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Fly agarics are known for the unpredictability of their effects . Depending on habitat and the amount ingested per body weight , effects can range from nausea and twitching to drowsiness , cholinergic crisis @-@ like effects ( low blood pressure , sweating and salivation ) , auditory and visual distortions , mood chan...
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In cases of serious poisoning the mushroom causes delirium , somewhat similar in effect to anticholinergic poisoning ( such as that caused by Datura stramonium ) , characterised by bouts of marked agitation with confusion , hallucinations , and irritability followed by periods of central nervous system depression . Se...
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= = = Treatment = = =
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Medical attention should be sought in cases of suspected poisoning . If the delay between ingestion and treatment is less than four hours , activated charcoal is given . Gastric lavage can be considered if the patient presents within one hour of ingestion . Inducing vomiting with syrup of ipecac is no longer recommend...
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There is no antidote , and supportive care is the mainstay of further treatment for intoxication . Though sometimes referred to as a deliriant and while muscarine was first isolated from A. muscaria and as such is its namesake , muscimol does not have action , either as an agonist or antagonist , at the muscarinic ace...
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= = = Psychoactive use = = =
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The wide range of psychedelic effects can be variously described as depressant , sedative @-@ hypnotic , dissociative , and deliriant ; paradoxical effects may occur . Perceptual phenomena such as macropsia and micropsia may occur , which may have been the inspiration for the effect of mushroom @-@ consumption in Lewi...
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Professor Marija Gimbutas , a renowned Lithuanian historian , reported to R. Gordon Wasson on the use of this mushroom in Lithuania . In remote areas of Lithuania Amanita muscaria has been consumed at wedding feasts , in which mushrooms were mixed with vodka . The professor also reported that the Lithuanians used to e...
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= = = Siberia = = =
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Amanita muscaria was widely used as an entheogen by many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia . Its use was known among almost all of the Uralic @-@ speaking peoples of western Siberia and the Paleosiberian @-@ speaking peoples of the Russian Far East . There are only isolated reports of A. muscaria use among the Tung...
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The Koryak of eastern Siberia have a story about the fly agaric ( wapaq ) which enabled Big Raven to carry a whale to its home . In the story , the deity Vahiyinin ( " Existence " ) spat onto earth , and his spittle became the wapaq , and his saliva becomes the warts . After experiencing the power of the wapaq , Raven...
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= = = Other reports of use = = =
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The Finnish historian T. I. Itkonen mentions that A. muscaria was once used among the Sami people : sorcerers in Inari would consume fly agarics with seven spots . In 1979 , Said Gholam Mochtar and Hartmut Geerken published an article in which they claim to have discovered a tradition of medicinal and recreational use...
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= = = Vikings = = =
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The notion that Vikings used A. muscaria to produce their berserker rages was first suggested by the Swedish professor Samuel Ödmann in 1784 . Ödmann based his theories on reports about the use of fly agaric among Siberian shamans . The notion has become widespread since the 19th century , but no contemporary sources ...
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= = Fly trap = =
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Amanita muscaria is traditionally used for catching flies possibly due to its content of ibotenic acid and muscimol . Recently , an analysis of nine different methods for preparing A. muscaria for catching flies in Slovenia have shown that the release of ibotenic acid and muscimol did not depend on the solvent ( milk ...
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= = In Religion = =
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= = = Soma = = =
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In 1968 , R. Gordon Wasson proposed that A. muscaria was the Soma talked about in the Rig Veda of India , a claim which received widespread publicity and popular support at the time . He noted that descriptions of Soma omitted any description of roots , stems or seeds , which suggested a mushroom , and used the adject...
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= = = Christianity = = =
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Philologist , archeologist , and Dead Sea Scrolls scholar John Marco Allegro postulated that early Christian theology was derived from a fertility cult revolving around the entheogenic consumption of A. muscaria in his 1970 book The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross , but his theory has found little support by scholars ou...
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= = Culinary use = =
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The toxins in A. muscaria are water @-@ soluble . When sliced thinly , or finely diced and boiled in plentiful water until thoroughly cooked , it seems to be detoxified . Although its consumption as a food has never been widespread , the consumption of detoxified A. muscaria has been practiced in some parts of Europe ...
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Use of this mushroom as a food source also seems to have existed in North America . A classic description of this use of A. muscaria by an African @-@ American mushroom seller in Washington , D.C. , in the late 19th century is described by American botanist Frederick Vernon Coville . In this case , the mushroom , afte...
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A 2008 paper by food historian William Rubel and mycologist David Arora gives a history of consumption of A. muscaria as a food and describes detoxification methods . They advocate that Amanita muscaria be described in field guides as an edible mushroom , though accompanied by a description on how to detoxify it . The...
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= = Legal Status = =
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= = = Australia = = =
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Muscimol found within Amanita muscaria is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard ( October 2015 ) . A Schedule 9 substance is a substance which may be abused or misused , the manufacture , possession , sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required f...
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= = = The Netherlands = = =
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Amanita muscaria and Amanita pantherina are illegal to buy , sell , or possess since December 2008 . Possession of amounts larger than 0.5g dried or 5g fresh lead to a criminal charge .
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= = = United Kingdom = = =
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It is illegal to produce , supply , or import this drug under the Psychoactive Substance Act , which came into effect on May 26th , 2016 .
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= = Cultural depictions = =
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The red @-@ and @-@ white spotted toadstool is a common image in many aspects of popular culture . Garden ornaments and children 's picture books depicting gnomes and fairies , such as the Smurfs , often show fly agarics used as seats , or homes . Fly agarics have been featured in paintings since the Renaissance , alb...
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= = = Literature = = =
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An account of the journeys of Philip von Strahlenberg to Siberia and his descriptions of the use of the mukhomor there was published in English in 1736 . The drinking of urine of those who had consumed the mushroom was commented on by Anglo @-@ Irish writer Oliver Goldsmith in his widely read 1762 novel , Citizen of t...
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= Burning of women in England =
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In England , burning was a legal punishment inflicted on women found guilty of high treason , petty treason and heresy . Over a period of several centuries , female convicts were publicly burnt at the stake , sometimes alive , for a range of activities including coining and mariticide .
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While men guilty of heresy were also burned at the stake , those who committed high treason were instead hanged , drawn and quartered . The English jurist William Blackstone supposed that the difference in sentencing , although " full as terrible to the sensation as the other " , could be explained by the desire not t...
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In the latter half of the eighteenth century , changing attitudes to such public displays prompted Sir Benjamin Hammett MP to denounce the practice in Parliament . His bill , by no means the first such attempt to end the public burning of women , led to the Treason Act 1790 , which abolished the sentence .
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= = Crimes punishable by burning = =
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= = = Treason = = =
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By the end of the thirteenth century , several offences against either one 's lord , or one 's king , were treasonable . High treason , defined as transgressions against the sovereign , was first codified during King Edward III 's reign by the Treason Act 1351 . It clarified exactly what crimes constituted treason , f...
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As the most egregious offence an individual could commit , viewed as seriously as though the accused had personally attacked the monarch , high treason demanded the ultimate punishment . But whereas men guilty of this crime were hanged , drawn and quartered , women were drawn and burned . In his Commentaries on the La...
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= = = Heresy = = =
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Another law enforceable by public burning was De heretico comburendo , introduced in 1401 during the reign of Henry IV . It allowed for the execution of persons of both sexes found guilty of heresy , thought to be " sacrilegious and dangerous to souls , but also seditious and treasonable . " Bishops were empowered to ...
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De heretico comburendo was repealed by the Act of Supremacy 1558 , although that act allowed ecclesiastical commissions to deal with occasional instances of heresy . Persons declared guilty , such as Bartholomew Legate and Edward Wightman , could still be burned under a writ of de heretico comburendo issued by the Cou...
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= = Execution of the sentence = =
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Public executions were normally attended by large crowds . For the killing in 1546 of Anne Askew , charged with heresy and tortured at the Tower of London , a " Substancyall Stage " was built to seat the various officials who presided over her burning . A witness to proceedings reported that Askew was so badly injured...
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A pamphlet detailing the burning in April 1652 of Joan Peterson , the so @-@ called Witch of Wapping , also describes the execution of Prudence Lee , found guilty of mariticide . Lee was apparently brought on foot , between two sheriff 's officers and dressed in a red waistcoat , to the place of execution in Smithfiel...
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The law also allowed for the hanging of children aged seven years or more . Mary Troke , " but sixteen years of age " , was burned at Winchester in 1738 for poisoning her mistress . An unidentified 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl imprisoned at Newgate was more fortunate . Found guilty in 1777 of being an accomplice to treaso...
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= = Changing attitudes = =
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In 1786 , Phoebe Harris and her accomplices were " indicted , for that they , on the 11th of February last , one piece of false , feigned , and counterfeit money and coin , to the likeness and similitude of the good , legal , and silver coin of this realm , called a shilling , falsely , deceitfully , feloniously , and...
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Executions like this had once passed with little to no comment in the press . Historically , while fewer women than men were subjected to capital punishment , proportionately more were acquitted , found guilty of lesser charges , or pardoned if condemned . In centuries past , these women were judged by publications su...
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Harris 's fate prompted William Wilberforce to sponsor a bill which , if passed , would have abolished the practice . But as one of its proposals would have allowed the anatomical dissection of criminals other than murderers , the House of Lords rejected it . Though sympathetic to reform of England 's Bloody Code , Lo...
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When on 25 June 1788 Margaret Sullivan was hanged and burned for coining , the same newspaper ( by then called The Times ) wrote :
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There is something so inhuman in burning a woman , for what only subjects a man to hanging , that human nature shudders at the idea . Must not mankind laugh as our long speeches against African slavery — and our fine sentiments on Indian cruelties , when just in the very eye of the Sovereign we roast a female fellow c...
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The Gentleman 's Magazine addressed the Prime Minister , William Pitt the Younger :
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the woman was brought out attended by a priest of the Romish persuasion , and as soon as she came to the stake she was placed upon a stool , which was instantly removed from under her , and she left suspended , when the faggots were placed around her , and being set on fire she was soon consumed to ashes . — Mr. Pitt ...
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Although in his objections to Wilberforce 's 1786 bill Loughborough had noted that these women were dead long before they suffered the flames , many newspapers of the day made no such distinction . The Times incorrectly stated that Sullivan was burned alive , rhetoric which , in Dr Simon Devereaux 's opinion , could b...
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= = Abolition = =
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The burning in 1789 of Christian Murphy , for coining , received practically no attention from the newspapers ( perhaps owing to practical limitations on how much news they could publish across only four pages ) , but it may have been enacted by Sir Benjamin Hammett , a former sheriff of London . Hammett was also an M...
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When remission of burning was refused , the scene of inhumanity should have been changed ; the consequences have been serious ; several persons in the neighbourhood of Newgate lying ill , have been severely affected by the smoke which issued from the body of the unhappy female victim .
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Another factor was the fate of Sophia Girton , found guilty of coining . Hammett 's bill was introduced only four days before Girton 's fate was to be decided , but a petition for her respite from burning , supported by another sheriff of London ( either Thomas Baker or William Newman ) and brought to King George III ...
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= Strand , London =
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Strand ( or the Strand ) is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster , Central London . It runs just over 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) from Trafalgar Square eastwards to Temple Bar , where the road becomes Fleet Street inside the City of London , and is part of the A4 , a main road running west from inner London ...
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The road 's name comes from the Old English strond , meaning the edge of a river , as it historically ran alongside the north bank of the River Thames . The street was popular with the British upper classes between the 12th and 17th centuries , with many historically important mansions being built between the Strand a...
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Several authors , poets and philosophers have lived on or near the Strand , including Charles Dickens , Ralph Waldo Emerson and Virginia Woolf . The street has been commemorated in the song , " Let 's All Go Down the Strand " , now recognised as a typical piece of Cockney music hall .
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= = Geography = =
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The street is the main link between the two cities of Westminster and London . It runs eastward from Trafalgar Square , parallel to the River Thames , to Temple Bar which is the boundary between the two city districts ; the road ahead being Fleet Street . Traffic travelling eastbound follows a short crescent around Al...
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The name was first recorded in 1002 as strondway , then in 1185 as Stronde and in 1220 as la Stranda . It is formed from the Old English word ' strond ' , meaning the edge of a river . Initially it referred to the shallow bank of the once much wider Thames , before the construction of the Victoria Embankment . The nam...
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Two London Underground stations were once named Strand : a Piccadilly line station ( which was renamed Aldwych station ) that operated between 1907 and 1994 and a former Northern line station which today forms part of Charing Cross station . ' Strand Bridge ' was the name given to Waterloo Bridge during its constructi...
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= = History = =
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During Roman Britain , what is now the Strand was part of the route to Silchester , known as " Iter VIII " on the Antonine Itinerary , and which later became known by the name Akeman Street . It was briefly part of a trading town called Lundenwic that developed around 600 AD , and stretched from Trafalgar Square to Al...
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In the Middle Ages , the Strand became the principal route between the separate settlements of the City of London ( the civil and commercial centre ) and the royal Palace of Westminster ( the national political centre ) . In the archaeological record , there is considerable evidence of occupation to the north of Aldwy...
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The west part of the Strand was in the parish of St Martin in the Fields and in the east it extended into the parishes of St Clement Danes and St Mary le Strand . Most of its length was in the Liberty of Westminster , although part of the eastern section in St Clement Danes was in the Ossulstone hundred of Middlesex ....
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= = = Palaces = = =
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From the 12th century onwards , large mansions lined the Strand including several palaces and townhouses inhabited by bishops and royal courtiers , mainly located on the south side , with their own river gates and landings directly on the Thames . The road was poorly maintained , with many pits and sloughs , and a pav...
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What later became Essex House on the Strand was originally an Outer Temple of the Knights Templar in the 11th century . In 1313 , ownership passed to the Knights of St John . Henry VIII gave the house to William , Baron Paget in the early 16th century . Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester , rebuilt the house in 1563 , o...
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Arundel House was originally the town house of the Bishops of Bath and Wells . It was owned by William FitzWilliam , 1st Earl of Southampton between 1539 and his death in 1542 , with ownership passing to Thomas Seymour in 1545 . After Seymour was executed in 1549 , the property was sold to Henry FitzAlan , Earl of Aru...
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Somerset House was built by Edward Seymour , Duke of Somerset , regent of England from 1547 to 1549 , demolishing three inns and the church of the Nativity of Our Lady and the Innocents in the process . After Somerset was executed in 1552 , it became an occasional residence for Princess Elizabeth . On her ascension to...
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Savoy Palace was the London residence of John of Gaunt , King Richard II 's uncle and the nation 's power broker . In the 14th century the Savoy was the most magnificent nobleman 's mansion in England . During the Peasants ' Revolt of 1381 , rebels , led by Wat Tyler , inflamed by opposition to the poll tax promoted b...
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Durham House , the historic London residence of the Bishop of Durham , was built circa 1345 and demolished in the mid @-@ 17th century . Having once been the home of Anne Boleyn , it had become derelict by the mid @-@ 17th century and was demolished in 1660 . Durham Street and the Adelphi Buildings were built on its s...
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Cecil House , also called Exeter House or Burghley House , built in the 16th century by Lord Burghley as an expansion of an existing Tudor house . Exeter House was demolished in 1676 and Exeter Exchange built on the site . A menagerie was built on the upper floors in 1773 , which was later run by Edward Cross , who ho...
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Other significant palaces along the Strand include Worcester House , formerly the Inn , or residence , of the Bishop of Carlisle . , Salisbury House , used for royal lodgings in the 15th and 16th centuries , Hungerford House , which was demolished and replaced , in turn , by Hungerford Market and Charing Cross station...
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= = = Modern era = = =
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During the 17th century , many of the grand mansions on the Strand were demolished as the aristocracy moved to the West End . The Duck and Drake tavern on Strand was famed as a venue for the conspirators involved in the Gunpowder Plot . In the time of the Civil War , the Nag 's Head tavern was the venue of a meeting b...
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In the 18th century , coffee and chop houses were established on the street ; Twinings was established at No. 206 in 1706 by Thomas Twining , supplier of tea to Queen Anne . The company claims to be the oldest ratepayer in Westminster . The Grecian Coffee House ran from around 1702 to 1803 , while Tom 's ran from 1706...
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King 's College London was founded in 1828 . The Strand Campus , based next to the church of St Mary @-@ le @-@ Strand , was designed by Robert Smirke and constructed in 1829 – 31 . King 's College Hospital opened as a branch of the college in 1840 , and became a constituent part of the University of London in 1908 . ...
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The architect John Nash redeveloped the western end of the Strand in the 1830s , including the construction of Charing Cross Hospital . In the 19th century , much of the Strand was rebuilt and the houses to the south no longer backed onto the Thames , separated from the river by the Victoria Embankment constructed in ...
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Charing Cross railway station was built on the Strand in 1864 , providing a boat train service to Europe , which stimulated the growth of hotels in the area to cater for travellers . These included the Charing Cross Hotel , attached to the station itself . Today , there are several luggage outlets and tourist agents o...
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The Strand Palace Hotel was designed by F.J.Wills and constructed in 1925 – 30 . The entrance was rebuilt in 1968 , with the original being moved to the Victoria and Albert Museum . The Strand underwent extensive redevelopment in the mid @-@ 20th century . The length of road from St Mary 's eastwards up to St Clement ...
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= = Churches = =
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The church of St Clement Danes is believed to date from the 9th century . The name may have come from Harold Harefoot , a Danish king who ruled England around 1035 – 40 and is buried in the church , or from a place of refuge for Danes after the conquest of Alfred the Great . It was transferred to the Order of the Knig...
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St Mary le Strand was designed by James Gibbs and completed in 1717 , to replace a previous church demolished to make way for Somerset House . It was the first building to be designed by Gibbs , who was influenced by Wren and Michelangelo . The column on top of the church was originally designed to support a statue of...
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= = Notable residents = =
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The print seller Rudolph Ackermann lived and worked at No. 101 The Strand between 1797 and 1827 . His shop was one of the first to have gas lighting fitted .
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In the 19th century , The Strand became a newly fashionable address and many avant @-@ garde writers and thinkers gathered here , among them Thomas Carlyle , Charles Dickens , John Stuart Mill , Ralph Waldo Emerson and the scientist Thomas Henry Huxley . No. 142 was the home of radical publisher and physician John Cha...
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= = Cultural references = =
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