanism ) has never been documented in cougars . The term " black panther " is used colloquially to refer to melanistic individuals of other species , particularly jaguars and leopards .
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Cougars have large paws and proportionally the largest hind legs in the cat family . This physique allows it great leaping and short @-@ sprint ability . The cougar is able to leap as high as 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) in one bound , and as far as 40 to 45 ft ( 12 to 13 @.@ 5 m ) horizontally . The cougar 's top running speed ranges between 64 and 80 km / h ( 40 and 50 mph ) , but is best adapted for short , powerful sprints rather than long chases . It is adept at climbing , which allows it to evade canine competitors . Although it is not strongly associated with water , it can swim .
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= = = Hunting and diet = = =
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A successful generalist predator , the cougar will eat any animal it can catch , from insects to large ungulates ( over 500 kg ) . Like all cats , it is an obligate carnivore , meaning it needs to feed exclusively on meat to survive . The mean weight of vertebrate prey ( MWVP ) that pumas attack increases with the puma 's body weight ; in general , MWVP is lower in areas closer to the equator . Its most important prey species are various deer species , particularly in North America ; mule deer , white @-@ tailed deer , elk and even bull moose are taken . Other species such as the bighorn and Dall 's sheep , horse , fallow deer , caribou , mountain goat , coyote , pronghorn , and domestic livestock such as cattle and sheep are also primary food bases in many areas . A survey of North America research found 68 % of prey items were ungulates , especially deer . Only the Florida panther showed variation , often preferring feral hogs and armadillos .
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Investigation in Yellowstone National Park showed that elk , followed by mule deer , were the cougar 's primary targets ; the prey base is shared with the park 's gray wolves , with which the cougar competes for resources . Another study on winter kills ( November – April ) in Alberta showed that ungulates accounted for greater than 99 % of the cougar diet . Learned , individual prey recognition was observed , as some cougars rarely killed bighorn sheep , while others relied heavily on the species .
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In Pacific Rim National Park Reserve , scat samples showed raccoons to make up 28 % of the cougar 's diet , harbor seals and blacktail deer 24 % each , North American river otters 10 % , California sea lion 7 % , and American mink 4 % ; the remaining 3 % were unidentified .
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In the Central and South American cougar range , the ratio of deer in the diet declines . Small to mid @-@ sized mammals are preferred , including large rodents such as the capybara . Ungulates accounted for only 35 % of prey items in one survey , about half that of North America . Competition with the larger jaguar has been suggested for the decline in the size of prey items . Other listed prey species of the cougar include mice , porcupines , beavers , raccoons , hares , guanaco , peccary , vicuna , rhea , and wild turkey . Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south , but this is rarely recorded in North America . Not all of their prey is listed here due to their large range .
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Though capable of sprinting , the cougar is typically an ambush predator . It stalks through brush and trees , across ledges , or other covered spots , before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a suffocating neck bite . The cougar is capable of breaking the neck of some of its smaller prey with a strong bite and momentum bearing the animal to the ground .
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Kills are generally estimated around one large ungulate every two weeks . The period shrinks for females raising young , and may be as short as one kill every three days when cubs are nearly mature around 15 months . The cat drags a kill to a preferred spot , covers it with brush , and returns to feed over a period of days . The cougar is generally reported to not be a scavenger , and rarely consumes prey it has not killed , but deer carcasses left exposed for study were scavenged by cougars in California , suggesting more opportunistic behavior .
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= = = Reproduction and life cycle = = =
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Females reach sexual maturity between one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to three years of age . They typically average one litter every two to three years throughout their reproductive lives , though the period can be as short as one year . Females are in estrus for about 8 days of a 23 @-@ day cycle ; the gestation period is approximately 91 days . Females are sometimes reported as monogamous , but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common . Copulation is brief but frequent . Chronic stress can result in low reproductive rates when in captivity as well as in the field .
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Only females are involved in parenting . Female cougars are fiercely protective of their cubs , and have been seen to successfully fight off animals as large as Grizzly bears in their defense . Litter size is between one and six cubs ; typically two . Caves and other alcoves that offer protection are used as litter dens . Born blind , cubs are completely dependent on their mother at first , and begin to be weaned at around three months of age . As they grow , they begin to go out on forays with their mother , first visiting kill sites , and after six months beginning to hunt small prey on their own . Kitten survival rates are just over one per litter . When cougars are born , they have spots , but they lose them as they grow , and by the age of 2 1 / 2 years , they will completely be gone
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Young adults leave their mother to attempt to establish their own territory at around two years of age and sometimes earlier ; males tend to leave sooner . One study has shown high mortality amongst cougars that travel farthest from the maternal range , often due to conflicts with other cougars ( intraspecific competition ) . Research in New Mexico has shown that " males dispersed significantly farther than females , were more likely to traverse large expanses of non @-@ cougar habitat , and were probably most responsible for nuclear gene flow between habitat patches . "
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Life expectancy in the wild is reported at eight to 13 years , and probably averages eight to 10 ; a female of at least 18 years was reported killed by hunters on Vancouver Island . Cougars may live as long as 20 years in captivity . One male North American cougar ( P. c. couguar ) , named Scratch , was two months short of his 30th birthday when he died in 2007 . Causes of death in the wild include disability and disease , competition with other cougars , starvation , accidents , and , where allowed , human hunting . Feline immunodeficiency virus , an endemic HIV @-@ like virus in cats , is well @-@ adapted to the cougar .
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= = = Social structure and home range = = =
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Like almost all cats , the cougar is a solitary animal . Only mothers and kittens live in groups , with adults meeting only to mate . It is secretive and crepuscular , being most active around dawn and dusk .
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Estimates of territory sizes vary greatly . Canadian Geographic reports large male territories of 150 to 1000 km2 ( 58 to 386 sq mi ) with female ranges half the size . Other research suggests a much smaller lower limit of 25 km2 ( 10 sq mi ) , but an even greater upper limit of 1300 km2 ( 500 sq mi ) for males . In the United States , very large ranges have been reported in Texas and the Black Hills of the northern Great Plains , in excess of 775 km2 ( 300 sq mi ) . Male ranges may include or overlap with those of females but , at least where studied , not with those of other males , which serves to reduce conflict between cougars . Ranges of females may overlap slightly with each other . Scrape marks , urine , and feces are used to mark territory and attract mates . Males may scrape together a small pile of leaves and grasses and then urinate on it as a way of marking territory .
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Home range sizes and overall cougar abundance depend on terrain , vegetation , and prey abundance . One female adjacent to the San Andres Mountains , for instance , was found with a large range of 215 km2 ( 83 sq mi ) , necessitated by poor prey abundance . Research has shown cougar abundances from 0 @.@ 5 animals to as much as 7 ( in one study in South America ) per 100 km2 ( 38 sq mi ) .
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Because males disperse farther than females and compete more directly for mates and territory , they are most likely to be involved in conflict . Where a subadult fails to leave his maternal range , for example , he may be killed by his father . When males encounter each other , they hiss , spit , and may engage in violent conflict if neither backs down . Hunting or relocation of the cougar may increase aggressive encounters by disrupting territories and bringing young , transient animals into conflict with established individuals .
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= = Ecology = =
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= = = Distribution and habitat = = =
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The cougar has the largest range of any wild land animal in the Americas . Its range spans 110 degrees of latitude , from northern Yukon in Canada to the southern Andes . Its wide distribution stems from its adaptability to virtually every habitat type : it is found in all forest types , as well as in lowland and mountainous deserts . The cougar prefers regions with dense underbrush , but can live with little vegetation in open areas . Its preferred habitats include precipitous canyons , escarpments , rim rocks , and dense brush .
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The cougar was extirpated across much of its eastern North American range ( with the exception of Florida ) in the two centuries after European colonization , and faced grave threats in the remainder of its territory . Currently , it ranges across most western American states , the Canadian provinces of Alberta , Saskatchewan and British Columbia , and the Canadian territory of Yukon . There have been widely debated reports of possible recolonization of eastern North America . DNA evidence has suggested its presence in eastern North America , while a consolidated map of cougar sightings shows numerous reports , from the mid @-@ western Great Plains through to eastern Canada . The Quebec wildlife services ( known locally as MRNF ) also considers cougar to be present in the province as a threatened species after multiple DNA tests confirmed cougar hair in lynx mating sites . The only unequivocally known eastern population is the Florida panther , which is critically endangered . There have been unconfirmed sightings in Elliotsville Plantation , Maine ( north of Monson ) ; and in New Hampshire , there have been unconfirmed sightings as early as 1997 . In 2009 , the Michigan Department of Natural Resources confirmed a cougar sighting in Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . Typically , extreme @-@ range sightings of cougars involve young males , which can travel great distances to establish ranges away from established males ; all four confirmed cougar kills in Iowa since 2000 involved males .
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On April 14 , 2008 , police shot and killed a cougar on the north side of Chicago , Illinois . DNA tests were consistent with cougars from the Black Hills of South Dakota . Less than a year later , on March 5 , 2009 , a cougar was photographed and unsuccessfully tranquilized by state wildlife biologists in a tree near Spooner , Wisconsin , in the northwestern part of the state .
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Other eastern sightings since 2010 have occurred in locations such as Greene County , Indiana , Greenwich and Milford , Connecticut , Morgan County Pike County , and Whiteside County , Illinois , and Bourbon County , Kentucky .
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South of the Rio Grande , the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources ( IUCN ) lists the cat in every Central and South American country . While specific state and provincial statistics are often available in North America , much less is known about the cat in its southern range .
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The cougar 's total breeding population is estimated at less than 50 @,@ 000 by the IUCN , with a declining trend . US state @-@ level statistics are often more optimistic , suggesting cougar populations have rebounded . In Oregon , a healthy population of 5 @,@ 000 was reported in 2006 , exceeding a target of 3 @,@ 000 . California has actively sought to protect the cat and a similar number of cougars has been suggested , between 4 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 .
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In 2012 research in Río Los Cipreses National Reserve , Chile , based in 18 motion @-@ sensitive cameras counted a population of two males and two females , one of them with at least two cubs , in an area of 600 km2 , that is 0 @.@ 63 cougars every 100 km2 .
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= = = Habitat fragmentation = = =
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With the increase of human development and infrastructure growth in California , the North American Cougar populations are becoming more isolated from one another .
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= = = Ecological role = = =
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Aside from humans , no species preys upon mature cougars in the wild , although conflicts with other predators or scavengers occur . The Yellowstone National Park ecosystem provides a fruitful microcosm to study inter @-@ predator interaction in North America . Of the three large predators , the massive grizzly bear appears dominant , often although not always able to drive both the gray wolf pack and the cougar off their kills . One study found that American black bears visited 24 % of cougar kills in Yellowstone and Glacier National Parks , usurping 10 % of carcasses . Bears gained up to 113 % , and cougars lost up to 26 % , of their respective daily energy requirements from these encounters . Accounts of cougars and black bears killing each other in fights to the death have been documented from the 19th century . In spite of the size and power of the cougar , there have also been accounts of both brown and black bears killing cougars , either in disputes or in self @-@ defense .
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The gray wolf and the cougar compete more directly for prey , especially in winter . Wolves can steal kills and occasionally kill the cat . One report describes a large pack of 7 to 11 wolves killing a female cougar and her kittens . Conversely , lone female or young wolves are vulnerable to predation , and have been reported ambushed and killed by cougars . Various accounts of cougars killing lone wolves , including a six @-@ year @-@ old female , have also been documented . Wolves more broadly affect cougar population dynamics and distribution by dominating territory and prey opportunities , and disrupting the feline 's behavior . Preliminary research in Yellowstone , for instance , has shown displacement of the cougar by wolves . In nearby Sun Valley , Idaho , a cougar / wolf encounter that resulted in the death of the cougar was documented . One researcher in Oregon noted : " When there is a pack around , cougars are not comfortable around their kills or raising kittens ... A lot of times a big cougar will kill a wolf , but the pack phenomenon changes the table . "
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Both species , meanwhile , are capable of killing mid @-@ sized predators , such as bobcats and coyotes , and tend to suppress their numbers . Although cougars can kill coyotes , the latter have been documented attempting to prey on cougar cubs .
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In the southern portion of its range , the cougar and jaguar share overlapping territory . The jaguar tends to take larger prey and the cougar smaller where they overlap , reducing the cougar 's size and also further reducing the likelihood of direct competition . Of the two felines , the cougar appears best able to exploit a broader prey niche and smaller prey .
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As with any predator at or near the top of its food chain , the cougar impacts the population of prey species . Predation by cougars has been linked to changes in the species mix of deer in a region . For example , a study in British Columbia observed that the population of mule deer , a favored cougar prey , was declining while the population of the less frequently preyed @-@ upon white @-@ tailed deer was increasing . The Vancouver Island marmot , an endangered species endemic to one region of dense cougar population , has seen decreased numbers due to cougar and gray wolf predation . Nevertheless , there is a measurable effect on the quality of deer populations by puma predation .
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In the southern part of South America , the puma is a top level predator that has controlled the population of guanaco and other species since prehistoric times .
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= = Hybrids = =
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A pumapard is a hybrid animal resulting from a union between a cougar and a leopard . Three sets of these hybrids were bred in the late 1890s and early 1900s by Carl Hagenbeck at his animal park in Hamburg , Germany . Most did not reach adulthood . One of these was purchased in 1898 by Berlin Zoo . A similar hybrid in Berlin Zoo purchased from Hagenbeck was a cross between a male leopard and a female puma . Hamburg Zoo 's specimen was the reverse pairing , the one in the black @-@ and @-@ white photo , fathered by a puma bred to an Indian leopardess .
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Whether born to a female puma mated to a male leopard , or to a male puma mated to a female leopard , pumapards inherit a form of dwarfism . Those reported grew to only half the size of the parents . They have a puma @-@ like long body ( proportional to the limbs , but nevertheless shorter than either parent ) , but short legs . The coat is variously described as sandy , tawny or greyish with brown , chestnut or " faded " rosettes .
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= = Conservation status = =
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The World Conservation Union ( IUCN ) currently lists the cougar as a " least concern " species . The cougar is regulated under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) , rendering illegal international trade in specimens or parts .
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In the United States east of the Mississippi River , the only unequivocally known cougar population is the Florida panther . Until 2011 , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service ( USFWS ) recognized both an Eastern cougar ( claimed to be a subspecies by some , denied by others ) and the Florida panther , affording protection under the Endangered Species Act . Certain taxonomic authorities have collapsed both designations into the North American cougar , with Eastern or Florida subspecies not recognized , while a subspecies designation remains recognized by some conservation scientists . In 2003 the documented count for the Florida sub @-@ population was 87 individuals . In March 2011 , the USFWS declared the Eastern cougar extinct . With the taxonomic uncertainty about its existence as a subspecies as well as the possibility of eastward migration of cougars from the western range , the subject remains open .
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This uncertainty has been recognized by Canadian authorities . The Canadian federal agency called Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada rates its current data as " insufficient " to draw conclusions regarding the eastern cougar 's survival , and says on its Web site " Despite many sightings in the past two decades from eastern Canada , there are insufficient data to evaluate the taxonomy or assign a status to this cougar . " Notwithstanding numerous reported sightings in Ontario , Quebec , New Brunswick and Nova Scotia , it has been said that the evidence is inconclusive : " . . . there may not be a distinct ' eastern ' subspecies , and some sightings may be of escaped pets . "
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The cougar is also protected across much of the rest of its range . As of 1996 , cougar hunting was prohibited in Argentina , Brazil , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , Costa Rica , French Guiana , Guatemala , Honduras , Nicaragua , Panama , Paraguay , Suriname , Venezuela , and Uruguay . The cat had no reported legal protection in Ecuador , El Salvador , and Guyana . Regulated cougar hunting is still common in the United States and Canada , although they are protected from all hunting in the Yukon ; it is permitted in every U.S. state from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean , with the exception of California . Texas is the only state in the United States with a viable population of cougars that does not protect that population in some way . In Texas , cougars are listed as nuisance wildlife and any person holding a hunting or a trapping permit can kill a cougar regardless of the season , number killed , sex or age of the animal . Killed animals are not required to be reported to Texas Parks and Wildlife Department . Conservation work in Texas is the effort of a non @-@ profit organization , Balanced Ecology Inc ( BEI ) , as part of their Texas Mountain Lion Conservation Project . Cougars are generally hunted with packs of dogs , until the animal is ' treed ' . When the hunter arrives on the scene , he shoots the cat from the tree at close range . The cougar cannot be legally killed without a permit in California except under very specific circumstances , such as when a cougar is in act of pursuing livestock or domestic animals , or is declared a threat to public safety . Permits are issued when owners can prove property damage on their livestock or pets . For example , multiple dogs have been attacked and killed , sometimes while with the owner . Many attribute this to the protection cougars have from being hunted and are now becoming desensitized to humans ; most are removed from the population after the attacks have already occurred . Statistics from the Department of Fish and Game indicate that cougar killings in California have been on the rise since the 1970s with an average of over 112 cats killed per year from 2000 to 2006 compared to six per year in the 1970s . They also state on their website that there is a healthy number of cougars in California . The Bay Area Puma Project aims to obtain information on cougar populations in the San Francisco Bay area and the animals ' interactions with habitat , prey , humans , and residential communities .
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Conservation threats to the species include persecution as a pest animal , environmental degradation and habitat fragmentation , and depletion of their prey base . Wildlife corridors and sufficient range areas are critical to the sustainability of cougar populations . Research simulations have shown that the animal faces a low extinction risk in areas of 2200 km2 ( 850 sq mi ) or more . As few as one to four new animals entering a population per decade markedly increases persistence , foregrounding the importance of habitat corridors .
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On March 2 , 2011 , the United States Fish and Wildlife Service declared the Eastern cougar ( Puma concolor couguar ) officially extinct .
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= = Relationships with humans = =
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= = = In mythology = = =
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The grace and power of the cougar have been widely admired in the cultures of the indigenous peoples of the Americas . The Inca city of Cusco is reported to have been designed in the shape of a cougar , and the animal also gave its name to both Inca regions and people . The Moche people represented the puma often in their ceramics . The sky and thunder god of the Inca , Viracocha , has been associated with the animal .
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In North America , mythological descriptions of the cougar have appeared in the stories of the Hocąk language ( " Ho @-@ Chunk " or " Winnebago " ) of Wisconsin and Illinois and the Cheyenne , amongst others . To the Apache and Walapai of Arizona , the wail of the cougar was a harbinger of death . The Algonquins and Ojibwe believe that the cougar lived in the underworld and was wicked , whereas it was a sacred animal among the Cherokee .
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= = = Livestock predation = = =
| 40ad782fe8a99a56d82c1f67a84a590b | 22,474 |
During the early years of ranching , cougars were considered on par with wolves in destructiveness . According to figures in Texas in 1990 , 86 calves ( 0 @.@ 0006 % of a total of 13 @.@ 4 million cattle & calves in Texas ) , 253 Mohair goats , 302 Mohair kids , 445 sheep ( 0 @.@ 02 % of a total of 2 @.@ 0 million sheep & lambs in Texas ) and 562 lambs ( 0 @.@ 04 % of 1 @.@ 2 million lambs in Texas ) were confirmed to have been killed by cougars that year . In Nevada in 1992 , cougars were confirmed to have killed 9 calves , 1 horse , 4 foals , 5 goats , 318 sheep and 400 lambs . In both cases , sheep were the most frequently attacked . Some instances of surplus killing have resulted in the deaths of 20 sheep in one attack . A cougar 's killing bite is applied to the back of the neck , head , or throat and they inflict puncture marks with their claws usually seen on the sides and underside of the prey , sometimes also shredding the prey as they hold on . Coyotes also typically bite the throat region but do not inflict the claw marks and farmers will normally see the signature zig @-@ zag pattern that coyotes create as they feed on the prey whereas cougars typically drag in a straight line . The work of a cougar is generally clean , differing greatly from the indiscriminate mutilation by coyotes and feral dogs . The size of the tooth puncture marks also helps distinguish kills made by cougars from those made by smaller predators .
| 67f32dc45d4a7c2559ab417515cd8c6c | 22,476 |
Remedial hunting appears to have the paradoxical effect of increased livestock predation and complaints of human @-@ puma conflicts . In a 2013 study the most important predictor of puma problems were remedial hunting of puma the previous year . Each additional puma on the landscape increased predation and human @-@ puma complaints by 5 % but each additional animal killed on the landscape the previous year increased complaints by 50 % , an order of magnitude higher . The effect had a dose @-@ response relationship with very heavy ( 100 % removal of adult puma ) remedial hunting leading to a 150 % – 340 % increase in livestock and human conflicts . This effect is attributed to the fact that inexperienced younger male pumas are most likely to approach human developments , whereas remedial hunting removes older pumas who have learned to avoid people in their established territories . Remedial hunting enables younger males to enter the former territories of the older animals .
| a939b0354c44514af43070a77e6c64b8 | 22,477 |
= = = Attacks on humans = = =
| dbbfbf4a024b28aef870893a0bec3b5a | 22,479 |
= = = = North American subspecies = = = =
| 5481552141389e22d2f6690a813089aa | 22,482 |
The pertinent North American subspecies is P. concolor couguar .
| 9a1bfdae02fe576f5dc25f78315a8c17 | 22,484 |
Due to the expanding human population , cougar ranges increasingly overlap with areas inhabited by humans . Attacks on humans are very rare , as cougar prey recognition is a learned behavior and they do not generally recognize humans as prey . Attacks on people , livestock , and pets may occur when a puma habituates to humans or is in a condition of severe starvation . Attacks are most frequent during late spring and summer , when juvenile cougars leave their mothers and search for new territory .
| d66065ce7e4d8120c0e4eab88ba10d16 | 22,485 |
Between 1890 and 1990 , in North America there were 53 reported , confirmed attacks on humans , resulting in 48 nonfatal injuries and 10 deaths of humans ( the total is greater than 53 because some attacks had more than one victim ) . By 2004 , the count had climbed to 88 attacks and 20 deaths .
| cc155e211e9f77866efe953862d61d36 | 22,486 |
Within North America , the distribution of attacks is not uniform . The heavily populated state of California has seen a dozen attacks since 1986 ( after just three from 1890 to 1985 ) , including three fatalities . Lightly populated New Mexico reported an attack in 2008 , the first there since 1974 .
| 0db9536894443a724a591b179787b7c2 | 22,487 |
As with many predators , a cougar may attack if cornered , if a fleeing human stimulates their instinct to chase , or if a person " plays dead " . Standing still may cause the cougar to consider a person easy prey . Exaggerating the threat to the animal through intense eye contact , loud shouting , and any other action to appear larger and more menacing , may make the animal retreat . Fighting back with sticks and rocks , or even bare hands , is often effective in persuading an attacking cougar to disengage .
| 18c39b70ade5c5f37d1daaa954466580 | 22,488 |
When cougars do attack , they usually employ their characteristic neck bite , attempting to position their teeth between the vertebrae and into the spinal cord . Neck , head , and spinal injuries are common and sometimes fatal . Children are at greatest risk of attack , and least likely to survive an encounter . Detailed research into attacks prior to 1991 showed that 64 % of all victims – and almost all fatalities – were children . The same study showed the highest proportion of attacks to have occurred in British Columbia , particularly on Vancouver Island where cougar populations are especially dense . Preceding attacks on humans , cougars display aberrant behavior , such as activity during daylight hours , a lack of fear of humans , and stalking humans . There have sometimes been incidents of pet cougars mauling people .
| f672da5189e13bc4b18798d0cc3092b9 | 22,489 |
Research on new wildlife collars may be able to reduce human @-@ animal conflicts by predicting when and where predatory animals hunt . This can not only save human lives and the lives of their pets and livestock but also save these large predatory mammals that are important to the balance of ecosystems .
| 901702c0dce4cc4d8f0b86d9c62477c8 | 22,490 |
= = = = Other subspecies = = = =
| 9eaab4d00b9bcab93223ac08b619299e | 22,492 |
The puma of the plains of South America ( P. concolor cabrerae , called the Argentine cougar by North Americans ) is noted for its extreme unwillingness to attack humans . According to the Anglo @-@ Argentine naturalist William Henry Hudson " It does not attack man , and Azara is perfectly correct when he affirms that it never hurts , or threatens to hurt , man or child , even when it finds them sleeping . This , however , is not a full statement of the facts ; the puma will not even defend itself against man " . And : " All who have killed or witnessed the killing of the puma — and I have questioned scores of hunters on this point — agree that it resigns itself in this unresisting , pathetic manner to death at the hands of man . Claudio Gay , in his Natural History of Chili , says , " When attacked by man its energy and daring at once forsake it , and it becomes a weak , inoffensive animal , and trembling , and uttering piteous moans , and shedding abundant tears , it seems to implore compassion from a generous enemy " . Hudson adds that , except in relation to man , the puma is a ferocious animal , attacking even the much stronger jaguar .
| f71821aaa0f0bbf6197a2518aa285c7b | 22,494 |
= New York State Route 164 =
| 861e781b1ce46d104969ee7c070eff81 | 22,497 |
New York State Route 164 ( NY 164 ) is a short state highway located entirely in the town of Patterson in northeastern Putnam County , New York , in the United States . It is a short , two @-@ lane back road that does not pass through any major populated areas and serves primarily as a connector between NY 311 and NY 22 . NY 164 also allows for faster passage from Interstate 84 ( I @-@ 84 ) to the Putnam Lake area via NY 311 . The route was originally designated as NY 312 during the 1930s and later became part of NY 216 . NY 164 was established on January 1 , 1970 , following the truncation of NY 216 to its current eastern terminus .
| ce2ca614077e66f634908ce0def8b7e0 | 22,499 |
= = Route description = =
| 492dd728c7998b12b26ca6c56c46440f | 22,501 |
In the west , NY 164 splits off from NY 311 a short distance east of I @-@ 84 . It crosses under the Metro North tracks three times , including two one @-@ lane underpasses with limited sight to the other side . It passes along the northern base of a small mountain and turns slightly southward . The highway turns due eastward and intersects with County Route 64 in the hamlet of Towners . Just to the north is Mandel Pond , and the route makes a series of erratic turns around small mountains , passing south of Cornwall Hill as it does so . NY 164 turns south @-@ southeast and ends at NY 22 in Patterson , east of the East Branch Croton River .
| ccddbe1358a9b602a5105760f3c6cb70 | 22,503 |
= = History = =
| fd3fc667e330e6e3944a4f085f9ef39d | 22,505 |
The entirety of modern @-@ day NY 164 was originally designated as NY 312 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . When the NY 312 designation was shifted south to its current location in the town of Southeast c . 1937 , its former routing in Patterson became part of an extended NY 216 , which connected with its current routing by way of modern NY 311 , NY 292 and NY 55 . NY 216 was truncated to its current length on January 1 , 1970 . The portion of its former alignment between NY 311 and NY 22 was then redesignated as NY 164 .
| 379d0a40fcfd21127eca8ee355a356ca | 22,507 |
= = Major intersections = =
| 758ae1495b9ccb2712446fb9e200ddfc | 22,509 |
The entire route is in Patterson , Putnam County .
| 5111b93a511042f8b08eb2c6242e4957 | 22,511 |
= Sorraia =
| 7ecb7bc2aaad8137efb8149154236895 | 22,514 |
The Sorraia is a rare breed of horse indigenous to the portion of the Iberian peninsula , in the Sorraia River basin , in Portugal . The Sorraia is known for its primitive features , including a convex profile and dun coloring with primitive markings . Concerning its origins , a theory has been advanced by some authors that the Sorraia is a descendant of primitive horses belonging to the naturally occurring wild fauna of Southern Iberia . Studies are currently ongoing to discover the relationship between the Sorraia and various wild horse types , as well as its relationship with other breeds from the Iberian Peninsula and Northern Africa .
| bfbc9a0a481cca6b09e29d0e00a0772b | 22,516 |
Members of the breed are small , but hardy and well @-@ adapted to harsh conditions . They were occasionally captured and used by native farmers for centuries , and a remnant population of these nearly extinct horses was discovered by a Portuguese zoologist in the early 20th century . Today , the Sorraia has become the focus of preservation efforts , with European scientists leading the way and enthusiasts from several countries forming projects and establishing herds to assist in the re @-@ establishment of this breed from its current endangered status .
| a521e7a422da0a7c8e69e3655f16019c | 22,517 |
= = Characteristics = =
| 7578e00b1806474d133aedda48bbb013 | 22,519 |
The Sorraia breed stands between 14 @.@ 1 and 14 @.@ 3 hands ( 57 and 59 inches , 145 and 150 cm ) high , although some individuals are as small as 12 @.@ 3 hands ( 51 inches , 130 cm ) The head tends to be large , the profile convex , and the ears long . The neck is slender and long , the withers high , and the croup slightly sloping . The legs are strong , with long pasterns and well @-@ proportioned hooves . These horses have good endurance and are easy keepers , thriving on relatively little fodder . They have a reputation for being independent of temperament , but tractable .
| e1d1e1a816e3a6b26931d47a5f9cc8b6 | 22,521 |
On adult horses , the lay of the hair can create the appearance of stripes or " barring " on the neck and chest . Also due to the lay of the hair , newborn foals can appear to have stripes all over , reminiscent of zebra stripes . The breed standard refers to this as " hair stroke " .
| 08760deb99ef113506e390d7145dafd8 | 22,522 |
= = = Color = = =
| 29d39526164f41993ab25cb768c36421 | 22,524 |
Sorraia are generally dun or a dun variation called grullo . Dun coloring includes primitive markings such as a black dorsal stripe , black tipped ears , horizontal striping on the legs and a dark muzzle area . The dark muzzle area is in contrast to some other dun @-@ colored horse breeds , who have light @-@ colored muzzle areas and underbellies , possibly due to the presence of pangare genetics . Sorraia horses have bi @-@ colored manes and tails with lighter colored hairs that fringe the outside of the longer growing black hair . This is a characteristic shared with other predominantly dun @-@ colored breeds , such as the Fjord horse . Purebred Sorraia occasionally have white markings , although they are rare and undesired by the breed 's studbook .
| 674ebe4304b4f914708ec0d22e5fe4c2 | 22,526 |
= = Genetics = =
| 21b5b3ca57287fef932cde54a3156d7e | 22,528 |
The relationship between the Sorraia and other breeds remains largely undetermined , as is its relationship to the wild horse subspecies , the Tarpan and the Przewalski 's Horse . The Sorraia originally developed in the southern part of the Iberian peninsula. d 'Andrade hypothesized that the Sorraia would be the ancestor of the Southern Iberian breeds . Morphologically , scientists place the Sorraia as closely related to the Gallego and the Asturcon , but genetic studies using mitochondrial DNA show that the Sorraia forms a cluster that is largely separated from most Iberian breeds . Some evidence links this cluster with Konik and domestic Mongolian horses . At the same time , one of the maternal lineages is shared with the Lusitano . Genetic evidence has not supported an hypothesis that the Sorraia is related to the Barb horse , an African breed introduced to Iberia by the Moors .
| 596020d3ded800d5e0a6bd6d7e16703a | 22,530 |
Multiple authors have suggested that the Sorraia might be a descendant of the Tarpan based on shared morphological features , principally the typical color of its coat . Other authors simply state that the Sorraia has " evident primitive characteristics " , although they do not refer to a specific ancestor . However , there have been no genetic studies comparing the Sorraia with the Tarpan , and similarity of external morphology is an unreliable measure of relatedness .
| 7a75c872fc4ef1ea8ccfffc81a98cc89 | 22,531 |
Genetic studies to date have been inconclusive about the closest relative of the Sorraia . On one hand , studies using mitochondrial DNA showed a relationship with the Przewalski 's Horse , in that Przewalski 's Horse has a unique haplotype ( A2 ) not found in domestic horses , which differs by just one single nucleotide from one of the major Sorraia haplotypes ( JSO41 , later A7 ) . In comparison , genetic distances within the domestic horse are as large as 11 nucleotide differences . However , this relationship with the Przewalski 's Horse was contradicted in another study using microsatellite data that showed that the genetic distance between the Prewalski 's Horse and the Sorraia was the largest . Such conflicting results can arise when a population passes through a genetic bottleneck , and evidence suggests that the Sorraia , among other rare breeds , has recently passed through a bottleneck , effectively obscuring the position of this breed in the family tree of the domestic horse . Thus , the morphological , physiological , and cultural characteristics of the Sorraia are the subject of continued study to better understand the relationship between various Iberian horse breeds and wild horse subspecies .
| b5fb2f52c274400ea09fc0f8e426c5ca | 22,532 |
= = History = =
| fd3fc667e330e6e3944a4f085f9ef39d | 22,534 |
Although it is known that the Sorraia developed in the southern part of the Iberian peninsula , the breed was isolated and unknown to science until the 20th century . Despite the lack of documentation , attempts have been made to reconstruct its history . Paleolithic parietal art images in the region depict equines with a distinct likeness to the Sorraia , with similar zebra @-@ like markings . Analysis of mtDNA has been performed on Mustangs in the western United States that show similar mtDNA patterns between some Mustangs and the Sorraia breed . Spanish conquistadors took Iberian horses , some of whom closely resembled the modern @-@ day Sorraia , to the Americas in their conquests , probably as pack animals . Similarities between the Sorraia and several North and South American breeds are shown in the dun and grullo coloring and various physical characteristics . This evidence suggests that the Sorraia , their ancestors , or other horses with similar features , may have had a long history in the Iberian region and a role in the creation of American breeds .
| d960768cb7234d0df976f5f364bbfbd4 | 22,536 |
Otherwise , the Sorraia breed was lost to history until 1920 , when Portuguese zoologist and paleontologist Dr. Ruy d 'Andrade first encountered the Sorraia horse during a hunting trip in the Portuguese lowlands . This remnant herd of primitive horses had continued to live a wild existence in these lowlands , which were rather inaccessible and had been used as a hunting preserve by Portuguese royalty until the early 1900s . At the time of d 'Andrade 's initial meeting the breed , the horses were ill @-@ regarded by native farmers , although they were considered hardy native fauna that lived off of the uncultivated lands and salt marshes in the local river valleys . For centuries , peasant farmers of the area would occasionally capture the horses and use them for agricultural work , including threshing grain and herding bulls .
| f8b3f25d3fbc78096d8cb93b387e4185 | 22,537 |
In the 1920s and 1930s , as mechanization became more prevalent , both wild and domesticated breeding stock diminished to almost nothing , and d 'Andrade , along with his son Fernando , encouraged the conservation of the breed . In 1937 , d 'Andrade began a small herd of his own with five stallions and seven mares from horses obtained near Coruche , Portugal . All Sorraias currently in captivity descend from these original horses obtained by d 'Andrade , and it is believed that the remnant wild herds of the breed died out soon after . These horses were kept in a habitat similar to their native one . In 1975 , two other farms took up the Sorraia 's cause and acquired small herds to help with conservation . In 1976 , three stallions and three mares were imported to Germany from Portugal to begin a sub @-@ population there . In March 2004 , a small breeding herd of Sorraia horses was released on the estate of a private land owner who dedicated a portion of his property so that these horses could live completely wild , as did their ancestors . The refuge created for them is in the Vale de Zebro region of south western Portugal , one of places so named because this is where the Sorraia 's predecessors dwelt .
| 81c844aa5ecd2cfd353b18cfa11ff236 | 22,538 |
Two Sorraia stallions were imported to the United States in the early 21st century . In 2006 , another Sorraia stallion was imported to Canada where a Sorraia Mustang Preserve has been established on Manitoulin Island in Ontario . Unrelated to existing preservation efforts which work in conjunction with the Sorraia Mustang Studbook , another project by a consortium of breeders in the United States is attempting to establish a separate network and studbook . These breeders have gathered Spanish Mustangs that through mtDNA testing show a genetic relationship with the Sorraia and are breeding them according to both genotype and phenotype in an attempt to help preserve what they are calling the " American Sorraia " .
| 42659f7bce06182e3cd866eae57497fc | 22,539 |
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