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Children were enrolled in the study as young as age nine and have now reached their 30s. From 1993 to 2015, researchers tracked data in numerous areas, including mental health, education, employment, and the use of drugs and alcohol.
The researchers defined problematic marijuana use as daily consumption or a habit that meets diagnostic guidelines for addiction.
They tracked participants’ patterns of use from the college years (ages 19-21) into adulthood (ages 26-30).
The study found that more than three-fourths (76.3 percent) of participants didn’t use or develop a problem with marijuana during this period.
The remaining quarter developed problems that researchers grouped into three profiles: Those with limited problems, persistent problems, and delayed problems.
Limited problematic users, which made up 13 percent of the remaining quarter, had trouble with marijuana either while in school before age 16 or in their late teens and early 20s, but their habits dropped off as they aged.
Researchers said they were somewhat surprised that this group reported the highest levels of family conflict and instability during childhood as compared to others in the study as these factors are often associated with more drug use.
Persistent users (seven percent) had trouble with marijuana beginning as young as nine years old and their chronic use continued into their late 20s and early 30s, the study discovered.
Large portions of this group had anxiety disorders in both childhood (27 percent) and at ages 19-21 (23 percent).
They also had the highest rates of psychiatric disorders and involvement in the criminal justice system, and most said the majority of their friends were drug users, too.
“This suggests that a focus on mental health and well-being could go a long way to prevent the most problematic use,” Hill said.
Delayed users (four percent) was a small but unique group that made it through adolescence and early adulthood without problematic marijuana use, only to become habitual users between ages 26 and 30.
Blacks were five times as likely as whites to be delayed problematic users in the late 20s and early 30s after not having trouble between the ages 19-21 — a peak time for most marijuana users.
More than half of delayed users were bullied by peers and mistreated by caregivers as children, yet also had lower rates of anxiety, alcohol use, and other hard drug use compared to persistent users.
Photo: Duke Health researchers tracked a group of children in western NC into adulthood and studied their pot use. Anxiety was a significant risk factor for persistent problematic use. Credit: Duke Health.
Five of the seven “explosive plays” in Sunday's game were products of the Vikings’ speed and play designs, particularly involving running back Jerick McKinnon and receiver Adam Thielen.
Mike Zimmer entered the Vikings’ 34-7 rout of the Bengals on Sunday with plenty of inside information on a Cincinnati defense still maintaining his fingerprints. Add a banged-up Bengals linebacker corps unable to keep up with the Vikings’ speedy backs and receivers, and this one was over quickly.
A week after we broke down the Vikings’ imbalance in Carolina, quarterback Case Keenum again thrived in a balanced approach. Keenum posted another 100-plus passer rating, highlighted by his decisive 20-yard touchdown throw to Stefon Diggs.
That was just one of the Vikings’ seven gains of 20-plus yards, or “explosive plays” in NFL vernacular.
Five of those seven “explosive plays” were product of the Vikings’ speed and play designs, particularly involving running back Jerick McKinnon and receiver Adam Thielen.
Two-thirds of the Vikings’ passing game — 159 of 236 yards, to be exact — came after the catch.
Let’s take a look at how the Vikings offense is creating space for its playmakers, a key to Sunday’s 34-7 win against the Bengals. Typically here to help is Dan Hatman, a former NFL scout and Director of Scouting Development at The Scouting Academy. We’ll give him a bye week. Still follow Dan on Twitter @Dan_Hatman.
This play created 52 yards on two third-down conversions for the Vikings. The play design charts a couple Vikings targets into the same areas of the field, which bunches up defenders and creates space.
On this third-and-3 (above and below), Thielen motions out of a bunch set to the left side, giving Keenum a pre-snap read on the Bengals coverage. They’re playing zone. The three routes to the right (in green) will eventually occupy the three Bengals linebackers, freeing Thielen underneath for the 21-yard gain.
Thielen entered Sunday ranked 5th in the NFL with 386 yards after the catch this season.
The Vikings went back to this play late in the third quarter. On third-and-2, Keenum throws to a wide-open McKinnon as Diggs gets in the way of safety Clayton Fejedelem (42).
McKinnon gained 31 yards on this play (100 of his 114 receiving came after the catch).
The Vikings’ screen game continues to produce, with Latavius Murray’s 28-yard catch and run kick-starting Minnesota’s opening drive. Center Pat Elflein hit a couple bumps in his return from a shoulder injury, but this wasn’t one of them. On second-and-19, Murray subtly slips out of the backfield and sets up his blocker...
Simple man coverage-beating releases like this third-and-9 play below have also allowed Vikings receivers to thrive after the catch. Diggs motions, again allowing Keenum to get a read on the coverage. The Bengals are playing man-to-man with corners up at the line, which means tight end David Morgan’s release in front o...
EXCLUSIVE: Adding another big movie to its slate, Sony Pictures has committed to co-finance with Skydance Media Life, the tentatively titled Daniel Espinosa-directed Mars mission thriller that will star Ryan Reynolds, Jake Gyllenhaal, and Rebecca Ferguson. The film re-teams Reynolds with Deadpool writers Paul Wernick &...
Skydance’s David Ellison and Dana Goldberg are producing with Bonnie Curtis and Julie Lynn. The move gives Sony another big-scale event film with global appeal, a big priority under Tom Rothman’s regime. The studio has been aggressive on that front, recently acquiring overseas on the Blade Runner sequel.
When Deadline revealed the project right after the outsize success of Deadpool in February, it seemed likely to land at Paramount. Things got uncomfortable because JJ Abrams’ Bad Robot has a smaller project at Paramount with familiar themes called God Particle, which is being directed by Julius Onah and was quickly set...
Could a child's income be heavily impacted by where they grew up?
Can where you grow up play a strong role in how much money you make as an adult?
For children from low-income families in Milwaukee, the long-term impacts of poverty and segregation are clear.
Investigative reporter Kevin Crowe talks about a Harvard study that shows a link between where a child grows up and their future earnings.
Consider a 3-year-old child growing up in a low-income household in Milwaukee County.
Is it possible that, decades later, the child's income could be heavily impacted simply by where they grew up? Can geography play a strong role in earning power?
A pair of economists say yes. They have estimated the causal effects of what each year living in a given county in the U.S. has on a child's income once they reach adulthood.
For example, each year that child spends in Milwaukee County causes their future household earnings to decline by 0.5%. Each year builds on the next, and when that child turns 26, their household income will be $4,843 per year less than the national average of $35,511.
If that child grows up in Waukesha County, for example, the push would be in the opposite direction. For each year a child from a low-income household spends in Waukesha County, they gain 0.7% in household income at age 26. That adds up to $7,373 per year more than the national average.
The income trajectories were calculated by economists Raj Chetty of Stanford University and Nathaniel Hendren of Harvard University as part of their ongoing Equality of Opportunity Project.
Their research shows poor children who grow up in counties with less income inequality, less poverty and less segregation will have higher incomes in adulthood, while those who grow up surrounded by inequality and segregation will have lower incomes.
The disparities between the downward pull of Milwaukee County on low-income children and the upward push of those children in surrounding counties, such as Waukesha and Ozaukee, are some of the largest in the nation.
They’re also a direct challenge to one of America’s most basic ideals: If you work hard, you can get ahead.
"People can agree that everyone should have an opportunity to move up the economic ladder," said Marc Levine, a University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee history professor and director of UWM's Center for Economic Development.
"No one would argue that a lack of mobility is justified."
Reggie Jackson has seen first-hand how opportunities have faded for low-income children in Milwaukee. He grew up near the intersection of N. 14th St. and W. Ring St. on the city’s northwest side at a time when manufacturing jobs were plenty, and the city was a hub of employment for African Americans.
His neighborhood was stable and close-knit.
"Everybody knew everybody," he said. "For the most part, it was all the same families."
Jackson joined the Navy in 1983 and spent the next 10 years serving, then living for a few years in Torrance, Calif. While he was gone, his city underwent a transformation.
"I missed the loss in manufacturing jobs. I missed the drug activity. I missed the crack cocaine stuff," Jackson said. "When I came back, that stuff was over for the most part."
After moving back, Jackson worked for eight years as a teacher, some of those in Milwaukee Public Schools.
"When I came back, I saw so many young people who were uncomfortable," Jackson said. "Some of my students would come to school on Monday hungry because they hadn't eaten a whole lot over the weekend."
The decline of manufacturing in Milwaukee lead to chronic unemployment, growing concentrated poverty and racial segregation. Opportunities are harder to come by.
In 1970, as Milwaukee was near its industrial peak, just 17% of the city's population lived in a neighborhood defined as having concentrated poverty, that is at least 1 in 5 of their neighbors was living in poverty.
By 2016, 65% of the Milwaukee residents lived in a neighborhood with concentrated poverty.
"Urban areas, particularly those with concentrated poverty, generate particularly negative outcome for low-income children," Chetty and Hendren write.
While their current research does not break down the effects by race, Chetty and Hendren found that areas with larger African-American populations have lower rates of upward mobility.
"Place effects therefore amplify racial inequality: black children have worse economic outcomes because they grow up in worse neighborhoods," the economists write.
The researchers also found that areas with high concentrations of urban poverty, such as Milwaukee, have particularly negative effects on boys.
For example, future household incomes for low-income boys declines by 0.74% for each year they live in Milwaukee County compared to a decline of 0.47% for girls. If a boy spends 20 years in Milwaukee, that means an annual income nearly 15% lower than the national average at age 26 compared to his peers, according to th...
Jackson, an education liaison coordinator for a workforce services company, has also spent the past few years studying the history of segregation and poverty in Milwaukee and giving presentations on those topics to community groups, museums and schools in Milwaukee and in the suburbs. He worked as a griot,or storytelle...
He’s seen and felt the impact of segregation on young people of color in Milwaukee.
"We live in different neighborhoods, we worship in different churches, we go to different schools, we shop in different places, we play in different places," Jackson said.
Environments also matter for the kind of goals children set for themselves, Jackson said. The people around you, their goals become your goals.
"If you have a lot of people in a distressed neighborhood, and there's not a lot of resources, and the school district is not performing well, then it's going to be hard to find a pathway out," said Mark Treskon, a researcher with the Urban Institute in Washington, D.C., who studies economic and community development.
Chetty and Hendren’s research clearly finds benefits for each year a low-income child spends in a county with lower levels of poverty, segregation and income inequality.
That creates a dilemma, not only for parents, but also for community leaders.
"Do you try to improve the neighborhoods people are in? Or, do you try to get them to move to better neighborhoods? Waukesha, for example," Treskon said. "It gets to pretty fraught discussions about how you do that equitably."
While the research focused on the effects on mobility at the county level, families wouldn’t necessarily have to leave a county to experience improved opportunity, Treskon said.
"There are going to be parts of the county where the effects of the county are more similar to Waukesha," he said.
Levine and the team of researchers at the Center for Economic Development at UW-Milwaukee have published a number of studies tracking the economic shifts in Milwaukee and the surrounding counties.
Most all of the job growth since the 1990s has taken place in the suburbs, Levine said. At the same time, public transportation that would provide better access to those jobs has decreased.
One study from the center estimated that 30,923 fewer jobs were reachable by public transit in the Milwaukee area in 2014 than in 2001 because of reductions in bus lines.
The idea that the geographic location of where a child grows up can so negatively affect their future earnings could be a motivating factor for community leaders and politicians to act.
One way to do that, Levine suggested, would be to work to increase public transportation to places with high employment.
"The clear implication is to create opportunity," Levine said of Chetty and Hendren’s work.
Mobility is not a zero-sum game, the research shows. Areas that generate better economic outcomes for children from low-income households also slightly raise (0.3%) the incomes for children from high-income families.
"Everyone is effected by what's going on in central Milwaukee," Treskon said. "Understanding how to better take care of people in the region has broader regional effects."
To estimate the causal effects of a county on a child’s future income, Chetty and Hendren analyzed data from millions of tax returns for children born between 1980 and 1986.
Their work suggests one way low-income families can create opportunity is to move to a county that has better outcomes for their children.
But moving can be difficult for people with limited incomes.
"How do you do that if you've never been to Waukesha?" Treskon asked. "You don't have any social networks out there, you don't know what jobs are out there. It's really tough."
For people of color, there’s an added stress of living in one of the most segregated metro areas in the country. Moving to the suburbs might mean they’re the only African-American family on the block.
Last week, Jackson was at Franklin High School in suburban Milwaukee for a presentation about Black History Month. He talked with some families about how great the schools are. But, they also talked about how in January a student at the school put "white" and "colored" signs over a set of drinking fountains.
Franklin High School administrators are also now investigating the racial taunting of basketball players from Racine by Franklin fans last week.
The stress of racial discrimination is damaging for children and their parents. And it's impossible to ignore when you're faced with it every day, Jackson said.
Jackson and his wife raised their daughter, now 20, in the Sherman Park neighborhood in Milwaukee. They love it.
"We have great neighbors," he said. "I know just about everybody on the block on both sides of the street."
Jackson said he understands that people will look at the differences in economic outcomes for children and perhaps want to move.
"People want better opportunities, obviously," Jackson said. "But they also want to feel welcome."
To read the Journal Sentinel's 50-Year Ache series, which focuses on where the city stands on key issues five decades after the open housing marches of 1967 and 1968, go to jsonline.com/50year.
The 50-Year Ache project was produced by the Journal Sentinel news staff with no influence from fellowship, event or advertising supporters.
in Iowa and are worried about Rick Perry`s next move.
on the issue of not increasing the debt ceiling.
action. You were in the Mitt-ness protection program.
GINGRICH: Creating a sense of urgency.
up? It`s time for me to talk.
BAIER: And you can get in through a divided Congress?

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