pred_label
stringclasses 2
values | pred_label_prob
float64 0.5
1
| wiki_prob
float64 0.25
1
| text
stringlengths 105
1.02M
| source
stringlengths 39
45
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
__label__cc
| 0.710862
| 0.289138
|
Home/ Apps For PC/How to Create an Appointment in Microsoft Outlook?
0 1,810 2 minutes read
MS Outlook, a widely used desktop email program does not provide just emailing services to users of Windows operating system but acts as a complete Personal Information Manager available as a part of Microsoft Office suite. It can be used either as a stand-alone application or in conjunction with MS Exchange Server or MS SharePoint Server. Irrespective of the way utilized, it offers various services in the area of Contacts Managing, Calendar, Note Taking, Journals and Tasks Management including Mail service. One important thing that can be accomplished with Calendar is that appointments can be scheduled; however, a definite procedure has been set that needs to be executed. The present guest post provides the steps required to answer the query: How to create an appointment in Microsoft Outlook mail client?
Know What is Appointment
Appointments are nothing but activities that can be scheduled in Outlook Calendar. It does not engage invitation to others or reserving resources. Users can even plan recurring appointments, set reminders for the appointments formed and also view appointments by day, week and month of the year. The way appointments created in Calendar, look to others can be specified by users by allocating the time of the appointment in various ways such as free, busy, tentative, and out of office. In addition, others can give someone else the permission to form or make alterations to the appointments in Calendar.
Read : How to Download Google+ Hangouts App for Mac?
Scheduling Appointment in Win Outlook
Appointments can be scheduled almost in the same way in all versions of Outlook like 2013, 2010, 2007, etc. whether new or old.
Steps to Create an Appointment in Microsoft Windows
1. On the Outlook menu, click the tab File, point cursor to ‘New’ button and click Appointment.
The Keyboard shortcut for this step is: Press (Ctrl + Shift + A) key simultaneously.
2. A small window of Appointment pops up; type a description in the Subject box.
3. In the same Appointment window, type the location in the Location box.
4. Enter date in both the Start time and End time boxes.
5. Select any time from the drop down menu between 12:00AM and 11:30 PM for both Start time and End time
Note– In the Start time and End time boxes, any specific word(s) or even phrases like Christmas, New Year Day, etc. can be typed-in instead of dates. Time is provided in intervals of 30 minutes starting from 12:00AM and ending at 11:30 PM like 12.30 AM, then 1:00 PM and so on.
Read : Download kik messenger for PC
6. Then select any other alternative as per want.
7. If the appointment has to be made recur; then in the Appointment tab >> Options group, click Recurrence icon.
8. On doing so, another small window called Appointment Recurrence having three sections comes up.
In Appointment time section; select start time, end time and duration from the drop down menu.
In the Recurrence pattern section; select the frequency with which the appointment recurs by selecting amongst the options: Daily, Weekly, Monthly and Yearly and then choose alternatives for the frequency.
Then select suitable options in the section Range of recurrence.
9. Then click OK tab.
Read : Farm Heroes Saga Game Cheats & Hack
10. Finally, in the Appointment tab and Actions group, click Save & Close tab.
In this way, by following the above mentioned steps the query as how to create an appointment in Microsoft Outlook gets resolved.
Author Bio: As author of MS Outlook Tools, Peter has experience more than 20 years in IT industry and he is now working with an expert data recovery firm. He has quality expertise in the Office products especially in Microsoft Outlook and love to solve users query such as How to Recover Outlook PST File, How to Encrypt Emails in Outlook, etc.
How to Create an Free Infographic Online
Wi-Fi Protected Setup (WPS) - How to Connect Devices to Wi-Fi Router
kik for PC(Windows 10/8/7/XP) or Mac
Download Snapseed for PC -Windows 10, 7, 8 or Mac
Free Download MX Player for PC (Windows 10/8/7/XP) or Mac
Download Flipagram for PC (Windows 7/8/10) & Mac – Installation Guide
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2689
|
__label__wiki
| 0.721744
| 0.721744
|
Vivanco: music on the move
By Dan George (TechRadar ) 2007-09-17T23:00:00.259Z Hi-fi & radio
Vivanco launches three new wireless headphones
Listen to music, radio and TV without wires thanks to Vivanco
With wireless technology seemingly everywhere these days, it's easy to forget the humble headphone has been available in wireless form for years. Most wireless headphones rely on the FM transmission band and it's this system that Vivanco has employed in its new range of entry-level models.
New wireless headphones
Three new models make up Vivanco's new wireless range, allowing roaming of up to100m, with three channels of operation. Heading the line-up is the FMH 7190 (£60), which benefits from auto-tuning - so you're always getting the best signal - and SRS TruSurround XT, a type of virtual surround sound aimed at TV users. Vivanco claims the flagship has a generous frequency range of 20-20,000Hz, and improved sound quality from its redesigned ear pads.
At just £50, the FMH 6180 enjoys many of the benefits of its bigger brother, but without the virtual surround technology, making it ideal for music lovers. But, if money is tight, the most affordable model, the £40 FMH 6150, has the same wide frequency response and redesigned ear pads as the top models, but without the auto-tuning functionality.
All models benefit from an independent volume control and come complete with a docking station and rechargeable NiMH batteries. Simply place the headphones onto the docking cradle and they are automatically recharged.
See more Hi-fi & radio news
I bought AirPods on Amazon Prime Day even though I don't 'need' them
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2690
|
__label__cc
| 0.733512
| 0.266488
|
Write an advanced Excel data import with Agile Platform
By Justin James in Software Engineer , in Software on October 26, 2011, 8:45 AM PST
Justin James explains how to create a data import for Excel in Agile Platform. He states the process is much faster than using third-party components in .NET code.
One of the most persistently obnoxious requirements in the history of development is the need to import data into an application from Microsoft Excel. We know how much users love to use Excel as a miscellaneous catch-all application (especially small businesses that seem to run their entire organizations from it), so the data import is important, but dealing with Excel is a hassle.
Running Office on the server is known to be problematic (it creates a memory leak), which rules out using Visual Studio Tools for Office. Third-party components are available, but the good ones are usually quite expensive, and the free and open source ones are typically buggy, out of date, or lacking features. Luckily for me, creating a data import in the OutSystems Agile Platform took hours rather than days like it usually does; I used components built-in to the system and learned what to do in a few minutes. I'll show you what I did to write an advanced data import for Excel 2007/2010.
Excel data imports
The first step in the data import is to get the data from the user. For this, we use the FileUpload Widget — just place it on the screen and give it a name. Next, create a new Button and link it to a new Action to perform your import; this will put a box on the screen for the user to select their local file and then upload it.
In the Action, the real fun begins. What makes this so insanely easy is one simple built-in Action that's available in the Toolbox: ExcelToRecordList. Incidentally, there is also a RecordListToExcel Widget, which does just what you think, and is great for writing data exports. Using this Action takes the Excel file and turns it into a RecordList, using the Record Definition you provide. Here are some notes on how it parses the file:
You can specify which sheet to read. If you don't, it looks for "Sheet1" and, if that is not available, it uses the first sheet in the workbook.
If the number of columns in the sheet matches the number of columns in the record definition, it will read them from left-to-right to fill in the record. Otherwise, it will use the data in row 1 to match columns to Attributes (I highly recommend this).
If two record types in the definition have Attributes with the same name, the column name in row 1 should differentiate which one it means using a colon to separate the record's type from the column name (e.g., "Customer:Name" and "Part:Name").
Your record definition can contain Entities or Structures (this will become important in a moment).
The record definition cannot contain any Entities or Structures with Attributes of the type BinaryData.
My initial idea was to use the destination Entity for the import in the data definition; this is perfectly fine in many situations, but I quickly hit a few walls. First of all, one of the Entities I was importing had a BinaryData Attribute, and I really did not feel like rewriting all of the places it was used to put it in its own Entity. Secondly, some of the Entities I needed to import refer to other Entities. For example, my PART entity is linked to SUPPLIER, which I was also importing. Even if they were not both coming in at the same time, I certainly did not want to force my users to find out the ID numbers for the linked Entities.
So, I reached into my bag of tricks and came up with an easy solution: I selected the Entity, right-clicked and chose Copy, and then went to the very top of the data tree, right-clicked, and chose Paste As.... I then selected Structure, which gave me a Structure with identical Attributes as the Entity I wanted. Next, I removed the BinaryData Attributes and the Id Attribute. Then, any Attribute that referred to another Entity, I replaced with a Text Entity. For example, where my PART Entity has a Supplier Attribute pointing to SUPPLIER, I replaced it with a Text Attribute called SupplierName.
Using this record in my record definition for the ExcelToRecordList Action, it was time to move on. I used a ForEach Action to iterate over the resulting Record List. Within the ForEach, my first step was to look up the SUPPLIER Entity by the SupplierName Attribute in the imported data, which was easy enough. Then I used an Assign Action to copy all of the data from the imported structure into a local variable of type Record with a definition of SUPPLIER, as well as some default data value and the Supplier Identifier needed for the Supplier Attribute of PART. This local variable gets passed to the CreatePART Action defined by the Entity.
One Entity (CUSTOMER) was particularly tricky — it referred to another Entity (ADDRESS) three times (PhysicalAddress, MailingAddress, and BillingAddress). What to do? Easy! I copied the ADDRESS Entity into three structures (ForImportPhysicalAddress, ForImportMailingAddress, and ForImportBillingAddress), and in each of them, I changed the Attributes to be in the form of "PhysicalAddressCity" or "MailingAddressLine1." While I could have just left the names the same and used the names "PhysicalAddress:City" or "MailingAddress:Line1" in the Excel column headers, my way is a lot easier for the users who will be working with the Excel file. In the import for this sheet, I first created each ADDRESS Entity separately, and then filled the resulting IDs into the CUSTOMER Entity before creating it.
As an added bonus, I did the heavy lifting in an eSpace Action, passing in the BinaryData from the upload. I created an Output Variable of type RecordList, with a definition of PART for my Action. After creating each Entity in the database, I took the resulting ID, added it to the local PART record variable, and used ListAppend to add it to the Output Variable. With this, I have the option of displaying to the user what records were imported after the successful import.
The only trouble I had with this process was that I lost a lot of time because I was editing a different Excel file than the one I was actually testing with. Outside of that, the process took me about two hours (including figuring out the Structure trick) to do imports for five Entities, some of which were fairly complex. I know that using third-party components in .NET code would have taking me much, much longer.
Read my other TechRepublic posts about Agile Platform
Making a login system for OutSystems Agile Platform
Generating unique strings in Agile Platform
My application lifecycle in Agile Platform
J.Ja
By Justin James
Justin James is an OutSystems MVP, architect, and developer with expertise in SaaS applications and enterprise applications.
| See all content by Justin
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2691
|
__label__wiki
| 0.897285
| 0.897285
|
Patriots extend own record with 10th consecutive AFC East title
Despite the team's recent struggles, New England had little trouble tossing aside Buffalo to secure the franchise's 10th straight division title.
Patriots extend own record with 10th consecutive AFC East title Despite the team's recent struggles, New England had little trouble tossing aside Buffalo to secure the franchise's 10th straight division title. Check out this story on Tennessean.com: https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/nfl/patriots/2018/12/23/new-england-patriots-afc-east-title-buffalo-bills/2402977002/
Sal Maiorana, Rochester Democrat and Chronicle Published 3:09 p.m. CT Dec. 23, 2018
FOXBOROUGH, MA - DECEMBER 23: James White #28 of the New England Patriots rushes for a 27-yard touchdown as Micah Hyde #23 of the Buffalo Bills is unable to make the tackle during the second quarter at Gillette Stadium on December 23, 2018 in Foxborough, Massachusetts. (Photo by Jim Rogash/Getty Images)(Photo: Jim Rogash, Getty Images)
FOXBOROUGH, Mass. – Business was conducted as it usually is in these typically depressing – at least for Bills’ fans – affairs between Buffalo and New England.
Even a Patriots team that is clearly not at the elite level it has been for most of the last two decades had little trouble disposing of the Bills Sunday afternoon at sunny Gillette Stadium.
Tom Brady, looking every bit like a 41-year-old in decline, had almost no bearing on New England’s 24-12 victory, and neither did his long-time fellow Bills’ nemesis, Rob Gronkowski.
Brady finished 13 of 24 for 126 yards with one touchdown and two interceptions for a passer rating of 48.3, one of his worst ever against the Bills. And Gronkowski did not catch a pass, with one target going right through his hands for an interception.
Still, the Patriots beat the Bills for the 33rd time in 38 games since Bill Belichick became coach in 2000, and there really wasn’t a point all day where it was in doubt.
New England Patriots running back Rex Burkhead (34) fumbles on a tackle by Buffalo Bills linebacker Corey Thompson (52) during the first half of an NFL football game, Sunday, Dec. 23, 2018, in Foxborough, Mass. (AP Photo/Steven Senne) (Photo: Steven Senne, AP)
Josh Allen, while getting no help from the mundane group of wide receivers he is forced to play with, had a rough afternoon in his first go-round against a Belichick defense.
Allen looked like the rookie he is as he clearly struggled to understand what the Patriots were doing on defense as they forced him into several poor decisions and throws. Thanks to some quality garbage time on the final offensive possession, Allen finished 20 of 41 for 217 yards.
But this loss certainly wasn’t all on Allen. The Bills’ run defense was disgraceful as Sony Michel, Rob Burkhead, Cordarrelle Patterson and James White ran through gaping hopes all day as New England piled up 273 yards and 6.1 per carry. Michel, who missed New England’s 25-6 victory in Buffalo at the end of October, finished with 116 yards.
At halftime, the Patriots had a 14-0 lead thanks to 179 yards rushing which is the most they’ve had in a first half since at least 1991. Brady was just 7 of 13 for 30 yards with one thrown to Lorenzo Alexander, plus the Patriots lost a fumble, and still, the Bills were down two touchdowns.
Michel, in particular, blew through gaping holes, and when he wasn’t gashing Buffalo up the middle, the Patriots were fooling the defense with four jet sweeps to Patterson for a total of 66 yards. It was like the Bills had never seen that play, even though Patterson has 38 rushing attempts this season, 10 of those coming in the first game in Buffalo.
Buffalo’s first three offensive possessions were of the three-and-out variety, and in between, the Patriots took a 7-0 lead as they marched 55 yards, all on running plays, to Michel’s four-yard touchdown run.
The Bills had a chance to score late in the first quarter after Micah Hyde recovered a Burkhead fumble at the New England 40, but after making their initial first down of the game, the possession died, and Stephen Hauschka clanked a 43-yard field goal into the wind off the crossbar.
New England, which clinched its 10th straight AFC East title with the victory, stretched its margin to 14-0 when White ran off left tackle virtually untouched for a 27-yard touchdown.
The Bills had another chance to score late in the second quarter, but Robert Foster dropped what might have been a touchdown pass on a fourth-and-three play from the Patriots 25.
And then, another New England turnover came on the first play of the third when Gronkowski muffed a Brady pass and the ball went right to Jordan Poyer at the Patriots 24. But the Bills ran three fruitless plays and settled for a 35-yard Hauschka field goal to cut the deficit to 14-3.
Hauschka’s second field goal 4:54 into the third quarter made it 14-6, but then the Patriots began hammering the final nails into the coffin. They drove 88 yards in 10 plays with Brady hitting Julian Edelman over the middle for a 32-yard TD on a fourth-and-4 play. Edelman appeared to be brought down at the 15, but he landed on Poyer and Rafael Bush and his knee never touched the ground, so he kept going to the end zone to complete the play.
More offensive futility followed as tight end Jason Croom, after making a nice 24-yard catch and run, had the ball ripped away at the Patriots 6 and Malcolm Brown recovered for New England. Later, another series ended in a punt, and Edelman’s 25-yard punt return to the Buffalo 24 led to Stephen Gostkowski’s 24-yard field goal.
The Bills finally scored a touchdown with 1:08 left as Allen threw a 31-yard pass to Zay Jones. And in fitting fashion, the Bills botched the extra point.
MAIORANA@Gannett.com
Photos: Best of NFL Week 16
Oakland Raiders running back Jalen Richard (30) celebrates with tight end Lee Smith (86) after scoring a touchdown against the Denver Broncos in the second half at Oakland Coliseum. Kirby Lee, USA TODAY Sports
Oakland Raiders running back Doug Martin scores a touchdown against the Denver Broncos during the second quarter at Oakland Coliseum. Kyle Terada, USA TODAY Sports
A fan holds a sign during the game between the Oakland Raiders and the Denver Broncos in Oakland. D. Ross Cameron, AP
Oakland Raiders quarterback Derek Carr throws a pass against the Denver Broncos in the first half at Oakland Coliseum. Kirby Lee, USA TODAY Sports
Oakland Raiders wide receiver Dwayne Harris (17) celebrates with fans after scoring a touchdown on a 99-yard punt return against the Denver Broncos during the first quarter at Oakland Coliseum. Kelley L Cox, USA TODAY Sports
Fireworks go off during the national anthem before the game between the Oakland Raiders and the Denver Broncos at Oakland Coliseum. Kelley L Cox, USA TODAY Sports
Seattle Seahawks running back Mike Davis (27) carries the ball while being chased by Kansas City Chiefs inside linebacker Anthony Hitchens (53) during the first half at CenturyLink Field. Steven Bisig, USA TODAY Sports
Seattle Seahawks tight end Nick Vannett celebrates with fans after catching a touchdown pass against the Kansas City Chiefs during the second quarter at CenturyLink Field. Joe Nicholson, USA TODAY Sports
Kansas City Chiefs quarterback Patrick Mahomes looks to pass against the Seattle Seahawks during the first quarter at CenturyLink Field. Joe Nicholson, USA TODAY Sports
Seattle Seahawks running back Chris Carson is tackled by Kansas City Chiefs defensive back Eric Berry during the first quarter at CenturyLink Field. Joe Nicholson, USA TODAY Sports
Pittsburgh Steelers free safety Sean Davis (21) returns an interception with New Orleans Saints wide receiver Ted Ginn (19) pursuing in the first quarter at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome. Chuck Cook, USA TODAY Sports
New Orleans Saints running back Alvin Kamara (41) runs past Pittsburgh Steelers safety Marcus Allen (27) during the second quarter at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome. Derick E. Hingle, USA TODAY Sports
Pittsburgh Steelers quarterback Ben Roethlisberger (7) is sacked by New Orleans Saints defensive tackle Tyeler Davison (95) during the second quarter at the Mercedes-Benz Superdome. Derick E. Hingle, USA TODAY Sports
Arizona Cardinals wide receiver Larry Fitzgerald (11) throws a touchdown pass to running back David Johnson (31) during the first half against the Los Angeles Rams at State Farm Stadium. Matt Kartozian, USA TODAY Sports
Arizona Cardinals running back David Johnson (31) catches a touchdown pass thrown by wide receiver Larry Fitzgerald (11) during the first half against the Los Angeles Rams at State Farm Stadium. Matt Kartozian, USA TODAY Sports
Chicago Bears wide receiver Anthony Miller (17) catches a touchdown pass against the San Francisco 49ers in the second quarter at Levi's Stadium. Cary Edmondson, USA TODAY Sports
San Francisco 49ers quarterback Nick Mullens (4) drops back to pass against the Chicago Bears in the second quarter at Levi's Stadium. Cary Edmondson, USA TODAY Sports
Chicago Bears outside linebacker Khalil Mack (52) rushes the quarterback against the San Francisco 49ers in the first quarter at Levi's Stadium. Cary Edmondson, USA TODAY Sports
Los Angeles Rams defensive tackle Aaron Donald (99) during the first half against the Arizona Cardinals at State Farm Stadium. Mark J. Rebilas, USA TODAY Sports
Chicago Bears quarterback Mitchell Trubisky (10) drops back to pass during the second quarter against the San Francisco 49ers at Levi's Stadium. Kyle Terada, USA TODAY Sports
Green Bay Packers wide receiver Davante Adams scores the game-winning touchdown in overtime against the New York Jets at MetLife Stadium. Ed Mulholland, USA TODAY Sports
The official signals good, and Philadelphia Eagles kicker Jake Elliott (4) celebrates with punter Cameron Johnston (1) after kicking the game-winning field goal as time expired to beat the Houston Texans at Lincoln Financial Field. Eric Hartline, USA TODAY Sports
Cleveland Browns linebacker Xavier Woodson-Luster (56), wide receiver Breshad Perriman (19), linebacker Ray-Ray Armstrong (52) and wide receiver Rashard Higgins (81) celebrate with fans after the Browns beat the Cincinnati Bengals at FirstEnergy Stadium. Ken Blaze, USA TODAY Sports
Dallas Cowboys quarterback Dak Prescott (4) celebrates a victory with running back Ezekiel Elliott (21). Matthew Emmons, USA TODAY Sports
Cleveland Browns wide receiver Rashard Higgins (81) maneuvers the ball inside the pylong on a dive for a touchdown during the second half against the Cincinnati Bengals at FirstEnergy Stadium. Ken Blaze, USA TODAY Sports
New England Patriots defensive end Trey Flowers (98) and defensive tackle Lawrence Guy (93) during the second half at Gillette Stadium. The Patriots defeated the Bills 24-12. David Butler II, USA TODAY Sports
Jacksonville Jaguars outside linebacker Telvin Smith (50) intercepts a pass from Miami Dolphins quarterback Ryan Tannehill during the second half at Hard Rock Stadium. Steve Mitchell, USA TODAY Sports
Atlanta Falcons' Brian Hill (32) fumbles as he hurdles Carolina Panthers' Donte Jackson (26) during the second half in Charlotte, N.C. Jason E. Miczek, AP
Indianapolis Colts quarterback Andrew Luck (12) celebrates a game-winning touchdown against the New York Giants. Michael Conroy, AP
Philadelphia Eagles fans roar their approval after an 83-yard touchdown scored by receiver Nelson Agholor (13). Bill Streicher, USA TODAY Sports
Green Bay Packers running back Jamaal Williams (30) eludes New York Jets outside linebacker Jordan Jenkins (48) at MetLife Stadium. Ed Mulholland, Ed Mulholland-USA TODAY Sports
New York Jets wide receiver Andre Roberts (19) celebrates his touchdown against the Green Bay Packers at MetLife Stadium. Ed Mulholland, USA TODAY Sports
New England Patriots wide receiver Julian Edelman (11) dives for the touchdown against the Buffalo Bills in the third quarter at Gillette Stadium. David Butler II, USA TODAY Sports
Indianapolis Colts running back Nyheim Hines (21) scores a touchdown in the half half against the New York Giants at Lucas Oil Stadium. Thomas J. Russo, USA TODAY Sports
New York Giants quarterback Eli Manning (10) is sacked by Indianapolis Colts tackle Marcus Hunt (92) in the first half at Lucas Oil Stadium. Thomas J. Russo, USA TODAY Sports
Philadelphia Eagles tight end Zach Ertz (86) scores a touchdown past Houston Texans cornerback Aaron Colvin (22) during the second quarter at Lincoln Financial Field. Bill Streicher, USA TODAY Sports
Tampa Bay Buccaneers quarterback Jameis Winston (3) is sacked in the second quarter by Dallas Cowboys defensive tackle Maliek Collins (96) and defensive end Randy Gregory (94) at AT&T Stadium. Matthew Emmons, USA TODAY Sports
Atlanta Falcons linebacker Deion Jones (45) forces a fumble by Carolina Panthers wide receiver Jarius Wright (13) in the second quarter at Bank of America Stadium. Bob Donnan, USA TODAY Sports
Minnesota Vikings wide receiver Stefon Diggs (14) catches a touchdown pass during the second quarter at Ford Field. Tim Fuller, USA TODAY Sports
Cleveland Browns tight end Darren Fells (88) gets congratulated by quarterback Baker Mayfield (6) and tight end David Njoku (85) jduring the second quarter against the Cincinnati Bengals at FirstEnergy Stadium. Scott Galvin, USA TODAY Sports
Green Bay Packers wide receiver Jake Kumerow (16) scores a touchdown during the first half against the New York Jets at MetLife Stadium. Vincent Carchietta, USA TODAY Sports
Christian McCaffrey of the Carolina Panthers jumps for the goal line against Deion Jones and the Atlanta Falcons defense in the first quarter at Bank of America Stadium. Grant Halverson, Getty Images
Taylor Heinicke of the Carolina Panthers huddles with his team at Bank of America Stadium. Streeter Lecka, Getty Images
Atlanta Falcons receiver Julio Jones (11) tries to break free from Carolina Panthers linebacker Luke Kuechly (59) during the first half. Jason E. Miczek, AP
New York Giants safety Curtis Riley (35) celebrates with teammates after intercepting a pass in the end zone against the Indianapolis Colts during the second quarter at Lucas Oil Stadium. Brian Spurlock, USA TODAY Sports
Miami Dolphins defensive end Cameron Wake (91) sacks Jacksonville Jaguars quarterback Cody Kessler (6) during the first half at Hard Rock Stadium. Steve Mitchell, USA TODAY Sports
Buffalo Bills quarterback Josh Allen (17) runs from New England Patriots linebacker Kyle Van Noy (53) during the first half at Gillette Stadium. Steven Senne, AP
Jacksonville Jaguars quarterback Cody Kessler (6) loses the handle against the Miami Dolphins during the first half at Hard Rock Stadium. Jasen Vinlove, USA TODAY Sports
New York Giants tight end Scott Simonson (82) scores in front of Indianapolis Colts linebacker Darius Leonard (53) at Lucas Oil Stadium. Brian Spurlock, USA TODAY Sports
Houston Texans outside linebacker Jadeveon Clowney (90) celebrates with defensive end J.J. Watt (99) and inside linebacker Zach Cunningham (41) after recovering fumble against the Philadelphia Eagles during the second quarter at Lincoln Financial Field. Eric Hartline, USA TODAY Sports
Houston Texans outside linebacker Jadeveon Clowney (90) sacks Philadelphia Eagles quarterback Nick Foles (9), forcing a fumble, l during the second quarter at Lincoln Financial Field. Eric Hartline, USA TODAY Sports
New York Giants wide receiver Corey Coleman (19) is tackled by Indianapolis Colts linebacker Darius Leonard (53) during the first quarter at Lucas Oil Stadium. Brian Spurlock, USA TODAY Sports
LeGarrette Blount of the Detroit Lions looks for room to run in the first quarter against the Minnesota Vikings at Ford Field. Leon Halip, Getty Images
Detroit Lions quarterback Matthew Stafford drops back to pass during the first quarter against the Minnesota Vikings at Ford Field. Tim Fuller, USA TODAY Sports
New York Jets running back Elijah McGuire celebrates after scoring a touchdown run against the Green Bay Packers during the first half. Bill Kostroun, AP
Buffalo Bills receiver Victor Bolden Jr. is sent flying during the opening kickoff against the New England Patriots at Gillette Stadium. Winslow Townson, USA TODAY Sports
Cleveland Browns middle linebacker Joe Schobert (53) and defensive end Myles Garrett (95) tackle Cincinnati Bengals quarterback Jeff Driskel (6) during the first quarter at FirstEnergy Stadium. Ken Blaze, USA TODAY Sports
Cleveland Browns wide receiver Rashard Higgins (81) makes a catch as Cincinnati Bengals cornerback William Jackson (22) defends during the first quarter at FirstEnergy Stadium. Ken Blaze, USA TODAY Sports
Indianapolis Colts quarterback Andrew Luck (12) drops back to pass against the New York Giants during the first quarter at Lucas Oil Stadium. Brian Spurlock, USA TODAY Sports
Dallas Cowboys quarterback Dak Prescott (4) reacts after running for a 7-yard touchdown in the first quarter against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers at AT&T Stadium. Tim Heitman, USA TODAY Sports
Dallas Cowboys receiver Michael Gallup (13) runs after a reception against Tampa Bay Buccaneers cornerback Brent Grimes (24) at AT&T Stadium. Matthew Emmons, USA TODAY Sports
Dallas Cowboys middle linebacker Jaylon Smith (54) heads for the end zone after recovering a fumble against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers at AT&T Stadium. Tim Heitman, USA TODAY Sports
Houston Texans quarterback Deshaun Watson (4) calls a play at the line of scrimmage during the first quarter at Lincoln Financial Field. Bill Streicher, USA TODAY Sports
Miami Dolphins cornerback Torry McTyer (24) and defensive end Robert Quinn (94) bring down Jacksonville Jaguars running back Leonard Fournette (27) during the first half at Hard Rock Stadium. Jasen Vinlove, USA TODAY Sports
Carolina Panthers tight end Ian Thomas (80) catches a touchdown pass as Atlanta Falcons defensive end Brooks Reed (50) defends in the first quarter at Bank of America Stadium. Bob Donnan, USA TODAY Sports
Carolina Panthers running back Christian McCaffrey (22) attempts to jump into the end zone, past Atlanta Falcons defensive end Brooks Reed (50) and linebacker Deion Jones (45). Jeremy Brevard, USA TODAY Sports
Cleveland Browns quarterback Baker Mayfield (6) throws the ball against the Cincinnati Bengals during the first quarter at FirstEnergy Stadium. Scott Galvin, USA TODAY Sports
New York Jets quarterback Sam Darnold (14) scrambles for yards against the Green Bay Packers during the first quarter at MetLife Stadium. Vincent Carchietta, USA TODAY Spo
New York Jets running back Elijah McGuire (25) attempts to catch a pass during the first quarter against the Green Bay Packers at MetLife Stadium. Vincent Carchietta, USA TODAY Sports
Houston Texans quarterback Deshaun Watson (4) passes in the first quarter against the Philadelphia Eagles at Lincoln Financial Field. James Lang, USA TODAY Sports
Philadelphia Eagles running back Darren Sproles (43) scores a touchdown as Houston Texans cornerback Jonathan Joseph (24) defends in the first quarter at Lincoln Financial Field. James Lang, USA TODAY Sports
Miami Dolphins running back Brandon Bolden (38) celebrates after scoring a touchdown during the first half against the Jacksonville Jaguars at Hard Rock Stadium. Steve Mitchell, USA TODAY Sports
New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady (12) drops back to pass against the Buffalo Bills in the first quarter at Gillette Stadium. David Butler II, USA TODAY Sports
Baltimore Ravens cornerback Marlon Humphrey (29) celebrates with defensive back Anthony Levine (41), strong safety Tony Jefferson (23) and free safety Eric Weddle (32) after intercepting a pass in the fourth quarter against the Los Angeles Chargers at StubHub Center. Kirby Lee, USA TODAY Sports
Baltimore Ravens head coach John Harbaugh and cornerback Maurice Canady (26) celebrate a 22-10 win over the Los Angeles Chargers at StubHub Center. Jake Roth, USA TODAY Sports
Los Angeles Chargers linebacker Nick Dzubnar (48) downs a punt in the fourth quarter against the Baltimore Ravens at StubHub Center. Kirby Lee, USA TODAY Sports
Los Angeles Chargers wide receiver Keenan Allen (13) reacts during the fourth quarter against the Baltimore Ravens at StubHub Center. Jake Roth, USA TODAY Sports
Los Angeles Chargers quarterback Philip Rivers (17) looks to throw under pressure as Baltimore Ravens linebacker Tyus Bowser (54) defends during the third quarter at StubHub Center. Jake Roth, USA TODAY Sports
Los Angeles Chargers running back Melvin Gordon (left) is defended by Baltimore Ravens defensive end Brent Urban (96) during the third quarter at StubHub Center. Jake Roth, USA TODAY Sports
Los Angeles Chargers wide receiver Keenan Allen (13) gestures after a first down in the first quarter against the Baltimore Ravens at StubHub Center. Kirby Lee, USA TODAY Sports
Los Angeles Chargers outside linebacker Kyle Emanuel (51) tackles Baltimore Ravens running back Gus Edwards (35) during the first half at StubHub Center. Kirby Lee, USA TODAY Sports
Baltimore Ravens quarterback Lamar Jackson (8) throws a pass against the Los Angeles Chargers during the first half at StubHub Center. Kirby Lee, USA TODAY Sports
Los Angeles Chargers running back Melvin Gordon (28) is defended by Baltimore Ravens cornerback Brandon Carr (24) during the first quarter at StubHub Center. Jake Roth, USA TODAY Sports
Baltimore Ravens running back Gus Edwards (35) carries the ball past Los Angeles Chargers defensive tackle Brandon Mebane (92) during the first half at StubHub Center. Kirby Lee, USA TODAY Sports
Baltimore Ravens cornerback Brandon Carr (24) intercepts a pass intended for Los Angeles Chargers wide receiver Mike Williams (81) during the first quarter at StubHub Center. Jake Roth, USA TODAY Sports
Tennessee Titans tight end MyCole Pruitt (85) celebrates after a touchdown during the second half against the Washington Redskins at Nissan Stadium. Christopher Hanewinckel, USA TODA
Tennessee Titans tight end MyCole Pruitt (85) celebrates with wide receiver Corey Davis (84) and quarterback Blaine Gabbert (7) after a touchdown during the second half against the Washington Redskins at Nissan Stadium. Christopher Hanewinckel, Christopher Hanewinckel-USA TODA
Washington Redskins wide receiver Michael Floyd (17) celebrates after a touchdown during the first half against the Tennessee Titans at Nissan Stadium. Christopher Hanewinckel, USA TODAY Sports
Washington Redskins wide receiver Michael Floyd (17) scores as Tennessee Titans cornerback Adoree' Jackson (25) is unable to tackle him during the first half at Nissan Stadium. Christopher Hanewinckel, USA TODA
Tennessee Titans running back Dion Lewis (33) stiff arms Washington Redskins cornerback Greg Stroman (37) during the first half at Nissan Stadium. Christopher Hanewinckel, Christopher Hanewinckel-USA TODA
Washington Redskins quarterback Josh Johnson (8) is sacked by Tennessee Titans inside linebacker Wesley Woodyard (59) during the first half at Nissan Stadium. Christopher Hanewinckel, USA TODAY Sports
Tennessee Titans wide receiver Corey Davis (84) fights off a tackle attempt from Washington Redskins strong safety Ha Ha Clinton-Dix (20) during the first half at Nissan Stadium. Christopher Hanewinckel, USA TODAY Sports
Washington Redskins quarterback Josh Johnson (8) scrambles in the pocket during the first half against the Tennessee Titans at Nissan Stadium. Christopher Hanewinckel, USA TODAY Sports
Tennessee Titans running back Derrick Henry (22) runs for a short gain during the first half against the Washington Redskins at Nissan Stadium. Christopher Hanewinckel, USA TODAY Sports
Tennessee Titans running back Derrick Henry (22) reacts after running for a touchdown during the first half against the Washington Redskins at Nissan Stadium. Christopher Hanewinckel, USA TODAY Sports
Tennessee Titans running back Derrick Henry (22) falls into the end zone for a touchdown during the first half against the Washington Redskins at Nissan Stadium. Christopher Hanewinckel, USA TODAY Sports
Tennessee Titans wide receiver Taywan Taylor (13) catches a pass during the first half against the Washington Redskins at Nissan Stadium. Christopher Hanewinckel, USA TODAY Sports
Rexrode: SEC event would be lost in Nashville
College football overtime rule changed going into 2019 season
Report: Ex-Siegel lineman medically disqualified at S. Carolina
'SEC Media Days with a Music City style' coming in 2021
Losing to Vandy again motivates Vols
2019 Texas A&M football schedule
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2695
|
__label__wiki
| 0.531801
| 0.531801
|
You’ll be grateful you said ‘thank you’
The importance of showing your gratitude to staff is too often overlooked by the senior leadership team, says Caroline Spalding
By Caroline Spalding
“Sorry seems to be the hardest word,” sings Elton John – but in some schools and particularly within some senior leadership teams, you’d think the hardest words to utter were “thank you”.
Perhaps it is totally understandable. Perhaps one of the reasons why some leaders avoid the “T word” is the fear of missing people out – just watch the faces of the PE department when the English faculty are thanked for taking 14 students out on their one theatre trip a year.
Perhaps members of the senior leadership team think a thank you is a given – of course, they are thankful, they don’t need to spell it out all the time, right?
But I’d argue that knowing whom to thank and when to thank them is a good test of two vital, intrinsic aspects of school leadership: communication in your school and whether you get out of your office enough.
When you’re working at full capacity, it’s easy to assume that others know you’re thankful for what they do. But as the writer G B Stern said: “Silent gratitude isn’t much use to anyone.”
Even those of us who consider teaching to be our vocation like to see our hard work acknowledged. On the dark days of the autumn term, it motivates us to carry on, to work harder and do better.
Nothing has the power to more quickly distance a staff body from a senior leadership team than a lack of “thank yous” and, with retention and recruitment reaching crisis point, few school leaders can afford to be alienating their workforce.
With the recent publication of the workload reports throwing light on the working hours many teachers undertake beyond the realms of the reasonable, now would seem to be a good time for school leaders to take a critical look at the ways they thank school staff.
Time it right
Thank yous are time-sensitive. It’s no good whacking a “thank you” notice on the bulletin a fortnight after the event. Such tardiness clearly communicates that the thanks are being offered through a sense of duty, rather than through a belief in the importance of the teacher’s work. If, on the morning after, all that time allows is a quick visit to the staff member’s classroom, or a verbal nod in morning briefing, this at least counteracts the weariness we all experience after exerting additional effort while continuing to manage the daily grind of a full teaching load.
Be wary of saving thanks up for the big meeting
A “thank you” in a whole-school meeting – despite it offering the benefit of public acknowledgement for the member of staff – isn’t always going to be timely or even appropriate. Saving up all your thanks for a roll-call of appreciation can appear gimmicky and procedural rather than genuine. Added to which, with 100-200 members of staff in a typical secondary school, it may not be practical. Therefore, particularly in the pressured environment of school, it’s often easiest to plump for the convenience of an email. But…
Make the thank you personal
While it is a wondrous invention in so many ways, email is downright inappropriate for any more than the most cursory of pats on the back. “Thanks” has become a sign-off rather than a missive with any meaning.
To have weight, email thank yous need to be personalised. This might mean showing particular understanding of the personal cost at which the act was undertaken or giving a nod to personal ambitions for which the person is accruing skills and experience.
Make it ‘official’
One way the email thank you can be given weight is by attaching a formal letter of thanks, written on a headed document. The fact that this can be stored “on file” will be particularly appreciated by newly qualified teachers or those ambitious to “climb the ladder”.
Avoid trivialising it
Never, ever, resort to formulaic, off-the-shelf thank yous of the like you can buy or even get for free on the internet. An animated e-card, for example, may seem like a flashy way of saying thanks, but in reality it is always worth making your email a little more unique and personalised.
The little things count
Senior leaders would do well to remember that the surprise doughnut that appears on a desk with a scribbled Post-it note will have far greater impact than the luxurious tray of pastries that appear at every meeting.
Caroline Spalding is director of English at Tupton Hall School in Chesterfield
Want to keep up with the latest education news and opinion? Follow Tes on Twitter and Instagram, and like Tes on Facebook
Log in or register for FREE to continue reading.
It only takes a moment and you'll get access to more news, plus courses, jobs and teaching resources tailored to you
Login/Register now
Caroline Spalding
Leadership Breaking views School news
Just 136 teachers failed induction in last ten years
Helen Ward
DfE plan to tackle misuse of money in council schools
Less than half of schools using DfE workload toolkit
DfE urged to toughen up home education plans
Will Hazell
Revealed: The one gift teachers want at the end of year
Dave Speck
Panorama RE teacher taught key LGBT activist
Emma Seith
'Stopgap' attitude to asbestos in schools must end
Catherine Lough
Parkfield: LGBT 'not the place' for school autonomy
Dave Speck and Martin George
What if schools valued wellbeing more than results?
Tara Porter
Colleges hit by highest Office for Students fees
Stephen Exley
Farewell to the kings and queens of the playground
How to make your pupils curious enough to learn
How I came to fear for my safety as a headteacher
EYFS: Do we still need a staggered start to the year?
5 ways to support pupils with poor working memory
Us vs them: When GCSE and vocational teachers go to war
Scrapping QTS skills test is 'not dumbing down'
What would a world without Sats look like?
Teachers ‘less valued’ than they were five years ago
Ofsted to stop asking parents about homework
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2696
|
__label__cc
| 0.613109
| 0.386891
|
ALL PUBLIC SERVICE DEPARTMENTS HAVE BEEN DIRECTED BY CABINET TO COMPLETE LANGUAGE PLANS BY THE END ON 2020/21.
What is language planning?
Language planning is a well-developed and evidence-based approach that is particularly useful in the revitalisation of indigenous and endangered languages, such as the Māori language.
What does a language plan look like?
A plan is a document that takes into account conventional planning principles as well as your own organisation's context. Your organisation may be able to do a little or a lot. The main thing is to start and continue looking at how effective you have been and if there is more you can do.
A plan provides a Te Reo Māori focus and means of keeping everyone on track towards achieving their language goals. It can be as simple or as comprehensive as you want. There is no one size fits all as can be seen from the various plans that have already been developed in the public and private sectors. Your plan should take account of:
Alignment with strategic priorities
Example indicator: ‘Evidence of clear alignment between language plan and business plan’
Example indicator: ‘designated resource/personnel to lead language planning and implementation’
Example indicator: ‘Organisational policies integrate the priorities and values of the language plan’
Practice and operations
Example indicator: ‘Demonstrated use of te reo Māori in operational programmes and practices’
Outcome indicators: 'Number of te reo Māori speakers, installation of Māori signage'
Do I have to have a language plan?
All public service departments have been directed by Cabinet to complete language plans by the end of June 2021 (MCR-18-MIN-0012).
Language plans are being developed by many other state sector organisations, businesses and community organisations. Language plans are the most effective way of enhancing their effectiveness through the Māori language and contributing to revitalisation.
Why do we need a language plan?
A Māori language plan can help ensure that efforts to revitalise Māori language are carefully directed to be as effective as possible. Through developing and implementing a language plan, your organisation will:
contribute to the revitalisation of the Māori language;
enhance your organisation's relationships with Māori customers, clients and stakeholders;
strengthen your identity as a New Zealand organisation, committed to this country;
increase your organisational health by growing a confident and capable workforce;
meet other organisational goals that are enhanced by the use of the Māori language such as Crown-Iwi relations, diversity and inclusion and cultural responsiveness
What is the language planning process? How long does it take?
Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori recommends the following Language Planning Process:
Self-Assessment (4-6weeks),
Plan Development (6-8weeks),
Plan Implementation (9-12months),
Review and Refresh (6-8weeks)."
Please refer to the Language Planning Process Chart.
Where/How do we start a language plan?
Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori recommends that a language plan is based on the organisational needs and requirements. Your organisation could develop a 6 month plan that captures and/or increases your organisation's current activities but also formalises the intent to develop a longer term plan within this time period. Or the organisation could develop a 3 or 5 year plan with approved long term goals and the action steps required to achieve these goals. A language plan is a living document. Frequent reporting and an annual review of the plan is suggested. A plan may change after the first year based on the review.
Can you explain the 5 Language Planning elements?
Language planning promotes five equally important elements. These elements are key areas for the revitalisation of te reo Māori;
Status - people value te reo Māori;
Critical awareness - people know te reo Māori is endangered and their role in revitalisation;
Aquisition - people are learning te reo Māori;
Use - people read, write, speak and comprehend te reo Māori in many places and circumstances (domains);
Corpus - the right words and terms are available for all circumstances
What can you do for us?
Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori can help your organisation by:
providing regular advice and planning support at the strategic level to support you;
collaborating on policy outcomes and aspirations for te reo Māori where possible;
providing technical expertise on a case by case basis;
providing language planning resources and support to assist you to design, implement, monitor and evaluate your Māori language plan;
working with you to ensure that the actions set out within the language plan are sustainable for ongoing implementation, evaluation and review; and
celebrating and promoting your achievements.
Does it cost?
Organisations should work within current baselines to support revitalisation of te reo Māori. There are actions that organisations can take that have minimal financial impact such as:
replacing signage with bilingual signage during normal maintenance;
developing the policy framework to support revitalisation effort in the future e.g. email greetings and sign-offs;
using some of the resources on this website e.g. Job Title word lists.
meet other organisational goals that are enhanced by the use of the Māori language such as Māori-Crown relations, diversity inclusion and cultural responsiveness.
What's in it for Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori?
The Maihi Karauna (the Crown’s Māori Language Strategy) states that the role of Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori is to coordinate and monitor the implementation of the Maihi Karauna and support Māori language planning. We will achieve this by:
Sharing real-time information on the nature and range of public service contributions to the revitalisation of te reo Māori
Creating a central online ‘hub’ for agencies to access tools, resources, share examples/insights/learnings, seek advice on emerging issues and opportunities or reference to appropriate expertise, and encourage others;
Anticipating resource, tool and advice needs, and actively responding to emerging needs;
Lifting language capability to ensure that the provision of public services is safe, appropriate and respectful; and
Enabling (rather than compelling) agencies to make meaningful contributions to the revitalisation of te reo Māori – focusing on opportunity rather than obligation.
How do we measure improvement?
Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori can provide the E Tipu questionnaire to help with measuring improvement. This questionnaire helps organisations understand where they are in supporting revitalisation and what steps you need to take next.
Who else is doing this?
Te Taura Whiri i te reo Māori encourages all organisations participating in language revitalisation to share their learnings and tools through this site. Te Taura Whiri i te reo Māori has also established an informal group named “Kapa Kawhe” (The Coffee Club) where organisations with experience discuss what they are doing in the Language Planning space. If you want to come along to our next get together drop us an email. We are also working with 6 key agencies to become exemplars. We will keep you posted on their progress.
What HR induction resources are available?
Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori recommends using the organisational capability maturity framework-E Tipu found in our tools section. We also have a questionnaire to help you assess where you are in that framework
What is the difference between a language plan and a language strategy?
A strategy focuses on the big picture, a plan zooms in on what your organisation is going to do and what steps your organisation is going to take to achieve your organisations goals. If you are a Public Sector Department, your strategy is The Crown's Māori Language Strategy, The Maihi Karauna.
What are examples of Māori language activities?
Encouraging staff and the public to make a conscious effort to:
Using Māori greetings such as kia ora, tēnā koe, tēnā kōrua, tēnā koutou, haere rā, e noho rā, through your organisation;
Using Māori greetings in all email correspondence;
Setting a regular time for Māori conversations in your organisation, such as a lunchtime;
Māori language games sessions;
Māori language classes;
Kīwaha o te wiki/expression of the week e.g. Tautoko! (I support that)
Promoting te reo Māori on your intranet.
How do we measure our level of te reo?
Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori has a number of tools available to indicate te reo competency including the - Māori Translators and Interpreters Exam, Māori Language Level Finder Exam, the Public Service Māori Exam, and we are trialing the Te Reo Māori Assessment that has been developed by NZCER. Wānanga, Universities and other educational institutions also have methods to assess competency.
Tools for Language Planning
Language Plan Templates
mō te roanga ake
Language Plan Development
Language Planning Process Chart
Review and Refresh
E Tipu
Where/how do we get resources to develop/implement/review a plan?
Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori has a number of resources on this site to help organisations self-assess, develop, implement, review and refresh their Māori Language Plans
Who do we need to get involved?
When developing a Māori language plan, form a working group made up of current staff members dedicated to driving the plan right from the start led by Senior Leadership. This will ensure that more than one person is responsible for development and implementation. Ideally, your working group would consist of staff from a range of business units, including a Senior Responsible Manager.
Can you help us make/provide/advise on a waiata, karakia, Māori name?
There are links on our site to waiata and other resources. These can also be found on youtube.com and through google. Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori’s Language Services Team is available to help your organisation find an appropriate organisation name. Follow your usual consultation process
Do you have a pronunciation guide?
We have a written guide and are currently developing other products to help with pronunciation
We don't have a budget for this - what can we do?
Te Taura Whiri i te reo Māori does not have the resource to assist organisations financially to language plan. Organisations should work within current baselines to support revitalisation of te reo Māori. There are actions that organisations can take that have minimal financial impact such as:
replacing signage with bilingual signage during normal maintenance
developing the policy framework to support revitalisation effort in the future e.g. email greetings and sign-offs
using some of the resources on this website e.g. Job Title word lists
Who is responsible for managing this?
Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori advise that a Senior Responsible Officer (SRO) be appointed from within your organisation's Senior/Executive Leadership Team and that SRO reports directly to the CEO and the E/SLT on the plan and progress.
Does this require me to do more than BAU?
Yes! The planning process takes time. Implementation takes time and resources. Reviewing and refreshing takes time. Te Taura Whiri i te Reo Māori advises that you consider in the organisation te reo Māori plan who is responsible for actions and the commitments involved. Keep things simple and look at a cycle of continuous improvement – a step by step process.
Mahere Reo
He aha te Mahere Reo
Ngā Whāinga
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2697
|
__label__wiki
| 0.811522
| 0.811522
|
London Swedes warned to prepare for Brexit
londonswedesmarylebone
More than 200 Swedes attended the meeting. Photo: Swedish Embassy in London
Swedes in the UK have been warned to begin collecting all the papers they need to prove their residency to protect them against hard Brexit, at a packed meeting at London's Swedish Church .
Swedish ambassador Torbjörn Sohlström briefed more than 200 worried Swedes on Sunday afternoon about the risks they face from Britain's vote to leave the European Union.
“Great interest for today's information meeting @SvkyrkanLondon on Brexit,” he said on Twitter after the meeting. “Could with colleagues answer some questions. But more remain.”
Great interest for today's information meeting @SvkyrkanLondon on Brexit. Could with colleagues answer some questions. But more remain. pic.twitter.com/UZddGuEbmc
— Torbjörn Sohlström (@sohlstromt) January 29, 2017
Anders Alberius, the church's vicar, said that Sohlström had advised Swedes in the UK to apply immediately for permanent residency if they had lived in the UK for the requisite five years.
“If you haven't been here for five years, the advice was to make sure you have all the papers that will be needed when you are applying — where you have worked, where you have lived — so that you can really prove that you have been living here in Great Britain if needed.”
But he said that Sohlström had admitted that at this stage it remained uncertain how European Union citizens living in London would be affected.
“Of course there are many questions that were put to the ambassador concerning what will happen to people who are studying, living in Great Britain right now, or who have lived here for a great many years,” he said.
Alberius said that many Swedes in London, both those in his congregation and those who use the church mainly as a meeting place, were worried about whether they would be able to stay.
“Those who have been here a really long time, think ‘if I've been here for 25 years they can hardly throw me out', but a large number of others wonder what the conditions will be for the right to work, residency rights, education and health insurance,” he told TT.
The meeting comes shortly after Sweden's Minister for EU Affairs and Trade Ann Linde visited London to speak to meet UK ministers and talk to Swedes about any discrimination they are facing.
“We have been directly informed about a dozen cases where Swedes have been the victim of taunts and suchlike. We also suspect that there are a significantly larger number of cases that we have not been informed about,” Sohlström told Dagens Nyheter.
There are roughly 100,000 Swedes in the UK, of which about a half live around London.
Sweden rejects Chinese request to extradite fugitive former official
UN expert defends Assange article criticizing Swedish police
Malmö favourite to host new Holocaust Museum
Man jailed for luring homeless Romanians to Sweden to beg
Sweden hosts meeting of 'key Venezuela actors'
Assange illness postpones US extradition hearing until June
Swedish 'friend of Assange' denied bail in Ecuador
OPINION: The five worst habits of the Swedes
London's buskers to start taking card payments thanks to Swedish iZettle
Swedish minister on Google charm offensive
Swedish man arrested at Stansted airport for possession of terrorism-related material
Spotify launches new tech hub in London
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2701
|
__label__wiki
| 0.918423
| 0.918423
|
Rotherham United badge - Link to home
Inclusion/Anti-Discrimination
Report Hotline
Enjoy the Match Campaign
Safety Messages
Priority Points
Club Partners 2018/19
iFollow Help
iFollow FAQ
Dedicated iFollow Help EFL Website
Community Sports Trust
Junior Millers
Millers Mayday
50/50 Draw
Enjoy the Match initiative
Stay Safe Briefing Video
Goal Zone
EFL Self Help Guides
Arnie aims for winning run
Kari Arnason talks to www.themillers.co.uk...
Kari Arnason is delighted to be back in contention for tomorrow’s game with Exeter at New York Stadium, and admits there is very little margin for error in the remaining eight games of the season.
The Iceland international has completed his two-match suspension after being sent off in the home defeat to Dagenham last month, sitting out of the 2-2 draw at Wycombe and last week’s 3-0 reverse at Cheltenham.
“I’m definitely pleased to be back in the fold. I’m here to play games,” said Arnason, who says there is little margin for error in the season’s eight remaining fixtures.
“We need to pull some wins together and string together some results,” he added.
“It’s obvious we’re not allowed to lose a lot of points. We’ve got eight games left and we can maybe afford one or two draws, but that’s about it.”
The Millers are five points off the automatic promotion places with a game in hand. However, there are six teams fighting for the two remaining automatic promotion spots, assuming leaders Gillingham do not significantly falter between now and the end of the season.
Arnason was in attendance at Adams Park for the first of his banned games against Wycombe: “Wycombe was cold and it was a hard pitch so the boys did all right to get an away draw but obviously the Cheltenham result wasn’t great, so hopefully we can improve on that tomorrow.”
Arnason acknowledges the clash with Paul Tisdale’s men will be difficult. The Grecians have picked up nine more points away from home than they have at home this season and lie fifth in League Two, although the Millers can leapfrog them with a win on Saturday.
Arnason’s return is a welcome boost for manager Steve Evans and the Icleander has the utmost faith in the quality Millers squad:
“We’ve got some tough teams left to play and it’s going to be a hard game [against Exeter]. But like I’ve said this season, it’s up to us. We have the best team in this league, I still believe that, and if we play up to our standards, we can beat any team in this league.”
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2704
|
__label__wiki
| 0.791492
| 0.791492
|
Sony is developing a smartphone that can be rolled up
By: Ajaay Srinivasan, The Mobile Indian, New Delhi Last updated : July 08, 2019 11:25 am
Sony is working on a competitor to the Samsung Galaxy Fold and Huawei Mate X. The company is developing prototypes of a phone whose display features a Nautilus design design and can be rolled up. The rollable Sony phone could be launched as early as December 2019 or early 2020.
Foldable is the buzzword in the tech world in 2019 but what if we tell you there’ll soon be a rollable phone as well. While Huawei and Samsung are yet to mass retail their foldable smartphones that caught the attention earlier this year, it’s now time for Sony to make the jump to the latest flexible display bandwagon with their rollable smartphone.
It’s reported that Sony is working on a competitor to the Samsung Galaxy Fold and Huawei Mate X. The company is developing prototypes of a phone whose display can be rolled up, reports tipster Max J.
The tipster revealed that he had intel about prototypes of the device being made at Sony. What’s interesting is that the rollable Sony phone could be launched as early as December 2019 or early 2020.
The Sony rollable phone will come bearing a “Nautilus design” that will incorporate an LG display. While the retail device will be powered by Qualcomm’s latest Snapdragon 855 flagship chipset with Snapdragon X50 5G modem, the current prototypes are reportedly being powered by a Snapdragon 7-series SoC, codenamed SD7250. The camera on the phone will come with 10X zoom and the device will be backed by a 3220mAh battery.
Similar to Sony, Samsung is also working on a rollable display smartphone. The rolling mechanism will be similar to the BlackBerry Private’s but instead of a QWERTY keyboard, you’ll now have more screen in continuity. On the topic of rollable displays, LG was, however, the first in the world to introduce a rollable OLED TV - the LG Signature OLED TV R.
Unlike Sony, Microsoft is working on a foldable Surface PC with Android app compatibility. The foldable PC is expected to run on Windows Core OS for dual displays and will employ a 10 nanometer Intel Lakefield processor which itself is set to release later this year.
Google has also patented a foldable phone with multiple pages. The patent shows a book-style phone that opens and closes like the Galaxy Fold, but with more that one displays on the inside. As a book, the patent revealed a hinge where multiple screens will be hooked like pages in a book.
Related News from Sony
CES 2019: LG introduces the world’s first rollable OLED TV
Samsung is working on a rollable display smartphone
Microsoft working on a foldable Surface PC with Android app compatibility
Google patents a foldable phone with multiple pages
Latest News from Sony
Tags: Sony rollable phone Sony phone with rollable display Sony rollable smartphone Sony smartphone that can be rolled up Sony rollable display smartphone
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2705
|
__label__wiki
| 0.848317
| 0.848317
|
So the Pac-12 begins league play next week on a somewhat sour note, though the conference does still boast three teams in the top 25. There’s defending league champion Arizona, the near-unanimous preseason pick by media to remain atop the Pac-12 standings. The Wildcats are ranked No. 8 nationally and have lost just one game (at UNLV).
And to illustrate how good the Wildcats have had it in recent years, one of the foremost lamentations after that defeat was from junior forward Brandon Ashley, who had never before lost a nonconference game.
“I was going to try to go my entire college career without losing in nonconference,” Ashley told the Arizona Daily Star. “So it kind of hurts.”
He will surely understand if the rest of the league isn’t all that sympathetic.
Anyway, Arizona isn’t the only Pac-12 team to earn national recognition so far. Utah’s two close losses, to San Diego State and Kansas, were impressive enough that the Utes checked in at No. 10 in the Associated Press top 25 this week. And despite the loss to Stony Brook, Washington — which was the Pac-12’s final unbeaten team — dropped only eight spots from 13th to 21st in the AP poll.
Those three teams appear to represent the league’s best hope for a strong national profile this season. UW coach Lorenzo Romar said he doesn’t make much of the nonconference schedule when it comes to evaluating how the Pac-12 standings might look in three months, because he believes teams will improve as the league slate progresses.
“Whether a team is better than you thought or not as good as you thought, you still have to play against them and they have to play against each other, so you just have to kind of wipe the slate clean and get after it,” Romar said. “And all 12 programs are going to be competing. We’ve just got to go from there.”
Well, maybe not all of them. Washington State seems to be in full rebuilding mode after firing coach Ken Bone and hiring Ernie Kent, who has so far guided the Cougars to a 6-6 record — their best victory of the season was probably their last one, a 90-83 triumph over visiting Cal-Davis.
Oregon State, too, will likely have its issues in Year One of the Wayne Tinkle era, though the Beavers have rebounded from an embarrassing exhibition loss to Western Oregon by assembling an 8-3 record.
Three Pac-12 teams earned bids into the NCAA tournament in 2014 — Arizona, UCLA and Stanford. The Wildcats seem a lock to return, and as a very high seed. The Cardinal lost Josh Huestis and Dwight Powell, but return leading scorer Chasson Randle, capable center Stefan Nastic and add star freshman Reid Travis. And on Dec. 23, they claimed perhaps the Pac-12’s most impressive victory of the nonconference season, winning 74-71 at then-No. 9 Texas.
UCLA could be in for a tougher season after losing Jordan Adams, Kyle Anderson and Zach Lavine to the NBA. Coach Steve Alford’s son, Bryce, leads the Bruins in scoring so far, and freshman forward Kevon Looney is the kind of five-star recruit UCLA is used to having on its roster. But a humiliating loss at Kentucky in which the Bruins scored only seven points in the first half, plus a 13-point home loss to Gonzaga, a 22-point loss to North Carolina and a 10-point loss to Oklahoma show how much work there is to be done in Westwood.
That won’t help the national perception of the Pac-12, as some still believe a down year for bluebloods Arizona and/or UCLA means a down year for the conference overall.
Still, several teams harbor reasonable NCAA tournament hopes as league play begins. Arizona and Washington have one loss each. Utah has only two. California, Oregon, Oregon State and Stanford have lost a manageable three games. The road to March Madness will be more difficult for UCLA, Arizona State and Tad Boyle’s Colorado team, all of whom have already lost five games and lack the kind of impressive victories that could push them to the right side of the bubble.
Washington hopes to accumulate more of those next weekend when it visits — appropriately enough — California, which is trying itself to erase the memory of that ugly Sunday.
“No one is happy to lose,” UW sophomore guard Nigel Williams-Goss said after UW’s loss to Stony Brook. “But we aren’t going to let one game define our season. Our focus is on the next game. This is behind us. You can’t do anything about the past. Winning last game didn’t do anything about tonight and losing tonight is not going to affect our next game. We just have to prepare and be ready to play Cal.”
And several other teams better than most of the mid-majors they saw on their nonleague docket.
The Washington Huskies play Utah State in first round of NCAA tournament
Mike Hopkins describes Matisse Thybulle’s performance against Colorado
Emerald Ridge’s Mosiah Nasili-Kite dismissed from UW
By Lauren Kirschman
Defensive lineman Mosiah Nasili-Kite has been dismissed from the Washington football program due to a violation of team rules.
MORE UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON
Four-star Eastside Catholic running back Sam Adams II commits to Huskies
UW officially unveils new Adidas football uniforms
When it comes to the Huskies’ new look, Adidas is opting for tradition and special touches
Four-star wide receiver Jalen McMillan commits to Huskies
Former Washington Huskies quarterback still chasing the dream at XFL showcase in Seattle
Three-star 2020 linebacker Carson Bruener commits to Huskies
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2707
|
__label__wiki
| 0.527468
| 0.527468
|
Announcing 2015 speakers
The wait is over. Here are the superstar storytellers coming to Bucharest this October.
Meet the amazing writers and editors, visual storytellers and artists, audio magicians and story-innovators already confirmed to be taking the stage on October 9-10, at Pullman Hotel.
Robert Krulwich, co-host of Radiolab, WNYC’s Peabody Award-winning program about “big ideas”, now one of public radio’s most popular shows.
Leslie Jamison, author of The Empathy Exams, a New York Times bestselling essay collection, and The Gin Closet, a novel.
Richard Koci Hernandez, a visual storyteller who is willing to try anything to tell a compelling narrative. He teaches multimedia at UC Berkley and has 220k followers on Instagram.
Wendy MacNaughton, illustrator and graphic journalist. Her books include Meanwhile in San Francisco, Pen & Ink and Lost Cat.
Chris Jones, a writer at large for Esquire and a senior writer for ESPN The Magazine, on his fourth visit to Romania.
Dan Perjovschi, an artist who lives and works in Bucharest and Sibiu, and exhibits in museums, art centers and biennials across the globe.
Jacqui Banaszynski, a Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter, editor, and globetrotting coach. She is part of this conference from day one.
Pat Walters, editor of Pop-Up Magazine. Before that he was a producer at the public radio show Radiolab.
Read more about all of them our new website, now fullly ready to be explored.
We’ll open registrations in a month! Until then, we’ll dive deeper into our guests’ work, bios and projects on Facebook and Twitter, so stay in touch!
Tags: #Story15, Jacqui Banaszynski, Chris Jones, Speakers, Robert Krulwich, Leslie Jamison, Richard Koci Hernandez, Wendy MacNaughton, Dan Perjovschi, Pat Walters
Live sketches from #Story15: Oana Lohan
The story of our conference told in drawings by Oana Lohan, shaped as a DIY zine, for you to print and fold.
10 storytelling tips from past editions
We celebrate being only 100 days away from our fifth edition with 10 pieces of advice gathered in these past years ...
Story Map
At #Story15 we asked you to bring a printed memory of a special place in your life, write its story and pin it on a...
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2710
|
__label__cc
| 0.559429
| 0.440571
|
Apple thanks Microsoft for inventing the Trash Can
The shame of it
By Andrew Orlowski 6 Mar 2003 at 08:47
Most mammals hibernate through January and February, but Apple lawyers clearly belong to the reptilian class, for winter finds them at their most productive. They certainly haven't been idle in recent weeks.
We must thank attorney and Apple user John Kheit for uncovering a blizzard of patent activity since the new year that must be quite unprecedented in Apple's history. The computer pioneer has decided, posthumously, to lay claim to lots of stuff that it err, … invented twenty years ago. The desktop Trash Can, window buttons, dialog boxes and a task scheduler have all been claimed as Apple Intellectual Property in a snowstorm of greedy patent filings.
And the paper trail uncovers some delicious ironies.
Apple has finally decided to patent the "Waste Basket" [if you're in the European Basket], also known as the "Trash Can" [if you're in the United States of Trash].
Now, correct us if we're wrong, but the desktop trash icon first appeared in Apple's own Lisa computer in 1983. But this is now, so Apple is duly required to cite prior art. And this particular filing thanks Corel, the Microsoft Windows 3.1 Users Guide and a tome called "OS/2 Unleashed" as prior art. Have a look:
the claim was filed on February 13, 2003. Almost twenty years after the Lisa appeared.
Microsoft has justifiably been blamed for stealing many aspects of the Windows UI from Apple, so it's no small irony to see Apple thanking Microsoft for creating something it invented itself, but never got round to protecting under US patent law. This supposes some amnesia on the part of the reader: in the look and feel litigation that Apple pursued in the late 1980s, the trash can, along with overlapping windows, played a star role.
Vanity plays a large part in these Apple filings. They name the incumbent CEO as "inventor" on items such as the iPod. (Yes, the design of a hard-disk based MP3 player is now an Apple invention, so don't you dare make one.)
Although the incumbent CEO has done much to distract us from the boredom of desktop computing by promoting ergonomics and design sense (very French characteristics, if you ask us), this isn't enough.
Credit for inventions as "iconic", if you pardon the pun, as the desktop trash will forever belong to Apple, and the filings hint that the CEO is even more insecure than we suspected. How insecure? It seems that Apple's unfathomably insecure CEO wishes that he wasn't a member of California's arriviste nouveau riche but that, instead, that he had been born French. There's no other explanation. ®
[Kheit's summary can be found here, at Mac Observer ]
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2711
|
__label__cc
| 0.534311
| 0.465689
|
V League
Quang Nam - Hai Phong
Quang Nam vs Hai Phong: Prediction, Statistics and Tips
Quảng Nam FC - Hải Phòng FC on 17-07-2019: fixed matches, prediction, tips and stats - 17 July 2019
We welcome you in the prediction of Quang Nam - Hai Phong and we hope you enjoy it.We did our best, as usual, to create an analysis full of tips on the game that can give you an idea of how, statistically, it could take place.Do not lose all this, subscribe to the site for free to get the full prediction and start reading.
It is not possible, from the statistics and the ranking, to find a strong dominance of one team on the other. There are other types of analysis that make more accurate our prediction in the choice of the best bets to do on this match. Comparing the ranking (subscribe if you cannot see it), we understand that Quang Nam, compared to Hai Phong, has 0 points more. Quang Nam won at home on times, scoring and suffering goals, while Hai Phong won away on times, scoring and undergoing Goals.
The following is a collection of value on the championship data Vietnam - V League and the two challenging teams: Quang Nam and Hai Phong We have collected the percentages of their over / under and we have compared them with the championship, and the same thing for the average goals scored and suffered, they will definitely improve your decisions.
An interesting fact that comes out is the average Goals and losses of the two teams, it emerges that Quang Nam has a total average score of and Hai Phong has an average of Goal.
We create a further average between the two previously calculated values, which will become If we compare this value with the average goal of their championship, we will conclude that the first value is lesser than with the average championship, of 1.43 Goals. We take the two averages calculated in the first half and merge them into one: we will notice that if we compare it with the championship this value, of Gol, is lesser than average of the latter, which instead is 0.57 Gol. In the second half the average of the goals of the teams is lesser than the average of the championship.In fact, during the matches of the two teams are scored Goal, against the league average of 0.86 Goals.
You can verify the data yourself thanks to the interesting tables below, which show all the values recorded up to now on the goals scored and suffered by Quang Nam and Hai Phong and the corresponding championship. We are sure that these tables will help you a lot, above all the 80% and higher statistics.
We are going to show you what our algorithms have established for Quang Nam - Hai Phong . The tables show who will win the game, how many goals will be scored, who will score and how much, everything divided into first and second time, and full time.
Quang Nam (Home Win)
Hai Phong (Away Win)
After studying all the statistics, we say that the team Quang Nam is the favorite for this match.
Look at the table below for all the percentages calculated by our algorithm.
The algorithm indicates the presence low of the probabilistic conditions for which both teams could score a goal.The percentage is 36.39%.
We do not think that Hai Phong can score, but we expect 2 Goals from the team Quang Nam That said we can define the most likely results:
Quang Nam - Hai Phong: First Half
Are you looking for information also on half-time? We have those too! Here are the statistics and the probabilities on the First Time.
According to what emerged in the previous table, we can say that the probability that both teams score in the first half is low (0.06%).
Quang Nam - Hai Phong: Second Half
We still have a lot of percentages to show you! The next ones are related to the second game time of the match.
It is possible that the two teams score at least one goal each during the second half.
Observing the previous table it is easy to observe that the probability that both teams score in the second half is low (48.31%) .
Quang Nam - Hai Phong: Summary of Predictions
If you have reached the end it means that you have appreciated reading this article, leave us a comment or suggestion on how to improve our articles.
More Predictions from Vietnam
Song Lam Nghe An
SHB Da Nang
Vietnam - V League
Sanna Khanh Hoa
Hoàng Anh Gia Lai
Thể Công FC
DPM Nam Dinh
Than Quang Ninh
Prediction of Beijing Guoan - Beijing Renhe
Prediction of Shanghai SIPG - Hebei China Fortune
Prediction of Wuhan Zall - Jiangsu Suning
Prediction of Ho Chi Minh City - SHB Da Nang
Prediction of Ha Noi - Hoàng Anh Gia Lai
Prediction of Pahang - Felda United FC
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2715
|
__label__wiki
| 0.955606
| 0.955606
|
‘London Has Fallen’ Might Be ‘The Most Daftly Plotted Action Movie of Recent Years,’ Critics Say
Similarly to its predecessor, “London Has Fallen” is getting terrible reviews from critics ahead of its Friday release
Beatrice Verhoeven | March 2, 2016 @ 1:45 PM
2013’s “Olympus Has Fallen” already didn’t receive rave reviews, but its sequel, “London Has Fallen” is scoring even lower with critics.
Citing it as “one of the cheapest looking $100 million movies ever made” and “the most daftly plotted action movie of recent years,” critics gave the movie starring Gerard Butler, Aaron Eckhart, Morgan Freeman, Angela Bassett and Melissa Leo, a low 23 percent Rotten Tomatoes score.
Even the screenwriters get blasted in most of the reviews posted online, similarly to TheWrap’s film critic Andy Klein‘s review, who said “the four credited screenwriters — the returning Creighton Rothenberger & Katrin Benedikt, plus Christian Gudegast (“A Man Apart”) and Chad St. John — make things move fast enough to keep you awake, but not fast enough to finesse its plot absurdities past an alert viewer’s mind.”
Also Read: 'London Has Fallen' Review: Gerard Butler Saves the World Again, Implausibly
“Olympus Has Fallen,” which currently holds a score of 48 percent on Rotten Tomatoes, went on to gross $161 million worldwide. Whether the sequel will go down the same path is yet to be seen when it opens wide this weekend.
See 8 of the worst reviews below.
Ignatiy Vichnevetsky, A.V. Club:
“One of the cheapest looking $100 million movies ever made, this sequel to the 2013 sort-of-hit ‘Olympus Has Fallen’ ditches the original’s ‘Die Hard in the White House’ premise in favor of sub-‘Death Wish 3’ sadism and ‘Red Dawn’-esque survivalism, but without the notes of camp or jingoist pulp that could make either watchable. Instead, Swedish director Babak Najafi (‘Easy Money: Hard To Kill’) has thrown together one of the worst action movies in recent memory, its signal achievement being a firefight that’s presented in a single take, but which still manages to be incomprehensible.”
Robbie Collin, The Telegraph:
“‘London Has Fallen’s’ screenplay is credited to four people, though I’d gently suggest that when your hero’s dialogue becomes indistinguishable from a Britain First Facebook thread, it’s time to abandon further script polishes and turn to a box of matches and a flame-charred oil drum.”
See Video: Gerard Butler Protects Aaron Eckhart From Terrorists in 'London Has Fallen' Trailer
William Thomas, Empire:
“There’s no algorithm to measure it accurately, but ‘London Has Fallen’ may just be the most daftly plotted action movie of recent years. Out-stupiding both ‘Taken 2,’ which had characters navigating the streets of Istanbul using hand grenades, and ‘Fast & Furious 7,’ in which Vin Diesel drove his car off a cliff on purpose, is no mean feat. It’s a film that doesn’t so much invite you to switch off your brain as take it out and dump it in the nearest popcorn box.”
Stephen Witty, Newark Star Ledger:
“Gerard Butler, fresh from ‘Gods of Egypt,’ is once again running around and sweating and grimacing and good at it, although to call him a comic-book hero is to insult comic books. As the president, all the chiseled-chin Eckhart does is make you marvel at how well Harvey Dent’s last campaign must have gone. But the film cheaps out on the rest of the cast, using a lot of economically unfamiliar people to play the English good guys and Middle Eastern bad guys. The supporting American stars – Morgan Freeman and Melissa Leo among them – are all stuck back on a single set in D.C., in pointless, hastily shot scenes of them watching it all unfold on a giant video screen. I’m surprised none of them thought of changing to a different channel. I sure did.”
Peter Bradshaw, The Guardian:
There is some surreal fun at the beginning as everything collapses, fake police open fire on dignitaries including Germany’s ‘Chancellor Agnes Bruckner,’ and there’s even a Final Destination feel to the way all these heads of state get whacked. Butler and Eckhart realise that security provisions in foreignland mean zilch: they can only rely on themselves, along with a few loyal SAS guys and a pert female MI6 agent. But then it’s the same thing over again, with poor old vice-president Morgan Freeman looking like a stricken deer in the emergency ops room.”
Also Read: 'London Has Fallen' Grabs 2016 Release Date That 'Point Break' Should Have Taken (Analysis)
Ed Gonzales, Slant Magazine:
Butler, whether sliding out of a car door to shoot at a pursuer or jumping from scaffolding and into a nearby building, is as fleet on his feet as Najafi is in his sculpting of the film’s flurry of action. Like its predecessor, ‘London Has Fallen’ is content to dumbly relish in the inanity of Mike’s rampage. Outside of a scene where Lynne Jacobs (Angela Bassett) acknowledges our government’s lack of foresight, politics are rarely on its mind. But as smart as it may seem for painting Barkawi as seeking revenge solely for the death of his daughter, the film mostly succeeds at advancing Mike’s improbable yet largely singular survival as a symbol of American triumphalism.”
Fionnuala Halligan, Screen International:
“Attempts may be made to tie this preposterous production to the rise of Donald Trump, and certainly most Britons will feel uncomfortable to have their capital city hitched to this unpleasant wagon. The more likely outcome however is that very few of them will see it.”
Matt Prigge, Metro:
When it’s cooking it’s easy to forget how blithely offensive much of this is, or that the script is barely sentient. In between amusingly wasting numerous acclaimed actors — Melissa Leo, undressed and humiliated in ‘Olympus,’ gets maybe three lines, probably just two — it can’t even bother with a subplot about a mole in Scotland Yard, which is resolved in comically anti-climactic fashion. There’s no way defend a movie like this, whose politics are Trump-level incoherent and in which drones kill innocent people but are still awesome. Depending on who you’re voting for, you may leave chuckling and needing a cold shower.”
‘Olympus Has Fallen’ Sequel Lands Jackie Earle Haley As First New Cast Member (Exclusive)
By Jeff Sneider | October 10, 2014 @ 12:45 PM
‘Olympus Has Fallen’ Sequel: Gerard Butler, Aaron Eckhart to Save London Next
By Jeff Sneider | October 29, 2013 @ 2:38 PM
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2716
|
__label__wiki
| 0.691191
| 0.691191
|
Xiaomi Mi Mix 3 Review: Come See the Slideshow
The Mi Mix 3 has some quirks, but there's a lot of clever and powerful kit lurking beneath this slider phone's surface.
By Richard Priday 2019-02-25T15:30:02Z Android
The Xiaomi Mi Mix 3 is another worthy challenger to the Android establishment, though its divisive design choices won't be for everyone.
Display looks great
No notch thanks to slider
Strong gaming performance
Captures good photos in low light
Wireless charging out of the box
Selfie camera is unimpressive
Not available in US
Today's best Xiaomi Mi Mix 3 deals
Deal ends in 02h 53m 37s
Cheaper prices for 48 hours!
See Latest Price
Show More Deals
For smartphones, this is shaping up to be the year of the wandering selfie camera. After the controversial Age of the Notch, lots of phone makers are trying to find ways to keep the front-facing camera's utility without resorting to bezels or sacrificing other areas of prime display real estate.
You've got the Honor View 20 punch-hole approach, the Oppo Find X motorized pop-up camera, as well as some phones for which the manufacturers doubled down on the notch, like the Google Pixel 3 XL. But could there be another way? Xiaomi thinks so.
The Chinese phone maker has decided to redevelop the slider design from the pre-smartphone era of cell (mobile) phones and use it to give you a completely clean display that still allows a dual selfie camera. Combined with another twin camera array on the back, some powerful memory and processing within and a large screen, the resulting Mi Mix 3 offers great performance for a comparatively paltry £499 ($640). Xiaomi's new midrange phone is largely successful, but because of some of the Mi Mix 3's features, it won't be for everyone.
Xiaomi Mi Mix 3 Cheat Sheet
The phone's most unusual feature is the slider. In exchange for an increase in weight, you get a completely clean, 6.39-inch AMOLED display — plus the mechanism is quite fun to play with!
The Mi Mix 3 has two cameras on the front and two more on the back. The rear ones yield impressive images night or day, while the selfie cameras seem to struggle a bit under certain circumstances.
You can use either USB-C or wireless charging to power up the phone, and it comes with a wireless charger.
Apologies to our U.S. readers: The Mi Mix 3 isn't on sale in your country, at least outside of imports (and buying imports carries its own set of risks). In the U.K., you get only one model for now: one with 6GB of RAM and 128GB of storage, in either Sapphire Blue or Onyx Black, all for £499.
A version featuring 5G compatibility, plus up to 10GB RAM of RAM and 256GB of storage, is promised down the road, but those specs are not available in the current lineup.
Design: An uncompromising monolith
When you first see the Mi Mix 3, you'll struggle to find a defining feature. The front is flat, apart from a tiny cutout for the speaker, and even the side buttons have slim profiles, so they don't complicate the clean design.
Once in your hand, this device gives you the smartphone equivalent of a frosty reception, thanks to the Mi Mix 3's cool ceramic back plate. It looks and feels like a high-quality device, but you might feel a little uneasy holding such a slippery-feeling phone.
If you're not a fan of the ceramic back, then you could use the thin plastic case that comes in the box and clips over the phone's back and top and side edges. This won't protect the device from any fall damage, but it will give you a different texture. More importantly, you can still use the wireless charging feature while the case is on.
To reveal the selfie cameras with the slider, push the front downward while holding the back in place. The combination of the sliding mechanism and large display makes the Mi Mix a little heavy, at 218 grams (7.7 ounces). That's not going to make your wrists ache like a brick phone from the 1980s would do, but this device is heavier than the 206-gram iPhone XS Max and the 201-gram Samsung Galaxy Note 9. The similarly sized Honor View 20 weighs 180 grams, so the Mi Mix 3 clearly has some heft.
Getting the slider to move can be a bit tricky, thanks to a tough spring. However, that means you won't accidentally use the slider. You will have to grip the phone or press down with greater force than you might be used to doing.
This feature is certainly fun to play with, just like sliders always were. But the entertainment value alone doesn't mean a slider is a good idea for modern smartphones. It's excellent that you can watch videos on the Mi Mix 3's display without anything covering parts of the screen, but I prefer the punch-hole approach found in the View 20 and likely coming to Samsung's Galaxy S10. The Mi Mix's slider isn't simply bad, unless you are focused on having a very light phone. But I still prefer having an instantly accessible selfie camera even if it means losing a little screen space.
The Mi Mix 3 slides downward into your hand, which means you have to relearn how to hold the phone to use the camera.
The slider feels counterintuitive, at least to me. The slider phones that I and others used many years ago slid upward, revealing the keypad underneath the main body of the phone. The Mi Mix 3 slides downward into your hand, which means you have to relearn how to hold the phone to use the camera.
Still, the Mix 3's design isn't completely alien. You've got volume and lock controls on the right-hand edge, a lonely USB-C port on the bottom and the AI button on the side, which gives you a direct line to Google Assistant. The fingerprint sensor is on the back, once again keeping the screen clear but still putting the sensor in a useful position. There's no headphone jack, but Xiaomi includes an adapter to plug into the USB-C port if you're not a Bluetooth-audio convert.
Display: Bright screen, accurate colors
The 6.39-inch AMOLED screen on the Mi Mix 3 is made by Samsung, and it's the same size as the panel on Huawei's Mate 20 Pro. The screen covers almost all of the front of the Mi Mix 3 except for small bezels around the edge, of which you’ll notice the bottom one is slightly thicker than the rest. That's an inherited feature from previous Mi Mix phones, which placed the selfie camera at the bottom of the screen to avoid the need for a notch.
Having a bezel act as a call back to previous phones in the series is a cute bit of design work. But surely, most users would prefer having as little unused space on their phone as possible over seeing some family resemblance to the phone's predecessors.
Thanks to the Mi Mix 3's FHD+ resolution (2340 x 1080), everything shows up nicely without forcing you to crank up the brightness. This is a slight improvement on the Pixel 3 (2160 x 1080) and View 20 (2310 x 1080), but the result can't compete with the 1440p resolution featured in Samsung's flagship phones.
The colors are well-balanced on the Mi Mix 3's display, as shown in how it displayed the Captain Marvel trailer’s Earth and space locations with equal fidelity. And if you do turn up the screen to its maximum brightness, you'll have no trouble watching the display even in bright sunlight.
Our test results back this up. The Mi Mix 3's maximum brightness level was 525 nits, topping results from the View 20 (375 nits) and Pixel 3 (401). The Galaxy S9 is brighter, at 603 nits, but the Mi Mix 3 is still one of the more-vivid Android screens.
MORE: Best Smartphones on the Market Now
The Mi Mix 3's display depicts colors fairly accurately, as shown by its Delta E score of 0.36. That tops the View 20's mark (3.98) by a lot and just edges out the Pixel 3's score (0.44). (Numbers closer to 0 are better.) The Mi Mix 3 displays 191 percent of the sRGB color gamut, which again beats the View 20's 174 percent but doesn't quite reach the 200 percent-plus range where the Galaxy S9, Pixel 3 and OnePlus 6T sit.
Audio: Strong sound, but not a standout feature
The Mi Mix 3's speaker, found on the phone's bottom edge, is pretty good. Listening to some movie trailers, board game reviews and mid-2000s indie rock revealed a nice, crisp sound that picks out voices, bass notes and percussion above the other elements. It's a strong sound, too, so you'll likely want to hook it up to separate speakers only if you have a large space or other loud sounds to overcome. In combination with that large, uninterrupted display, it makes for an enjoyable portable viewing experience with or without headphones.
Audio isn't really this phone's focus, though. There are no special options to mess around with. And while the phone's MIUI 10 interface comes with the Mi Music and Mi Video apps to play the content you have saved on your phone, these apps don't offer any surprising settings either.
Cameras: Strong rear cameras, inconsistent selfies
Xiaomi crows about the quality of its rear-facing cameras, because its photo capabilities are some of the best ever scored by DxO. The duet of 12-megapixel shooters is a potent setup already, but post-processing magic and AI assistance, which gives the Mi Mix 3 the ability to detect 27 different scenarios and choose the best settings for each, really help the cameras shine.
In these pictures of the foot of Nelson's Column and The National Gallery in Trafalgar Square, the AI puts a check on the brightness of the major light sources and brings out the contrast. This way, you can appreciate the details in the stone and metal of the bottom of the column and in the faces of the buildings.
Traveling north to Oxford Street, I compared the Mi Mix 3's night mode with the Google Pixel 3's Night Sight feature. This test threatened to be a no contest in favor of the Pixel, as the low-light mode on Google's phone has been widely acclaimed for getting great images from difficult-to-capture situations. However, the Mi Mix equaled the Pixel in quality and, to my eye, produced a better photo. You can read the shop signs next to the light sources on its picture, while the Pixel has far less control of the light, which costs its photos a significant amount of detail (Note: the bluish tinge to the Mi Mix image is not the phone's fault. An ambulance happened to drive past as I was taking the photo.)
In this shot taken in the daylight (or as close as one can get to it on a rainy British morning) at Hyde Park, you again see the Mi Mix doing a great job. This phone can't compare to the raw detail of the View20's 48-MP sensor, but in a side-by-side comparison at the same resolution, the Xiaomi does a better job of making the same scene look attractive.
The Mi Mix 3's selfie camera, once deployed via the slider, features a 24-MP main lens, aided by a 2-MP depth-of-field sensor. I was very impressed with how I looked as I lined up a shot and then realized that the camera had the AI beautification mode already enabled, surreptitiously trimming down the shape of my lower jaw.
In low light, the Mi Mix equaled the Pixel 3 in quality, and to my eye, produced a better photo.
With that feature disabled, I found that the images I took did not stack up well compared to those from the other phones. The gray but bright sky behind me made the trees in the background muddy, while I looked washed-out. You can see in the comparison how the Pixel was able to capture both me and the scenery in much better detail and color.
Caption: Left: Mi Mix 3, Right: Google Pixel 3
It just goes to show how important the processing is for getting the best out of a phone's cameras. Xiaomi's pride in its low-light photography is well-founded, but this phone doesn't quite match its rivals when you change from the rear cameras to the front ones.
Performance: Heavyweight phone, heavyweight performance
The Snapdragon 845 processor and 6GB of RAM mean the Mi Mix 3 doesn't lack for performance oomph. Opening up and using memory-heavy apps is a snappy and uninterrupted experience. If you're after the maximum possible output, though, Xiaomi's phone isn't a class leader.
The Mi Mix 3 scored 8,964 on Geekbench 4, which measures overall performance. That mark trailed results from the View 20 (9,545) and OnePlus 6T (9,098), which both use the Snapdragon 845 (though the OnePlus 6T model tested included 8GB of RAM). However, the Mi Mix 3 still beat out the Galaxy S9+ (8,295), an older phone running on the Snapdragon 845.
Running 3DMark's Slingshot Extreme test to measure graphics, we recorded a score of 4,836 for the Mi Mix 3. That's an impressive result that beats those from the Galaxy S9 and S9+, Galaxy Note 9, and iPhone XS Max. This mark is even better than the Asus ROG Phone's 4,757 score, and that phone is specifically built for mobile gaming.
For mobile gaming, the Mi Mix 3 delivers comparable performance to other brands' most souped-up models, but at a lower cost.
Real-life testing with Hitman: Sniper confirmed these scores. Other than a slightly warmer back plate, you'd barely notice that the Mi Mix 3 was processing and displaying an entire snow-covered mansion with multiple characters moving around it. And combined with that big, notchless and punch-holeless display, you get an stunning uninterrupted view of the action.
If you're a mobile-gaming fan, you may want to reconsider your next handset, as the Mi Mix 3 delivers comparable performance to other brands' most souped-up models, but at a lower cost.
Battery: Small battery, but long life
The Mi Mix 3 features a 3,200-mAh battery, which is actually 200 mAh less than the Mi Mix 2S that came before this phone. Don't worry, though, because Xiaomi's new phone uses its smaller-than-average capacity wisely.
In the Tom's Guide battery test (continuous web surfing over LTE until the fully charged phone runs out of power), the Mi Mix 3 lasted 12 hours, 12 minutes, which is well above the 9-hour, 48-minute average. It also beats the View 20's 11:34 time, even though Honor's phone has a 4,000-mAh battery.
MORE: Smartphones With the Longest Battery Life - A Comparison
When the battery on the Mi Mix 3 eventually drains, you can try out the 10-watt wireless charging pad that comes with the Mi Mix 3. It is a little slow to fill the battery, but that's a common issue with charging pads.
Software: Useful additions to Android Pie
The Mi Mix 3's MIUI 10 interface is an Android 9.0 Pie skin, as you'd hope to see in a freshly made Android flagship. I do enjoy how clean this version is. All the basic icons are simple but stylish and easy to read. There's no app drawer, something that won't surprise Xiaomi fans, as this hasn't appeared on any version of MIUI so far.
That wasn't a problem during testing, since I didn't have that many apps installed, but I could see that if I had the number of apps I keep on my personal Samsung Galaxy S7 phone on the Mi Mix 3, then things could easily become chaotic. It's a choice that will make some think twice about this phone, particularly if they are unwilling to download and configure a different Android launcher to get an app drawer.
The Mi Mix's OS has its pluses, though. You have the choice of either virtual menu/home/back buttons or gestures to navigate the menus, which can only be a good thing. I personally became quite attached to the Quick Ball, a quickly accessible menu for five options or apps. This acts like a stripped-down Control Center from iOS or a settings-based version of the Chat Heads function from the Android Facebook Messenger app. When not in use, the Quick Ball becomes a small, translucent arc nestling against whichever edge of the phone you position the menu, so it doesn't detract from that big screen. But you can find it quickly if you're looking for it.
Additionally, you can change the function of the Mi Mix 3's slider. By default, activating the slider launches the camera app, as it reveals the selfie camera. But you can tweak that function in the settings to display a handy tools menu instead, one that features a calculator, a timer, weather info, a voice recorder and similar accessories.
You can also set the slider to open another app altogether, or nothing at all if you just want to play with the mechanism without consequence. You can change the sound that the phone plays when you open the slider, including to that of a sword being drawn and sheathed. It's shameful how enjoyable I found that to be once I discovered the option.
MORE: Best Cheap Unlocked Smartphones
Second Space is a twist on the existing Users feature available on current Android phones. With the tap of an icon, you can switch between two "desktops," with a separate password for each space. There are lots of possible uses for this, like keeping the work and play sides of your life separate. Or, you could fill one desktop with games and no communications apps to keep your children occupied without fearing they're going to call anyone from the office. You could have always technically accomplished this on any Android phone since Android 5.0 Lollipop came out in 2014, but other phones require fiddling in the options menu rather than accessing the feature right from the home screen as you can on the Mi Mix.
The Mi Mix 3 seems like a very deliberate attempt by Xiaomi to make a smartphone with a unique design that stands out from its rivals. That's an understandable impulse, but modern smartphone design and usage has become very standardized, especially in hardware, and users can get attached to certain features. Some people may balk at a phone with a slider and prefer similarly priced handsets like the Honor View 20 or OnePlus 6T, which have less idiosyncratic designs.
If you don't mind the slider — or even prefer it, since it means an uninterrupted screen — the Mi Mix 3 is great. All your basic hardware and software needs are met and, in the case of graphics and photography, very much exceeded. The Mi Mix 3 will be perfect only for someone with a very specific set of requirements for their phone, or for users who are not fazed by the bold and sometimes ingenious ideas that come from Xiaomi. But if you're willing to be a little flexible, there's no reason why that someone couldn't be you.
Operating System Android 9.0 Pie with MIUI 10
Display 6.39-inch, (2340 x 1080 px, FHD+)
Cameras 12MP SONY IMX363, 1.4μm-large pixels, f/1.8-large aperture, dual pixel autofocus; Samsung S5K3M3+, 1.0μm pixels
Front Cameras SONY IMX 576, 4-in-1 Super Pixel, 1.8μm large pixels; OC0A10, 1.75μm-large pixels
CPU Qualcomm Snapdragon 845
Storage 128GB
Colors Sapphire Blue, Onyx Black
Size 157.89mm x 74.69mm x 8.46mm
Weight 218 grams
Credit: Tom's Guide
The Best Prime Day Walmart Deals Right Now
Get a Top HDTV Antenna for $40 in Last-Minute Prime Day Deal
Best Amazon Prime Day Tuesday Deals: Apple Watch, LG OLED TV and More
Best Amazon Prime Day Fitbit Deals in July 2019
Best Baby Monitor 2019
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2721
|
__label__cc
| 0.684049
| 0.315951
|
International 4785 - 2015 National Farm Toy Show Tractor
by Oscar H. Will
Announced in late 1976 at the Arie Crown Theater in Chicago's McCormick Place, Harvester's new tractor lineup focused principally on power and comfort. This so-called Pro-Ag line (due to a computer-based tool for farmers to use in managing equipment needs) was given the number 86 as an identifier. The number 86 also came with some new styling, a relocated operator's station and a cab that was not to be referred to as a cab - it was to be called the "Control Center." The 86 series represented a new era for tractor farming - operator comfort was placed on the front burner to aid professional farmers with squeezing as much productivity out of their equipment as was humanly possible.
According to Ralph Baumheckel, the 86 series operator station was moved forward by about a foot and a half. This setup offered the farmer a smoother ride and made it easy to include an integrated 4-post ROPS and even a fresh new cab (operator enclosure in some marketing pieces) into the mix. On the larger models, the mid mounted "Control Center" was part of the package. This cab offered more glass, a mild curve in the windshield, doors on either side, heavy insulation and effectively grouped and located controls in a package that came pretty close to automotive quality fit and finish. The "Control Center" came standard with heat and air conditioning and it could be loaded up with additional comfort options as desired. With the addition of hydraulically controlled clutch and brakes, the "Control Center" was less noisy, less dusty and easier to heat and cool - the pedals were integral to the steering pedestal. Gone were the slots, holes and cracked rubber boots that allowed mechanical linkages to pass through the floor and or firewall.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2727
|
__label__wiki
| 0.745567
| 0.745567
|
In Memoriam for Characters We Lost in 2018
Birth Name: Edward Allen Harris
Birth Place: Tenafly, New Jersey, United States
Profession: Actor, Director, Producer
Geostorm Wednesday Jul 17th, 3:45pm
Copying Beethoven Friday Jul 19th, 6:00am
FLIXe
Copying Beethoven Friday Jul 19th, 4:35pm
Provider: Eastern (ET)Change
Wed Jul 17 3:45pm
Geostorm HBO
Two scientists race to avert a catastrophe when a series of climate-control satellites begin to malfunction. During their mission, they discover a conspiracy involving the satellites, which were designed to prevent natural disasters on Earth.
Fri Jul 19 6:00am
Copying Beethoven FLIXe
Account of a fictional romantic relationship between Ludwig van Beethoven and a young Viennese music student who helps the genius notate his Ninth Symphony.
Fri Jul 19 4:35pm
Sat Jul 20 1:30am
Gravity BBC
Two astronauts find themselves stranded in space after a disastrous accident destroys their shuttle and wipes out the rest of their crew. Now, tethered to each other miles above Earth, they must work together in order to survive.
Sat Jul 20 11:00am
The Hours FLIXe
Three women, separated by 80 years, struggle with similar crises linked by the novel Mrs. Dalloway. Author Virginia Woolf attempts to start writing that novel, a '50s housewife contemplates leaving her life behind and a modern-day book editor cares for a f (more…)Three women, separated by 80 years, struggle with similar crises linked by the novel Mrs. Dalloway. Author Virginia Woolf attempts to start writing that novel, a '50s housewife contemplates leaving her life behind and a modern-day book editor cares for a former boyfriend who's fighting AIDS.
The Right Stuff BBC
A profile of the early days of the American space program that focuses on the lives of the first astronauts, as well as that of Chuck Yeager, the test pilot who initially breaks the sound barrier, but never becomes as famous as the men who go into space.
Sat Jul 20 4:00pm
The Abyss MOMAX
Deep-sea rescue divers are plagued by a mysterious force while probing a nuclear submarine crash. Meanwhile, the crew suspect the accident was caused by an extraterrestrial craft, and that they may be participating in an encounter with an alien species.
A Beautiful MindNew STARZ
Four Oscars, including Best Picture and Best Director, went to Ron Howard's engrossing drama about John Nash, the volatile Nobel Prize-winning mathematician.
Sun Jul 21 4:23am
A Beautiful Mind STARZ
Sun Jul 21 1:44pm
Tue Jul 23 8:15am
Wed Jul 24 12:00am
The Right Stuff SUND
Wed Jul 24 2:55am
The Truman Show STARZ
Saga of Truman Burbank, the unwitting star of a reality-TV show chronicling his life. Adopted by the network and raised in the zoolike environment of a TV soundstage, Truman doesn't know he's a prisoner on an immense domed city-size soundstage.
The Firm FLIXe
A young lawyer discovers the firm he's hired into is controlled by the mob and attempts to escape from their clutches.
National Treasure: Book of Secrets E!
Ben Gates is off on another treasure hunt in this sequel involving a missing page from John Wilkes Booth's diary, which leads to a globe-trotting race to find an ancient city of gold.
Sat Jul 27 10:30pm
Mon Jul 29 12:33pm
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2731
|
__label__cc
| 0.500803
| 0.499197
|
1 HR 47 MIN
All Through The Night - Official Trailer
Eclectic entry from Bogart's Warner Bros. catalog which blends the parody, comedy, espionage, and gangster genres as Bogie pursues three unforgettable spies: Veidt, Anderson, and Lorre. Often-underrated director Vincent Sherman demonstrates a fine feel for the ambience of 1940s New York, with plenty of machine-gun dialogue to spice up the proceedings. Also...read more
Eclectic entry from Bogart's Warner Bros. catalog which blends the parody, comedy, espionage, and gangster genres as Bogie pursues three unforgettable spies: Veidt, Anderson, and Lorre. Often-underrated director Vincent Sherman demonstrates a fine feel for the ambience of 1940s New York,
with plenty of machine-gun dialogue to spice up the proceedings. Also enjoyable are the Johnny Mercer title track and songs including Arthur Schwartz and Johnny Mercer's "All Through the Night" and Lillian Goodman's "Cherie, I Love You So."
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2732
|
__label__wiki
| 0.832688
| 0.832688
|
Millions of Americans line up to give...
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg/512px-Ruth_Bader_Ginsburg_official_SCOTUS_portrait.jpg
Court, U.S.
Millions of Americans line up to give Ruth Bader Ginsburg one of their ribs
November 9, 2018 by Chris Cannon(@cannonwriter)
WASHINGTON, D.C. – Millions of Americans across the country swarmed their local hospitals Thursday, offering up their ribs to Ruth Bader Ginsburg. The long-serving Supreme Court Justice fractured three of her ribs after a fall in her office on Wednesday night.
“Our donor staff has been working nonstop processing applications to donate ribs, organs, blood, whatever she needs,” said Nicholas Patton, Chief Resident of the University of Chicago Medical Center. “Several people have offered up their entire skeletons.”
The accident occurred at a particularly tense moment in American history, with an openly nationalist administration facing off against a growing progressive movement for whom Ginsburg serves as a cult icon. Her loyal followers have dubbed her “Notorious RBG,” both for her commanding presence and her ability to layer smooth multisyllabic rhymes about growing up as a crack dealer in Brooklyn.
The 85-year-old liberal champion is recovering in a Washington hospital, but that has not stopped her most ardent acolytes from preparing for the worst.
“My kidneys are her kidneys,” said 23-year-old Madison Smith, a Berkeley oceanography student who arrived at the hospital holding one of her kidneys in each hand. “I took them out myself to save time — she’s too valuable, we can’t take any chances.”
But not everyone is so enthusiastic about the outpouring of support. Fox News host Sean Hannity referred to the throngs in a tweet as “a Soros-backed caravan of Muslim climate scientists who keep their email servers in Benghazi.”
“They have no business interfering with God’s will,” the host said on his basic cable children’s program Hannity. “It was Adam that gave women a rib in the first place — if they can’t go to the office without breaking them, then honestly women have no business in the courts. Or the workplace. Or in the voting booth.”
At press time, hospitals have gathered enough parts nationwide to construct an army of several thousand new Ruth Bader Ginsburgs just in time to oversee impeachment hearings.
See More: Benghazi, Fox News, Notorious RBG, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Sean Hannity, Supreme Court Justice
Don't forget to watch all new episodes of The Beaverton TV Show Tuesdays at 10 on CTV! Get FREE tickets to a taping here.
If you enjoyed this, follow us on Facebook:
Local man says father “dumb enough” to fall for history’s largest, most sophisticated propaganda network
Please keep paying attention to me
Calgary Stampede cowboy euthanized after chuckwagon race injury
PM on Trump’s racist tweets: “Only Quebec is allowed to do that in Canada”
Canadian tourist causes chaos after replying “I’m good” to yes or no question
Blizzard Not Going To Stop Man From Barbecuing Mediocre Steak
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2735
|
__label__wiki
| 0.974237
| 0.974237
|
Simona Halep talks up her achievements after reaching maiden Wimbledon final
July 11 2019, 5.29pm
Simona Halep celebrates victory over Elina Svitolina (Victoria Jones/PA)
Simona Halep described reaching her first Wimbledon final as one of the best moments of her life.
The seventh seed, who will take on Serena Williams on Saturday, produced a fine display to beat Elina Svitolina 6-1 6-3 in just an hour and 13 minutes and become the first Romanian woman to make the singles showpiece at the All England Club.
Speaking to the BBC after walking off Centre Court, Halep said: “It is an amazing feeling. I am very excited and nervous. It was one of the best moments of my life.”
First Romanian woman to reach the #Wimbledon final…
@Simona_Halep pic.twitter.com/KTBHms6x8B
It will be Halep’s fifth grand slam final and comes just over a year after she won her first major title at the fourth attempt at the French Open.
It was a particularly proud moment for the 27-year-old’s mother Tania, with Halep saying: “I talked to my mom after the match. About 10, 15 years ago she said her dream is (for Halep) to play the final in Wimbledon because everyone is here, the Royal Box.
“So today her dream came true. I will play a final. It’s very special this moment. To be able to play Wimbledon final, it’s pretty amazing. I will enjoy for sure.”
Halep has only won one of her previous 10 matches against Williams but few have been one-sided and their fourth-round clash at the Australian Open in January was one of the best of the year.
Simona Halep won her first grand slam title at last year’s French Open (Victoria Jones/PA)
“I played many matches against her,” she said. “Many of them were very close. Now, if I face her, I will believe that I have my chance to win.
“Of course, I respect a lot what she has done and what she’s doing. But now I feel stronger mentally facing her. It’s just a big challenge for me.”
Although both Halep and Svitolina have been top-10 stalwarts for several years, this was in many ways an unexpected semi-final clash.
Neither has been in good form, Halep dropping from world number one at this time last year to seven now, while Svitolina has struggled with a knee injury.
The final awaits…@Simona_Halep reaches her first ever #Wimbledon final after beating Elina Svitolina 6-1 6-3 pic.twitter.com/Jq88sV4J8J
Both are more at home on slower surfaces, meanwhile, and there was a certain irony that, after trying for so long to overcome the quarter-final hurdle at a slam, Svitolina should finally do so on grass.
Both players are counter-punchers and they dragged each other all over Centre Court during two mammoth games, both eventually won by Halep, that lasted 20 minutes.
Svitolina got on the board with a quick break back but it was Halep who seized control of the set thereafter, her extra attacking abilities, particularly her forehand down the line, giving her the edge.
It took her six set points to get over the line but she finally did so with a forehand winner and, after breaking for 4-3 in the second set, she did not look back.
Elina Svitolina was unable to match Halep (Victoria Jones/PA)
Svitolina felt the start of the match set the tone, saying: “I didn’t take my chances. That was disappointing. In the beginning, you want to play well, you want to make a statement that you are there for the fight.
“But I think she played unbelievable today. She was moving really good, striking the ball perfectly. It’s a little bit of me making poor decisions in some important moments, and then her playing unbelievable which made the score like that.”
The Ukrainian will leave the All England Club with positive feelings, though, after her best slam run.
“If someone would tell me I would play semi-finals in Wimbledon, I’m not sure I would really believe this,” she said. “So for sure I’m disappointed, but lots of things to take, lots of memories.”
Labour deputy makes free-to-air cricket pledge as 8.3m watch World Cup final
From Halep’s brilliance to Djokovic’s joy, the story of Wimbledon
Novak Djokovic exhausted after marathon Wimbledon final win over Roger Federer
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2739
|
__label__cc
| 0.730669
| 0.269331
|
Thirsty Kangaroo Gets His Head Caught In Pail, Is Helped By Kind Aussies
By Anna Swartz
YouTube/MarkThomas
This is the kind of story that only happens in Australia. After getting his head stuck in a metal watering can, a frightened kangaroo got some help from a few very patient humans.
Coffin Bay, Australia, has been going through a dry spell, and this kangaroo was out scavenging for water when he got his head trapped in a pail.
"Kangaroo wrangler" Rob Smith, one of the men who rescued the 'roo, explained in the video that they tried to grab him by the tail, but they were afraid of getting kicked by the frightened animal.
So they looped some rope through the handle of the watering can and tried pulling, while trying to avoid getting in the way of the kangaroo's "massive" paws.
But the pail was really stuck on there.
Finally they were able to (carefully) cut the can off the kangaroo's head while he lay on the ground, and he hopped away to freedom without so much as a "thanks mate."
Even without a "thank you," it's always a g'day to help a kangaroo.
Watch the whole rescue here:
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2743
|
__label__wiki
| 0.797534
| 0.797534
|
Canada How flipping crabs revealed a hidden food supply in the ocean ecosystem
How flipping crabs revealed a hidden food supply in the ocean ecosystem
Ivan Semeniuk Science Reporter
Published February 25, 2019 Updated March 2, 2019
Open this photo in gallery
Tanner crabs dine on bacteria that derive energy from digesting methane.
University of Victoria - Ocean Networks Canada/University of Victoria - Ocean Networks Canada
In the deep ocean some 50 kilometres off the coast of Vancouver Island, a group of Tanner crabs is foraging for food.
Suddenly, one of the crabs rises from the sea floor as if it is hoisted by an invisible force. A moment later, the crab flips over, releasing a large bubble of methane gas from beneath its carapace. It plunges back down, does a faceplant in the silt, then returns to its business – muddied, but seemingly unperturbed.
The curious scene was captured on video at a deep-sea station operated by Ocean Networks Canada, a federally-funded organization that supports marine science. Equal parts Jacques Cousteau and Charlie Chaplin, the video was the clue that led to a newly discovered link between the methane that is seeping out from under North America’s submerged western rim and some of the seafood that finds its way onto restaurant menus.
The curious scene was captured on video at a deep-sea station operated by Ocean Networks Canada, a federally-funded organization that supports marine science. A team of Canadian and U.S. scientists investigated what attracts the crabs – a migratory species – to this fizzy stretch of the ocean floor. After years of study, the scientists say the crabs are not there by chance, but to dine on bacteria that derive energy from digesting methane. Ocean Networks Canada
The link was uncovered when a team of Canadian and U.S. scientists investigated what attracts the crabs – a migratory species – to this fizzy stretch of the ocean floor. After years of study, the scientists say the crabs are not there by chance, but to dine on bacteria that derive energy from digesting methane.
The finding means that the crabs are acting as conduits for channelling food energy from a fossil fuel source into the rest of the marine ecosystem. What makes this especially interesting is that Tanner crabs are marketed and consumed in the United States as “snow crab.” (In Canada, the same term refers to another, related species.) Like the crabs, the people who eat them are also getting a fraction of their caloric intake from the methane bubbling up from the briny deep.
“Humans are benefiting from this directly,” said Fabio De Leo, biological oceanographer at the University of Victoria who was involved in the discovery. In a study published last week in the research journal Frontiers in Marine Science, Dr. De Leo and his colleagues note this is the first time that a commercially harvested species has been shown to derive some of its nutritional value from chemical energy instead of exclusively through the larger ocean food chain that is based on phytoplankton – floating microorganisms that live off of sunlight and play the same role as plants in terrestrial ecosystems.
HIDE AND SEEP
The two deep-sea stations operated by Ocean
Networks Canada at the edge of the western
continental shelf have proved ideal locations for
studying the unusual ecosystems around meth
ane seeps.
Clayoquot
Methane seeps
Unlike deep-sea vents, which expel water that
has been superheated by volcanic activity
beneath the seafloor, methane seeps are cold
flows of methane-rich water driven by pressure
from the movement of the North American
continent.
Flipping out
Tanner crabs, foraging for food near these seeps,
rise from the seafloor on these invisible currents
of water, flip over, releasing bubbles of methane
gas from under their carapace, then return to the
seabed.
Crab rises
and rolls
Tanner crab
(Chionoecetes
tanneri)
Seafloor
IVAN SEMENIUK AND JOHN SOPINSKI/THE GLOBE
AND MAIL SOURCE: frontiers in marine science;
TILEZEN; OPENSTREETMAP CONTRIBUTORS; HIU
The two deep-sea stations operated by Ocean Networks
Canada at the edge of the western continental shelf
have proved ideal locations for studying the unusual
ecosystems around methane seeps.
Unlike deep-sea vents, which expel water that has been
superheated by volcanic activity beneath the seafloor,
methane seeps are cold flows of methane-rich water
driven by pressure from the movement of the North
American continent.
Tanner crabs, foraging for food near these seeps, rise
from the seafloor on these invisible currents of water, flip
over, releasing bubbles of methane gas from under their
carapace, then return to the seabed.
IVAN SEMENIUK AND JOHN SOPINSKI/THE GLOBE AND MAIL,
SOURCE: frontiers in marine science; TILEZEN; OPEN-
STREETMAP CONTRIBUTORS; HIU
The two deep-sea stations operated by Ocean Networks Canada at the edge of the
western continental shelf have proved ideal locations for studying the unusual eco-
systems around methane seeps.
Unlike deep-sea vents,
which expel water that
has been superheated
by volcanic activity
beneath the seafloor,
methane seeps are cold
flows of methane-rich
water driven by pres-
sure from the move-
ment of the North
Tanner crabs, foraging
for food near these
seeps, rise from the
seafloor on these
invisible currents of
water, flip over, releas-
ing bubbles of meth-
ane gas from under
their carapace, then
return to the seabed.
IVAN SEMENIUK AND JOHN SOPINSKI/THE GLOBE AND MAIL, SOURCE: frontiers in
marine science; TILEZEN; OPENSTREETMAP CONTRIBUTORS; HIU
And the crabs are probably not alone, Dr. De Leo said. “We certainly think that some other species, including rockfish, might be doing the same thing."
While certain species have long been known to live off methane seeps, these species tend to be fixed in place, living separately from other ocean life, as though on another world. The new finding suggests the seeps may be playing a bigger role in ocean biology than originally thought, thanks to the crabs and other itinerant creatures that are dropping in to supplement their diets and then moving on.
“There are certainly a lot [of] commercially important species that hang out at seeps,” said Lisa Levin, a professor at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in San Diego, who was not part of the study.
Recent advances in underwater mapping have shown that the seeps are a widespread phenomenon. In the past two years alone, more than 1,000 such seeps have been discovered along the Cascadia subduction zone, which runs parallel to the West Coast from northern California to British Columbia. Each seep is a patch of seafloor, tens to hundreds of square metres in size, where cold, methane rich water is flowing out due to pressure from the relentless slide of the North American continent overtop the thinner ocean crust that lies to the west.
The video led to a newly discovered link between the methane that is seeping out from under North America’s submerged western rim and some of the seafood that finds its way onto restaurant menus.
Ocean Networks Canada
Ocean Networks Canada operates two stations near methane seeps, both of which are hooked into an 840-kilometre-long fibre-optic loop that carries data and live video back to shore. Researchers working with the data first noticed the crabs and their flipping antics back in 2012.
“You could see that they were actively foraging amongst the bubbles,” said Sarah Seabrook, a doctoral student at Oregon State University who set about looking for a link between the crabs and the gas-guzzling bacteria.
Ms. Seabrook said she was stymied at first because when she chemically analyzed Tanner crabs that were captured at the Canadian seeps, she did not find the carbon isotopes that would be expected from geologically produced methane. Only when she looked specifically at the fatty acids in the captured crabs did Ms. Seabrook finally spot the telltale chemical signature.
“We’ve been trying to find one needle in a haystack of food sources,” she said.
Dr. Levin said the result is an important one because it shows that the impact of the seeps on the ocean ecosystem has largely been hidden until now.
The result sets the stage for a more detailed examination of life at the seeps and the way it disperses energy into the parts of the ocean environment that are used by humans.
“We are showing a link to a deep-sea environment that is often thought of as remote, but it’s connected with us,” Dr. De Leo said.
Follow Ivan Semeniuk on Twitter @ivansemeniuk
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2744
|
__label__wiki
| 0.921301
| 0.921301
|
Home > News > International
Pakistan Election Commission 'slept' through polling day, says Chief Justice
null | 9 Aug 2018 4:42 PM GMT
Taking a swipe at Chief Election Commissioner Justice retd Sardar Muhammad Raza, Pakistans Chief Justice Saqib Nisar said that he called him thrice on the polling day but he didnt pick up and was likely sleeping
Taking a swipe at Chief Election Commissioner Justice (retd) Sardar Muhammad Raza, Pakistan's Chief Justice Saqib Nisar said that he called him thrice on the polling day but he didn't pick up and was likely sleeping.
Chief Justice Nisar made the comments during the hearing of a case regarding the rejection of the Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) candidate Abida Raja's nomination papers for a reserved seat, The News reported.
During the hearing, the chief justice said that he was astonished at the current state of the Election Commission.
Chief Justice Nisar said that he called the chief election commissioner thrice on the polling day but he didn't pick up and was likely sleeping, the paper reported.
Pakistanis voted on July 25 in a tense election to choose a new government. At least 35 people were killed in an Islamic State suicide attack and poll-related violence on the polling day.
The chief justice said it was a smooth sailing on the election day, until the Election Commission messed up.
He expressed displeasure over the failure of the Result Transmission System during the elections, saying the election commission spent millions on the technology yet it failed.
He wondered how the election commission was being run.
The chief justice, while allowing the petitioner to contest on reserved seats, said Raja had requested a vote transfer on April 23 but the ECP did not do anything in this regard.
Pakistan ISLAMABAD
Pakistan TehreekeInsaf
Pakistan Election Commission
Pakistan elections 2018
Download The Hans India Android App or iOS App for the Latest update on your phone.
Can extend Parliament session if needed: PM tells BJP lawmakers
SC asks Karnataka Speaker what stopped him from accepting MLAs'...
PM Modi upset with 'truant' ministers
Mumbai building collapses, many feared trapped
Pakistan reopens airspace for civillian traffic 140 days after...
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2746
|
__label__wiki
| 0.897211
| 0.897211
|
Ferguson, Justice Department close to agreement
Michael B. Thomas
<p>FERGUSON, MO - MARCH 11: A demonstrator is detained and arrested during a protest outside the Ferguson Police Department on March11, 2015 in Ferguson, MO. Protests erupted after the announcement of the resignation of Ferguson Police Chief Tom Jackson earlier in the day. (Photo by Michael B. Thomas/Getty Images)</p>
WASHINGTON (AP) — The Justice Department is close to an agreement with the Ferguson, Missouri, police department on a deal that would bring sweeping changes to the agency, a person familiar with the matter said Wednesday.
The overhaul could avert a civil rights lawsuit that federal officials have the option to bring against departments that resist changing their policing practices.
The person, who was not authorized to discuss the matter by name and spoke only on condition of anonymity, said the agreement still needs final approval by the city but involves changes including more thorough training of police officers.
Justice Department spokeswoman Dena Iverson said negotiations with the police force to create a court-enforceable consent decree have been productive.
"The department believes that in order to remedy the Justice Department's findings an agreement needs to be reached without delay," she said in a statement.
The federal government launched an investigation into Ferguson's policing protocols last year after the shooting death of 18-year-old Michael Brown by a white police officer put the department under national scrutiny.
Though the officer, Darren Wilson, did not face state or federal charges, the federal investigation into the police department found sweeping patterns of racial bias within the force.
A Justice Department report issued in March found that officers routinely used excessive force, issued petty citations and made baseless traffic stops. Then-Attorney General Eric Holder called the report a "searing" portrait of the department and said, "It is not difficult to imagine how a single tragic incident set off the city of Ferguson like a powder keg."
Another person familiar with the process, who also spoke on condition of anonymity, said the two sides had made a "lot of progress" since then.
Associated Press 2015
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2748
|
__label__wiki
| 0.925394
| 0.925394
|
Breast Cancer Awareness 2018
Johnstown Christmas CD Vol2
Johnstown, PA (15901)
Scattered thunderstorms this morning, then mainly cloudy during the afternoon with thunderstorms likely. High 82F. Winds SW at 10 to 15 mph. Chance of rain 80%..
Thunderstorms likely this evening. Then the chance of scattered thunderstorms overnight. Low 69F. Winds WSW at 5 to 10 mph. Chance of rain 90%.
Serving Greater Johnstown Since 1853
Tribune-Democrat Events
breaking featured
New York diocese identifies accused predator priests
CNHI News Service
OGDENSBERG, N.Y. – The bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Ogdensburg has identified 28 priests, including 16 now dead, credibly accused of sexually abusing minors and “vulnerable adults” since 1950.
But Bishop Terry LaValley did not release details of the accusations against the priests or where they served in the diocese, which is comprised of more than 100 parishes in eight counties of northern New York State.
News of the bishop’s action was announced at last Sunday’s masses, and posted to the diocese’s website this week.
LaValley participated in this week’s U.S. Conference of Bishops in Baltimore to discuss the Catholic Church’s national sexual abuse crisis. No policy or protocols on how to hold the bishops and other clergy more accountable emerged from the session.
The Ogdensburg Diocese announced earlier it had removed eight priests from ministry in the past 16 years and paid out $5.4 million in reparations to 37 victims of clergy abuse over the decades.
Darcy Fargo, director of communications for the diocese, said no credible accusations of abuse have been brought forth in more than 20 years. “We pray this is a sign we are on the right path,” she said.
She did acknowledge 11 of the 28 identified priests had been transferred to other parishes after undergoing treatment at rehabilitation centers, and ended up as repeat abusers.
“They would be sent for counseling based on the best medical practices of the time,” said Fargo. “We feel it wasn’t done in a malicious cover-up fashion. We were following the best practices of the ‘40s, ‘50s and ‘60s in the times when these cases occurred. Obviously, now we know those to be flawed science and people were hurt as the result of it.”
Fargo said now when an accusation is made against a priest, there’s a preliminary investigation and then the case goes to a diocese review board of current and former law enforcement officials, judges, psychologists, social workers, educators and clergy. The board presents a recommendation to the bishop, who decides if the accusation is credible. If it is, he removes the priest from his ministry.
The debate at the U.S. bishops meeting in Baltimore focused on a process for dealing with sexual abuse allegations and with church officials who themselves may be accused of misconduct or of covering up predator priest cases.
Reference was made to ex-Cardinal Theodore McCarrick, who resigned as bishop of Washington, D.C., after complaints of harassment by seminarians and young priests and accusations by two men who say he sexually abused them as boys.
Cardinal Daniel DiNardo, bishop of the Galveston-Houston Diocese and president of the bishops’ conference, said he plans to propose at a major Vatican synod in February that a process be established for investigating complaints against bishops reported through a third-party hotline, and a protocol for removing bishops who violate a code of conduct.
The church has been struggling with the sexual abuse scandal since 2002, when it rocked the Boston Diocese and then spread to other parts of the country and the world.
A Pennsylvania grand jury report in August identified hundreds of predator priest cases in that state that had been hidden for years from from the public. It was the broadest investigation of the scandal by a government agency, prompting officials in other states to initiate similar reviews.
Several state legislatures are also considering bills to extend the statute of limitations in child sexual abuse cases for prosecution and reparations.
The Plattsburgh, N.Y., Press-Republican contributed details to this story.
READ THE COMPLAINT: Class action abuse lawsuit names bishops and Vatican
A Westmont resident is one of six named plaintiffs in a federal class action civil suit filed Tuesday against the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops and the Holy See.
Terry Lavalley
Darcy Fargo
Novak, Ann
Ann (Papcun), Friends received from 12:30 until time of funeral Mass 1 PM St. Michael Catholic Church. (Jean H. Kinley Funeral Home, Beaverdale)
Gilliland Jr., Harold
Harold G. Jr., 82, Johnstown. (Hindman - Frankstown Road)
Alwine, Linda
Linda, 73, Johnstown. (Francis G. Ozog Funeral Home, Inc.)
Koontz, Helen
Helen (Skamla) (Oherrick), 59, Johnstown. (Hindman, Chandler Ave.)
Settle, Donald
Donald E., 84, of Homer City RD. (Askew-Houser, Nanty Glo)
Police: Northern Cambria man assaulted girl
Dead woman’s husband charged in second unrelated assault
Pair of NCAA wrestling champs transferring to UPJ
Johnstown marijuana dispensary under new ownership
Two die in separate Somerset County incidents
Police: Johnstown woman attacked 10 hospital employees
Former Somerset lawmaker remembered after fatal tractor accident
Pizza shop owner heads to trial for alleged indecent contact with worker
Woman hit and killed by FedEx truck in Ligonier
Hearing scheduled for Paint Township man who police say confessed to strangling wife
First Amendment: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
TribDem.com
425 Locust Street
Email: tribdem@tribdem.com
© Copyright 2019 The Tribune-Democrat, 425 Locust Street Johnstown, PA | Terms of Use | Privacy Policy
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2757
|
__label__cc
| 0.515949
| 0.484051
|
Home|history & theory
Pylos to Pyongyang: Contemporary Diplomacy from a Historical Perspective
CPD Fellow Vivian Walker looks at what the Peloponnesian War can teach us about today's foreign policy.
The Real New Diplomacies – Emerging in the East
Shaun Riordan asks, "As U.S. hegemony declines and a more genuinely multipolar world system emerges, will alternative approaches to diplomacy and global governance also emerge?"
The Cold War: A World History
The Digitalization of Diplomacy: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Terminology
Public Diplomacy and Foreign Policy
UT Austin Launches China Policy Center
The University of Texas at Austin will establish a new interdisciplinary China Policy Center, with a charge to make enduring contributions to the study of China-related policy topics while advancing U.S.-China relations and Texas-China relations.
How To Be a Diplomat: If You Can’t Follow, You Will Never Lead
Zhou Enlai was foreign minister of the People’s Republic of China from 1949 until 1958 and its first premier. He defined diplomacy as a continuation of warfare by other means. In the contemporary world, that definition includes an understanding of the concepts of hard and soft power. Joseph Nye developed the idea of soft power as the ability to attract and persuade rather than applying economic, military and political hard power.
Is Realpolitik the Best Way Forward to Advance Gambia's Interests?
A strategic approach which protects the Gambia interests must be the ultimate goal of the government. Although reciprocity and sovereign equality is the basis on which states interrelate to each other, hegemonic powers tend to use their superior economic capabilities as bargaining leverages to attain better deals at the expense of developing economies. This starkly reminds us that international politics is a deadly complex business which requires a clear-cut thinking strategy to mitigate the brute forces of material power.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2761
|
__label__cc
| 0.501633
| 0.498367
|
Registration Fee: $400
Thanks to generous sponsorship, early bird pricing is now permanent for SREcon15!
Hyatt Regency Santa Clara
5101 Great America Pkwy
About SREcon?
About the Call for Participation?
About the Hotel/Registration?
About Sponsorship?
Tweets by @SREcon
Home » SREcon15 Program
SREcon15 Program
Download the SRECon15 Attendee Lists (Conference Attendees only)
This content is available to:
Conference attendees
SREcon15 Attendee List
All sessions will take place at the Hyatt Regency Santa Clara.
Registration and Badge Pickup
Santa Clara Ballroom Foyer
Mezzanine East/West
Santa Clara Ballroom
Notes from Production Engineering
Pedro Canahuati, Director, Production Engineering, Facebook
More than 1.39 billion people hit Facebook's infrastructure per month—more than 1.19 billion on mobile alone. Nearly 1 billion photos are shared and more than 3 billion videos are viewed every day.
Facebook's services run on top of hundreds of thousands of servers spread across multiple geographically separated data centers. To balance the need for constant availability with a fast-moving and experimental engineering culture, the Facebook operations team has evolved over time to be as nimble as possible.
This talk will describe the evolution of a small, centralized, and sometimes marginalized operations team overwhelmed by production issues into a decentralized, high-performing, and well-regarded engineering team that enables Facebook's product and infrastructure teams to move fast and whose role is to say "yes" to ever-changing demands. Topics include culture, hiring practices, prioritization, and philosophies that bring developers closer to ops and even get them doing ops themselves.
Pedro Canahuati is director of the production engineering team at Facebook, leading the teams that scale Facebook's infrastructure and making sure Facebook's products are available 24x7. Prior to this, Pedro was director of operations at SpinMedia and Qloud. He previously leveraged his network and systems knowledge to build data centers and scale web operations at companies like NameMedia, Relera and Verio/NTT.
Read more about Notes from Production Engineering
10:00 am–10:30 am
Break with Refreshments
Winchester/Stevens Creek Rooms
Monitoring without Infrastructure @ Airbnb
Igor Serebryany, Airbnb
Millions of requests flow through Airbnb’s systems in a given day. Interruptions in traffic can be extremely costly for us, and leave our users stranded in foreign countries with no recourse. We needed a comprehensive suite of introspection tools which would allow us to prevent or quickly identify and remediate any issues.
However, we didn’t have the engineering resources to build our own in-house monitoring system. Instead, we levered a combination of open-source software, third-party vendors, and just enough glue code to make it all stick together.
All all of these tools are available to you, too! Come hear how we manage tens of thousands of metrics and billions of log lines per day from thousands of machines, all operated by less then a full-time engineer. We will cover logstash, statsd, NewRelic, Datadog, and our own open-sourced configuration-as-code alerting framework.
Igor Serebryany is an engineer on Airbnb’s Developer Happiness team. He is the author of SmartStack, an open-source distributed service discovery framework. Prior to building the backend infrastructure at Airbnb, he has worked on running Hadoop clusters, automating datacenters, and running scientific computing simulations in biology and astrophysics.
Read more about Monitoring without Infrastructure @ Airbnb
Lawrence/San Tomas/Lafayette Rooms
Smart Monitor System For Automatic Anomaly Detection @Baidu
Xianping Qu, Baidu, Inc.
Billions of requests are supported by hundreds of thousands of servers in Baidu. So many servers and modules bring a huge challenge to engineers for anomaly detection. When an anomaly occurs, various alarms and incidents are sent to engineers. It is very difficult to find the root cause based on large non-organized monitoring data and alarms. Thus, we tried to build a smarter monitoring system named BIMS (Baidu Intelligent Monitoring System) to help engineers to analyze the problems and give the most possible reasons for important anomaly such as revenue loss.
In this talk, we demonstrate the core procedure of BIMS by actual cases in the productive environment of the core products at Baidu. The following technologies will be involved and mentioned: data model of incidents, proactive anomaly detection algorithms, correlation analysis, and visualization. Based on BIMS, we’ll also share some ideas about intelligent systems for the SRE team.
Xianping Qu is a senior software engineer on SRE team at Baidu. He is now working on utilizing monitoring and operating data to automate SRE’s work, and has experiences on trend analysis, abnormal detection and root cause analysis. Previous to this, he worked on the monitor system at Baidu.
Read more about Smart Monitor System For Automatic Anomaly Detection @Baidu
Cypress Room
Case Study: Adopting SRE Principles at StackOverflow
Tom Limoncelli, Stack Exchange, Inc.
Adopting SRE principles at sites other than "unicorn companies" can be a challenge. In this talk I’ll review our experience trying to adopt SRE principles at StackExchange.com/ StackOverflow.com. The failures are as educational as the successes. I’ll cover a number of tools that are publicly available, and techniques that work well at smaller companies. These include monitoring solutions like Boson, and sections of The Practice of Cloud System Administration that can be used to educate others about the SRE ways.
Tom Limoncelli works in New York City at Stack Exchange, home of ServerFault.com and StackOverflow.com. He tweets and blogs at everythingsysadmin.com. His new book, The Practice of Cloud System Administration, is an SRE/DevOps look at system administration). http://the-cloud-book.com.
Tom is a frequent speaker/keynote at both enterprise and web-scale conferences (SpiceWorks, LISA, LOPSA-East, CascadiaIT, NLUUG).
Read more about Case Study: Adopting SRE Principles at StackOverflow
11:30 am–12:30 pm
SRE Hiring
Andrew Fong, Dropbox
Hiring SREs can be one of the most challenging tasks an organization can undertake. This talk will discuss best practices around recruiting, evaluating and hiring SREs into your organization. During this talk we will explore how to do this from first principles, what best practices tend to be, and how we applied them when building the foundation of SRE at Dropbox.
Andrew leads the SRE teams at Dropbox. Prior to Dropbox, he worked at YouTube, helping to scale their infrastructure. He was previously at AOL running proxy/cache and video search infrastructure.
Read more about SRE Hiring
Scaling Networks through Software
Joao Taveira, Fastly
While networking is a crucial component to ensuring site reliability, reacting to network events such as outages or DDoS attacks has traditionally been constrained by the capabilities of closed platform network devices. Certain vendors, however, allow anyone to redefine how their network behaves programmatically, enabling network designers to disregard conventional protocol usage entirely. This talk will cover how Fastly did just that — relying on software to redirect traffic reliably at various layers — and how such fine-grained control allowed us to scale a global network while minimizing operational costs.
Joao Taveira is a network engineer at Fastly, where he is responsible for making dumb switches do clever things. In addition to writing software for network orchestration, Joao works on protocol design and performance, and holds a PhD from University College London on something to that effect.
Read more about Scaling Networks through Software
Ensuring Success During Disaster
Doug Barth, PagerDuty
Surviving a large scale outage requires more than just standing up a few extra servers. Validation and capacity planning can mean the difference between proper mitigation, or just a bunch of wasted effort. This talk will explore how to ensure DR success, gleaned from PagerDuty's production systems.
Doug Barth is a Senior Operations Engineer at PagerDuty. He has worked on all parts of the PagerDuty system, but especially moving PagerDuty to a multi-master MySQL cluster, host-to-host transport-layer encryption via IPSec, and recently rebuilding PagerDuty's DR site. Doug developed and operated production systems for Orbitz, a large scale online travel company, and Signal Engage, a startup marketing tool provider in Chicago.
Read more about Ensuring Success During Disaster
Conference Luncheon
Terra Courtyard
Instagration: A Case Study in Cloud Migration at Scale
Chris Bray, Facebook/Instagram
Instagram recently completed a large migration from AWS to Facebook's internal systems. This talk will go into more detail of what and how the team accomplished a very large scale AWS migration. It will touch on tools and lessons learned that Instagram applied to their migration that others might be able to both utilize and apply to their migration (to or from AWS) to help make it as painless and trouble free as possible.
Chris Bray is a Production Engineer at Instagram and Facebook. He works with large scale software deployments running on, amongst other things, CentOS, Chef, Python, designer drip coffee, Ruby, RedBull, vi, bash, cable ties and duct tape, using a large infrastructure of both Amazon EC2 and Facebook's OpenCompute hardware. He was part of the team that recently Completed the migration of Instagram from EC2 to Facebook infrastructure and is currently focusing on working with new acquisitions at Facebook to help them take best advantage of Facebook's internal infrastructure.
Read more about Instagration: A Case Study in Cloud Migration at Scale
Netflix RaaS: Reliability as a Service
Coburn Watson, Netflix, Inc.
The Netflix architecture is based on hundreds of microservices running in the cloud at massive scale across numerous AWS regions. Achieving excellent availability of such a complex system requires a capable operations methodology. At Netflix we have a shared services team which seeks to lower operational barriers for individual service teams in order to improve both aggregate and microservice-level reliability. The challenge lies in finding the right balance of responsibility between a shared service support team and the devops engineers on the microservice team itself. We have taken an approach in which tooling and associated methodologies developed by our Operations Engineering organization tackle the following subset of operational activities at a platform-level:
Continuous integration and deployment
automated staggered deployment of microservice code across cloud regions
automated analysis of canary versus baseline code
Tuning of curcuits in the system which respond to localized failures
Improved observability for both macro and micro performance dimensions
Identification and termination of server instances which are outliers
Through elimination of such undifferentiated heavy lifting, the teams can shift their focus onto product development versus being mired in operational complexity. The key benefit is the improvement of engineering velocity alongside reliability. As an organization. a direction needs to be taken on where to draw the line for operational responsibilities. This is no different in the Netflix "Freedom and Responsibility" culture.
This presentation will cover the operational complexities we have abstracted away from our microservice engineering teams, the associated decision factors, and future direction of the program.
Coburn leads the Cloud Performance and Reliability Engineering team at Netflix. His team works to optimize the use of massive cloud resources with a keen focus on system performance and reliability. Prior to Netflix. he was at Rearden Commerce, HP, and numerous other companies. working to improve the performance of large scale distributed systems.
Read more about Netflix RaaS: Reliability as a Service
Making Every SRE Hire Count
Chris Stankaitis, The Pythian Group
Our industry is changing rapidly to keep up with the demands of the business. This means that many of the tools, processes, and techniques that were perfectly valid only a few years ago are now antiquated and no longer meet our needs. The hiring process is not immune to this shift, and finding the right people to fill a 21st century SRE position is challenging.
From designing and grading technical tests, to participating in technical interviewing / hiring manager "FIT" interviewing, making great people decisions is critical to the success of an SRE team and the pressure to get it right is high.
We will look at the process, how it has changed, and how we have had to evolve to find the people we are looking for.
Chris Stankaitis is a Manager for the Site Reliability Engineering group at Pythian, an organization providing Managed Services and Premium Consulting to companies whose data availability, reliability, and integrity is critical to their business.
Chris is a key member of the hiring team for the Pythian SRE group and has participated in hundreds of candidate screenings and interviews over the past two years, resulting in the hiring of over 30 Site Reliability Engineers.
Read more about Making Every SRE Hire Count
Incident Analysis
Sue Lueder, Google
Outages and incidents happen. Sh*t breaks, fibers get cut, bugs get pushed to production, teams fail to communicate, and all hell breaks loose. But those who don't learn from mistakes are doomed to repeat them...over and over and over again, with increasing frustration for those on the frontlines fixing the problems and from the users who suffer the impacts.
In an effort to better learn from what happened across all products and services, Google launched an initiative in 2014 to gather data from all outages and incidents that occurred on production systems for trend analysis into system and user impacts, incident timelines, and root causes. The data is then used to drive improvements across systems, processes, and tools to improve the balance between system stability and development velocity. This talk aims to share Google's approach to setting up and running such an analysis program, some preliminary results, and lessons learned.
Sue Lueder joined Google as a Site Reliability Program Manager in 2014 and is on the team responsible for disaster testing and readiness, incident management processes and tools, and incident analysis. Previous to Google, Sue was a technical program manager and a systems, software, and quality engineer in wireless and smart energy industries (OnRamp Wireless, Texas Instruments, Qualcomm). She has a M.S. in Organization Development from Pepperdine University and a B.S in Physics from UCSD.
Read more about Incident Analysis
Collin and the Slingbot
Joe Ruscio, Librato
In this talk we describe our internal feature-flagging system, which combines Rollout, ZooKeeper, and our in-house campfire chatbot (twke), to transparently enable features for targeted production end-users without disrupting other customers.
Our talk follows the escapades of our intrepid engineer Collin as he cleverly employs feature flagging to manage production traffic flow in order to re-engineer and replace a core component of our production SaaS infrastructure. Like the engineering acrobatics involved in reworking a bridge that must continue to bear traffic, Collin's story is a prolonged, high-stakes, surgical endeavor with a lot of moving parts. It is also a textbook illustration of the multi-disciplinary balance between architecture, programming, and operational ingenuity that exemplifies site reliability engineering in the wild.
Joseph Ruscio is a Co-Founder and the Chief Technology Officer at Librato. He's responsible for the company's technical strategy, product architecture, and hacks on all levels of their vision for the future of monitoring. Joe has 15 years of experience developing distributed systems in startups, academia, and the telecommunications industry and he holds a Masters in Computer Science from Virginia Tech. In his spare time he enjoys snowboarding and obsessing over the details of brewing both coffee and beer. He loves graphs.
Read more about Collin and the Slingbot
Making the Sum of AWS Networking Greater than Its Parts—Achieving High Availability in VPCs
Warren Turkal, SignalFx
If you're running in VPC (and you should be by now), what is your network reliability strategy? This talk proposes a method of building flexible, redundant networking for VPC that goes far beyond a single NAT router per VPC. CloudFormation + boto + BGP come together in beautiful harmony for an architecture that you can depend on. Learn about the architecture, our implementation in Python and grab the scripts to run your own.
Warren Turkal is a Site Reliability Engineer at SignalFx, a stealth startup in San Mateo, CA. He works to provide infrastructure components like SaltStack and Docker in a production environment. Warren has been working with AWS for about 3 years and has used the boto library to write many tools used at SignalFx. He previously worked at companies heavily invested in cloud technologies, such as Ooyala and Google.
Read more about Making the Sum of AWS Networking Greater than Its Parts—Achieving High Availability in VPCs
Tracks 1 & 2
Building a Billion User Load Balancer
Patrick Shuff, Facebook
Want to learn how Facebook scales their load balancing infrastructure to support more than 1.3 billion users? We will be revealing the technologies and methods we use to global route and balance Facebook's traffic. The traffic team at Facebook has built several systems for managing and balancing our site traffic, including both a DNS load balancer and a software load balancer capable of handling several protocols. This talk will focus on these technologies and how they have helped improve user performance, manage capacity, and increase reliability.
Patrick Shuff is a production engineer on the traffic team at facebook. His team's responsibilities include maintaining/monitoring the global load balancing infrastructure, dns, and our content delivery platform (i.e. photo/video delivery). Other roles at Facebook include being on the global site reliability team where he works with various infrastructure teams (messaging, real time infrastructure, email) to help increase service reliability and monitoring for their services.
Read more about Building a Billion User Load Balancer
Error Budgets and Risks
Marc Alvidrez, Google
Striving for Imperfection: Using an error budget to move fast without compromising high reliability
You may assume Site Reliability Engineers aim to build systems that never go down. What that fails to realize is that 100% reliability is almost never the goal. Instead, our task is to trade off reliability against the many other goals we have for our services. SREs want to provide great service to end users and customers, and also have the flexibility to change the systems often and quickly. We want to ensure that the queries and the revenue keep flowing, and do so as efficiently as possible, provisioning as little excess as necessary to deliver good service. Taking an engineering approach to meeting these goals means we need to make these tradeoffs measurable, and this is where error budgets come in. Your error budget is a measure of risk, it is the amount of headroom you have above your SLA. Being smart about how you manage and spend this error budget is one of the best tools that SRE has to meet the various contending goals that services at Internet scale present.
Marc Alvidrez is a Senior Staff Site Reliability Engineer with Google. He joined the company in 2004, and starting as an early SRE he has led a variety of teams responsible for both infrastructure and major user-facing services. These have included the first team responsible for Google File System (GFS), and the teams responsible for Google's Display and AdSense advertising serving systems, Google+ and Google Photos. Prior to Google he held systems engineering roles at Vodafone and Internet startup Topica, where he was the Director of Operations.
Read more about Error Budgets and Risks
Happy Hour, Sponsored by Google
Mux: How I Stopped Worrying and Learned to Love the Multiplexing
Berk Demir, Twitter
At its core, Mux is a generic RPC multiplexing protocol created at Twitter. As a strictly OSI Layer 5 session protocol, it can be used in conjunction with protocols from other layers. We'll discuss the motivation for creating a session protocol as well as gains such as elimination of head-of-line blocking, explicit queue management, and better networking economics.
Read more about Mux: How I Stopped Worrying and Learned to Love the Multiplexing
Lightning Talks are back-to-back five-minute presentations on just about anything.
Managing Bare Metal @Spotify
Drew Michel, Spotify
At Spotify, the way we have provisioned and managed servers has seen many iterative improvements. The latest, is a platform that enables squads to fully manage the lifecycle of a server. I’ll go over why this is important for a movement we call "Ops in Squads."
Drew Michel is an SRE at Spotify focusing on providing engineers with a self-service platform for provisioning bare metal hosts.
Don't Fear the Rise of the Machines (or) Why You Can't Scale Ops by Cloning John Connor
Philip Fisher-Ogden, Netflix
We all know what machines are better at than humans and vice versa. Then why do we over-rely on humans to solve problems in production? I think we're afraid of the machines taking over. Once we get over that fear we can move to more scalable approaches to operations. Machines can be programmed to automatically shed load, engage fallbacks, and gracefully degrade. Insight tools can gather forensic data from affected nodes, search for deadlocks and memory leaks, and perform correlation analysis to identify probable causes for the outage. By the time a human gets paged the only thing left to do should be higher-order thinking - why did things fail, not gathering signals and twiddling knobs to try and recover, all while racing the "time to recovery" clock.
John Connor might have been able to fend off Skynet's attempt to end humanity by himself, but I say let's accept the rise of the machines. They’ll do what they do best and we'll do the same. Sure, it might lead to the eventual end of humanity, but until then I'll be able to sleep through a few more pages without production falling over.
Philip Fisher-Ogden, Director of Engineering @ Netflix, ensures "click play" works every time.
Near-line Processing with Apache Samza
Jon Bringhurst, LinkedIn
Apache Samza is a near-line stream processing framework. This lightning talk will briefly cover an example use case. In addition, we'll also talk about how Samza fits into our overall data pipeline here at LinkedIn.
Jon Bringhurst is an SRE for Samza, Kafka, and Zookeeper at LinkedIn.
A Half-Petabyte NAS Using Commodity iSCSI Storage and OpenSource Tools
Benjamin O'Connor, TripAdvisor
At TripAdvisor we built a central storage system for data backups, near-line log aggregation, and general shared storage needs. Clients are mostly NFS and Rsync, and data is aged off to S3 after 5 months. We opted against vendor solutions from EMC/NetApp, etc. and built using commodity hardware and open source solutions. Cheap Dell iSCSI chassis, a couple of linux servers, 10gb ethernet networking, BTRFS, NFS, Rsync and CentOS come together to make the system work. Several challenges with such a huge BTRFS filesystem and making something like this work reliably and consistently without vendor support were encountered. We achieved significant cost savings at the expense of some reliability and administration/maintenance time.
Benjamin O'Connor is currently a Technical Operations Engineer at TripAdvisor with over 15 years experience working on everything from large academic systems (UIUC, MIT) to video game backends (Rock Band, Dance Central, Second Life).
Benchmarking TLS With IPython
Chris Niemira, AOL
The talk is about using IPython as a foundation for running distributed performance tests and analyzing the results. I use TLS benchmarking as an example and show our general method for evaluating the performance of hardware acceleration for different cipher suites. The talk touches on a number of topics, but is fundamentally about using a powerful tool in a novel way. I believe it’s interesting for this audience because I don’t see much about either security or benchmarking on the program.
Chris Niemira is a Senior Site Reliability Engineer at AOL and is responsible for helping maintain the performance and availability of AOL's entire portfolio of products.
Read more about Lightning Talks
Being Afraid—How Paranoia at Dropbox Protects Your Data
David Mah, Dropbox
Dropbox is built around our users' trust in us to not lose their data, and the engineering challenges to preserve this are immense. We leverage external managed storage vendors in order to help us solve many of these challenges, but we've recently been transitioning some customer data into a storage platform designed for exabyte-scale that is developed from scratch and operated in-house by Dropbox engineers.
A crucial consideration of building this new system is the mitigation of accidental or intentional deletion and corruption through entropy, and we've taken special care to build defenses against these risks. In this talk we will describe the system's inherent failure domains and the operations infrastructure required to maintain strong durability. Attendees should leave the talk with a healthy dose of paranoia for their own systems and practical strategies for mitigating failure in inherently failure-prone infrastructure.
David Mah is a Dropbox SRE characterized by his paranoia when dealing with infrastructure. Sometimes people consider this to be 'attention to detail'; other times it would just be considered paranoia. His current focus is on building protections in Dropbox's in-house storage system to avoid losing user data.
Read more about Being Afraid—How Paranoia at Dropbox Protects Your Data
Panel: Fifty Shades of Grey: Different Models for Reliability Work
Fernanda Weiden, Facebook; Stephanie Dean, Dropbox; David Barr, Twitter; Abe Hassan, Google
There are many different approaches for reliability work, and different needs depending on each company's needs and infrastructure. One might spend time dealing with private clouds, public clouds, in-house software, third-party software, developing, watching, instrumenting, and debugging. Sometimes we need to build, sometimes we need to optimize, sometimes we need to un-break things.
How do we build teams that adapt to the different needs, and how can we hire effectively for each one of those cases? What are the different approaches we can take for the work? In this panel we'll discuss some of that, and compare different approaches from different organizations actively working on systems reliability.
Stephanie Dean has built, grown, and supported various types and sizes of operational engineering teams for the past 10 years at companies such as Amazon, Facebook, and Twitter. She's now living the life enabling teams to build out Infrastructure as a TPM at Dropbox.
Dave Barr has been in the industry for 20+ years and a Site Reliability Engineer with Google, StumbleUpon, and Twitter. He now manages several SRE teams at Twitter, covering core Twitter services, Search, and Ads serving.
Abe Hassan is a Site Reliability Manager at Google, working on the Search Indexing team. Prior to joining Google, Abe managed the operations team at Say Media and at Six Apart, responsible for the web operations of blogging services LiveJournal and Typepad.
Read more about Panel: Fifty Shades of Grey: Different Models for Reliability Work
Learning from Mistakes and Outages at Facebook
Rajesh Nishtala, Facebook
Facebook, like most large scale infrastructures, is not immune to failures that cause entire subsystems to degrade or become completely unavailable. These Site Events (or SEVs) can then lead to very user-visible performance degradations or worse yet, downtime. This talk will use major site events as case studies to describe lessons learned that have helped make Facebook more robust.
Rajesh Nishtala is a software engineer in the infrastructure team and currently works on understanding the site's performance and capacity bottlenecks. Rajesh also spent a significant amount of time working on the systems that efficiently serve the social graph, (e.g. memcache, TAO, and mcrouter). Rajesh holds a Ph.D. in Computer Science from the University of California, Berkeley. His dissertation focused on High Performance Computing and scaling applications to tens of thousands of processor cores.
Read more about Learning from Mistakes and Outages at Facebook
Panel: The Weeping Angels of Site Reliability
Kurt Andersen, LinkedIn; Ryan Boyd, Groupon; Pete Cheslock, Threat Stack; Mark Risher, Google; Cory Scott, LinkedIn; Jamie Tomasello, AccessNow.Org
Site reliability is not just about keeping your service running, users clicking, and transactions humming along. Your service does not end at your network interconnect. Reliability has to include principles and practices of safe computing for your users, their data, and all of the other systems that your site connects to. Bake security in from the beginning to protect your site, your users, and user data from an increasing array of assailants: DevOps needs InfoSec too.
Threats to the stability of a service can come from poor code, unreliable hardware, or bad network or power connections, but they also come from people who want to exploit the power and resources which you have accumulated to operate and grow your site. Hardware failures and other random acts of nature will test the abilities of your operations teams, but they do not present the same threat as a sentient enemy. And any site with resources of value will have intelligent, resourceful predators. If you haven't seen them, you are not looking in the right places.
This panel of experienced anti-abuse and security experts will cover the threat space for services, from fraudulent accounts to nation state actors who want your user's data, to scammers who want to use your infrastructure to wreak havoc on other portions of the internet ecosystem. Learn about developing a data security action plan for your site.
Join us for an adventure to foil the dark side, and be careful not to blink.
Kurt Andersen has been active in the anti-abuse community for over 15 years and currently leads the Growth and Comm SRE team at LinkedIn, as well as serving as one of the Program Committee Chairs for the Messaging, Malware and Mobile Anti-Abuse Working Group (M3AAWG). He has spoken at M3AAWG, Velocity, and SANOG on various aspects of reliability, authentication and security.
Ryan Boyd manages the global email delivery team at Groupon, which is responsible for email delivery in 48 countries around the world. Ryan’s team integrates within the engineering and marketing organizations at Groupon to maintain industry-leading deliverability rates through establishing and maintaining best practices for email delivery and security.
Pete Cheslock is the head of Threat Stack's operations and support teams. He has over 15 years' experience in DevOps, and understands the challenges and and issues faced by security, development and operations professionals every day, and how we can help deal with them.
Mark Risher runs the Spam & Abuse team at Google, protecting services across the company from attacks of all kinds. Previously, he was CEO and Co-Founder of Impermium (which Google acquired in 2014), and "Spam Czar" at Yahoo! He has regularly presented worldwide to government, industry, and the media about spam, abuse and cyber security issues.
Cory Scott joined LinkedIn in 2013 and currently leads the House Security team, which is responsible for application and infrastructure security across all of LinkedIn. Prior to joining LinkedIn, he was the director of Matasano Security, an information security consultancy. He has spoken at BlackHat, USENIX LISA, SANS, and OWASP.
Jamie Tomasello is the technology director at AccessNow.Org, an international human rights organization dedicated to defending the digital rights of at-risk users. Jamie has been combating Internet abuse and addressing policy issues for more than the past 13 years. With a background in applied behavior analysis and pattern recognition, Jamie has focused her efforts in analyzing technical data points underlying cybercrime, identifying non-obvious data relationships, and profiling cybercriminals.
Read more about Panel: The Weeping Angels of Site Reliability
From Zero to Hero: Recommended Practices for Training your Ever-Evolving SRE Teams
Andrew Widdowson, Google
or, "How can I strap a jetpack to my newbies, while keeping everyone up to speed?"
SRE teams go to where the action is, but when team members are deeply embedded in large scale problems, little time is left to do things like train one's newest teammates. "Here kid, grab a hose and help me fight this fire" only works up to a limit that you will definitely exceed when you're trying to mold your newest systems or software engineer into a fully functional Site Reliability Engineer. Plus, the stack(s) that your team is oncall for are rapidly evolving and if you blink, even your most senior SREs can quickly be out of touch with the state of the systems. Uh oh!
The often understated truth is that SREs need to be as good--or better--at scaling humans as they are at scaling computers, if they want to be able to keep up with the systems that they oversee. How, then, can you keep your existing SREs up to speed and sharp as a tack, while making sure that your newest teammates can learn the ropes and become just as seasoned, sooner rather than later or never?
In this talk, Andrew will share a set of practices we're using at Google to train our next wave of SREs better, stronger, and faster... and then keep them that way! You'll learn about ways to encourage large scale systems thinking, provide hands-on opportunities for learning, and impress the technical and philosophical subtleties of what make the best SREs so effective as quickly as possible.
Andrew Widdowson is a Staff Software Engineer in Site Reliability Engineering at Google. In addition to being a long time member of the Search SRE team, he is the tech lead for "SRE EDU", Google's internal efforts to support a culture of teaching of and from SREs. Andrew also leads a team of engineers that fight abusers, scrapers, and attackers of the search stack. In his spare time, Andrew serves as a chair of the Carnegie Mellon University School of Computer Science Alumni Advisory Board.
Read more about From Zero to Hero: Recommended Practices for Training your Ever-Evolving SRE Teams
Panel: Ask Me Anything with the SREcon Chairs and Speakers
Read more about Panel: Ask Me Anything with the SREcon Chairs and Speakers
MySQL Automation at Facebook Scale
Shlomo Priymak, Facebook
Facebook has one of the largest MySQL database clusters in the world, comprising thousands of servers across multiple data centers. Operating a cluster of this size requires automating most of what a conventional MySQL Database Administrator (DBA) might do, so that the cluster can almost run itself. Learn about the design and architecture of our automation systems, and hear a few war stories.
Shlomo has been on the MySQL Infrastructure team at Facebook since 2011, managing one of the biggest MySQL clusters in the world—mostly by being lazy and making automation manage it instead of him. Before making the switch to manage 1000s of MySQL servers, Shlomo was pretty happy with 100s of them at companies like Sears and Wix, where he was a DBA and a developer.
Prior to diving into to the MySQL world in 2006, Shlomo used to be a SQL Server DBA at the Israeli Intelligence Corps, but he can't tell you how many servers he managed there.
Read more about MySQL Automation at Facebook Scale
Panel: Educating SRE
Craig Sebenik, Matterport;David Mah, Dropbox; Andrew Widdowson, Google; Philip Boyle, Facebook
Join us for a panel discussing various challenges facing the education of SREs. The panel will focus on new SREs (coming out of higher education), ongoing education and how we as a group educate developers.
Training the next generation of SREs coming in to our field means figuring out what information is important from other fields as well as trying to pass on lessons learned from years of experience. Also, we need to listen to new people that bring an unfettered perspective.
Educating SREs within a company present slightly different issues. Namely, keeping up to date on tools that may be very specific to the processes used at any one company. Companies may choose to follow industry norms or may do something totally different. Companies need to keep their employees up to date with there specific goals.
Lastly, developers have their own priorities, but we need their help to emit metrics, add caching as well as a host of other code-level changes. We can learn from their experiences and also educate them to our best practices.
Craig Sebenik works for a startup as the only SRE (infrastructure engineer). This presents plenty of opportunities to empower developers to maintain their own code. But it also presents a number of challenges with educating devs on adding metrics, improving deployment, etc. Craig recently left LinkedIn where he was an SRE and led a few different initiatives aimed at training SREs. There are valuable lessons from both large and small companies. Craig has a passion for education and is very interested in sharing knowledge throughout our industry.
David Mah is a Dropbox SRE characterized by his paranoia when dealing with infrastructure. Sometimes people consider this to be 'attention to detail'; other times it would just be considered paranoia. His current focus is on building protections in Dropbox's in-house storage system to avoid losing user data. He recently graduated from the University of Washington and brings the perspective of one who didn't know much about SRE until fairly recently.
Read more about Panel: Educating SRE
Closing Talk
Architecting and Launching the Halo 4 Services
Caitie McCaffrey, Twitter
Halo 4 is a first-person shooter on the Xbox 360, with fast-paced, competitive gameplay. To complement the code on disc, a set of services were developed and deployed in Azure to store player statistics, display player presence information, deliver daily challenges, modify playlists, catch cheaters, and more. As of June 2013, Halo 4 had 11.6 million players who played 1.5 billion games, logging 270 million hours of gameplay.
The Halo 4 services were built from the ground up to support high demand, low latency, and high availability. In addition, video games have unique load patterns where the majority of the traffic and sales occurs within the first few weeks after launch, making this a critical time period for the game and supporting services. Halo 4 went from 0 to 1 million users on day 1, and 4 million users within the first week.
This talk will discuss the architectural challenges faced when building these services and how they were solved using Windows Azure and Project Orleans. In addition, we'll discuss the path to production, some of the difficulties faced, and the tooling and practices that made the launch successful.
Read more about Architecting and Launching the Halo 4 Services
SREcon is a registered trademark of the USENIX Association.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2762
|
__label__wiki
| 0.7302
| 0.7302
|
The Culinary Cathedral: Turning the classic food charity model on its head
"Our intent was to get away from the soup kitchen concept and create a place of hospitality and connection."
New research on the state of connections in Metro Vancouver
I'M A PROFESSIONAL ADVISOR
AnimalKind: Defining ‘Humane’ for Communities and their Animals
"We wanted to find a way to reduce animal suffering by encouraging an entire industry to change."
One Charity's Vision for the Future Inspires a Special Gift
“We have a responsibility to meet the needs of families today, while also building for the future."
How to set up a fund
Strategic Giving Through Vancouver Foundation's Focus Areas
Though our Focus Areas we make sure your gift gets to where it's needed most.
Meet LEVEL: Our New Youth Engagement Initiative
"It's time to LEVEL the playing field!"
We would love to have you join us as a host this year. Registration is open now!
Click here to sign up at onthetablebc.com
Vancouver Foundation works throughout British Columbia to harness the gifts of ideas, money, time and energy to build a lasting legacy: healthy, vibrant, livable communities. Learn More
An Evaluation of the Systems Change Grant Program
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2769
|
__label__wiki
| 0.890068
| 0.890068
|
Home Vancouver News A look at the Canucks’ defensive depth after signing Jett Woo, Josh...
A look at the Canucks’ defensive depth after signing Jett Woo, Josh Teves, and Quinn Hughes
Photograph By CANUCKS / TWITTER
In the space of one week, the Canucks have signed three defencemen. On Sunday, March 10th, the Canucks signed their top prospect, Quinn Hughes. On Tuesday, they nabbed Josh Teves, a free agent out of the NCAA.
They wrapped up the week by inking their second-round pick in 2018, Jett Woo, to a three-year entry-level contract. Woo could be key for the Canucks for one simple reason beyond his talent and potential: he’s a right-hand shot.
The Canucks have both high-end talent and solid depth on the left side of their defence. Hughes is a blue-chip prospect with game-breaking potential. Their second-best defensive prospect, Olli Juolevi, also plays on the left side and has top-four upside.
Beyond those top prospects, the Canucks have some intriguing depth. Ashton Sautner has developed into a legitimate NHL option, the newly-signed Teves plays an aggressive, puck-moving style that could be a good fit in the modern NHL, and Guillaume Brisebois got his first taste of NHL action this season. Among the unsigned defencemen on the left side, the Canucks have Nikita Tryamkin, who could return from Russia to give the NHL another shot, Jack Rathbone, a smooth-skating defenceman in the midst of an excellent freshman season at Harvard, and Toni Utunen, who is playing against men in the Finnish Liiga at 19.
Combined with the players the Canucks already have at the NHL level, they look set on the left side. Where things get a little dicey is on the right.
The concerns start at the NHL level. Chris Tanev’s health has to be a major concern. He’s currently out for the rest of the season after blocking a shot by Kyle Palmieri against the New Jersey Devils. The injuries and age seem to have caught up to Tanev, who was once one of the premiere defensive defencemen in the NHL, but has struggled over the past couple seasons.
Troy Stecher is a safe bet as part of the Canucks future thanks to his youth and talent, but next on the depth chart are Alex Biega and Luke Schenn. Biega is a pretty ideal seventh defenceman, capable of stepping in when needed and providing a jolt of energy, but is less compelling as an everyday option. Meanwhile, Schenn has proven to be competent on a third pairing, but there’s a reason he’s been on five teams in the last three years.
In terms of prospects, it’s thin pickings on the right side.
Jalen Chatfield is the lone Canucks defenceman prospect in Utica with a right-hand shot, but he has limited potential with no offensive upside. Perhaps he could develop into a third-pairing defensive defenceman, but the Canucks need a little more.
The Canucks signed Mitch Eliot as an undrafted free agent out of the OHL to add some right-side depth. The 20 year old is having a breakout season with 55 points in 66 games, but it’s wise to be wary of players that breakout in major junior in their over-age seasons. Still, there’s nothing wrong with taking a chance on Eliot bucking the odds.
That’s it for signed prospects. The only unsigned one is Matt Brassard, who has outscored Eliot this season with 56 points in 65 games, but it’s beginning to look like he won’t be offered a contract. If he doesn’t sign by June 1st, he’ll become an unrestricted free agent.
That brings us to Jett Woo.
It should be very clear why Woo is so important for the Canucks: their NHL depth on the right side is shaky at best and their prospect depth is limited and filled with “mights” and “maybes.” Woo, on the other hand, seems like a much safer bet to have an NHL future.
When the Canucks drafted him, Woo was praised for the defensive side of his game. He’s a hard-nosed, gritty defender with a penchant for big hits, but also makes great defensive reads, skates well, and effectively moves the puck up ice.
Jett Woo’s hit from earlier in the game today#Canucks pic.twitter.com/nNhynLw09m
— Ryan Biech (@ryanbiech) August 4, 2018
What he’s added since getting drafted, however, is a lot of offensive upside. After 25 points in 44 games in his draft year, Woo has 12 goals and 65 points in 62 games this season, good for 5th among WHL defencemen. A lot of that production has come on the power play, where he has been an effective puck distributor and good at getting his wrist shot through traffic.
This breakout is particularly impressive because Woo is still just 18 years old and won’t turn 19 until late July. This kind of production at a young age, combined with his defensive game and physicality, provides a lot of hope for his potential.
#Canucks prospect Jett Woo’s goal from the second period – drags it to create a lane and then snaps it home pic.twitter.com/gGlzC9Y2kg
— Ryan Biech (@ryanbiech) January 17, 2019
Woo’s young age, however, also means that it could be a while before he makes his Canucks debut. Since Woo will just be 19 next season, he won’t be eligible to play in the AHL if he doesn’t make the Canucks out of training camp. That likely means another full season for Woo in the WHL.
That’s not the worst thing. There’s no need to rush Woo and he’ll have the opportunity to play for Team Canada at the 2020 World Juniors after he didn’t get a camp invite this past year.
canucks draft
canucks roaster
Previous articleSafety board investigates collision of two ships in Vancouver Harbour
Next articleAvalanche warning for the Sea to Sky due to warm temperatures
The Vancouver Courier has the best community newspaper website in Canada. The Courier is known for their evocative storytelling with words and video; insightful analysis of Vancouver City Hall; daily coverage to inform your understanding of Vancouver’s real estate scene; honest but respectful year-round coverage of the Vancouver Canucks; and light-hearted and (yes, we’ll admit it) occasionally barbed insights into Vancouver life.
Hot food, BBQs, banned in Metro Vancouver park as momma bear...
Former Raptor Danny Green gets bags stolen in Vancouver
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2775
|
__label__wiki
| 0.801275
| 0.801275
|
Short-term rental owners ask court to delay ban in Ojai Valley, seek environmental review
The owners of short-term rentals in the Ojai Valley are crying foul over county rules they say unfairly target the popular tourist area.
Short-term rental owners ask court to delay ban in Ojai Valley, seek environmental review The owners of short-term rentals in the Ojai Valley are crying foul over county rules they say unfairly target the popular tourist area. Check out this story on vcstar.com: https://www.vcstar.com/story/news/politics/2018/11/23/short-term-rental-owners-ask-court-delay-ban-ojai-valley/1768921002/
Kathleen Wilson, Ventura County Star Published 3:22 p.m. PT Nov. 23, 2018 | Updated 10:02 a.m. PT Dec. 1, 2018
Opponents say a ban on short-term rentals could hurt Ojai businesses.(Photo: CHUCK KIRMAN/THE STAR)Buy Photo
An advocacy group has sued over a partial ban on short-term rentals in the Ojai Valley, a popular tourist area.
TRUOJAI, which represents owners of registered short-term rentals, is asking for a court order to delay the implementation until a full review is done under the terms of the California Environmental Quality Act. The law requires state and local agencies to identify significant environmental impacts of their actions and avoid them or reduce harm, if feasible.
Despite the ban, current owners and operators of short-term rentals “will retain constitutionally protected rights to maintain the use,” says the latest version of the lawsuit filed in August against the county in Ventura County Superior Court.
More news from the Ojai Valley:
Short-term rental restrictions approved for unincorporated Ojai Valley
Ojai moves forward on allowing 5 cannabis manufacturing facilities
Dark-sky rules get final OK for Ojai Valley
The ban affects properties where the owners do not live, prohibiting them from renting the homes for stays of fewer than 30 days. They may still rent rooms for short-term stays in their own personal residences.
County officials found that the environmental law did not require a review for the ban, which was enacted by the Ventura County Board of Supervisors in June and due to be enforced starting in January.
County planners said there was “no possibility” that the ban could significantly affect the environment. But TRUOJAI contends the county ordinance will worsen air quality, traffic and greenhouse gas emissions because visitors will be forced to commute from hotels and motels outside the area.
The lawsuit also says the rule will harm businesses and violates the short-term rental owners’ vested property rights and constitutional rights to equal protection and due process.
MORE: Rincon Parkway campsite reservation policy gets good reviews
Short-term rentals have divided the community. Homeowners want peace and quiet, while short-term rental owners want to preserve their income, and merchants say Ojai needs the units to survive in the community that’s heavily dependent on tourism.
Exempted from the ban were other inland unincorporated portions of the county, which appear to be largely unaffected by the boom in short-term rentals. The rentals are allowed in coastal areas even if they are not the owners’ principal places of residence.
The plaintiff is taking exception to making Ojai Valley a special case and the brevity of a two-year grace period for property that would be ineligible under the new measure and be phased out of business.
“We believe the law has been violated by the Board of Supervisors in adopting the short-term rental regulations,” said Robert Kwong, an attorney for the plaintiff.
He said the county erred in both the process and substance of the short-term rental ordinance.
“When you do a regulation you have to follow the law,” he said. “If not, what you did is considered null and void.”
Jeffrey Barnes, an attorney representing the county government, said the lawsuit lacks merit.
MORE: New Oxnard visitors' guide is now available
“The county has broad discretion to regulate short-term rentals and adopted its ordinance after carefully studying the issue,” he said in an email. “The public provided valuable input – including often competing opinions and policy preferences – at 10 separate public meetings over a three-year period. The county is confident it will prevail in court.”
He declined to respond to the arguments cited in the lawsuit, saying the county preferred to do so in court.
No hearing date has yet been set on the request for the court order. Kwong said he thought it would most likely come in the second quarter of next year.
The ban applies to an area that runs from Lake Casitas to the Dennison Grade, including Meiners Oaks, Oak View and Casitas Springs. It does not apply to the city of Ojai, which is not under the Board of Supervisors’ jurisdiction, but the city has already outlawed all short-term rentals including those where the owners live.
The city has not experienced any significant, continuing drop in sales and lodging taxes since enforcement of its ban began a little over two years ago, Ojai City Manager Steve McClary said. He said the Thomas Fire temporarily affected sales and lodging taxes, clouding the comparison, but that those revenues have rebounded.
Officials have not determined whether the ban drove up use of conventional motels and hotels within the city, he said.
Read or Share this story: https://www.vcstar.com/story/news/politics/2018/11/23/short-term-rental-owners-ask-court-delay-ban-ojai-valley/1768921002/
Former base employee sentenced to prison
Brush fire burns over 100 acres near Fillmore
South Oxnard calls for action getting louder
Surf Rodeo makes itself at home at Ventura Pier
California ranks as one of worst states to retire
Suspect arrested in assault at Santa Clara River
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2777
|
__label__wiki
| 0.949054
| 0.949054
|
This Week In Pictures - 08/07/13
By Sarah Karmali And Ella Alexander
LADY GAGA provided one of our favourite pictures this week as she released artwork from her forthcoming album and single, Artpop. She appears wearing nothing but a futuristic mask, naturally.
The Victoria's Secret Angels were out in force this week, promoting both a charity cycle ride and the launch of the label's new summer swim tour. Other models to make headlines over the past few days were Cara Delevingne (mingling with royalty at Clarence House); Edie Campbell (unveiling a new Lanvin campaign); and Rosie Huntington-Whiteley (taking us behind the scenes on her new beauty shoot).
Elsewhere, Goldie Hawn and Kate Hudson played a spot of mother-daughter tennis, while a giant Colin Firth sculpture was unveiled in the Serpentine lake in Hyde Park. The Clinton family gathered together to celebrate the work of Oscar de la Renta, while Julianne Moore revealed a striking new hair colour and Rita Ora shared a first look at her work with Madonna's fashion line, Material Girl.
Wimbledon fever took over London last weekend, as Andy Murray stormed to victory and beat Novak Djokovic - making him the first British men's champion since Fred Perry in 1936. The 26-year-old battled with soaring temperatures to take the title, as the nervous crowd - including an excitable Bradley Cooper and Gerard Butler - watched from the stands.
The previous night, another event attracted hoards of people to London - the Rolling Stones were headlining a summer concert in Hyde Park. Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, Charlie Watts and Ronnie Wood took to the stage in the sunshine, as model fans including Cara Delevingne, Lara Stone and Jourdan Dunn watched on.
But the Stones weren't the only legendary musicians making a stage comeback in London this weekend - Debbie Harry also held a gig at the Roundhouse in Camden, performing hits such as One Way Or Another and Maria to an effervescent audience.
Click through the gallery to see all the pictures we're talking about so far this week.
JULY 12 - Lady Gaga dons a futuristic mask for the artwork of her forthcoming album and single, Artpop, which will be released in August and November respectively.
JULY 11 - Prince Charles, Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall and the Queen arrive in a golf buggy to tour part of the Coronation Festival in Buckingham Palace gardens.
JULY 11 - Alice Temperley poses with a friend in the Land Rover Pavillion at the Coronation Festival VIP preview in Buckingham Palace gardens.
JULY 11 - Joan Burstein and Rosita Missoni raise a glass to the renowned fashion journalist Suzy Menkes, at the opening of her Christie's wardrobe auction.
JULY 11 - The Old Sorting Office in London is transformed into a Lulu Guinness haven at an event celebrating the label's new Lulu Guinness Paint Project.
JULY 10 - Alessandra Ambrosio and Doutzen Kroes help to host the third annual Victoria's Secret cycling fundraiser, to benefit cancer charity Pelotonia.
JULY 10 - Doutzen Kroes demonstrates her cycling prowess.
JULY 10 - Angels Elsa Hosk, Alessandra Ambrosio, Magdalena Frackowiak, Gracie Carvalho, Lindsay Ellingson, Doutzen Kroes and Lily Aldridge at the charity fundraiser.
JULY 10 - Selena Gomez prepares to launch her first fashion collection for Adidas NEO.
JULY 10 - Beyonce's Mrs Carter Show world tour arrives in Miami.
JULY 10 - Raf Simons hosts a Christian Dior show spectacular in Moscow's Red Square.
JULY 10 - Candice Swanepoel launches the Victoria's Secret summer swim tour in Washington.
JULY 10 - Edie Campbell is revealed as the new face of Lanvin, starring in the brand's autumn/winter 2013-14 campaign.
JULY 10 - "One woman can have many faces," proclaims a press release for the campaign - which sees Campbell take on a variety of different guises to demonstrate the different "sides of her imaginary self".
JULY 10 - The first Material Girl campaign image featuring new face Rita Ora is unveiled.
JULY 9 - Bill, Chelsea and Hillary Clinton join Anna Wintour and Oscar de la Renta at the opening of an exhibition celebrating the designer's work at the William J Clinton Presidential Center.
JULY 9 - Prince Charles has Cara Delevingne in a fit of the giggles at the Animal Ball at Clarence House.
JULY 9 - The model was joined by her parents, Charles and Pandora Delevingne, and her sister Poppy to meet the royals.
JULY 9 - Prince Charles and the Duchess of Cornwall admire each other's masks at the masquerade ball.
Marcus Dawes
JULY 9 - The Duchess of Cornwall greets photographer Mario Testino in a dramatic feathered headpiece.
JULY 9 - Julianne Moore shows off new blonde hair on the set of her film, Maps of the Stars, in Toronto.
JULY 9 - Rosie Huntington-Whiteley shares behind-the-scenes photos from her new campaign for ModelCo cosmetics in Australia.
PA Photos
JULY 9 - The model posted a series of preview pictures from the shoot on her Twitter and Instagram pages.
Instragram/Rosie Huntington-Whiteley
JULY 9 - Cara Delevingne shares a photograph of her grandmother ("Gaga"), when she was younger - bearing a striking resemblance to her model granddaughter.
Instagram/Cara Delevinge
JULY 9 - Delevingne pays a visit to her grandmother to celebrate her 101st birthday. "My granny is a legend, she knows exactly how to make me smile! #happybirthdaygaga #101" she Tweeted.
JULY 8 - Kate Hudson gets Wimbledon fever at the Novak Djokovic Foundation Gala Dinner in London.
JULY 8 - Jeremy Piven and Novak Djokovic attempt the splits.
JULY 8 - Goldie Hawn tries her hand at tennis at the Novak Djokovic Foundation Gala Dinner in London.
JULY 8 - Andy Murray poses for pictures outside 10 Downing Street after being congratulated by Prime Minister David Cameron.
JULY 8 - Cara Delevingne shares a behind-the-scenes photo from her new Fendi campaign shoot, with Karl Lagerfeld behind the lens.
JULY 8 - A giant sculpture of Colin Firth in character as Mr Darcy in Pride and Prejudice is installed in the middle of the Serpentine lake in London.
JULY 8 - Andy Murray hugs his Wimbledon trophy close to his chest, posing for a picture in front of a statue depicting the last British men's singles champion, Fred Perry.
JULY 8 - The tennis champion catches up on all the newspapers celebrating his victory the morning after his win.
JULY 7 - The moment Andy Murray realises that he's beaten tennis' number one seed, Novak Djokovic, to win Wimbledon 2013.
JULY 7 - A triumphant Murray raises his trophy to an elated crowd at Wimbledon - all armed with their cameras.
SEE WHO ELSE WE SPOTTED IN THE STANDS AT WIMBLEDON
JULY 7 - Debbie Harry prepares herself backstage at the Roundhouse in Camden.
JULY 7 - Debbie Harry takes to the stage in London.
JULY 6 - Doutzen Kroes auctions off a leather Victoria's Secret jacket to raise money for charity Dance4Life in Amsterdam.
Freek Bottema
JULY 6 - Rihanna enjoys some time off with friend Melissa Forde on the beach in Gdynia, Poland - ahead of her performance at the Heineken Open'er Festival.
JULY 6 - The Rolling Stones take to the stage in sunny Hyde Park.
JULY 8 - Mick Jagger addresses the 65,000-strong crowd.
JULY 8 - Ronnie Wood and Keith Richards on stage.
JULY 6 - The audience cheer and dance as the Stones' set continues well into the night - which ended with hits Satisfaction and You Can't Always Get What You Want, accompanied by a full choir.
This Week In Pictures
What's Your Horoscope This Week?
By Alice Bell
Bill Cunningham: History In His Lens
Laura Loves: Laura Bailey's LFW Edit
By Laura Bailey
Vote In This Year's Vogue Beauty Awards
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2782
|
__label__cc
| 0.54691
| 0.45309
|
The Green Cup
This is a whip-smart, original, and utterly lucid book. In poem after poem the reader is spoken with and not to. It’s like an intense conversation that you don’t want to end.
— Thomas Lux, author of nineteen books of poetry and winner of the Kingsley Tufts Award
www.ciderpressreview.com
www.indiebound.org
Bookstores Contact
caron@ciderpressreview.com
www.spdbooks.org
$17.95 US/ $19.95 CA
Cover and book design by Caron Andregg
Cover photo Akkadian Cylinder seal and modern impression: bull-man combatting lion; nude hero combatting water buffalo; inscription. Gift of Nanette B. Kelekian, in memory of Charles Dikran and Beatrice Kelekian, 1999. Image in the public domain, courtesy The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
The Fourth Paradise
The Fourth Paradise is filled with great care for the dead who have carried the long centuries to us. These are finely crafted poems which recognize the troubled beauty of this inheritance. Loggins melds the mythological within the ongoing history of the rolling fields of Connemara, and love's tangled arguments. The Fourth Paradise takes us to the edge of the landed world "to save what can't be saved, to hold/secure the magic of the world."
— Brian Turner, author of Here Bullet, winner of the Beatrice Hawley Award
www.mainstreetrag.com
Cover photo: Ladies View, Killarney National Park
Ladies View appears as The Fourth Paradise's cover photo, a scenic panorama on the Ring of Kerry in the Killarney National Park, Ireland. The name stems from the admiration of the view given by Queen Victoria's ladies-in-waiting during their 1861 visit.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2784
|
__label__cc
| 0.641175
| 0.358825
|
Faith-based communities train for active shooters, disasters
(Source: WAFB)
By Carmen Poe | May 9, 2019 at 7:09 PM CDT - Updated May 9 at 11:27 PM
BATON ROUGE, LA (WAFB) - Training to stay safe in an environment where most feel comfortable is becoming more necessary. We’re talking about keeping your eyes out for suspicious behavior in church.
“It’s imperative that we know what to do in those types of situations because if we are prepared in advance, we can actually take the time to support those in need during a disaster, an emergency,” said Stephanie Wagner, regional director of communication and marketing for the American Red Cross.
The Interfaith Federation of Greater Baton Rouge, along with Red Stick Ready, says they realize places of worship need to be prepared, so they hosted an active shooter training.
“The reality is that hatred exists in this world and that Christians and Jews and Muslims and Bahai. We are all at risk,” said Rev. Robin McCullough-Bade, executive director of The Interfaith Federation of Greater Baton Rouge.
Clergy members heard from the Baton Rouge Police Department, who passed along tips like creating a security plan and training staff to be aware of suspicious behavior.
“At some point, we have to say stop,” Bade said. “We also have to be smart about how we protect our houses of worship.”
Mary Mullen, who was also at the training, says this session is not about looking out for just the people in a particular congregation, but everyone in the faith-based community.
“My eyes have been really opened up and expanded to not just what’s going on in my community, but the greater community as a whole," she said.
This group, pushing unity, justice, and peace, has been planning this session for a while now, even before the recent attacks across the world. It’s a harsh reality, but leaders say it’s necessary.
Faith-based communities begin training for active shooters, disasters
“I think all of us, no matter our faith tradition, people of goodwill should be concerned about the level of hatred that we see toward people of faith,” Bade said.
“We see all this realness and us kind of a lot want to reject it because of how real it is, ‘That’s not happening to me. That’s not happening in my community,’ but the fact is, that it is,” Mullen said.
With over 600 congregations in East Baton Rouge Parish, leaders say now is the time to unify.
Because the session was about being ready for unfortunate events, participants also learned about preparing for arson, hurricanes, and floods.
The Interfaith Federation of Greater Baton Rouge, established in 1986, “serves as a catalyst for communication, coordination, and collaboration among the local faith community.”
Copyright 2019 WAFB. All rights reserved.
Carmen Poe
Family of Sadie Roberts-Joseph mourns activist’s death
The family of Sadie Roberts-Joseph continues to work through her death.
Donovan Jackson
Vigil honors legacy of Sadie Roberts-Joseph
A vigil has been scheduled for Sadie Roberts-Joseph, who was found dead in the trunk of her car.
WAFB Staff
Volunteers to collect donations for annual Livingston Parish school supply drive
Published July 16, 2019 at 11:13 AM
Some areas still under boil water advisories
Kevin Foster
Published July 16, 2019 at 3:18 AM
9-year-old creates social media challenge to clean up hometown streets after Barry
Catherine Quant
WAFB’s Elizabeth Vowell dancing in this year’s Dancing for a Cause; event rescheduled due to Hurricane Barry
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2786
|
__label__cc
| 0.694086
| 0.305914
|
Visiting Angels CEO Receives Prestigious Industry Honor
Visiting Angels’ CEO Larry Meigs is among the newest inductees into the Home Care & Hospice Hall of Fame. In 1998, Meigs co-founded Visiting Angels, one of the nation’s largest in-home senior care companies. He helped grow the company from one location to more than 500 private duty agencies across the United States, as well as in Mexico.
Every year, the National Association for Home Care & Hospice (NAHC) honors those who have dedicated their lives to the care and service of others. Meigs is known as a leader who provides care and support for his employees and insists that they provide the highest-quality services to the patients and families they serve.
“We started Visiting Angels with the goal to always put caring first, and we continue to fulfill that vision daily, adapting to client needs, as well as constantly providing our caregivers with the tools and education to provide the quality of service that matches our reputation,” Meigs said.
The Home Care & Hospice Hall of Fame was created in 2011, and the inductees are honored at the association’s largest meeting of the year. Past inductees include a number of famous names: Mother Teresa, President Bill Clinton, Lillian D. Wald, Sen. Edward Kennedy (D-MA), Sen. Robert J. Dole (R-KS), Hon. Rosalynn Carter, Dame Cicely Saunders and Mike Vance.
“At NAHC, we have always aspired to excellence which is why we established the Hall of Fame,” said Val J. Halamandaris, NAHC president. Halamandaris describes the new honorees as great role models who have made a significant contribution to the industry.
About NAHC
NAHC is a nonprofit organization that represents the nation’s 33,000 home care and hospice organizations. NAHC also advocates for the more than 2 million nurses, therapists, aides and other caregivers employed by such organizations to provide in-home services to some 12 million Americans each year who are infirm, chronically ill and disabled. Along with its advocacy, NAHC provides information to help its members provide the highest quality of care and is committed to excellence in every respect.
About Visiting Angels Living Assistance Services:
Visiting Angels began franchising in 1998 in the Philadelphia area. Today, Visiting Angels has more than 500 private duty agencies throughout the United States. Visiting Angels agencies employ only experienced caregivers and conduct the most comprehensive background screenings to ensure that their caregivers meet or exceed the company’s high standards. For companion care, Alzheimer’s care, dementia care and the country’s best palliative care program, make Visiting Angels your choice in senior home care. For more information on Visiting Angels or to find a location near you, please visit http://www.visitingangels.com.
More Hints, Tips & Advice
When’s the Right Time to Hire Personal Care Services?
Why Seniors Prefer Living Assistance to Assisted Living
Elderly Fall Prevention: Spotting the Warning Signs & Risk Factors
Home Care Challenges for Loved Ones Who Are Obese
Fall Prevention Strategies and Tips for Aging Seniors
Balancing Home Care Between Family & Agency Caregivers
Common Winter Hazards Among the Elderly
From a Caregiver’s Eyes: Common Senior Ailments That Make Caregiving Harder
Five New Year’s Resolution for Family Caregivers
What to Do When Your Aging Parent Needs Help in the Bathroom
Transitional Care 101 - Keeping Your Senior Loved One Out of the Hospital
Why Visiting Angels Takes a Holistic Approach to Palliative Care Services
Harvard Study: More Employers Need to Support Senior Caregivers
3 Things to Look for in Experienced Senior Home Care
What to Do When Your Aging Parent’s Mobility is Limited
What Types of Aging in Place Services Exist for Seniors?
Respite Care: Answers to 7 Common Concerns
Working Professionals Are Putting Their Lives on Hold for Their Aging Loved Ones
Real Caregivers Share Advice for Real People Preparing to Care for a Parent
The Caregiving Crunch: What It Is, Why It Matters to Your Senior Loved One
How Respite Care Helped Restore a Family Relationship
The State of the Art: Caregiving
10 Must-Have Caregiver Resources for Family Caregivers
Keeping Your Senior Loved One Safe in the Summer
7 Caregiving Hacks Family Caregivers Should Know
Caregiving for a Loved One With MS
A Friend in Need: How Professional Caregivers Become More Than Givers of Care
I Was Worried about My Mom After the Holidays. Here’s How Home Care Could Help.
How Respite Care Can Help Ease the Sibling Tension When Caring for Elderly Parents
Building Family Consensus When Your Elderly Parent Needs Care
How to Communicate with Your Loved One Who Has Parkinson's
Avoid Poor Communication with Someone Who Has Dementia
What to Expect When You Become Your Loved One’s Caregiver
How to Balance Work and Being a Caregiver to Your Elderly Loved One
Move from Caregiver to Daughter Again with Respite Care
Best Apps and Digital Tools to Help You as a Caregiver
10 Realistic Ways to Manage Caregiver Stress
Finding Elderly Care That Fits Your Life
Post-Hospital Discharge Care — An Under-Used Part of In-Home Care
Managing Stress as a Senior Home Care Provider for a Relative
Caregivers Prepare Seniors for
Impending Weather Wallop
Flu Becomes Widespread and Visiting Angels protects seniors with “Fight the Flu Kits”
The Visiting Angels Difference
Saying Thank You to Your Family Caregiver
National Survey Reveals Adult Children Would Rather Talk To Their Parents About Sex Than About Taking Away Their Car Keys
Local Families Fight Heat with ‘Summer Safety Kits’ For Seniors
Looking for Home Care for a Loved One?
Here are 15 Questions to Help
In Caring for Someone with Alzheimer’s, Support is the Most Important Resource
Were You Home for the Holidays? Does your loved need help to stay at home safely?
Nutritional Needs and Aging. What do seniors need to watch to maintain a healthy lifestyle.
Holidays are a wonderful time when children return home to visit their parents, in-laws, and loved ones. If you’re visiting your elderly loved ones this year and notice a few warning signs, consider senior care as an option.
Show your gratitude each and every day especially when it comes to elders, the elderly and seniors requiring homecare
How Important is the Socialization of the Elderly?
Please pass along our thanks to Tim, Chris, Linda, and Theresa for all they have done.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2790
|
__label__cc
| 0.58952
| 0.41048
|
Wasco Contributes to York County Community College Capital Campaign
Home / News / Wasco Contributes to York County Community College Capital Campaign
L to r: Jeff Frank, Christian Magnuson, Sara Havard, Marc Brunelle, Dr. Barbara Finkelstein
Wasco CEO, Jeff Frank; Wasco COO, Sara Havard; and Wasco’s President, Christian Magnuson presented York County Community College (YCCC) President, Dr. Barbara Finkelstein and York County Community College Foundation (YCCCF) Chair, Marc Brunelle with a gift of $76,000 in support of YCCC’s Capital Campaign for its new academic building.
“Wasco’s support of YCCC is based in the belief that access to an affordable, quality higher education is essential to workforce and economic development as well as life enrichment.” said Chris Magnuson.
The College has outgrown its current 78,000 square foot building which opened its doors in 1995. The new building will provide much-needed instructional space through eight state-of-the-art classrooms, independent and group study areas and a Developmental Mathematics and English Lab. The building will house a 140 seat lecture/performance hall and attached flexible classroom/backstage area allowing the College to hold larger classes as well as host community events.
The YCCC “Changing Lives & Strengthening Community” Campaign is now in its public fundraising phase. For more information about the campaign or to make a donation please visit www.yccc.edu.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2794
|
__label__wiki
| 0.992709
| 0.992709
|
Special prosecutor charges Scott Taylor campaign aide with election fraud in signature scheme
Former congressman Scott Taylor (R) and his successor, Rep. Elaine Luria (D). (Vicki Cronis-Nohe/For The Washington Post)
By Gregory S. Schneider and
Gregory S. Schneider
Reporter covering Virginia from the Richmond bureau
Jenna Portnoy
Reporter covering Virginia, Maryland and D.C. congressional delegations
A special prosecutor filed two charges of election fraud against a campaign staffer for former Republican congressman Scott Taylor of Virginia but did not say if Taylor broke any laws in a fraudulent ballot-signature scheme.
Donald S. Caldwell, the special prosecutor assigned to the case, confirmed that Lauren Creekmore Peabody was charged Monday with two counts of election fraud for allegedly signing petitions that included forged names.
Last fall, a Richmond judge found that several staffers from Taylor’s reelection campaign had submitted false signatures on petitions to help a rival, Shaun Brown, get on the ballot to run against him.
[Judge orders independent candidate off the ballot in Va. congressional race, citing “out and out fraud”]
Democrats said Taylor was trying to split the opposing vote so he could win a second term representing the Virginia Beach-area congressional district.
The scandal represented a turning point in the race, helping propel the Democratic nominee, Elaine Luria, to victory in November in a swing district that had been carried by President Trump in 2016.
Citing the Fifth Amendment, Taylor’s staffers declined to testify in the case against Brown. But the Virginia Beach commonwealth’s attorney asked the court to appoint his counterpart in Roanoke, Caldwell, as special prosecutor to see if there were criminal violations.
“Is there probable cause to believe that violations of Virginia law were committed by one or more persons in the submission of election petitions for Shaun Brown?” Caldwell wrote in a statement issued Monday afternoon. “Based upon the facts that have been developed at this point in time, the answer to this question is clearly yes.”
Caldwell wrote that he found “no collusion” between Taylor and Brown to have her run as an independent in the race. He did find that Taylor met with staffers in his congressional office last June and made the decision to help Brown “by using available campaign resources to circulate petitions on her behalf.”
But Caldwell noted that simply circulating petitions for someone else — “whatever their motivation for that decision” — is not a crime. And he said there was no evidence of any directive to create fake signatures.
[A Republican congressman helped a rival collect signatures to get on the ballot. Some of those signatures were fake.]
He added, though, that “what actually happened within the campaign headquarters is still a subject of investigation due primarily to the lack of cooperation of key individuals.” The investigation continues, Caldwell said, and “the full explanation of what happened will hopefully be answered in the months to come.”
Caldwell said based on the information available to police, the questionable petitions were produced by a group of six to eight people, whom he did not identify.
Jake Rubenstein, spokesman for the Democratic Party of Virginia, said Caldwell’s statement “made it crystal clear: Scott Taylor’s campaign participated in a criminal forgery scheme to cheat the voters of a district Taylor represented. We are proud that our lawsuit was able to shed light into this clear attempt to undermine Virginia’s free and fair election process.”
In a short statement, Luria campaign spokesman Chris Carroll said the congresswoman is focused on doing her job “with energy and integrity.”
Taylor framed the prosecutor’s findings as “a complete vindication. . . . Today serves as a complete repudiation of the smears and lies leveled against me in the campaign last year,” he said in a statement distributed on social media.
The findings seem to contradict Taylor’s initial statements last year, in which he distanced himself from the effort to help Brown and said he was “in D.C. when this stuff happened.” Caldwell established that Taylor was in on the initial decision.
But Taylor has consistently said he did not know of any plan to create fake signatures, and Caldwell said the former congressman had cooperated with the investigation.
Democrats seized on the scandal during the campaign and produced multiple ads questioning Taylor’s integrity.
On Tuesday, Taylor suggested he might take legal action, tweeting, “Statute of limitations has certainly not run out. We WILL be exploring all legal options. Threshold for defamation against a public figure is disseminating info you knew was false, with malicious intent.”
He also seemed to blame the scandal for his defeat.
“It is clear the millions spent by the dishonest Democrats impacted the outcome of the race,” Taylor said.
Local newsletters: Local headlines (8 a.m.) | Afternoon Buzz (4 p.m.)
Like PostLocal on Facebook | Follow @postlocal on Twitter | Latest local news
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2795
|
__label__cc
| 0.712031
| 0.287969
|
Alternatives/Direct
ESG and Impact Investing
Nevada Tax Advantage
Philanthropic Advising and Consulting
Investment Management and Consulting
Family Legacy Services
Real Estate & Energy
Checklist for a Smooth Estate Transition
A 5-Point Checklist for a Smooth HNW Estate Transition
Not long ago, during an estate plan review for a prospective Whittier Trust client, the firm’s representatives discovered an important issue. The potential client’s child from his first marriage was set up to take over his business — in which he’d given his second wife voting control.
That situation could have led to serious interpersonal strife, not to mention expensive legal battles, after the potential client’s death. And it testifies to the need for iron-clad estate planning, which can make sure that such dangers don’t crop up.
“No one wants to talk about their will or what will happen when they die, but it’s imperative, especially when you have significant assets,” said Thomas Frank, Executive Vice President and Northern California Regional Manager for Whittier Trust.
Moreover, people should revisit their estate plans periodically, at least every three to five years, Frank said. That’s because people often forget certain provisions, such as bequests to people who are no longer alive or from whom they’re estranged, but also because conditions change. A document, Frank said, can become “stale,” neglecting to take into account changes in assets or tax laws.
Checklist for a smooth wealth transfer
That noted, here are five steps that high-net-worth (HNW) and ultra-high-net-worth (UHNW) individuals should take to help ensure a seamless estate transition:
Cast a fine net. A review of your estate plan needs to catch all of its potential weaknesses and take into account factors that might not have occurred to you.
International assets in particular can tend to slip through the cracks.”As our world becomes more globally connected, we run into clients who have assets outside of the U.S.,” said Frank. “The laws of other countries are very different, so people shouldn’t assume that the document that controls their U.S. estate plan will be effective in another country.”One client, who was born in Latin America but is now a U.S. citizen, assumed his estate plan covered the assets he owns in a Latin American country. It didn’t. When that client came to Whittier, Frank referred him to a specialist who handles cross-border estate planning.
Tell your executor or successor where to find everything. Many people assume it’s wise to keep important papers, such as their will and trust documents, in a safe deposit box. That can be a problem, according to Frank, because those documents are often required to prove that someone has been designated as your executor.”It’s best when we know the combination to your safe and where to find your safe deposit box key,” Frank said. “Provide copies of documents to the people who will need them, including all of your power-of-attorney documents.”It’s also crucial to provide your executor with a list of your logins and passwords, along with an inventory of your assets.
Limit surprises to your heirs. Possibly one of the most difficult decisions for wealthy families, according to Frank, is how much to tell their children about their estate plan — and when to do so.”In my experience, the more you can tell the heirs, particularly if the situation is complicated, the better they will receive it when the time comes,” he said.A third-party facilitator from the Whittier team or a trained psychologist can be helpful, especially if there are complicated family dynamics, Frank said.”If one sibling is in charge or one is dramatically favored, that can be a disaster that worsens family strains or creates one that didn’t exist,” said Frank.When it comes to dividing the estate, “fair” doesn’t necessarily mean “equal.” Whatever the particulars, previewing the plan is generally the best way to avoid triggering sibling or other rivalries.You don’t have to attach any numbers to the process, but initiating a conversation about your plans and then introducing your heirs to your professional team of lawyers, accountants, trustees and investment managers can help them know what to expect.
Think about who will manage everything. The people or institutions you choose to fulfill executorship or trustee duties will be dealing with your assets and with your children and other heirs. A professional or institutional trustee can be less expensive in the long run if it helps you avoid intrafamily litigation, Frank noted.”It can be problematic to name your spouse who is a stepparent to your kids as executor, or to name one sibling to that role,” he said. “If you name a neutral professional third party as executor or trustee, then you can give one or more of your children the right to remove and replace that trustee to keep control in the family while limiting liability and keeping family tension to a minimum.”In one recent situation, a surviving spouse lacked the financial acumen to handle an estate’s business and real estate assets. Her stepson ended up suing her for control of the estate, at which point Whittier was brought in to manage the issues and communicate transparently with both the widow and her stepson.
Choose the right location for your trusts and assets. Trust law is state-specific, with varied rules about how long assets can stay in a trust, whether changes can be made, how investments are to be handled and whether state income taxes are incurred on a trust’s earnings.”One California couple with about $80 million in assets had trusts set up for their two sons with the parents as trustees,” said Frank. “But we showed them that shifting the ownership to corporate ownership by Whittier in Nevada could save them the 13 percent California tax on income the trust generated.”Frank recommends working with a qualified attorney or CPA to understand the tax implications of your estate plan, especially given recent tax changes.”Wealth transfer isn’t a do-it-yourself exercise,” he said.High-net-worth families have much to lose when it comes to passing their wealth down through the generations. Given the complexities they face, they’ll find that the services of an expert management team pay for themselves — and foremost among those services is help drafting that sine qua non of wealth transfer, a watertight estate plan.
Written in partnership with Forbes BrandVoice.
5-POINT CHECKLIST FOR A SMOOTH WEALTH TRANSFER
Cast a fine net.
Tell your executor or successor where to find everything.
Limit surprises to your heirs.
Think about who will manage everything.
Choose the right location for your trusts and assets.
Dan Phan 2019-06-26T21:53:08+00:00
How can we help? We look forward to hearing from you. By phone 800.971.3660 or by email.
© Copyright Whittier Trust. All Rights Reserved. *Data as of 12/31/18. Home | Careers | Terms of Use | Privacy Policy | Portfolio Manager
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2813
|
__label__wiki
| 0.865039
| 0.865039
|
Home Cricket
Bangladesh Cricket team Squad For 2019 Cricket World Cup
Bangladesh Cricket Team Squad is announced for the 2019 World Cup in England and wales. Pace bowler Abu Jayed Rahi and veteran Mosaddek Hossain sealed the place while fast bowler Taskin Ahmed faced disappointment from the selectors.
Abu Jayed Rahi, who recently has played the test series in foreign soil New Zealand, but has not yet got chance to participate in an limited over one-day match for the national team, was the surprise inclusion for many.
Taskin had recently made an come back from injury and played in a Dhaka Premier League match (List A), but his physical fitness problem played a hand in him and was omitted from the World Cup.
Middle order batter Mosaddek Hossain, who last played for Bangladesh in the Asian Cup last year, has returned to the world cup.
Bangladesh selectors also named pacer Abu Jayed in the squad. Jayed, who has yet to make his debut in ODIs, was impressed with his bowling during the tests in New Zealand last month.
Bangladesh will start its World Cup campaign against South Africa at the Kennington Oval on June 2. Prior to that, they will play two practice matches against Pakistan and India on May 26 and 28, respectively.
In addition to Bangladesh, New Zealand, Australia and India have also announced their squadrons for the prestigious quadrennial event from May 30.
In addition, the Bangladesh Cricket Board (BCB) also announced a team of 17 men for the three-nation series in Ireland to be played in May before the World Cup.
The president of the BCB had reiterated previously that, since changes could be made to the World Cup team until May 23, the board will finish the team at the end of the Ireland series.
The batsman Yasir Ali and the spinner Naeem Hasan were added to the lineup that included the 15 already named in the World Cup team.
The duo will have the opportunity to claim a place in the World Cup team if they perform in the three-nation series.
1 Bangladesh Cricket team Confirmed Updated Squad For Cricket World Cup 2019
2 Bangladesh Cricket Team Schedule For World Cup 2019
2.1 Here is Bangladesh’s schedule for the league stage:
3 ICC World Cup 2019 Bangladesh Team Fixtures in PDF
4 Bangladesh Cricket Team Captain for world cup 2019
5 Bangladesh Cricket Team Logo
6 Bangladesh Cricket Team New Jersey For Cricket World Cup 2019 Launched.
Bangladesh Cricket team Confirmed Updated Squad For Cricket World Cup 2019
Bangladesh cricket team final players list
Mashrafe Mortaza (c), Tamim Iqbal, Liton Das, Soumya Sarkar, Mushfiqur Rahim (wk), Mahmudullah Riyad, Shakib Al Hasan (vc), Mohammad Mithun (wk), Sabbir Rahman, Mosaddek Hossain, Mohammad Saifuddin, Mehidy Hasan, Rubel Hossain, Mustafizur Rahman, Abu Jayed
Bangladesh Cricket Team Schedule For World Cup 2019
Here is Bangladesh’s schedule for the league stage:
Date Opponent Venue
June 2 South Africa The Oval
June 5 New Zealand The Oval
June 8 England Cardiff
June 11 Sri Lanka Bristol
June 17 West Indies Taunton
June 20 Australia Nottingham
June 24 Afghanistan Southampton
July 2 India Birmingham
July 5 Pakistan Lord’s
ICC World Cup 2019 Bangladesh Team Fixtures in PDF
Bangladesh Cricket Team Captain for world cup 2019
Q)Who is the captain of Bangladesh Cricket Team in 2019 ICC Cricket World Cup?
Ans) Mashrafe Mortaza is the captain of Bangladesh cricket for cricket world cup 2019
Mortaza is also the first active cricketer to bag this position in his country. Mashrafe had officially entered politics in November when he received confirmation of his nomination from Awami League.
Bangladesh Cricket Team Logo
Bangladesh Cricket Team New Jersey For Cricket World Cup 2019 Launched.
2019 World Cup team squad
Bangladesh Squad for cricket world cup 2019
Bangladesh_Cricket team
Bangladesh_Cricket team Logo
EWA 165 & 1-101(57.5 & 25.1)
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2820
|
__label__wiki
| 0.501071
| 0.501071
|
The Legislature Today Podcast
Senate Leadership Makes Historic Move with Education Reform Bill
By Liz McCormick • Jan 28, 2019
Listen to The Legislature Today on Jan. 28, 2019.
The omnibus education reform bill is the talk of the Capitol’s halls. A historic move was made by Senate leadership Monday to have the bill, SB 451, reported to the floor and be considered by “the committee as a whole” – meaning all 34 senators would consider the bill from the floor in the same manner as if it were still in committee.
Senior Statehouse Reporter Dave Mistich joins host Suzanne Higgins to outline the latest on SB 451.
Senate Majority Leader Tom Takubo, R-Kanawha, and Senate Minority Leader Roman Prezioso, D-Marion, also join our show to add their thoughts on the motion to move SB 451 to the full Senate and bypass the traditional committee process.
It was Higher Education Day at the Capitol, and the state's two and four-year colleges and universities were recognized for their many contributions. But significant questions remain about oversight and a future funding formula. Reporter Randy Yohe updates us on Gov. Jim Justice’s Blue Ribbon Commission on Higher Education.
On Tuesday’s show, we’ll have a conversation with the new Director of the Office of Drug Control Policy Robert Hansen and the Chair of Governor's Advisory Council on Substance Use Disorder Brian Gallagher.
Omnibus Education Reform Bill
West Virginia Legislature 2019
Blue Ribbon Commission on Four-Year Higher Education
Education Reform Bill Could Dominate the Session
We bring you another Friday Reporter Roundtable. Host Suzanne Higgins is joined by statehouse reporters to recap the week and look ahead to the next. We explore the massive education reform bill, the debate over legalizing cannabis in West Virginia, child welfare needs, and the latest on legislation related to an Intermediate Court of Appeals.
Omnibus Education Reform Bill Unveiled
A huge education reform bill was revealed in the Senate Education Committee. We bring you up-to-date on the bill’s latest action, and we also take a closer look at broadband expansion legislation moving through the statehouse.
A Growing Oil and Natural Gas Industry Versus Landowner Rights
West Virginia Public Broadcasting’s Energy and Environment Reporter Brittany Patterson leads a discussion with Del. Joshua Higginbotham and Sen. Stephen Baldwin about the growth of the oil and gas industry in West Virginia, and the challenges that go along with it. We also hear the latest in statehouse news with Senior Statehouse Reporter Dave Mistich.
Bill to Overhaul W.Va.’s Foster Care System Begins to Move in the House
We take an in-depth look at House Bill 2010 – modifying the state’s foster care system by transitioning it into managed care. We’ll also bring you the latest action on Senate Bill 1 – the ‘last dollar in’ community and technical college bill, and we have a piece on volunteerism in West Virginia.
Revamping the W.Va. School Aid Funding Formula
President of the West Virginia Board of Education David Perry joins host Suzanne Higgins to weigh in on multiple proposals this session, including their own to the school aid funding formula. We'll also have our Social Media Monday segment and the latest from the Capitol with Senior Statehouse Reporter Dave Mistich.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2824
|
__label__cc
| 0.710121
| 0.289879
|
NOWCAST WXII 12 News at 5 am
How to make yourself actually enjoy exercise
How to enjoy exercise, create a routine
Updated: 4:07 PM EST Jan 3, 2019
Catriona Harvey-Jenner
Digital Features Editor
While many of us may cancel our gym classes or hit the snooze button before the morning run we promised ourselves we'd take, believe it or not, there are people out there who genuinely enjoy exercise. And you could be one of them, because, it turns out, it's not actually an impossible feat.Exercising shouldn't be a chore, and it will never be sustainable if you don't like doing it. Most importantly, you have to find something that you enjoy doing, and keep doing, as persistence is key with any fitness regimen. Often, there is a turning point for those who struggle to keep to a workout routine once they find what they like. Here's what clicked for some of our favorite trainers and fitness influencers: Carly Rowena, health and fitness blogger "I used to go to the gym after work, run on the treadmill and perform a couple of ab exercises. I was bored, demotivated and lacking results. My turning point? Realizing that exercise is simply movement and to see results you need to find something you love. That’s where I found weights and subsequently CrossFit. "The no-mirrors, no fancy-frills approach meant I didn’t spend my workouts looking at my body or scrutinizing the parts I disliked, instead I spent my time being inspired by others around me and dreaming of the moment I could finally do toes-to-bar or a a full pull-up. So if, like me, you’re struggling to enjoy exercise, I’d recommend thinking about ways to move that you enjoy. Dance, walk, climb, skate, gymnastics — all of these have one thing in common: you move and you smile and that’s the best way to get endorphins and health into your life!" Kira Mahal, founder of MotivatePT"One morning before work, when I was feeling particularly tired and burnt out, I very reluctantly did a HIIT class and couldn't believe the post-workout endorphin rush. That was it, I was hooked, I wanted to feel that way every morning on my way into work. That feeling stayed with me most of the day and, from there, I started working out four mornings a week. Fitness for me was very much a mental tool before it became about the physical."Alice Liveing, health & well-being influencer and personal trainer"It’s always the question I’m asked most. 'Do you actually enjoy working out?' For most people, dragging themselves to the gym can feel like a bit of a chore, which is why I am so passionate about encouraging everyone to not follow the crowd and to instead find a way of exercising they truly enjoy. "That’s what changed for me, when I first started weight training it no longer mattered that I wasn’t dripping with sweat every session, or burning 'x' amount of calories, it was about having a tangible goal of getting stronger and seeing those numbers on the barbell go up as I remained consistent with my routine."Gaby Noble, Pilates expert and owner of Exhale Pilates London"I was originally introduced to the classical Pilates method to support my hypermobility and enhance my grueling training as an adrenaline junkie. I quickly realized I could actually have a great and challenging workout without totally exhausting and adding extra stress to my body. "I realized that having a good workout was not necessarily determined by how broken I felt at the end of it but actually how great I felt afterwards and how well I can move in everyday life. Knowing that I am looking after and doing good for my body, balancing muscle strength and supporting joints and clearing my mind, whilst also having the accomplished feeling of a tough workout is a much better feeling than feeling like I am going to throw up!"Tashi Skervin-Clarke, personal trainer and run coach"I started to enjoy exercising when I stopped looking for physical results and started focusing on performance. I started booking in races and started training toward achieving something other than 'looking toned' and what was once a chore became a lifestyle I loved. This happened quite a few years ago now, and I haven’t looked back. Running a new personal best or lifting a PB in the weight section is the best feeling and it’s much more rewarding than a number on the scales. Find what motivates other than a number on the scales and chase it." Jessamyn Stanley, yoga teacher and body positivity advocate"I started enjoying exercise when I tapped into the wisdom of my inner child. Once I realized that the weird little kid who used to run, skip, prance and dance around her neighborhood like a decapitated chicken was still alive and kicking inside of me, I remembered that physical activity isn’t supposed to cause anxiety — it’s meant to be fun."Nick Mitchell, celebrity personal trainer and founder of Ultimate Performance"When I was a teenager, I was captured by the way Arnold Schwarzenegger trained. It epitomizes what weight training should be about for me. Training sessions should be all fire and brimstone, but tempered with a sense of fun and fulfillment. It is this feeling that gave me a lifelong love of the gym and exercise (and inspired me to build a global personal training business). "My goals might not be the same as when I was a 20-something bodybuilder hell-bent on becoming as big as possible, but I am still driven to achieve new goals with my health and fitness. You will find me still lifting weights four to five times a week, but I also try to walk 30 miles a week and on non-gym days I endeavor to go on a beach run or cycle between 20 to 45 minutes. "Goal-setting and having measurable markers of progress are crucial to staying motivated and enjoying exercise. Even to this day, I give myself small gym performance goals to keep my training fresh and interesting, but my goals are more modest these days and revolve around staying healthy, enjoying exercise and being active with my family. When you find something you love doing that gives you joy, fulfillment and that bump of feel-good endorphins, it will inevitably makes exercise feel like a pleasure rather than a chore. Find that something you enjoy, and you will be set for life."Emily Hartridge, YouTuber and personal trainer"For me, having gone through a nervous breakdown, nothing beats that feeling when I box and punch that bag. It makes me feel strong, in control and everything just seems lighter after. Once you feel like that, there is no going back, and it feels absolutely amazing." AJ Odudu, trained fitness expert and TV host"I make workouts fun by finding a gym buddy. That way you get to catch up with your friend and have a healthy workout at the same time. You're less likely to cancel when you've got someone to catch up with post-workout. I also incentivize my workout. I'll treat myself to a facial or massage if I achieve my monthly fitness goals, and I regularly visualize the treat of sitting in the gym sauna after a workout on a cold winter's day." Bradley Simmonds, fitness influencer"I’m quite competitive naturally, so doing team sports with the chance of winning was always an enjoyment for me. You almost forget that it’s exercise and in fact focus on working as a team for that end result of winning."More recently, training with other like-minded people that I can learn from and share my knowledge with, has made exercise really enjoyable for me. I’m learning new techniques, pushing myself and exceeding my own expectations. This sense of achievement makes exercise exciting, especially when sharing it with others."
While many of us may cancel our gym classes or hit the snooze button before the morning run we promised ourselves we'd take, believe it or not, there are people out there who genuinely enjoy exercise. And you could be one of them, because, it turns out, it's not actually an impossible feat.
Exercising shouldn't be a chore, and it will never be sustainable if you don't like doing it. Most importantly, you have to find something that you enjoy doing, and keep doing, as persistence is key with any fitness regimen. Often, there is a turning point for those who struggle to keep to a workout routine once they find what they like.
All the horrifying things that can happen to your body when you sit all day
New exercise guidelines: Move more, sit less, start younger
Former addict turned personal trainer hopes to help other addicts recover through exercise
10 ridiculously fun exercises for kids
The 5 best exercises for your body
Here's what clicked for some of our favorite trainers and fitness influencers:
Carly Rowena, health and fitness blogger
"I used to go to the gym after work, run on the treadmill and perform a couple of ab exercises. I was bored, demotivated and lacking results. My turning point? Realizing that exercise is simply movement and to see results you need to find something you love. That’s where I found weights and subsequently CrossFit.
"The no-mirrors, no fancy-frills approach meant I didn’t spend my workouts looking at my body or scrutinizing the parts I disliked, instead I spent my time being inspired by others around me and dreaming of the moment I could finally do toes-to-bar or a a full pull-up. So if, like me, you’re struggling to enjoy exercise, I’d recommend thinking about ways to move that you enjoy. Dance, walk, climb, skate, gymnastics — all of these have one thing in common: you move and you smile and that’s the best way to get endorphins and health into your life!"
Kira Mahal, founder of MotivatePT
"One morning before work, when I was feeling particularly tired and burnt out, I very reluctantly did a HIIT class and couldn't believe the post-workout endorphin rush. That was it, I was hooked, I wanted to feel that way every morning on my way into work. That feeling stayed with me most of the day and, from there, I started working out four mornings a week. Fitness for me was very much a mental tool before it became about the physical."
MONDAY MOOD 😊empty office ✅ first in ✅ workout done✌🏼#werkwerkwerk #mondaymotivation
A post shared by K I R A M A H A L (@kiramahal) on Jul 30, 2018 at 12:44am PDT
Alice Liveing, health & well-being influencer and personal trainer
"It’s always the question I’m asked most. 'Do you actually enjoy working out?' For most people, dragging themselves to the gym can feel like a bit of a chore, which is why I am so passionate about encouraging everyone to not follow the crowd and to instead find a way of exercising they truly enjoy.
"That’s what changed for me, when I first started weight training it no longer mattered that I wasn’t dripping with sweat every session, or burning 'x' amount of calories, it was about having a tangible goal of getting stronger and seeing those numbers on the barbell go up as I remained consistent with my routine."
Junk food adverts on the tube - what do you think? This week in the news, the mayor of London announced a ban on junk food advertising across London's entire public transport network which will be introduced next year. Under the scheme, posters for food and drink high in fat, salt and sugar will vanish from the Underground, Overground, buses and bus shelters. This is, in his words, a way to tackle the "ticking time bomb" of child obesity in the capital. A scarily loaded statement, if you ask me. It’s saddened me to see that this is seen as a legitimate way to tackle the so called ‘obesity epidemic’. Unfortunately what this latest objective does in my opinion, is to completely ignore the wider societal issues that drive obesity. I’m not an expert in this field, and there are many who speak far more articulately than I on the subject (@helenlouwest being one) - but I do feel strongly that this latest idea completely misses the mark. Simply removing advertising does NOTHING to educate those who’s (through no fault of their own) knowledge of good nutrition is depressingly poor, nor does it address the socioeconomic factors that are far more likely to be the cause of obesity in this country. I for one certainly don’t see simply removing the advertising is going to stop people eating ‘junk’ food either. As a trainer, it saddens me to see us starting to move further and further away from understanding and tackling the causes of obesity and instead creating knee jerk policies that I believe will have little impact. I’d love to hear your thoughts on this. I’m happy to be challenged and am in no way saying my opinion is fact!
A post shared by Alice (@aliceliveing) on Nov 27, 2018 at 12:00am PST
Gaby Noble, Pilates expert and owner of Exhale Pilates London
"I was originally introduced to the classical Pilates method to support my hypermobility and enhance my grueling training as an adrenaline junkie. I quickly realized I could actually have a great and challenging workout without totally exhausting and adding extra stress to my body.
"I realized that having a good workout was not necessarily determined by how broken I felt at the end of it but actually how great I felt afterwards and how well I can move in everyday life. Knowing that I am looking after and doing good for my body, balancing muscle strength and supporting joints and clearing my mind, whilst also having the accomplished feeling of a tough workout is a much better feeling than feeling like I am going to throw up!"
A post shared by Alice (@aliceliveing) on Jan 2, 2019 at 11:36pm PST
Tashi Skervin-Clarke, personal trainer and run coach
"I started to enjoy exercising when I stopped looking for physical results and started focusing on performance. I started booking in races and started training toward achieving something other than 'looking toned' and what was once a chore became a lifestyle I loved. This happened quite a few years ago now, and I haven’t looked back. Running a new personal best or lifting a PB in the weight section is the best feeling and it’s much more rewarding than a number on the scales. Find what motivates other than a number on the scales and chase it."
Back running and this morning we did a half marathon trail with a twist. One of us had to be on the bike whilst the other ran, so we played to our strengths and swapped every 3km. We’ve got one more run to do tomorrow before we head home on Friday and it’s a 9km trail. @raidamazones you’ve saved the best till last 🔥
A post shared by TASHI💍 (@tashi_skervinclarke) on Oct 17, 2018 at 12:20am PDT
Jessamyn Stanley, yoga teacher and body positivity advocate
"I started enjoying exercise when I tapped into the wisdom of my inner child. Once I realized that the weird little kid who used to run, skip, prance and dance around her neighborhood like a decapitated chicken was still alive and kicking inside of me, I remembered that physical activity isn’t supposed to cause anxiety — it’s meant to be fun."
A post shared by Jessamyn (@mynameisjessamyn) on Dec 29, 2018 at 7:00pm PST
Nick Mitchell, celebrity personal trainer and founder of Ultimate Performance
"When I was a teenager, I was captured by the way Arnold Schwarzenegger trained. It epitomizes what weight training should be about for me. Training sessions should be all fire and brimstone, but tempered with a sense of fun and fulfillment. It is this feeling that gave me a lifelong love of the gym and exercise (and inspired me to build a global personal training business).
"My goals might not be the same as when I was a 20-something bodybuilder hell-bent on becoming as big as possible, but I am still driven to achieve new goals with my health and fitness. You will find me still lifting weights four to five times a week, but I also try to walk 30 miles a week and on non-gym days I endeavor to go on a beach run or cycle between 20 to 45 minutes.
"Goal-setting and having measurable markers of progress are crucial to staying motivated and enjoying exercise. Even to this day, I give myself small gym performance goals to keep my training fresh and interesting, but my goals are more modest these days and revolve around staying healthy, enjoying exercise and being active with my family. When you find something you love doing that gives you joy, fulfillment and that bump of feel-good endorphins, it will inevitably makes exercise feel like a pleasure rather than a chore. Find that something you enjoy, and you will be set for life."
A post shared by Nick Mitchell (@heynickmitchell) on Dec 18, 2018 at 5:15am PST
Emily Hartridge, YouTuber and personal trainer
"For me, having gone through a nervous breakdown, nothing beats that feeling when I box and punch that bag. It makes me feel strong, in control and everything just seems lighter after. Once you feel like that, there is no going back, and it feels absolutely amazing."
NOT A STRONG WOMAN...JUST STRONG❗ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ #strong #strength #gains #lean #abs #muscles #fit #pt #personaltrainer #motivation #inspiration #fitnessmodel #health #healthandfitness #boxing #girlswhobox #yoga #yogi #f45 #training #exercise #london
A post shared by Emily Hartridge (@emilyhartridge) on Nov 28, 2018 at 11:49pm PST
AJ Odudu, trained fitness expert and TV host
"I make workouts fun by finding a gym buddy. That way you get to catch up with your friend and have a healthy workout at the same time. You're less likely to cancel when you've got someone to catch up with post-workout. I also incentivize my workout. I'll treat myself to a facial or massage if I achieve my monthly fitness goals, and I regularly visualize the treat of sitting in the gym sauna after a workout on a cold winter's day."
Float like a butterfly sting like a bee 🥊 #WorkoutWednesday boxed off with @fashercise 👊🏾💥 #MakeThemSeeStars
A post shared by AJ Odudu (@ajodudu) on Nov 7, 2018 at 5:30am PST
Bradley Simmonds, fitness influencer
"I’m quite competitive naturally, so doing team sports with the chance of winning was always an enjoyment for me. You almost forget that it’s exercise and in fact focus on working as a team for that end result of winning.
"More recently, training with other like-minded people that I can learn from and share my knowledge with, has made exercise really enjoyable for me. I’m learning new techniques, pushing myself and exceeding my own expectations. This sense of achievement makes exercise exciting, especially when sharing it with others."
This will be me tomorrow hating every second of it. But unfortunately it is what is required if i want the results I aim for. It’s now become a discomfort that I can handle and go back for more. The final outcome will always over power the present struggles 👊🏼 It takes willpower and self belief that you can get past that barrier the struggle. You’ve all got what it takes, even those that massively doubt themselves 👊🏼 #mondaymotivation
A post shared by bradleysimmonds (@bradleysimmonds) on Nov 11, 2018 at 1:27pm PST
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2825
|
__label__wiki
| 0.997404
| 0.997404
|
Category:Municipalities Of The Philippines
1,489 Municipalities in the Philippines
The philippines is divided into Regions, Provinces, Cities, Municipalities, and Barangays.
Below is a list of municipalities listed in Alphabetical Order.
To get the list of municipalities within each province, go to the Province page.
The Philippine Government defines a municipality as "a political corporate body which is endowed with the facilities of a municipal corporation, exercised by and through the municipal government in conformity with law. It is a subsidiary of the province which consists of a number of barangays within its territorial boundaries, one of which is the seat of government found at the town proper (poblacion)".
One very important factor to remember is that MUNICIPALITIES are not classified as CITIES. The list of cities in the Philippines will continue to increase as municipalities later become cities.
As municipalities become cities the number of municipalities will diminish. However, as municipalities can reduce in number they may also increase in number. The number of municipalities may increase as Municipalities or Provinces get subdivided.
A municipality must qualify to be classified as a city.
Help develop this municipality site: Cabatuan, Iloilo.
The presidents of the Philippines haven't shown any respect for the Barangay system. Not a single president so far has honored the name of the barangay where the Malacañang Palace is located in. Will the 16th president (Duterte) be the first to start respecting the barangay system? So far he hasn't. As citizens, you can ask the president to do so. You can also help update the barangay pages in two ways: (1) by sending your information or pictures via email to franklin_maletsky@yahoo.com, (2) by messaging your information or pictures via Facebook.
Click on the letter to go to the first letter of the Municipality's name:
A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T U V W X Y Z
Pages in category "Municipalities Of The Philippines"
Oas, Albay, Philippines
Obando, Bulacan, Philippines
Ocampo, Camarines Sur, Philippines
Odiongan, Romblon, Philippines
Old Panamao, Sulu, Philippines
Olutanga, Zamboanga Sibugay, Philippines
Omar, Sulu, Philippines
Opol, Misamis Oriental, Philippines
Orani, Bataan, Philippines
Oras, Eastern Samar, Philippines
Orion, Bataan, Philippines
Oslob Cebu Philippines
Oton, Iloilo, Philippines
Pacita 1, San Pedro, Laguna, Philippines
Padada, Davao del Sur, Phlippines
Padre Burgos, Quezon, Philippines
Padre Burgos, Southern Leyte, Philippines
Padre Garcia, Batangas, Philippines
Paete, Laguna, Philippines
Pagagawan, Maguindanao, Philippines
Pagalungan, Maguindanao, Philippines
Pagayawan, Lanao del Sur, Philippines
Pagbilao, Quezon, Philippines
Paglat, Maguindanao, Philippines
Pagsanghan, Samar, Philippines
Pagsanjan, Laguna, Philippines
Pagudpud, Ilocos Norte, Philippines
Pakil, Laguna, Philippines
Palanan, Isabela, Philippines
Palanas, Masbate, Philippines
Palapag, Northern Samar, Philippines
Palauig, Zambales, Philippines
Palimbang, Sultan Kudarat, Philippines
Palo, Leyte, Philippines
Palompon, Leyte, Philippines
Paluan, Mindoro Occidental, Philippines
Pambujan, Northern Samar, Philippines
Pamplona, Cagayan, Philippines
Pamplona, Camarines Sur, Philippines
Pamplona, Negros Oriental, Philippines
Panaon, Misamis Occidental, Philippines
Panay, Capiz, Philippines
Pandag, Maguindanao, Philippines
Pandami, Sulu, Philippines
Pandan, Antique, Philippines
Pandan, Catanduanes, Philippines
Pandi, Bulacan, Philippines
Panganiban, Catanduanes, Philippines
Pangantucan, Bukidnon, Philippines
Pangil, Laguna, Philippines
Panglao, Bohol, Philippines
Panglima Estino, Sulu, Philippines
Panglima Sugala, Tawi-Tawi, Philippines
Pangutaran, Sulu, Philippines
Paniqui, Tarlac, Philippines
Panitan, Capiz, Philippines
Pantabangan, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Pantao Ragat, Lanao del Norte, Philippines
Pantar, Lanao del Norte, Philippines
Pantukan, Compostela Valley, Philippines
Panukulan, Quezon, Philippines
Paoay, Ilocos Norte, Philippines
Paombong, Bulacan, Philippines
Paracale, Camarines Norte, Philippines
Paracelis, Mountain Province, Philippines
Paranas, Samar, Philippines
Parang, Maguindanao, Philippines
Parang, Sulu, Philippines
Pasacao, Camarines Sur, Philippines
Pasil, Kalinga, Philippines
Pastrana, Leyte, Philippines
Pasuquin, Ilocos Norte, Philippines
Pata, Sulu, Philippines
Pateros City, Philippines
Patikul, Sulu, Philippines
Patnanungan, Quezon, Philippines
Patnongon, Antique, Philippines
Pavia, Iloilo, Philippines
Payao, Zamboanga Sibugay, Philippines
Perez, Quezon, Philippines
Peñablanca, Cagayan, Philippines
Peñaranda, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Peñarrubia, Abra, Philippines
Piagapo, Lanao del Sur, Philippines
Piat, Cagayan, Philippines
Picong, Lanao del Sur, Philippines
Piddig, Ilocos Norte, Philippines
Pidigan, Abra, Philippines
Pigkawayan, Cotabato, Philippines
Pikit, Cotabato, Philippines
Pila, Laguna, Philippines
Pilar Cebu Philippines
Pilar, Abra, Philippines
Pilar, Bataan, Philippines
Pilar, Bohol, Philippines
Pilar, Capiz, Philippines
Pilar, Sorsogon, Philippines
Pilar, Surigao del Norte, Philippines
Pili, Camarines Sur, Philippines
Pililla, Rizal, Philippines
Pinabacdao, Samar, Philippines
Pinamalayan, Mindoro Oriental, Philippines
Pinamungahan Cebu Philippines
Pinan, Zamboanga del Norte, Philippines
Pinili, Ilocos Norte, Philippines
Pintuyan, Southern Leyte, Philippines
Pinukpuk, Kalinga, Philippines
Pio Duran, Albay, Philippines
Pio V. Corpuz, Masbate, Philippines
Pitogo, Quezon, Philippines
Pitogo, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines
Placer, Masbate, Philippines
Placer, Surigao del Norte, Philippines
Plaridel, Bulacan, Philippines
Plaridel, Misamis Occidental, Philippines
Plaridel, Quezon, Philippines
Poblacion, San Pedro, Laguna, Philippines
Pola, Mindoro Oriental, Philippines
Polanco, Zamboanga del Norte, Philippines
Polangui, Albay, Philippines
Polillo, Quezon, Philippines
Polomolok, South Cotabato, Philippines
Pontevedra, Capiz, Philippines
Pontevedra, Negros Occidental, Philippines
Poona Bayabao, Lanao del Sur, Philippines
Poona Piagapo, Lanao del Norte, Philippines
Porac, Pampanga, Philippines
Poro Cebu Philippines
Pototan, Iloilo, Philippines
Pozzorubio, Pangasinan, Philippines
Pres. Carlos P. Garcia, Bohol, Philippines
Pres. Manuel Roxas, Zamboanga del Norte, Philippines
Presentacion, Camarines Sur, Philippines
President Quirino, Sultan Kudarat, Philippines
President Roxas, Capiz, Philippines
President Roxas, Cotabato, Philippines
Prieto Diaz, Sorsogon, Philippines
Prosperidad Agusan del Sur Philippines
Pualas, Lanao del Sur, Philippines
Pudtol, Apayao, Philippines
Puerto Galera, Mindoro Oriental, Philippines
Pugo, La Union, Philippines
Pulilan, Bulacan, Philippines
Pulupandan, Negros Occidental, Philippines
Pura, Tarlac, Philippines
Quezon, Bukidnon, Philippines
Quezon, Isabela, Philippines
Quezon, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Quezon, Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines
Quezon, Palawan, Philippines
Quezon, Quezon, Philippines
Quinapondan, Eastern Samar, Philippines
Quirino, Ilocos Sur, Philippines
Quirino, Isabela, Philippines
Ragay, Camarines Sur, Philippines
Rajah Buayan, Maguindanao, Philippines
Ramon Magsaysay, Zamboanga del Sur, Philippines
Ramon, Isabela, Philippines
Ramos, Tarlac, Philippines
Rapu-Rapu, Albay, Philippines
Real, Quezon, Philippines
Reina Mercedes, Isabela, Philippines
Remedios T. Romualdez Agusan del Norte Philippines
Riverside, San Pedro, Laguna, Philippines
Rizal, Cagayan, Philippines
Rizal, Kalinga, Philippines
Rizal, Laguna, Philippines
Rizal, Mindoro Occidental, Philippines
Rizal, Nueva Ecija, Philippines
Rizal, Palawan, Philippines
Rizal, Zamboanga del Norte, Philippines
Rodriguez, Rizal, Philippines
Romblon, Romblon, Philippines
Ronda Cebu Philippines
Rosales, Pangasinan, Philippines
Rosario Agusan del Sur Philippines
Rosario, Batangas, Philippines
Rosario, Cavite, Philippines
Rosario, La Union, Philippines
Rosario, Northern Samar, Philippines
Rosario, San Pedro, Laguna, Philippines
Roseller T. Lim, Zamboanga Sibugay, Philippines
Roxas, Isabela, Philippines
Roxas, Mindoro Oriental, Philippines
Roxas, Palawan, Philippines
Sabangan, Mountain Province, Philippines
Sablan, Benguet, Philippines
Sablayan, Mindoro Occidental, Philippines
Sabtang, Batanes, Philippines
Sadanga, Mountain Province, Philippines
Sagada, Mountain Province, Philippines
Sagay, Camiguin, Philippines
Sagbayan, Bohol, Philippines
Saguday, Quirino, Philippines
Saguiaran, Lanao del Sur, Philippines
Sagñay, Camarines Sur, Philippines
Saint Bernard, Southern Leyte, Philippines
Salay, Misamis Oriental, Philippines
Salcedo, Eastern Samar, Philippines
Retrieved from "https://www.zamboanga.com/z/index.php?title=Category:Municipalities_Of_The_Philippines&oldid=1121539"
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2831
|
__label__wiki
| 0.546468
| 0.546468
|
Get a charge out of this: Coulomb electric vehicle chargers hit San Jose, New York
It has been a busy month for electric vehicle charging infrastructure technology company Coulomb Technologies, which now has installed its first Network Charging Stations in San Jose, Calif. The city actually was Coulomb's first customer, apparently.
By Heather Clancy for GreenTech Pastures | July 30, 2010 -- 09:22 GMT (02:22 PDT) | Topic: Storage
The first public site using Coulomb technology in San Jose is at the McEnery Convention parking lot in downtown San Jose.
In mid-July, Coulomb flipped the switch on its first public charging stations in New York City. The public ones are supposedly free (although I wonder how long that will last). The first one is at an Edison Properties building on 9th Avenue.
All of these stations are being installed under the $37 million ChargePoint America program. The idea is to get 5,000 stations installed in nine major regions of the United States including Detroit, Los Angeles, New York, San Jose/San Francisco, Washington, D.C., Redmond/Belluvue, Wash., Orlando, Fla.; Austin, Texas; and Sacramento, Calif. If those charging stations are in place, companies like Ford and Chevrolet might have a better chance of the electric cars that they have due later this year. If you want to gawk a little, there's a cool gallery of electric vehicle charging stations photo and such here on ZDNet.
Want to know more about Coulomb's vision? Here's some commentary from the company's CEO, Richard Lowenthal:
Hardware Reviews Mobility Data Centers Cloud
Western Digital bulks up IntelliFlash family with more NVMe, high density options
Meanwhile, Western Digital's updated IntelliFlash software extends its data management feature set with transparent dataset migration and hybrid-cloud data mobility. ...
Google buys Elastifile to bolster GCP's file storage service
Elastifile lets enterprises elastically scale-out or scale-in storage capacity on-demand.
Argonne scientists perform huge file transfers to model the makeup of the Universe
A team led by Argonne National Laboratory scientists moved 2.9 petabytes of data -- in a single file transfer -- as part of a project involving some of the largest-ever cosmological ...
Micron Technology sees rebound in cloud, data center spending
Micron Technology's third quarter wasn't as bad as feared and one big reason is that cloud providers are starting to build out infrastructure after a spending pause. ...
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2833
|
__label__wiki
| 0.79364
| 0.79364
|
HP sees Q4 gains from EDS acquisition
Hewlett Packard reported a net profit of $2.11 billion, or 84 cents per share, on revenue of $33.
By Sam Diaz for Between the Lines | November 24, 2008 -- 15:40 GMT (07:40 PST) | Topic: Banking
Hewlett Packard reported a net profit of $2.11 billion, or 84 cents per share, on revenue of $33.6 billion for its fourth quarter. (Statement) The results and an outlook for 2009 matched the preliminary figures the company release on Nov. 18. The preliminary report had topped Wall Street expectations and drove shares of HP up by 14 percent that day.
HP: We’re fine for the fourth quarter, 2009
HP to cut nearly 25,000 jobs as part of EDS integration
The company was helped by its acquisition of Electronic Data Systems. Excluding EDS, the company's overall revenue grew just five percent. But with EDS, the services revenue was up 99 percent to $8.6 billion. In a statement, chairman and chief executive officer Mark Hurd, said:
HP capped off a strong year by delivering another solid quarter led by strength in our services segment and disciplined expense management. Our global reach, broad portfolio, numerous cost initiatives and consistent execution differentiate HP in the current economic environment.
The company reaffirmed its first quarter 2009 forecast of 93 cents to 95 cents per share, excluding items, on revenue of $32 to $32.5 billion. For fiscal 2009, the company is expecting earnings of $3.88 to $4.03 per share, excluding items, on revenue of $127.5 billion to $130 billion.
In a conference call with analysts, Hurd said it was "challenging environment" and called the guidance "conservative."
Shares of HP were up more than 3 percent in regular trading, closing at $35.70. Shares were down about one percent in after-hours trading.
Enterprise Software Australia Government Big Data Analytics Innovation Security
More from Sam Diaz
Google's new privacy policy: Washington's misguided interrogation
A better SOPA: Create Silicon Valley jobs in Hollywood, give Washington the boot
Why is Chrome beating IE? Watch the TV commercials
Google+ and Facebook: New looks, features give control back to users
Visa's vision for the future of payments is password-free
A combination of technologies and collaboration from everyone involved to enable a password-free payments experience.
Facebook’s Libra cryptocurrency project branded of ‘serious concern’ by Federal Reserve
US regulators want to grill Facebook before Libra progresses any further.
Telstra outage takes down ATMs and Eftpos
Cash is king when Australia is lacking in Eftpos.
Only three global banks given top website security score by ImmuniWeb
The security testing firm found 97% of the world's largest banks are vulnerable to web and mobile attacks.
NAB doubles down on value of data and analytics with new in-house guilds
Following the launch of its Cloud Guild, the bank has announced another two centred on data and analytics.
Risk protection startup Digital Shadows scores AU$10m investment led by NAB
The company will use the cash injection to expand into the Asia Pacific region.
Singapore wants more details on Facebook Libra before deciding on regulatory response
Country's central bank remains in talks with Facebook and wants more details on how the US social media platform plans to implement its cryptocurrency before exploring potential ...
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2834
|
__label__cc
| 0.589739
| 0.410261
|
Industries stall on environmental investments: Fujitsu
A Fujitsu research report has highlighted that while Australian industries are using IT to achieve improved emissions management, they've stalled in the last two years and have therefore missed out on financial benefits.
By Aimee Chanthadavong | December 3, 2014 -- 23:29 GMT (15:29 PST) | Topic: Data Centers
More performance and efficiency improvements are needed in areas of IT in order to ensure that Australian sectors are gaining maximum returns from their environmental programs, a report from Fujitsu has highlighted.
The ICT Sustainability: Australian Benchmark report showed that from a survey of 200 Australian CIOs, many industries are now using IT to achieve greater efficiencies, and hence better emissions management to tackle climate change. On an overall basis, the IT sustainability index (ITSx) was 51.7 for 2014, up from 50.1 reported in 2012.
Despite this, when the research took a closer look at the five key areas of the IT supply chain — equipment life-cycle management, the datacentre, end-user computing, technology enablement, and metrics — the ITSx for each scored lower than results that were recorded during 2012.
For example, the ITSx performance year on year for end-user computing, which refers to all personal computing activities that workers use in their job, such as desktop computers, laptops, and mobile devices, was down to 48.6 for 2014, compared to 50.7 in 2012.
Similarly, in the area of equipment life-cycle procurement and disposal, the overall ITSx year on year rated 51.3 for 2014, down from 52.6 in 2012.
William Ehmcke, director of connection research, which undertook the study, said: "From the last Benchmark Report, we can see that ICT Sustainability across Australian organisations has, by and large, stalled.
"Over the next two years, we hope to see some very real flow-on benefits stemming from better metrics and increased investment in technology enablement. These will have the capacity to drive wholesale improvement and value across private and public sector enterprises."
Meanwhile, the report showed that ITSx year on year for enterprise and datacentres scored 51.4 for 2014, versus 56.4 in 2012.
According to the report, a majority of the losses that affected the ITSx occurred within enterprise metrics, which includes datacentres.
"One could speculate the advent of both cloud services and a more competitive hosting marketing have resulted in the CIO reducing their attention on datacentre improvements," it said.
To help assist Australian businesses to improve their sustainability levels, the report offered "quick wins" that could be implemented. These included removing screen savers, using energy and performance ratings such as Energy Star, implementing environmental standards policies, and creating environmental benchmarks for the company.
"It is clear that Australian enterprises are making only token gestures towards the environment," said Lee Stewart, head of sustainability at Fujitsu Australia and New Zealand.
"Failure to take responsibility for the impact on the planet is one thing, but failure to see ICT Sustainability improvements as key to reducing CapEx and energy costs is missing the requirements for every area of every business to produce savings. ICT Sustainability, even if seen in pure financial terms, cannot be ignored."
Australia Hardware Servers Networking Storage Cloud
More from Aimee Chanthadavong
Wi-Fi and mobile coverage for NSW central coast train route behind schedule
Department of Home Affairs extends cyber consulting contract with Archtis
Nvidia expands colocation program around the globe
As part of its efforts to build up its data center business, Nvidia is adding partners in Europe, Asia and North America to the DGX-Ready Data Center program. ...
Cisco acquires Acacia Communications for $2.6 billion
Cisco buys one of its suppliers for its optical interconnect technology.
Google Cloud trips up on 'physical damage' to network fiber - but it's not an outage
Google Cloud Platform has been hit by more disruptions, which have caused some users a spike in latency.
Contractor's server exposes data from Fortune 100 companies: Ford, Netflix, TD Bank
Exposed data includes passwords and private keys for production systems, employee details, sales information.
New Cisco critical bugs: 9.8/10-severity Nexus security flaws need urgent update
Admins using Cisco's automation software or Nexus kit should patch now.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2835
|
__label__wiki
| 0.827298
| 0.827298
|
Nasa hacker taken ill as appeal continues
British judges are now deliberating whether Gary McKinnon should be extradited
By Colin Barker | February 14, 2007 -- 17:06 GMT (09:06 PST) | Topic: Security
Gary McKinnon, the UK citizen accused of hacking Nasa's computers and causing hundreds of thousands of pounds worth of damage, was taken ill as his appeal against extradition continued.
According to those close to McKinnon, he suffered heart palpitations on Wednesday. "The case has all become too much for him," a friend told ZDNet UK.
McKinnon is accused of breaking into 97 US computers and causing £700,000 of damage in 2001 and 2002. He admits accessing Nasa computers, as part of his search for evidence of extraterrestrial life, but denies deliberately causing any damage.
In McKinnon's absence, his defence lawyer told the High Court that his extradition should be blocked because the US authorities had offered him a shorter sentence in return for agreeing to extradition. Edmund Lawson, QC, claimed that this constituted an "improper approach" to McKinnon.
Representing the US authorities, Max Summers told the court that the US was not able to refute this claim immediately and would need an adjournment to consider it.
The case was adjourned on Wednesday afternoon, and the appeal judges will now deliberate on whether this new evidence can be considered.
If he loses his appeal, McKinnon may try and appeal to the European Court of Human Rights, although this may be blocked by the High Court.
More from Colin Barker
Rethinking high-performance computing for the cloud
Why it's time for the tech industry to take gender diversity seriously
Big data in action: Using graph databases to drive new customer insights
Can you cut the software testing time overhead by a factor of ten? Perhaps you can
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2836
|
__label__wiki
| 0.832423
| 0.832423
|
SMEs embrace hybrid outsourcing
Survey: The Institute of Directors has found that most small firms see technology as critical to their future success
By Richard Thurston | September 28, 2006 -- 12:45 GMT (05:45 PDT) | Topic: Networking
Many small and medium-sized businesses are bringing parts of their IT back in-house, following widespread dissatisfaction over the outsourced approach, according to research published by the Institute of Directors (IoD) this week.
The IoD found that a "hybrid" approach is now preferred, with a helpdesk retained at the local office and remaining tech functions outsourced to a service provider.
"What is new is this hybrid solution," said the IoD's senior policy adviser for e-business Jim Norton.
When asked why hybrid outsourcing was catching on, Norton said, "It's probably user dissatisfaction. They [users] are often tired of speaking to a call centre in India, and want some local help."
According to member research by the IoD, over a quarter of SMEs (27 percent) now operate a hybrid IT department, up sharply from just one percent two years ago.
IT is fast becoming essential for the growth of those businesses, the IoD said.
Eighty-five percent of SMEs told the Institute that technology was "critical" in enabling the growth of their company.
And Norton added, "The use of ICT is much more centre-stage to these businesses than two years ago."
When asked why they invested, nearly half of respondents said it was because technology boosted workers' productivity. Twelve percent said they invested in IT because of pressure from their competitors — a figure which has quadrupled since 2004.
Asked about their biggest concern, firms said they were most worried about business continuity, data security, the fight against spam and data storage issues.
But despite concern over business continuity, over a quarter of SMEs said they had no continuity plan in place.
"We call it a triumph of hope over experience," said Norton. "At least they have recognised there is an issue."
Other key points from the IoD's work include:
The adoption of wireless is rocketing, with 77 percent of SMEs using Wi-Fi or cellular networks to gain remote access to data
The most common use of wireless is for sending and receiving emails, with 42 percent using BlackBerry-based applications
IT purchasers in SMEs are not specialist IT staff, and instead are usually company directors or chief executives
IT budgets range widely from just 0.5 percent to 3.5 percent of total revenue, with larger companies spending a lower percentage on IT
The IoD interviewed 500 SMEs across a range of sectors.
More from Richard Thurston
Welsh government offers £2m for rural broadband
BT strike ballot dropped amid legal worries
HP extends Avaya deal with unified comms
Red Hat unveils cloud, virtualisation products
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2837
|
__label__wiki
| 0.817417
| 0.817417
|
Vista passes one security test
Does the multi-layered security protection in Windows Vista work? It's too early to provide a definitive answer, but Vista's handling of the zero-day VML exploit offers some encouraging news.
By Ed Bott for The Ed Bott Report | September 22, 2006 -- 07:59 GMT (00:59 PDT) | Topic: Security
Does the multi-layered security protection in Windows Vista work? As I pointed out yesterday, we won't have a definitive answer to that question until months after Vista is officially released. But one current exploit offers reason to be encouraged.
Security experts are buzzing over a zero-day exploit in Internet Explorer that allows an attacker to plant spyware on your computer if you visit a webpage that contains the exploit code, which takes advantage of a vulnerability in the VML Rendering engine. There are workarounds, but so far no official patch is available from Microsoft.
But what happens if you're running Internet Explorer 7 on Windows Vista? To see for myself, I logged on as a member of the Administrators group and used IE7 to visit a test site that hosts a harmless demonstration of the exploit code (courtesy of fellow ZDNet blogger Adrian Kingsley-Hughes). Here's what happened next:
First, the page refused to load, displaying a security warning that the page is attempting to call a previously installed ActiveX control. This is the so-called ActiveX opt-in feature, designed to prevent pages from exploiting newly discovered flaws in obscure controls that had been previously assumed to be safe.
I could have stopped right there. But instead I clicked the Infobar to tell IE7 it was OK to load the control. I got another warning dialog box.
I clicked Run in response to that warning as well, and finally reached a page that triggered this dialog box, in which the third party hosting the test confirmed that the exploit had failed to execute on my machine.
Now, it's important to note that the developers of IE7 clearly had no idea that this vulnerability existed in IE6. But their development process managed to block this particular exploit right out of the box, and the additional layers of security provided important clues that this page was potentially dangerous.
The initial security warnings are hardly perfect. I've seen similar ActiveX opt-in dialog boxes for other built-in ActiveX components. How is an unsuspecting user supposed to know which one is safe and which is dangerous? And the list doesn't work on a per-site basis. If I had visited a site that legitimately used the VML control last week, before this exploit hit the news, I would probably have approved it. And once I had done that, it would have been on the safe list for good. There's no way to undo that decision, as far I can tell. Once you tell IE7 that an installed control is OK, any site can try to use it.
Still, the cumulative effect of these changes is encouraging.
Update 22-Sep 2:15PM PDT: Dwight Silverman has a related story. Did Windows Vista's most irritating feature save my butt?
More from Ed Bott
The Windows 10 misinformation machine fires up again
With new feature update calendar, Microsoft finally settles on a sensible Windows 10 release schedule
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2838
|
__label__wiki
| 0.754393
| 0.754393
|
6.6.2014 Feds and Intervenors Reply
Uploaded by Mountain States Legal Foundation
AEMA - 6.6.2014 Feds and Intervenors Reply
saveSave 6.6.2014 Feds and Intervenors Reply For Later
6.7.13 Opinion Re WWP
Notice: Alaska Native claims selection: Arizona and California long-term visitor areas; special permit fee adjustments and supplementary rule revision
County of Suffolk, County of Nassau, Town of Islip, Town of Hempstead, Town of North Hempstead, Town of Oyster Bay, Town of Huntington, and the Board of Trustees of the Town, of Huntington and Concerned Citizens of Montauk, Inc. v. Secretary of the Interior, National Ocean Industries Association, and New York Gas Group, Intervenor-Defendants-Appellants. The Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. v. Secretary of the Interior, National Ocean Industries Association, National Supply Company, Continental Oil Company, Diamond M. Drilling Company, Digicon, Inc., Dresser Industries, Inc., Houston Oil & Minerals Corporation, Levingston Shipbuilding Company, Murphy Oil Corporation, Ocean Production Company, Transco Companies, Inc. And Zapata Corporation, Intervenor-Defendants-Appellants, 562 F.2d 1368, 2d Cir. (1977)
Fuel Safe Washington v. FERC, 389 F.3d 1313, 10th Cir. (2004)
Notice: Environmental statements; availability, etc.: Interregional Research Project (No. 4)
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT final
Job Analysis Sop
Notice: Closure of public lands: Buffalo Field Office, WY
Rule: Standard instrument approach procedures
Notice: Environmental statements; availability, etc.: Provolt and Sprague Seed Orchards, OR
West Slope Colorado Oil and Gas Association Commnents on Roan Plateau SEIS
Notice: Committees; establishment, renewal, termination, etc.: Oliver County, ND; BNI Coal Ltd. coal lease application; comment request
The Boat Co. lawsuit
HOUSE HEARING, 112TH CONGRESS - IMPACTS TO ONSHORE JOBS, REVENUE, AND ENERGY: REVIEW AND STATUS OF SEC. 390 CATEGORICAL EXCLUSIONS OF THE ENERGY POLICY ACT OF 2005
Notice: Appealable decisions; legal notice: Davy Crockett National Forest
CFR-2013-title11-vol1-sec4-2
Moynihan TIGER Application 091509 Final
Pueblo Neighborhood Health Centers, Inc., a Colorado Nonprofit Corporation v. The United States Department of Health and Human Services, the Bureau of Community Health Services, an Agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, and Edward D. Martin, Director of the Bureau of Community Health Services, 720 F.2d 622, 10th Cir. (1983)
US White House Federal Register: getdoc
Case 3:11-cv-08171-DGC Document 225 Filed 06/06/14 Page 1 of 51
SAM HIRSCH
Acting Assistant Attorney General
Environment and Natural Resources Division
DOMINIKA TARCZYNSKA, NY Bar No. 4431573
JOHN S. MOST, VA Bar No. 27176
Natural Resources Section
P.O. Box 7611 Washington, D.C. 20044-7611
(202) 305-0447 (Tarczynska)
(202) 616-3353 (Most)
Counsel for Federal Defendants
ALISON FLINT (pro hac vice)
EDWARD B. ZUKOSKI (pro hac vice)
9 1400 Glenarm Place, Suite 300
10 Telephone: (303) 623-9466
ROGER FLYNN (pro hac vice)
Western Mining Action Project
12 P.O. Box 349, 440 Main St., #2
Lyons, CO 80540
Counsel for Defendant-Intervenors
IN THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF ARIZONA
PRESCOTT DIVISION
GREGORY YOUNT,
Plaintiff, pro se,
S. M. R. JEWELL, SECRETARY
THE INTERIOR, et al.,
Case No. 3:11-cv-08171-PCT-DGC
(Lead Case)
Federal Defendants,
GRAND CANYON TRUST, et al.,
Intervenor-Defendants.
FEDERAL DEFENDANTS AND
INTERVENOR-DEFENDANTS
JOINT REPLY MEMORANDUM IN
SUPPORT OF THEIR CROSSMOTIONS FOR SUMMARY
NATIONAL MINING ASSOCIATION,
Plaintiffs,
OF THE INTERIOR, et al.,
AMERICAN EXPLORATION & MINING
15 OF THE INTERIOR, et al.,
QUATERRA Alaska Incorporated, et al.,
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
ARGUMENT ........................................................................................................................ 2
Claims Challenging the Secretarys Reasons for the Withdrawal are not
Reviewable ................................................................................................................. 2
The Withdrawal Decision Fully Satisfies FLPMA .................................................... 7
The Reasons for Withdrawal Are Fully Supported by the
Record ............................................................................................................. 7
The Withdrawal Decision Fully Satisfies the Multiple-Use
Directive .......................................................................................................... 14
The Adequacy of the Report to Congress is not Reviewable ......................... 15
The Decision did not Contravene the Governing BLM Resource
Management Plan ............................................................................................ 16
The Withdrawal Complied with Legal requirements for Disclosing
Conflicts with Local Land Use Plans .............................................................. 18
The Withdrawal Decision Fully Satisfies NEPA ....................................................... 19
Plaintiffs Claims Fall Outside NEPAs Zone of Interests. ......................... 19
BLMs Consideration of the No Action Alternative
Including Existing Mitigation Measures Complied with
NEPA .............................................................................................................. 22
BLM Considered a Range of Reasonable Alternatives .................................. 23
There Was No Shift In Purpose and Need That Required
Reconsideration of Alternatives ...................................................................... 30
BLM Did Not Violate the Unavailable Information Rule. .......................... 33
The Forest Service Consent Decision Fully Complies with NFMA .......................... 37
AEMA Fails to Challenge Agency Action...................................................... 38
AEMA Fails to State a Cause of Action ......................................................... 39
The Withdrawal Did Not Violate the Forest Plan ........................................... 40
The Withdrawal Properly Protects American Indian Resources and
Religious Interests ...................................................................................................... 41
Remedy ....................................................................................................................... 44
CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................... 45
Federal Defendants, the Secretary of the Interior (Secretary), the U.S. Bureau
of Land Management (BLM), the U.S. Forest Service, and the federal officials named
in these consolidated actions, and Intervenor-Defendants, the Grand Canyon Trust and
Havasupai Tribe, et al. (the Trust), hereby jointly reply in support of their cross-
motions for summary judgment. Doc. 205-1 (Fed. Defs Br.); Doc. 208 (Trust Br.).
Claiming violations of three environmental statutes and the Establishment
Clause, Plaintiffs ask the Court to invalidate the Secretarys well-informed decision to
protect numerous natural and cultural resources within the Grand Canyon watershed
from adverse impacts of mining activity. For the reasons discussed below, the Court
should sustain the decision and enter judgment for Defendants.
First, none of Plaintiffs claims alleging violations of the Federal Land Policy
and Management Act (FLPMA), 43 U.S.C. 1701-1787, has merit.
Defendants (but not the Trust) further contend that Plaintiffs, in arguing that the reasons
for withdrawal are unsubstantiated, have failed to identify any specific legal standard
that is violated, contrary to the Administrative Procedure Act (APA). See 5 U.S.C.
701(a)(2). Judicial review is therefore improper. Should the Court deem review
proper, it must uphold the Secretarys decision if even one of the bases provided in the
Record of Decision (ROD) is supported by the record. Here, all four rationales for
the withdrawal protection of water resources, American Indian resources, and wildlife
and visual resources, and allowing some continued mining are well supported. The
decision not only complies with FLPMAs multiple-use directive, 43 U.S.C. 1732(a);
it fosters the provisions objectives by allowing continued mining while protecting
various resources and ensuring that a portion of the uranium endowment is preserved
for future use. This is in complete harmony with section 103(c) of FLPMA, which
defines multiple-use management to include consideration of the long-term needs of
future generations for renewable and nonrenewable resources. 43 U.S.C. 1702(c).
Second, Plaintiffs National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) claims must be
rejected. Federal Defendants (but not the Trust) urge the Court to decline review of the
claimed violations because the economic interests Plaintiffs seek to protect fall outside
NEPAs zone of interests. Plaintiffs thus fail to state a cause of action. Lexmark Intl,
Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc., 134 S. Ct. 1377, 1387-88, n.4 (2014). Should
the Court consider the claims, Defendants agree they should be rejected because BLMs
Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS) took the hard look NEPA mandates.
Third, Plaintiffs National Forest Management Act (NFMA) claims also are
without merit. Federal Defendants (but not the Trust) additionally contend the Court
need not reach the merits of these claims because they fail to state a cause of action.
Finally, Federal Defendants and the Trust contend that Plaintiffs claims
regarding the Establishment Clause and American Indian resources lack merit. The
challenged decision clearly satisfies the controlling three-part test for permissible
government conduct in Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602, 61213 (1971).
Reviewable. 1
In their opening brief, Federal Defendants pointed to Plaintiffs failure to
identify a legal standard that the withdrawal allegedly violates and argued this failure
requires the Court to decline review of the Secretarys reasons for withdrawal.
Defs Br. 12-17; see also 5 U.S.C. 701 (a)(2) (excepting from judicial review action
committed to agency discretion by law). The Supreme Court has explained that
Fed.
The Trust does not join the argument in this section.
section 701s exception applies where a statute is drawn in such broad terms that in a
given case there is no law to apply. Citizens to Preserve Overton Park, Inc. v. Volpe,
401 U.S. 402, 410 (1971) (quoting S. Rep. No. 79-752, at 26 (1945)). The withdrawal
provisions here are so drawn, 2 as the D.C. Circuit implicitly recognized in
characterizing FLPMA as allowing withdrawals for any purpose . . . . Mount Royal
Joint Venture v. Kempthorne, 477 F.3d 745, 756 (D.C. Cir. 2007) (Mt. Royal). In
short, these provisions offer no meaningful standard against which to judge the
agencys exercise of discretion, Heckler v. Chaney, 470 U.S. 821, 830 (1985), and
judicial review is therefore precluded. 3
In response, Plaintiffs argue there is law to apply, but these claims are hollow.
NMA and NEI (hereafter NMA), joined by the other Plaintiffs, contend that section
701s exception is not applicable because Plaintiffs are persons adversely affected or
aggrieved by agency action within the meaning of a relevant statute. Doc. 212
(NMA Reply) 21 (quoting 5 U.S.C. 702). They erroneously invoke section 702s
general conferral of a right to judicial review as a reason why section 701s exception
does not apply. This circular reasoning strains the plain meaning of section 702 and, if
adopted, would render the exception in section 701 superfluous. The Court should
reject the argument.
As used herein, the phrase withdrawal provisions refers to FLPMA Section 204, 43
U.S.C. 1714, which codifies and places certain limits on executive withdrawal
authority, and Section 103(j), 43 U.S.C. 1702(j), which defines withdrawal.
Plaintiffs AEMA and Mr. Yount (hereafter AEMA) contend the D.C. Circuit, in
making this characterization, failed to recognize the unconstitutionality of Section
204s legislative veto provision. Doc 213 (AEMA Reply) 12-13 n.9. The concern is
of no consequence because the Court severed the offending veto provision upon finding
it unconstitutional. Yount v. Salazar, 933 F. Supp. 2d 1215, 1235 (D. Ariz. 2013). The
remainder of section 204 survived intact and remains fully operative as a law. See
Alaska Airlines, Inc. v. Brock, 480 U.S. 678, 684 (1987). Notably, section 103, 43
U.S.C. 1702(j)which specifically addresses the purposes for which withdrawals
may be orderedalso survived intact and remains fully operative.
Next NMA argues, somewhat contradictorily, that in enacting FLPMA section
102(a)(6), 43 U.S.C. 1701(a)(6), Congress established, an unequivocal policy
favoring judicial reviewability of FLPMA actions. NMA Reply 21-22 (emphasis
added). Quaterra and the Arizona Utah Local Economic Coalition (hereafter the
Coalition or Coal.) advance a similar argument, also based on section 102(a)(6).
Doc. 214 (Coal. Reply) 7-8. As an initial matter, it is difficult to grasp how a policy
can be unequivocal if it merely favors a certain circumstance. In any event, the
contention is contradicted by the plain language of section 102(a)(6), which declares a
policy that judicial review of public land adjudication decisions be provided by law.
43 U.S.C. 1701(a)(6) (emphasis added). Such language does not ensure a right of
review in any circumstance and certainly not where a statute, by its broad language,
precludes review. In fact, the Court has already rejected NMAs similar argument that
this provision gives it standing to assert NEPA claims.
Unconvinced, the Court
explained,
[Section 102(a)(6)] merely underscores that NMA and NEI have an avenue
to assert their claims under the FLPMA. NMA and NEI present no
authority for converting the language . . . into a basis for asserting
prudential standing under NEPA, bypassing the zone of interests test.
Yount v. Salazar, No. CV11-8171-PCT DGC, 2013 WL 93372, at *17 (D. Ariz. Jan. 8,
2013). Here too, Plaintiffs cite no authority for their strained construction, which
would bypass established legal principles precluding review where no meaningful
standard is available. These very principles are in fact provided by law, as section
102(a)(6) contemplates. Thus a decision recognizing them stands in complete harmony
with section 102(a)(6).
Plaintiffs also argue review is permissible because courts have repeatedly and
correctly reviewed a wide range of FLPMA challenges. . . . NMA Reply 22. In other
words, because the withdrawal was made pursuant to FLPMA, they reason, review is
proper. Id. Yet only one of the five cases NMA cites, Mt. Royal, even involved a
withdrawal. The other four involved different actions under FLPMA, none of which
establish that review is permissible here. 4
And although Mt. Royal involved a
withdrawal, it did not address the decisive question: whether Section 701s exception
Nor did it address whether Plaintiffs claims here, untethered to any
substantive standard, are reviewable. Mt. Royal thus lends no support to Plaintiffs
legal theory. But it does support Federal Defendants position because, in sustaining
the withdrawal, the Court emphasized the Secretarys broad authority, observing that
FLPMA allows withdrawal for any purpose. . . . 477 F.3d at 756. This observation
remains correct today, as discussed in footnote 3, supra.
In addition, NMA and the Coalition incorrectly argue that BLMs regulations at
43 C.F.R. Part 2300 and provisions of the Departmental Manual limit the exercise of
withdrawal authority and the purpose of any given withdrawal. NMA Reply 23-24.
Both plaintiff groups cite 43 C.F.R. 2300.0-1(a), which states that the Part 2300
regulations set forth procedures implementing the Secretarys authority where
appropriate to make withdrawals. Plaintiffs read the quoted phrase to establish that the
For example, Oregon Natural Resources Council Fund v. Brong (ONRC), 492 F.3d
1120 (9th Cir. 2007), involved a challenge to a BLM fire salvage and timber project,
and Greer Coalition, Inc. v. U.S. Forest Service, No. CV09-8239-PCT-DGC, 2011 WL
671750 (D. Ariz. Feb. 16, 2011), involved a FLPMA land exchange. NMA cites both
for the undisputed proposition that review of alleged FLPMA violations occurs under
the arbitrary and capricious standard. ONRC, 492 F.3d at 1124, Greer, 2011 WL
671750 at *6. NMA also relies on Skull Valley Band of Goshute Indians v. Davis, 728
F. Supp. 2d 1287, 1297 (D. Utah 2010), for its finding that BLM's decision denying a
FLPMA right-of-way was arbitrary. Finally, NMA relies on Center for Biological
Diversity v. Deptartment of Interior, 623 F.3d 633, 646-47 (9th Cir. 2010), also a land
exchange case, for its holding that BLM's approval violated NEPA and FLPMA by
unjustifiably assuming that mining would occur on the federal and private lands in the
same manner and to the same extent, whether the exchange occurred or not. None
of these cases supports the proposition that review here is permissible.
Case 3:11-cv-08171-DGC Document 225 Filed 06/06/14 Page 10 of 51
authority is not unlimited. Federal Defendants agree. But even though the phrase
contemplates a degree of limitation, it is nonetheless devoid of any meaningful standard
by which to judge secretarial action, and it says nothing about the purposes of
withdrawal.
It cannot plausibly be construed to impose substantive limits on the
Secretarys authority. Plaintiffs read far too much into this simple phrase. 5
NMA also misconstrues Interiors Departmental Manual, claiming it provides
law that allows for concrete review. . . . NMA Reply 24. The cited provisions,
however, simply establish procedures for withdrawal applications and they set no limits
on the reasons for withdrawal. Moreover, the cited Manual chapter does not have the
independent force and effect of law under Ninth Circuit precedent because it is merely
a policy statement and was not promulgated pursuant to the APA. W. Radio Servs. Co.
v. Espy, 79 F.3d 896, 901 (9th Cir. 1996); see also Trust Br. 3 n.3. NMA does not
allege that the chapter affects individual rights or was promulgated or amended
pursuant to the APA. The cited provisions are thus not enforceable.
AEMA further contends, without citing any case law, that FLPMAs multiple-
use directive provides a reviewable legal standard. AEMA Reply 5-9. The argument
ignores the stated purpose of withdrawal: precluding one use (location and entry) in
order to protect other uses, or even to reserve an area for a single, particular use. 6
Nor is Plaintiffs position aided by the regulation at 43 C.F.R. 2310.1-1, which
discusses the appropriateness of early consultation between BLM and agencyapplicants seeking withdrawal, to assist in determining the need for a withdrawal; nor
by the regulation at 2310.1-2(c), which advises as to specific information required in
a withdrawal application; nor by the regulations at 2310.3-2(b)(1), -(b)(3) and -(b)(5),
which require the agency-applicant to comply with NEPA and to furnish a report on
existing uses, resource conflicts, and economic effects, as well as a statement of
intended consultations. None of these provisions can fairly be read to impose a
substantive standard for judging the Secretarys reasons for withdrawal.
See 43 U.S.C. 1702(j) (defining withdrawal as the withholding of federal land from
settlement, sale, location, or entry, under some or all of the general land laws . . . in
order to maintain other public values in the area or reserving the area for a particular
AEMAs expansive construction of the reach of the multiple-use directive is not
supported by the plain language of FLPMA, and accepting it would render the
withdrawal provisions in sections 204 and 103 superfluous. The Court should therefore
decline to consider whether the record substantiates the reasons for withdrawal.
The Withdrawal Decision Fully Satisfies FLPMA.
A. The Reasons for Withdrawal Are Fully Supported by the Record.
Should the Court conclude that section 701 does not preclude review, it should
nonetheless reject claims challenging the reasons for the withdrawal. See Fed. Defs
Br. 17-24, 41-46; Trust Br. 4-10. The agencies considered the relevant factors and
articulated a rational connection between the facts found and the decision made: that
is, to slow the pace of mining, suspend location and entry, and conserve certain
resources for twenty years. See Conservation Cong. v. U.S. Forest Serv., 720 F.3d
1048, 1054 (9th Cir. 2013) (stating APA standard of review).
The ROD identifies the rationales and each is consistent with the withdrawals
purpose of protecting a variety of natural, cultural, and social resources from impacts
of uranium mining. AR 12. Any one of these rationales is sufficient to support the
withdrawal decision. See Organized Vill. of Kake v. U.S. Dept of Agric., 746 F.3d 970,
980 (9th Cir. 2014) (stating affirmance is required if any of the reasons given are not
arbitrary and capricious).
To prevail here, Plaintiffs must demonstrate that each
rationale is arbitrary, capricious, or otherwise contrary to law. See id.; Fed. Defs Br. 7;
Trust Br. 4. They have not satisfied this formidable burden.
Disregarding the RODs clear articulation of the withdrawals purposes,
Plaintiffs claim that any purpose or rationale beyond protection of water resources was
improper. Coal. Reply 11-13, 17-19; NMA Reply 24-25, 27-28. In particular, the
public purpose or program) (emphasis added).
Coalition asserts that BLMs use of the word watershed in stating the withdrawals
purposes somehow constrained the Secretary to consider only protection of resources
with a hydrological connection to the watershed. Coal. Reply 11-12, 18-19. 7 This is
incorrect, as explained in Defendants opening briefs. Fed Defs Br. 6-7, 23; Trust Br.
4 n.5, 21-22. And even if the Secretarys consideration was so limited, BLM in fact
identified numerous hydrological connections to resources the withdrawal is designed
to protect. E.g., Doc. 204 (Trust SOF) 34, 38, AR 2224 (disturbance to [springs]
. . . would disrupt the[ir] function and cultural association for American Indian tribes);
id. 41 AR 11 (wildlife impacts a result of projected surface and groundwater
effects).
Relying on this watershed definition theory, the Coalition also claims that the
withdrawals boundaries do not conform to the watershed. Coal. Reply 12-13. The
argument fails because the Coalition points to no law or record evidence restricting the
Secretarys withdrawal authority in this manner. That some portion of the North Parcel
may fall outside the Coalitions definition of watershed is inconsequential. See Coal.
Reply 12-13; Fed. Defs Br. 6, 23; Trust Br. 7 n.10, 18 & n.26. 8
For example, the Coalition claims Federal Defendants expansive definition of the
Grand Canyon watershed conflicts with BLMs framework to guide watershed
management in the agencys Land Use Planning Handbook. Id. at 11. Withdrawals,
however, are not land use planning decisions (nor did the challenged decision
implement any sort of watershed management), and there is no evidence that BLM
intended its non-binding Handbook to restrict the Secretarys withdrawal authority. See
infra at 16-18; Trust Br. 11-13. The only record evidence the Coalition cites draft
National Park Service testimony addressing various issues affecting Grand Canyon
National Park does not even support its theory. Doc. 214-1 (Coalition 2d SOF)
17 (citing AR 4592-93). To the contrary, the testimony highlights the interconnected
nature of the regions water and other resources, explaining that [t]he watersheds and
aquifers that nourish the parks unique flora and fauna extend well beyond the
boundaries of Grand Canyon National Park. AR 4593.
Ironically, had the Secretary applied the Coalitions theory, it would have resulted in
additional areas being withdrawn to ensure protection of all lands within the Grand
Canyon watershed. See AR 1745 (map depicting, for example, portions of Kanab
The record amply supports the Secretarys conclusion that the risk of serious
impact to water resources absent the withdrawal would be unacceptable. AR 9-10;
accord Fed. Defs Br. 23-24, 40-46; Trust Br. 5-8. Nonetheless, Plaintiffs argue that
uranium mining can have no adverse impacts on water resources and that the
withdrawal thus lacked a valid basis. See Coal. Reply 13-17; AEMA Reply 12. 9 In
support, the Coalition unjustifiably fly-specks the FEIS and USGS Report, but fails to
explain how the alleged deficiencies render the withdrawal arbitrary and capricious.
See Coal. Reply 14-17; Earth Island Inst. v. Forest Serv., 697 F.3d 1010, 1020 (9th Cir.
2012) (rejecting inconsequential, technical deficiencies).
The Coalition first claims that an Arizona Geological Survey (AGS) study of a
theoretical spill of uranium ore directly into a tributary of the Colorado River, AR 3308,
illustrates a lack of harmful impacts to water resources in the Colorado River. Coal.
Reply 15. Yet the primary water-protection concern articulated throughout the 2010
USGS Report, the FEIS, and the ROD is adverse impact to aquifers not a direct spill.
See Trust SOF 18-20, 23, 25-29. Indeed, while BLM did not rely on the AGS study
due to a conflict of interest by one of its authors, BLM concluded that its finding in the
FEIS that any water quality impact to the Colorado River would be negligible was
Creek basin not encompassed by the withdrawal).
AEMA claims that withdrawal of over a million acres is not proportional to the
probability that significant harm to water resources might occur. AEMA Reply 12.
Because FLPMA does not mandate that withdrawals be proportional to anything, it is
unsurprising that AEMA fails to identify any authority supporting its claim. See id.;
Trust Br. 7-8. The Coalition makes a puzzling assertion that Federal Defendants failed
to use the best available scientific data a requirement that applies in the Endangered
Species Act (ESA) context. See Coal. Reply 14 (citing Greenpeace Action v. Franklin,
14 F.3d 1324, 1337 (9th Cir. 1992) (ESA biological opinion supported by analysis of
best available scientific data)); see also Doc. 167 (AEMA Br.) 6 n.6 (same). None of
the applicable statutes in this case contains such a requirement. In any event, the
Secretary did consider the best available scientific data, including the comprehensive
USGS Report. See Doc. 199 (Fed. Defs SOF) 5-7; Trust SOF 12, 23-24, 42.
entirely consistent with the studys results. Id. 26 & n.4.
The Coalition next downplays what BLM found to be potentially major
impacts to groundwater-fed springs and wells because a practically impermeable rock
layer overlaying the regional aquifer reduces the probability of those impacts occurring.
See Coal. Reply 15; Trust SOF 26-27. This ignores ample scientific evidence in the
record that fractures, faults, sinkholes, and breccia pipes themselves provide potential
pathways for contaminated water to travel through otherwise confining rock layers and
enter the regional aquifer.
See Fed. Defs Br. 24; Trust SOF 18-19. 10
Secretarys policy decision to take a precautionary approach to prevent such significant
(if unlikely) impacts is entitled to substantial deference. See Organized Vill. of Kake,
746 F.3d at 975 (court may not substitute its judgment for that of the agency (quoting
FCC v. Fox Television Stations, 556 U.S. 502, 513-14 (2009))); Fed. Defs Br. 24, 4951; Trust Br. 6-8. 11
The Coalition also questions the USGSs analytical methods, complaining that
the USGS relied on skewed data in its study that documented high concentrations of
dissolved uranium related to mining processes in groundwater-fed springs and wells
throughout the region. See Coal. Reply 15-17; Fed. Defs Br. 42-43; Trust SOF 23,
AR 255. The Court should defer to the agency on these questions of methodology,
Bear Lake Watch, Inc. v. FERC., 324 F.3d 1071, 1077 (9th Cir. 2003), especially since
Indeed, this is precisely what occurred at the abandoned Orphan Mine, where
contaminated groundwater now discharges into Horn Creek. Trust Br. 6 & n.7.
The Coalition claims that comments by National Park Service (NPS) staffer Larry
Martin show that the hard science does not support the Secretarys decision. Coal.
Reply 14. That Mr. Martin disagrees with the conclusions in the FEIS does not render
the withdrawal arbitrary and capricious. See Marsh v. Or. Natural Res. Council, 490
U.S. 360, 378 (1989); Greenpeace, 14 F.3d at 1336 (that some scientists dispute the
[agencys] analyses and conclusions is insufficient; [i]f it were, agencies could only
act upon achieving a degree of certainty that is ultimately illusory).
the Coalitions disagreements are either inconsequential or inaccurate. For example,
the USGS documented the locations of its sampling sites, including those located
down-gradient from the abandoned Orphan Mine (the limitations of which BLM
forthrightly disclosed). See Coal. Reply 16 (attacking locations of sampling sites); Fed.
Defs Br. 41-43; Trust SOF 20. 12 And contrary to the Coalitions suggestion, the
USGS was not required to take into account Arizonas rigorous Aquifer Protection
Permit program, Coal. Reply 16, in its review of existing water chemistry data . . . in
order to understand better the source and distribution of dissolved uranium in the Grand
Canyon region, AR 202.
compliance with applicable law, including the Arizona program. See Fed. Defs Br. 5-
The FEIS predicts future impacts, while assuming
6, 34-35; Trust Br. 5, 17. The Secretarys conclusion that uranium mining threatens
water resources is well supported by the FEIS and the USGS science documenting past
contamination. 13
Assessment of the Uranium Endowment
NMA and the Coalition next contend the estimate of the areas uranium
endowment is understated and thus the withdrawals economic impacts are also
understated. NMA Reply 25-27, Coal. Reply 21-23.
estimate on the 2010 USGS Report, AR 57-415, incorporated into the FEIS. AR 1628;
see also Fed. Defs Br. 17-21 (explaining USGSs conservative methodologies and
BLM based its endowment
noting that the report updated a 1990 assessment of the uranium endowment).
As the Coalition recognizes, contamination related to the Orphan Mine provides
some of the only and more complete studies on mining impacts in the Grand Canyon
Watershed and[c]urrent and future mines, even with improved mining practices are
still going to have to address similar problems of potential . . . groundwater . . .
contamination and impacts. Coal. Reply 16 n.10 (quoting AR 66752); see also Trust
SOF 20.
For the same reasons, any claim that BLM failed to take a hard look at impacts to
water resources under NEPA also fails. See Fed. Defs Br. 40-46; Trust Br. 10 n.14.
In particular, USGS noted its conservative approach to estimating uranium
mineralization of hidden breccia pipes, explaining that only drilling can determine
with certainty whether a breccia pipe is present and if it contains uranium
mineralization.
AR 92.
The scientists at USGS need not embrace Plaintiffs
optimistic view of the extent of uranium mineralization, given documented
uncertainties in doing so. Id. Nor need they be as encouraged as Plaintiffs are based on
the airborne electromagnetic geophysical surveys they tout, which produced just two
favorable finds. Id. USGSs scientific judgments and its choice of methods are
entitled to great deference. Lands Council v. McNair, 629 F.3d 1070, 1074 (9th Cir.
2010) (when reviewing scientific judgments and technical analyses within an agencys
expertise, a court must be at its most deferential) (quoting Balt. Gas & Elec. Co. v.
Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 462 U.S. 87, 103 (1983)).
Disregarding this deferential standard, Plaintiffs advance a series of trifling
arguments. The Coalition charges that the agency used flawed data to reach an
endowment estimate, but it fails to explain why it is flawed (beyond claiming it
understates the endowment). Coal. Reply 21. NMA charges that the estimate was
largely based on stale 1980s research, NMA Reply 25-26, an argument that the
Coalition echoes, and contends the decision should be set aside on that basis. See Coal.
Reply 22 (citing N. Plains Res. Council v. Surface Transp. Bd., 668 F.3d 1067, 1086
(9th Cir. 2011) (Northern Plains)). But Northern Plains is easily distinguished.
There the court set aside a decision of the Surface Transportation Board that
authorized a railway line based on old aerial photography, without record evidence
indicating whether habitat and wildlife populations had changed in the intervening
years. The court held this did not constitute the required hard look under NEPA. Id.
Unlike the habitat and wildlife resources at issue in Northern Plains, uranium levels are
not dynamic the lapse of a few decades does not diminish Earths uranium
endowment. It was therefore reasonable for BLM to rely on the two 1980s-era mineral
appraisals referenced in the 2010 Report. AR 87-88. NMAs criticism of those reports
as stale finds no support in Northern Plains or in the administrative record. 14
Tribal and Cultural Resources
Defendants address AEMAs claim that the record does not support the purpose
of protecting American Indian resources below, in connection with Plaintiffs
Establishment Clause and related claims. See AEMA Reply 12-13.
Visual and Wildlife Resources
The Secretarys decision was based on protection of a number of resources,
including wildlife and visual resources. See AR 9, 11 (explaining that the decision
would benefit the set of circumstances and the areas unique resources, including
visual resources and wildlife). Assuming Plaintiffs claims are reviewable, if all other
reasons for withdrawal were unsubstantiated, the withdrawal should be sustained
because the record amply supports the Secretarys determination that the withdrawal
would avoid harm to wildlife and visual resources that would otherwise occur, absent
withdrawal. See Fed. Defs Br. 23 & n.9; Trust Br. 8-9; Trust SOF 40-41; supra at 7
(explaining that any one rationale is sufficient to sustain the decision).
Only AEMA attacks this rationale.
AEMA concedes wildlife and visual
resources will be adversely impacted absent withdrawal, but claims that the difference
in impacts (between withdrawal and no action) are not significant enough to justify
NMA also inaccurately charges that the 2010 Report did not undergo a rigorous peer
review. NMA Reply at 26. To the contrary, the 2010 Report was indeed peer
reviewed. AR 3893 (stating that peer review would occur), 82092 (stating that the
report was in the peer review process). And in any event, peer review is not required.
See Lands Council v. Martin, 529 F.3d 1219, 1226 (9th Cir. 2008) (finding no legal
requirement that a methodology [relied on in a NEPA analysis] be peer reviewed).
withdrawal. AEMA Reply 13-14. FLPMA imposes no such significance threshold for
withdrawals, and the Court should decline AEMAs invitation to establish such a
standard judicially, effectively substituting its judgment for that of the agency.
The Withdrawal Decision Fully Satisfies the Multiple-Use Directive.
All Plaintiffs claim the withdrawal decision violates FLPMAs multiple-use
directive. NMA Reply 26-27, AEMA Reply 2-5, Coal. Reply 23. The claims fail
because mining remains a permissible use today. Thus the decision actually promotes
the objectives of multiple-use management by protecting wildlife, water quality, and
other values, while allowing continued mining and ensuring that a portion of the
endowment is preserved for future use. See 43 U.S.C. 1702(c) (defining multiple-use
management to include consideration of the long-term needs of future generations for
renewable and nonrenewable resources); AR 4 (noting same consideration); id. 12
(noting goal of sustainable long-term uranium development). And although location
and entry are temporarily suspended, this does not contravene the directive, which in
fact contemplates use of some land for less than all of the resources. 43 U.S.C.
1702(c); AR 4 (stating every use [is not required] on every parcel); accord New
Mexico ex rel. Richardson v. BLM, 565 F.3d 683, 710 (10th Cir. 2009). 15
NMA also argues that a faulty assessment of the uranium endowment infected
the Secretarys compliance with the multiple-use directive. NMA Reply 27. The
Coalition similarly argues that the decision-making process was skewed and fatally
AEMA argues that Congress intended the Secretary to manage withdrawals under the
multiple-use directive, AEMA Reply 3, and suggests Defendants seek a declaration
that FLPMAs multiple use standard can never provide justification for setting aside
26 an agency decision. Id. at 4. Defendants made no such argument. Rather, they
responded on the merits, noting the Secretarys substantial discretion. Fed. Defs Br.
22. Given the Secretarys reasonable exercise of that discretion, the Court should reject
28 the claim that the multiple-use directive operates to preclude withdrawal, or that it
somehow trumps the withdrawal authority in section 204(a), 43 U.S.C. 1714(a).
tainted by the flawed endowment assessment. Coal. Reply 22. 16 This argument fails
because even if the assessment were deficient, which it is not, the Secretarys decision
is entirely consistent with the multiple-use directive.
The Adequacy of the Report to Congress is not Reviewable.
Section 701(i) of FLPMA provides that the adequacy of reports required by this
Act to be submitted to the Congress or its committees shall not be subject to judicial
review. 43 U.S.C. 1701(i) (Stat. Notes). Despite this clear directive, NMA contends
section 701(i) does not preclude review, because Interiors section 204(c)(2)
submission, AR 3104-16, is not a report. NMA Reply 6-7; Coal. Reply 22 (alleging
the uranium assessment violates section 204(c)(2)). NMA takes this position now
despite repeated references in its complaint and prior briefs to the fact that section
204(c)(2) requires a report to Congress. Doc. 56 66-67, 76-77 (No. 12-cv-08038);
Doc. 73 at 11, 12 (No. 12-cv-08038). And although NMA carefully refers in summary
judgment briefing to a Notice requirement, AEMA continues to refer to a reporting
requirement. AEMA Reply 3-4.
Plaintiffs argument fails because several courts, including this one, have
deemed the submission to Congress required by section 204(c)(2) a report. Yount v.
Salazar, 933 F. Supp. 2d at 1226; New Mexico v. Watkins, 969 F.2d 1122, 1134 (D.C.
Cir. 1992) (referring to a report, and to section 204(c)(2)s reporting requirement);
Mt. Royal, 477 F.3d at 755. AEMAs reliance on the FLPMA legislative history, in
particular, H.R. Rep. 94-1163, is unavailing because the House report itself refers to a
reporting requirement. See LEGISLATIVE HISTORY OF THE FEDERAL LAND POLICY &
Plaintiffs reliance on Natural Resources Defense Council v. U.S. Forest Service, 421
F.3d 797 (9th Cir. 2005), and similar cases is unavailing because here there is no error
whether admitted or not that fatally infected the Secretarys decision. See Trust Br.
8, 21-22.
MANAGEMENT ACT (FLPMA Leg. His.) at 439 (discussing requirements of section
204(c)(2) and explaining that other arrangements for reporting will be specified . . . in
the usual manner) (emphasis added). 17 Further, even if Congress had not enacted
section 701(i), the section 204(c)(2) reportunder any labelwould still be
unreviewable, under separation of powers principles. See NRDC v. Hodel, 865 F.2d at
316-19 (holding, in the absence of an express non-reviewability provision, that a
reporting provision in the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act was not subject to
judicial review); NRDC v. Lujan, 768 F. Supp. 870, 881 (D.C. Cir. 1991) (similar
result). This is so because courts conclude that where Congress requires the Executive
to provide information, and does not require that information be provided to others, the
courts lack jurisdiction to review the adequacy of that information. See Guerrero v.
Clinton, 157 F.3d 1190, 1194-95 (9th Cir. 1998); Renee v. Duncan, 686 F.3d 1002,
1016-17 (9th Cir. 2002). Plaintiffs claims that the report to Congress violates FLPMA,
and thereby renders the withdrawal decision arbitrary, should be rejected.
Decisions to close such lands may be made only by act of Congress, the
President (under the Antiquities Act), or by the Secretary (or certain other agency
officials) under the FLPMA authority. 43 U.S.C. 1714(a); 43 C.F.R. 2310.3-3.
And while FLPMA provides separate authority requiring BLM to develop and maintain
resource management plans (RMPs), Congress has directed that RMPs may not make
or terminate withdrawals. 43 U.S.C. 1712(e)(3) (lands shall be removed from or
See also FLPMA Leg. His. at 935 (section 701(i) forbids judicial review of the
adequacy of reports required by S. 507. The adequacy of such reports is a matter for
resolution between the Congress and the President.); NRDC v. Hodel, 865 F.2d 288,
317 (D.C. Cir. 1988) (referring to a provision in the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act
as in essence, a reporting provision, even though word report was not used).
restored to the operation of the Mining Law of 1872 . . . only by withdrawal action
pursuant to [FLPMA]) (emphasis added).
Thus, an RMP may only reflect what
Congress, the President, or the Secretary have determined in regard to mineral entry.
Plaintiffs attempts to distinguish this statutory scheme are unavailing. The
Coalitions implication that all management decisions, including withdrawals, must
be made through the land use planning process, Coal. Reply 24, ignores the noted
restrictions on land use planning. NMAs argument that the Secretary may not order
withdrawal until the Secretary ensures that the withdrawal complies with the RMP,
NMA Reply 29, fares no better. Nothing in Section 204 suggests that the Secretarys
withdrawal actions are constrained by or contingent upon an RMP that, by law, cannot
open or close lands to mineral entry. See Trust Br. 12. 18
Relying on Norton v. S. Utah Wilderness Alliance, 542 U.S. 55 (2004) (Norton),
NMA incorrectly argues that when a withdrawal contradicts land use expectations
contemplated in the RMP, then the RMP must be amended. . . . NMA Reply 29-30
(citing Norton, 542 U.S. at 69). Norton had nothing to do with mineral withdrawals.
Instead, that case stands for the proposition that plaintiffs cannot seek to enforce an
RMP provision under 5 U.S.C. 706(1) of the APA where no clear, mandatory duty
NMAs assertion that FLPMA prohibits any withdrawal unless and until the RMP
designates the lands as closed would create conflict between FLPMAs distinct
planning and withdrawal provisions. For example, under Section 204, the Secretary
may make emergency, three-year withdrawals that take effect immediately. 43 U.S.C.
1714(e). Under NMAs reading, however, the Secretary could not make any
emergency withdrawal in areas designated as open to mineral entry in the
corresponding RMP unless and until BLM first completed a months- (or years-) long
process of amending the RMP. See 43 C.F.R. 1610.5-5 (requiring preparation of
environmental assessment or EIS and a thirty-day-wait period before plan amendment
becomes effective). Nothing in FLPMAs plain language or legislative history implies
that Congress sought to hobble the Secretarys withdrawal authority through the RMP
planning process in a manner that would make emergency withdrawals impossible. See
FDA v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp., 529 U.S. 120, 133 (2000) (A court must
. . . interpret [a] statute as a symmetrical and coherent regulatory scheme and fit, if
possible, all parts into an harmonious whole. (citations omitted)).
exists. See Norton, 542 U.S. at 69-72. Further, the relevant RMPs statement as to how
acreage open to mineral entry, AR 30215, creates no mandatory duty under FLPMA.
Because an RMP may not open or close lands to mineral entry, it cannot create an
enforceable, binding provision with which a withdrawal could conflict. 19
Conflicts with Local Land Use Plans.
The Coalition argues that BLM failed to undertake meaningful coordination
with local governments a duty allegedly mandated by NEPA and FLPMA because
the agency did not accede to every local government demand, and did not invite local
governments to most of the important meetings. Coal. Reply 25. But no provision of
FLPMA or NEPA (nor any case law) required that BLM invite local governments to
every internal staff meeting on the withdrawal. Nor could the Secretary have made the
withdrawal consistent with all local demands since some governments opposed the
withdrawal while at least one supported it. 20 Fed. Defs Br. 51-53; Trust Br. 15-16.
The Coalitions claims lack merit. 21
To the extent that NMA and the Coalition now argue that BLMs failure to amend the
Arizona Strip RMP violates FLPMA, the claim should be rejected as unpled.
The Coalitions assertion that Coconino County reversed its support for the
[Withdrawal] and recommended reducing the size of the North Parcel, Coal. Reply 25,
misrepresents the facts. In the letter the Coalition cites, Coconino County mused that
there is a possibility that some portion of the North Parcel could be left out of the
withdrawal area . . . . AR 3344. But the County highlighted its official policy position
on the Withdrawal: the Board of Supervisors supports Alternative B, the Proposed
Action, which would involve a 20-year withdrawal of 1,010,776 acres of [BLM] lands
from operation of the Mining Law . . . . AR 3343 (emphasis in original).
The Coalition argues that the Johnson Declaration (Doc. 188-6) should not be struck
because it addresses standing issues. Coal. Reply 25. But the Coalition plainly tries
to use Mr. Johnsons testimony to address more than standing; it uses the declaration to
support its merits arguments concerning BLMs alleged duty to ensure consistency with
local plans. See, e.g., Doc. 173 (Coal. Br.) 14-15 (citing Johnson Decl. to allege
BLM staffer acknowledged that the withdrawal was not consistent with local land use
plans). The Court cannot rely on such extra-record evidence to address the merits.
Fed. Defs Br. 53 n.36.
The Withdrawal Decision Fully Satisfies NEPA.
As the Ninth Circuit has repeatedly recognized, the policy of NEPA is first and
foremost to protect the natural environment. NEPA may not be used to preclude lawful
conservation measures . . . and to force federal agencies, in contravention of their own
policy objectives, to develop and degrade scarce environmental resources. Kootenai
Tribe of Idaho v. Veneman, 313 F.3d 1094, 1123 (9th Cir. 2002), abrogated on other
grounds by Wilderness Soc. v. U.S. Forest Serv., 630 F.3d 1173 (9th Cir. 2011). Yet,
that is exactly what Plaintiffs are attempting to do by using NEPA as a sword to protect
their economic interests and arguing that BLM overestimated the environmental
impacts of uranium, failed to consider less environmentally protective alternatives, and
could not take a cautious approach in the face of some uncertainty regarding possibly
serious environmental impacts.
Thus, as detailed below, Plaintiffs are outside of
NEPAs zone of interests and have failed to establish a NEPA violation.
Plaintiffs Claims Fall Outside NEPAs Zone of Interests. 22
Although Federal Defendants framed the zone of interests issue as a question
of prudential standing in their opening brief, the Supreme Court has since held that
prudential standing is a misnomer. Lexmark, 134 S. Ct. at 1387 (quoting Assn of
Battery Recyclers, Inc. v. EPA, 716 F.3d 667, 67576 (D.C. Cir. 2013) (Silberman, J.,
concurring)). Rather, resolving whether a plaintiff comes within the zone of interests
requires the court to determine, using traditional tools of statutory interpretation,
whether a legislatively conferred cause of action encompasses a particular plaintiffs
claim. Id. Although the Supreme Court recognized that the absence of a valid . . .
cause of action does not implicate subject-matter jurisdiction, it did not abrogate the
zone of interests inquiry. Id. at 1387 n.4 (quoting Verizon, Md., Inc. v. Pub. Serv.
The Trust does not join in the argument in this section.
Commn of Md., 535 U.S. 635, 642-43 (2002)).
interests test is therefore an appropriate tool for determining who may invoke the cause
The Court found that the zone-of-
of action [under the relevant statute]. Id. at 1388-89. The Court held that a plaintiff
who may have an Article III injury in fact, but is outside the zone of interests protected
by the Lanham Act, cannot invoke the protection of the Lanham Act. Id at 1390. 23
Because Plaintiffs fail to demonstrate harm to environmental interests and the economic
interests they seek to protect are outside of NEPAs zone of interests, they fail to state
a valid NEPA claim and judgment should be entered in Defendants favor. See, e.g.,
Ashley Creek Phosphate Co. v. Norton, 420 F.3d 934, 937-40 (9th Cir. 2005).
Courts prior ruling on zone of interests was expressly confined to the pleading stage,
see Yount, 2013 WL 93372, at *19, *28, and now the Court must look to whether
Plaintiffs have established this element under the higher standard applicable at
summary judgmentwhich they have failed to do.
The Coalitions central argument is that Mohave County has a statutory right to
share in the mining severance taxes paid in connection with mining within the county,
and that because the withdrawal, in the Coalitions view, will preclude most, if not all,
mining, those tax revenues will be reduced. See Coal. Reply 4-5. As an initial matter,
this is inaccurateBLM has estimated that under the withdrawal eleven mines are
expected to operate in the withdrawn area, ten of which will be in the North Parcel
where Mohave County is located. See AR 2757. Moreover, while there may be a link
between mining and severance taxes paid, the Coalition fails to show that reduced
revenues will impair its environmental interests. All the Coalition argues is that the
county could use such tax revenues to pave roads or fund desert tortoise programs,
In light of this intervening decision, Federal Defendants no longer contend that the
Coalition and NMA lack Article III standing to bring their NEPA claims.
see Fed. Defs Br. 32 (quoting Buster Johnson Declaration), and that it previously put a
road paving project on hold due to lack of funding, see Coal. Reply 5. If such vague
assertions about future intentions to use revenues for environmentally beneficial
projects were sufficient, then the zone of interests test would lose all meaning. It
could be bypassed by anyone arguing that he intends to use some small portion of
revenues from environmentally damaging projects for environmental good. Moreover,
the Coalitions vague assertion that it has more general environmental concerns that
BLM must coordinate with Mohave County to try to resolve the conflicts between
BLM and Mohave Countys General Plan, id. at 6, is likewise insufficient to bring
them within NEPAs zone of interests because it fails to identify any specific conflict
between the withdrawal and environmentally protective provisions in the countys plan.
Likewise, nothing that NMA argues in reply undermines the fact that its entire
zone of interests argument is founded on Uranium Ones undefined plans to
potentially mine other uranium deposits in Utah. See Doc. 171-1 (Schwab Decl.)
7-10. While such arguments were sufficient to survive a motion to dismiss, given that
Uranium Ones plans are still undefined, NMA has still not substantiated its claim of
harm with evidence appropriate at the summary judgment stage. Consequently, NMA
fails to meet its burden. NMA attempts, for the first time, to argue that it is raising real
environmental concerns and that the alternatives it is advancing are perhaps even more
protective than the withdrawal. See NMA Reply 3. But NMA offers nothing more
than its own conclusory assertions for this propositionand, as explained below, such
assertions are without merit. NMAs environmental interest thus remains pretextual
and its NEPA arguments are nothing more than vehicles to protect its economic
interests derived from mining.
BLMs Consideration of the No Action AlternativeIncluding
Existing Mitigation MeasuresComplied with NEPA.
The BLM took the requisite hard look at the no action alternativewhich
would have allowed mineral location and mining to continue in the areaand provided
a reasonably thorough discussion of the significant aspects of [its] probable
environmental consequences in the EIS.
669 F. 3d 1025, 1035 (9th Cir. 2012) (quotation and citations omitted).
Save the Peaks Coal. v. U.S. Forest Serv.,
Neither of
NMAs arguments challenging this analysis has merit. See NMA Reply 7-9.
First, none of Plaintiffs arguments undermine the reasonableness of BLMs
analysis of the environmental and economic impacts of the no action alternative. See
Fed. Defs Br. 40-46, Trust Br. 4-10, supra pp. 9-11, 13-14 (addressing challenges to
analysis of resource impacts); see Fed. Defs Br. 17-22, Trust Br. 9-10, supra pp. 11-13
(addressing challenges to analysis of uranium endowment). Moreover, to the extent
Plaintiffs base their NEPA claim on the analysis of economic impacts, their claim fails
because they have not demonstrated that the alleged errors resulted in a flawed
environmental impacts analysis. See Ariz. Cattle Growers Assn v. Cartwright, 29 F.
Supp. 2d 1100, 1118 (D. Ariz. 1998) (denying NEPA claims where Plaintiffs have
only challenged the determination by pointing to economic consequences [and] have
failed to point to environmental consequences because [u]nder NEPA the failure to
discuss economic consequences is of little concern.); see also Fed. Defs Br. 51 n.33.
NEPA does not require the EIS to address an economic concern that is not tethered to
the environment. Ashley Creek, 420 F.3d at 943. 24
Second, NMAs claim that BLM failed to consider mitigation measures in
While the Trust joins Federal Defendants argument that the FEIS economic impact
analysis complied with NEPA, the Trust does not join in the argument that the Court
28 should not review the adequacy of the FEIS economic impacts analysis.
connection with the no action alternative likewise fails. NMA fails to identify any
court ruling that an agency must consider new mitigation measures in analyzing the no
action alternative, and the Court should reject NMAs invitation to be the first. In its
reply, NMA recasts its mitigation argument, conceding that what NEPA requires [is]
careful consideration of the status quo under the No Action Alternative, which, here,
is the continuation of mining with all the attendant permitting and regulatory
protections. NMA Reply 8.
action alternative. See Fed. Defs Br. 33-35; Trust Br. 16-17. 25 Plaintiffs offer no
response to Defendants identification of instances where existing mitigation measures
are discussed in the FEIS. See Fed Defs Br. 34-35; Trust Br. 17. Instead, Plaintiffs
But that is exactly what BLM analyzed as the no
simply dismiss the discussion as conclusory, but they offer no specific examples of
existing mitigation measures that BLM failed to consider. NMA Reply 9. 26 Thus,
Plaintiffs have failed to establish that BLMs discussion of the no action alternative
or mitigation measures was arbitrary and capricious.
BLM Considered A Range of Reasonable Alternatives.
None of Plaintiffs arguments in reply undercuts the reasonableness of BLMs
alternatives analysis. NMA ignores clear Ninth Circuit precedent which holds that an
agency need not consider alternatives less restrictive of developmental interests,
particularly where those alternatives would be inconsistent with the [environmentally
protective] policy objective of the proposed action. 27 Kootenai Tribe, 313 F.3d at
NMA argues that because the no action alternative here involved the most
action in terms of continued mining, NEPA mandates an analysis of new mitigation
measures. NMA Reply 8. NMA provides no support for this novel argument.
The case NMA cites, Great Basin Mine Watch v. Hankins, 456 F.3d 955, 973 (9th
Cir. 2006), to attack the FEISs analysis of mitigation impacts is inapposite as it
concerns the level of detail agencies must use to describe the impacts of individual
projects as part of a cumulative impacts analysis.
As an initial matter, Federal Defendants do not argue that a rigorous consideration of
1120-21. 28 NMA weakly argues that Interior could not ignore alternatives that may
protect the environment in ways different from the proposed action[,] yet does not
even attempt to explain the different ways in which its proposed alternatives are
environmentally protective. See NMA Reply 10 (emphasis added). On their face, these
alternativesa withdrawal of fewer acres, a withdrawal of a shorter time period, an
information gathering alternative in lieu of withdrawal, or an alternative that permits
mining exploration and development to continue while changes to regulations and other
measures are pursued in lieu of withdrawal (referred to by NMA as Alternative E)
are less environmentally protective than the withdrawal. Thus, NEPA did not require
BLM to consider such alternatives. See Te-Moak Tribe of W. Shoshone of Nevada v.
U.S. Dept of Interior, 608 F.3d 592, 601 (9th Cir. 2010) (NEPAs purpose is to permit
informed public comment on proposed action and any choices or alternatives that might
be pursued with less environmental harm.) (emphasis added) (quoting Lands Council
v. Powell, 395 F.3d 1019, 1027 (9th Cir. 2005)).
alternatives was unnecessary because the withdrawal was environmentally protective.
See NMA Reply 10. Rather, Federal Defendants position is that BLM was not legally
required to consider the less environmentally protective alternatives that NMA
advances. For that reason, NMAs reliance on Environmental Defense Fund Inc. v.
Corps of Engineers, 492 F.2d 1123, 1135 (5th Cir. 1974), is misplaced. See NMA
Reply 10 n.47. There, the Fifth Circuit held that an agency may not halt consideration
of other more ecologically sound courses of action once it finds an environmentally
protective one. Id. at 1135 (emphasis added). By contrast, here BLM considered
several alternatives in addition to the environmentally protective proposed action.
NMA attempts to dismiss this binding Ninth Circuit precedent by relying on a
footnote in a district court case from the Tenth Circuit. See NMA Reply 9 n.42 (citing
Wyoming v. U.S. Dept of Agric., 277 F. Supp. 2d 1197, 1203 n.1 (D. Wyo. 2003),
vacated and remanded, 414 F.3d 1207 (10th Cir. 2005)). NMA ignores the other cases
cited by Federal Defendants, see Fed. Defs Br. 36-37 n.20, including Friends of
Boundary Waters Wilderness v. Dombeck. Although that cases zone of interests
holding has been rejected by the Ninth Circuit, see Ashley Creek, 420 F.3d at 942, the
case nevertheless illustrates that even when those advancing economic interests are
permitted to advance NEPA claims, such claims cannot be based on arguments that the
agency failed to consider a more environmentally impactful alternative. See Boundary
Waters, 164 F.3d 1115, 1129 (8th Cir. 1999) (rejecting argument that agency was
required to consider increased visitor use levels alternative).
Even if the Court were to permit NEPA claims based on the alleged failure to
consider such alternatives, Plaintiffs claims nevertheless fail because they have not
demonstrated that BLMs alternatives analysis was unreasonable. See Grand Canyon
Trust v. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 623 F. Supp. 2d 1015, 1026 (D. Ariz. 2009)
(Campbell, J.) (We uphold an agencys . . . discussion of alternatives so long as the
alternatives are reasonable and the agency discusses them in reasonable detail.)
(quoting Citizens Against Burlington Inc. v. Busey, 938 F.2d 190, 195 (D.C. Cir.
1991)).
As NMA concedes, BLM was not required to consider in detail all the
alternatives raised. See NMA Reply 9, 11. Plaintiffs have failed to introduce specific,
evidentiary facts in support of their contention that the final EIS improperly failed to
consider reasonable and viable alternative[s]. Friends of the Earth v. Coleman, 513
F.2d 295, 298 (9th Cir. 1975).
Shorter Duration Withdrawal
BLM considered the possibility of including a shorter duration withdrawal (five
or ten years) as an alternative and ultimately eliminated it from detailed analysis,
explaining the reasons for doing so in the EIS, as provided for by 40 C.F.R.
1502.14(a).
Fishermens Assns v. Blank, 693 F.3d 1084, 1101 (9th Cir. 2012) (NEPA permits
agencies to eliminate alternatives from detailed analysis so long as they briefly discuss
AR 569 (DEIS); 1658-59 (FEIS).
See also Pac. Coast Fedn of
the reasons for their having been eliminated. (quoting 40 C.F.R. 1502.14(a))).
BLM also received and responded to public comments about a shorter duration
withdrawal. See AR 2349. Such record evidence of consideration and discussion about
a potential alternative demonstrates that NEPAs objectives of foster[ing] informed
decisionmaking and informed public participation have been met. Westlands Water
Dist. v. U.S. Dept. of Interior, 376 F.3d 853, 872 (9th Cir. 2004) (quoting California v.
Block, 690 F.2d 753, 767 (9th Cir. 1982)); see also Fed Defs Br. 38 (collecting cases
holding discussion of potential alternative in comments to be sufficient).
Moreover, Plaintiffs have not established that it was unreasonable for BLM to
eliminate this alternative from further consideration given the goals of long-term Grand
Canyon watershed protection and the foreseeability of mining interest in the area in the
future, which goals would not have been met by a shorter term withdrawal. Contrary to
NMAs contention, these long-term goals are not simply a reason why a withdrawal
might possib[ly] be renewed. NMA Reply 11 (alternations in original). Rather,
BLM determined that because there was a high probability that a shorter withdrawal
would need to be renewed, there was no meaningful difference between a 10-year and
a 20-year withdrawal. AR 1659. 29 An agency need not analyze in detail alternatives
that have substantially similar environmental consequences as those considered. 30
Te-Moak Tribe, 608 F.3d at 602; see also Headwaters Inc. v. BLM, 914 F.2d 1174,
1180-81 (9th Cir. 1990). The reasonableness of BLMs decision to eliminate a five or
ten year withdrawal from further detailed analysis is highlighted by the lengthy nature
of the process for implementing a withdrawalin this case taking five years thus far.
Contrary to NMAs assertion, NMA Reply 11, the Secretarys acknowledgement that
based on the results of studies and analyses performed on the previously-approved
mines and mining claims with valid existing rights . . . it may well be that these lands or
a portion thereof will be appropriate for re-opening to the Mining Law at some point in
the future, AR 12, does not support the conclusion that a shorter duration withdrawal
should have been considered. Nothing in this statement indicates a belief that the lands
should be reopened in less than twenty years and the Secretarys language make clear
that this is merely a possibility contingent on the results of future studies.
The cases NMA relied on requiring consideration of mid-point alternatives are
distinguishable in that there the court concluded that mid-way alternatives could meet
the projects purpose and need. See Native Fish Socy v. Natl Marine Fisheries Serv., -- F. Supp. 2d ----, No. 3:12-cv-00431-HA, 2014 WL 199093, at *10 (D. Or. Jan. 16,
2014); Wild Fish Conservancy v. Natl Park Serv., --- F. Supp. 2d ----, No. C12-5109
BHS, 2014 WL 1260450, at *9 (W.D. Wash. Mar. 26, 2014). Here, the agency found
that the purpose of long-term protection would not have been met by a shorter-term
See Fed. Defs SOF 2-3.
Another Intermediate Geographic Area Withdrawal
Contrary to NMAs contention, NEPA did not require BLM to consider a third
mid-range alternative (800,000 acre withdrawal)one that would have withdrawn
200,000 fewer acres than Alternative B (1.007 million acre withdrawal), but 150,000
acres more than Alternative C (650,000 acre withdrawal) and 500,000 more acres than
Alternative D (300,000 acre withdrawal). 31 As NMA itself acknowledges an agency
need not consider every conceivable alternative, NMA Reply 11; see also Westlands,
376 F.3d at 871, and NMA has not shown how its additional mid-range alternative
differed substantially or had substantially different consequences from those mid-range
alternatives that were already considered. See Headwaters, 914 F.2d at 1180-81.
NMAs proposed mid-range alternative is well within the range of alternatives
that BLM considered, and thus no consideration of it as a free-standing alternative was
required. As the Trust explained in its opening brief, Alternative C already considered
an approximately 200,000-acre reduction in the North Parcelwhich is exactly what
NMA appears to be advocating as its mid-range alternative. See AR 1685 (Alternative
B withdrawing 549,995 acres in North compared to Alternative C withdrawing 351,967
acres in North); Trust Br. 18-19. NMAs sole response is that overall its mid-range
alternative would have withdrawn fewer acres than Alternative C, NMA Reply 11 n.54,
NMAs description of exactly what it is proposing as the third mid-range alternative
is exceedingly vague and does not identifyother than in the most general termsthe
location of the 200,000 acres that would not have been withdrawn. NMA argues that it
is not [its] job to divine how the alternatives could have been mixed and matched, see
NMA Reply 11-12 n.55. However, this fails to meet Plaintiffs burden for identifying a
specific, detailed counterproposal and does not demonstrate[] that [their proposed
alternative] would be environmentally less harmful, as is necessary to sustain a NEPA
claim. City of Angoon v. Hodel, 803 F.2d 1016, 1022 (9th Cir. 1986); see also
Morongo Band of Mission Indians v. F.A.A., 161 F.3d 569, 576 (9th Cir. 1998)
(recognizing that the burden is on the party challenging the agency action to offer
feasible alternatives).
because Alternative C also reduced the withdrawn acreage in other parcels, see AR
1685. This, however, ignores the fact that the EIS presented the impacts of each
alternative on a parcel-by-parcel basis and thus information regarding the impacts of
NMAs mid-range alternative was available to the public and decisionmakers.
Moreover, as the case law recognizes, the Secretary could have selected an alternative
for implementation that was comprised of parts of the different alternatives analyzed in
the EIS. See Great Old Broads for Wilderness v. Kimbell, 709 F.3d 836, 854 (9th Cir.
2013) (sustaining selected alternative comprised of elements of three alternatives
analyzed). Plaintiffs offer no response and have not shown how a third mid-range
alternative would foster informed decision making and public participation. Mont.
Wilderness Assn v. Connell, 725 F.3d 988, 1005 (9th Cir. 2013). 32
Alternative E
It was likewise reasonable for BLM to consider, but eliminate from further
consideration, an alternative that would have imposed new mining requirementswhat
NMA refers to as Alternative E. AR 1659-60. Although BLM initially considered
The documents NMA relies upon to argue that BLM should have considered a
mixing and matching option in the EIS are briefing papers for a high level executive
briefing, which explained the pros, cons and schedule of three options(1) proceeding
with the alternatives identified in the DEIS, (2) mixing and matching portions of
different alternatives with different parcels, or (3) developing entirely new alternatives
with new parcel boundaries. See AR 3203-60. There is nothing improper about
presenting information about how long each of these options would extend the decision
process given the fact that the temporary withdrawal was then set to expire the
following month. See, e.g., AR 3255-59. The other documents NMA cites are no more
convincing. AR 66870 reflects the NPSs positionthat was not adopted by the
briefing papers draftersthat the third option should not be presented. See AR 66898.
AR 81803-04 is an email that postdates the FEIS in which the author suggests that an
800,000 acre withdrawal could be selected based on the information that has already
been made available. Moreover, it does not state, as NMA contends, that the
withdrawn area could be reduced by 200,000 acres without impactrather it states
that these 200,000 acres have low resource values, are 40-50 miles from the canyon,
and/or do not drain into the canyon. AR 81804; see also Trust Br. 18 n.26. That is not
the same thing as no impact.
including this alternative in an early administrative draft of the DEIS, it ultimately
decided to eliminate it from detailed consideration because most of its elements would
require amending regulations, a speculative process that could take years and thus
would not meet the immediate purpose and need for the action. See AR 1660; see also
AR 51837-43. As required by 40 C.F.R. 1502.14(a), BLM briefly described this
alternative in the EIS and explained the reasons why it had been eliminated. See AR
proposed as a subsequent action in conjunction with any of the withdrawal alternatives,
including the No Action Alternative, and that the other components of this alternative
could be implemented under any alternative independent of a withdrawal action or a
regulatory change. AR 1661.
BLM also explained that changing the regulatory requirements could be
Plaintiffs have not shown that BLMs reasons for eliminating this alternative
were arbitrary and capricious. 33 See Protect Lake Pleasant, LLC v. Johnson, No.
CIV07-454PHXRCB, 2007 WL 1486869, at *12-13 (D. Ariz. May 21, 2007) (finding
nothing arbitrary and capricious in an agencys elimination of alternatives it found
infeasible in light of the stated purpose and need), affd, 252 F. Appx 856 (9th Cir.
regulations demonstrates that the process can take over a decade and spawn years of
As the Trust pointed out, the recent track record for amending mining
NMAs reliance on documents showing that BLM initially considered including this
alternative in the DEIS is misplaced. See NMA Reply 12. As these documents
indicate, there was extensive analysis and discussion of this potential alternative,
however, due to its speculative nature, the Executive Oversight Team ultimately
determined that eliminating it was critical to ensure the integrity of the Secretarys
decision-making process regarding the proposed withdrawal and the BLMs ongoing
compliance with NEPA. AR 51840; see also AR 72872. Cooperators involved in the
NEPA process were advised at the time why the alternative had been eliminated from
further consideration. See AR 51842-43 (draft letter and scheduling for providing
notice to Cooperating Agencies, counties, tribes, Utah and Arizona Congressional
Delegations, and other contacts). If anything, these documents bolster the conclusion
that there was informed decisionmaking and public participation. See Westlands, 376
F.3d at 870-72.
litigation. See Trust Br. 20 n.27. During this time, the lands would be subjected to the
environmental harms caused by staking, exploration and mining described in the no
action alternative. The case law makes clear that an agency is not required to analyze
speculative alternatives that require protracted debate and litigation not meaningfully
compatible with the time-frame of the needs to which the underlying proposal is
addressed. Vt. Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 435
U.S. 519, 551 (1978). 34 NMA offers no response to these points, simply arguing that
Alternative E also included non-regulatory components, which portions of the
alternative could be adopted without rulemaking (presumably more quickly). However,
it does not even attempt to articulate exactly what an alternative that adopted just the
non-regulatory part of Alternative E would look like or how it would meet the purpose
and need of protecting the areas resources. 35 See City of Angoon, 803 F.2d at 1022.
Reconsideration of Alternatives.
As this Court has recognized, [t]he stated goal of a project necessarily dictates
the range of reasonable alternatives[.] Grand Canyon Trust, 623 F. Supp. 2d at 1026
(emphasis added) (quoting City of CarmelByTheSea v. U.S. Dept. of Transp., 123
Although there may be instances in which an agency is required to consider an
alternative that requires legislative action, courts look to the nature of the process that
would be required to determine the reasonableness of such an alternative. See Kilroy v.
Ruckelshaus, 738 F.2d 1448, 1454 (9th Cir. 1984) (finding alternative that would have
required changes in legislation to be substantially remote from reality).
NMAs argument that Alternative E was more consistent with the Purpose and
Need, as it was articulated in early preliminary DEIS drafts of the DEIS, fails for a
number of reasons. See NMA Reply 12 n.61. The Court should look to the purpose
and need as it was articulated by the agency in the documents that NEPA required the
agency to make publicthe DEIS and the FEISnot early working drafts that did not
reflect the agencys final thinking. Moreover, NMA offers nothing more than its own
conclusory assessment that this alternative is more consistent with the purpose and
need. Finally, an agency need not consider an alternative that could hypothetically
meet the purpose and need, but for the fact that it is remote, speculative,
infeasible, or ineffective. See Headwaters, 914 F.2d at 1180-81.
F.3d 1142, 1155 (9th Cir. 1997)). The Court should uphold an agencys definition of
objectives so long as the objectives the agency chooses are reasonable. Id. (quoting
Citizens Against Burlington, 938 F.2d at 196). Here the purpose of the proposed
withdrawal, as it was first articulated in the July 15, 2009 Petition/Application to the
Secretary requesting the lands be withdrawn, was to protect the Grand Canyon
watershed from adverse effects of locatable hardrock mineral exploration and mining.
AR 44; see also Fed. Defs SOF 2-3; Trust SOF 2-3. That purpose and need
remained consistent throughout the notice of proposed withdrawal, the Draft EIS
(DEIS), the FEIS and the ROD. See AR 53 (July 21, 2009 Fed. Reg. notice); AR
496-97, 545-46 (DEIS); AR 1573, 1625-26 (FEIS); AR 2 (ROD); Trust SOF 2-3.
Plaintiffs do not challenge the reasonableness of the agencys definition of its
objectives; instead they argue that the purpose and need clearly stated in the Petition,
DEIS, FEIS and RODwhich NMA concedes has remained constantwas not the
true purpose. See NMA Reply 13-14. They cite no case to support their novel
proposition that a court should attempt to divine a different purpose than the one
expressly articulated by the agency based on isolated statements in record documents. 36
Moreover, NMAs selective quotation of record documents does not demonstrate that
BLM changed its purpose and need, instead those documents merely demonstrate that
BLM acknowledged information gaps and expected that the withdrawal period would
permit time for additional study. The Rationale for Decision section of the ROD
does indicate that the EIS acknowledged uncertainties due to limited data, but
Soda Mountain Wilderness Council v. Norton, 424 F. Supp. 2d 1241 (E.D. Cal.
2006), is inapposite. In that case the agency acknowledged that the purpose and need
was not clearly articulated in the environmental assessment (EA) at issue and the
agency itself directed the court to background information and the administrative record
in an effort to identify the purpose, which the court likewise found to be unclear. Id. at
1261-62. The case did not involve a situation where, as here, the agency had clearly
and consistently articulated the purpose and need for the decision.
concludes that even with these uncertainties, and even though the probability was low,
the potential impacts were high risk. AR 9. That the ROD then explains that the
twenty-year withdrawal will allow for additional data to be gathered and more thorough
investigation is not a change in purpose as NMA contends. Similarly, statements in the
final recommendation memo to the Secretary, acknowledging uncertainty and
recognizing that data gathered in the next twenty years can help inform future
decisions that will occur at the end of the withdrawal period, do not indicate a change
in purpose and need. AR 3102 (emphasis added). 37 All such studies would still be
undertaken with the greater goal of protecting the regions resources from effects of
mineral exploration and developmentnot merely for the sake of study.
Finally, even if BLM had changed its purpose and need as Plaintiffs contend,
this would not undermine BLMs analysis of alternatives. NMA contends that BLM
should have considereda withdrawal of shorter duration and an alternative that
allow[s] some activity to develop the missing information. NMA Reply 13. As the
record demonstrates, BLM considered the first and reasonably rejected it. As for the
second proposal, the selected alternative already allows some activity sufficient to
develop additional data, because it does not prohibit mining on pre-existing claims with
valid existing rights. Thus, although Plaintiffs perpetuate the myth that no uranium
mining development will occur in the area because of the withdrawal, that is simply not
the case. BLM has estimated that up to eleven mines can be expected to operate in the
withdrawn area on claims with valid existing rights over the next twenty years. See AR
Likewise, the other documents NMA relies uponlanguage in a draft version the
testimony of the BLM Director, which was not included in the final version of the
testimony, compare AR 7277 (draft) with 7867-70 (final version), and excerpts from
emails between agency employees, see NMA Reply 14 n.73do not establish a
changed purpose and need. See also Trust SOF 3.
2757. 38 Indeed, suits have been filed and litigated regarding resumption of active
operations at mines in the withdrawn area after the withdrawal. See Ctr. for Biological
Diversity v. Salazar, 791 F. Supp. 2d 687 (D. Ariz. 2011) (Campbell, J.), affd 706 F.3d
1085 (2013) (Arizona 1 Mine); Grand Canyon Trust v. Williams, No. CV13-8045-PCT-
DGC, 2013 WL 4804484 (D. Ariz. Sept. 9, 2013) (Campbell, J.) (Canyon Mine).
BLM Did Not Violate the Unavailable Information Rule. 39
Plaintiffs claim that Interior violated 40 C.F.R. 1502.22 by failing to address
data gaps, NMA Reply 15, distorts both the record and the law. In the FEIS, BLM
disclosed where information was incomplete or unavailable information in full
compliance with 1502.22. The Secretary explained in the ROD that this information
was not essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives. Accordingly, none of the
additional 1502.22 disclosures were required. See Fed. Defs Br. 47-48; Trust Br. 22.
NMA distorts Native Village of Point Hope v. Salazar, 730 F. Supp. 2d 1009 (D.
Alaska 2010), when it argues that the Ninth Circuit requires specific findings about
NMA for the first time in its reply argues that the NEPA process was
predetermined. Compare NMA Reply 15 with Doc. 170 (NMA Br.) 3-16. The
Court should decline to consider this claim made for the first time in reply. See
Matsumaru v. Sato, 521 F. Supp. 2d 1013, 1014 n.1 (D. Ariz. 2007). Even if the claim
were properly presented, however, NMA has failed to clear the high hurdle facing
[t]hose alleging predetermination. Defenders of Wildlife v. Hall, 807 F. Supp. 2d 972,
984 (D. Mont. 2011). [Predetermination] only occurs when an agency has made an
irreversible and irretrievable commitment of resources based upon a particular
environmental outcome, prior to completing its requisite environmental analysis. Id.
(quoting Metcalf v. Daley, 214 F.3d 1135, 1143 (9th Cir. 2000)). None of the
documents NMA relies upon show a commitment of resources. Moreover, Davis v.
Mineta, 302 F.3d 1104, 1112-14 (10th Cir. 2002), is inapposite because it involved a
situation where there was record evidence showing that a Finding of No Significant
Impact was planned and prepared even before the agency completed the EA, which is
the document that evaluates whether there are significant impacts. There is no similar
evidence here where the agency prepared a full EIS.
The Trust does not join Federal Defendants arguments concerning unavailable
information here. However, the Trust agrees, for the reasons stated in its opening brief,
that Plaintiffs arguments that the Federal Defendants failed to comply with 40 C.F.R.
1502.22 are unpersuasive. Trust Br. 22-24.
the relevance and non-essentialness of the missing information in the EIS. NMA Reply
17. In Point Hope, which was not a Ninth Circuit decision as NMA contends, see id.
n.84, another district court within the circuit found that the agency had failed to
determine whether the missing information was relevant or essential at the time, and
refused to credit post-hoc rationalization made by [defendants] lawyers in briefing
that the missing information was not relevant or essential. 730 F. Supp. 2d at 1018. 40
Here, to the contrary, the explanation in the ROD is not a post-hoc
rationalization by counsel; it was a determination by the Secretary at the time he made
the decision to withdraw. See AR 10, n.1. None of the other cases NMA cites dictate
when an agency must explain that information is not essential to a reasoned choice
among alternatives, of require that explanation be made in the EIS, rather than the
ROD. In Cabinet Resource Group v. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, the court found that
the agency had failed to attempt any assessment of the importance of the missing
information. . . . 465 F. Supp. 2d 1067, 1100 (D. Mont. 2006) (emphasis added). In
Montana Wilderness Assn v. McAllister, the court disagreed with the agencys
assessment that the information was not relevant, and required the agency to consider
the missing information further. 666 F.3d 549, 560 (9th Cir. 2011). Neither case
addressed the specific form or location of the agencys finding regarding the non-
essential nature of the missing information. 41 Here the Secretary did assess whether the
information was essential to a reasoned choice among alternatives, AR 10 n.1, and it
District Court decision from other districts [are] not binding on this court. Kentera
v. Fremont Inv. & Loan, No. CV-10-8259-PCT-GMS, 2012 WL 1438683, at *2 (D.
Ariz. Apr. 26, 2012).
Likewise, while the preamble to CEQs rulemaking promulgating the revised version
of 1502.22 does state that [t]he evaluation of impacts under 1502.22 is an integral
part of an EIS, the preamble does not state that an agencys finding that the
information is not essential must be in the EIS. NEPA Regulations, Incomplete or
Unavailable Information 51 Fed. Reg. 15,618, 15,621 (Apr. 25, 1986).
is clear that the decision maker ha[d] the information necessary to consider
environmental factors and make a reasoned decision. Half Moon Bay Fishermans
Mktg. Assn v. Carlucci, 857 F.2d 505, 511 (9th Cir. 1988) (finding no NEPA violation
where post EIS report prepared by the EPA, which was incorporated into the ROD,
filled information gaps in EIS). Moreover, even if the regulations did dictate the
location of that assessment, such trivial violation of the[] regulations [would] not give
rise to any independent cause of action. 40 C.F.R. 1500.3; see also Fed. Defs Br.
46-47 (courts are unwilling to give a hyper-technical reviewing of 1502.22).
Contrary to NMAs assertion, the Secretarys explanation in the ROD is
sufficient and entitled to deference. See Native Vill. of Point Hope v. Jewell, 740 F.3d
489, 498 (9th Cir. 2014). 42 It was reasonable for the Secretary to conclude that he
could make a reasoned choice among alternativesand choose an environmentally
protective alternativebased upon available evidence of historical uranium mining
impacts to water resources, the potential seriousness of impacts to a resource that
supplies water to millions of people in seven states, and BLMs assessment of impacts
to other resources. See AR 9-12. 43 Scientific certainty . . . is not essential to a
reasoned choice among alternatives. Idaho Wool Growers Assn v. Vilsack, --- F.
Supp. 2d ----, No. 1:12-CV-469 AWT, 2014 WL 1230029, at *4 (D. Idaho Mar. 25,
Although the agency on remand in Point Hope chose to prepare a Supplemental EIS
with an appendix analyzing the incomplete or unavailable information and the Ninth
Circuit then deferred to the agencys determination that the information was not
essential, nothing in the decision dictates that that is the manner in which the agency
must analyze the incomplete or unavailable information. See Point Hope, 740 F.3d at
498. The Secretarys analysis and explanation in the ROD is just as entitled to
deference.
NMA claims that Interiors 1502.22 explanation fails because it asserts conflicting
positions in the FEIS and RODspecifically, that the ROD relied on what they allege
are out of date mining impacts to comply with 1502.22, while acknowledging that
historic data is unrepresentative of present and future mining. NMA Reply 19. In fact,
Interiors positions do not conflict. See supra pp. 10-11.
2014) (emphasis in original). The word essential does not simply mean useful,
helpful or relevant; rather it is something that is absolutely necessary; indispensible;
requisite. Websters New World Dictionary, 464 (3d College ed. 1988). That BLM
prepared budgets in 2009 for some studies that may not have been completed, see NMA
Reply 19; NMA Br. 14, is not evidence that such studies were essential to the
Secretarys choice among alternatives. Similarly, NMAs reliance on commentary in
early drafts of the DEIS explaining the purpose of the incomplete or unavailable
information section in the EIS is likewise misplaced. As the commentary explained,
that section has a specific purpose delineated in 1502.22 and is not a place to
describe information that it would be nice to have. AR 46120. Contributors to the EIS
were instructed:
Is the missing or incomplete information relevant to reasonably
foreseeable adverse significant impacts? If so, then you need to do the 4
things listed in 40 CFR 1502.22(b). If not, then dont mention them here
but describe in your analysis methodologies how the analysis addresses
these topics through assumptions, modeling or inference.
AR 46120; see also AR 46137. 44 Further demonstrating that, during the drafting of the
EIS, BLM actively considered whether the information was relevant and essential to a
reasoned choice among alternatives and determined that it was not (as is specifically set
out in the ROD). AR 10 n.1; see also Fed. Defs Br. 47-49. Clearly, determinations
about the relevance of the missing information were affirmatively integrated into the
EIS process, and were not post hoc rationalizations as NMA claims. NMA Reply 16.
NMA claims that BLM deleted a discussion of missing information on geologic
and mineral resources appearing in a preliminary working draft of the DEIS. NMA
Reply 15 n. 78 (citing AR 46137). The statements at issue reflected the fact that the
uranium endowment estimate, was just thatan estimate, with all the inherent
uncertainties and assumptions. A discussion of those uncertainties and assumptions
was incorporated into the relevant affected environment, impact assessment
methodology, and RFD scenarios sections of the EIS. See AR 1737-38, 1742-43, 204041, 2730-33, 2735-37, 2739-42. Such consideration is precisely what 1502.22
contemplates.
In response to Defendants argument that the withdrawal was an appropriate
conservative choice in the face of uncertainty, NMA tries to undermine the Secretarys
decision by arguing that there was no credible scientific evidence that the withdrawal
would actually be the more conservative approach, NMA Reply 20, but offers
nothing more than its own speculation to contradict the BLMs analysis of the USGS
Report in the FEIS and the ROD, which concluded that although the likelihood of a
serious impact may be low, the impacts could be significant. AR 9-10; see also Fed.
Defs SOF 5-7; Trust SOF 23-29. Although there was an acknowledged uncertainty
of the risks, it is incorrect to imply that Defendants could not act in light of that
uncertainty. Contrary to Plaintiffs contention, Defendants have not adopted a decide
first, study later approach. They have identified a risk . . . and they have reasonably
concluded that the risk is sufficient to warrant action. Idaho Wool Growers, 2014 WL
1230029, at *4 (rejecting arguments that agency could not take action to protect against
disease transmission between domestic and bighorn sheep when the transmission
science was incomplete) (emphasis in original).
The Forest Service Consent Decision Fully Complies with NFMA.
AEMA argues the Forest Services consent decision violated NFMAs multiple
use directive, 16 U.S.C. 529, and contravened the governing Forest Plan for the
Kaibab National Forest. AEMA Reply 17-21. These arguments lack merit. The
withdrawal could not conflict with the Forest Plan for the same reason it could not
conflict with BLMs resource management plan: forest plans cannot by law open or
close lands to mineral entry. See supra 16-17. Nor does the withdrawal contravene
NFMAs multiple-use directive, which applies to various renewable surface resources.
In any event, these claims should be dismissed for failure to challenge reviewable
agency action, 5 U.S.C. 704, and for failure to state a cause of action, because
Interior, not Agriculture, is vested with authority to manage mineral resources, 16
U.S.C. 472, including the withdrawal of those minerals from location and entry. 43
U.S.C. 1714(a), 1702(g). 45
AEMA Fails to Challenge Agency Action.
The APA provides for judicial review of specified agency action, as that term
is defined by 5 U.S.C. 551(13). 5 U.S.C. 701. Section 704 further provides that a
preliminary, procedural, or intermediate agency action or ruling not directly
reviewable is subject to review on the review of the final agency action. Id. 704.
AEMA argues that this language opens the consent decision to direct APA challenge in
this Court. AEMA Reply 16. The argument fails for two reasons.
First, for a claim against the government to proceed, the APA requires that a
litigant challenge an agency action, within the meaning of a statute. See 5 U.S.C.
701-702; Norton, 542 U.S. at 61-64 (noting that sections 702, 704, and 706(1) [of
the APA] all insist upon an agency action.). Action is defined as a discrete rule,
license, order, sanction, or relief, or denial thereof, or failure to act. 5 U.S.C. 551(13).
The consent decision does not fit any of these acts and thus is not challengeable. 46
The Trust disagrees with Federal Defendants position that the consent decision is
not final agency action. The Trust contends the consent decision marks the consummation of the Forest Services decisionmaking, and has legal consequences because
without it, a withdrawal could not encompass Forest Service lands. See Bennett v.
Spear, 520 U.S. 154, 177-78 (1997).
It is plainly not a rule (i.e., an agency statement of ... future effect designed to
implement, interpret, or prescribe law or policy), a sanction (i.e., a prohibition ... or
... taking [of] other compulsory or restrictive action), nor does it grant any relief to
any person. Norton, 542 U.S. at 62 (quoting 5 U.S.C. 551(4), (10), & (11)). It is not
itself a license or the functional equivalent thereof, see 5 U.S.C. 551(6), because it
does not authorize anyone to undertake any activity. See Oregon Natural Desert Ass'n,
465 F.3d at 983 (finding Forest Service annual operating instructions were properly
deemed a license because it was part of a permit authorizing individuals to graze in
National Forest). It also is not an order, i.e., a final disposition, whether affirmative,
negative, injunctive, or declaratory in form, of an agency in a matter other than rule
making but including licensing. See 5.U.S.C. 551(6).
Second, the argument misconstrues Section 704.
The second sentence
(discussing the preliminary, procedural, or intermediate agency action) may only
reasonably be read to refer back to the final agency action stated in the first sentence,
and should not be read in isolation, as AEMAs argument requires. The cases AEMA
relies on provide no support because they involve cases where the preliminary,
procedural, or intermediate agency action sought to be challenged was one undertaken
by the same agency that made the final decision. Here, two distinct agencies took
action. First, the Forest Service, as the surface-managing agency, provided the legally-
necessary consent (which standing alone has no legal effect). Second, the Secretary
withdrew from operation of the Mining Law resources falling under his authority, and
did so by issuing a Public Land Order. It is the latter decision that causes the injuries
alleged in these actions. AEMA cites no decision holding that a preliminary decision
by one agency (which will not be implemented unless affirmatively adopted by another)
is reviewable agency action for purposes of 5 U.S.C. 704.
Despite AEMAs protestations, the Kaibab National Forest Plan says nothing
germane to the Forest Services consent to withdrawal of surface acreage it manages.
Many of the decisions AEMA cites are irrelevant because they concern the application
of NFMAs planning provisions to renewable surface resources, as defined by the
AEMA Fails to State a Cause of Action
Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act, 16 U.S.C. 528-531, and for which the Forest
Service has plenary regulatory authority.
And with respect to the cited decisions
involving mineral resources, AEMA misconstrues the Forest Services authority
conferred by 16 U.S.C. 478, 482, and 551, as regulating operations authorized by the
United States mining laws, insofar as they affect surface resources on all National
Forest System lands under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of Agriculture, 36 C.F.R.
228.2, and the responsibility for managing [mineral] resources [which] is in the
Secretary of the Interior, 36 C.F.R. 228.1.
The Withdrawal Did Not Violate the Forest Plan
The Forest Service, through forest planning, has no authority to open or close
lands to operation of the mining laws. See Fed. Defs Br. 24-25 n.11; Trust Br. 11-14.
Thus the consistency requirement of 16 U.S.C. 1604(i), applicable when the agency
issues an instrument authorizing the use and occupancy of National Forest System
lands, is inapplicable here because withdrawal decisions are outside the authority of
National Forest Planning, AR 12 (ROD).
AEMA relies to no avail on Pacific Rivers Council v. Thomas, 873 F. Supp. 365,
37273 (D. Idaho 1995). AEMA Reply 18-19. The decision examined the relevance of
forest plans to mining operations, which the court correctly identified is in the
permitting process and ongoing conduct of mining operations, 873 F. Supp. at 372
(emphasis added), since terms and conditions on [mining] activities, including
mitigation measures, are provided for in the plans. Id. at 373. This holding aligns
with the consistency requirement of Section 1604(i), which applies when the agency
issues an instrument (such as a site-specific resource plan, resource permit, or
contract) that authorizes the use and occupancy of National Forest System lands. 16
U.S.C. 1604(i); see also Idaho Sporting Congress, Inc. v. Rittenhouse, 305 F.3d 957,
962 (9th Cir. 2002). NFMA and Pacific Rivers do not address whether a Forest Plan
can open or close lands to mineral entry, and FLPMA makes clear that Forest Plans
cannot do so. 47
Religious Interests.
The Secretarys decision to protect American Indian resources from the impacts
of uranium mining fell squarely within his authority to withdraw lands to maintain
[their] . . . public values, 43 U.S.C. 1702(j), and to otherwise safeguard tribes
cultural and religious values and uses of their aboriginal homelands. See Fed. Defs Br.
60 n.40; Trust Br. 2-3, 25-26; Doc. 207 (Amicus Br.) 12-17. The courts have
repeatedly affirmed similar accommodations including another large-tract withdrawal
designed to protect areas of traditional religious importance to Native Americans as
precisely within the bounds of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. See Mt.
Royal, 477 F.3d at 750, 758; accord Fed. Defs Br. 57-60 & n.40 (citing cases and
applying Establishment Clause test); Trust Br. 25-30 & n.39 (same). Moreover, the
record here amply supports the Secretarys exercise of authority: BLMs consultation
with seven tribes, review of published literature, detailed resource inventories, and
exhaustive NEPA analysis revealed that uranium mining may irreparably harm
numerous identified sacred sites, traditional use areas, and other resources of cultural
and religious significance. See Trust Br. 26-28, Trust SOF 31-39.
Despite this clear authority, AEMA and the Coalition claim that the
Establishment Clause and other inapplicable legal authority precluded the Secretary
from protecting American Indian resources in the withdrawal area. AEMA Reply 21-
AEMA also claims that in consenting to the withdrawal, the Forest Service failed to
independently analyze the parts of the record that pertain to the . . . Forest Service land
26 withdrawn and instead adopted the Secretarys analysis, which looked at, and analyzed,
the entire . . . withdrawal area. AEMA Reply 21. The argument fails because the
FEIS examined impacts to all resources, including Forest Service land. Further, it
28 examined the impact to each resource by parcel (North, East and South). See also Trust
SOF 5 (describing Forest Service involvement in EIS preparation).
30; Coal. Reply 17-21. 48 Unable to identify any legal support for their arguments,
Plaintiffs attempt to characterize this as a Free Exercise rather than an Establishment
Clause issue. See AEMA Reply 21-24 (asserting that cases rejecting Free Exercise
claims demonstrate Establishment Clause violation); Coal. Reply 20 (claiming that Free
Exercise cases demonstrate aboriginal lands and traditional use areas not entitled to
protection). 49 Whether the tribes would be able to obtain the same protections offered
by the withdrawal if they had sued in court is irrelevant.
Moreover, it is well established that there is room for play in the joints between the
Free Exercise and Establishment Clauses, allowing the government to accommodate
religion beyond free exercise requirements, without offense to the Establishment
See Trust Br. 27-28.
Clause. Cutter v. Wilkinson, 544 U.S. 709, 713 (2005) (quotation marks and citations
omitted). As the Ninth Circuit and other courts have routinely held, the governments
accommodation of tribes cultural and religious beliefs and uses of federal public lands
falls squarely within those joints. See, e.g., Access Fund v. U.S. Dept of Agric., 499
F.3d 1036, 1042-46 (9th Cir. 2007); Mt. Royal, 477 F.3d at 750, 758.
Plaintiffs primary objection appears to be that the Secretary improperly
cloaked [the] entire withdrawal area [with] religious significance. Coal. Reply 19-20;
The Coalitions argument that protection of American Indian resources is a post hoc
rationale is meritless. Coal. Reply 18-19. In the Draft EIS, FEIS, and ROD, BLM and
the Secretary consistently identified protection of those resources as one of several
primary purposes for the withdrawal. See supra p. 8 (addressing Coalitions
watershed definition argument).
AEMA is mistaken that the Supreme Court in Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery
Protection Association recognized that to find for the [Indian] Plaintiffs would create
a religious preserve for a single group in violation of the establishment clause. See
AEMA Reply 22 (quoting Lyng, 485 U.S. 439, 445 (1988)). The relevant passage
describes dicta from the lower courts opinion that had the government chosen to
accommodate the tribes religious practices by not constructing the road, its decision
would not have violated the Establishment Clause. Lyng, 485 U.S. at 445. In this case,
the Secretary made just such a decision to accommodate the tribes cultural and
religious practices and beliefs, rendering a Free Exercise challenge unnecessary.
accord AEMA reply 22-24, 28 (claiming the withdrawal create[d] a religious
preserve without identifying particular physical site[s]). This characterization lacks
record and legal support. Based on ample record evidence, the Secretary acknowledged
that the physical integrity of the entire withdrawal area is vital to the tribes because it
encompasses their aboriginal homelands, the locations of their creation stories, and
lands and resources that sustain their place-based cultural and religious identities. See
Trust SOF 39 (quoting AR 11). 50 BLM also, however, identified numerous discrete
areas and resources of cultural and religious significance located throughout the
withdrawal area that could suffer irreparable harm from mining activities. Trust SOF
34, 38-39 (identifying springs, ceremonial sites, hunting and gathering areas, and
trails in each of the three withdrawal parcels and concluding that mining could result in
loss of their functional use by the tribes). These sites are in addition to the thousands of
documented archaeological sites that could be eligible for listing on the National
Register of Historic Places (NRHP). See id. 35, 37. 51
As a legal matter, neither the Establishment Clause nor other authority imposes a
size restriction on lands that may be protected to accommodate American Indian
cultural and religious beliefs and practices. Indeed, the courts have upheld similar
decisions to protect large tracts of public lands encompassing areas of traditional
The Court should disregard AEMAs and the Coalitions unsupported attempts to
denigrate and question the sincerity of the tribes deeply held cultural and religious
beliefs. See, e.g., AEMA Reply 29; Coal. Reply 21.
AEMA advances its own subjective belief that all areas and resources of cultural and
religious significance to the tribes should be characterized as cultural in nature and
therefore encompassed by BLMs conclusion that impacts to cultural (as opposed to
American Indian) resources could be mitigated. AEMA Reply 12-13. AEMA
identifies no support for its novel re-characterization of the record. See id. The tribes
not the federal government, and most certainly not AEMA are the only entities suited
to identify and characterize their sacred sites. See Trust Br. 25 n.35, 28 n.41.
Accordingly, BLM properly addresse[d] potential impacts to places that tribes define
as traditionally important regardless of their NRHP eligibility status. Trust SOF 35.
religious importance to Native Americans.
(upholding nearly 20,000-acre withdrawal); 52 accord Fortune v. Thompson, No. CV-
Mt. Royal, 477 F.3d at 750, 758
09-98-GF-SEH, 2011 WL 206164, at *1, *3 (D. Mont. Jan. 20, 2011) (upholding
motorized vehicle restrictions across nearly 130,000-acres and flatly rejecting plaintiffs
claim that the result was a cathedral for the Blackfeet religion). As the court in
Fortune recognized, [t]he Ninth Circuit has placed no . . . acreage limitation [on public
lands subject to accommodation] if the governmental action complies with the Lemon
test. Id. at *3 n.5. The Court should reject Plaintiffs invitation to impose new and
unsupported limitations on well-established and controlling Establishment Clause
jurisprudence.
Under the APA, courts may remand an unlawful agency action without vacatur
when equity demands, for example, when necessary to prevent serious harm to the
environment or public health. Idaho Farm Bureau Fedn v. Babbitt, 58 F.3d 1392,
1405-06 (9th Cir. 1995) (retaining endangered species listing to avoid possible
extinction of the species); see also Wood v. Betlach, 922 F. Supp. 2d 836, 851-52 (D.
Ariz. 2013) (Campbell, J.) (retaining state Medicaid program to avoid denial of benefits
to low-income residents). 53
In the typical NEPA case, remand with vacatur has few environmental
consequences because the proposed project, usually involving significant effects,
As this case demonstrates (and contrary to Plaintiffs characterization of case law),
courts have not held that protection of American Indian resources that happen to not be
NRHP-eligible necessarily violates the Establishment Clause. See Fed. Defs Br. 59.
Courts have also left an unlawful action in place where vacatur would have severely
disruptive consequences or thwart the objective of the statute at issue. See Cal. Cmtys.
Against Toxics v. U.S. E.P.A., 688 F.3d 989, 993-94 (9th Cir. 2012) (remanding without
vacatur to avoid disruption to power supply); W. Oil & Gas Assn v. U.S. E.P.A., 633
F.2d 803, 813 (9th Cir. 1980) (retaining non-attainment designations to avoid thwarting
purpose of the Clean Air Act).
remains uninitiated; vacatur maintains the status quo. This case is different. An order
of vacatur would open the area to location and entry under the Mining Law, which
could lead to a rush to stake additional uranium claims and to conduct exploration
activities to prove valuable discoveries. Contrary to AEMAs assertion, AEMA Reply
30 n.15, the environmental impact of these activitiesexploration in particularcould
be significant, including the establishment of legal entitlements under the Mining Law
to undertake mining activities that could have significant and long-lasting impacts.
Exploration and development during remand would be grandfathered from
subsequent withdrawal the way the four existing mines were under the current
withdrawal. Mining operations during remand could also secure valid existing rights,
and lead to development of more mines than BLM predicted, potentially impacting
groundwater and other resources. See Trust SOF 26-29, 38-41. For all these
reasons, Defendants respectfully renew their request for additional briefing should the
Court find the Secretarys conduct unlawful. For the same reasons, should the court
deny this request, Defendants respectfully request that the Court refrain from vacating
the decision as part of any remedy.
For the foregoing reasons, Defendants are entitled to judgment as a matter of
law, and respectfully request that Plaintiffs motions for summary judgment be denied
and that judgment be entered in Defendants favor on all counts.
Dated: June 6, 2014
SAM HIRSCH,
/s/ John S. Most
JOHN S. MOST, Trial Attorney
Virginia Bar, No. 27176
DOMINIKA TARCZYNSKA, Trial Attorney
New York Bar, No. 4431573
(202) 305-0447(Tarczynska)
202-616-3353 (Most)
DOMINIKA.TARCZYNSKA@USDOJ.GOV
JOHN.MOST@USDOJ.GOV
/s/ Alison Flint
1400 Glenarm Place, Suite 300
aflint@earthjustice.org
tzukoski@earthjustice.org
P.O. Box 349, 440 Main St., #2
wmap@igc.org
Counsel for Grand Canyon Trust, the Havasupai
Tribe, Center for Biological Diversity, Sierra Club,
and National Parks Conservation Association
CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE
I hereby certify that I am today causing the foregoing to be served upon counsel
of record through the Courts electronic service system (ECF/CM) and am emailing a
copy of same to pro se plaintiff Gregory Yount, to be followed by a copy via U.S. Mail
to sent on June 9, 2014.
National Environmental Policy Act
Social Institutions
Documents Similar To 6.6.2014 Feds and Intervenors Reply
boulderlaw
Robin Perdiguerra
np27031990
Ammarah Kaleem
Deckboss
Eliot Brown / New York Observer
Notice: Committees; establishment, renewal, termination, etc.: National Medal of Technology Nomination Evaluation Committee
United States v. James Milton Lund, 853 F.2d 242, 4th Cir. (1988)
94-863-nh-sup-ct-1996
Baqi-Khaliq Bey
Motion to Dismiss Purple Line Federal Funding Case
AJ Metcalf
Rule: Federal travel: Transportation expenses
John R. Seybert and Victor Soto, Victor Soto v. Robert Lowen, as International Secretary-Treasurer of the Internationalorganization of Masters, Mates and Pilots of America, Afl-Cio, and Theinternational Organization of Masters, Mates and Pilots of America, Afl-Cio, 623 F.2d 780, 2d Cir. (1980)
Libyan Claims Resolution Act 2008
Beverly Tran
Brian Dennis Hunt v. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 611 F.2d 332, 10th Cir. (1980)
Notice of Adoption of NEPA Document [for Paine Field (KPAE) Commercial Terminal]
GrowlerJoe
More From Mountain States Legal Foundation
040317-DOJ DOE Racial Disparity Letter
Mountain States Legal Foundation
Litigator Winter 2017
21APR17 - DOJ Response to Pendley School Discipline Letter
Dept. of Justice Letter
2014.10.14 Final Judgment
2014.10.14 Morris Memorandum Decision
Litigator Spring 2017
2017.2.23.State of Wyoming and Wyoming Farm Bureau v. EPA.opinion
2017.3.3 Order Granting Emergency Motion to Send Appeal to Mediation
2017.3.2 Emergency Motion to Place Appeal in Mediation
2017.1.23 Order Granting Certiorari (TABOR v. RTD)
Dept. of Education Letter 040717
Litigator Autumn 2016 Final
Litigator Spring 16 Final
2015.5.18 Order Dismissing Case Veasey
2016.9.30 Opposition to Motion to Dismiss
9.16.2016 Feds Motion to Dismiss
2016.6.16 Mslf Ac Brief n.c.
2016.9.6 Order Granting Cert.
Litigator Summer 2016
2015.10.9 Opinion and Judgment Herr v. U.S. Forest Service
2016.9.12 Solenex Memo Iso MSJ
2016.4.15 Motion to Amend Exhibit Proposed First Amended and Supplemental Complaint
Litigator2016 Special FINAL
2016.8.19 Second Amended Complaint
TABOR Order on Summary Judgment
BROUK Report- The Right to Education Denied for Rohingya Refugees in Bangladesh
rohingyablogger
pay gap- final draft
Essays on Equality, Law and Education
Victor Mota
TN - 2012-06-18 - Defendants Motion to File Reply & Reply
Thanjavur City Municipal Corporation Act, 2013
Latest Laws Team
State Aid - Reliable Measures of Poverty in State Aid Formulas
jspector
Reyes vs Bagatsing, 125 SCRA 553
khoire12
UAV+Drones an Introduction
Kannan Perumal
herança digital no Estado Delaware
Camila Saraiva
OIPC-Jan 28-15-F14-574143
Bob Mackin
032117 CS Form No. 212 Revised Personal Data Sheet_new
mennaldz
Peter Grose - A Good Place to Hide (Extract)
SPM English Literature Naukar
Ana Hamba Rabbul Jalil
Plan fiscal para Puerto Rico 2019 de la Junta de Supervisión Fiscal
NZ_F
axiswarlordhcv
“The Politics of Photographic Aesthetics: Confronting the HIV Epidemic among Heroin Injectors in Russia.
Jeff Schonberg
Biesta - Say You Want a Revolution
hemicefalo
Beashua Spearman ESL Lesson Plan
uarkgradstudent
Moseley, F. - The Decline of the Rate of Profit in the Postwar US Economy
The Burden of Intelligibility: Disabled Women's Testimony in Rape, By Saptarshi Mandal
Disability Rights Alliance
Gen Mush0 8 Part4
Foreign Direct Investment in Bangladesh
Ami Mugdho
207.1 Syllabus
Cecilia Pasana
Assignment GAY
graceleehan
Manila Pavillion vs Delada
DALIT Judge Dismissed for Being HONEST
Nagaraja Mysuru Raghupathi
Cesar Abasolo
What Weakened the Government Established by the Articles of Confederation
ECON 330 Problem Set 4
Doola
2nd-Set-of-Tax-Cases-16-30.doc
Jessalyn Echano
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2841
|
__label__cc
| 0.70188
| 0.29812
|
9th grade study guide part ii
saveSave 9th grade study guide part ii For Later
flipped grammar lesson
Insight Pre-intermediate SB.pdf
English Aam00000
164_LTTC Grammar Sample Elementary.pdf
Folio EP
Common Sense Summary _ Thomas Paine _ PDF
Early London Prehi 00 Be Sau of t
English Portfolio
Phonatics and English Course Plan
2009 Orientation PacketFINAL!!!!!2009
The European Languages
AILING PAPER 2 SJKC.docx
Common Sense for accommodations
The Declaration of Independence Lesson
05 Do You Speak English
esp-englishforspecificpurposes-140323000710-phpapp01.pptx
FCE2
RESISTER TO GO ON
9thGradeLiteratureandCompositionEOC(GSE)Quiz
Writing - (ELAGSE9-10W2a) Introduce A Topic, (ELAGSE9-10W2c) Use Transitions, (ELAGSE9-10W2f) Concluding
Statement/section, (ELAGSE9-10W3b) Use Narrative Techniques
Language - (ELAGSE9-10L1b) Various Types Of Phrases/clauses, (ELAGSE9-10L2b) Use A Colon, (ELAGSE9-10L2c) Spell Correctly,
(ELAGSE9-10L4a) Use Context
Student Name: _______________________ Date: _________
Teacher Name: 2017 Final Part II Score: _________
Roberto Barerra
Rivers have played an important role in human history. Since ancient
times, towns, cities, and entire civilizations have thrived around rivers,
which provide people with many of lifes necessities. One such river, the
River Thames, has been instrumental in the founding and development of
The River Thames stretches 215 miles across southern England. More
than eighty islands are scattered throughout its length. The Thames runs
right through the center of London. This made the river essential to the
growth and success of both London and the United Kingdom.
Having the Thames flow through the city allowed trade ships from around the world to come and go with ease, making
London the major transportation hub of England for centuries. The amount of money brought in by both national and
international trade made London one of the major commerce centers of Europe.
While the Thames is important to many businesses, it also affects the daily lives of the citys seven million citizens. Over
the years, the river has provided Londons people with food, drinking water, transportation, and a place to relax. For
centuries, artists like Claude Monet, Charles Dickens, and Edmund Spenser have looked to the Thames for inspiration.
These men used the river as a central figure in several of their works. In addition, some of the most well-known national
symbols of the United Kingdom are located on the rivers banks. Historic sites like Big Ben, the Palace of Westminster, the
London Eye, and the Tower Bridge are all located near the Thames.
The River Thames has played a significant role in military operations throughout the countrys history. In ancient times,
the Romans set their sights on expanding their empire by using the navigable waters of the Thames to invade the British
Isles. From the sea, they could easily enter the mouth of the river and move inward. After a failed attempt at defeating the
British tribes the year before, Julius Caesar broke through their defenses along the River Thames in 54 B.C. Although the
British fought against the Romans nearly a century later, Roman forces remained in England until the fall of the empire.
The Thames was vital to the defense of Great Britain during World War II. In 1940, the German Air Force started bombing
London. German pilots followed the river up into the center of the city, where they dropped their bombs. The first attack
destroyed almost all of the docks in Londons port and killed hundreds The British also used the Thames to help defend
their city. Water was pumped out of the Thames to put out fires started by the bombs and volunteers patrolled the river to
ensure that the German ships didnt enter the Port of London. Supplies and troops often traveled up and down the Thames
when bombings obstructed the roads.
Over the years, the river has been the source of a number of problems. In the nineteenth century, Londoners dumped
waste from their homes into the Thames. This made the water so smelly that the House of Commons had to relocate for a
time. The pollution of the river also contributed to an outbreak of disease that killed many people and to the
disappearance of most of the rivers fish. Luckily, various clean-up efforts during the twentieth century have greatly
improved the rivers water quality and allowed fish to return. Flooding is another concern. In 1928, a major flood killed
fourteen people and left many citizens homeless. Events like this led to the creation of the Thames Barrier, a moveable
flood barrier that helps stop floodwaters from reaching central London.
Though people no longer rely on the Thames as the only way to get around, the river is still important to many
Londoners. These few examples represent only a small number of ways in which the Thames has affected London over the
years. If not for the Thames, the world as we know it would be a very different place.
1) Which of these would be the BEST way to present information on the number of times the Thames has flooded?
A) an interview of survivors from various floods
B) a report on how flooding affects water quality
C) a collection of pictures from the flood of 1928
D) a graph showing the years that the Thames flooded
Chocolate and Cocoa Recipes and Home Made Candy Recipes
Miss Parloa
CHOCOLATE BISCUIT
Cover three large baking pans with paper that has been well oiled with washed butter. Over these dredge powdered sugar.
Melt in a cup one ounce of Walter Baker & Co.'s Premium No. 1 Chocolate. Separate the whites and yolks of four eggs. Add
to the yolks a generous half cupful of powdered sugar, and beat until light and firm. Add the melted chocolate, and beat a
few minutes longer. Beat the whites of the eggs to a stiff, dry froth. Measure out three-fourths of a cupful of sifted flour,
and stir it and the whites into the yolks. The whites and flour must be cut in as lightly as possible, and with very little
stirring. Drop the mixture in teaspoonfuls on the buttered paper. Sprinkle powdered sugar over the cakes, and bake in a
slow oven for about fourteen or fifteen minutes. The mixture can be shaped like lady fingers, if preferred.
2) Which method of development is used in this recipe?
A) illustration
B) spatial order
C) chronological order
D) division and classification
Is Grammar Important?
Carole Jenkins
Do you moan and groan whenever a teacher says that you need to improve your grammar? (2) Do you take offense when
someone tells you that you made a mistake in grammar? (3) Do you feel that studying and learning grammar is boring and
unnecessary? (4) I hated studying grammar when I was in school.
English is a very tricky language loaded with many rules and just as many exceptions to those rules. (6)By knowing
these rules and exceptions, you'll be a better reader, writer, listener, and speaker. (7)Communicating with others is what it's
all about.
Organizing a sentence so that it gets across your intended meaning is important. (9) In order to do this, you have to
know the parts of a sentence (subject, predicate, phrase, clause, etc.) and the parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective, etc.)
Knowing the elements of a sentence and how sentences are structured can help you to get across your intended
meanings in your writing and speaking. (11) You will also understand others as you read and listen.
Knowledge and understanding of English grammar can help you to see patterns of different languages and dialects as
you read and study literature. (13) Learning a foreign language, such as French or Spanish, is based on your mastery of the
basic rules of English grammar. (14) Understanding the tenses of verbs, subject-verb agreement, sentence structure, and
parts of speech form the foundation for learning new languages.
As you read and study assignments in all of your classes, knowing basic grammar can help you to comprehend the text.
When you come across a difficult passage, analyzing the sentence structure can often help you to figure out the
meaning of difficult sentences. (17) This can lead to an analysis and understanding of an author's writing style and can, in
turn, lead to comprehension of the text.
You are probably wondering how all of the rules and their exceptions will be remembered by you. (19) Don't worry! (20)
There are many grammar guides and style manuals available to help you. (21) These are quick references that can be
consulted as the need arises. (22) Even your English teacher who has been teaching for thirty years relies on a reference
book now and then!
Have I convinced you that the study of grammar is important and well worth your effort? (24) I hope so!
3) What transition could be added to Sentence (14)?
A) Later
B) However
C) For example
D) By contrast
4) What transition could be added to the beginning of Sentence (7)?
A) Next
B) Later
C) However
D) Ultimately
Medical studies have proven that sun damage can lead to melanoma;_____________, you should always wear sunscreen to
protect your skin from those damaging ultra-violet rays.
Fill in the blank with the BEST transition word(s).
A) however
B) finally
C) therefore
D) for example
Hawaii is the most recent state added to the United Sates and it continues to be a favorite vacation destination. (1) Hawaii
officially became a state on August 21, 1959. (2) Before then, the international community recognized Hawaii as an
independent kingdom. (3) My parents went on a honeymoon to Hawaii in the 1980s. (4) Although Europeans didnt discover
the island until the eighteenth century, scientists believe that the islands earliest Polynesian settlers arrived around 300
B.C. (5) When British Captain James Cook journeyed to the islands in 1778, Kamehameha was the ruling monarch. (6) The
monarchy continued to rule Hawaii for nearly a hundred years before sugar growers became angry with the government. (7)
They overthrew the sitting queen. (8) Hawaii existed as a republic for several years before the United States annexed it. (9)
When Hawaii finally became a state, the islands people received full citizenship.
Which of these BEST concludes the paragraph?
A) The word Hawaii means "new homeland."
B) Hawaii is a beautiful state with a fascinating history.
C) Today, Hawaii is one of the top vacation spots for tourists from around the world.
D) Queen Liliuokalani eventually surrendered her throne to the United States government.
7) You are delivering a speech to your classmates urging them to donate blood. As you end your speech, you want to impress upon
them the passion you feel for this topic. An effective choice for delivering the speech's conclusion is ___
A) standing stoically behind the podium with a serious expression.
B) to glance thoughtfully down at your speech to check your notes as you speak the ending.
C) increasing your volume and eye contact, but reducing body gestures to eliminate distractions.
D) to utilize a crescendo in the volume of your voice with hand gestures emphasizing the main points.
How young is too young for a child to have his or her own cell phone? Parents and parenting groups disagree. While some
parents believe that so long as a child is old enough to understand how to use the phone and what to use it for, others
believe that even fifteen years old is too young to have that kind of responsibility. Some parents claim that cell phones help
keep the family in closer communication and keeps children safer. Other parents warn that cell phones are a constant
distraction from school and life itself.
Which sentence would work best as a concluding sentence to this paragraph?
A) Some people believe that cell phones actually cause cancer of the brain.
B) Cell phones are quite expensive, but there are many different types of them out there.
C) Ultimately the decision of whether or not to give a child a cell phone belongs to each parent.
D) A cell phone can not only be used to call people, it can often text, take pictures, and play games.
Everyone loves to receive gifts. Many occasions call for giving a gift. They include birthdays, Hanukkah, Christmas, weddings,
and graduations. In this fast paced world, it seems that no one bothers to take the time to write a thank you card. This
simple gesture can mean so much to the person who cared enough to purchase, wrap, and send a gift. Sometimes the gift-
givers are close family members, but other times they are school or work friends. Either way, an email or text just won't do.
Which provides a concluding statement that follows from and supports the information presented?
The point is, take the time to actually write and give a thank you card. It is a part of you to share and it clearly shows
your appreciation.
Most etiquette experts agree that the best time to write a thank you card or letter is within three days of receiving the
Expressions of your thankfulness do not need to be expensive. A handmade card can be just as meaningful as elaborate
purchased cards.
In conclusion, the best gifts are given by family or friends, so be sure to show your appreciation so the gifts keep
coming.
Common Sense is an important historical document. It is a forty-eight page pamphlet written by Thomas Paine that called
for American colonists to declare immediate independence from British rule. Paine wrote in a brisk and poignant, even sharp
style. It was published at a time when many Americans were uncertain about pursuing independence. It was wildly
successful and had a significant impact on many Americans.
A) In 1175 Benjamin Rush helped to edit and publish the now-famous pamphlet known as Common Sense.
B) Common Sense helped persuade American colonists that they could successfully wage a war for their independence.
C) The Common Sense pamphlet was originally called Plain Truth and was structured as if it was a sermon.
Thomas Paine did not use his name when he first published Common Sense; it was simply signed "written by an
Englishman."
11) Lindsey is writing a narrative about her trip to the beach. What order would be best for her details?
A) pros and cons
B) chronological order
C) order of importance
D) order of difficulty
Although Terry liked to run in the rain she wasn't so sure about jogging in a monsoon.
Read the sentence and determine which of the answers correctly punctuates the underlined portion.
A) rain. She
B) rain; she
C) rain: she
D) rain, she
13) Which sentence uses a participial phrase?
A) The fence, which was broken and dirty, looked terrible.
B) Shutting out their opponent, the other team celebrated in victory.
C) Swimming in the pool all day is my favorite way to spend the summer.
D) I am pretty tired and not interested in staying up too late tonight.
While Sara was traveling in England; she met an interesting old man.
Choose the answer that is the most effective substitute for the underlined part of the sentence. If no substitute is necessary,
choose Leave as is.
A) in England. She met
B) in England, she met
C) in England she met
D) Leave as is.
Harvey nished typing his research paper, but he needed to proofread it before submitting it to
the professor.
A) Leave as is.
B) research paper but he needed
C) research paper; but he needed
D) research paper. But he needed
The fans wondered how the player __________ had been hurt could continue to play in the game.
Choose the word or phrase that best completes the sentence.
A) he
B) that
C) what
D) who
17) Choose the sentence in which the prepositional phrase "down the street" BEST explains where the speaker was driving.
A) Driving down the street, I saw the cat.
B) Driving, I saw the cat down the street.
C) I saw the cat driving down the street.
D) While driving, I saw the cat down the street.
18) Which sentence demonstrates correct use of the colon?
A) Friday's grammar test will cover: the following areas capitalization, punctuation, and diagramming.
B) Friday's grammar test will cover the following: areas capitalization, punctuation, and diagramming.
C) Friday's grammar test will cover the following areas: capitalization, punctuation, and diagramming.
D) Friday's grammar test: will cover the following areas capitalization, punctuation, and diagramming.
19) Choose the sentence that correctly uses a colon.
A) I am telling you that: she has got to go!
B) Last time I went bungee jumping: I did a swan dive from the platform.
C) Before going sky-diving, be sure to bring the following: goggles, a parachute, and ample courage.
D) Racing mountains bikes requires excellent physical fitness: but racing also requires a certain amount of recklessness.
A) Please pick up the following items from the grocery store: milk: eggs: bread: cheese.
B) Please pick up the following items: from the grocery store milk, eggs, bread, and cheese.
C) Please pick up the following items from: the grocery store milk, eggs, bread, and cheese.
D) Please pick up the following items from the grocery store: milk, eggs, bread, and cheese.
When my father and I decided to take a motorcycle trip from Georgia to Maine we spent a great deal of time in preparation.
First, we needed to chart a course and plot it on a map. Then, we needed to make a list of essential items to bring on the trip
My list included some of the following items leather gloves, boots, jeans, a leather jacket, goggles and, of course, a map.
Read the passage. Then determine which underlined section requires a colon.
A) trip: My
B) Maine: we
C) and: plot
D) items: leather
22) Isn't that __________ sister singing on the stage?
Choose the word that is spelled correctly and fits BEST in the context of the sentence.
A) yore
B) you
C) you're
D) your
23) Golden retrievers are friendly family pets. ___________________ known for having good temperaments with young children.
A) Their
B) There
C) They're
D) Thier
24) The students are expected to __________ appropriate clothing to the dance.
Choose the word that is spelled correctly and BEST fits the context of the sentence.
A) wear
B) were
C) whear
D) where
Running and playing in the hot sun had a tiring _______________on the soccer players.
Choose the word with the correct spelling and context meaning to BEST complete this sentence:
A) affect
B) affective
C) effect
D) effective
A Girl of the Limberlost
Elnora unlocked the case, took out the pail, put the napkin in it, pulled the ribbon from her hair, binding it down tightly
again and followed to the road. From afar she could see her mother in the doorway. She blinked her eyes, and tried to
smile as she answered Wesley Sinton, and indeed she did feel better. She knew now what she had to expect, where to go,
and what to do. Get the books she must; when she had them, she would show those city girls and boys how to prepare and
recite lessons, how to walk with a brave heart; and they could show her how to wear pretty clothes and have good times.
As she neared the door her mother reached for the pail. "I forgot to tell you to bring home your scraps for the chickens,"
she said.
Elnora entered. "There weren't any scraps, and I'm hungry again as I ever was in my life."
"I thought likely you would be," said Mrs. Comstock, "and so I got supper ready. We can eat first, and do the work
afterward. What kept you so? I expected you an hour ago."
Elnora looked into her mother's face and smiled. It was a queer sort of a little smile, and would have reached the depths
with any normal mother.
"I see you've been bawling," said Mrs. Comstock. "I thought you'd get your fill in a hurry. That's why I wouldn't go to any
expense. If we keep out of the poorhouse we have to cut the corners close. It's likely this Brushwood road tax will eat up
all we've saved in years. Where the land tax is to come from I don't know. It gets bigger every year. If they are going to
dredge the swamp ditch again they'll just have to take the land to pay for it. I can't, that's all! We'll get up early in the
morning and gather and hull the beans for winter, and put in the rest of the day hoeing the turnips."
Elnora again smiled that pitiful smile.
"Do you think I didn't know that I was funny and would be laughed at?" she asked.
"Funny?" cried Mrs. Comstock hotly.
"Yes, funny! A regular caricature," answered Elnora. "No one else wore calico, not even one other. No one else wore high
heavy shoes, not even one. No one else had such a funny little old hat; my hair was not right, my ribbon invisible
compared with the others, I did not know where to go, or what to do, and I had no books. What a spectacle I made for
them!" Elnora laughed nervously at her own picture. "But there are always two sides! The professor said in the algebra
class that he never had a better solution and explanation than mine of the proposition he gave me, which scored one for
me in spite of my clothes."
"Well, I wouldn't brag on myself!"
"That was poor taste," admitted Elnora. "But, you see, it is a case of whistling to keep up my courage. I honestly could
see that I would have looked just as well as the rest of them if I had been dressed as they were. We can't afford that, so I
have to find something else to brace me. It was rather bad, mother!"
"Well, I'm glad you got enough of it!"
"Oh, but I haven't" hurried in Elnora. "I just got a start. The hardest is over. To-morrow they won't be surprised. They will
know what to expect. I am sorry to hear about the dredge. Is it really going through?"
"Yes. I got my notification today. The tax will be something enormous. I don't know as I can spare you, even if you are
willing to be a laughing-stock for the town."
With every bite Elnora's courage returned, for she was a healthy young thing.
"You've heard about doing evil that good might come from it," she said. "Well, mother mine, it's something like that with
me. I'm willing to bear the hard part to pay for what I'll learn. Already I have selected the ward building in which I shall
teach in about four years. I am going to ask for a room with a south exposure so that the flowers and moths I take in from
the swamp to show the children will do well."
"You little idiot!" said Mrs. Comstock. "How are you going to pay your expenses?"
"Now that is just what I was going to ask you!" said Elnora. "You see, I have had two startling pieces of news to-day. I
did not know I would need any money. I thought the city furnished the books, and there is an out-of-town tuition, also. I
need ten dollars in the morning. Will you please let me have it?"
"Ten dollars!" cried Mrs. Comstock. "Ten dollars! Why don't you say a hundred and be done with it! I could get one as
easy as the other. I told you! I told you I couldn't raise a cent. Every year expenses grow bigger and bigger. I told you not
to ask for money!"
"I never meant to," replied Elnora. "I thought clothes were all I needed and I could bear them. I never knew about
buying books and tuition."
"Well, I did!" said Mrs. Comstock. "I knew what you would run into! But you are so bull-dog stubborn, and so set in your
way, I thought I would just let you try the world a little and see how you liked it!"
Elnora pushed back her chair and looked at her mother.
"Do you mean to say," she demanded, "that you knew, when you let me go into a city classroom and reveal the fact
before all of them that I expected to have my books handed out to me; do you mean to say that you knew I had to pay for
them?" Mrs. Comstock evaded the direct question.
"Anybody but an idiot mooning over a book or wasting time prowling the woods would have known you had to pay.
Everybody has to pay for everything. Life is made up of pay, pay, pay! It's always and forever pay! If you don't pay one way
you do another! Of course, I knew you had to pay. Of course, I knew you would come home blubbering! But you don't get a
penny! I haven't one cent, and can't get one! Have your way if you are determined, but I think you will find the road
somewhat rocky."
"Swampy, you mean, mother," corrected Elnora. She arose white and trembling. "Perhaps some day God will teach me
how to understand you. He knows I do not now. You can't possibly realize just what you let me go through to-day, or how
you let me go, but I'll tell you this: You understand enough that if you had the money, and would offer it to me, I wouldn't
touch it now. And I'll tell you this much more. I'll get it myself. I'll raise it, and do it some honest way. I am going back to-
morrow, the next day, and the next. You need not come out, I'll do the night work, and hoe the turnips."
It was ten o'clock when the chickens, pigs, and cattle were fed, the turnips hoed, and a heap of bean vines was stacked
beside the back door.
26) The characters' traits are revealed primarily through
A) dialogue
B) imagery
C) narration
D) soliloquy
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (Chapter 1)
"TOM!"
No answer.
"What's gone with that boy, I wonder? You TOM!"
(2)The old lady pulled her spectacles down and looked over them about the room; then she put them up and looked out
under them. She seldom or never looked through them for so small a thing as a boy; they were her state pair, the pride of
her heart, and were built for "style," not service -- she could have seen through a pair of stove-lids just as well.
(3)She looked perplexed for a moment, and then said, not fiercely, but still loud enough for the furniture to hear: "Well, I
lay if I get hold of you I'll --"
(4)She did not finish, for by this time she was bending down and punching under the bed with the broom, and so she
needed breath to punctuate the punches with. She resurrected nothing but the cat. "I never did see the beat of that boy!"
(5)She went to the open door and stood in it and looked out among the tomato vines and "jimpson" weeds that constituted
the garden. No Tom. So she lifted up her voice at an angle calculated for distance and shouted: "Y-o-u-u Tom!"
(6)There was a slight noise behind her and she turned just in time to seize a small boy by the slack of his roundabout and
arrest his flight.
"There! I might 'a thought of that closet. What you been doing in there?"
"Nothing."
Nothing! Look at your hands. And look at your mouth. What IS that truck?
I dont know, aunt.
Well, I know. Its jamthats what it is. Forty times Ive said if you didnt let that jam alone Id skin you. Hand me that
switch.
The switch hovered in the airthe peril was desperate--
"My! Look behind you, aunt!"
(7)The old lady whirled round, and snatched her skirts out of danger. The lad fled on the instant, scrambled up the high
board-fence, and disappeared over it. His aunt Polly stood surprised a moment, and then broke into a gentle laugh.
(8)"Hang the boy, can't I never learn anything? Ain't he played me tricks enough like that for me to be looking out for him
by this time? But old fools is the biggest fools there is. Can't learn an old dog new tricks, as the saying is. (9)But my
goodness, he never plays them alike, two days, and how is a body to know what's coming? He 'pears to know just how long
he can torment me before I get my dander up, and he knows if he can make out to put me off for a minute or make me
laugh, it's all dowagain and I can't hit him a lick. I ain't doing my duty by that boy, and that's the Lord's truth, goodness
knows. (10)Spare the rod and spile the child, as the Good Book says. I'm a laying up sin and suffering for us both, I know.
He's full of the Old Scratch, but laws-a-me! he's my own dead sister's boy, poor thing, and I ain't got the heart to lash him,
somehow. (11)Every time I let him off, my conscience does hurt me so, and every time I hit him my old heart most breaks.
Well-a-well, man that is born of woman is of few days and full of trouble, as the Scripture says, and I reckon it's so. He'll
play hookey this evening, and I'll just be obleeged to make him work, tomorrow, to punish him. (12)It's mighty hard to
make him work Saturdays, when all the boys is having holiday, but he hates work more than he hates anything else, and
I've GOT to do some of my duty by him, or I'll be the ruination of the child."
27) The author uses dialogue in this excerpt mainly
A) to illustrate and develop the character of Tom.
B) to create the conflict between Tom and Aunt Polly.
C) to show what life was often like in smalltown America.
D) to describe the setting, both time and place, of the story.
I resisted all the way: a new thing for me, and a circumstance which greatly strengthened the bad opinion Bessie and
Miss Abbot were disposed to entertain of me. The fact is, I was a trifle beside myself; or rather OUT of myself, as the
French would say: I was conscious that a moment's mutiny had already rendered me liable to strange penalties, and, like
any other rebel slave, I felt resolved, in my desperation, to go all lengths.
"Hold her arms, Miss Abbot: she's like a mad cat."
"For shame! for shame!" cried the lady's-maid. "What shocking conduct, Miss Eyre, to strike a young gentleman, your
benefactress's son! Your young master."
"Master! How is he my master? Am I a servant?"
"No; you are less than a servant, for you do nothing for your keep. There, sit down, and think over your wickedness."
They had got me by this time into the apartment indicated by Mrs. Reed, and had thrust me upon a stool: my impulse
was to rise from it like a spring; their two pair of hands arrested me instantly.
"If you don't sit still, you must be tied down," said Bessie. "Miss Abbot, lend me your garters; she would break mine
directly."
Miss Abbot turned to divest a stout leg of the necessary ligature. This preparation for bonds, and the additional ignominy
it inferred, took a little of the excitement out of me.
"Don't take them off," I cried; "I will not stir."
In guarantee whereof, I attached myself to my seat by my hands.
"Mind you don't," said Bessie; and when she had ascertained that I was really subsiding, she loosened her hold of me;
then she and Miss Abbot stood with folded arms, looking darkly and doubtfully on my face, as incredulous of my sanity.
"She never did so before," at last said Bessie, turning to the Abigail.
"But it was always in her," was the reply. "I've told Missis often my opinion about the child, and Missis agreed with me.
She's an underhand little thing: I never saw a girl of her age with so much cover."
Bessie answered not; but ere long, addressing me, she said -- "You ought to be aware, Miss, that you are under
obligations to Mrs. Reed: she keeps you: if she were to turn you off, you would have to go to the poorhouse."
I had nothing to say to these words: they were not new to me: my very first recollections of existence included hints of
the same kind. This reproach of my dependence had become a vague sing-song in my ear: very painful and crushing, but
only half intelligible. Miss Abbot joined in -
"And you ought not to think yourself on an equality with the Misses Reed and Master Reed, because Missis kindly allows
you to be brought up with them. They will have a great deal of money, and you will have none: it is your place to be
humble, and to try to make yourself agreeable to them."
"What we tell you is for your good," added Bessie, in no harsh voice, "you should try to be useful and pleasant, then,
perhaps, you would have a home here; but if you become passionate and rude, Missis will send you away, I am sure."
"Besides," said Miss Abbot, "God will punish her: He might strike her dead in the midst of her tantrums, and then where
would she go? Come, Bessie, we will leave her: I wouldn't have her heart for anything. Say your prayers, Miss Eyre, when
you are by yourself; for if you don't repent, something bad might be permitted to come down the chimney and fetch you
away."
"I was conscious that a moment's mutiny had already rendered me liable to strange penalties, and, like any other rebel slave,
I felt resolved, in my desperation, to go all lengths."
What is meant by the term resolved as it is used in this sentence?
A) determined
B) questioning
C) uneasy
D) unsure
"Mind you don't," said Bessie; and when she had ascertained that I was really subsiding, she loosened her hold of me; then
she and Miss Abbot stood with folded arms, looking darkly and doubtfully on my face, as incredulous of my sanity.
What is meant by the term incredulous as it is used in the previous sentence?
A) accepting
B) believing
C) true
D) unbelieving
"Miss Abbot turned to divest a stout leg of the necessary ligature. This preparation for bonds, and the additional ignominy it
inferred, took a little of the excitement out of me."
What is meant by the term ligature as it is used in the previous sentence?
A) cord
B) shape
C) size
D) weight
Documents Similar To 9th grade study guide part ii
Diana Romero
Alexandra Oana
Shane Fernandes
Aqir Syamil
Ale Urresta
Daniel Álvarez Malo
Alexandra Vieira
Amr Okasha
Activities Coordinator
Katsu Ôkami
James Langan
Ruth Arbaugh
Inaldo S Rocha
Dick B.
Hadi Sutrisno
7477 lessonplan rebpdf
1 lidia
Pedagogy of English
aman khullar
15000 Useful Phrases
diemthanhvu
sawr lp3
In the name of Allah.docx
saba khanam
How to Learn Grammar
Ivana Martinovic Ex Kostadinovic
BBC Learning English - Course_ Lower Intermediate _ Unit 1 _ Session 1 _ Activity 3
Wildan Irfansyah
9 narrative writing task 1
the merchant of venice essay 17
the odyssey power point worksheet
elizabethan 20theater
10th grade answer key final part 2
9th grade part ii final exam 2017
2017 final exam study guide answer key
10th grade study guide part 2
the immortal life of henrietta lacks ch 1-3 discussion questions
10th grade study part 1
milestones studyguide 9lit 11-16 1
the-merchant-of-venice
2017 final exam pg 1
10th grade final exam study guide answer key part 2
fahrenheit 451 background power point
unit 1 study guide grade 9
9 current event 2
fahrenheit 451 project
free response ap literature
charlottesville article 8 21
unit 1 fahrenheit 451 h essay assignment
hard hit- current event 3
ap literature unit one essay assignment
the odyssey background and lit terms
10th grade the open window pdf
Capital Budgeting Notes
wgl.joshi
Turbocharger Matching.pdf
Gomathi Sankar
fvcnn.pdf
Rajat Govekar
Biology Guess Paper 9th
stephanraza
jillianix
List of Cases for Digest
Joven Fajanilan
Ece Touchscreen Technology Report
Igbani Victory
Math 3 Lm Draft 4.10.2014
Mark Cua
Bakken Shale Formation Oil - North Dakota and Montana - USGS
tuffstuff49
Ezeh TANKFARM Operator Cv
chinedu
Com Lowagie Text PDF Pdfptable Setwidths
Software Testings
Shiva Krishna
Paper Class XI[Nurture(X-XI)]
SahilRaj001
Biography a R Rehman
R.Vetriselvan
Mems Actuators
Jon Hughes
kmt ws2
Mateo Troy
UNIT1L1S.PDF
Aly Abdelhamed
Golden Motor Pro Kit User Guide
taeBo
Nindiya Ppt
Pooja Langroo
Proforma Proponent CMR
Willy Ortega
Daily Weather Reports 1917 08
Druid_ian
Franck Hertz Versuch
Nita Mayangsari
Flour Siever
Justine Abanador
Mtech 4th Sem
Ananth Gouri
Table List of Tests Correlations of Soil and Rock Properties in Geotechnical Engineering
Tomasz Cz
Introduction to the Industry
ananthakumar
The Beautiful Lost (Excerpt)
I Read YA
2016 CPRA log - Hesperia
Beau Yarbrough
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2842
|
__label__wiki
| 0.668902
| 0.668902
|
Christianity in First Three Centuries
Uploaded by padre_mario
saveSave Christianity in First Three Centuries For Later
western europe3
epdf.tips_slavery-and-society-at-rome-key-themes-in-ancient-.pdf
(The Family in Antiquity) Mary Harlow, Lena Larsson Loven - Families in the Roman and Late Antique World-Bloomsbury Academic (2012).pdf
The Coming Persecution
NSBA Operations Manual
fall of rome
SW - Session 12
The 7 Periods
MINUTES TRANSITIONAL LEADERSHIP TEAM Monday, March 14th at 7:00 p.m.
Feast of St. Luke, Evangelist
Acqua Hf
The Christians Are Worshipping the Jews
Paper #3
Benedict XVI Angelus July 11
Early Christianity and Pagan Thought - Confluences and Conflicts
official newsletter of verbum dei luzon no 24
081026 - Oct 26 - SWCC Newsletter
The Mission and Expansion of Christianity
in the First Three Centuries
Adolf Harnack
About The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries
Title: The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Centuries
URL: http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/mission.html
Author(s): Harnack, Adolf (1851-1930)
Publisher: Grand Rapids, MI: Christian Classics Ethereal Library
General Comments: (tr. and ed. James Moffatt)
CCEL Subjects: All; History
The Mission and Expansion of Christianity in the First Three Adolf Harnack
About This Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. ii
Title Page. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 1
Prefatory Material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 2
Translator’s Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 2
Preface to the First German Edition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 3
Preface to the Second German Edition.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 5
Table of Contents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 5
Book I. Introductory.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 10
Chapter I. Judaism: Its Diffusion and Limits.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 10
Chapter II. The External Conditions of the World-wide Expansion of the
Christian Religion.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 20
Chapter III. The Internal Conditions Determining the World-wide Expansion
of the Christian Religion—Religious Syncretism.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 23
Chapter IV. Jesus Christ and the Universal Mission.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 30
Chapter V. The Transition from the Jewish to the Gentile Mission.. . . . . p. 35
Chapter VI. Results of the Mission of Paul and of the First
Missonaries.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 53
Book II. The Mission—Preaching in Word and Deed.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 60
Chapter I. Religious Characteristics of the Mission-Preaching.. . . . . . . p. 61
Chapter II. The Gospel of the Saviour and of Salvation.. . . . . . . . . . . . p. 69
Chapter III. The Conflict with Demons.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 83
Chapter IV. The Gospel of Love and Charity.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 96
Chapter 5. The Religion of the Spirit and of Power, of Moral Earnestness
and Holiness.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 127
Chapter 6. The Religion of Authority and of Reason, of the Mysteries and
of Transcendentalism.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 139
Chapter 7. The Tidings of the New People and of the Third Race: The
Historical and Political Consciousness of Christiandom.. . . . . . . . . . . p. 152
Excursus. Christian’s as a Third Race, in the Judgment of Their
Opponents.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 168
Chapter 8. The Religion of a Book and a Historical Realization.. . . . . . p. 176
Chapter 9. The Conflict with Polytheism and Idolatry.. . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 182
Epilogue. Christianity in its Completed Form as Syncretistic Religion.. . . p. 195
Book III. The Missionaries: The Methods of the Mission and the
Counter-movements.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 200
Chapter I. The Christian Missionaries (Apostles, Evangelists, and Prophets
or Teachers: The Informal Missionaries). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 200
Excursus. Travelling: The Exchange of Letters and Literature.. . . . . . . p. 231
Chapter II. Methods of the Mission: Catechizing and Baptism, the Invasion
of Domestic Life.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 239
Chapter III. The Names of Christian Believers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 249
Excursus I. “Friends.”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 261
Excursus 2. Christian Names.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 263
Chapter IV. The Organization of the Christian Community, as Bearing upon
the Christian Mission.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 268
Excursus I. Ecclesiastical Organization and the Episcopate (in the
Provinces, the Cities, and the Villages), from Pius to Constantine.. . . . . p. 276
Excursus II. The Catholic Confederation and the Mission.. . . . . . . . . . p. 300
Excursus 3. The Primacy of Rome in Relation to the Mission.. . . . . . . . p. 300
Chapter V. Counter-movements.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 301
Indexes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 319
Index of Scripture References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 319
Greek Words and Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 321
Hebrew Words and Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 348
Latin Words and Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 348
French Words and Phrases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 366
Index of Pages of the Print Edition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 366
THE MISSION AND EXPANSION OF
BY ADOLF HARNACK
Translated and edited by JAMES MOFFATT,
B.D., D.D. (St. Andrews)
GLOUCESTER, MASS.
THE MISSION AND EXPANSION
OF CHRISTIANITY
Introduction and Bibliography to the Torchbook edition Copyright ©1961 by Jaroslav Pelikan
This book was originally published by Williams & Norgate, London. This is Volume I of the 1908
edition, translated and edited by James Moffatt.
First HARPER TORCHBOOK edition published 1962
Reprinted, 1972, by arrangement with
v TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
DR HARNACK opened the course of lectures which have been translated in this library under the
title What is Christianity? with a reference to John Stuart Mill. The present work might also be
introduced by a sentence from the same English thinker. In the second chapter of his essay upon
“Liberty,” he has occasion to speak with admiration and regret of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius,
confessing that his persecution of the Christians seems “one of the most tragical facts in all history.”
“It is a bitter thought,” he adds, “how different a thing the Christianity of the world might have
been, if the Christian faith had been adopted as the religion of the empire under the auspices of
Marcus Aurelius instead of those of Constantine.” Aurelius represents the apex of paganism during
the first three centuries of our era. Chronologically, too, he stands almost equidistant between Christ
and Constantine. But there were reasons why the adjustment of the empire to Christianity could
not come earlier than the first quarter of the fourth century, and it is Dr Harnack's task in the present
work to outline these reasons in so far as they are connected with the extension and expansion of
Christianity itself. How did the new religion come to win official recognition from the state in A.D.
325? Why then? Why not till then? Such is the problem set to the historian of the Christian
propaganda by the ante-Nicene period. He has to explain how and why and where, within less than
three centuries, an Oriental religious movement which was originally a mere ripple on a single
wave of dissent in the wide sea of paganism, rose into a breaker which swept before it the vested
interests, prejudices, traditions, and authority of the most powerful social and political organization
that the world hitherto had known. The main causes and courses of this transition, with all that it
involves of the inner life and worship of the religion, form Dr Harnack's topic in these pages.
In editing the book for an English audience I have slightly enlarged the index and added a list
of New Testament passages referred to. Wherever a German or French book cited by the author
has appeared in an English dress, the corresponding reference has been subjoined. Also, in deference
to certain suggestions received by the publishers, I have added, wherever it has been advisable to
do so, English versions of the Greek and Latin passages which form so valuable and characteristic
a feature of Dr Harnack's historical discussions. It is hoped that the work may be thus rendered
more intelligible and inviting than ever to that wider audience whose interest in early Christianity
is allied to little or no Greek and Latin.
The first edition of this translation was issued in 1904-1905, and the first volume is now out of
print. Meanwhile, Dr Harnack published, in 1906, a new edition of the original in two volumes,
which has been so thoroughly revised and enlarged that, with its additions and omissions, it forms
practically a new work. His own preface to the second edition gives no adequate idea of the care
and skill with which nearly every page has been gone over in order to fill up any gaps and bring
the work up to date. The present version has been made directly from this edition. I have taken the
opportunity of correcting some misprints which crept into the first edition of my translation, and
it is hoped that English readers will now be able to find easy access to this standard history in its
final form.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST GERMAN EDITION
No monograph has yet been devoted to the mission and spread of the Christian religion during
the first three centuries of our era. For the earliest period of church history we have sketches of the
historical development of dogma and of the relation of the church to the state—the latter including
Neumann's excellent volume. But the missionary history has always been neglected, possibly
because writers have been discouraged by the difficulty of bringing the material to the surface and
getting it arranged, or by the still more formidable difficulties of collecting and sifting the
geographical data and statistics. The following pages are a first attempt, and for it I bespeak a kindly
judgment. My successors, of whom there will be no lack, will be able to improve upon it.
I have one or two preliminary remarks to make, by way of explanation.
The primitive history of the church's missions lies buried in legend; or rather, it has been replaced
by a history (which is strongly marked by tendency) of what is alleged to have happened in the
course of a few decades throughout every country on the face of the earth. The composition of this
history has gone on for more than a thousand years. The formation of legends in connection with
the apostolic mission, which commenced as early as the first century, was still thriving in the Middle
Ages; it thrives, in fact, down to the present day. But the worthless character of this history is now
recognised on all sides, and in the present work I have hardly touched upon it, since I have steadily
presupposed the results gained by the critical investigation of the sources. Whatever item from the
apocryphal Acts, the local and provincial legends of the church, the episcopal lists, and the Acts
xii of the martyrs, has not been inserted or noticed in these pages, has been deliberately omitted as
useless. On the other hand, I have aimed at exhaustiveness in the treatment of reliable material. It
is only the Acts and traditions of the martyrs that present any real difficulty, and from such sources
this or that city may probably fall to be added to my lists. Still, the number of such addenda must
be very small. Inscriptions, unfortunately, almost entirely fail us. Dated Christian inscriptions from
the pre-Constantine age are rare, and only in the case of a few groups can we be sure that an undated
inscription belongs to the third and not to the fourth century. Besides, the Christian origin of a very
numerous class is merely a matter of conjecture, which cannot at present be established.
As the apostolic age of the church, in its entire sweep, falls within the purview of the history
of Christian missions, some detailed account of this period might be looked for in these pages. No
such account, however, will be found. For such a discussion one may turn to numerous works upon
the subject, notably to that of Weizsacker. After his labours, I had no intention of once more
depicting Paul the missionary; I have simply confined myself to the general characteristics of the
period. What is set down here must serve as its own justification. It appeared to me not unsuitable,
under the circumstances, to attempt to do some justice to the problems in a series of longitudinal
sections; thereby I hoped to avoid repetitions, and, above all, to bring out the main currents and
forces of the Christian religion coherently and clearly. The separate chapters have been compiled
in such a way that each may be read by itself; but this has not impaired the unity of the whole work,
I hope.
The basis chosen for this account of the early history of Christian missions is no broader than
my own general knowledge of history and of religion—which is quite slender. My book contains
no information upon the history of Greek or Roman religion; it has no light to throw on primitive
myths and later cults, or on matters of law and of administration. On such topics other scholars are
better informed than I am. For many years it has been my sole endeavour to remove the barriers
xiii between us, to learn from my colleagues whatever is indispensable to a correct appreciation of such
phenomena as they appear inside the province of church history, and to avoid presenting derived
material as the product of original research.
With regard to ancient geography and statistics, I have noticed in detail, as the pages of my
book will indicate, all relevant investigations. Unfortunately, works on the statistics of ancient
population present results which are so contradictory as to be useless; and at the last I almost omitted
the whole of these materials in despair. All that I have actually retained is a scanty residue of reliable
statistics in the opening chapter of Book I. and in the concluding paragraphs. In identifying towns
and localities I have followed the maps in the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, the small maps in
the fifth volume of Mommsen's Roman History, Kiepert's Formae orbis antiqui (so far as these
have appeared), and some other geographical guides; no place which I have failed to find in these
authorities has been inserted in my pages without some note or comment, the only exception being
a few suburban villages. I had originally intended to furnish the book with maps, but as I went on
I had reluctantly to abandon this idea. Maps, I was obliged to admit, would give a misleading
impression of the actual situation. For one thing, the materials at our disposal for the various
provinces up to 325 A.D. are too unequal, and little would be gained by merely marking the towns
in which Christians can be shown to have existed previous to Constantine; nor could I venture to
indicate the density of the Christian population by means of colours. Maps cannot be drawn for
any period earlier than the fourth century, and it is only by aid of these fourth-century maps that
the previous course of the history can be viewed in retrospect.—The demarcation of the provinces,
and the alterations which took place in their boundaries, formed a subject into which I had hardly
any occasion to enter. Some account of the history of church-organization could not be entirely
omitted, but questions of organization have only been introduced where they were unavoidable.
My aim, as a rule, has been to be as brief as possible, to keep strictly within the limits of my subject,
xiv and never to repeat answers to any settled questions, either for the sake of completeness or of
convenience to my readers. The history of the expansion of Christianity within the separate provinces
has merely been sketched in outline. Anyone who desires further details must, of course, excavate
with Ramsay in Phrygia and the French savants in Africa, or plunge with Duchesne into the ancient
episcopal lists, although for the first three hundred years the results all over this field are naturally
meagre.
The literary sources available for the history of primitive Christian missions are fragmentary.
But how extensive they are, compared to the extant sources at our disposal for investigating the
history of any other religion within the Roman empire! They not only render it feasible for us to
attempt a sketch of the mission and expansion of Christianity which shall be coherent and complete
in all its essential features, but also permit us to understand the reasons why this religion triumphed
in the Roman empire, and how the triumph was achieved. At the same time, a whole series of
queries remains unanswered, including those very questions that immediately occur to the mind of
anyone who looks attentively into the history of Christian missions.
Several of my earlier studies in the history of Christian missions have been incorporated in the
present volume, in an expanded and improved form. These I have noted as they occur.
I must cordially thank my honoured friend Professor Imelmann for the keen interest he has
taken in these pages as they passed through the press.
A. HARNACK.
BERLIN, Sept. 4, 1902.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND GERMAN EDITION
THE second edition is about ten sheets larger than the first, six of these extra sheets falling within
Book IV. The number of fresh places where I have been able to verify the existence of Christianity
prior to Constantine is infinitesimally small; my critics have not been able to increase the list. But
I have tried to put more colour into the description of the spread of the religion throughout the
various provinces, and also to incorporate several out-of-the-way passages. Several new sections
have been added; the excursus on the “Alleged Council of Antioch,” at the close of the first book,
has been omitted as superfluous, however, though not as erroneous. After my disclaimer in the
preface to the first edition, some may be surprised to find that maps are now added. What determined
me to take this step was the number of requests for them, based invariably on the opinion that the
majority of readers cannot form any idea of the diffusion of Christianity unless they have maps,
while the ordinary maps of the ancient world require detailed study in order to be of any use for
this special purpose. Consequently, I have overcome my scruples and drawn the eleven maps which
are appended to the second volume. I attach most importance to the attempt which I have made in
the second map. It was a venture, but it sums up all the results of my work, and without it the
following maps would be misleading, since they all depend more or less upon incidental information
about the period.
The index I have worked over again myself.
A. H.
BERLIN, Dec. 1, 1905.
Translator's Preface ix
Preface to the First German Edition ix
Preface to the Second German Edition xv
Chapter I. Judaism: Its Diffusion and Limits 1-18
Chapter II. The External Conditions of the 19-23
World-wide Expansion of the Christian Religion
Chapter III. The Internal Conditions Determining 24-35
the World-wide Expansion of the Christian
Religion—Religious Syncretism
Chapter IV. Jesus Christ and the Universal 36-43
Chapter V. The Transition from the Jewish to the 44-72
Gentile Mission
Chapter VI. Results of the Mission of Paul and 73-83
of the First Missionaries
MISSION-PREACHING IN WORD AND DEED
Introduction 84-85
Chapter I. The Religious Characteristics of the 86-100
Mission-Preaching
Chapter II. The Gospel of the Saviour and of 101-124
Chapter III. The Conflict with Demons 125-146
Chapter IV. The Gospel of Love and Charity 147-198
Chapter V. The Religion of the Spirit and of 199-218
Power, of Moral Earnestness and Holiness
Chapter VI. The Religion of Authority and of 219-239
Reason, of the Mysteries and of
Chapter VII. The Tidings of the New People and 240-265
of the Third Race: The Historical and
Political Consciousness of Christendom
Excursus. Christians as a Third Race, in the 266-278
Judgment of Their Opponents
Chapter VIII. The Religion of a Book and a 279-289
Historical Realization
Chapter IX. The Conflict with Polytheism and 290-311
Epilogue. Christianity in its Completed Form as 312-318
Syncretistic Religion
THE MISSIONARIES: THE METHODS OF THE MISSION
AND THE COUNTER-MOVEMENTS
Chapter I. The Christian Missionaries (Apostles, 319-368
Evangelists, and Prophets or Teachers: The
Informal Missionaries)
Excursus. Travelling: The Exchange of Letters 369-380
and Literature.
Chapter II. Methods of the Mission: Catechizing 381-398
and Baptism, the Invasion of Domestic Life
Chapter III. The Names of Christian Believers 399-418
Excursus I. Friends (οἱ φίλοι) 419-421
Excursus II. Christian Names 422-430
Chapter IV. The Organisation of the Christian 431-444
xix Community, as Bearing upon the Christian
Excursus I. Ecclesiastical Organisation and the 445-482
Episcopate (in the Provinces, the Cities, and
the Villages), from Pius to Constantine
Excursus II. The Catholic Confederation and the 483-484
Excursus III. The Primacy of Rome in Relation 485-486
to the Mission
Chapter V. Counter-Movements 487-513
Addenda 514
1. Only those towns are marked on the map in which it can be
proved that Christian communities existed prior to 180 A.D.
2. Places where Christian communities are demonstrable or
certain prior to Trajan are underlined.
3. Places which are not quite certain as towns with a Christian
community prior to 180 A.D. are put within brackets.
4. The shading indicates that while Christians certainly existed
in the district in question, the names of the cities where they stayed
have not been preserved. Except in the case of Egypt, the shading is
omitted whenever even one town in the province in question can be
shown to have had a Christian church.
5. The principal Roman roads are marked by double lines.
JUDAISM: ITS DIFFUSION AND LIMITS
To nascent Christianity the synagogues in the Diaspora meant more than the fontes
persecutionum of Tertullian's complaint; they also formed the most important presupposition for
the rise and growth of Christian communities throughout the empire. The network of the synagogues
furnished the Christian propaganda with centres and courses for its development, and in this way
the mission of the new religion, which was undertaken in the name of the God of Abraham and
Moses, found a sphere already prepared for itself.
Surveys of the spread of Judaism at the opening of our period have been often made, most
recently and with especial care by Schürer (Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes, Bd. III. pp. 1-38;
Eng. trans., II. ii. 220 f.). Here we are concerned with the following points:
(1) There were Jews in most of the Roman provinces, at any rate in all those which touched or
adjoined the Mediterranean, to say nothing of the Black Sea; eastward also, beyond Syria, they
were thickly massed in Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Media.1
1 The conversion of the royal family of Adiabene (on the Tigris, at the frontier of the Roman Empire and of Parthia) to Judaism,
during the reign of Claudius, is a fact of special moment in the history of the spread of Judaism, and Josephus gives it due
prominence. A striking parallel, a century and a half later, is afforded by the conversion of the royal house of Edessa to Christianity.
Renan (Les Apôtres, ch. xiv.) is not wrong when he remarks, in his own way, that “the royal family of Adiabene belongs to the
history of Christianity.” He does not mean to say, with Orosius (vii. 6) and Moses of Chorene (ii. 35), that they actually became
Christians, but simply that “in embracing Judaism, they obeyed a sentiment which was destined to bring over the entire pagan
world to Christianity.” A further and striking parallel to the efforts of Queen Helena of Adiabene (cp. Jos., Antiq., xx. 2 f.; B.J.,
v. 2-4, v. 6. 1, vi. 6. 3) is to be found in the charitable activity of Constantine's mother, Queen Helena, in Jerusalem. Possibly
the latter took the Jewish queen as her model, for Helena of Adiabene's philanthropy was still remembered in Jerusalem and by
Jews in general (cp. Eus., H.E., ii. 12, and the Talmudic tradition).—Comprehensive evidence for the spread of Judaism throughout
the empire lies in Philo (Legat. 36 and Flacc. 7), Acts (ii. 9 f.), and Josephus (Bell., ii. 16. 4, vii. 3. 3; Apion, ii. 39). The statement
of Josephus (οὐκ ἔστιν ἐπὶ τῆς οἰκουμένης δῆμος ὁ μὴ μοῖραν ἡμετέραν ἔχων: “there is no people in the world which does not
contain some part of us”) had been anticipated more than two centuries earlier by a Jewish Sibylline oracle (Sib. orac., iii. 271;
πᾶσα δὲ γαῖα σέθεν πλήρης καὶ πᾶσα θάλασσα: “every land and sea is filled with thee”). By 139-138 B.C. a decree for the
protection of Jews had been issued by the Roman Senate to the kings of Egypt, Syria, Pergamum, Cappadocia and Parthia, as
well as to Sampsamê (Amisus?), Sparta, Sicyon (in the Peloponnese), Delos, Samos, the town of Gortyna, Caria and Myndus,
Halicarnassus and Cnidus, Cos and Rhodes, the province of Lycia together with Phaselis, Pamphilia with Sidê, the Phœnician
town Aradus, Cyrene and Cyprus. By the time of Sulla, Strabo had written thus (according to Josephus, Antiq., xiv. 7. 2): εἰς
πᾶσαν πόλιν ἤδη παρεληλύθει, καὶ τόπον οὐκ ἔστι ῥᾳδίως εὑρεῖν τῆς οἰκουμένης ὃς οὐ παραδέδεκται τοῦτο τὸ φῦλον μηδ᾽
ἐπικρατεῖται ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ (“They have now got into every city, and it is hard to find a spot on earth which has not admitted this
tribe and come under their control”). For the intensive spread of Judaism Seneca's testimony (cited by Augustine, De Civit. Dei,
(2) Their numbers were greatest in Syria,2 next to that in Egypt (in all the nomes as far as Upper
Egypt),3 Rome, and the provinces of Asia Minor4. The extent to which they had made their way
into all the local conditions is made particularly clear by the evidence bearing on the sphere last
3 named, where, as on the north coast of the Black Sea, Judaism also played some part in the blending
of religions (e.g., the cult of “The most high God,” and of the God called “Sabbatistes”). The same
holds true of Syria, though the evidence here is not taken so plainly from direct testimony, but
drawn indirectly from the historical presuppositions of Christian gnosticism.5 In Africa, along the
coast-line, from the proconsular province to Mauretania, Jews were numerous.6 At Lyons, in the
time of Irenæus,7 they do not seem to have abounded; but in southern Gaul, as later sources indicate,
their numbers cannot have been small, whilst in Spain, as is obvious from the resolutions of the
synod of Elvira (c. 300 A.D.), they were both populous and powerful. Finally, we may assume that
in Italy—apart from Rome and Southern Italy, where they were widely spread—they were not
exactly numerous under the early empire, although even in Upper Italy at that period individual
4 synagogues were in existence. This feature was due to the history of Italian civilization, and it is
corroborated by the fact that, beyond Rome and Southern Italy, early Jewish inscriptions are scanty
and uncertain. “The Jews were the first to exemplify that kind of patriotism which the Parsees, the
Armenians, and to some extent the modern Greeks were to display in later ages, viz. a patriotism
of extraordinary warmth, but not attached to any one locality, a patriotism of traders who wandered
up and down the world and everywhere hailed each other as brethren, a patriotism which aimed at
vi. 11) is particularly instructive: cum interim usque eo sceleratissimae gentis consuetudo valuit, ut per omnes iam terras recepta
sit; victi victoribus leges dederunt (“Meantime the customs of this most accursed race have prevailed to such an extent that they
are everywhere received. The conquered have imposed their laws on the conquerors”). Justin declares that “there are nations in
which not one of your race [i.e. of the Jews] can be found” (ἔστι τὰ ἔθνη ἐν οἷς οὐδέπω οὐδεὶς ὑμῶν τοῦ γένους ᾤκησεν, Dial.
117), but the following claim that there were Christians in every nation shows that his statement is due to tendency.
2 The large number of Jews in Antioch is particularly striking.
3 For the diffusion of Jews in S. Arabia, cp. Philostorgius's important evidence (H.E., iii. 4). The local population, he avers, οὐκ
ὀλίγον πλῆθος Ἰουδαίων ἀναπέφυρται.
4 Philo, Legat. 33: Ἰουδαῖοι καθ᾽ ἑκάστην πόλιν εἰσὶ παμπληθεῖς Ἀσίας τε καὶ Συρίας (“The Jews abound in every city of Asia
and Syria”). The word “every” (ἑκάστην) is confirmed by a number of special testimonies, e.g. for Cilicia by Epiphanius (Hær.,
xxx. 11), who says of the “apostle” sent by the Jewish patriarch to collect the Jewish taxes in Cilicia: ὃς ἀνελθὼν ἐκεῖσε ἀπὸ
ἑκάστης πόλεως τῆς Κιλικίας τὰ ἐπιδέκατα κτλ εἰσέπραττεν (“On his arrival there he proceeded to lift the tithes, etc., from every
city in Cilicia”). On the spread of Judaism in Phrygia and the adjoining provinces (even into the districts of the interior), see
Ramsay's two great works, The Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, and The Historical Geography of Asia Minor, along with his
essay in the Expositor (January 1902) on “The Jews in the Græco-Asiatic Cities.” Wherever any considerable number of
inscriptions are found in these regions, some of them are always Jewish. The rô1e played by the Jewish element in Pisidian
Antioch is shown by Acts xiii.; see especially verses 44 and 50 οἱ Ἰουδαῖοι παρώτρυναν τὰς σεβομένας γυναῖκας τὰς ἐυσχήμονας
καὶ τοὺς πρώτους τῆς πόλεως). And the significance of the Jewish element in Smyrna comes out conspicuously in the martyrdom
of Polycarp and of Pionius; on the day of a Jewish festival the appearance of the streets was quite changed. ''The diffusion and
importance of the Jews in Asia Minor are attested among other things by the attempt made during the reign of Augustus, by the
Ionian cities, apparently after joint counsel, to compel their Jewish fellow-townsmen to abandon their faith or else to assume
the full burdens of citizenship” (Mommsen, Röm. Gesch., v. pp. 489 f., Eng. trans. Provinces, ii. 163).
5 Cp. also the remarks of Epiphanius (Hær., lxxx. l) upon the cult of Παντοκράτωρ.
6 See Monceaux, “les colonies juives dans l’Afrique romaine” (Rev. des Études juives, 1902); and Leclerq, L’Afrique chrétienne
(1904), I. pp. 36 f. We have evidence for Jewish communities at Carthage, Naro, Hadrumetum, Utica, Hippo, Simittu, Volubilis,
Cirta, Auzia, Sitifis, Cæsarea, Tipasa, and Oea, etc.
7 To all appearance, therefore, he knew no Jewish Christians at first hand.
forming not great, compact states but small, autonomous communities under the ægis of other
states.”8
(3) The exact number of Jews in the Diaspora can only be calculated roughly. Our information
with regard to figures is as follows. Speaking of the Jews in Babylonia, Josephus declares there
were “not a few myriads,” or “innumerable myriads'” in that region.9 At Damascus, during the great
war, he narrates (Bell. Jud., ii. 20. 2) how ten thousand Jews were massacred; elsewhere in the
same book (vii. 8. 7) he writes “eighteen thousand.'” Of the five civic quarters of Alexandria, two
were called “the Jewish” (according to Philo, In Flacc. 8), since they were mainly inhabited by
Jews; in the other quarters Jews were also to be met with, and Philo (In Flacc. 6) reckons their total
number in Egypt (as far as the borders of Ethiopia) to have been at least 100 myriads (= a million).
In the time of Sulla the Jews of Cyrene, according to Strabo (cited by Josephus, Antiq., xiv. 7. 2),
formed one of the four classes into which the population was divided, the others being citizens,
peasants, and resident aliens. During the great rebellion in Trajan's reign they are said to have
slaughtered 220,000 unbelievers in Cyrene (Dio Cassius, lxviii. 32), in revenge for which “many
myriads” of their own number were put to death by Marcus Turbo (Euseb., H.E., iv. 2). The Jewish
revolt spread also to Cyprus, where 240,000 Gentiles are said to have been murdered by them.10
As for the number of Jews in Rome, we have these two statements: first, that in B.C. 4 a Jewish
5 embassy from Palestine to the metropolis was joined by 8000 local Jews (Joseph., Antiq., xvii. 2.
1; Bell., ii. 6. 1); and secondly, that in 19 A.D., when Tiberius banished the whole Jewish community
from Rome, 4000 able-bodied Jews were deported to Sardinia. The latter statement merits especial
attention, as it is handed down by Tacitus as well as Josephus.11 After the fall of Sejanus, when
Tiberius revoked the edict (Philo, Legat. 24), the Jews at once made up their former numbers in
Rome (Dio Cassius, lx. 6, πλεονάσαντες αὖθις); the movement for their expulsion reappeared
under Claudius in 49 A.D., but the enforcement of the order looked to be so risky that it was presently
withdrawn and limited to a prohibition of religious gatherings.12 In Rome the Jews dwelt chiefly
8 Renan, Les Apôtres (ch. xvi.).
9 Antiq., xv. 3. 1, xi. 5. 2. According to Antiq., xii. 3. 4, Antiochus the Great deported 2000 families of Babylonian Jews to Phrygia
and Lydia.
10 Dio Cassius (loc. cit.). The same author declares (lxix. 14) that 580,000 Jews perished in Palestine during the rebellion of
Barcochba.
11 There is a discrepancy between them. Whilst Josephus (Antiq., xviii. 3. 5) mentions only Jews, Tacitus (Annal., ii. 85) writes:
“Actum et de sacris Aegyptiis Judaicisque pellendis factumque patrum consultum, ut quattuor milia libertini generis ea superstitione
infecta, quis idonea aetas, in insulam Sardiniam veherentur, coercendis illic latrociniis et, si ob gravitatem caeli interissent, vile
damnum; ceteri cederent Italia, nisi certam ante diem profanes ritus exuissent” (“Measures were also adopted for the extermination
of Egyptian and Jewish rites, and the Senate passed a decree that four thousand freedmen, able-bodied, who were tainted with
that superstition, should be deported to the island of Sardinia to put a check upon the local brigands. Should the climate kill them
’twould be no great loss! As for the rest, they were to leave Italy unless they abjured their profane rites by a given day”). The
expulsion is also described by Suetonius (Tiber. 36); “Externas caeremonias, Aegyptios Judaicosque ritus compescuit, coactis
qui superstitione ea tenebantur religiosas vestes cum instrumento omni comburere. Judaeorum juventutem per speciem sacramenti
in provincias gravioris caeli distribuit, reliquos gentis eiusdem vel similia sectantes urbe summovit, sub poena perpetuae servitutis
nisi obtemperassent” (“Foreign religions, including the rites of Egyptians and Jews, he suppressed, forcing those who practised
that superstition to burn their sacred vestments and all their utensils. He scattered the Jewish youth in provinces of an unhealthy
climate, on the pretext of military service, whilst the rest of that race or of those who shared their practices were expelled from
Rome, the penalty for disobedience being penal servitude for life”).
12 The sources here are contradictory. Acts (xviii. 2), Suetonius (Claud. 25), and Orosius (vii. 6. 15)—the last named appealing by
mistake to Josephus, who says nothing about the incident—all speak of a formal (and enforced) edict of expulsion, but Dio
in Trastevere; but as Jewish churchyards have been discovered in various parts of the city, they
were also to be met with in other quarters as well.
A glance at these numerical statements shows13 that only two possess any significance. The
first is Philo's, that the Egyptian Jews amounted to quite a million. Philo's comparatively precise
mode of expression (οὐκ ἀποδέουσι μυριάδων ἑκατὸν οἱ τὴν Ἀλεξάνδρειαν καὶ τὴν χώραν Ἰουδᾶιοι
κατοικοῦντες ἀπὸ τοῦ πρὸς Λιβύην καταβαθμοῦ μέχρι τῶν ὁρίων Αἰθιοπίας: “The Jews resident
in Alexandria and in the country from the descent to Libya back to the bounds of Ethiopia, do not
fall short of a million”), taken together with the fact that registers for the purpose of taxation were
accurately kept in Egypt, renders it probable that we have here to do with no fanciful number. Nor
does the figure itself appear too high, when we consider that it includes the whole Jewish population
of Alexandria. As the entire population of Egypt (under Vespasian) amounted to seven or eight
millions, the Jews thus turn out to have formed a seventh or an eighth of the whole (somewhere
about thirteen per cent.).14 Syria is the only province of the empire where we must assume a higher
percentage of Jews among the population;15 in all the other provinces their numbers were smaller.
The second passage of importance is the statement that Tiberius deported four thousand
able-bodied Jews to Sardinia—Jews, be it noted, not (as Tacitus declares) Egyptians and Jews, for
the distinct evidence of Josephus on this point is corroborated by that of Suetonius (see above),
who, after speaking at first of Jews and Egyptians, adds, by way of closer definition, “Judaeorum
juventatem per speciem sacramenti in provincias gravioris caeli distribuit.'” Four thousand
able-bodied men answers to a total of at least ten thousand human beings,16 and something like this
represented the size of the contemporary Jewish community at Rome. Now, of course, this reckoning
agrees but poorly with the other piece of information, viz., that twenty-three years earlier a Palestinian
deputation had its ranks swelled by 8000 Roman Jews. Either Josephus has inserted the total number
of Jews in this passage, or he is guilty of serious exaggeration. The most reliable estimate of the
Cassius (lx. 6) writes: τούς τε Ἰουδαίους πλεονάσαντας αὖθις, ὥστε χαλεπῶς ἂν ἄνευ ταραχῆς ὑπὸ τοῦ ὄχλου σφῶν τῆς πόλεως
εἰρχθῆναι, οὐκ ἐξήλασε· μέν, τῷ δὲ δὴ πατρίῳ βίῳ χρωμένους ἐκέλευσε μὴ συναθροίζεσθαι (“As the Jews had once more
multiplied, so that it would have been difficult to remove them without a popular riot, he did not expel them, but simply prohibited
any gatherings of those who held to their ancestral customs”). We have no business, in my opinion, to use Dio Cassius in order
to set aside two such excellent witnesses as Luke and Suetonius. Nor is it a satisfactory expedient to suppose, with Schürer (III.
p. 32; cp. Eng. trans., II. ii. 237), that the government simply intended to expel the Jews. The edict must have been actually
issued, although it was presently replaced by a prohibition of meetings, after the Jews had given a guarantee of good behaviour.
13 I omit a series of figures given elsewhere by Josephus; they are not of the slightest use.
14 See Mommsen, Röm. Gesch., v. p. 578 [Eng. trans., “Provinces of the Roman Empire,” ii. p. 258], and Pietschmann in
Pauly-Wissowa's Encyklop., i., col. 990 f. Beloch (Die Bevölkerung der griechisch-römischen Welt, pp. 258 f.) questions the
reckoning of Josephus (Bell., ii. 16. 4) that the population of Egypt under Nero amounted to seven and a half millions. He will
not allow more than about five, though he adduces no conclusive argument against Josephus, Still, as he also holds it an
exaggeration to say, with Philo, that the Jews in Egypt were a million strong, he is not opposed to the hypothesis that Judaism
in Egypt amounted to about 13 per cent. of the total population. Beloch reckons the population of Alexandria (including slaves)
at about half a million. Of these, 200,000 would be Jews, as the Alexandrian Jews numbered about two-fifths of the whole.
15 Josephus, Bell., vii. 3. 3; (Τὸ Ἰουδαίων γένος πολὺ μὲν κατὰ πᾶσαν τὴν οἰκουμένην παρέσπαρται τοῖς ἐπιχωρίοις, πλεῖστον δὲ
τῇ Συρίᾳ: “The Jewish race is thickly spread over the world among its inhabitants, but specially in Syria”). Beloch (pp. 242 f.,
507) estimates the population of Syria under Augustus at about six millions, under Nero at about seven, whilst the free inhabitants
of Antioch under Augustus numbered close on 300,000. As the percentage of Jews in Syria (and especially in Antioch) was
larger than in Egypt (about 13 per cent.), certainly over a million Jews must be assumed for Syria under Nero.
16 Taking for granted, as in the case of any immigrant population, that the number of men is very considerably larger than that of
women, I allow 2000 boys and old men to 4000 able-bodied men, and assume about 4000 females.
Roman population under Augustus (in B.C. 5) gives 320,000 male plebeians over ten years of age.
As women were notoriously in a minority at Rome, this number represents about 600,000 inhabitants
(excluding slaves),17 so that about 10,000 Jews18 would be equivalent to about one-sixtieth of the
population.19 Tiberius could still risk the strong measure of expelling them; but when Claudius tried
to repeat the experiment thirty years later, he was unable to carry it out.
We can hardly suppose that the Jewish community at Rome continued to show any considerable
increase after the great rebellions and wars under Vespasian, Titus, Trajan, and Hadrian, since the
decimation of the Jews in many provinces of the empire must have re-acted upon the Jewish
community in the capital. Details on this point, however, are wanting.
If the Jews in Egypt amounted to about a million, those in Syria were still more numerous.
Allowing about 700,000 Jews to Palestine—and at this moment between 600,000 and 650,000
people live there; see Baedeker's Palestine, 1900, p. lvii.—we are within the mark at all events
when we reckon the Jews in the remaining districts of the empire (i.e., in Asia Minor, Greece,
Cyrene, Rome, Italy, Gaul, Spain, etc.) at about one million and a half. In this way a grand total of
about four or four and a half million Jews is reached. Now, it is an extremely surprising thing, a
thing that seems at first to throw doubt upon any estimate whatsoever of the population, to say that
while (according to Beloch) the population of the whole Roman empire under Augustus is reported
to have amounted to nearly fifty-four millions, the Jews in the empire at that period must be reckoned
at not less than four or four and a half millions. Even if one raises Beloch's figure to sixty millions,
how can the Jews have represented seven per cent. of the total population? Either our calculation
is wrong—and mistakes are almost inevitable in a matter like this—or the propaganda of Judaism
was extremely successful in the provinces; for it is utterly impossible to explain the large total of
Jews in the Diaspora by the mere fact of the fertility of Jewish families. We must assume, I imagine,
that a very large number of pagans, and in particular of kindred Semites of the lower class, trooped
over to the religion of Yahweh20—for the Jews of the Diaspora were genuine Jews only to a certain
extent. Now if Judaism was actually so vigorous throughout the empire as to embrace about seven
percent. of the total population under Augustus,21 one begins to realize its great influence and social
9 importance. And in order to comprehend the propaganda and diffusion of Christianity, it is quite
essential to understand that the religion under whose “shadow” it made its way out into the world,
not merely contained elements of vital significance but had expanded till it embraced a considerable
proportion of the world's population.
17 See Beloch, pp. 292 f. His figure, 500,000, seems to me rather low.
18 Renan (L’Antéchrist, ch. i.) is inclined to estimate the number of the Roman Jews, including women and children, at from twenty
to thirty thousand.
19 The total number, including foreigners and slaves, would amount to something between 800,000 and 900,000 (according to
Beloch, 800,000 at the outside).
20 After the edict of Pius, which forbade in the most stringent terms the circumcision of any who had not been born in Judaism (cp.
also the previous edict of Hadrian), regular secessions must have either ceased altogether or occurred extremely seldom; cp.
Orig., c. Cels., II. xiii.
21 In modern Germany the Jews number a little over one per cent of the population; in Austro-Hungary, four and two-thirds per
Our survey would not be complete if we did not glance, however briefly, at the nature of the
Jewish propaganda in the empire,22 for some part, at least, of her missionary zeal was inherited by
Christianity from Judaism. As I shall have to refer to this Jewish mission wherever any means
employed in the Christian propaganda are taken over from Judaism, I shall confine myself in the
meantime to some general observations.
It is surprising that a religion which raised so stout a wall of partition between itself and all
other religions, and which in practice and prospects alike was bound up so closely with its nation,
should have possessed a missionary impulse23 of such vigour and attained so large a measure of
success. This is not ultimately to be explained by any craving for power or ambition; it is a proof24
that Judaism, as a religion, was already blossoming out by some inward transformation and
becoming across between a national religion and a world-religion (confession of faith and a church).
Proudly the Jew felt that he had something to say and bring to the world, which concerned all men,
viz., The one and only spiritual God, creator of heaven and earth, with his holy moral law. It was
owing to the consciousness of this (Rom. ii. 19 f.) that he felt missions to be a duty. The Jewish
10 propaganda throughout the empire was primarily the proclamation of the one and only God, of
his moral law, and of his judgment; to this everything else became secondary. The object in many
cases might be pure proselytism (Matt. xxiii. 15), but Judaism was quite in earnest in overthrowing
dumb idols and inducing pagans to recognize their creator and judge, for in this the honour of the
God of Israel was concerned.
It is in this light that one must judge a phenomenon which is misunderstood so long as we
explain it by means of specious analogies—I mean, the different degrees and phases of proselytism.
In other religions, variations of this kind usually proceed from an endeavour to render the moral
precepts imposed by the religion somewhat easier for the proselyte. In Judaism this tendency never
prevailed, at least never outright. On the contrary, the moral demand remained unlowered. As the
recognition of God was considered the cardinal point, Judaism was in a position to depreciate the
claims of the cultus and of ceremonies, and the different kinds of Jewish proselytism were almost
entirely due to the different degrees in which the ceremonial precepts of the Law were observed.
The fine generosity of such an attitude was, of course, facilitated by the fact that a man who let
even his little finger be grasped by this religion, thereby became a Jew.25 Again, strictly speaking,
even a born Jew was only a proselyte so soon as he left the soil of Palestine, since thereby he parted
with the sacrificial system; besides, he was unable in a foreign country to fulfil, or at least to fulfil
satisfactorily, many other precepts of the Law.26 For generations there had been a gradual neutralising
Compare, on this point, Schürer's description, op, cit., III. pp. 102 f. [Eng. trans., II. ii. 126 f.].
23 The duty and the hopefulness of missions are brought out in the earliest Jewish Sibylline books. Almost the whole of the literature
of Alexandrian Judaism has an apologetic bent and the instinct of propaganda.
24 Cp. Bousset's Die Religion des Judentums im neutest, Zeitalter 1903), especially the sections on “The Theologians, the Church
and the Laity, Women, Confession (Faith and Dogma), the Synagogue as an Institute of Salvation” (pp. 139-184), and the large
section devoted to “The Faith of the Individual and Theology.” If a popular religion passes into a confession of faith and a church,
individual faith with all its reach and strain also comes into view together with the church. For the propaganda of Judaism in the
pagan world, cp. pp. 77 f.
25 If he did not, his son did.
26 Circumcision, of course, was always a troublesome wall of partition. Born Jews, as a rule, laid the greatest stress upon it, while
pagans submitted to the operation with extreme reluctance.
of the sacrificial system proceeding apace within the inner life of Judaism—even among the
Pharisees; and this coincided with an historical situation which obliged by far the greater number
of the adherents of the religion to live amid conditions which had made them strangers for a long
period to the sacrificial system. In this way they were also rendered accessible on every side of
11 their spiritual nature to foreign cults and philosophies, and thus there originated Persian and
Græco-Jewish religious alloys, several of whose phenomena threatened even the monotheistic
belief. The destruction of the temple by the Romans really destroyed nothing; it may be viewed as
an incident organic to the history of Jewish religion. When pious people held God's ways at that
crisis were incomprehensible, they were but deluding themselves.
For a long while the popular opinion throughout the empire was that the Jews worshipped God
without images, and that they had no temple. Now, although both of these “atheistic” features might
appear to the rude populace even more offensive and despicable than circumcision, Sabbath
observance, the prohibition of swine's flesh, etc., nevertheless they made a deep impression upon
wide circles of educated people.27 Thanks to these traits, together with its monotheism—for which
the age was beginning to be ripe28—Judaism seemed as if it were elevated to the rank of philosophy,
and inasmuch as it still continued to be a religion, it exhibited a type of mental and spiritual life
which was superior to anything of the kind.29 At bottom, there was nothing artificial in a Philo or
in a Josephus exhibiting Judaism as the philosophic religion, for this kind of apologetic corresponded
to the actual situation in which they found themselves30; it was as the revealed and also the
philosophic religion, equipped with “the oldest book in the world,”that Judaism developed her great
propaganda.31 The account given by Josephus (Bell., vii. 3. 3) of the situation at Antioch, viz., that
12 “the Jews continued to attract a large number of the Greeks to their services, making them in a
sense part of themselves”—this holds true of the Jewish mission in general.32 The adhesion of
Greeks and Romans to Judaism ranged over the entire gamut of possible degrees, from the
27 This rigid exclusiveness in a religion naturally repelled the majority and excited frank resentment; it was somewhat of a paradox,
and cannot fail to have been felt as obdurately inhuman as well as insolent. Anti-Semitism can be plainly traced within the Roman
empire from 100 B.C. onwards; in the first century A.D. it steadily increased, discharging itself in outbursts of fearful persecution.
28 It was ripe also for the idea of an individual recompense in the future life, as an outcome of the heightened valuation of individual
morality in this life, and for the idea of a judgment passed on the individual thereafter.
29 E.g., especially to the idealistic schools of popular philosophy. Cp. Wendland, Philo und die stoisch-kynische Diatribe (1895).
30 Cp. Friedlander's Geschichte der jüdischen Apologetik als Vorgeschichte des Christentums, 1903. On the heights of its apologetic,
the Jewish religion represented itself as the idealist philosophy based on revelation (the sacred book), i.e., materially as ideological
rationalism, and formally as supra-rationalism; it was the “most satisfying” form of religion, retaining a vitality, a precision, and
a certainty in its conception of God such as no cognate form of religious philosophy could preserve, while at the same time the
overwhelming number and the definite character of its ''prophecies” quelled every doubt.
31 “As a philosophical religion Judaism may have attracted one or two cultured individuals, but it was as a religious and social
community with a life of its own that it won the masses.” So Axenfeld, on p. 15 of his study (mentioned below on p. 16). Yet
even as a religious fellowship with a life of its own, Judaism made a philosophic impression—and that upon the uneducated as
well as upon the educated. I agree with Axenfeld, however, that the Jewish propaganda owed its success not to the literary activity
of individual Hellenistic Jews, but to the assimilating power of the communities with their religious life, their strict maintenance
of convictions, their recognition of their own interests and their satisfaction of a national pride, as evidenced in their demand
for proselytes to glorify Jehovah.
32 The keenness of Jewish propaganda throughout the empire during the first century—“the age in which the Christian preaching
began its course is the age in which the Jewish propaganda reached the acme of its efforts”—is also clear from the introduction
of the Jewish week and Sabbath throughout the empire; cp. Schürer, “Die siebentägige Woche im Gebrauch der christlichen
Kirche der ersten Jahrhunderte “ (Zeits. f. die neut. Wiss., 1905, 40 f.). Many pagans celebrated the Sabbath, just as Jews to-day
observe Sunday.
superstitious adoption of certain rites up to complete identification. “God-fearing” pagans constituted
the majority; proselytes (i.e., people who were actually Jews, obliged to keep the whole Law), there
is no doubt, were comparatively few in number.33 Immersion was more indispensable than even
circumcision as a condition of entrance.34
While all this was of the utmost importance for the Christian mission which came afterwards,
at least equal moment attaches to one vital omission in the Jewish missionary preaching: viz., that
no Gentile, in the first generation at least, could become a real son of Abraham. His rank before
God remained inferior. Thus it also remained very doubtful how far any proselyte—to say nothing
13 of the “God-fearing”—had a share in the glorious promises of the future. The religion which repairs
this omission will drive Judaism from the field.35 When it proclaims this message in its fulness,
that the last will be first, that freedom from the Law is the normal and higher life, and that the
observance of the Law, even at its best, is a thing to be tolerated and no more, it will win thousands
where the previous missionary preaching won but hundreds.36 Yet the propaganda of Judaism did
not succeed simply by its high inward worth; the profession of Judaism also conferred great social
and political advantages upon its adherents. Compare Schürer's sketch (op. cit., III pp. 56-90;
Eng. trans., II ii. 243 f.) of the internal organization of Jewish communities in the Diaspora, of their
civil position, and of their civic “isopolity,”37 and it will be seen how advantageous it was to belong
14 to a Jewish community within the Roman empire. No doubt there were circumstances under which
33 See Eus., H.E., i. 7, for the extent to which proselytes became fused among those who were Jews by birth.
34 It must not be forgotten that even in the Diaspora there was exclusiveness and fanaticism. The first persecution of Christians
was set afoot by synagogues of the Diaspora in Jerusalem; Saul was a fanatic Jew of the Diaspora.
35 I know of no reliable inquiries into the decline and fall of Jewish missions in the empire after the second destruction of the
temple. It seems to me unquestionable that Judaism henceforth slackened her tie with Hellenism, in order to drop it altogether
as time went on, and that the literature of Hellenistic Judaism suddenly became very slender, destined ere long to disappear
entirely. But whether we are to see in all this merely the inner stiffening of Judaism, or other causes to boot (e.g., the growing
rivalry of Christianity), is a question which I do not venture to decide. On the repudiation of Hellenism by Palestinian Judaism
even prior to the first destruction of the temple, see below (p. 16).
36 A notable parallel from history to the preaching of Paul in its relation to Jewish preaching, is to be found in Luther's declaration,
that the truly perfect man was not a monk, but a Christian living in his daily calling. Luther also explained that the last (those
engaged in daily business) were the first.—The above sketch has been contradicted by Friedländer (in Dr. Bloch's Oesterr.
Wochenschrift, Zentralorgan f. d. ges. Interessen des Judentums, 1902, Nos. 49 f.), who asserts that proselytes ranked entirely
the same as full-blooded Jews. But Friedländer himself confines this liberal attitude towards proselytes to the Judaism of the
Greek Diaspora; he refers it to the influence of Hellenism, and supports it simply by Philo (and John the Baptist). Note also that
Philo usually holds Jewish pride of birth to be vain, if a man is wicked; in that case, a Jew is far inferior to a man of pagan birth.
With this limitation of Friedländer's, no objection can be taken to the thesis in question. I myself go still further; for there is no
doubt that even before the rise of Christianity the Jews of the Diaspora allegorised the ceremonial Law, and that this paved the
way for the Gentile church's freedom from the Law. Only, the question is (i.) whether the strict Judaism of Palestine, in its
obscure origins, was really affected by these softening tendencies, (ii.) whether it did not exercise an increasingly strong influence
upon Judaism even in the Diaspora, and (iii.) whether the Judaism of the Diaspora actually renounced all the privileges of its
birth. On the two latter points, I should answer in the negative (even with regard to Philo); on the first, however, my reply would
be in the affirmative.
37 The Jewish communities in the Diaspora also formed small states inside the state or city; one has only to recollect the civil
jurisdiction which they exercised, even to the extent of criminal procedure. As late as the third century we possess, with reference
to Palestine, Origen's account (Ep. ad Afric., xiv.) of the power of the Ethnarch (or patriarch), which was so great “that he differed
in no whit from royalty”; “legal proceedings also took place privately as enjoined by the Law, and several people were condemned
to death, not in open court and yet with the cognizance of the authorities.” Similar occurrences would take place in the Diaspora.
a Jew had to endure ridicule and disdain, but this injustice was compensated by the ample privileges
enjoyed by those who adhered to this religio licita. If in addition one possessed the freedom of a
city (which it was not difficult to procure) or even Roman citizenship, one occupied a more secure
and favourable position than the majority of one's fellow-citizens. No wonder, then, that Christians
threatened to apostatize to Judaism during a persecution,38 or that separation from the synagogues
had also serious economic consequences for Jews who had become Christians.39
One thing further. All religions which made their way into the empire along the channels of
intercourse and trade were primarily religions of the city, and remained such for a considerable
period. It cannot be said that Judaism in the Diaspora was entirely a city-religion; indeed the reverse
holds true of one or two large provinces. Yet in the main it continued to be a city-religion, and we
hear little about Jews who were settled on the land.
So long as the temple stood, and contributions were paid in to it, this formed a link between
the Jews of the Diaspora and Palestine.40 Afterwards, a rabbinical board took the place of the priestly
college at Jerusalem, which understood how still to raise and use these contributions. The board
15 was presided over by the patriarch, and the contributions were gathered by “apostles'” whom he
sent out.41 They appear also to have had additional duties to perform (on which see below).
To the Jewish mission which preceded it, the Christian mission was indebted, in the first place,
for a field tilled all over the empire; in the second place, for religious communities already formed
everywhere in the towns; thirdly, for what Axenfeld calls “the help of materials'” furnished by the
preliminary knowledge of the Old Testament, in addition to catechetical and liturgical materials
which could be employed without much alteration; fourthly, for the habit of regular worship and
a control of private life; fifthly, for an impressive apologetic on behalf of monotheism, historical
teleology, and ethics; and finally, for the feeling that self-diffusion was a duty. The amount of this
debt is so large, that one might venture to claim the Christian mission as a continuation of the Jewish
propaganda. “Judaism,'' said Renan, “was robbed of its due reward by a generation of fanatics, and
it was prevented from gathering in the harvest which it had prepared.”
The extent to which Judaism was prepared for the gospel may also be judged by means of the
syncretism into which it had developed. The development was along no mere side-issues. The
transformation of a national into a universal religion may take place in two ways: either by the
national religion being reduced to great central principles, or by its assimilation of a wealth of new
The age of Hadrian and Pius did bring about a terrible retrograde movement; but afterwards, part of the lost ground was again
recovered.
38 Proofs of this are not forthcoming, however, in any number.
39 Owing to their religious and national characteristics, as well as to the fact that they enjoyed legal recognition throughout the
empire, the Jews stood out conspicuously from amongst all the other nations included in the Roman state. This comes out most
forcibly in the fact that they were even entitled “The Second race.” We shall afterwards show that Christians were called the
Third race, since Jews already ranked thus as the Second.
40 Messengers and letters also passed, which kept the tie between Jerusalem and the Jewish church of the Gentiles fresh and close.
A good example occurs at the close of Acts.
On the patriarch, see Schürer, III. , pp. 77 f. [Eng. trans., II. ii. 270]. From Vopisc. Saturn. 8 we know that the patriarch himself
went also in person to the Diaspora, so far as Egypt is concerned. On the “apostles,” see Book III. ch. i. (2).
elements from other religions. Both processes developed simultaneously in Judaism.42 But the
former is the more important of the two, as a preparation for Christianity. This is to be deduced
especially from that great scene preserved for us by Mark xii. 28-34—in its simplicity of spirit, the
16 greatest memorial we possess of the history of religion at the epoch of its vital change.43 “A scribe
asked Jesus, What is the first of all the commandments? Jesus replied, The first is: Hear, O Israel,
the Lord our God is one God, and thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and all thy
soul, and all thy mind, and all thy strength. The second is: Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.
There is no commandment greater than these. And the scribe said to him. True, O teacher; thou
hast rightly said that he is one, and that beside him there is none else, and that to love him with all
the heart, and all the understanding and all the strength, and to love one's neighbour as oneself, is
far above all holocausts and sacrifices. And when Jesus saw that he answered intelligently, he said:
Thou art not far from the kingdom of God.”
With regard to the attitude of Palestinian Judaism towards the mission-idea (i.e., universalism
and the duty of systematic propaganda), the state of matters during the age of Christ and the apostles
is such as to permit pleadings upon both sides of the question.44 Previous to that age, there had been
two periods which were essentially opposite in tendency. The older, resting upon the second Isaiah,
gave vivid expression, even within Palestine itself, to the universalism of the Jewish religion as
well as to a religious ethic which rose almost to the pitch of humanitarianism. This is represented
in a number of the psalms, in the book of Jonah, and in the Wisdom-literature. The pious are fully
conscious that Yahweh rules over the nation and over all mankind, that he is the God of each
individual, and that he requires nothing but reverence. Hence their hope for the ultimate conversion
of all the heathen. They will have kings and people alike to bow before Yahweh and to praise him.
17 Their desire is that Yahweh's name be known everywhere among the heathen, and his glory (in the
sense of conversion to him) spread far and wide. With the age of the Maccabees, however, an
opposite tendency set in. Apocalyptic was keener upon the downfall of the heathen than upon their
conversion, and the exclusive tendencies of Judaism again assert themselves, in the struggle to
preserve the distinctive characteristics of the nation. “One of the most important results which
flowed from the outrageous policy of Antiochus was that it discredited for all time to come the idea
of a Judaism free from any limitation whatsoever, and that it either made pro-Hellenism, in the
sense of Jason and Alcimus, impossible for Palestine and the Diaspora alike, or else exposed it to
sharp correction whenever it should raise its head” (Axenfeld, p. 28). Now, in the age of Christ and
the apostles, these two waves, the progressive and the nationalist, are beating each other back.
Pharisaism itself appears to be torn in twain. In some psalms and manuals, as well as in the 13th
Blessing of the Schmone Esre, universalism still breaks out. “Hillel, the most famous representative
of Jewish Biblical learning, was accustomed, with his pupils, to pay special attention to the
42 For “syncretism,” see especially the last chapter in Bousset's volume (pp. 448-493). Syncretism melted each of the older elements
within the religion of Judaism, and introduced a wealth of entirely new elements. But nothing decomposed the claim that Judaism
was the true religion, or the conviction that in “Moses” all truth lay.
43 The nearest approach to it is to be found in the missionary speech put into Paul's mouth on the hill of Mars.
Cp. Bertholet, Die Stellung der Israeliten und Juden zu den Fremden (1890); Schürer, III. , pp. 125 f.); Bousset, op. cit., 82
f.; Axenfeld, “Die judische Propaganda als Vorläuferin der urchristlichen Mission,” in the Missionswiss. Studien (Festschrift für
Warneck), 1904, pp. l-80.
propaganda of religion. ‘Love men and draw them to the Law’ is one of his traditional maxims”
(Pirke Aboth, 1. 12). Gamaliel, Paul's teacher, is also to be ranked among the propagandists. It was
not impossible, however, to be both exclusive and in favour of the propaganda, for the conditions
of the mission were sharpened into the demand that the entire Law should be kept. If I mistake not,
Jesus was primarily at issue with this kind of Pharisaism in Jerusalem. Now the keener became the
opposition within Palestine to the foreign dominion, and the nearer the great catastrophe came, the
more strenuous grew the reaction against all that was foreign, as well as the idea that whatever was
un-Jewish would perish in the judgment. Not long before the destruction of Jerusalem, in all
probability, the controversy between the schools of Hillel and Shammai ended in a complete victory
for the latter. Shammai was not indeed an opponent of the mission in principle, but he subjected it
to the most rigorous conditions. The eighteen rules which were laid down included, among other
18 things, the prohibition against learning Greek, and that against accepting presents from pagans for
the temple. Intercourse with pagans was confined within the strictest of regulations, and had to be
given up as a whole. This opened the way for the Judaism of the Talmud and the Mishna. The
Judaism of the Diaspora followed the same course of development, though not till some time
afterwards.45
THE EXTERNAL CONDITIONS OF THE WORLD-WIDE EXPANSION OF THE
CHRISTIAN RELIGION
IT is only in a series of headings, as it were, that I would summarize the external conditions
which either made it possible for Christianity to spread rapidly and widely during the imperial age,
or actually promoted its advance. One of the most important has been mentioned in the previous
chapter, viz., the spread of Judaism, which anticipated and prepared the way for that of Christianity.
Besides this, the following considerations46 are especially to be noted:—
(1) The Hellenizing of the East and (in part also) of the West, which had gone on steadily since
Alexander the Great: or, the comparative unity of language and ideas which this Hellenizing had
produced. Not until the close of the second century A.D. does this Hellenizing process appear to
45 Axenfeld remarks very truly (pp. 8 f.) that “the history of the Jewish propaganda is to be explained by the constant strain between
the demand that the heathen should be included and the dread which this excited. The Judaism which felt the impulse of propaganda
resembled an invading host, whose offensive movements are continually being hampered by considerations arising from the
need of keeping in close touch with their basis of operations.” But it seems to me an artificial and theological reflection, when
the same scholar lays supreme weight on the fact that the Jewish propaganda had no “consciousness of a vocation,” and that, in
contrast to the Christian mission, it simply proclaimed its God zealously from the consciousness of an innate religious pre-eminence,
devoid of humility and obedience. I have tried in vain to find an atom of truth in this thesis, with its resultant defence of the
historicity of Matthew xxviii. 19. It is of course admitted on all hands that Christian missionary zeal was bound subsequently to
be intensified by the belief that Jesus had directly enjoined it.
46 The number of works at our disposal for such a survey is legion. One of the most recent is Gruppe's Kulturgeschichte der
römischen Kaiserzeit (2 vols., 1903, 1904).
have exhausted itself,47 while in the fourth century, when the seat of empire was shifted to the East,
the movement acquired a still further impetus in several important directions. As Christianity allied
20 itself very quickly though incompletely to the speech and spirit of Hellenism, it was in a position
to avail itself of a great deal in the success of the latter. In return it furthered the advance of Hellenism
and put a check to its retreat.
(2) The world-empire of Rome and the political unity which it secured for the nations bordering
on the Mediterranean; the comparative unity secured by this world-state for the methods and
conditions of outward existence, and also the comparative stability of social life. Throughout many
provinces of the East, people felt the emperor really stood for peace, after all the dreadful storms
and wars; they hailed his law as a shelter and a safeguard.48 Furthermore, the earthly monarchy of
the world; was a fact which at once favoured the conception of the heavenly monarchy and
conditioned the origin of a catholic or universal church.
(3) The exceptional facilities, growth, and security of international traffic:49 the admirable roads;
the blending of different nationalities;50 the interchange of wares and of ideas; the personal
intercourse; the ubiquitous merchant and soldier—one may add, the ubiquitous professor, who was
21 to be encountered from Antioch to Cadiz, from Alexandria to Bordeaux. The church thus found
the way paved for expansion: the means were prepared; and the population of the large towns was
as heterogeneous and devoid of a past as could be desired.
(4) The practical and theoretical conviction of the essential unity of mankind, and of human
rights and duties, which was produced, or at any rate intensfied, by the fact of the “orbis Romanus”
[Roman world] on the one side and the development of philosophy upon the other, and confirmed
47 I know no investigations as to the precise period when the advance of Hellenism, more particularly of the Greek language,
subsided and ceased at Rome and throughout the West. From my limited knowledge of the subject, I should incline to make the
close of the second century the limit. Marcus Aurelius still wrote his confessions in Greek, but no indication of a similar kind
can be discovered later. In the West, Greek was checked by the deterioration of culture as well as by the circumstances of the
situation; the tidal wave grows shallower as it spreads. During the third century Rome began to shed off Greek, and in the course
of the fourth century she became once more a purely Latin city. So too with the Western provinces as far as they had assimilated
the Greek element; so with Southern Italy and Gaul even, though the process took longer in these regions. During the second
century people could still make themselves understood apparently by means of Greek, in any of the larger Western cities; by
the third century, a stranger who did not know Latin was sometimes in difficulties, though not often; by the fourth, no traveller
in the West could dispense with Latin any longer, and it was only in Southern Gaul and Lower Italy that Greek sufficed.
48 After Melito, Origen (c. Celsum II. xxx.) correctly estimated the significance of this for the Christian propaganda. “In the days
of Jesus, righteousness arose and fulness of peace; it began with his birth. God prepared the nations for his teaching, by causing
the Roman emperor to rule over all the world; there was no longer to be a plurality of kingdoms, else would the nations have
been strangers to one another, and so the apostles would have found it harder to carry out the task laid on them by Jesus, when
he said, ‘Go and teach all nations.’ It is well known that the birth of Jesus took place in the reign of Augustus, who fused and
federated the numerous peoples upon earth into a single empire. A plurality of kingdoms would have been an obstacle to the
spread of the doctrine of Jesus throughout all the world, not merely for the reasons already mentioned, but also because the
nations would in that event have been obliged to go to war in defence of their native lands. . . . . How, then, could this doctrine
of peace, which does not even permit vengeance upon an enemy, have prevailed throughout the world, had not the circumstances
of the world passed everywhere into a milder phase at the advent of Jesus?”
49 Cp. Stephan in Raumer's Histor. Taschenbuch (1868), pp. 1 f., and Zahn's Weltverkehr und Kirche während der drei ersten
Jahrhunderte (1877). That one Phrygian merchant voyaged to Rome (according to the inscription on a tomb) no fewer than
seventy-two times in the course of his life, is itself a fact which must never be lost sight of.
50 It is surprising to notice this blending of nationalities, whenever any inscription bears a considerable number of names (soldiers,
pages, martyrs, etc.), and at the same time mentions their origin.
by the truly enlightened system of Roman jurisprudence, particularly between Nerva and Alexander
Severus. On all essential questions the church had no reason to oppose, but rather to assent to,
Roman law, that grandest and most durable product of the empire.51
(5) The decomposition of ancient society into a democracy: the gradual equalizing of the “cives
Romani” [Roman citizens] and the provincials, of the Greeks and the barbarians; the comparative
equalizing of classes in society; the elevation of the slave-class—in short, a soil prepared for the
growth of new formations by the decomposition of the old.
(6) The religious policy of Rome, which furthered the interchange of religions by its toleration,
hardly presenting any obstacles to their natural increase or transformation or decay, although it
would not stand any practical expression of contempt for the ceremonial of the State-religion. The
liberty guaranteed by Rome's religious policy on all other points was an ample compensation for
the rough check imposed on the spread of Christianity by her vindication of the State-religion.
(7) The existence of associations, as well as of municipal and provincial organizations. In
several respects the former had prepared the soil for the reception of Christianity, whilst in some
cases they probably served as a shelter for it. The latter actually suggested the most important forms
of organization in the church, and thus saved her the onerous task of first devising such forms and
then requiring to commend them.
(8) The irruption of the Syrian and Persian religions into the empire, dating especially from
the reign of Antoninus Pius. These had certain traits in common with Christianity, and although
the spread of the church was at first handicapped by them, any such loss was amply made up for
by the new religious cravings which they stirred within the minds of men—cravings which could
not finally be satisfied apart from Christianity.
(9) The decline of the exact sciences, a phenomenon due to the democratic tendency of society
and the simultaneous popularizing of knowledge, as well as to other unknown causes: also the
rising vogue of a mystical philosophy of religion with a craving for some form of revelation and a
thirst for miracle.
All these outward conditions (of which the two latter might have been previously included
among the inward) brought about a great revolution in the whole of human existence under the
empire, a revolution which must have been highly conducive to the spread of the Christian religion.
The narrow world had become a wide world; the rent world had become a unity; the barbarian
51 At this point (in order to illustrate these four paragraphs) Renan's well-known summary may be cited (Les Apôtres, ch. xvi.):
“The unity of the empire was the essential presupposition of any comprehensive proselytizing movement which should transcend
the limits of nationality. In the fourth century the empire realised this: it became Christian; it perceived that Christianity was the
religion which it had matured involuntarily; it recognized in Christianity the religion whose limits were the same as its own, the
religion which was identified with itself and capable of infusing new life into its being. The church, for her part, became thoroughly
Roman, and to this day has remained a survival of the old Roman empire. Had anyone told Paul that Claudius was his main
coadjutor, had anyone told Claudius that this Jew, starting from Antioch, was preparing the ground for the most enduring part
of the imperial system, both Paul and Claudius would have been mightily astonished. Nevertheless both sayings would have
been true.”
world had become Greek and Roman: one empire, one universal language, one civilization, a
common development towards monotheism, and a common yearning for saviors!52
24 CHAPTER III.
THE INTERNAL CONDITIONS DETERMINING THE WORLD-WIDE EXPANSION OF
THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION—RELIGIOUS SYNCRETISM
IN subsequent sections of this book we shall notice a series of the more important inner conditions
which determined the universal spread of the Christian religion. It was by preaching to the poor,
the burdened, and the outcast, by the preaching and practice of love, that Christianity turned the
stony, sterile world into a fruitful field for the church. Where no other religion could sow and reap,
this religion was enabled to scatter its seed and to secure a harvest.
The condition, however, which determined more than anything else the propaganda of the
religion, lay in the general religious situation during the imperial age. It is impossible to attempt
here to depict that situation, and unluckily we cannot refer to any standard work which does justice
to such a colossal undertaking, despite the admirable studies and sketches (such as those of
Tzschirner, Friedländer, Boissier, Réville, and Wissowa)53 which we possess. This being so, we
must content ourselves with throwing out a few hints along two main lines.
(1) In spite of the inner evolution of polytheism towards monotheism, the relations between
Christianity and paganism simply meant the opposition of monotheism and polytheism—of
polytheism, too, in the first instance, as political religion (the imperial cultus). Here Christianity
and paganism were absolutely opposed. The former burned what the latter adored, and the latter
52 As Uhlhorn remarks very truly (Die christliche Liebesthätigkeit in der alten Kirche, 1882, p. 37; Eng. trans. pp. 40-42): “From
the time of the emperors onwards a new influence made itself felt, and unless we notice this influence, we cannot understand
the first centuries of the early Christian church, we cannot understand its rapid extension and its relatively rapid triumph. . . . .
Had the stream of new life issuing from Christ encountered ancient life when the latter was still unbroken, it would have recoiled
impotent from the shock. But ancient life had by this time begun to break up; its solid foundations had begun to weaken; and,
besides, the Christian stream fell in with a previous and cognate current of Jewish opinion. In the Roman empire there had already
appeared a universalism foreign to the ancient world. Nationalities had been effaced. The idea of universal humanity had
disengaged itself from that of nationality. The Stoics had passed the word that all men were equal, and had spoken of brotherhood
as well as of the duties of man towards man. Hitherto despised, the lower classes had asserted their position. The treatment of
slaves became milder. If Cato had compared them to cattle, Pliny sees in them his ‘serving friends.’ The position of the artizan
improved, and freedmen worked their way up, for the guilds provided them not simply with a centre of social life, but also with
the means of bettering their social position. Women, hitherto without any legal rights, received such in increasing numbers.
Children were looked after. The distribution of grain, originally a political institution and nothing more, became a sort of
poor-relief system, and we meet with a growing number of generous deeds, gifts, and endowments, which already exhibit a more
humane spirit,” etc.
53 Add the sketch of the history of Greek religion by Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (Jahrb. des Freien deutschen Hochstifts, 1904).
burned Christians as guilty of high treason. Christian apologists and martyrs were perfectly right
in often ignoring every other topic when they opened their lips, and in reducing everything to this
25 simple alternative.
Judaism shared with Christianity this attitude towards polytheism. But then, Judaism was a
national religion; hence its monotheism was widely tolerated simply because it was largely
unintelligible. Furthermore, it usually evaded any conflict with the State-authorities, and it did not
make martyrdom obligatory. That a man had to become a Jew in order to be a monotheist, was
utterly absurd: it degraded the creator of heaven and earth to the level of a national god. Besides,
if he was a national god, he was not the only one. No doubt, up and down the empire there were
whispers about the atheism of the Jews, thanks to their lack of images; but the charge was never
levelled in real earnest—or rather, opinion was in such a state of oscillation that the usual political
result obtained: in dubio pro reo.
It was otherwise with Christianity. Here the polytheists could have no hesitation: deprived of
any basis in a nation or a State, destitute alike of images and temples, Christianity was simple
atheism. The contrast between polytheism and monotheism was in this field clear and keen. From
the second century onwards, the conflict between these two forms of religion was waged by
Christianity and not by Judaism. The former was aggressive, while as a rule the latter had really
ceased to fight at all—it devoted itself to capturing proselytes.
From the very outset it was no hopeless struggle. When Christianity came upon the scene, the
polytheism of the State-religion was not yet eradicated, indeed, nor was it eradicated for some time
to come;54 but there were ample forces at hand which were already compassing its ruin. It had
survived the critical epoch during which the republic had changed into a dual control and a monarchy;
but as for the fresh swarm of religions which were invading and displacing it, polytheism could no
more exorcise them with the magic wand of the imperial cultus than it could dissolve them under
the rays of a protean cultus of the sun, which sought to bring everything within its sweep.
Nevertheless polytheism would still have been destined to a long career, had it not been attacked
26 secretly or openly by the forces of general knowledge, philosophy, and ethics; had it not also been
saddled with arrears of mythology which excited ridicule and resentment. Statesmen, poets, and
philosophers might disregard all this, since each of these groups devised some method of preserving
their continuity with the past. But once the common people realized it, or were made to realize it,
the conclusion they drew in such cases was ruthless. The onset against deities feathered and scaly,
deities adulterous and infested with vice, and on the other hand against idols of wood and stone,
formed the most impressive and effective factor in Christian preaching for wide circles, circles
which in all ranks of society down to the lowest classes (where indeed they were most numerous)
had, owing to experience and circumstances, reached a point at which the burning denunciations
of the abomination of idolatry could not fail to arrest them and bring them over to monotheism.
The very position of polytheism as the State-religion was in favour of the Christian propaganda.
Religion faced religion; but whilst the one was new and living, the other was old—that is, with the
exception of the imperial cultus, in which once more it gathered up its forces. No one could tell
54 Successful attempts to revive it were not awanting; see under (2) in this section.
exactly what had come over it. Was it merely equivalent to what was lawful in politics? Or did it
represent the vast, complicated mass of religiones licitae throughout the empire? Who could say?
(2) This, however, is to touch on merely one side of the matter. The religious situation in the
imperial age, with the tendencies it cherished and the formations it produced—all this was
complicated in the extreme. Weighty as were the simple antitheses of “monotheism versus
polytheism” and “strict morality versus laxity and vice'' these cannot be taken as a complete summary
of the whole position. The posture of affairs throughout the empire is no more adequately described
by the term “polytheism'' than is Christianity, as it was then preached, by the bare term
“monotheism.” It was not a case of vice and virtue simply facing one another. Here, in fact, we
must enter into some detail and definition.
Anyone who considers that the domination of the inner life over external empiricism and politics
is an illusion and perversion, must date the disintegration of the ancient world from Socrates and
Plato. Here the two tempers stand apart! On the other hand, anyone who regards this domination
as the supreme advance of man, is not obliged to accompany its development down as far as
Neo-Platonism. He will not, indeed, be unaware that, even to the last, in the time of Augustine,
genuine advances were made along this line, but he will allow that they were gained at great
expense—too great expense. This erroneous development began when introspection commenced
to despise and neglect its correlative in natural science, and to woo mysticism, theurgy, astrology,
or magic. For more than a century previous to the Christian era, this had been going on. At the
threshold of the transition stands Posidonius, like a second Janus. Looking in one direction, he
favours a rational idealism; but, in another, he combines this with irrational and mystic elements.
The sad thing is that these elements had to be devised and employed in order to express new
emotional values which his rational idealism could not manage to guarantee, because it lay
spell-bound and impotent in intellectualism. Language itself declined to fix the value of anything
which was not intellectual by nature. Hence the Ὑ περνοητόν emerged, a conception which continued
to attract and appropriate what ever was mythical and preposterous, allowing it to pass in
unchallenged. Myth now ceased to be a mere symbol. It became the organic means of expression
for those higher needs of sentiment and religion whose real nature was a closed book to thinkers
of the day. On this line of development, Posidonius was followed by Philo.
The inevitable result of all this was a relapse to lower levels; but it was a relapse which, as
usual, bore all the signs of an innovation. The signs pointed to life, but the innovation was ominous.
For, while the older mythology had been either naïve or political, dwelling in the world of ceremony,
the new mythology became a confession: it was philosophical, or pseudo-philosophical, and to this
it owed its sway over the mind, beguiling the human spirit until it gradually succeeded in destroying
the sense of reality and in crippling the proper functions of all the senses within man. His eyes grew
28 dim, his ears could hear no longer. At the same time, these untoward effects were accompanied by
a revival and resuscitation of the religious feeling—as a result of the philosophical development.
This took place about the close of the first century. Ere long it permeated all classes in society, and
it appears to have increased with every decade subsequently to the middle of the second century.
This came out in two ways, on the principle of that dual development in which a religious upheaval
always manifests itself. The first was a series of not unsuccessful attempts to revivify and inculcate
the old religions, by carefully observing traditional customs, and by restoring the sites of the oracles
and the places of worship. Such attempts, however, were partly superficial and artificial. They
offered no strong or clear expression for the new religious cravings of the age. And Christianity
held entirely aloof from all this restoration of religion. They came into contact merely to collide—this
pair of alien magnitudes; neither understood the other, and each was driven to compass the
extermination of its rival (see above).
The second way in which the resuscitation of religion came about, however, was far more
potent. Ever since Alexander the Great and his successors, ever since Augustus in a later age, the
nations upon whose development the advance of humanity depended had been living under new
auspices. The great revolution in the external conditions of their existence has been already
emphasized; but corresponding to this, and partly in consequence of it, a revolution took place in
the inner world of religion, which was due in some degree to the blending of religions, but
pre-eminently to the progress of culture and to man's experience inward and outward. No period
can be specified at which this blending process commenced among the nations lying between Egypt
and the Euphrates, the Tigris, or Persia;55 for, so far as we are in a position to trace back their history,
their religions were, like themselves, exposed to constant interchange, whilst their religious theories
were a matter of give and take. But now the Greek world fell to be added, with all the store of
29 knowledge and ideas which it had gained by dint of ardent, willing toil, a world lying open to any
contribution from the East, and in its turn subjecting every element of Eastern origin to the test of
its own lore and speculation.
The results already produced by the interchange of Oriental religions, including that of Israel,
were technically termed, a century ago, “the Oriental philosophy of religion,” a term which denoted
the broad complex of ritual and theory connected with the respective cults, their religious ideas,
and also scientific speculations such as those of astronomy or of any other branch of knowledge
which was elevated into the province of religion. All this was as indefinite as the title which was
meant to comprehend it, nor even at present have we made any great progress in this field of
research.56 Still, we have a more definite grasp of the complex itself; and—although it seems
paradoxical to say so—this is a result which we owe chiefly to Christian gnosticism. Nowhere else
are these vague and various conceptions worked out for us so clearly and coherently.
In what follows I shall attempt to bring out the salient features of this “Orientalism.” Naturally
it was no rigid entity. At every facet it presented elements and ideas of the most varied hue. The
general characteristic was this that people still retained or renewed their belief in sections of the
traditional mythology presented in realistic form. To these they did attach ideas. It is not possible,
as a rule, to ascertain in every case at what point and to what extent such ideas overflowed and
overpowered the realistic element in any given symbol—a fact which makes our knowledge of
“Orientalism” look extremely defective; for what is the use of fixing down a piece of mythology
to some definite period and circle, if we cannot be sure of its exact value? Was it held literally?
55 It is still a moot point of controversy whether India had any share in this, and if so to what extent; some connection with India,
however, does seem probable.
56 The origin of the separate elements, in particular, is frequently obscure—whether Indian, Persian, Babylonian, Egyptian, Asiatic,
Was it transformed into an idea? Was it taken metaphorically? Was it the creed of unenlightened
piety? Was it merely ornamental? And what was its meaning? Theological or cosmological? Ethical
or historical? Did it embody some event in the remote past, or something still in existence, or
30 something only to be realized in the future? Or did these various meanings and values flow in and
out of one another? And was the myth in question felt to be some sacred, undefined magnitude,
something that could unite with every conceivable coefficient, serving as the starting-point for any
interpretation whatsoever that one chose to put before the world? This last question is to be answered,
I think, in the affirmative, nor must we forget that in one and the same circle the most diverse
coefficients were simultaneously attached to any piece of mythology.
Further, we must not lose sight of the varied origin of the myths. The earliest spring from the
primitive view of nature, in which the clouds were in conflict with the light and the night devoured
the sun, whilst thunderstorms were the most awful revelation of the deity. Or they arose from the
dream-world of the soul, from that separation of soul and body suggested by the dream, and from
the cult of the human soul. The next stratum may have arisen out of ancient historical reminiscences,
fantastically exaggerated and elevated into something supernatural. Then came the precipitate of
primitive attempts at “science” which had gone no further, viz., observations of heaven and earth,
leading to the knowledge of certain regular sequences, which were bound up with religious
conceptions. All this the soul of man informed with life, endowing it with the powers of human
consciousness. It was upon this stratum that the great Oriental religions rose, as we know them in
history, with their special mythologies and ritual theories. Then came another stratum, namely,
religion in its abstract development and alliance with a robust philosophic culture. One half of it
was apologetic, and the other critical. Yet even there myths still took shape. Finally, the last stratum
was laid down, viz., the glaciation of ancient imaginative fancies and religions produced by a new
conception of the universe, which the circumstances and experience of mankind had set in motion.
Under the pressure of this, all existing materials were fused together, elements that lay far apart
were solidified into a unity, and all previous constructions were shattered, while the surface of the
movement was covered by broken fragments thrown out in a broad moraine, in which the débris
31 of all earlier strata were to be found. This is the meaning of “syncretism”. Viewed from a distance,
it looks like a unity, though the unity seems heterogeneous. The forces which have shaped it do
not meet the eye. What one really sees is the ancient element in its composition; the new lies buried
under all that catches the eye upon the surface.
This new element consisted in the political and social experience, and in speculations of the
inner life. It would appear that even before the period of its contact with the Greek spirit,
“Orientalism” had reached this stage; but one of the most unfortunate gaps in our knowledge of
the history of religion is our inability to determine to what extent “Orientalism” had developed on
its own lines, independent of this Greek spirit. We must be content to ascertain what actually took
place, viz., the rise of new ideas and emotions which meet us on the soil of Hellenism—that
Hellenism which, with its philosophy of a matured Platonism and its development of the ancient
mysteries, coalesced with Orientalism.57 These new features58 are somewhat as follows:—
(1) There is the sharp division between the soul (or spirit) and the body: the more or less
exclusive importance attached to the spirit, and the notion that the spirit comes from some other,
upper world and is either possessed or capable of life eternal: also the individualism involved in
all this.
(2) There is the sharp division between God and the world, with the subversion of the naïve
idea that they formed a homogeneous unity.
(3) In consequence of these distinctions we have the sublimation of the Godhead, “via negationis
et eminentiæ.” The Godhead now becomes for the first time incomprehensible and indescribable;
yet it is also great and good. Furthermore, it is the basis of all things; but the ultimate basis, which
is simply posited yet cannot be actually grasped.
(4) As a further result of these distinctions and of the exclusive importance attached to the spirit,
we have the depreciation of the world, the contention that it were better never to have existed, that
it was the result of a blunder, and that it was a prison or at best a penitentiary for the spirit.
(5) There is the conviction that the connection with the flesh (“that soiled robe”) depreciated
and stained the spirit; in fact, that the latter would inevitably be ruined unless the connection were
broken or its influence counteracted.
(6) There is the yearning for redemption, as a redemption from the world, the flesh, mortality,
and death.
(7) There is the conviction that all redemption is redemption to life eternal, and that it is
dependent on knowledge and expiation: that only the soul that knows (knows itself, the Godhead,
and the nature and value of being) and is pure (i.e., purged from sin) can be saved.
(8) There is the certainty that the redemption of the soul as a return to God is effected through
a series of stages, just as the soul once upon a time departed from God by stages, till it ended in
the present vale of tears. All instruction upon redemption is therefore instruction upon “the return
and road'” to God. The consummation of redemption is simply a graduated ascent.
(9) There is the belief (naturally a wavering belief) that the anticipated redemption or redeemer
was already present, needing only to be sought out: present, that is, either in some ancient creed
57 The convergence of these lines of development in the various nations of antiquity during the age of Hellenism is among the
best-established facts of history. Contemporary ideas of a cognate or similar nature were not simply the result of mutual interaction,
but also of an independent development along parallel lines. This makes it difficult, and indeed impossible in many cases, to
decide on which branch any given growth sprang up. The similarity of the development on parallel lines embraced not only the
ideas, but frequently their very method of expression and the form under which they were conceived. The bounds of human
fancy in this province are narrower than is commonly supposed.
58 Cp. further the essay of Loofs on “The Crisis of Christianity in the Second Century” (Deutsch-evang. Blätter, 1904, Heft 7),
which depicts the problem occasioned by the meeting of Christianity and syncretism. Also, the penetrating remarks of Wernle
in his Anfängen unserer Religion (2nd ed., 1904; Eng. trans., The Beginnings of Christianity, in this library).
which simply required to be placed in a proper light, or in one of the mysteries which had only to
be made more generally accessible, or in some personality whose power and commands had to be
followed, or even in the spirit, if only it would turn inward on itself.
(10) There is the conviction that whilst knowledge is indispensable to all the media of
redemption, it cannot be adequate; on the contrary, they must ultimately furnish and transmit an
actual power divine. It is the “initiation” (the mystery or sacrament) which is combined with the
impartation of knowledge, by which alone the spirit is subdued, by which it is actually redeemed
and delivered from the bondage of mortality and sin by means of mystic rapture.
(11) There is the prevalent, indeed the fundamental opinion that knowledge of the universe,
religion, and the strict management of the individual's conduct, must form a compact unity; they
must constitute an independent unity, which has nothing whatever to do with the State, society, the
family, or one's daily calling, and must therefore maintain an attitude of negation (i.e. in the sense
of asceticism) towards all these spheres.
The soul, God, knowledge, expiation, asceticism, redemption, eternal life, with individualism
and with humanity substituted for nationality—these were the sublime thoughts which were living
and operative, partly as the precipitate of deep inward and outward movements, partly as the outcome
of great souls and their toil, partly as one result of the sublimation of all cults which took place
during the imperial age. Wherever vital religion existed, it was in this circle of thought and experience
that it drew breath. The actual number of those who lived within the circle is a matter of no moment.
“All men have not faith.” And the history of religion, so far as it is really a history of vital religion,
runs always in a very narrow groove.
The remarkable thing is the number of different guises in which such thoughts were circulating.
Like all religious accounts of the universe which aim at reconciling monistic and dualistic theories,
they required a large apparatus for their intrinsic needs; but the tendency was to elaborate this still
further, partly in order to provide accommodation for whatever might be time-honoured or of any
service, partly because isolated details had an appearance of weakness which made people hope to
achieve their end by dint of accumulation. Owing to the heterogeneous character of their apparatus,
these syncretistic formations seem often to be totally incongruous. But this is a superficial estimate.
A glance at their motives and aims reveals the presence of a unity, and indeed of simplicity, which
34 is truly remarkable. The final motives, in fact, are simple and powerful, inasmuch as they have
sprung from simple but powerful experiences of the inner life, and it was due to them that the
development of religion advanced, so far as any such advance took place apart from Christianity.
Christianity had to settle with this “syncretism'” or final form of Hellenism. But we can see at
once how inadequate it would be to describe the contrast between Christianity and “paganism”
simply as the contrast between monotheism and polytheism. No doubt, any form of syncretism was
perfectly capable of blending with polytheism; the one even demanded and could not but intensify
the other. To explain the origin of the world and also to describe the soul's “return,” the “apparatus”
of the system required æons, intermediate beings, semi-gods, and deliverers; the highest deity was
not the highest or most perfect, if it stood by itself. Yet all this way of thinking was monotheistic
at bottom; it elevated the highest God to the position of primal God, high above all gods, linking
the soul to this primal God and to him alone (not to any subordinate deities).59 Polytheism was
relegated to a lower level from the supremacy which once it had enjoyed. Further, as soon as
Christianity itself began to be reflective, it took an interest in this “syncretism,” borrowing ideas
35 from it, and using them, in fact, to promote its own development. Christianity was not originally
syncretistic itself, for Jesus Christ did not belong to this circle of ideas, and it was his disciples who
were responsible for the primitive shaping of Christianity. But whenever Christianity came to
formulate ideas of God, Jesus, sin, redemption, and life, it drew upon the materials acquired in the
general process of religious evolution, availing itself of all the forms which these had taken.
Christian preaching thus found itself confronted with the old polytheism at its height in the
imperial cultus, and with this syncretism which represented the final stage of Hellenism. These
constituted the inner conditions under which the young religion carried on its mission. From its
opposition to polytheism it drew that power of antithesis and exclusiveness which is a force at once
needed and intensified by any independent religion. In syncretism, again, i.e., in all that as a rule
deserved the title of “religion” in contemporary life, it possessed unconsciously a secret ally. All
it had to do with syncretism was to cleanse and simplify—and complicate —it.
36 CHAPTER IV.
59 The difference between the Christian God and the God of syncretistic Hellenism is put by the pagan (Porphyry) in Macarius
Magnes, iv. 20, with admirable lucidity: τὸ μέντοι περὶ τῆς μοναρχίας τοῦ μόνου θεοῦ καὶ τῆς πολυαρχίας τῶν σεβομένων
θεῶν διαρρήδην ζητήσωμεν, ὧν οὐκ οἶδας οὐδὲ τῆς μοναρχίας τὸν λόγον ἀφηγήσασθαι. Μονάρχης γάρ ἐστὶν οὐχ ὁ μόνος ὤν
ἀλλ᾽ ὁ μόνος ἄρχων· ἄρχει δ᾽ ὁμοφύλων δηλαδὴ καὶ ὁμοίων, οἷον Ἁδριανὸς ὁ βασιλεὺς μονάρχης γέγονεν, οὐχ ὅτι μόνος ἦω
οὐδ᾽ ὅτι βοῶν καὶ προβάτων ἦρχεν, ὧν ἄρχουσι ποιμένες ἢ βουκόλοι, ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι ἀνθρώπων ἐβασίλευσε τῶν ὁμογενῶν τὴν αὐτὴν
φύσιν ἐχόντων· ὡσαύτως θεὸς οὐκ ἂν μονάρχης κυρίως ἐκλήθη, εἰ μὴ θεῶν ἦρχε. τοῦτο γὰρ ἔπρεπε τῷ θείῳ μεγέθει καὶ τῷ
οὐρανίῳ καὶ πολλῷ ἀξιώματι (“Let us, however, proceed to inquire explicitly about the monarchy of the one God alone and the
joint-rule of those deities who are worshipped, but of whom, as of divine monarchy, you cannot give any account. A monarch
is not one who is alone but one who rules alone, ruling subjects of kindred nature like himself—such as the emperor Hadrian,
for example, who was a monarch not because he stood alone or because he ruled sheep and cattle, which are commanded by
shepherds and herdsmen, but because he was king over human beings whose nature was like his own. Even so, it would not have
been accurate to term God a monarch, if he did not rule over gods. For such a position befitted the dignity of God and the high
honour of heaven”). Here the contrast between the Christian and the Greek monarchianism is clearly defined. Only, it should
be added that many philosophic Christians (even in the second century) did not share this severely monotheistic idea of God; in
fact, as early as the first century we come across modifications of it. Tertullian (in adv. Prax. iii.), even in recapitulating the
view of God which passed for orthodox at that period, comes dangerously near to Porphyry in the remark: “Nullam dico
dominationem ita unius esse, ita singularem, ita monarchiam, ut non etiam per alias proximas personas administretur, quas ipsa
prospexerit officiales sibi” (“No dominion, I hold, belongs to any one person in such a way, or is in such a sense singular, or in
such a sense a monarchy, as not also to be administered through other persons who are closely related to it, and with whom it
has provided itself as its officials”). The school of Origen went still further in their reception of syncretistic monotheism, and
the movement was not checked until the Nicene creed came with its irrational doctrine of the Trinity, causing the Logos and the
Spirit to be conceived as persons within the Godhead. But although the pagan monarchical idea was routed on this field, it had
already entrenched itself in the doctrine of angels. The latter, as indeed Porphyry (iv. 20) observed, is thoroughly Hellenic, since
it let in polytheism through a back-door. In iv. 23 Porphyry tries to show Christians that as their scriptures taught a plurality of
gods, they consequently contained the conception of God's monarchy which the Greeks taught. He refers to Exod. xxii. 28,
Jerem. vii. 6, Deut. xii. 30, Josh. xxiv. 14, 1 Cor. viii. 5.
JESUS CHRIST AND THE UNIVERSAL MISSION
IT is impossible to answer the question of Jesus' relation to the universal mission, without a
critical study of the evangelic records. The gospels were written in an age when the mission was
already in full swing, and they consequently refer it to direct injunction of Jesus. But they enable
us, for all that, to recognise the actual state of matters.
Jesus addressed his gospel—his message of God's imminent kingdom and of judgment, of God's
fatherly providence, of repentance, holiness, and love—to his fellow-countrymen. He preached
only to Jews. Not a syllable shows that he detached this message from its national soil, or set aside
the traditional religion as of no value. Upon the contrary, his preaching could be taken as the most
powerful corroboration of that religion. He did not attach himself to any of the numerous “liberal”
or syncretistic Jewish conventicles or schools. He did not accept their ideas. Rather he took his
stand upon the soil of Jewish rights, i.e., of the piety maintained by Pharisaism. But he showed that
while the Pharisees preserved what was good in religion, they were perverting it none the less, and
that the perversion amounted to the most heinous of sins. Jesus waged war against the selfish,
self-righteous temper in which many of the Pharisees fulfilled and practised their piety—a temper,
at bottom, both loveless and godless. This protest already involved a break with the national religion,
for the Pharisaic position passed for that of the nation; indeed, it represented the national religion.
But Jesus went further. He traversed the claim that the descendants of Abraham, in virtue of their
descent, were sure of salvation, and based the idea of divine sonship exclusively upon repentance,
humility, faith, and love. In so doing, he disentangled religion from its national setting. Men, not
37 Jews, were to be its adherents. Then, as it became plainer than ever that the Jewish people as a
whole, and through their representatives, were spurning his message, he announced with increasing
emphasis that a judgment was coming upon “the children of the kingdom” and prophesied, as his
forerunner had done already, that the table of his Father would not lack for guests, but that a crowd
would pour in, morning, noon, and night, from the highways and the hedges. Finally, he predicted
the rejection of the nation and the overthrow of the temple, but these were not to involve the downfall
of his work; on the contrary, he saw in them, as in his own passion, the condition of his work's
Such is the “universalism” of the preaching of Jesus. No other kind of universalism can be
proved for him, and consequently he cannot have given any command upon the mission to the wide
world. The gospels contain such a command, but it is easy to show that it is neither genuine nor a
part of the primitive tradition. It would introduce an entirely strange feature into the preaching of
Jesus, and at the same time render many of his genuine sayings unintelligible or empty. One might
even argue that the universal mission was an inevitable issue of the religion and spirit of Jesus, and
that its origin, not only apart from any direct word of Jesus, but in verbal contradiction to several
of his sayings, is really a stronger testimony to the method, the strength, and the spirit of his
preaching than if it were the outcome of a deliberate command. By the fruit we know the tree; but
we must not look for the fruit in the root. With regard to the way in which he worked and gathered
disciples, the distinctiveness of his person and his preaching comes out very clearly. He sought to
found no sect or school. He laid down no rules for outward adhesion to himself. His aim was to
bring men to God and to prepare them for God's kingdom. He chose disciples, indeed, giving them
special instruction and a share in his work; but even here there were no regulations. There were an
inner circle of three, an outer circle of twelve, and beyond that a few dozen men and women who
accompanied him. In addition to that, he had intimate friends who remained in their homes and at
38 their work. Wherever he went, he wakened or found children of God throughout the country. No
rule or regulation bound them together. They simply sought and shared the supreme boon which
came home to each and all, viz., the kingdom of their Father and of the individual soul. In the
practice of this kind of mission Jesus has had but one follower, and he did not arise till a thousand
years afterwards. He was St Francis of Assisi.
If we leave out of account the words put by our first evangelist into the lips of the risen Jesus
(Matt. xxviii. 19 f.), with the similar expressions which occur in the unauthentic appendix to the
second gospel (Mark xvi. 15, 20), and if we further set aside the story of the wise men from the
East, as well as one or two Old Testament quotations which our first evangelist has woven into his
tale (cp. Matt. iv. 13 f., xii. 18), we must admit that Mark and Matthew have almost consistently
withstood the temptation to introduce the Gentile mission into the words and deeds of Jesus. Jesus
called sinners to himself, ate with tax-gatherers, attacked the Pharisees and their legal observance,
made everything turn upon mercy and justice, and predicted the downfall of the temple—such is
the universalism of Mark and Matthew. The very choice and commission of the twelve is described
without any mention of a mission to the world (Mark iii. 13 f., vi. 7 f., and Matt. x. 1 f.). In fact,
Matthew expressly limits their mission to Palestine. “Go not on the road of the Gentiles, and enter
no city of the Samaritans; rather go to the lost sheep of the house of Israel “ (Matt. x. 5, 6). And so
in x. 23: “Ye shall not have covered the cities of Israel, before the Son of man comes.”60 The story
of the Syro-Phœnician woman is almost of greater significance. Neither evangelist leaves it open
to question that this incident represented an exceptional case for Jesus;61 and the exception proves
39 the rule.
In Mark this section on the Syro-Phœnician woman is the only passage where the missionary
efforts of Jesus appear positively restricted to the Jewish people in Palestine. Matthew, however,
contains not merely the address on the disciples' mission, but a further saying (xix. 28), to the effect
that the twelve are one day to judge the twelve tribes of Israel. No word here of the Gentile mission.62
Only twice does Mark make Jesus allude to the gospel being preached in future throughout the
world: in the eschatological address (xiii. 10, “The gospel must first be preached to all the nations,”
i.e., before the end arrives), and in the story of the anointing at Bethany (xiv. 9), where we read:
60 This verse precludes the hypothesis that the speech of Jesus referred merely to a provisional mission. If the saying is genuine,
the Gentile mission cannot have lain within the horizon of Jesus.—There is no need to take the ἡγεμόνες and βασιλεῖςof Matt.
x. 18, Mark xiii. 9 as pagans, and Matthew's addition (omitted by Mark) of καὶ τοῖς ἔθνεσιν to the words εἰς μαρτύριον αὐτοῖς
can hardly be understood except as a supplement in the sense of xxviii. 19 f. Though Mark (vi. 7 f.; cp. Luke ix. 1 f.) omits the
limitation of the mission to Palestine and the Jewish people, he does not venture to assign the mission any universal scope. “Mark
never says it in so many words, nor does he lay any stress upon it; but it is self-evident that he regards the mission of Jesus as
confined to the Jews” (Wellhausen on Mark vii. 29).
61 According to Matthew (xv. 24), Jesus distinctly says, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel.” The πρῶτον of
Mark vii. 27 is not to be pressed, as it is by many editors.
62 Here we may also include the saying; “Pray that your flight occur not on the Sabbath” (Matt. xxiv. 20). Note further that the
parable of the two sons (Matt. xxi. 28 f.) does not refer to Jews and Gentiles. The labourers in the vineyard (Matt. xx. 1 f.) are
not to be taken as Gentiles—not, at any rate, as the evangelist tells the story. Nor are Gentiles to be thought of even in xxii. 9.
“Wherever this gospel shall be preached throughout the whole world, what this woman hath done
shall be also told, in memory of her.” The former passage puts into the life of Jesus an historical
theologoumenon, which is hardly original. The latter excites strong suspicion, not with regard to
what precedes it, but in connection with the saying of Jesus in verses 8-9. It is a hysteron proteron,
and moreover the solemn assurance is striking. Some obscure controversy must underlie the words—a
controversy which turned upon the preceding scene not only when it happened, but at a still later
date. Was it ever suspected?63
These two sayings are also given in Matthew64 (xxiv. 14, xxvi. 13), who preserves a further
saying which has the Gentile world in view, yet whose prophetic manner arouses no suspicion of
its authenticity. In viii. 11 we read: “I tell you, many shall come from east and west, and sit down
with Abraham and Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven, but the sons of the kingdom shall be
cast out.” Why should not Jesus have said this? Even among the words of John the Baptist (iii. 9)
do we not read: “Think not to say to yourselves, we have Abraham as our father; for I tell you, God
is able to raise up children for Abraham out of these stones”?
We conclude, then, that both evangelists refrain from inserting any allusion to the Gentile
mission into the framework of the public preaching of Jesus, apart from the eschatological address
and the somewhat venturesome expression which occurs in the story of the anointing at Bethany.
But while Matthew delimits the activity of Jesus positively and precisely, Mark adopts what we
may term a neutral position, though for all that he does not suppress the story of the Syro-Phœnician
woman.
All this throws into more brilliant relief than ever the words of the risen Jesus in Matt. xxviii.
19 f. Matthew must have been fully conscious of the disparity between these words and the earlier
words of Jesus; nay, more, he must have deliberately chosen to give expression to that disparity.65
63 I leave out of account the section on the wicked husbandmen, as it says nothing about the Gentile mission either in Mark's version
(xii. 1 f.), or in Matthew's (xxi. 33 f.). The words of Matt. xxi. 43 (“God's kingdom shall be given to a nation bringing forth the
fruits thereof”) do not refer to the Gentiles; it is the “nation” as opposed to the official Israel, Mark on purpose speaks merely
of “others,” to whom the vineyard is to be given. “On purpose,” I say, for we may see from this very allegory, which can hardly
have been spoken by Jesus himself (see Jülicher's Gleichnissreden ii. pp. 405 f., though I would not commit myself on the point),
how determined Mark was to keep the Gentile mission apart from the gospel, and how consistently Matthew retains the setting
of the latter within the Jewish nation. The parable invited the evangelists to represent Jesus making some allusion to the Gentile
mission, but both of them resisted the invitation (see further, Luke xx. 9 f.). Wellhausen (on Matt. xxi. 43) also observes: “By
the phrase ‘another nation’ we may understand that Jewish, not simply Gentile, Christians were so meant; for ἔθνος is characterised
ethically, not nationally.”
64 We may disregard the sayings in v. 13-14 (“Ye are the salt of the earth,” “Ye are the light of the world “), as well as the fact that
in Mark alone (xi. 17) πᾶσι τοῖς ἔθνεσιν (a citation from Isa. lvi. 7) is added to the words: “My house shall be a house of prayer.”
The addition “emphasizes not the universality of the house of prayer, but simply the idea of the house of prayer” (Wellhausen).
65 Unless xxviii. 19 f. is a later addition to the gospel. It is impossible to be certain on this point. There is a certain subtlety, of
which one would fain believe the evangelist was incapable, in keeping his Gentile Christian readers, as it were, upon the rack
with sayings which confined the gospel to Israel, just in order to let them off in the closing paragraph. Nor are the former sayings
presented in such a way as to suggest that they were afterwards to be taken back. On the other hand, we must observe that the
first evangelist opens with the story of the wise men from the East (though even this section admits of a strictly Jewish Christian
interpretation), that he includes viii. 11, that he shows his interest in the people who sat in darkness (iv. 13 f.), that he describes
Jesus (xii. 21) as One in whose name the Gentiles trust, that he contemplates the preaching of the gospel to all the Gentiles in
the eschatological speech and in the story of the anointing at Bethany, and that no positive proofs can be adduced for regarding
xxviii. 19 f. as an interpolation. It is advisable, then, to credit the writer with a remarkable historical sense, which made him
At the time when our gospels were written, a Lord and Saviour who had confined his preaching to
the Jewish people without even issuing a single command to prosecute the universal mission, was
41 an utter impossibility. If no such command had been issued before his death, it must have been
imparted by him as the glorified One.
The conclusion, therefore, must be that Jesus never issued such a command at all, but that this
version of his life was due to the historical developments of a later age, the words being appropriately
put into the mouth of the risen Lord. Paul, too, knew nothing of such a general command.66
Luke's standpoint, as a reporter of the words of Jesus, does not differ from that of the two
previous evangelists, a fact which is perhaps most significant of all. He has delicately coloured the
introductory history with universalism,67 while at the close, like Matthew, he makes the risen Jesus
issue the command to preach the gospel to all nations.68 But in his treatment of the intervening
material he follows Mark; that is, he preserves no sayings which expressly confine the activity of
Jesus to the Jewish nation,69 but, on the other hand, he gives neither word nor incident which
describes that activity as universal,70 and at no point does he deliberately correct the existing
tradition.71
In this connection the fourth gospel need not be considered at all. After the Gentile mission,
which had been undertaken with such ample results during the first two Christian generations, the
fourth gospel expands the horizon of Christ's preaching and even of John the Baptist's; corresponding
to this, it makes the Jews a reprobate people from the very outset, despite the historical remark in
iv. 22. Even setting aside the prologue, we at once come upon (i. 29) the words put into the mouth
of the Baptist, “Behold the Lamb of God which taketh away the sin of the world.” And, as a whole,
the gospel is saturated with statements of a directly universalistic character. Jesus is the Saviour of
adhere almost invariably to the traditional framework of Christ's preaching, in order to break it open at the very close of his
work. Mark's method of procedure was more simple: he excluded the missionary question altogether; at least that is the only
explanation of his attitude.
66 It is impossible and quite useless to argue with those who see nothing but an inadmissible bias in the refusal to accept traditions
about Jesus eating and drinking and instructing his disciples after death.
67 Cp. i. 32 (“Son of the Highest”), ii. 10, 11 (“joy to all people,” “Saviour”), ii. 14 (“gloria in excelsis”), ii. 32 (“a light to lighten
the Gentiles “), and also (iii. 23 f.) the genealogy of Jesus traced back to Adam.
68 xxiv. 47, also Acts i. 8: “Ye shall be my witnesses both in Jerusalem and in all Judæa and in Samaria, and to the uttermost part
of the earth.”
69 An indirect allusion to the limitation of his mission might be found in xxii. 30 = Matt. xix. 28 (cp. p. 41), but this meaning need
not be read into it.
70 All sorts of unconvincing attempts have been made to drag this in; e.g., at Peter's take of fish (v. 1 f.), at the Samaritan stories
(x. 33 f., xvii. 16), and at the parable of the prodigal son (xv. 11 f.; cp. Jülicher's Gleichn., ii. pp. 333 f.). Even the stories of the
despatch of the apostles (vi. 13 f.) and the remarkable commission of the seventy (x. 1 f.) do not by any means represent the
Gentile mission. It is by a harmless hysteron proteron that the twelve are now and then described by Luke as “the apostles.” The
programme of the speech at Nazareth (iv. 26-27) is here of primary importance, but even in it the universalism of Jesus does not
seem to rise above that of the prophets. With regard to xxi. 24 = Mark xiii. 10 = Matt. xxiv. 14, we may say that Luke was quite
the most careful of all those who attempted with fine feeling to reproduce the prophet's style. He never mentions the necessity
of the gospel being preached throughout all the world before the end arrives, but writes: ἄχρι οὗ πληρωθῶσιν καιροὶ ἔθνων
(“till the times of the Gentiles be fulfilled”). As for the Samaritan stories, it does not seem as if Luke here had any ulterior
tendency of an historical and religious character in his mind, such as is evident in John iv.
71 The story of the Syro-Phœnician woman, which stands between the two stories of miraculous feeding in Mark and Matthew,
was probably quite unknown to Luke. Its omission was not deliberate. If he knew it, his omission would have to be regarded as
a conscious correction of the earlier tradition.
the world, and God so loved the world that he sent him. We may add passages like those upon the
“other sheep” and the one flock (x. l6). But the most significant thing of all is that this gospel makes
Greeks ask after Jesus (xii. 20 f.), the latter furnishing a formal explanation of the reasons why he
could not satisfy the Greeks as yet. He must first of all die. It is as the exalted One that he will first
succeed in drawing all men to himself. We can feel here the pressure of a serious problem.
It would be misleading to introduce here any sketch of the preaching of Jesus, or even of its
essential principles,72 for it never became the missionary preaching of the later period even to the
Jews. It was the basis of that preaching, for the gospels were written down in order to serve as a
means of evangelization; but the mission preaching was occupied with the messiahship of Jesus,
his speedy return, and his establishment of God's kingdom (if Jews were to be met), or with the
unity of God, creation, the Son of God, and judgment (if Gentiles were to be reached). Alongside
of this the words of Jesus of course exercised a silent and effective mission of their own, whilst the
historical picture furnished by the gospels, together with faith in the exalted Christ, exerted a
powerful influence over catechumens and believers.
Rightly and wisely, people no longer noticed the local and temporal traits either in this historical
sketch or in these sayings. They found there a vital love of God and men, which may be described
as implicit universalism; a discounting of everything external (position, personality, sex, outward
worship, etc.), which made irresistibly for inwardness of character; and a protest against the entire
doctrines of “the ancients,” which gradually rendered antiquity valueless.73 One of the greatest
revolutions in the history of religion was initiated in this way—initiated and effected, moreover,
without any revolution! All that Jesus Christ promulgated was the overthrow of the temple, and
the judgment impending upon the nation and its leaders. He shattered Judaism, and brought out the
kernel of the religion of Israel. Thereby—i.e., by his preaching of God as the Father, and by his
own death—he founded the universal religion, which at the same time was the religion of the Son.
44 CHAPTER V.
THE TRANSITION FROM THE JEWISH TO THE GENTILE MISSION
“CHRISTI mors potentior erat quam vita.” The death of Christ was more effective than his life;
it failed to shatter faith in him as one sent by God, and hence the conviction of his resurrection
arose. He was still the Messiah, his disciples held—for there was no alternative now between this
and the rejection of his claims. As Messiah, he could not be held of death. He must be alive; he
must soon return in glory. The disciples became chosen members of his kingdom, witnesses and
apostles. They testified not only to his preaching and his death, but to his resurrection, for they had
72 Cp. my lectures on What is Christianity?
73 On “The Attitude of Jesus towards the Old Testament,” see the conclusive tractate by E. Klostermann (1904) under this title.
No one who grasps this attitude upon the part of Jesus will make unhistorical assertions upon the “world-mission.”
seen him and received his spirit. They became new men. A current of divine life seized them, and
a new fire was burning in their hearts. Fear, doubt, cowardice—all this was swept away. The duty
and the right of preaching this Jesus of Nazareth as the Christ pressed upon them with irresistible
power. How could they keep silence when they knew that the new age of the world was come, and
that God had already begun the redemption of his people? An old tradition (Acts i.-ii.) relates that
the preaching of the disciples began in Jerusalem on the fifty-first day after the crucifixion. We
have no reason to doubt so definite a statement. They must have returned from Galilee to Jerusalem
and gathered together there—a change which suggests that they wished to work openly, in the very
midst of the Jewish community. They remained there for some years74—for a period of twelve years
indeed, according to one early account 75 ignored by the book of Acts (cp., however, xii. 17)—they
would undertake mission tours in the vicinity; the choice of James, who did not belong to the twelve,
45 as president of the church at Jerusalem,76 tells in favour of this conclusion, whilst the evidence for
it lies in Acts, and above all in 1 Cor. ix. 5.
The gospel was at first preached to the Jews exclusively. The church of Jerusalem was founded;
presently churches in Judæa (1 Thess. ii. 14, αἱ ἐκκλησίαι τοῦ θεοῦ αἱ οὖσαι ἐν τῇ Ἰουδαίᾳ: Gal.
i. 22, ἤμην ἀγνοούμενος τῷ προσώπῳ ταῖς ἐκκλησίαις τῆς Ἰουδαίας ταῖς ἐν Χριστῷ), Galilee,
Samaria (Acts i. 8, viii. 1 f., ix. 31, xv. 3), and on the sea-coast (Acts ix. 32 f.) followed.77 The
initial relationship of these churches to Judaism is not quite clear. As a matter of fact, so far from
being clear, it is full of inconsistencies. On the one hand, the narrative of Acts (see iii. f.), which
describes the Jerusalem church as exposed to spasmodic persecutions almost from the start, is
corroborated by the evidence of Paul (1 Thess. ii. 14, ὅτι τὰ αὐτὰ ἐπάθετε καὶ ὑμει̂ς ὑπὸ τῶν ἰδίων
46 συμφυλετῶν, καθὼς καὶ αὐτοὶ [i.e. the churches in Judæa] ὑπὸ τῶν Ἰουδαίων), so that it seems
untenable to hold with some Jewish scholars that originally, and indeed for whole decades, peace
reigned between the Christians and the Jews.78 On the other hand, it is certain that peace and
74 We may perhaps assume that they wished to be on the very spot when the Lord returned and the heavenly Jerusalem descended.
It is remarkable how Galilee falls into the background: we hear nothing about it.
75 This early account (in the preaching of Peter, cited by Clem., Strom., vi. 5. 43) is of course untrustworthy; it pretends to know
a word spoken by the Lord to his disciples, which ran thus: “After twelve years, go out into the world, lest any should say, we
have not heard” μετὰ ιβ´ ἔτη ἐξέλθετε εἰς τὸν κόσμον, μή τις εἴπῃ· οὐκ ἠκούσαμεν). But although the basis of the statement is
apologetic and untrue, it may be right about the twelve years, for in the Acta Petri cum Simone, 5, and in Apollonius (in Eus.,
H.E., v. 18. 14), the word (here also a word of the Lord) runs that the apostles were to remain for twelve years at Jerusalem,
without any mention of the exodus εἰς τὸν κόσμον. Here, too, the “word of the Lord” lacks all support, but surely the fact of the
disciples remaining for twelve years in Jerusalem can hardly have been invented. Twelve (or eleven) years after the resurrection
is a period which is also fixed by other sources (see von Dobschütz in Texte u. Unters., XI. i. p. 53 f.); indeed it underlies the
later calculation of the year when Peter died (30+12+25 = 67 A.D.).The statement of the pseudo-Clementine Recognitions (i. 43,
ix. 29), that the apostles remained seven years in Jerusalem, stands by itself.
76 Acts assumes that during the opening years the apostles superintended the church in Jerusalem; all of a sudden (xii. 17) James
appears as the president.
77 The parallel mission of Simon Magus in Samaria maybe mentioned here in passing. It had important results locally, but it failed
in its attempt to turn the Christian movement to account. The details are for the most part obscure; it is clear, however, that
Simon held himself to be a religious founder (copying Jesus in this?), and that subsequently a Hellenistic theosophy or gnosis
was associated with his religion. Christians treated the movement from the very outset with unabated abhorrence. There must
have been, at some early period, a time when the movement proved a real temptation for the early church: to what extent, however,
we cannot tell. Did Simon contemplate any fusion? (Acts viii. and later sources).
78 Cp. Joël's Blicke in die Religionsgeschichte (Part II., 1883). The course of events in the Palestinian mission may be made out
from Matt. x. 17 f.: παραδώσουσιν ὑμᾶς εἰς συνέδρια καὶ ἐν ταῖς συναγωγαῖς αὐτῶν μαστιγώσουσιν ὑμᾶσ . . . . παραδώσει δὲ
toleration also prevailed, that the churches remained unmolested for a considerable length of time
(Acts ix. 31, ἡ ἐκκλησία καθ᾽ ὅλης τῆς Ἰουδαίας καὶ Γαλιλαίας καὶ Σαμαρίας εἶχεν εἰρήνην), and
that several Christians were highly thought of by their Jewish brethren.79 By their strict observance
of the law and their devoted attachment to the temple,80 they fulfilled a Jew's principal duty, and
since it was in the future that they expected Jesus as their Messiah—his first advent having been
no more than a preliminary step—this feature might be overlooked, as an idiosyncrasy, by those
who were inclined to think well of them for their strict observance of the law.81 At least this is the
only way in which we can picture to ourselves the state of matters. The more zealous of their Jewish
47 compatriots can have had really nothing but praise for the general Christian hope of the Messiah's
sure and speedy advent. Doubtless it was in their view a grievous error for Christians to believe
that they already knew the person of the future Messiah. But the crucifixion seemed to have torn
up this belief by the roots, so that every zealous Jew could anticipate the speedy collapse of “the
offence,” while the Messianic ardour would survive. As for the Jewish authorities, they could afford
ἀδελφὸς ἀδελφὸν εἰς θάνατον καὶ πατὴρ τέκνον καὶ ἐπαναστήσονται τέκνα ἐπὶ γονεῖς καὶ θανατώσουσιν αὐτούς . . . . ὅταν δὲ
διώκωσιν ὑμᾶς ἐν τῇ πόλει ταύτῃ, φεύγετε εἰς τὴν ἑτέραν.
79 Hegesippus (in Eus., H.E., ii. 22) relates this of James. No doubt his account is far from lucid, but the repute of James among
the Jews may be safely inferred from it.
80 Cp. Acts xxi. 20, where the Christians of Jerusalem address Paul thus: θεωρεῖς, ἀδελφέ, πόσαι μυριάδες εἰσὶν ἐν τοῖς Ἰουδαίοις
τῶν πεπιστευκότων, καὶ πάντες ζηλωταὶ τοῦ νόμου ὑπάρχουσιν. This passage at once elucidates and confirms the main point
of Hegesippus' account of James. From one very ancient tradition (in a prologue to Mark's gospel, c. 200 A.D.), that when Mark
became a Christian he cut off his thumbs in order to escape serving as a priest, we may infer that many a Christian Jew of the
priestly class in Jerusalem still continued to discharge priestly functions in those primitive days.
As Weizsäcker justly remarks (Apost. Zeitalter , p. 38; Eng. trans., i. 46 f.): “The primitive Christians held fast to the faith
and polity of their nation. They had no desire to be renegades, nor was it possible to regard them as such. Even if they did not
maintain the whole cultus, this did not endanger their allegiance, for Judaism tolerated not merely great latitude in doctrinal
views, but also a partial observance of the cultus—as is sufficiently proved by the contemporary case of the Essenes. The
Christians did not lay themselves open to the charge of violating the law. They assumed no aggressive attitude. That they appeared
before the local courts as well as before the Sanhedrim, the supreme national council, tallies with the fact that, on the whole,
they remained Jews. It is in itself quite conceivable (cp. Matt. x. 17) that . . . . individual Christians should have been prosecuted,
but discharged on the score of insufficient evidence, or that this discharge was accompanied by some punishment. . . . The whole
position of Jewish Christians within the Jewish commonwealth precludes the idea that they made a practice of establishing a
special synagogue for themselves on Jewish soil, or avowedly formed congregations beside the existing synagogues. As the
synagogue was a regular institution of the Jewish community, such a course of action would have been equivalent to a complete
desertion of all national associations and obligations whatsoever, and would therefore have resembled a revolt. The only question
is, whether the existence of synagogues for foreigners in Jerusalem gave them a pretext for setting up an independent one there.
It is our Acts that mentions this in a passage which is beyond suspicion; it speaks (vi. 9) about the synagogue of the Libertini,
Cyrenians, Alexandrians, and those from Cilicia and Asia who disputed with Stephen. It is not quite clear whether we are to
think here of a single synagogue embracing all these people, or of several—and if so, how many. The second alternative is
favoured by this consideration, that the foreigners who, according to this account, assembled in meeting-places of their own
throughout Jerusalem, proceeded on the basis of their nationality. In that case one might conjecture that the Christians, as natives
of Galilee (Acts i. 11, ii. 7), took up a similar position. Yet it cannot be proved that the name was applied to them. From Acts
xxiv. 5 we must assume that they were known rather by the name of ‘Nazarenes,’ and as this title probably described the origin,
not of the body, but of its founder, its character was different. . . . . But even if the Christians had, like the Libertini, formed a
synagogue of Galileans in Jerusalem, this would not throw much light upon the organization of their society, for we know nothing
at all about the aims or regulations under which the various nationalities organized themselves into separate synagogues. And
in regard to the question as a whole, we must not overlook the fact that in our sources the term synagogue is never applied to
Christians.”
to watch the progress of events, contenting themselves with a general surveillance. Meantime,
however, the whole movement was confined to the lower classes.82
But no sooner did the Gentile mission, with its lack of restrictions (from the Jewish point of
view) or laxity of restrictions, become an open fact, than this period of toleration, or of spasmodic
and not very violent reactions on the part of Judaism, had to cease. Severe reprisals followed. Yet
the Gentile mission at first drove a wedge into the little company of Christians themselves; it
prompted those who disapproved of it to retire closer to their non-Christian brethren. The apostle
Paul had to complain of and to contend with a double opposition. He was persecuted by Jewish
Christians who were zealous for the law, no less than by the Jews (so 1 Thess. ii. 15 f., ἐκδιώξαντες
ἡμᾶς . . . . κωλύοντες ἡμᾶς τοῖς ἔθνεσιν λαλῆσαι, ἵνα σωθῶσιν); the latter had really nothing
whatever to do with the Gentile mission, but evidently they did not by any means look on with
folded arms.
It is not quite clear how the Gentile mission arose. Certainly Paul was not the first missionary
to the Gentiles.83 But a priori considerations and the details of the evidence alike may justify us in
concluding that while the transition to the Gentile mission was gradual, it was carried out with
irresistible energy. Here, too, the whole ground had been prepared already, by the inner condition
of Judaism, i.e., by the process of decomposition within Judaism which made for universalism, as
well as by the graduated system of the proselytes. To this we have already alluded in the first
According to Acts vi. 7 f.,84 the primitive Christian community in Jerusalem was composed of
two elements, one consisting of Palestinian Hebrews, and the other of Jews from the dispersion
82 Cp. what is said of Gamaliel, Acts v. 34 f. For the lower classes, see John vii. 48, 49: μή τις ἐκ τῶν ἀρχόντων ἐπίστευσεν εἰς
αὐτὸν ἤ ἐκ τῶν Φαρισαίων; ἀλλὰ ὁ ὄχλος οὗτος ὁ μὴ γινώσκων τὸν νόμον ἐπάρατοί εἰσιν. Yet Acts vi. 7) brings out the fact
that priests (a great crowd of them—πολὺς ὄχλος—it is alleged), no less than Pharisees (xv. 5), also joined the movement.
83 Paul never claims in his letters to have been absolutely the pioneer of the Gentile mission. Had it been so, he certainly would
not have failed to mention it. Gal. i. 16 merely says that the apostle understood already that his conversion meant a commission
to the Gentiles; it does not say that this commission was something entirely new. Nor need it be concluded that Paul started on
this Gentile mission immediately; the object of the revelation of God's Son (ἵνα εὐαγγελίζωμαι αὐτὸν ἐν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν) may
have been only disclosed to him by degrees. All we are to understand is that after his conversion he needed no further conflict
of the inner man in order to undertake the Gentile mission. Nevertheless, it is certain that Paul remains the Gentile missionary.
It was he who really established the duty and the right of Gentile missions; it was he who raised the movement out of its tentative
beginnings into a mission that embraced all the world.
84 To the author of Acts, the transition from the Jewish to the Gentile mission, with the consequent rejection of Judaism, was a fact
of the utmost importance; indeed one may say that he made the description of this transition the main object of his book. This
is proved by the framework of the first fifteen chapters, and by the conclusion of the work in xxviii. 23-28 (verses 30-31 being
a postscript). After quoting from Isa. vi. 9, 10—a prophecy which cancels Judaism, and which the author sees to be now
fulfilled—he proceeds to make Paul address the Jews as follows: γνωστὸν οὖν ἔστω ὑμῖν ὅτι τοῖς ἔθνεσιν ἀπεστάλη τοῦτο τὸ
σωτήριον τοῦ θεοῦ· αὐτοὶ καὶ ἀκούσονται. This is to affirm, as explicitly as possible, that the gospel has been given, not to Jews,
but to the nations at large. The above account of the work of the Gentile mission rests upon Acts, in so far as I consider its
statements trustworthy. The author was a Paulinist, but he found much simpler grounds for Christian universalism than did Paul;
or rather, he needed no grounds for it at all—the gospel being in itself universal—although he does not ignore the fact that at
the outset it was preached to none but Jews, and that the Gentile mission was long in developing. The internal divisions of
Christianity, moreover, are scarcely noticed.
(Ἑλληνισταί).85 A cleavage occurred between both at an early stage, which led to the appointment
of seven guardians of the poor, belonging to the second of these groups and bearing Greek names.
Within this group of men, whom we may consider on the whole to have been fairly enlightened,
i.e., less strict than others in literal observance of the law,86 Stephen rose to special prominence.
The charge brought against him before the Sanhedrim was to the effect that he went on uttering
blasphemous language against “the holy place” and the law, by affirming that Jesus was to destroy
the temple and alter the customs enjoined by Moses. This charge Acts describes as false; but, as
the speech of Stephen proves, it was well founded so far as it went, the falsehood consisting merely
in the conscious purpose attributed to the words in question. Stephen did not attack the temple and
the law in order to dispute their divine origin, but he did affirm the limited period of these institutions.
50 In this way he did set himself in opposition to the popular Judaism of his time, but hardly in
opposition to all that was Jewish. It is beyond doubt that within Judaism itself, especially throughout
the Diaspora, tendencies were already abroad by which the temple-cultus,87 and primarily its element
of bloody sacrifices, was regarded as unessential and even of doubtful validity. Besides, it is equally
certain that in many a Jewish circle, for external and internal reasons, the outward observance of
the law was not considered of any great value; it was more or less eclipsed by the moral law.
Consequently it is quite conceivable, historically and psychologically, that a Jew of the Diaspora
who had been won over to Christianity should associate the supreme and exclusive moral
considerations urged by the new faith88 with the feelings he had already learned to cherish, viz.,
that the temple and the ceremonial law were relatively useless; it is also conceivable that he should
draw the natural inference—Jesus the Messiah will abolish the temple-cultus and alter the ceremonial
law. Observe the future tense. Acts seems here to give an extremely literal report. Stephen did not
urge any changes—these were to be effected by Jesus, when he returned as Messiah. All Stephen
did was to announce them by way of prophecy, thus implying that the existing arrangements wore
valueless. He did not urge the Gentile mission; but by his words and death he helped to set it up.
When Stephen was stoned, he died, like Huss, for a cause whose issues he probably did not
foresee. It is not surprising that he was stoned, for orthodox Judaism could least afford to tolerate
this kind of believer in Jesus. His adherents were also persecuted—the grave peril of the little
company of Christians being thus revealed in a flash. All except the apostles (Acts viii. 1) had to
51 leave Jerusalem. Evidently the latter had not yet declared themselves as a body on the side of
85 Acts vi. 5 (Νικόλαον προσήλυτον) shows that there were also Christians in Jerusalem who had been previously proselytes. The
addition of Ἀντιοχέα betrays the author's special interest in this city.
See Weizsäcker, Apost. Zeitalter , pp. 51 f.; Eng. trans., i. 62 f. Naturally they were “good” Jews, otherwise they would never
have settled at Jerusalem; but we may assume that these synagogues of the Libertini (Romans), the Cyrenians, the Alexandrians,
the Ciliciana and Asiatics (Acts vi. 9), embraced Hellenistic Jews as well, who had mitigated the Jewish religion with their
Hellenistic culture. Upon the other hand, they also included exclusive fanatics, who were responsible for the first outburst against
Christianity. Palestinian Judaism (i.e., the Sanhedrim) sided with them. The earliest Christian persecution thus appears as a
quarrel and cleavage among the Diaspora Jews at Jerusalem.
87 Particularly when it had been profaned over and over again by a secularized priesthood.
88 At this point it may be also recalled that Jesus himself foretold the overthrow of the temple. With Weizsäcker (op. cit., p. 53;
Eng. trans., i. 65) I consider that saying of our Lord is genuine. It became the starting-point of an inner development in his
disciples which finally led up to the Gentile mission. Cp. Wellhausen's commentary on the synoptic gospels for a discussion of
the saying's significance.
Stephen in the matter of his indictment.89 The scattered Christians went abroad throughout Judæa
and Samaria; nolens volens they acted as missionaries, i.e., as apostles (Acts viii. 4). The most
important of them was Philip, the guardian of the poor, who preached in Samaria and along the
sea-board; there is a long account of how he convinced and baptized an Ethiopian officer, a eunuch
(Acts viii. 26 f.). This is perfectly intelligible. The man was not a Jew. He belonged to the
“God-fearing class'” (φοβούμενος τὸν θεόν). Besides, even if he had been circumcised, he could
not have become a Jew. Thus, when this semi-proselyte, this eunuch, was brought into the Christian
church, it meant that one stout barrier had fallen.
Still, a single case is not decisive, and even the second case of this kind, that of Peter baptizing
the “God-fearing” ((fsofSov/Jievos) Cornelius at Caesarea, cannot have had at that early period the
palmary importance which the author of Acts attaches to it.90 So long as it was a question of
proselytes, even of proselytes in the widest sense of the term, there was always one standpoint from
52 which the strictest Jewish Christian himself could reconcile his mind to their admission: he could
regard the proselytes thus admitted as adherents of the Christian community in the wider sense of
the term, i.e., as proselytes still.
The next step, a much more decisive one, was taken at Antioch, again upon the initiative of the
scattered adherents of Stephen (Acts xi. 19 f.), who had reached Phœnicia, Cyprus, and Antioch
on their missionary wanderings. The majority of them confined themselves strictly to the Jewish
89 This seems to me an extremely important fact, which at the same time corroborates the historical accuracy of Acts at this point.
Evidently the Christians at this period were persecuted with certain exceptions; none were disturbed whose devotion to the
temple and the law was unimpeachable, and these still included Peter and the rest of the apostles. Acts makes it perfectly plain
that it was only at a later, though not much later, period that Peter took his first step outside strict Judaism. Weizsäcker's reading
of the incident is different (op. cit., pp. 60 f.; Eng. trans., i. 75). He holds that the first step was taken at this period; but otherwise
he is right in saying that “it is obvious that nothing was so likely to create and strengthen this conviction (viz., that the future,
the salvation to be obtained in the kingdom itself, could no longer rest upon the obligations of the law) as Pharisaic attacks
prompted by the view that faith in Jesus and his kingdom was prejudicial to the inviolable duration of the law, and to belief in
its power of securing salvation. The persecution, therefore, liberated the Christian faith; it was the means by which it came to
know itself. And in this sense it was not without its fruits in the primitive church.”
90 At least the importance did not lie in the direction in which the author of Acts looked to find it. Still, the case was one of great
moment in this sense, that it forced Peter to side at last with that theory and practice which had hitherto (see the note above)
been followed by none save the friends of Stephen (excluding the primitive apostles). The conversion of the Cæsarean officer
led Peter, and with Peter a section of the church at Jerusalem, considerably further. It must be admitted, however, that the whole
passage makes one suspect its historical character. Luke has treated it with a circumstantial detail which we miss elsewhere in
his work; he was persuaded that it marked the great turning-point of the mission.
mission. But some, who were natives of Cyprus and Crete,91 preached also to the Greeks 92 in
Antioch with excellent results. They were the first missionaries to the heathen; they founded the
53 first Gentile church, that of Antioch. In this work they were joined by Barnabas and Paul (Acts xi.
28 f.), who soon became the real leading spirits in the movement.93
The converted Greeks in Antioch, Syria, and Cilicia (to which Barnabas and Paul presently
extended their mission), during this initial period were by no means drawn wholly from those who
had been “God-fearing'' (φοβούμενοι) already, although this may have been the origin of a large
number.94 At any rate a church was founded at Antioch which consisted for the most part of
uncircumcised persons, and which now undertook the mission to the Gentiles (Acts xiii. 1 f.). For
91 No names are given in the second passage, but afterwards (xiii. l) Barnabas the Cypriote, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene,
Manaen, and Saul are mentioned as prophets and teachers at Antioch. As Barnabas and Saul did not reach Antioch until after
the founding of the church (cp. xi. 22 f.), we may probably recognize in the other three persons the founders of the church, and
consequently the first missionaries to the heathen. But Barnabas must be mentioned first of all among the originators of the
Gentile mission. He must have reached the broader outlook independently, as indeed is plain from Paul's relations with him. A
Cypriote Levite, he belonged from the very beginning to the church of Jerusalem (perhaps he was a follower of Jesus; cp. Clem.,
Strom., II. 20; Eus., H.E., i. 12; Clem. Rom. Hom., i. 9), in which an act of voluntary sacrifice won for him a high position (Acts
iv. 36 f.). He certainly acted as an intermediary between Paul and the primitive apostles, so long as such services were necessary
(Acts ix. 27), just as he went between Jerusalem and Antioch (Acts xi. 22 f.). On what is called the “first mission-tour” of Paul,
he was almost the leading figure (Acts xiii.-xiv.). But his devotion to the Gentile mission seems to have affected his early prestige
at Jerusalem; he was suspected, and, like Paul, he had to justify his conduct (Acts xv., Gal. ii.). In the trying situation which
ensued at Antioch, he fell under Peter's influence and failed to stand the test (so Paul says, at least, in Gal. ii. 13, but what would
have been “hypocrisy” to Paul need not have been so in the case of Barnabas). His co-operation with Paul in mission-work now
ceases (Acts also makes them separate owing to a misunderstanding; but, on this view, xv. 36 f., they disagreed upon the question
of Mark as a coadjutor). Barnabas goes with Mark to Cyprus. When Paul wrote 1 Corinthians and Galatians, Barnabas was still
active as a missionary, and his name was familiar to the Corinthians (cp. 1 Cor. ix. 6). That Paul narrates to the Galatians with
such exact chronology the “hypocrisy” of Barnabas, shows how the apostle could not forget the crisis when the Gentile mission
was at stake, but it does not imply that Paul still felt himself at variance with Barnabas. The narrative simply mentions him in
order to bring out sharply the magnitude of the disaster occasioned by Peter's pusillanimous conduct. The carefully chosen
expression (καὶ Βαρνάβας συναπήχθη) shows that he was carried away half irresolutely. 1 Cor. i. 9 proves that Paul still recognized
him as an apostle of Christ, and spoke of him as such in the churches (cp. also Col. iv. 10, which indicates clearly that Barnabas
was also known to the Asiatic Christians as an important figure). But a hearty relationship between the two cannot have been
ever restored, in spite of the great experiences they had shared for so long. Paul's silence in his epistles and the silence of Acts
(after ch. xv.) are eloquent on this point. In the matter of the Gentile mission, however, Barnabas must be ranked next to Paul;
in fact we may suspect, as the very sources permit us to do, that the services of Barnabas as a peace-maker amid the troubles
and suspicions of the mother-church at Jerusalem were much more important than even the extant narratives disclose. Perhaps
we have a writing of Barnabas—not the so-called “Epistle of Barnabas,” but the Epistle to the Hebrews. The external evidence
for his authorship is not weak, but it is not adequate, and the internal evidence tells against him. Did he go from Cyprus to work
at Alexandria, as the pseudo-Clementine Homilies make out (i.-ii.)?
92 So Acts x. 20, reading “Ἕλληνες, not Ἑλληνίσται. It is not surprising that the Gentile Christian mission began in Antioch. It
was only in the international, levelling society of a great city that such a movement could originate, or rather propagate itself,
so far as it was not hampered by any new restriction in the sphere of principle. Most probably those early missionaries were not
so hampered. It is very remarkable that there is no word of any opposition between Jewish and Gentile Christians at Antioch.
The local Jewish Christians, scattered and cosmopolitan as they were, must have joined the new community of Christians, who
were free from the law, without more ado. It was the Jerusalem church which first introduced dissension at Antioch (cp. Acts
xv. 1, Gal. ii. 11-13).
93 All allusions to Antioch, direct or indirect, in the book of Acts are specially noticeable, for the tradition that Luke was a physician
of Antioch deserves credence. In ch. vi., and in what immediately follows, there is a distinct line of reference to Antioch.
94 Cp. Havet, Le Christianisme, vol. iv. p. 102: “Je ne sais s’il y est entré, du vivant de Paul, un seul païen, je veux dire un homme
qui ne connût pas déjà, avant d’y entrer, le judaïsme et la Bible.” This is no doubt an exaggeration, but substantially it is accurate.
this church the designation of Χριστιανοί (“Christians,” Acts xi. 26) came into vogue, a name
coined by their heathen opponents. This title is itself a proof that the new community in Antioch
54 stood out in bold relief from Judaism.95
The Gentile Christian churches of Syria and Cilicia did not observe the law, yet they were
conscious of being the people of God in the fullest sense of the term, and were mindful to keep in
touch with the mother church of Jerusalem, as well as to be recognized by her.96 The majority of
these cosmopolitan converts were quite content with the assurance that God had already moved
the prophets to proclaim the uselessness of sacrifice,97 so that all the ceremonial part of the law was
to be allegorically interpreted and understood in some moral sense.98 This was also the view originally
held by the other Gentile Christian communities which, like that of Rome, were founded by unknown
missionaries.
The apostle Paul, however, could not settle his position towards the law with such simplicity.
For him no part of the law had been depreciated in value by any noiseless, disintegrating influence
of time or circumstances; on the contrary, the law remained valid and operative in all its provisions.
It could not be abrogated save by him who had ordained it—i.e., by God himself. Nor could even
God abolish it save by affirming at the same time its rights—i.e., he must abolish it just by providing
for its fulfilment. And this was what actually took place. By the death and resurrection of Jesus
Christ, God's Son, upon the cross, the law was at once fulfilled and abolished. Whether all this
reflection and speculation was secondary and derivative (resulting from the possession of the Spirit
and the new life which the apostle felt within himself), or primary (resulting from the assurance
55 that his sins were forgiven), or whether these two sources coalesced, is a question which need not
occupy us here. The point is, that Paul was convinced that the death and resurrection of Christ had
inaugurated the new age. “The future is already present, the Spirit reigns.” Hereby he firmly and
unhesitatingly recognized the gospel to be the new level of religion, just as he also felt himself to
be a new creature. The new religious level was the level of the Spirit and regeneration, of grace
and faith, of peace and liberty; below and behind it lay everything old, including all the earlier
revelations of God, since these were religions pertaining to the state of sin. This it was which
enabled Paul, Jew and Pharisee as he was, to venture upon the great conception with which he laid
the basis of any sound philosophy of religion and of the whole science of comparative religion,
viz., the collocation of the “natural” knowledge of God possessed by man (i.e., all that had developed
in man under the sway of conscience) with the law of the chosen people (Rom. 1 f.). Both, Paul
held, were revelations of God, though in different ways and of different values; both represented
95 Details on the name of “Christian” in Book III. The theological vocabulary of Gentile Christianity, so far as it needed one, must
also have arisen in Antioch.
96 Cp. the narrative of Acts xi. 29 f., xii. 25, regarding a collection which the recently founded church at Antioch sent to Jerusalem
during the famine under Claudius. This was the famine in which Queen Helena of Adiabene gave much generous aid to the poor
Jews of Jerusalem.
97 With regard to the sacrificial system, the right of abandoning the literal meaning had been clearly made out, as that system had
already become antiquated and depreciated in the eyes of large sections of people. The rest of the law followed as a matter of
course.
98 The post-apostolic literature shows with particular clearness that this was the popular view taken by the Gentile Christians; so
that it must have maintained its vogue, despite the wide and powerful divergences of Paul's own teaching.
what had been hitherto the supreme possession of mankind. Yet both had proved inadequate; they
had aggravated sin, and had ended in death.
Now a new religion was in force. This meant that the Gentile mission was not a possibility but
a duty, whilst freedom from the law was not a concession but the distinctive and blissful form which
the gospel assumed for men. Its essence consisted in the fact that it was not law in any sense of the
term, but grace and a free gift. The Christian who had been born a Jew might have himself
circumcised and keep the law—which would imply that he considered the Jewish nation had still
some valid part to play99 in the world-wide plan of God. But even so, there was nothing in the law
to secure the bliss of the Jewish Christian; and as for the Gentile Christian, he was not allowed
either to practice circumcision or to keep the law. In his case, such conduct would have meant that
56 Christ had died in vain.
Thus it was that Paul preached the crucified Christ to the Gentiles, and not only established the
principle of the Gentile mission, but made it a reality. The work of his predecessors, when measured
by his convictions, was loose and questionable; it seemed to reach the same end as he did, but it
was not entirely just to the law or to the gospel. Paul wrecked the religion of Israel on the cross of
Christ, in the very endeavour to comprehend it with a greater reverence and stricter obedience than
his predecessors. The day of Israel, he declared, had now expired. He honoured the Jewish Christian
community at Jerusalem, the source of so much antagonism to himself, with a respect which is
almost inconceivable; but he made it perfectly clear that “the times of the Gentiles” had arrived,
and that if any Jewish Christian churches did not unite with the Gentile Christian churches to form
the one “church of God,” they forfeited by this exclusiveness their very right to existence. Paul's
conception of religion and of religious history was extremely simple, if one looks at its kernel, for
it was based upon one fact. It cannot be reduced to a brief formula without being distorted into a
platitude. It is never vital except in the shape of a paradox. In place of the particular forms of
expression which Paul introduced, and by means of which he made the conception valid and secure
for himself, it was possible that others might arise, as was the case in the very next generation with
the author of Hebrews and with the anonymous genius who composed the Johannine writings. From
that time onwards many other teachers came forward to find fresh bases for the Pauline gospel
(e.g., Marcion and Clement of Alexandria, to name a couple of very different writers from the
second century). But what they transformed was not the fruit and kernel of Paulinism. Essentially
they were quite at one with the apostle. For it is the great prerogative of the historian in a later age
to be able to recognize an essential unity where argument and proofs are widely different.
99 However, as Christians of Jewish birth had, in Paul's view, to live and eat side by side with Gentile Christians, the observance
of the law was broken down at one very vital point. It was only Paul's belief in the nearness of the advent that may have prevented
him from reflecting further on this problem.
Historically, Paul the Pharisee dethroned the people and the religion of Israel;100 he tore the
gospel from its Jewish soil and rooted it in the soil of humanity.101 No wonder that the full reaction
57 of Judaism against the gospel now commenced—a reaction on the part of Jews and Jewish Christians
alike. The hostility of the Jews appears on every page of Acts, from chap. xii. onwards, and it can
be traced by the aid even of the evangelic narratives,102 whose sources go back to the period preceding
A.D. 65. The Jews now sought to extirpate the Palestinian churches and to silence the Christian
missionaries. They hampered every step of Paul's work among the Gentiles; they cursed Christians
and Christ in their synagogues; they stirred up the masses and the authorities in every country
against him; systematically and officially they scattered broadcast horrible charges against the
Christians, which played an important part (ὑμεῖς τῆς κατὰ τοῦ δικαίου καὶ ἡμῶν τῶν ἀπ᾽ ἐκείνου
κακῆς προλήψεως αἴτιοι) in the persecutions as early as the reign of Trajan; they started calumnies
against Jesus; 103 they provided heathen opponents of Christianity with literary ammunition; unless
the evidence is misleading, they instigated the Neronic outburst against the Christians; and as a
58 rule, whenever bloody persecutions are afoot in later days, the Jews are either in the background
100 Little wonder that Jews of a later day declared he was a pagan in disguise: cp. Epiph. Hær., xxx. 16: καὶ τοῦ Παύλου κατηγοροῦντες
οὐκ αἰσχύνονται ἐπιπλάστοις τισὶ τῆς τῶν ψευδαποστόλων αὐτῶν κακουργίας καὶ πλάνης λόγοις πεποιημένοις. Ταρσέα μὲν
αὐτόν, ὡς αὐτὸς ὁμολογεῖ καὶ οὐκ ἀρνεῖται, λέγοντες ἐξ Ἑλλήνων δὲ αὐτὸν ὐποτίθενται, λαβόντες τὴν προφάσιν ἐκ τοῦ πόπου
διὰ τὸ φιλάληθες ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ ῥηθέν, ὅτι, Ταρσεύς εἰμι, οὐκ ἀσήμου πόλεως πολίτης. εἶτα φάσκουσιν αὐτὸν εἶναι Ἕλληνα καὶ
Ἑλληνίδος μητρὸς καὶ Ἕλληνος πατρὸς παῖδα, ἀναβεβηκέναι δὲ εἰς Ἱεροσόλυμα καὶ χρόνον ἐκεῖ μεμενηκέναι ἐπιτεθυμηκέναι
δὲ θυγατέρα τοῦ ἱερέως πρὸς γάμον ἀγαγέσθαι καὶ τούτου ἕνεκα προσήλυτον γευέσθαι καὶ περιτμηθῆναι, εἶτα μὴ λαβόντα τὴν
κόρην ὠργίσθαι καὶ κατὰ περιτομῆς γεγραφέναι καὶ κατὰ σαββάτου καὶ νομοθεσίας (“Nor are they ashamed to accuse Paul
with false charges concocted by the villainy and fraud of these false apostles. While a native of Tarsus (as he himself frankly
admits) they avow that he was born of Greek parentage, taking as their pretext for this assertion the passage in which Paul's love
of truth leads him to declare, ‘I am of Tarsus, a citizen of no mean city.’ Whereupon they allege that he was the son of a Greek
father and a Greek mother; that he went up to Jerusalem, where he resided for some time; that he resolved to marry the daughter
of the high priest, and consequently became a proselyte and got circumcised; and that on failing to win the girl, he vented his
anger in writing against circumcision and the sabbath and the Mosaic legislation “).
101 No one has stated the issues of this transplanting more sublimely than Luke in his narrative of the birth of Jesus (Luke ii.),
especially in the words which he puts into the mouth of the angel and the angels.
102 Cp. the speeches of Jesus when he sent out the disciples on their missions, and also the great eschatological discourse in the
synoptic gospels.
103 Justin (Dial. xvii.; cp. cviii., cxvii.), after making out that the Jews were responsible for the calumnies against the Christians,
observes that the Jewish authorities in Jerusalem despatched ἄνδρας ἐκλεκτοὺς ἀπὸ Ἰερουσαλὴμ εἰς πᾶσαν τὴν γῆν, λέγοντας
ἅιρεσιν ἄθεον Χριστιανῶν πεφηνέναι, καταλέγοντας ταῦτα, ἅπερ καθ᾽ ἡμῶν οἱ ἀγνοοῦντες ἡμᾶς πάντες λέγουσιν, ὥστε οὐ
μόνον ἑαντοῖς ἀδικίας αἴτιοι ὑπάρχετε, ἀλλὰ καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ἅπασιν ἁπλῶς ἀνθρώποις (“Chosen men from Jerusalem into
every land, declaring that a godless sect of Christians had appeared, and uttering everything that those who are ignorant of us
say unanimously against us. So that you are the cause not only of your own unrighteousness, but also of that of all other men”).
Cp. cxvii.: τοῦ υἱοῦ τοῦ θεοῦ ὄνομα βεβηλωθῆναι κατὰ πᾶσαν τῆν γῆν καὶ βλασφημεῖσθαι οἱ ἀρχιερεῖς τοῦ λαοῦ ὑμῶν καὶ
διδάσκαλοι εἰργάσαντο (“The name of the Son of God have the chief priests of your nation and your teachers caused to be
profaned throughout all the earth and to be blasphemed”). Also cviii.: ἄνδρας χειροντονήσαντες ἐκλεκτοὺς εἰς πᾶσαν τὴν
οἰκουμένην ἐπέμψατε, κηρύσσοντας ὅτι ἄιρεσις τις ἄθεος καὶ ἄνομος ἐγήγερται ἀπὸ Ἰησοῦ τινος Γαλιλαίου πλάνου, ὃν
σταυρωσάντων ἡμῶν οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ ἀπὸ τοῦ μνήματος νυκτὸς . . . . πλανῶσι τοὺς ἀνθρώπους λέγοντες ἐγηγέρθαι αὐτὸν
ἐκ νεκρῶν καὶ εἰς οὐρανὸν ἀνεληλυθέναι, κατειπόντες δεδιδαχέναι καὶ ταῦτα ἅπερ κατὰ τῶν ὁμολογούντων Χριστὸν καὶ
διδάσκαλον καὶ υἱὸν θεοῦ εἶναι παντὶ γένει ἀνθρώπων ἄθεα καὶ ἄνομα καὶ ἀνόσια λέγετε (“You have sent chosen and appointed
men into all the world to proclaim that ‘a godless and lawless sect has arisen from a certain Jesus, a Galilean impostor, whom
we crucified; his disciples, however, stole him by night from the tomb . . . . and now deceive people by asserting that he rose
from the dead and ascended into heaven.’ You accuse him of having taught the godless, lawless, and unholy doctrines which
you bring forward against those who acknowledge him to be Christ, a teacher from God, and the Son of God”). For the cursing
of Christians in the synagogues, cp. Dial. xvi. (also the words οὐκ ἐξουσίας ἔχετε αὐτόχειρες γενέσθαι ἡμῶν διὰ τοὺς νῦν
or the foreground (the synagogues being dubbed by Tertullian “fontes persecutionum”). By a sort
of instinct they felt that Gentile Christianity, though apparently it was no concern of theirs, was
their peculiar foe. This course of action on the part of the Jews was inevitable. They merely
accelerated a process which implied the complete liberation of the new religion from the old, and
which prevented Judaism from solving the problem which she had already faced, the problem of
59 her metamorphosis into a religion for the world. In this sense there was something satisfactory
about the Jewish opposition. It helped both religions to make the mutual breach complete, whilst
it also deepened in the minds of Gentile Christians—at a time when this still needed to be
deepened—the assurance that their religion did represent a new creation, and that they were no
mere class of people admitted into some lower rank, but were themselves the new People of God,
who had succeeded to the old.104
ἐπικρατοῦντας, ὁσάκις δὲ ἂν ἐδύνητε, καὶ τοῦτο ἐπράξατε = You have no power of yourselves to lay hands on us, thanks to
your overlords [i.e., the Romans], but you have done so whenever you could”), xlvii., xciii., xcv.-xcvi., cviii., cxvii., cxxxvii.,
where Justin declares that the rulers of the synagogue arranged for the cursing of Christians μετὰ τὴν προσευχὴν (after prayers)
during the course of public worship (the pagan proselytes of Judaism being even more hostile to Christians than the Jews
themselves, cxxii.); Jerome on Isa. lii. 2; Epiph., Har., xxix. 9; Apol., I. x., xxxi. (Jewish Christians fearfully persecuted by Jews
during the Barcochba war); Tert., ad Nat., I. xiv.: et credidit vulgus Judaeo; quod enim aliud genus seminarium est infamiae
nostrae? (“The crowd believed the Jew. In what other set of people lies the seedplot of calumny against us?”); adv. Marc., iii.
23; adv. Jud., xiii.: ab illis enim incepit infamia (“They started the calumny”); Scorp. x.: synagogae Judaeorum fontes
persecutionum; Iren. IV. xxi. 3: ecclesia insidias et persecutiones a Judaeis patitur; IV. xxviii. 3: Judaei interfectores domini
. . . . apostolos interficientes et persequentes ecclesiam. Origen repeatedly testifies to the fact that the Jews were the originators
of the calumnies against Christians; cp. passages like Hom. I. on Ps. xxxvi. (t. 12, p. 54, ed. Lomm.): etiam nunc Judaei non
moventur adversus gentiles, adversus eos, qui idola colunt et deum blasphemant, et illos non oderunt nec indignantur adversus
eos; adversus Christiano vero insatiabili odio feruntur (“The Jews even now are not angry at the heathen who worship idols and
blaspheme God; they do not hate them, but they attack Christians with insatiable hatred”; cp. also p. 155). By far the most
important notice is that preserved by Eusebius (on Isa. xviii. 1 f.), although its source is unfortunately unknown —at any rate it
did not come from Justin. It runs as follows: εὕρομεν ἐν τοῖς τῶν παλαιῶν συγγράμμασιν, ὡς οἱ τῆν Ἱερουσαλὴμ οἰκοῦντες
τοῦ τῶν Ἰουδαίων ἔθνους ἱερεῖς καὶ πρεσβύτεροι γράμματα διαχαράξαντες εἰς πάντα διεπέμψαντο τὰ ἔθνη τοῖς ἁπανταχοῦ
Ἰουδαίοις διαβάλλοντες τὴν Χριστοῦ διδασκαλίαν ὡς αἵρεσιν καινὴν καὶ ἀλλοτρίαν τοῦ θεοῦ, παρήγγελλόν τε δι᾽ ἐπιστολῶν
μὴ παραδέξασθαι αὐτήν . . . . οἵ τε ἀπόστολοι αὐτῶν ἐπιστολὰς βιβλίνας κομιζόμενοι . . . . ἀπανταχοῦ γῆς διέτρεχον, τὸν περὶ
τοῦ σωτῆρος ἡμῶν ἐνδιαβάλλοντες λόγον. ἀποστόλους δὲ εἰσέτι καὶ νῦν ἔθος ἐστὶν Ἰουδαὶοις ὀνομάζειν τοὺς ἐγκύκλια
γράμματα παρὰ τῶν ἀρχόντων αὐτῶν ἐπικομιζομένονς (“In the writings of the ancients we find that the priests and elders of
the Jewish people resident at Jerusalem drew up and dispatched written instructions for the Jews throughout every country,
slandering the doctrine of Christ as a newfangled heresy which was alien to God, and charging them by means of letters not to
accept it. . . . . Their apostles also, conveying formal letters . . . . swarmed everywhere on earth, calumniating the gospel of our
Savior. And even at the present day it is still the custom of the Jews to give the name of ‘apostle’ to those who convey encyclical
epistles from their rulers”). According to this passage Paul would be an “apostle” before he became an apostle, and the question
might be raised whether the former capacity did not contribute in some way to the feeling he had, on becoming a Christian, that
he was thereby called immediately to be an apostle of Christ.
104 In this connection one must also note the Christian use of ἔθνη (“gentes,” “Gentiles”). In the Old Testament the ἔθνη are opposed
to the people of Israel (which was also reckoned, as was natural under the circumstances, among the “peoples”), so that it was
quite easy for a Jew to describe other religions by simply saying that they were religions of the ἔθνη. Consequently ἔθνη had
acquired among the Jews, long before the Christian era, a sense which roughly coincided with that of our word “pagans” or
“heathen.” Paul was therefore unable to allow any Christian of non-Jewish extraction to be still ranked among the ἔθνη, nor
would it seem that Paul was alone in this contention. Such a convert once belonged to the ἔθνη, but not now (cp., e.g., 1 Cor.
xii. 2: οἴδατε ὅτι ὅτε ἔθνη ἦτε πρός τὰ εἴδωλα . . . . ἤγεσθε, “ye know that when ye were Gentiles, ye were led away to idols”);
now he belongs to the true Israel, or to the new People. It is plain that while this did not originally imply an actual change of
nationality, it must have stimulated the cosmopolitan feeling among Christians, as well as the consciousness that even politically
they occupied a distinctive position, when they were thus contrasted with all the ἔθνη on the one hand, and on the other were
thought of as the new People of the world, who repudiated all connection with the Jews. We need hardly add that Christians
But the Jewish Christians also entered the arena. They issued from Jerusalem a demand that
the church at Antioch should be circumcised, and the result of this demand was the so-called
apostolic council. We possess two accounts of this (Gal. ii. and Acts xv.). Each leaves much to be
desired, and it is hardly possible to harmonize them both. Paul's account is not so much written
down as flung down pell-mell; such is the vigour with which it seeks to emphasize the final result,
that its abrupt sentences render the various intermediate stages either invisible or indistinct. The
other account, unless we are deceived, has thrown the ultimate issue of the council into utter
confusion by the irrelevant introduction of what transpired at a later period. Even for other reasons,
this account excites suspicion. Still we can see plainly that Peter, John, and James recognized the
work of Paul, that they gave him no injunctions as to his missionary labours, and that they chose
still to confine themselves to the Jewish mission. Paul did not at once succeed in uniting Jewish
and Gentile Christians in a single fellowship of life and worship; it was merely the principle of this
fellowship that gained the day, and even this principle —an agreement which in itself was naturally
unstable and shortlived—could be ignored by wide circles of Jewish Christians. Nevertheless much
ground had been won. The stipulation itself ensured that, as did even more the developments to
which it led. The Jewish Christians split up. How they could still continue to hold together (in
Jerusalem and elsewhere) for years to come, is an insoluble riddle. One section persisted in doing
61 everything they could to persecute Paul and his work with ardent enmity: to crush him was their
aim. In this they certainly were actuated by some honest convictions, which Paul was naturally
incapable of understanding. To the very last, indeed, he made concessions to these “zealots for the
law” within the boundaries of Palestine; but outside Palestine he repudiated them so soon as they
tried to win over Gentiles to their own form of Christianity. The other section, including Peter and
probably the rest of the primitive apostles, commenced before long to advance beyond the agreement,
though in a somewhat hesitating and tentative fashion: outside Palestine they began to hold
intercourse with the Gentile Christians, and to lead the Jewish Christians also in this direction.
These tentative endeavours culminated in a new agreement, which now made a real fellowship
possible for both parties. The condition was that the Gentile Christians were to abstain from flesh
offered to idols, from tasting blood and things strangled, and from fornication. Henceforth Peter,
probably with one or two others of the primitive apostles, took part in the Gentile mission. The last
barrier had collapsed.105 If we marvel at the greatness of Paul, we should not marvel less at the
primitive apostles, who for the gospel's sake entered on a career which the Lord and Master, with
whom they had eaten. and drunk, had never taught them.
were still described as members of the ἔθνη, in cases where the relationship caused no misunderstanding, and where it was
purely a question of non-Jewish descent.
105 We may conjecture that originally there were also Jewish Christian communities in the Diaspora (not simply a Jewish Christian
set inside Gentile Christian communities), and that they were not confined even to the provinces bordering on Palestine. But in
Asia Minor, or wherever else such Jewish Christian communities existed, they must have been absorbed at a relatively early
period by the Gentile Christian or Pauline communities. The communities of Smyrna and Philadelphia about 93 A.D. (cp. Rev.
ii.-iii.) seem to have been composed mainly of converted Jews, but they are leagued with an association of the other communities,
just as if they were Gentile Christians.
By adopting an intercourse with Gentile Christians, this Jewish Christianity did away with
itself, and in the second period of his labours Peter ceased to be a “Jewish Christian.”106 He became
a Greek. Still, two Jewish Christian parties continued to exist. One of these held by the agreement
62 of the apostolic council; it gave the Gentile Christians its blessing, but held aloof from them in
actual life. The other persisted in fighting the Gentile Church as a false church. Neither party counts
in the subsequent history of the church, owing to their numerical weakness. According to Justin
(Apol., I. liii.), who must have known the facts, Jesus was rejected by the Jewish nation “with few
exceptions” (πλὴν ὀλίγων τινῶν). In the Diaspora, apart from Syria and Egypt, Jewish Christians
were hardly to be met with;107 there the Gentile Christians felt themselves supreme, in fact they
were almost masters of the field.108 This did not last, however, beyond 180 A.D., when the Catholic
63 church put Jewish Christians upon her roll of heretics. They were thus paid back in their own coin
by Gentile Christianity; the heretics turned their former judges into heretics.
Before long the relations of Jewish Christians to their kinsmen the Jews also took a turn for the
worse—that is, so far as actual relations existed between them at all. It was the destruction of
Jerusalem and the temple which seems to have provoked the final crisis, and led to a complete
breach between the two parties.109 No Christian, even supposing he were a simple Jewish Christian,
could view the catastrophe which befell the Jewish state, with its capital and sanctuary, as anything
else than the just punishment of the nation for having crucified the Messiah. Strictly speaking, he
ceased from that moment to be a Jew; for a Jew who accepted the downfall of his state and temple
106 Cp. Pseudo-Clem., Hom., XI. xvi.: ἐὰν ὁ ἀλλόφυλος τὸν νόμος πράξῃ, Ἰουδαῖός ἐστιν, μὴ πράξας δὲ Ἰουδαῖος Ἕλλην (“If one
of other nation observe the law, he is a Jew; the Jew who does not observe it is a Greek”). His labours in the mission-field must
have brought him to the side of Paul (cp. Clem. Rom., v.), else his repute in the Gentile Christian church would be inexplicable;
but we have no detailed information on this point. Incidentally we hear of him being at Antioch (Gal. ii.). It is also likely, to
judge from First Corinthians, that on his travels he reached Corinth shortly after the local church had been founded, but it is by
a mere chance that we learn this. After Acts xii. Luke loses all interest in Peter's missionary efforts; why, we cannot quite make
out. But if he laboured among Jewish Christians in a broad spirit, and yet did not emancipate them outright from the customs of
Judaism, we can understand how the Gentile Christian tradition took no particular interest in his movements. Still, there must
have been one epoch in his life when he consented heart and soul to the principles of Gentile Christianity; and it may be conjectured
that this took place as early as the time of his residence at Corinth, not at the subsequent period of his sojourn in Rome. (He
stayed for some months at Rome, before he was crucified. This we learn from an ancient piece of evidence which has been
strangely overlooked. Porphyry, in Macarius Magnes (iii. 22), writes: “Peter is narrated to have been crucified, after pasturing
the lambs for several months” (ἱστορεῖται μήδ᾽ ὀλίγους μῆνας βοσκήσας τὰ προβάτια ὁ Πέτρος ἐσταυρῶσθαι). This passage
must refer to his residence at Rome, and its testimony is all the more weighty, as Porphyry himself lived for a long while in
Rome and had close dealings with the local Christianity. If the pagan cited in Macarius was not Porphyry himself, then he has
reproduced him.) At the same time it must be understood that we are not in a position to explain how Peter came to be ranked
first of all alongside of Paul (as in Clement and Ignatius) and then above him. The fact that our First Peter in the New Testament
was attributed to him involves difficulties which are scarcely fewer than those occasioned by the hypothesis that he actually
wrote the epistle.
107 Individual efforts of propaganda were not, however, awanting. Such include the origins of the pseudo-Clementine literature,
Symmachus and his literary efforts towards the close of the second century, and also that Elkesaite Alcibiades of Apamea in
Syria, who went to Rome and is mentioned by Hippolytus in the Philosophumena. The syncretism of gnostic Jewish Christianity,
to which all these phenomena belong, entitled it to expect a better hearing in the pagan world than the stricter form of the Christian
faith. But it would lead us too far afield from our present purpose to go into details.
108 The turn of affairs is seen in Justin's Dial. xlvii. Gentile Christians for a long while ceased to lay down any fresh conditions, but
they deliberated whether they could recognize Jewish Christians as Christian brethren, and if so, to what extent. They acted in
this matter with considerable rigour.
109 We do not know when Jewish Christians broke off, or were forced to break off, from all connection with the synagogues; we
can only conjecture that if such connections lasted till about 70 A.D., they ceased then.
as a divine dispensation, thereby committed national suicide. Undoubtedly the catastrophe decimated
the exclusive Jewish Christianity of Palestine and drove a considerable number either back into
Judaism or forward into the Catholic church. Yet how illogical human feelings can be, when they
are linked to a powerful tradition! There were Jewish Christians still, who remained after the fall
of Jerusalem just where they had stood before; evidently they bewailed the fall of the temple, and
yet they saw in its fall a merited punishment. Did they, we ask, or did they not, venture to desire
the rebuilding of the temple? We can easily understand how such people proved a double offence
to their fellow-countrymen, the genuine Jews. Indeed they were always falling between two fires,
for the Jews persecuted them with bitter hatred,110 while the Gentile church censured them as
heretics—i.e., as non-Christians. They are dubbed indifferently by Jerome, who knew them
64 personally,111 “semi-Judaei” and “semi-Christiani.'” And Jerome was right. They were really “semis”;
they were “half” this or that, although they followed the course of life which Jesus had himself
observed. Crushed by the letter of Jesus, they died a lingering death.
There is hardly any fact which deserves to be turned over and thought over so much as this,
that the religion of Jesus has never been able to root itself in Jewish or even Semitic soil112. Certainly
there must have been, and certainly there must be still, some element in this religion which is allied
to the greater freedom of the Greek spirit. In one sense Christianity has really remained Greek down
to the present day. The forms it acquired on Greek soil have been modified, but they have never
been laid aside within the church at large, not even within Protestantism itself. And what an ordeal
this religion underwent in the tender days of its childhood! “Get thee out of thy country and from
thy kindred unto a land that I will show thee, and I will make of thee a great nation.” Islam rose in
Arabia and has remained upon the whole an Arabic religion; the strength of its youth was also the
strength of its manhood. Christianity, almost immediately after it arose, was dislodged from the
nation to which it belonged; and thus from the very outset it was forced to learn how to distinguish
between the kernel and the husk.113
110 Epiphanius (xxix. 9): οὐ μόνον οἱ τῶν Ἰουδαίων παίδες πρὸς τούτους κέκτηνται μῖσος, ἀλλὰ ἀνιστάμενοι ἕωθεν καὶ μέσης
ἡμέρας καὶ περὶ τὴν ἑσπέραν, τρίς τῆς ἡμέρας, ὅτε εὐχὰς ἐπιτελοῦσιν ἐν ταῖς αὐτῶν συναγωγαῖς ἐπαρῶνται αὐτοῖς καὶ
ἀναθεματίζουσι φάσκοντες ὅτι· Ἐπικαταράσαι ὁ θεὸς τοὺς Ναζωραίους. καὶ γὰρ τούτοις περισσότερον ἐνέχουσι, διὰ τὸ ἀπὸ
Ἰουδαίων αὐτοὺς ὄντας Ἰησοῦν κηρύσσειν εἶναι Χριστόν, ὅπερ ἐστὶν ἐναντίον πρὸς ποὺς ἔτι Ἰουδαίους τοὺς Χριστὸν μὴ
δεξαμένους (“Not merely are they visited with hatred at the hands of Jewish children, but rising at dawn, at noon, and eventide,
when they perform their orisons in their synagogues, the Jews curse them and anathematize them, crying ‘God curse the
Nazarenes!’ For, indeed, they are assailed all the more bitterly because, being themselves of Jewish origin, they proclaim Jesus
to be the Messiah—in opposition to the other Jews who reject Christ”).
111 Epiphanius (loc. cit.) says of them: Ἰουδαῖοι μᾶλλον καὶ οὐδὲν ἕτερον· πάνυ δὲ οὗτοι ἐχθροὶ τοῖς Ἰουδαῖοις ὑπάρχουσιν (“They
are Jews more than anything else, and yet they are detested by the Jews”).
112 The Syrians are a certain exception to this rule; yet how markedly was the Syrian church Grecized, even although it retained its
native language!
113 The gospel allied itself, in a specially intimate way, to Hellenism, but not exclusively, during the period of which we are speaking;
on the contrary, the greatest stress was laid still, as by Paul of old, upon the fact that all peoples were called, and the gospel
accepted by members of all nations. Certainly the Greeks ranked as primi inter pares, and the esteem in which they were held
was bound to increase just as tradition came to be emphasized, since it was neither possible nor permissible as yet to trace back
the latter to the Jews (from the middle of the second century onwards, the appeal of tradition to the church of Jerusalem was not
to a Jewish, but to a Greek church). In this sense, even the Latins felt themselves secondary as compared with the Greeks, but
it was not long before the Roman church understood how to make up for this disadvantage. In the Easter controversy, about the
year 190 A.D., certain rivalries between the Greeks and Latins emerged for the first time; but such differences were provincial,
not national, for the Roman church at that period was still predominantly Greek.
Paul is only responsible in part for the sharp anti-Judaism which developed within the very
earliest phases of Gentile Christianity. Though he held that the day of the Jews (πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις
65 ἐναντίων, 1 Thess. ii. 15) was past and gone, yet he neither could nor would believe in a final
repudiation of God's people; on that point his last word is said in Rom. xi. 25, 29:—οὐ θελω ὑμᾶς
ἀγνοεῖν τὸ μυστήριον τοῦτο, ὅτι πώρωσις ἀπὸ μέρους τῷ Ἰσραὴλ γέγονεν ἄχρις οὗ τὸ πλήρωμα
τῶν ἐθνῶν εἰσέλθῃ, καὶ οὕτως πᾶς Ἰσραὴλ σωθήσεται . . . ἀμεταμέλητα γὰρ τὰ χαρίσματα καὶ ἡ
κλῆσις τοῦ θεοῦ. In this sense Paul remained a Jewish Christian to the end. The duality of mankind
(Jews and “nations''') remained, in a way, intact, despite the one church of God which embraced
them both. This church did not abrogate the special promises made to the Jews.
But this standpoint remained a Pauline idiosyncrasy. When people had recourse, as the large
majority of Christians had, simply to the allegorical method in order to emancipate themselves
from the letter, and even from the contents, of Old Testament religion, the Pauline view had no
attraction for them; in fact it was quite inadmissible, since the legitimacy of the allegorical
conception, and inferentially the legitimacy of the Gentile church in general, was called in question,
if the Pauline view held good at any single point.114 If the people of Israel retained a single privilege,
if a single special promise still had any meaning whatsoever, if even one letter had still to remain
in force—how could the whole of the Old Testament be spiritualized? How could it all be transferred
to another people? The result of this mental attitude was the conviction that the Jewish people was
now rejected: it was Ishmael, not Isaac; Esau, not Jacob. Yet even this verdict did not go far enough.
66 If the spiritual meaning of the Old Testament is the correct one, and the literal false, then (it was
argued) the former was correct from the very first, since what was false yesterday cannot be true
today. Now the Jewish people from the first persisted in adhering to the literal interpretation,
practicing circumcision, offering bloody sacrifices, and observing the regulations concerning food;
consequently they were always in error, an error which shows that they never were the chosen
people. The chosen people throughout was the Christian people, which always existed in a sort of
latent condition (the younger brother being really the elder), though it only came to light at first
with Christ. From the outset the Jewish people had lost the promise; indeed it was a question whether
it had ever been meant for them at all. In any case the literal interpretation of God's revealed will
proved that the people had been forsaken by God and had fallen under the sway of the devil. As
this was quite clear, the final step had now to be taken, the final sentence had now to be pronounced:
the Old Testament, from cover to cover, has nothing whatever to do with the Jews. Illegally and
insolently the Jews had seized upon it; they had confiscated it, and tried to claim it as their own
property. They had falsified it by their expositions and even by corrections and omissions. Every
Christian must therefore deny them the possession of the Old Testament. It would be a sin for
Christians to say, “This book belongs to us and to the Jews.'' No; the book belonged from the outset,
as it belongs now and evermore, to none but Christians,115 whilst Jews are the worst, the most
114 As the post-apostolic literature shows, there were wide circles in which Paul's doctrine of the law and the old covenant was never
understood, and consequently was never accepted.
115 It was an inconvenient fact that the book had not been taken from the Jews, who still kept and used it; but pseudo-Justin (Cohort.
xiii.) gets over this by explaining that the Jews' retention of the Old Testament was providential. They preserved the Old Testament,
so that it might afford a refutation of the pagan opponents who objected to Christianity on account of its forgeries {i.e., the
godless and God-forsaken, of all nations upon earth,116 the devil's own people, Satan's synagogue,
a fellowship of hypocrites.117 They are stamped by their crucifixion of the Lord.118 God has now
67 brought them to an open ruin, before the eyes of all the world; their temple is burnt, their city
destroyed, their commonwealth shattered, their people scattered—never again is Jerusalem to be
frequented.119 It may be questioned, therefore, whether God still desires this people to be converted
at all, and whether he who essays to win a single Jew is not thereby interfering unlawfully with his
punishment. But the fact is, this people will not move; so that by their obstinacy and hostility to
Christ, they relieve Christians from having to answer such a question.
This was the attitude consistently adopted by the Gentile church towards Judaism. Their instinct
of self-preservation and their method of justifying their own appropriation of the Old Testament,
chimed in with the ancient antipathy felt by the Greeks and Romans to the Jews. Still,120 it was not
everyone who ventured to draw the final conclusions of the epistle of Barnabas (iv. 6. f., xiv. 1 f.).
Most people admitted vaguely that in earlier days a special relation existed between God and his
people, though at the same time all the Old Testament promises were referred even by them to
Christian people. While Barnabas held the literal observance of the law to prove a seduction of the
devil to which the Jewish people had succumbed,121 the majority regarded circumcision as a sign
appointed by God;122 they recognized that the literal observance of the law was designed and enjoined
68 by God for the time being, although they held that no righteousness ever emanated from it. Still
even they held that the spiritual sense was the one true meaning, which by a fault of their own the
Jews had misunderstood; they considered that the burden of the ceremonial law was an educational
necessity, to meet the stubbornness and idolatrous tendencies of the nation (being, in fact, a safeguard
prophecies). In his Dialogue, Justin, however, charges the Jews with falsifying the Old Testament in an anti-Christian sense. His
proofs are quite flimsy.
116 Justin, for example, looks on the Jews not more but less favourably than on the heathen (cp. Apol., I. xxxvii., xxxix., xliii.-xliv.,
xlvii., liii., lx.). The more friendly attitude of Aristides (Apol. xiv.) is exceptional.
117 Cp. Rev. ii. 9, iii. 9, Did. viii., and the treatment of the Jews in the Fourth Gospel and the Gospel of Peter. Barnabas (ix. 4)
declares that a wicked angel had seduced them from the very first. In 2 Clem. ii. 3, the Jews are called οἱ δοκοῦντες ἔχειν θεόν
(“they that seem to have God”); similarly in the Preaching of Peter (Clem., Strom., vi. 5. 41): ἐκεῖνοι μόνοι οἰόμενοι τὸν θεὸν
γιγνώσκειν οὐκ ἐπίστανται (“They suppose they alone know God, but they do not understand him”).
118 Pilate was more and more exonerated.
119 Cp. Tertull., Apol. xxi.: dispersi, palabundi et soli et caeli sui extorres vagantur per orbem sine homine, sine deo rege, quibus
nec advenarum iure terram patriam saltim vestigio salutare conceditur (“Scattered, wanderers, exiles from their own land and
clime, they roam through the world without a human or a divine king, without so much as a stranger's right to set foot even in
their native land”).
For what follows see my Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, I. , pp. 168 f. [Eng. trans., i. 291 f.].
121 Cp. Barn. ix. f. The attitude of Barnabas to the Old Testament is radically misunderstood if one imagines that his expositions in
vi.-x. can be passed over as the result of oddity and caprice, or set aside as destitute of any moment or method. Not a sentence
in this section lacks method, and consequently there is no caprice at all. The strictly spiritual conception of God in Barnabas,
and the conviction that all (Jewish) ceremonies are of the devil, made his expositions of Scripture a matter of course; so far from
being mere ingenious fancies to this author's mind, they were essential to him, unless the Old Testament was to be utterly
abandoned. For example, the whole authority of the Old Testament would have collapsed for Barnabas, unless he had succeeded
in finding some fresh interpretation of the statement that Abraham circumcised his servants. This he manages to do by combining
it with another passage from Genesis; he then discovers in the narrative, not circumcision at all, but a prophecy of the crucified
Christ (ix.).
122 Barn. ix. 6: ἀλλ᾽ ἐρεῖς· καὶ μὴν περιτέτμηται ὁ λαὸς εἰς σφραγῖδα. (“But thou wilt say, this people hath been certainly circumcised
for a seal”). This remark is put into the mouth of an ordinary Gentile Christian; the author himself does not agree with it.
of monotheism); and, finally, they interpreted the sign of circumcision in such a way that it appeared
no longer as a favour, but rather as a mark of the judgment to be executed on Israel.123
Israel thus became literally a church which had been at all times the inferior or the Satanic
church. Even in point of time the “older” people really did not precede the “younger,” for the latter
was more ancient, and the “new” law was the original law. Nor had the patriarchs, prophets, and
men of God, who had been counted worthy to receive God's word, anything in common inwardly
with the Jewish people; they were God's elect who distinguished themselves by a holy conduct
corresponding to their election, and they must be regarded as the fathers and forerunners of the
69 latent Christian people.124 No satisfactory answer is given by any of these early Christian writings
to the question, How is it that, if these men must not on any account be regarded as Jews, they
nevertheless appeared entirely or almost entirely within the Jewish nation? Possibly the idea was
that God in his mercy meant to bring this wickedest of the nations to the knowledge of the truth by
employing the most effective agencies at his command; but even this suggestion comes to nothing.
Such an injustice as that done by the Gentile church to Judaism is almost unprecedented in the
annals of history. The Gentile church stripped it of everything; she took away its sacred book;
herself but a transformation of Judaism, she cut off all connection with the parent religion. The
daughter first robbed her mother, and then repudiated her! But, one may ask, is this view really
correct? Undoubtedly it is, to some extent, and it is perhaps impossible to force anyone to give it
up. But viewed from a higher standpoint, the facts acquire a different complexion. By their rejection
of Jesus, the Jewish people disowned their calling and dealt the death-blow to their own existence;
their place was taken by Christians as the new People, who appropriated the whole tradition of
Judaism, giving a fresh interpretation to any unserviceable materials in it, or else allowing them to
drop. As a matter of fact, the settlement was not even sudden or unexpected; what was unexpected
70 was simply the particular form which the settlement assumed. All that Gentile Christianity did was
to complete a process which had in fact commenced long ago within Judaism itself, viz., the process
by which the Jewish religion was being inwardly emancipated and transformed into a religion for
123 Cp. Justin's Dial. xvi., xviii., xx., xxx., xl.-xlvi. He lays down these three findings side by side: (l) that the ceremonial laws were
an educational measure on the part of God to counteract the stubbornness of the people, who were prone to apostatize; (2) that,
as in the case of circumcision, they were meant to differentiate the people in view of the future judgment which was to be executed
according to divine appointment; and (3) finally, that the Jewish worship enacted by the ceremonial law exhibited the peculiar
depravity and iniquity of the people. Justin, however, viewed the decalogue as the natural law of reason, and therefore as definitely
distinct from the ceremonial law.
124 This is the prevailing view of all the sub-apostolic writers. Christians are the true Israel; hence theirs are all the honourable titles
of the people of Israel. They are the twelve tribes (cp. Jas. i. l), and thus Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob are the fathers of Christians
(a conception on which no doubt whatever existed in the Gentile church, and which is not to be traced back simply to Paul); the
men of God in the Old Testament were Christians (cp. Ignat., ad Magn., viii. 2, οἱ προφῆται κατὰ Χριστὸν Ἰησοῦν ἔζησαν, “the
prophets lived according to Christ Jesus”). But it is to be noted that a considerable section of Christians, viz., them majority of
the so-called gnostics and the Marcionites, repudiated the Old Testament along with Judaism (a repudiation to which the epistle
of Barnabas approximates very closely, but which it avoids by means of its resolute re-interpretation of the literal sense). These
people appear to be the consistent party, yet they were really nothing of the kind; to cut off the Old Testament meant that another
historical basis must be sought afresh for Christianity, and such a basis could not be found except in some other religion or in
another system of worship. Marcion made the significant attempt to abandon the Old Testament and work exclusively with the
doctrine and mythology of Paulinism; but the attempt was isolated, and it proved a failure.
About 140 A.D. the transition of Christianity to the “Gentiles,” with its emancipation from
Judaism, was complete.125 It was only learned opponents among the Greeks and the Jews themselves,
who still reminded Christians that, strictly speaking, they must be Jews. After the fall of Jerusalem
there was no longer any Jewish counter-mission, apart from a few local efforts;126 on the contrary,
Christians established themselves in the strongholds hitherto held by Jewish propaganda and Jewish
proselytes. Japhet occupied the tents of Shem,127 and Shem had to retire.
One thing, however, remained an enigma. Why had Jesus appeared among the Jews, instead
of among the “nations”?128 This was a vexing problem. The Fourth Gospel (see above, p. 42), it is
important to observe, describes certain Greeks as longing to see Jesus (xii. 20 f.), and the words
71 put into the mouth of Jesus on that occasion129 are intended to explain why the Saviour did not
undertake the Gentile mission. The same evangelist makes Jesus say with the utmost explicitness
(x. 16), “And other sheep I have which are not of this fold; them also I must bring, and they shall
hear my voice.” He himself is to bring them. The mission which his disciples carry out, is thus his
mission; it is just as if he drew them himself.130 Indeed his own power is still to work in them, as
he is to send them the Holy Spirit to lead them into all the truth, communicating to them a wisdom
which had hitherto lain unrevealed.
125 Forty years later Irenæus was therefore in a position to treat the Old Testament and its real religion with much greater freedom,
for by that time Christians had almost ceased to feel that their possession of the Old Testament was seriously disturbed by
Judaism. Thus Irenæus was able even to repeat the admission that the literal observance of the Old Testament in earlier days
was right and holy. The Fathers of the ancient Catholic church, who followed him, went still further: on one side they approximated
again to Paulinism; but at the same time, on every possible point, they moved still further away from the apostle than the earlier
generations had done, since they understood his anti-legalism even less, and had also to defend the Old Testament against the
gnostics. Their candid recognition of a literal sense in the Old Testament was due to the secure consciousness of their own
position over against Judaism, but it was the result even more of their growing passion for the laws and institutions of the Old
Testament cultus.
126 Attempts of the Jews to seduce Christians into apostasy are mentioned in literature, but not very often; cp. Serapion's account
quoted by Eusebius (H.E. vi. 12), and Acta Pionii (xiii., with a Jewish criticism of Christ as a suicide and a sorcerer).
127 The half-finished, hybrid products of Jewish propaganda throughout the empire were transmuted into independent and attractive
forms of religion, far surpassing the synagogues. It was only natural that the former had at once to enter into the keenest conflict
with the latter.
128 That Jesus himself converted many people ἐν τοῦ Ἐλληνικοῦ is asserted only by a comparatively late and unauthentic remark
in Josephus.
129 “The hour has come for the Son of man to be glorified. Verily, verily, I say to you, unless the grain of wheat falls into the earth
and dies, it abides by itself alone; but if it die it bears much fruit. . . . . A voice then came from heaven, ‘I have glorified, and I
will glorify it again.’ . . . . Jesus said, ‘This voice has come, not for my sake but for yours; now is the judgment of this world,
now shall the prince of this world be cast out. Yet when 1 am lifted up from the earth, I will draw all men to myself.’”
130 Naturally, there was not entire and universal satisfaction with this explanation. Even legend did not venture in those early days
to change the locale of Jesus to the midst of paganism, but already Magi from the East were made to come to the child Jesus and
worship him, after a star had announced his birth to all the world (Matt. ii.); angels at the birth of Jesus announced tidings of
great joy to “all peoples” (Luke ii.); and when that star appeared, says Ignatius (ad Eph., xix.), its appearance certified that ''All
sorcery was dissolved and every wicked spell vanished, ignorance was overthrown and the old kingdom was destroyed, when
God appeared in human guise unto newness of eternal life. Then that which had been prepared within God's counsels began to
take effect. Thence were all things perturbed, because the abolition of death was being undertaken” (ἐλύετο πᾶσα μαγεία, καὶ
πᾶς δεσμὸς ἡφανίζετο κακίας, ἄγνοια καθῃρεῖτο, παλαιὰ βασιλεία διεφθείρετο, θεοῦ ἀνθρωπίνως φανερουμένου εἰς καινότητα
ἀϊδίου ζωῆς· ἀρχὴν δὲ ἐλάμβανεν τὸ παρὰ θεῷ ἀπηρτισμένον. ἔνθεν τὰ πάντα συνεκινεῖτο διὰ τὸ μελετᾶσθαι θανάτου κατάλυσιν).
The Christians of Edessa were still more venturesome. They declared in the third century that Jesus had corresponded with their
king Abgar, and cured him. Eusebius (H.E., i. ad fin.) thought this tale of great importance; it seemed to him a sort of substitute
for any direct work of Jesus among pagans.
One consequence of this attitude of mind was that the twelve were regarded as a sort of personal
multiplication of Christ himself, while the Kerugma (or outline and essence of Christian preaching)
came to include the dispatch of the twelve into all the world—i.e., to include the Gentile mission
as a command of Jesus himself. Compare the Apology of Aristides (ii.); Just., Apol., I. xxxix.;
Ascens. Isaiae, iii. 13 f. (where the coming of the twelve disciples belongs to the fundamental facts
72 of the gospel); Iren., Fragm. 29;131 Tertull., Apol. xxi., adv. Marc. III. xxii. (habes et apostolorum
opus praedicatum); Hippol., de Antichr. 61; Orig., c. Cels., III. xxviii.; Acta Joh. (ed. Zahn, p. 246:
“the God who chose us to be apostles of the heathen, who sent us out into the world, who showed
himself by the apostles”); Serapion in Eus., H.E., vi. 12.132 Details on this conception of the primitive
apostles will be found in Book III.
73 CHAPTER VI.
RESULTS OF THE MISSION OF PAUL AND OF THE FIRST MISSIONARIES
1. BEFORE his last journey to Jerusalem Paul wrote from Corinth to Rome (Rom. xv. 19 f.):
“From Jerusalem and round about even unto Illyricum, I have fully preached the gospel of Christ;
yea, making it my aim so to preach the gospel not where Christ was already named, that I might
not build upon another man's foundation. Wherefore also I was hindered these many times from
coming to you; but now, having no more any place in these regions, and having these many years
a longing to come unto you, I will come whenever I go to Spain. For I hope to see you on my
journey and to be brought on my way thitherward by you, if first in some measure I shall have been
satisfied with your company.”
The preaching of the gospel within the Greek world is now complete (for this is what the words
“even unto Illyria” imply); the Latin world now begins.133 Paul thus identifies his own missionary
preaching along a narrow line from Jerusalem to Illyria with the preaching of the gospel to the
entire Eastern hemisphere—a conception which is only intelligible upon the supposition that the
certainty of the world's near end made no other kind of mission possible than one which thus hastily
covered the world's area. The fundamental idea is that the gospel has to be preached everywhere
131 Harvey II. p. 494: οὗτος [ὁ χριστὸς] ἐν τῇ καρδίᾳ τῆς γῆς, ἐν χώματι κρυβεὶς καὶ τριημέρῳ μέγιστον δένδρον γεννηθεὶς ἐξέτεινε
τοὺς ἑαυτοῦ κλάδους εἰς τὰ πέρατα τῆς γῆς. ἐκ τούτου προκύψαντες οἱ ιβ᾽ ἀπόστολοι, κλάδοι ὡραῖοι, καὶ εὐθαλεῖς γενηθέντες
σκέπη ἐγγενήθησαν τοῖς ἔθνεσιν, ὡς πετεινοῖς οὐρανοῦ, ὑφ᾽ ὧν κλάδων σκεπασθέντες οἱ πάντες, ὡς ὄρνεα ὑπὸ καλιὰν
συνελθόντα μετέλαβον τῆς ἐξ αὐτῶν προερχομένης ἐδωδίμου καὶ ἐπουρανίον τροφῆς = “Within the heart of the earth, hidden
in the tomb, he became in three days the greatest of all trees [Iren. had previously compared Christ to the seed of corn in Luke
xiii. 19], and stretched out his branches to the ends of the earth. His outstretched branches, waxing ripe and fresh, even the twelve
apostles, became a shelter for the birds of heaven, even for the nations. By these branches all were shadowed, like birds gathered
in a nest, and partook of the food and heavenly nourishment which came forth from them.”
132 This idea suggests one of the motives which prompted people to devise tales of apostolic missions.
133 Egypt could not be passed over, for the Greek world without Egypt would have been incomplete. But Paul never alludes to Egypt
either here or elsewhere. He must have known that other missionaries were labouring there; or, did he regard Egypt, like John
(Apoc. xi. 8), as a land which was so hateful to God that nothing could be hoped from it?
during the short remaining space of the present world-age,134 while at the same time this is only
feasible by means of mission-tours across the world. The fire it is assumed, will spread right and
74 left spontaneously from the line of flame.135
This idea, that the world must be traversed, was apparently conceived by the apostle on his
so-called “second'” missionary tour.136 Naturally he viewed it as a divine injunction, for it is in this
sense that we must interpret the difficult passage in Acts xvi. 6-8. If Paul had undertaken this second
tour with the aim of reaching the Hellenistic districts on the coast of Asia Minor, and if he had
become conscious in the course of his work that he was also called to be an apostle to the Greeks,
then on the western border of Phrygia this consciousness passed into the sense of a still higher duty.
He is not merely the apostle of the barbarians (Syrians, Cilicians, Lycaonians), not merely the
apostle even of barbarians and Greeks, but the apostle of the world. He is commissioned to bear
the gospel right to the western limits of the Roman empire; that is, he must fill up the gaps left by
the missionaries in their efforts to cover the whole ground. Hence he turns aside on the frontier of
Phrygia, neither westwards (to Asia) nor northward (to Bithynia), as one might expect and as he
originally planned to do, but northwest. Even Mysia he only hurries through. The decision to pass
by Asia and Bithynia meant that he was undertaking a mission to Macedonia, Achaia, and beyond
that to the West.
Philippi, Thessalonica, Berœa, Athens, Corinth—or, to put it more accurately, from Paul's
standpoint, Macedonia and Achaia—heard the gospel. But why did he remain for eighteen months
in Corinth? Why did he not travel on at once to Rome, and thence to the far West? Why did he
interpolate a fresh tour, at this point, to Asia Minor, residing no less than three years at Ephesus?
The answer is obvious. While he had Rome and the West in his mind, the first time he reached
75 Corinth (Rom. i. 13), circumstances fortunately proved too strong for any attempt to realize this
ambitious scheme. If I understand the situation aright, there were three considerations which had
to be borne in mind. First of all, Paul neither would nor could lose touch with the two
mother-churches in Jerusalem and Antioch. This made him return upon his tracks on two occasions.
In the second place, he felt irresistibly bound to build up the churches which he had founded, instead
of leaving them in the lurch after a few weeks. The duty of organizing and of working on a small
scale prevailed over the visionary and alleged duty of hurrying over the world with the gospel; the
latter duty might well have lurking in it a grain of personal ambition. Finally, it was plain that no
one had raised the standard of the gospel in the great province which he had been obliged to pass
by, i.e., in Western Asia Minor, the kernel of the Hellenic world. Paul had certainly assumed that
other agents would preach the word of God here. But his hope was disappointed. On his first return
journey (from Corinth to Jerusalem) he was content to leave behind him at Ephesus the distinguished
missionary Prisca with her husband Aquila; but when he came back on his so-called “third'” journey,
he found not only the small beginnings of a Christian community, but disciples of John, whose
mission he could not afford to ignore. The local sphere proved so rich and fertile that he felt obliged
134 The idea recurs in the gospels (Mark xiii. 10). Was Paul the first to conceive it and to give it currency?
135 Cp. 1 Thess. i. 8; Rom. i. 8; Col. i. 6.
136 Not earlier. The whole of the so-called “first” mission-tour is inexplicable if Paul already had this idea in his mind. Wendt is
quite right in saying (on Acts xiii. 13) that Paul at this period was merely conscious of being an apostle to the barbarians; not to
the Greeks. Otherwise, the choice of a mission-field in S.W. Asia Minor is unintelligible.
to take up residence at Ephesus. Here it was that he pursued the task of that spiritual settlement
between Hellenism and Christianity which he had begun at Corinth. The first epistle to the
Corinthians is evidence of this relationship. At Antioch no such adjustment was possible, for Antioch
was simply a large Greek colony; it was Greek only in the sense in which Calcutta is English.
Paul, however, had not abandoned his scheme for covering the world with the gospel. The
realization of it was only deferred in the sense in which the return of Christ was deferred. Probably
he would have remained still longer at Ephesus (in the neighborhood of which, as well as throughout
the district, new churches had sprung up) and come into closer touch with Hellenism, had he not
been disturbed by news from Corinth and finally driven out of the city by a small riot.
Paul's labours made Ephesus the third capital of Christianity, its distinctively Greek capital.
For a while it looked as if Ephesus was actually destined to be the final headquarters of the faith.
But already a rival was emerging in the far West, which was to eclipse the Asiatic metropolis. This
was Rome, the fourth city of Christianity, destined ere long to be the first.
When he left Ephesus to journey through Macedonia and Achaia, he again became the itinerant
apostle, and once more the unforgotten idea of traversing the wide world got possession of his
mind. From Corinth he wrote to Rome the words with which this chapter opened—words which
lose something of their hyperbolic air when we think of the extraordinary success already won by
the apostle in Macedonia and Achaia, in Asia and Phrygia. He had the feeling that, despite the poor
results in Athens, he had conquered the Hellenic world. Conscious of this religious and intellectual
triumph, he deemed his task within that sphere already done.
Nor did God need him now in Rome or throughout Italy. There the gospel had been already
preached, and a great church had been organized by unknown missionaries. The faith of this church
was “heard of through the whole world.” Spain alone remained, for the adjacent Gaul and Africa
could be reached along this line of work. Spain is selected, instead of Gaul or Africa, because the
apostle's idea was to run a transversal line right across the empire. So Clement of Rome rightly
understood him (i. 5), in words which almost sound like those of the apostle himself: “Seven times
imprisoned, exiled, stoned, having preached in the east and in the west, a teacher of righteousness
to the whole world even to the furthest limit of the west.”
Did he manage this? Not in the first instance, at any rate. He had again to return to the far East,
and the gloomy forebodings with which he travelled to Jerusalem were realized. When he did reach
Rome, a year or two later, it was as a prisoner. But if he could no longer work as he desired to do,
his activities were undiminished, in the shape of preaching at Rome, writing letters to churches far
away, and holding intercourse with friends from the East.
When he was beheaded in the summer of 64 A.D., he had fully discharged his obligations to the
peoples of the world. He was the apostle κατ᾽ ἐξοχήν. To barbarians, Greeks, and Latins he had
brought the gospel. But his greatness does not lie in the mere fact that he penetrated as a missionary
to Illyria, Rome, and probably Spain as well; it “lies in the manner in which he trained his
fellow-workers and organized, as well as created, his churches. Though all that was profoundly
Hellenic remained obscure to him, yet he rooted Christianity permanently in Hellenic soil. He was
not the only one to do so, but it was his ideas alone which proved anew ferment within Hellenism,
as the gnostics, Irenæus, Origen, and Augustine especially show. So far as there ever was an original
Christian Hellenism, it was under Pauline influences. Paul lived on in his epistles. They are not
merely records of his personality and work—though even in this light few writings in the world
are to be compared to them—but, as the profound outcome of a vital personal religion and an
unheard-of inner conflict, they are also perennial springs of religious power. Every age has
understood them in its own way. None has yet exhausted them. Even in their periods of depreciation
they have been singularly influential.
Of the four centres of Christianity during the first century—Jerusalem, Antioch, Ephesus, and
Rome—one alone was the work of Paul, and even Ephesus did not remain as loyal to its founder
as might have been expected. As the “father'” of his churches he fell into the background everywhere;
in fact he was displaced, and displaced by the development of mediocrity, of that “natural” piety
which gets on quite well by itself. Neither his strength nor his weakness was transmitted to his
churches. In this sense Paul remained an isolated personality, but he always was the teacher of
Christendom, and this he became more than ever as the years went by.
2. His legacy, apart from his epistles, was his churches. He designated them indeed as his
“epistles.” Neither his vocation (as a restless, pioneering missionary), nor his temperament, nor his
religious genius (as an ecstatic enthusiast and a somewhat exclusive theologian) seemed to fit him
for the work of organization; nevertheless he knew better than anyone else how to found and build
78 up churches (cp. Weinel, Paulus als kirchlicher Organisator, 1899). Recognizing the supreme
fruits of the Spirit in faith, love, hope, and all the allied virtues, bringing the outbursts of enthusiasm
into the service of edification, subordinating the individual to the larger organism, claiming the
natural conditions of social life, for all their defects and worldliness, as divine arrangements, he
overcame the dangers of fanaticism and created churches which could live in the world without
being of the world. But organization never became for Paul an end in itself or a means to worldly
aggrandizement. Such was by no means his intention. “The aims of his ecclesiastical labours were
unity in brotherly love and the reign of God in the heart of man, not the rule of savants or priests
over the laity.” In his theology and in his controversy with the Judaists he seems often to be like
an inquisitor or a fanatical scribe, and he has been accused of inoculating the church with the virus
of theological narrowness and heresy-mongering. But in reality the only confession he recognised,
besides that of the living God, was the confession of “Christ the Lord,” and towards the close of
his life he testified that he would tolerate any doctrine which occupied that ground. The spirit of
Christ, liberty, love—to these supreme levels, in spite of his temperament and education, he won
his own way, and it was on these high levels that he sought to place his churches.
3. There was a great disparity between him and his coadjutors. Among the more independent,
Barnabas, Silas (Silvanus), Prisca and Aquila, and Apollos deserve mention. Of Barnabas we have
already spoken (pp. 52 f.). Silas, the prophet of the Jerusalemite church, took his place beside Paul,
and held a position during the so-called “second” missionary tour like that of Barnabas during the
“first.” Perhaps the fact that Paul took him as a companion was a fresh assurance for the church of
Jerusalem. But, so far as we can see (cp. 2 Cor. i. 19), no discord marred their intercourse. Silas
shared with him the work of founding the churches in Macedonia and Achaia. There after he
disappears entirely from the life of Paul and the Acts of the Apostles, to reappear, we are surprised
to find, as an author at the conclusion of the epistle to Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and
79 Bithynia, which was inspired by Peter (for such is in all probability the meaning of v. 12: διὰ
Σιλουανοῦ ὐμῖν τοῦ πιστοῦ ἀδελφοῦ, ὡς λογίζομαι, δι᾽ ὀλίγων ἔγραψα. This abrupt reference to
him, which stands quite by itself, must remain an enigma. Prisca and Aquila, the wife and husband
(or rather, Prisca the missionary, with her husband Aquila), who were exiled from Rome to Corinth
during the reign of Claudius, had the closest relation to Paul of all the independent workers in the
mission. They co-operated with him at Corinth; they prepared the way for him at Ephesus, where
Prisca showed her Christian intelligence by winning over Apollos, the Alexandrian disciple of
John, to Christ; they once saved the apostle's life; and, on returning to Rome, they carried on the
work upon Paul's lines (cp. my study in the Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie, Jan. 11, 1900).
There is much to be said for the hypothesis that Hebrews was their composition, whether from the
pen of Prisca or of Aquila (cp. my essay in the Zeitschrift für die neutest. Wissenschaft, vol. i. pp.
1 f., 1900). Apollos, the Alexandrian, worked independently in the field which Paul had planted at
Corinth. Paul only refers to him in First Corinthians, but invariably with respect and affection; he
was well aware that the Corinthians attributed a certain rivalry and coolness to himself and Apollos.
At the same time it may be questioned whether the work of this able colleague, whom he had not
personally chosen, was thoroughly congenial to him. The abrupt reference in Tit. iii. 18 unfortunately
does not tell us anything beyond the fact that their subsequent intercourse was unimpaired.
Among the missionaries whom Paul himself secured or trained, Timothy occupies the foremost
place. We learn a good deal about him, and his personality was so important even to the author of
Acts that his origin and selection for this office are described (xvi. 1). Still, we cannot form any
clear idea of this, the most loyal of Paul's younger coadjutors, probably because he leant so heavily
on the apostle. After Paul's death at Rome he carried on his work there, having been with him in
the capital, and thus came into touch with the local church. He was for a time in prison, and survived
to the reign of Domitian (Heb. xiii. 23).—Mark, who belonged to the primitive church of Jerusalem,
80 Titus, and Luke the physician, are to be singled out among the other missionaries of the second
class. With regard to Mark, whom Paul did not take with him on his so-called “second'” tour, but
who later on is found in his company (Philemon 24, Col. iv. 10, 2 Tim. iv. 11), it is just possible
(though, in my judgment, it is not likely) that tradition has made one figure out of two. He it is
who, according to the presbyter John, made notes of the gospel story. Titus, of whom little is known,
was a full-blooded pagan (Gal. ii. 1 f.), and laboured for some time in Crete. Luke, who came across
Paul at Troas on the latter's second tour, belonged to the church of Antioch. Like Titus, he was a
Gentile Christian. He furnished primitive Christianity with its most intelligent, though not its
greatest, author. Paul does not appear, however, to have fully recognised the importance of this
“beloved physician” (Col. iv. 15), his “fellow-worker” (Philemon 24). The last reference to his
fellow-workers indeed is not enthusiastic. The epistle to the Philippians breathes an air of isolation,
and in 2 Tim. iv. 9 f. we read: “Do thy diligence to come shortly unto me; for Demas has forsaken
me, having loved this present world, and is gone to Thessalonica, Crescens to Galatia, Titus to
Dalmatia. Luke alone is with me [rather a mediocre consolation, it would seem!]. Take Mark and
bring him with thee; for he is useful to me for ministering. Tychicus I sent to Ephesus. Alexander
the coppersmith did me much evil. At my first defence no one took my part, but all forsook me.”
It would be unfair, however, to judge Paul's coadjutors by these expressions of dissatisfaction.
Evidently they had not done as Paul wished, but we are quite in the dark upon the reasons for their
4. The first epistle of Peter is a very dubious piece of evidence for the idea that Peter, either
with or after Paul, took part in the mission to Asia Minor; but there is no doubt that some prominent
Palestinian Christians came to Asia and Phrygia, perhaps after the destruction of Jerusalem, and
that they displayed remarkable activity in the district. At their head was a man who came to Ephesus
and died there, at a ripe age, during the first year of the reign of Trajan. This was John “the
Presbyter,” as he called himself, and as he was called by his own circle. He worked in the Pauline
81 churches of Asia, both in person and by means of letters; he added to their number, organized them
internally, and maintained an extraordinarily sharp opposition to heretics. He retained the oversight
of the churches, and exercised it by means of itinerant emissaries. His influence was apostolic or
equivalent to that of an apostolic authority, but towards the end of his life several churches, conscious
of their independence, endeavoured, in conjunction with their bishops, to throw off his supervision.
When he died, there was an end of the mission organisation, which had latterly survived in his own
person: the independent, local authority came to the front on all hands. When Ignatius reached
Asia, twelve or fifteen years afterwards, the former had entirely disappeared, and even the memory
of this John had given place to that of Paul. The Johannine circle must therefore have been rather
limited during its latter phase. Even John must have been pretty isolated.137 The second and third
epistles of John certainly belong to him, and we may therefore ascribe to him, with much probability,
the Fourth gospel and the first epistle of John also—in fact, we may go a step further and claim for
him the Apocalypse with its seven letters and its Christian revision of one or more Jewish
apocalypses. This hypothesis is the simplest which can be framed: it meets the data of tradition
better than any other, and it encounters no fatal objections. All that can be said of the personality
of this John within the limits of reasonable probability, is that he was not the son of Zebedee, but
a Jerusalemite of priestly origin, otherwise unknown to us, and a disciple of the Lord;138 furthermore,
as the gospel indicates, he must at one time have been specially connected with John the son of
Zebedee.139 If his authority collapsed towards the end of his life, or was confined to a small circle,
82 that circle (“of presbyters”) certainly succeeded in restoring and extending his authority by editing
his writings and disseminating them throughout the churches. In all likelihood, too, they purposely
identified the “apostle,'” presbyter, and disciple of the Lord with the son of Zebedee; or, at least,
they did not oppose this erroneous tendency.
137 The same fate apparently overtook him which he had prepared for Paul. Of course we are all in a mist here, but the entire silence
of the seven letters in the Apocalypse with regard to Paul is a problem which is not to be waved aside as insignificant. Even the
same silence in the gospel of John, where so many other indications of recent history are to be heard, is extremely surprising.
Those who wanted to refer the mission of the Paraclete to Paul (Origen mentions them; cp. addenda) were certainly wrong, but
they were right in looking out for some allusion to Paul in the gospel, and they could not find any other.
138 This title suggests, but does not prove, that he was a personal disciple of Jesus, since it occurs not in Jerusalem but in Asia.
139 The most likely conjecture is that the beloved disciple was the son of Zebedee. Everything follows naturally from this view. The
Presbyter need not have gained his special relationship to John in Asia Minor: it may go back quite well to Jerusalem. The formal
difficulty of the two Johns has to be faced, but after all “John” was a common name. If it would at all simplify the critical problem
to assume that the son of Zebedee was also in Asia Minor, one might credit this tradition, which is vouched for as early as Justin
Martyr. But this would not affect the problem of the authorship of the Johannine writings, though it might explain how the author
of those writings came to be identified, at a comparatively early time, with the apostle John.
Apart from this John we can name the evangelist Philip and his four prophetic daughters,
Aristion the disciple of the Lord, and probably the apostle Andrew as among those who came to
Asia Minor. As for Philip (already confused in the second century with his namesake the apostle)
and his daughters, we have clear evidence for his activity in Phrygian Hierapolis. Papias mentions
Aristion together with John as primitive witnesses, and an Armenian manuscript ascribes the
unauthentic ending of Mark's gospel to him—an ending which is connected with Luke and the
Fourth gospel, and perhaps originated in Asia Minor. We may conjecture, from the old legends
preserved in the Muratorian fragment, that Andrew came to Asia Minor, and this is confirmed by
the tradition (late, but not entirely worthless) that he died in Greece.140
At the close of the first century Asia and Phrygia were the only two provinces in which
Palestinian traditions survived in the person of individual representatives. At the same time, probably,
in no other part of the empire were there so many closely allied churches as here and in Pontus and
83 Bithynia. This must have lent them, and especially the church at Ephesus, a high repute. When
Clement of Alexandria was in search of early traditions, he turned to Asia; and even in Rome people
were well aware of the significance with which the Asiatic churches were invested owing to their
traditions, though Rome was never willing to take the second place. About 50 A.D. Christianity was
an ellipse whose foci were Jerusalem and Antioch; fifty years later these foci were Ephesus and
Rome. The change implied in this proves the greatness of Paul's work and of the work done by the
first Christian missionaries.
140 We may refer here to Ignat., ad Ephes., xi.: ἵνα ἐνὶ κλήρῳ Ἐφεσίων εὑρεθῶ τῶν Χριστιανῶν, οἳ καὶ τοῖς ἀποστόλοις πάντοτε
συνῄνεσαν (v. 1, συνῆσαν) ἐν δυνάμει Ἰησοῦ χριστοῦ (“That I may be found in the company of those Ephesian Christians who
moreover were ever of one mind with the apostles in the power of Jesus Christ”). The reading συνῄνεσαν does not necessarily
prove the personal residence of the apostle in Ephesus, however.
THE MISSION—PREACHING IN WORD AND DEED
THE unity and the variety which characterized the preaching of Christianity from the very first
constituted the secret of its fascination and a vital condition of its success. On the one hand, it was
so “simple that it could be summed up in a few brief sentences and understood in a single crisis of
the inner life; on the other hand, it was so versatile and rich, that it vivified all thought and stimulated
every emotion. It was capable, almost from the outset, of vying with every noble and worthy
enterprise, with any speculation, or with any cult of the mysteries. It was both new and old; it was
alike present and future. Clear and transparent, it was also profound and full of mystery. It had
statutes, and yet rose superior to any law. It was a doctrine and yet no doctrine, a philosophy and
yet something different from philosophy. Western Catholicism, when surveyed as a whole, has
been described as a complexio oppositorum, but this was also true of the Christian propaganda in
its earliest stages. Consequently, to exhibit the preaching and labors of the Christian mission with
the object of explaining the amazing success of Christianity, we must try to get a uniform grasp of
all its component factors.
We shall proceed then to describe:—
1. The religious characteristics of the mission-preaching.
2. The gospel of salvation and of the Saviour.
3. The gospel of love and charity.
4. The religion of the Spirit and power, of moral earnestness and holiness.
5. The religion of authority and of reason, of mysteries and transcendentalism.
6. The message of a new People and of a Third race (or the historical and political consciousness
of Christendom).
7. The religion of a Book, and of a historical realization.
8. The conflict with polytheism and idolatry.
In the course of these chapters we hope to do justice to the wealth of the religion, without
impairing or obscuring the power of its simplicity.141 One point must be left out, of course: that is,
the task of following the development of Christian doctrine into the dogmas of the church’s
catechism, as well as into the Christian philosophy of religion propounded by Origen and his school.
141 At the Scilitan martyrdom the proconsul remarks; “Et nos religiosi sumus, et simplex est religio nostra” (“We also are religious,
and our religion is simple”). To which Speratus the Christian replies: “Si tranquillas praebueris aures tuas, dico mysterium
simplicitatis” (“If you give me a quiet hearing, I shall tell you the mystery of simplicity”).
Doctrine, in both of these forms, was unquestionably of great moment to the mission of Christianity,
particularly after the date of its earliest definition (relatively speaking) about the middle of the third
century. But such a subject would require a book to itself. I have endeavored, in the first volume
of my History of Dogma (third edition) to deal with it, and to that work I must refer any who may
desire to see how the unavoidable gaps of the present volume are to be filled up.142
RELIGIOUS CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MISSION-PREACHING
“Missionary Preaching” is a term which may be taken in a double sense. Its broader meaning
covers all the forces of influence, attraction, and persuasion which the gospel had at its command,
all the materials that it collected and endowed with life and power as it developed into a syncretistic
religion during the first three centuries. The narrower sense of the term embraces simply the crucial
message of faith and the ethical requirements of the gospel. Taking it in the latter sense, we shall
devote the present chapter to a description of the fundamental principles of the missionary preaching.
The broader conception has a wide range. The Old Testament and the new literature of Christianity,
healing and redemption, gnosis and apologetic, myth and sacrament, the conquest of demons, forms
of social organization and charity—all these played their part in the mission-preaching and helped
to render it impressive and convincing. Even in the narrower sense of the term, our description of
the mission-preaching must be kept within bounds, for the conception of the crucial message of
faith and its ethical requirements is bound up naturally with the development of dogma, and the
latter (as I have already remarked) cannot be exhibited without over-stepping the precincts of the
present volume. At the same time, these limitations are not very serious, since, to the best of our
knowledge, mission-preaching (in the narrower sense of the term) was fairly extinct after the close
of the second century. Its place was taken by the instruction of catechumens, by the training of the
household in and for the Christian faith, and by the worship of the church. Finally, we must eschew
the error of imagining that everyone who came over to Christianity was won by a missionary
propaganda of dogmatic completeness. So far as our sources throw light on this point, they reveal
87 a very different state of things, and this applies even to the entire period preceding Constantine. In
countless instances, it was but one ray of light that wrought the change. One person would be
brought over by means of the Old Testament, another by the exorcising of demons, a third by the
purity of Christian life; others, again, by the monotheism of Christianity, above all by the prospect
of complete expiation, or by the prospect which it held out of immortality, or by the profundity of
its speculations, or by the social standing which it conferred. In the great majority of cases, so long
as Christianity did not yet propagate itself naturally, one believer may well have produced another,
just as one prophet anointed his successor; example (not confined to the case of the martyrs) and
the personal manifestation of the Christian life led to imitation. A complete knowledge of Christian
doctrine, which was still a plant of very tender growth in the second century, was certainly the
attainment of a small minority. “Idiotae, quorum semper maior pars est,” says Tertullian (“The
142 Cp. my Grundriss der Dogmengeschichte (4th ed., 1905).
uneducated are always in a majority with us”). Hippolytus bewails the ignorance even of a Roman
bishop. Even the knowledge of the Scriptures, though they were read in private, remained of
necessity the privilege of an individual here and there, owing to their extensiveness and the difficulty
of understanding them.143
The earliest mission-preaching to Jews ran thus: “The kingdom of God is at hand; repent.”144
The Jews thought they knew what was the meaning of the kingdom of heaven and of its advent;
but they had to be told the meaning of the repentance that secured the higher righteousness, so that
“God’s kingdom” also acquired a new meaning.
The second stage in the mission-preaching to Jews was determined by this tenet: “The risen145
Jesus is the Messiah [cp. Matt. x. 32], and will return from heaven to establish his kingdom.”
The third stage was marked by the interpretation of the Old Testament as a whole (i.e., the law
and the prophets) from the standpoint of its fulfillment in Jesus Christ, along with the accompanying
need of securing and formulating that inwardness of disposition and moral principle which members
of the Messianic church, who were called and kept by the Holy Spirit, knew to be their duty.146 This
must have made them realize that the observance of the law, which had hitherto prevailed, was
inadequate either to cancel sin or to gain righteousness; also that Jesus the Messiah had died that
sins might be forgiven (γνωστὸν ἔστω ὑμῖν, ὅτι διὰ τούτου ὑμῖν ἄφεσις ἁμαρτιῶν καταγγέλλεται
ἀπὸ πάντων ὧν οὐκ ἠδυνήθητε ἐν νόμῳ Μωϋσέως δικαιωθῆναι).147
143 Bishops and theologians, in the West especially, are always bewailing the defective knowledge of the Bible among the laity,
and even among the clergy. Cp. also Clement of Alexandrinus.
144 The earliest mission-preaching (Matt. x. 7 f.) with which the disciples of Jesus were charged, ran: κηρύσσετε λέγοντες ὅτι
ἤγγικεν ἡ βασιλεία τῶν οὐρανῶν. Although repentance is not actually mentioned, it is to be supplied from other passages. The
prospect of power to do works of healing is also held out to them (ἀσθενοῦντας θεραπεύετε, νεκροὺς ἐγείρετε, λεπροὺς καθαρίζετε,
δαιμόνια ἐκβάλλετε).
145 Cp. the confession of the resurrection common to primitive Christianity, in 1 Cor. xv. 4 f.
146 To “imitate” or “be like” Christ did not occupy the place one would expect among the ethical counsels of the age. Jesus had
spoken of imitating God and bidden men follow himself, whilst the relationship of pupil and teacher readily suggested the formula
of imitation. But whenever he was recognized as Messiah, as the Son of God, as Saviour, and as Judge, the ideas of imitation
and likeness had to give way, although the apostles still continued to urge both in their epistles, and to hold up the mind, the
labors, and the sufferings of Jesus as an example. In the early church the imitation of Christ never became a formal principle of
ethics (to use a modern phrase) except for the virtuoso in religion, the ecclesiastic, the teacher, the ascetic, or the martyr; it played
quite a subordinate role in the ethical teaching of the church. Even the injunction to be like Christ, in the strict sense of the term,
occurs comparatively seldom. Still, it is interesting to collect and examine the passages relative to this point; they show that
whilst a parallel was fully drawn between the life of Christ and the career and conduct of distinguished Christians such as the
confessors, the early church did not go the length of drawing up general injunctions with regard to the imitation of Christ. For
one thing, the Christology stood in the way, involving not imitation but obedience; for another thing, the literal details of imitation
seemed too severe. Those who made the attempt were always classed as Christians of a higher order (though even at this early
period they were warned against presumption), so that the Catholic theory of “evangelic counsels” has quite a primitive root.
147 Acts xiii. 38; up to this point, I think, the Jewish Christian view is clearly stated in the address of Paul at Antioch, but the further
development of the idea (ἐν τούτῳ πᾶς ὁ πιστεύων δικαιοῦται (“by whom everyone who believes is justified”) is specifically
Pauline. Taken as a whole, however, the speech affords a fine example of missionary preaching to the Jews. From 1 Cor. xv. 3
it follows that the tenet, “Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures,” was not simply Pauline, but common to Christianity
in general. Weizsäcker (op. cit., pp. 60 f.; Eng. trans., i. 74 f.) rightly lays great stress on the fact that previous to Paul and
alongside of him, even within Jewish Christian circles (as in the case of Peter), the view must have prevailed that the law and
its observance were not perfectly adequate to justification before God, and that a sotereological significance attached to Jesus
the Messiah or to his death.
“You know that when you were pagans you were led away to dumb idols” (1 Cor. xii. 2). “You
turned to God from idols, to serve the living and true God, and to wait for his Son from heaven,
whom he raised from the dead, even Jesus, who delivers us from the wrath to come” (1 Thess. i.
9-10). Here we have the mission-preaching to pagans in a nutshell. The “living and true God” is
the first and final thing; the second is Jesus, the Son of God, the judge, who secures us against the
wrath to come, and who is therefore “Jesus the Lord.” To the living God, now preached to all men,
we owe faith and devoted service; to God’s Son as Lord, our due is faith and hope.148
The contents of this brief message—objective and subjective, positive and negative—are
inexhaustible. Yet the message itself is thoroughly compact and complete. It is objective and positive
as the message which tells of the only God, who is spiritual, omnipresent, omniscient, omnipotent,
the creator of heaven and earth, the Lord and Father of men, and the great disposer of human
history;149 furthermore, it is the message which tells of Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who came
from heaven, made known the Father, died for sins, rose, sent the Spirit hither, and from his seat
at God’s right hand will return for the judgment;150 finally, it is the message of salvation brought
90 by Jesus the Saviour, that is, freedom from the tyranny of demons, sin, and death, together with
the gift of life eternal.
Then it is objective and negative, since it announces the vanity of all other gods, and forms a
protest against idols of gold and silver and wood, as well as against blind fate and atheism.
Finally, it is subjective, as it declares the uselessness of all sacrifice, all temples, and all worship
of man’s devising, and opposes to these the worship of God in spirit and in truth, assurance of faith,
148 When questioned upon the “dogma” of Christians, Justin answered: ὅπερ εὐσεβοῦμεν εἰς τὸν τῶν Χριστιανῶν θεόν, ὃν ἡγούμεθα
ἕνα τούτων ἐξ ἀρχῆς ποιητὴν καὶ δημιουργὸν τῆς πάσης κτίσεως, ὁρατῆς τε καὶ ἀοράτου, καὶ κύριον Ἰησοῦν Χριστὸν παῖδα
θεοῦ, ὃς καὶ προκεκήρυκται ὑπὸ τῶν προφητῶν μέλλων παραγίνεσθαι τῷ γένει τῶν ἀνθρώπων σωτηρίας κῆρυξ καὶ διδάσκαλος
καλῶν μαθητῶν (Acta Just. i.) (“It is that whereby we worship the God of the Christians, whom we consider to be One from
the beginning, the maker and fashioner of the whole creation, visible and invisible, and also the Lord Jesus Christ the Son of
God, whom the prophets foretold would come to the race of men, a herald of salvation and a teacher of good disciples”).
149 In this respect the speech put by Luke (Acts xvii. 22-30) into the mouth of Paul at the Areopagus is typical and particularly
instructive. It exhibits, at the same time, an alliance with the purest conceptions of Hellenism. We must combine this speech
with First Thessalonians, in order to understand how the fundamentals of mission-preaching were laid before pagans, and also
in order to get rid of the notion that Galatians and Romans are a model of Paul’s preaching to pagan audiences.—The characteristic
principles of the mission-preaching (both negative and positive) are also preserved, with particular lucidity, in the fragmentary
Kerugma Petri, an early composition which, as the very title indicates, was plainly meant to be a compendium of doctrine for
missionary purposes.
150 Thaddaeus announces to Abgar a missionary address for the next day, and gives the following preliminary outline of its contents
(Eus. H.E. i. 13): κηρύξω καὶ σπερῶ τὸν λόγον τῆς ζωῆς, περί τε τῆς ἐλεύσεως τοῦ Ἰησοῦ καθὼς ἐγένετο, καὶ περὶ τῆς ἀποστολῆς
αὐτοῦ, καὶ ἕνεκα τίνος ἀπεστάλη ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρός, καὶ περὶ τῆς δυνάμεως καὶ τῶν ἔργων αὐτοῦ καὶ μυστηρίων ὧν ἐλάλησεν
ἐν κόσμῳ, καὶ ποίᾳ δυνάμει ταῦτα ἐποίει, καὶ περὶ τῆς καινῆς αὐτοῦ κηρύξεως, καὶ περὶ τῆς μικρότητος καὶ περὶ τῆς ταπεινώσεως,
καὶ πῶς ἐταπείνωσεν ἑαυτὸν καὶ ἀπέθετο καὶ ἐσμίκρυνεν αὐτοῦ τὴν θεότητα, καὶ ἐσταυρώθη, καὶ κατέβη εἰς τὸν ῎Αιδην, καὶ
διέσχισε φραγμὸν τὸν ἐξ αἰῶνος μὴ σχισθέντα, καὶ ἀνήγειρεν νεκροὺς καὶ κατέβη μόνος, ἀνέβη δὲ μετὰ πολλοῦ ὄχλου πρὸς
τὸν πατέρα αὐτοῦ (“I will preach and sow the word of God, concerning the advent of Jesus, even the manner of his birth:
concerning his mission, even the purpose for which the Father sent him: concerning the power of his works and the mysteries
he uttered in the world, even the nature of this power: concerning his new preaching and his abasement and humiliation, even
how he humbled himself and died and debased his divinity and was crucified and went down to Hades and burst asunder the
bars which had not been severed from all eternity, and raised the dead, descending alone but rising with many to his Father”).
holiness and self-control, love and brotherliness, and lastly the solid certainty of the resurrection
and of life eternal, implying the futility of the present life, which lies exposed to future judgment.
This new kind of preaching excited extraordinary fears and hopes: fears of the imminent end
of the world and of the great reckoning, at which even the just could hardly pass muster; hopes of
a glorious reign on earth, after the dénouement, and of a paradise which was to be filled with
precious delights and overflowing with comfort and bliss. Probably no religion had ever proclaimed
openly to men such terrors and such happiness.
To wide circles this message of the one and almighty God no longer came as a surprise. It was
the reverse of a surprise. What they had vaguely divined, seemed now to be firmly and gloriously
91 realized. At the same time, as “Jesus and the Resurrection” were taken for new dæmons in Athens
(according to Acts xvii. 18), and considered to be utterly strange, this doctrine must have been
regarded at first as paradoxical wherever it was preached. This, however, is not a question into
which we have here to enter. What is certain is, that “the one living God, as creator,” “Jesus the
Saviour,”151 “the Resurrection” (ἡ ἀνάστασις), and ascetic “self-control” (ἡ ἐγκρατεία) formed the
most conspicuous articles of the new propaganda. Along with this the story of Jesus must have
been briefly communicated (in the statements of Christology), the resurrection was generally defined
as the resurrection of the flesh, and self-control primarily identified with sexual purity, and then
extended to include renunciation of the world and mortification of the flesh.152
The most overwhelming element in the new preaching was the resurrection of the flesh, the
complete “restitutio in integrum,” and the kingdom of glory. Creation and resurrection were the
beginning and the end of the new doctrine. The hope of resurrection which it aroused gave rise to
151 One of the distinctive ideas in Christianity was the paradox that the Saviour was also the Judge, an idea which gave it a special
pre-eminence over other religions.—“Father and Son,” or “Father, Son, and Holy Spirit”: the dual and the triple formula
interchange, but the former is rather older, though both can be traced as far back as Paul. Personally I should doubt if it was he
who stamped the latter formula. Like the “Church,” “the new People,” “the true Israel,” “apostles, prophets, and teachers,”
“regeneration,” etc., it was probably created by the primitive circle of disciples.—The preaching of Jesus was combined with
the confession of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and with the church, the forgiveness of sins, and the resurrection of the body.
The Roman symbol is our earliest witness to this combination, and it was probably the earliest actual witness; it hardly arose
out of the work of missions, in the narrower sense of the term, but out of the earlier catechetical method.
152 Hermas, Mand. i: πρῶτον πάντων πίστευσον, ὅτι εἷς ἐστιν ὁ θεός ὁ τὰ πάντα κτίσας καὶ καταρτίσας, κ.τ.λ. (“First of all, believe
that God is one, even he who created and ordered all things,” etc.), is a particularly decisive passage as regards the first point
(viz., the one living God); see Praedic. Petri in Clem., Strom. v. 6. 48, vi. 5. 39, vi. 6. 48 (the twelve disciples dispatched by
Jesus with the charge to preach to all the inhabitants of the world, that they may know God is one; εὐαγγελίσασθαι τοὺς κατὰ
τὴν οἰκουμένην ἀνθρώπους, γινώσκειν, ὅτι εἷς θεός ἐστιν). In Chap. II. of his Apology, Aristides sets forth the preaching of
Jesus Christ; but when he has to summarize Christianity, he is contented to say that “Christians are those who have found the
one true God.” Cp., e.g., Chap. XV.: “Christians . . . . have found the truth. . . . . They know and trust in God, the creator of
heaven and earth, through whom and from whom are all things, beside whom there is none other, and from whom they have
received commandments which are written on their hearts and kept in the faith and expectation of the world to come.” (Cp. also
the Apology of pseudo-Melito.) The other three points are laid down with especial clearness in the Acta Theclae, where Paul is
said (i. 5) to have handed down πάντα τὰ λόγια κυρίου καὶ τῆς γεννήσεως καὶ τῆς ἀναστάσεως τοῦ ἠγαπημένου (“all the sayings
of the Lord and of the birth and resurrection of the Beloved”), and where the contents of his preaching are described as λόγος
θεοῦ περὶ ἐγκρατείας καὶ ἀναστάσεως (“the word of God upon self-control and the resurrection”). The last-named pair of ideas
are to be taken as mutually supplementary; the resurrection or eternal life is certain, but it is conditioned by ἐγκράτεια, which
is therefore put first. Cp., for example, Vita Polycarpi 14: ἔλεγεν τὴν ἁγνείαν πρόδρομον εἶναι τῆς μελλούσης ἀφθάρτου
βασιλείας (“he said that purity was the precursor of the incorruptible kingdom to come”).
a fresh estimate of the individual value, and at the same time to quite inferior and sensuous desires.
Faith in the resurrection of the body and in the millennium soon appeared to pagans to be the
distinguishing feature of this silly religion. And the pagans were right. It was the distinguishing
feature of Christianity at this period. Justin explains that all orthodox Christians held this doctrine
and this hope. “Fiducia christianorum resurrectio mortuorum, illa credentes sumus,” Tertullian
writes (de Resurr. i.), adding (in ch. xxi.) that this must not be taken allegorically, as the heretics
allege, since “verisimile non est, ut ea species sacramenti, in quam fides tota committitur, in quam
disciplina tota conititur, ambigue annuntiata et obscura proposita videatur” (the gospel is too
important to be stated ambiguously; see further what follows). The earliest essays of a technical
character by the teachers of the Catholic church were upon the resurrection of the flesh. It was a
hope, too, which gave vent to the ardent desires of the oppressed, the poor, the slaves, and the
disappointed upon earth: “We want to serve no longer, our wish is to reign soon” (Tert., de Orat.
5). “Though the times of this hope have been determined by the sacred pen, lest it should be fixed
previous, I think, to the return of Christ, yet our prayers pant for the close of this age, for the passing
of this world to the great day of the Lord, for the day of wrath and retribution” (Cum et tempora
totius spei fida sunt sacrosancto stilo, ne liceat eam ante constitui quam in adventum, opinor, Christi,
vota nostra suspirant in saeculi huius occasum, in transitum mundi quoque ad diem domini magnum,
diem irae et retributionis.—Tert., de Resurr. xxii.). “May grace come and this world pass away!
93 The Lord comes!” is the prayer of Christians at the Lord’s Supper (Did. x.). In many circles this
mood lasted even after the beginning of the third century, but it reached its height during the reign
of Marcus Aurelius.153
From the outset “wisdom,” “intelligence,” “understanding,” and “intellect” had a very wide
scope. Indeed, there was hardly mission propaganda of any volume which did not overflow into
the “gnostic” spirit, i.e., the spirit of Greek philosophy. The play of imagination was at once
unfettered and urged to its highest flights by the settled conviction (for we need not notice here the
circles where a different view prevailed) that Jesus, the Saviour, had come down from heaven. It
was, after all, jejune to be informed, “We are the offspring of God” (Acts xvii. 28); but to be told
that God became man and was incarnate in order that men might be divine—this was the apex and
climax of all knowledge. It was bound up with the speculative idea (i) that, as the incarnation was
a cosmic and divine event, it must therefore involve a reviving and heightened significance for the
whole creation; and (ii) that the soul of man, hitherto divided from its primal source in God by
forces and barriers of various degrees, now found the way open for its return to God, while every
one of those very forces which had formerly barred the path was also liberated and transformed
into a step and intermediate stage on the way back. Speculations upon God, the world, and the soul
were inevitable, and they extended to the nature of the church. Here, too, the earthly and historical
was raised to the level of the cosmic and transcendental.
153 Origen (de Princ. II. xi. 2) has described in great detail the views of the chiliasts, whom he opposed as, even in his day, a
retrograde party. His description proves that we cannot attribute too sensuous opinions to them. They actually reckoned upon
“nuptiarum conventiones et filiorum procreationes.” Compare the words of Irenæus in the fifth book of his large work upon the
millennium, where he follows “apostolic tradition” and attaches himself to Papias.
At first the contrast between a “sound” gnosis and a heretical only emerged by degrees in the
propaganda, although from the very outset it was felt that certain speculations seemed to imperil
the preaching of the gospel itself.154 The extravagances of the “gnosis” which penetrated all the
94 syncretistic religion of the age, and issued in dualism and docetism, were corrected primarily by a
“sound” gnosis, then by the doctrine of Christian freedom, by a sober, rational theology and ethics,
by the realism of the saving facts in the history of Jesus, by the doctrine of the resurrection of the
body, but ultimately and most effectively by the church prohibiting all “innovations” and fixing
her tradition. From this standpoint Origen’s definition of gospel preaching (Hom. in Joh. xxxii. 9)
is extremely instructive. After quoting Hermas, Mand. i. (the one God, the Creator), he adds: “It is
also necessary to believe that Jesus Christ is Lord, and to believe all the truth concerning his deity
and humanity, also to believe in the Holy Spirit, and that as free agents we are punished for our
sins and rewarded for our good actions.”
By the second century Christianity was being preached in very different ways. The evangelists
of the Catholic church preached in one way throughout the East, and in another throughout the
West, though their fundamental position was identical; the Gnostics and Marcionites, again, preached
in yet another way. Still Tertullian was probably not altogether wrong in saying that missions to
the heathen were not actively promoted by the latter; the Gnostics and the Marcionites, as a rule,
confined their operations to those who were already Christians. After the gnostic controversy, the
anti-gnostic rule of faith gradually became the one basis of the church’s preaching. The ethical and
impetuous element retreated behind the dogmatic, although the emphasis upon self-control and
asceticism never lost its vogue.
At the transition from the second to the third century, theology had extended widely, but the
mission-preaching had then as ever to remain comparatively limited. For the “idiotæ” it was enough,
and more than enough, to hold the four points which we have already mentioned. Scenes like those
described in Acts (viii. 26-38) were constantly being repeated, mutatis mutandis, especially during
the days of persecution, when individual Christians suffered martyrdom joyfully; and this, although
an orthodox doctrine of considerable range was in existence, which (in theory, at any rate) was
essential. For many the sum of knowledge amounted to nothing more than the confession of the
one God, who created the world, of Jesus the Lord, of the judgment, and of the resurrection; on the
other hand, some of the chief arguments in the proof from prophecy, which played so prominent a
part in all preaching to Jews and pagans (see Chapter VIII.), were disseminated far and wide; and
as the apologists are always pointing in triumph to the fact that “among us,” “tradesmen, slaves,
and old women know how to give some account of God, and do not believe without evidence,”155
154 One of the most remarkable and suggestive phenomena of the time is the fact that wherever a “dangerous” speculation sprang
up, it was combated in such a way that part of it was taken over. For example, contrast Ephesians and Colossians with the
“heresies” which had emerged in Phrygia (at Colosse); think of the “heresies” opposed by the Johannine writings, and then
consider the Gnostic contents of the latter; compare the theology of Ignatius with the “heresies attacked in the Ignatian epistles”;
think of the great gnostic systems of the second century, and then read their opponent Irenæus. “Vincendi vincentibus legem
dederunt”! Such was the power of these Hellenistic, syncretistic ideas! It looks almost as if there had been a sort of disinfectant
process, the “sound” doctrine being inoculated with a strong dilution of heresy, and thus made proof against virulent infection.
155 Together with the main articles in the proof from prophecy (i.e., a dozen passages or so from the Old Testament), the corresponding
parts of the history of Jesus were best known and most familiar. An inevitable result of being viewed in this light and along this
line was that the history of Jesus (apart from the crucifixion) represents almost entirely legendary materials (or ideal history) to
the principles of the Christian conception of God must have been familiar to a very large number
of people.
These four points, then—the one living God, Jesus our Saviour and Judge, the resurrection of
the flesh, and self-control—combined to form the new religion. It stood out in bold relief from the
old religions, and above all from the Jewish; yet in spite of its hard struggle with polytheism, it was
organically related to the process of evolution which was at work throughout all religion, upon the
eastern and the central coasts of the Mediterranean. The atmosphere from which those four principles
drew their vitality was the conception of recompense—i.e., the absolute supremacy of the moral
element in life on the one hand, and the redeeming cross of Christ upon the other. No account of
the principles underlying the mission-preaching of Christianity is accurate, if it does not view
everything from the standpoint of this conception: the sovereignty of morality, and the assurance
of redemption by the forgiveness of sins, based on the cross of Christ.156 “Grace,” i.e., forgiveness,
did play a leading role, but grace never displaced recompense. From the very first, morality was
inculcated within the Christian churches in two ways: by the Spirit of Christ and by the conception
of judgment and of recompense. Yet both were marked by a decided bent to the future, for the
Christ of both was “he who was to return.” To the mind of primitive Christianity the “present” and
the “future” were sharply opposed to each other,157 and it was this opposition which furnished the
principle of self-control with its most powerful motive. It became, indeed, with many people a sort
97 of glowing passion. The church which prayed at every service, “May grace come and this world
pass away: maranatha,” was the church which gave directions like those which we read in the
a severely historical judgment. Probably no passage made so deep an impression as the birth-narratives in Matthew and especially
in Luke. The fact that the story of the resurrection did not in its details prove a similar success, was due to a diversity of the
narratives in the authoritative scriptures, which was so serious that the very exegetes of the period (and they were capable of
almost anything!) failed to give any coherent or impressive account of what transpired. Hence the separate narratives in the
gospels relating to the resurrection did not possess the same importance as the birth-narratives. “Raised on the third day from
the dead, according to the scripture”: this brief confession was all that rivaled the popularity of Luke i.-ii. and the story of the
wise men from the East.—The notion that the apostles themselves compiled a quintessence of Christian doctrine was widely
current; but the greatest difference of opinion prevailed as to what the quintessence consisted of. The Didachê marks the beginning
of a series of compositions which were supposed to have been written by the apostles collectively, or to contain an authoritative
summary of their regulations.
156 Redemption by the forgiveness of sins was, strictly speaking, considered to take place once and for all. The effects of Christ’s
death were conferred on the individual at baptism, and all his previous sins were blotted out. Many teachers, like Paul, presented
the cross of Christ as the content of Christianity. Thus Tertullian (de Carne v.), protesting against the docetism of Marcion,
which impaired the death of Christ upon the cross, calls out, “O spare the one hope of the whole world” (parce unicæ spei totius
orbis). The cross exerts a protective and defensive influence over the baptized (against demons), but it does not bestow any
redeeming deliverance from sin. Speculations on the latter point do not arise till later. As a mystery, of course, it is inexhaustible,
and therefore it is impossible to state its influence. Pseudo-Barnabas and Justin are already mystagogues of the cross; cp. Ep.
Barn. xi.-xii., and Justin’s Apol. I. lv., where he triumphantly claims that “the wicked demons never imitated the crucifixion,
not even in the case of any of the so-called sons of Zeus” (οὐδαμοῦ οὐδ᾽ ἐπί τινος τῶν λεγομένων υἱῶν τοῦ Διὸς τὸ σταυρωθῆναι
ἐμιμήσαντο). Cp. further Minucius, Octav. xxix.; Tert., ad. Nat. I. xii., etc.
157 Cp. 2 Clem., ad Cor. vi.: ἔστιν οὗτος ὁ αἰὼν καὶ ὁ μέλλων δύο ἐχθροί. οὗτος λέγει μοιχείαν καὶ φθορὰν καὶ φιλαργυρίαν καὶ
ἀπάτην, ἐκεῖνος δὲ τούτοις ἀποτάσσεται. οὐ δυνάμεθα οὖν τῶν δύο φίλοι εἶναι. δεῖ δὲ ἡμᾶς τούτῳ ἀποταξαμένους ἐκείνῳ
χρᾶσθαι. οἰόμεθα, ὅτι βέλτιόν ἐστιν τὰ ἐνθάδε μισῆσαι, ὅτι μικρὰ καὶ ὀλιγοχρόνια καὶ φθαρτά· ἐκεῖνα δὲ ἀγαπῆσαι, τὰ ἀγαθὰ
τὰ ἄφθαρτα (“This age and the future age are two enemies. The one speaks of adultery, corruption, avarice, and deceit; the other
bids farewell to these. We cannot, therefore, be friends of both; we must part with the one and embrace the other. We judge it
better to hate the things which are here, because they are small and transient and corruptible, and to love the things that are
yonder, for they are good and incorruptible”).
opening parable of Hermas.158 “From the lips of all Christians this word is to be heard: The world
is crucified to me, and I to the world” (Celsus, cited by Origen, V. lxiv.).159
This resolute renunciation of the world was really the first thing which made the church
competent and strong to tell upon the world. Then, if ever, was the saying true: “He who would do
anything for the world must have nothing to do with it.” Primitive Christianity has been upbraided
for being too un-worldly and ascetic. But revolutions are not effected with rosewater, and it was a
veritable revolution to overthrow polytheism and establish the majesty of God and goodness in the
world—for those who believed in them, and also for those who did not. This could never have
happened, in the first instance, had not men asserted the vanity of the present world, and practically
severed themselves from it. The rigor of this attitude, however, hardly checked the mission-preaching;
on the contrary, it intensified it, since instead of being isolated it was set side by side with the
message of the Saviour and of salvation, of love and charity. And we must add, that for all its
trenchant forms and the strong bias it imparted to the minds of men towards the future, the idea of
158 Here is the passage; it will serve to represent a large class. “You know that you servants of God dwell in a foreign land, for your
city is far from this city. If, then, you know the city where you are to dwell, why provide yourselves here with fields and expensive
luxuries and buildings and chambers to no purpose? He who makes such provision for this city has no mind to return to his own
city. Foolish, double-minded, wretched man! Seest thou not that all these things are foreign to thee and controlled by another?
For the lord of this city shall say, ‘I will not have thee in my city; leave this city, for thou keepest not my laws.’ Then, possessor
of fields and dwellings and much property besides, what wilt thou do with field, and house, and all thine other gains, when thou
art expelled by him? For the lord of this land has a right to tell thee, ‘Keep my laws, or leave my land.’ What then shalt thou do,
thou who hast already a law over thee in thine own city? For the sake of thy fields and other possessions wilt thou utterly repudiate
thy law and follow the law of this city? Beware! It may be unwise for thee to repudiate thy law. For shouldst thou wish to return
once more to thy city, thou shalt not be allowed in: thou shalt be shut out, because thou didst repudiate its law. So beware.
Dwelling in a foreign land, provide thyself with nothing more than a suitable competency; and whenever the master of this city
expels thee for opposing his law, be ready to leave his city and seek thine own, keeping thine own law cheerfully and unmolested.
So beware, you that serve God and have him in your heart; perform his works, mindful of his commandments and of the promises
he has made, in the faith that he will perform the latter if the former be observed. Instead of fields, then, buy souls in trouble, as
each of you is able; visit widows and orphans, and neglect them not; expend on such fields and houses, which God has given to
you [i.e., on the poor], your wealth and all your pains. The Master endowed you with riches that you might perform such ministries
for him. Far better is it to buy fields, possessions, houses of this kind; thou wilt find them in thine own city when thou dost visit
it. Such expenditure is noble and cheerful; it brings joy, not fear and sorrow. Practise not the expenditure of pagans, then: that
ill becomes you, as God’s servants. Practise your proper expenditure, in which you may rejoice. Do not stamp things falsely;
never touch other people’s property, nor lust after it, for it is evil to lust after what belongs to other people. Do thine own task
and thou shalt be saved.” For all the rigor of his counsel, however, it never occurs to Hermas that the distinction of rich and poor
should actually cease within the church. This is plain, if further proof be needed, from the next parable. The progress of thought
upon this question in the church is indicated by the tractate of Clement of Alexandria entitled “Quis dives salvetur?” Moreover,
the saying already put into the lips of Jesus in John xii. 8 (“the poor ye have always with you”), a saying which was hardly
inserted without some purpose, shows that the abolition of the distinction between rich and poor was never contemplated in the
159 The pessimistic attitude of the primitive Christians towards the world cannot be too strongly emphasised. (Marcion called his
fellow-confessors συνταλαίπωροι καὶ συμμισούμενοι, “partners in the suffering of wretchedness and of hatred.”—Tert., adv.
Marc. iv. 9). This is confirmed by the evidence even of Tertullian, and of Origen himself. Let one instance suffice. In Hom. 8
ad. Levit., t. ix. pp. 316 f., Origen remarks that in the Scriptures only worldly men, like Pharaoh and Herod, celebrate their
birthdays, whereas “the saints not only abstain from holding a feast on their birthdays, but, being filled with the Holy Spirit,
curse that day” (Sancti non solum non agunt festivitatem in die natali suo, sed a spiritu sancto repleti exsecrantur hunc diem).
The true birthday of Christians is the day of their death. Origen recalls Job, in this connection; but the form which his pessimism
assumes is bound up, of course, with special speculative ideas of his own.
recompense was saved from harshness and inertia by its juxtaposition with a feeling of perfect
confidence that God was present, and a conviction of his care and of his providence. No mode of
99 thought was more alien to early Christianity than what we call deism. The early Christians knew
the Father in heaven; they knew that God was near them and guiding them; the more thoughtful
were conscious that he reigned in their life with a might of his own. This was the God they
proclaimed. And thus, in their preaching, the future became already present; hard and fast recompense
seemed to disappear entirely, for what further “recompense” was needed by people who were living
in God’s presence, conscious in every faculty of the soul, aye, and in every sense of the wisdom,
power, and goodness of their God? Moods of assured possession and of yearning, experiences of
grace and phases of impassioned hope, came and went in many a man besides the apostle Paul. He
yearned for the prospect of release from the body, and thus felt a touching sympathy for everything
in bondage, for the whole creation in its groans. But it was no harassing or uncertain hope that
engrossed all his heart and being; it was hope fixed upon a strong and secure basis in his filial
relationship to God and his possession of God’s Spirit.160
It is hardly necessary to point out that, by proclaiming repentance and strict morals on the one
hand, and offering the removal of sins and redemption on the other hand, the Christian propaganda
involved an inner cleavage which individual Christians must have realized in very different ways.
If this removal of sins and redemption was bound up with the sacrament or specifically with the
sacrament of baptism, then it came to this, that thousands were eager for this sacrament and nothing
more, satisfied with belief in its immediate and magical efficacy, and devoid of any serious attention
to the moral law. Upon the other hand, the moral demand could weigh so heavily on the conscience
that redemption came to be no more than the reward and prize of a holy life. Between these two
100 extremes a variety of standpoints was possible. The propaganda of the church made a sincere effort
to assign equal weight to both elements of its message; but sacraments are generally more welcome
than moral counsels, and that age was particularly afflicted with the sacramental mania. It added
to the mysteries the requisite quality of naïvete, and at the same time the equally requisite note of
subtlety.
101 CHAPTER 2
THE GOSPEL OF THE SAVIOR AND OF SALVATION161
160 It was only in rare cases that the image of Christ’s person as a whole produced what may be termed a “Christ-emotion,” which
moved people to give articulate expression to their experiences. Ignatius is really the only man we can name alongside of Paul
and John. Yet in how many cases of which we know nothing, this image of Christ must have been the dominating power of
human life! In some of the dying confessions of the martyrs, and in the learned homilies of Origen, it emerges in a very affecting
161 This chapter is based on a fresh revision of Section VI. in my study on “Medicinisches aus der ältesten Kirchengeschichte”
(Texte und Unters. VIII., 1892).
THE gospel, as preached by Jesus; is a religion of redemption, but it is a religion of redemption
in a secret sense. Jesus proclaimed a new message (the near approach of God’s kingdom, God as
the Father, as his Father), and also a new law, but he did his work as a Saviour or healer, and it was
amid work of this kind that he was crucified. Paul, too, preached the gospel as a religion of
redemption.
Jesus appeared among his people as a physician. “The healthy need not a physician, but the
sick” (Mark ii. 17, Luke v. 31). The first three gospels depict him as the physician of soul and body,
as the Saviour or healer of men. Jesus says very little about sickness; he cures it. He does not explain
that sickness is health; he calls it by its proper name, and is sorry for the sick person. There is
nothing sentimental or subtle about Jesus; he draws no fine distinctions, he utters no sophistries
about healthy people being really sick and sick people really healthy. He sees himself surrounded
by crowds of sick folk; he attracts them, and his one impulse is to help them. Jesus does not
distinguish rigidly between sicknesses of the body and of the soul; he takes them both as different
expressions of the one supreme ailment in humanity. But he knows their sources. He knows it is
easier to say, “Rise up and walk,” than to say, “Thy sins are forgiven thee” (Mark ii. 9).162 And he
acts accordingly. No sickness of the soul repels him—he is constantly surrounded by sinful women
102 and tax-gatherers. Nor is any bodily disease too loathsome for Jesus. In this world of wailing,
misery, filth, and profligacy, which pressed upon him every day, he kept himself invariably vital,
pure, and busy.
In this way he won men and women to be his disciples. The circle by which he was surrounded
was a circle of people who had been healed.163 They were healed because they had believed on him,
i.e., because they had gained health from his character and words. To know God meant a sound
soul. This was the rock on which Jesus had rescued them from the shipwreck of their life. They
knew they were healed, just because they had recognized God as the Father in his Son. Henceforth
they drew health and real life as from a never-failing stream.
162 Or are we to interpret the passage in another way? Is it easier to say, “Thy sins are forgiven thee”? In that case, “easier” evidently
must be taken in a different sense.
163 An old legend of Edessa regarding Jesus is connected with his activity as a healer of men. At the close of the third century the
people of Edessa, who had become Christians during the second half of the second century, traced back their faith to the apostolic
age, and treasured up an alleged correspondence between Jesus and their King Abgar. This correspondence is still extant (cp.
Euseb., H.E. i. 13). It is a naïve romance. The king, who is severely ill, writes thus “Abgar, toparch of Edessa, to Jesus the
excellent Saviour, who has appeared in the country of Jerusalem; greeting. I have heard of thee and of thy cures, performed
without medicine or herb. For, it is said, thou makest the blind to see, and the lame to walk; thou cleansest lepers, thou expellest
unclean spirits and demons, thou healest those afflicted with lingering diseases, and thou raisest the dead. Now, as I have heard
all this about thee, I have concluded that one of two things must be true: either thou art God, and, having descended from heaven,
doest these things, or else thou art a son of God by what thou doest. I write to thee, therefore, to ask thee to come and cure the
disease from which I am suffering. For I have heard that the Jews murmur against thee, and devise evil against thee. Now, I have
a very small, yet excellent city, which is large enough for both of us.” To which Jesus answered: “Blessed art thou for having
believed in me without seeing me. For it is written concerning me that those who have seen me will not believe in me, while
they who have not seen me will believe and be saved. But as to thy request that I should come to thee, I must fulfill here all
things for which I have been sent, and, after fulfilling them, be taken up again to him who sent me. Yet after I am taken up, I
will send thee one of my disciples to cure thy disease and give life to thee and thine.” The narrative then goes on to describe
how Thaddaeus came to Edessa and cured the king by the laying on of hands, without medicine or herbs, after he had confessed
his faith. “And Abdus, the son of Abdus, was also cured by him of gout.”
“Ye will say unto me this parable: Physician, heal thyself” (Luke iv. 23). He who helped so
many people, seemed himself to be always helpless. Harassed, calumniated, threatened with death
by the authorities of his nation, and persecuted in the name of the very God whom he proclaimed,
103 Jesus went to his cross. But even the cross only displayed for the first time the full depth and energy
of his saving power. It put the copestone on his mission, by showing men that the sufferings of the
just are the saving force in human history.
“Surely he hath borne our sickness and carried our sorrows; by his stripes we are healed.”164
This was the new truth that issued from the cross of Jesus. It flowed out, like a stream of fresh
water, on the arid souls of men and on their dry morality. The morality of outward acts and
regulations gave way to the conception of a life which was personal, pure, and divine, which spent
itself in the service of the brethren, and gave itself up ungrudgingly to death. This conception was
the new principle of life. It uprooted the old life swaying to and fro between sin and virtue; it also
planted a new life whose aim was nothing short of being a disciple of Christ, and whose strength
was drawn from the life of Christ himself. The disciples went forth to preach the tidings of “God
the Saviour,”165 of that Saviour and physician whose person, deeds, and sufferings were man’s
salvation. Paul was giving vent to no sudden or extravagant emotion, but expressing with quiet
confidence what he was fully conscious of at every moment, when he wrote to the Galatians (ii.
20), “I live, yet not I, but Christ liveth in me. For the life I now live in the flesh, I live by faith in
the Son of God, who loved me and gave up himself for me.” Conscious of this, the primitive
Christian missionaries were ready to die daily. And that was just the reason why their cause did
not collapse.
In the world to which the apostles preached their new message, religion had not been intended
originally for the sick, but for the sound. The Deity sought the pure and sound to be his worshippers.
104 The sick and sinful, it was held, are a prey to the powers of darkness; let them see to the recovery
of health by some means or another, health for soul and body—for until then they are not pleasing
to the gods. It is interesting to observe how this conception is still dominant at the close of the
second century, in Celsus, the enemy of Christendom (Orig., c. Cels. III. lix. f.). “Those who invite
people to participate in other solemnities, make the following proclamation: ‘He who hath clean
hands and sensible speech (is to draw near)’; or again, ‘He who is pure from all stain, conscious
of no sin in his soul, and living an honorable and just life (may approach).’ Such is the cry of those
who promise purification from sins.166 But let us now hear what sort of people these Christians
invite. ‘Anyone who is a sinner,’ they say, ‘or foolish, or simple-minded—in short, any unfortunate
will be accepted by the kingdom of God.’ By ‘sinner’ is meant an unjust person, a thief, a burglar,
a poisoner, a sacrilegious man, or a robber of corpses. Why, if you wanted an assembly of robbers,
164 1 Pet. ii. 24, οὗ τῷ μώλωπι αὐτοὶ ἰάθητε.
165 Luke ii. 11, ἐτέχθη ὑμῖν σωτὴρ, ὅς ἐστιν Χριστὸς κύριος; John iv. 42, οἴδαμεν ὅτι οὗτός ἐστιν ὁ σωτὴρ τοῦ κόσμου; Tit. ii. 11,
ἐπεφάνη ἡ χάρις τοῦ θεοῦ σωτήριος πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις; Tit. iii. 4, ἡ χρηστότης καὶ ἡ φιλανθρωπία ἐπεφάνη τοῦ σωτῆρος ἡμῶν
θεοῦ. By several Christian circles, indeed, the title “Saviour” was reserved for Jesus and for Jesus only. Irenæus (I. i. 3) reproaches
the Valentinian Ptolemæus for never calling Jesus κύριος but only σωτήρ, and, as a matter of fact, in the epistle of Ptolemæus
to Flora, Jesus is termed σωτήρ exclusively.
166 The meaning is that even to mysteries connected with purification those only were bidden who had led upon the whole a good
and a just life.
these are just the sort of people you would summon!”167 Here Celsus has stated, as lucidly as one
could desire, the cardinal difference between Christianity and ancient religion.168
But, as we have already seen (Book I, Chapter III.), the religious temper which Christianity
encountered, and which developed and diffused itself very rapidly in the second and third centuries,
105 was no longer what we should term “ancient.” Here again we see that the new religion made its
appearance “when the time was fulfilled.” The cheerful, naïve spirit of the old religion, so far as it
still survived, lay a-dying, and its place was occupied by fresh religious needs. Philosophy had set
the individual free, and had discovered a human being in the common citizen. By the blending of
states and nations, which coalesced to form a universal empire, cosmopolitanism had now become
a reality. But there was always a reverse side to cosmopolitanism, viz., individualism. The
refinements of material civilization and mental culture made people more sensitive to the element
of pain in life, and this increase of sensitiveness showed itself also in the sphere of morals, where
more than one Oriental religion came forward to satisfy its demand. The Socratic philosophy, with
its fine ethical ideas, issued from the heights of the thinker to spread across the lowlands of the
common people. The Stoics, in particular, paid unwearied attention to the “health and diseases of
the soul,” moulding their practical philosophy upon this type of thought. There was a real demand
for purity, consolation, expiation, and healing, and as these could not be found elsewhere, they
began to be sought in religion. In order to secure them, people were on the look-out for new sacred
rites. The evidence for this change which passed over the religious temper lies in the writings of
Seneca, Epictetus, and many others; but a further testimony of much greater weight is afforded by
the revival which attended the cult of Æsculapius during the Imperial age.169 As far back as 290
B.C., Æsculapius of Epidaurus had been summoned to Rome on the advice of the Sibylline books.
He had his sanctuary on the island in the Tiber, and close to it, just as at the numerous shrines of
Asclepius in Greece, there stood a sanatorium in which sick persons waited for the injunctions
which the god imparted during sleep. Greek physicians followed the god to Rome, but it took a
106 long time for either the god or the Greek doctors to become popular. The latter do riot seem at first
to have recommended themselves by their skill. “In 219 B.C. the first Greek surgeon became
domiciled in Rome. He actually received the franchise, and was presented by the State with a shop
‘in compito Acilio.’ But this doctor made such unmerciful havoc among his patients by cutting and
167 Porphyry’s position is rather different. He cannot flatly set aside the saying of Christ about the sick, for whose sake he came
into the world. But as a Greek he is convinced that religion is meant for intelligent, just, and inquiring people. Hence his statement
on the point (in Mac. Magnes, iv. 10) is rather confused.
168 Origen makes a skillful defense of Christianity at this point. “If a Christian does extend his appeal to the same people as those
addressed by a robber-chief, his aim is very different. He does so in order to bind up their wounds with his doctrine, in order to
allay the festering sores of the soul with those remedies of faith which correspond to the wine and oil and other applications
employed to give the body relief from pain” (III. lx.). “Celsus misrepresents facts when he declares that we hold God was sent
to sinners only. It is just as if he found fault with some people for saying that some kind and gracious [φιλανθρωπότατος, an
epithet of Æsculapius] monarch had sent his physician to a city for the benefit of the sick people in that city. God the Word was
thus sent as a physician for sinners, but also as a teacher of divine mysteries for those who are already pure and sin no more”
(III. lxi.).
169 For the cult of Æsculapius, see von Wilamowitz-Moellendorf’s Isyllos von Epidauros (1886), pp. 36 f., 44 f., 116 f., and Usener’s
Götternamen (1896), pp. 147 f., 350, besides Ilberg’s study of Æsculapius in Teubner’s Neuen Jahrbüchern, II., 1901, and the
cautious article by Thrämer in Pauly-Wissowa’s Real. Encykl. (II. 1642 f.).
cauterizing, that the name of surgeon became a synonym for that of a butcher.”170 Things were
different under the Cæsars. Though the Romans themselves still eschewed the art of medicine,
considering it a kind of divination, skilled Greek doctors were in demand at Rome itself, and the
cult of that “deus clinicus,” Æsculapius, was in full vogue. From Rome his cult spread over all the
West, fusing itself here and there with the cult of Serapis or some other deity, and accompanied by
the subordinate cult of Hygeia and Salus, Telesphorus and Somnus. Furthermore, the sphere of
influence belonging to this god of healing widened steadily; he became “saviour” pure and simple,
the god who aids in all distress, the “friend of man” (φιλανθρωπότατος).171 The more men sought
deliverance and healing in religion, the greater grew this god’s repute. He belonged to the old gods
who held out longest against Christianity, and therefore he is often to be met with in the course of
107 early Christian literature. The cult of Æsculapius was one of those which were most widely diffused
throughout the second half of the second century, and also during the third century. People traveled
to the famous sanatoria of the god, as they travel today to baths. He was appealed to in diseases of
the body and of the soul; people slept in his temples, to be cured; the costliest gifts were brought
him as the ΘΕΟΣ ΣΩΤΗΡ (“God the Saviour”); and people consecrated their lives to him, as
innumerable inscriptions and statues testify. In the case of other gods as well, healing virtue now
became a central feature. Zeus himself and Apollo (cp., e.g., Tatian, Orat. 8) appeared in a new
light. They, too, became “saviours.” No one could be a god any longer, unless he was also a
saviour.172 Glance over Origen’s great reply to Celsus, and you soon discover that one point hotly
disputed by these two remarkable men was the question whether Jesus or Æsculapius was the true
Saviour. Celsus champions the one with as much energy and credulity as Origen the other. The
combination of crass superstition and sensible criticism presented by both men is an enigma to us
at this time of day. We moderns can hardly form any clear idea of their mental bearings. In III. iii
Origen observes: “Miracles occurred in all lands, or at least in many places. Celsus himself admits
in his book that, Æsculapius healed diseases and revealed the future in all cities that were devoted
to him, such as Tricca, Epidaurus, Cos, and Pergamum.” According to III. xxii. Celsus charged the
Christians with being unable to make up their minds to call Æsculapius a god, simply because he
had been first a man. Origen’s retort is that the Greek tradition made Zeus slay Æsculapius with a
thunderbolt. Celsus (III. xxiv.) declared it to be an authentic fact that a great number of Greeks and
170 Preller-Jordan, Röm. Mythologie, ii. p. 243. Pliny observes: “Mox a saevitia secandi urendique transisse nomen in carnificem et
in tædium artem omnesque medicos” (“Owing to cruelty in cutting and cauterizing, the name of surgeon soon passed into that
of butcher, and a disgust was felt for the profession and for all doctors”).
171 The cult was really humane, and it led the physicians also to be humane. In a passage from the Παραγγελίαι of pseudo-Hippocrates
we read: “I charge you not to show yourselves inhuman, but to take the wealth or poverty (of the patient) into account, in certain
cases even to treat them gratis”—the repute of the ἰατροὶ ἀνάργυροι is well known—“and to consider future gratitude more than
present fame. If, therefore, the summons for aid happens to be the case of an unknown or impecunious man, he is most of all to
be assisted; for wherever there is love to one’s neighbor, it means readiness to act” (ix. 258 Littré, iii. 321 Erm.; a passage which
Ilberg brought under my notice, cp. also the Berl. Philol. Wochenschrift for March 25, 1893). How strongly the Christians
themselves felt their affinity to humane physicians is proved by a striking instance which Ilberg quotes (loc. cit., from vi. 90
Littré, ii.123 Erm.). Eusebius writes (H. E. x. 4. 11) that Jesus, “like some excellent physician, in order to cure the sick, examines
what is repulsive, handles sores, and reaps pain himself from the sufferings of others.” This passage is literally taken from the
treatise of pseudo-Hippocrates περὶ φυσῶν: ὀ μὲν γὰρ ἰητρὸς ὁρεῖ τε δεινά, θιγγάνει τε ἀηδέων ἐπ᾽ ἀλλοτρίῃσι δὲ ξυμφορῇσιν
ἰδίας καρποῦται λύπας.
172 Corresponding to this, we have Porphyry’s definition of the object of philosophy as ἡ τῆς ψυχῆς σωτηρία (the salvation of the
soul).
barbarians had seen, and still saw, no mere wraith of Æsculapius, but the god himself engaged in
healing and helping man, whereas the disciples of Jesus had merely seen a phantom. Origen is very
indignant at this, but his counter-assertions are weak. Does Celsus also appeal to the great number
of Greeks and barbarians who believe in Æsculapius? Origen, too, can point to the great number
108 of Christians, to the truth of their scriptures, and to their successful cures in the name of Jesus. But
then he suddenly alters his defense, and proceeds (III. xxv.) to make the following extremely shrewd
observation: “Even were I going to admit that a demon named Æsculapius had the power of healing
bodily diseases, I might still remark to those who are amazed at such cures or at the prophecies of
Apollo, that such curative power is of itself neither good nor bad, but within reach of godless as
well as of honest folk; while in the same way it does not follow that he who can foretell the future
is on that account an honest and upright man. One is not in a position to prove the virtuous character
of those who heal diseases and foretell the future. Many instances may be adduced of people being
healed who did not deserve to live, people who were so corrupt and led a life of such wickedness
that no sensible physician would have troubled to cure them. . . . . The power of healing diseases
is no evidence of anything specially divine.” From all these remarks of Origen, we can see how
high the cult of Æsculapius was ranked, and how keenly the men of that age were on the lookout
for “salvation.”
Into this world of craving for salvation the preaching of Christianity made its way. Long before
it had achieved its final triumph by dint of an impressive philosophy of religion, its success was
already assured by the fact that it promised and offered salvation—a feature in which it surpassed
all other religions and cults. It did more than set up the actual Jesus against the imaginary Æsculapius
of dreamland. Deliberately and consciously it assumed the form of “the religion of salvation or
healing,”173 or “the medicine of soul and body,” and at the same time it recognized that one of its
chief duties was to care assiduously for the sick in body. We shall now select one or two examples
out of the immense wealth of material, to throw light upon both of these points.
Take, first of all, the theory. Christianity never lost hold of its innate principle; it was, and it
remained, a religion for the sick. Accordingly it assumed that no one, or at least hardly any one,
109 was in normal health, but that men were always in a state of disability. This reading of human
nature was not confined to Paul, who looked on all men outside of Christ as dying, dying in their
sins; a similar, though simpler, view was taught by the numerous unknown missionaries of primitive
Christianity. The soul of man is sick, they said, a prey to death from the moment of his birth. The
whole race lies a-dying. But now “the goodness and the human kindness of God the Saviour” have
appeared to restore the sick soul.174 Baptism was therefore conceived as a bath for regaining the
soul’s health, or for “the recovery of life”;175 the Lord’s Supper was valued as “the potion of
immortality,”176 and penitence was termed “vera de satisfactione medicina” (the true medicine
173 The New Testament itself is so saturated with medicinal expressions, employed metaphorically, that a collection of them would
fill several pages.
174 Tit. iii. 4: ἡ χρηστότης καὶ ἡ φιλανθρωπία ἐπέφανη τοῦ σωτῆρος ἡμῶν θεοῦ . . . . ἔσωσεν ἡμᾶς. See the New Testament allusions
to σωτήρ.
175 Tert., de Baptism., i., etc., etc.; Clement (Paedag. i. 6. 29) calls baptism παιωνίον φάρμάκον. Tertullian describes it as “aqua
medicinalis.”
176 Ignatius, Justin, and Irenæus.
derived from the atonement, Cypr., de Lapsis xv.). At the celebration of the sacrament, thanks were
offered for the “life” therein bestowed (Did. ix.-x.). The conception of “life” acquired a new and
deeper meaning. Jesus had already spoken of a “life” beyond the reach of death, to be obtained by
the sacrifice of a man’s earthly life. The idea and the term were taken up by Paul and by the fourth
evangelist, who summed up in them the entire blessings of religion. With the tidings of immortality,
the new religion confronted sorrow, misery, sin, and death. So much, at least, the world of paganism
could understand. It could understand the promise of bliss and immortality resembling that of the
blessed gods. And not a few pagans understood the justice of the accompanying condition that one
had to submit to the regime of the religion, that the soul had to be pure and holy before it could
become immortal. Thus they grasped the message of a great Physician who preaches “abstinence”
and bestows the gift of “life.”177 Anyone who had felt a single ray of the power and glory of the
177 Clement of Alexandria opens his Paedagogus by describing his Logos as the physician who heals suffering (I. i. 1., τὰ πάθη ὁ
παραμυθητικὸς λόγος ἰᾶται). He distinguishes the λόγος προτρεπτικός, ὑποθετικός, and παραμυθικός, to which is added further
ὁ διδακτικός. And the Logos is Christ. Gregory Thaumaturgus also calls the Logos a physician, in his panegyric on Origen (xvi.).
In the pseudo-Clementine homilies, Jesus, who is the true prophet, is always the physician; similarly Peter’s work everywhere
is that of the great physician who, by the sole means of prayer and speech, heals troops of sick folk (see especially Bk. VII.).
Simon Magus, again, is represented as the wicked magician, who evokes disease wherever he goes. Origen has depicted Jesus
the physician more frequently and fully than anyone else. One at least of his numerous passages on the subject may be cited
(from Hom. viii., in Levit., ch. i. vol. ix. pp. 312 f): “Medicum dici in scripturis divinis dominum nostrum Jesum Christum, etiam
ipsius domini sententia perdocemur, sicut dicit in evangeliis [here follows Matt. ix. 12 f.]. Omnis autem medicus ex herbarum
succis vet arborum vel etiam metallorum venis vel animantium naturis profectura corporibus medicamenta componit. Sed herbas
istas si quis forte, antequam pro ratione artis componantur, adspiciat, si quidem in agris aut montibus, velut foenum vile conculcat
et praeterit. Si vero eas intra medici scholam dispositas per ordinem viderit, licet odorem tristem, fortem et austerum reddant,
tamen suspicabitur eas curae vel remedii aliquid continere, etiamsi nondum quae vel qualis sit sanitatis ac remedii virtus agnoverit.
Haec de communibus medicis diximus. Veni nunc ad Jesum coelestem medicum, intra ad hanc stationem medicinae eius
ecclesiam, vide ibi languentium iacere multitudinem. Venit mulier, quae et partu immunda effecta est, venit leprosus, qui extra
castra separatus est pro immunditia leprae, quaerunt a medico remedium, quomodo sanentur, quomodo mundentur, et quia Jesus
hic, qui medicus est, ipse est et verbum dei, aegris suis non herbarum succis, sed verborum sacramentis medicamenta conquirit.
Quae verborum medicamenta si quis incultius per libros tamquam per agros videat esse dispersa, ignorans singulorum dictorum
virtutem, ut vilia haec et nullum sermonis cultum habentia praeteribit. Qui sero ex aliqua parte didicerit animarum apud Christum
esse medicinam, intelliget profecto ex hic libris, qui in ecclesiis recitantur, tamquam ex agris et montibus, salutares herbas
adsumere unumquemque debere, sermonum dumtaxat vim, ut si quis illi est in anima languor, non tam exterioris frondis et
corticis, quam succi interioris hausta virtute sanetur” (“The Lord himself teaches us, in the gospels, that our Lord Jesus Christ
is called a physician in the Holy Scriptures. Every physician compounds his medicines for the good of the body from the juices
of herbs or trees, or even from the veins of metals or living creatures. Now, supposing that anyone sees these herbs in their
natural state, ere they are prepared by skill of art, he treads on them like common straw and passes by them, on mountain or
field. But if he chances to see them arranged in the laboratory of a herbalist or physician, he will suspect that, for all their bitter
and heavy and unpleasant odors, they have some healing and healthful virtue, though as yet he does not know the nature or the
quality of this curative element. So much for our ordinary physicians. Now look at Jesus the heavenly physician. Come inside
his room of healing, the church. Look at the multitude of impotent folk lying there. Here comes a woman unclean from childbirth,
a leper expelled from the camp owing to his unclean disease; they ask the physician for aid, for a cure, for cleansing; and because
this Jesus the Physician is also the Word of God, he applies, not the juices of herbs, but the sacraments of the Word to their
diseases. Anyone who looked at these remedies casually as they lay in books, like herbs in the field, ignorant of the power of
single words, would pass them by as common things without any grace of style. But he who ultimately discovers that Christ has
a medicine for souls, will find from these books which are read in the churches, as he finds from mountains and fields, that each
yields healing herbs, at least strength won from words, so that any weakness of soul is healed not so much by leaf and bark as
by an inward virtue and juice”).
new life reckoned his previous life to have been blindness, disease, and death178—a view attested
by both the apostolic fathers and the apologists. “He bestowed on us the light, he spoke to us as a
111 father to his sons, he saved us in our lost estate. . . . . Blind were we in our understanding,
worshipping stones and wood and gold and silver and brass, nor was our whole life aught but
death.”179 The mortal will put on, nay, has already put on, immortality, the perishable will be robed
in the imperishable: such was the glad cry of the early Christians, who took up arms against a sea
of troubles, and turned the terror of life’s last moment into a triumph. “Those miserable people,”
says Lucian in the Proteus Peregrinus, “have got it into their heads that they are perfectly immortal.”
He would certainly have made a jest upon it had any occurred to his mind; but whenever this nimble
scoffer is depicting the faith of Christians, there is a remarkable absence of anything like jesting.
While the soul’s health or the new life is a gift, however, it is a gift which must be appropriated
from within. There was a great risk of this truth being overlooked by those who were accustomed
to leave any one of the mysteries with the sense of being consecrated and of bearing with them
super mundane blessings as if they were so many articles. It would be easy also to show how rapidly
112 the sacramental system of the church lapsed into the spirit of the pagan mysteries. But once the
moral demand, i.e., the purity of the soul, was driven home, it proved such a powerful factor that
it held its own within the Catholic church, even alongside of the inferior sacramental system. The
salvation of the soul and the lore of that salvation never died away; in fact, the ancient church
arranged all the details of her worship and her dogma with this end in view. She consistently
presented herself as the great infirmary or the hospital of humanity: pagans, sinners, and heretics
are her patients, ecclesiastical doctrines and observances are her medicines, while the bishops and
pastors are the physicians, but only as servants of Christ, who is himself the physician of all souls.180
Let me give one or two instances of this. “As the good of the body is health, so the good of the soul
is the knowledge of God,” says Justin.181 “While we have time to be healed, let us put ourselves
into the hands of God the healer, paying him recompense. And what recompense? What but
repentance from a sincere heart” (2 Clem., ad Cor. ix.). “Like some excellent physician, in order
to cure the sick, Jesus examines what is repulsive, handles sores, and reaps pain himself from the
sufferings of others; he has himself saved us from the very jaws of death—us who were not merely
178 That the vices were diseases was a theme treated by Christian teachers as often as by the Stoics. Cp., e.g., Origen, in Ep. ad
Rom., Bk. II. (Lommatzsch, vi. 91 f.): “Languores quidem animae ab apostolo in his (Rom. ii. 8) designantur, quorum medelam
nullus inveniet nisi prius morborum cognoverit causas et ideo in divinis scripturis aegritudines animae numerantur et remedia
describuntur, ut hi, qui se apostolicis subdiderint disciplinis, ex his, quae scripta sunt, agnitis languoribus suis curati possint
dicere: ‘Lauda anima mea dominum, qui sanat omnes languores tuos’” (‘The apostle here describes the diseases of the soul;
their cure cannot be discovered till one diagnoses first of all the causes of such troubles, and consequently Holy Scripture
enumerates the ailments of the soul, and describes their remedies, in order that those who submit to the apostolic discipline may
be able to say, after they have been cured of diseases diagnosed by aid of what is written: ‘Bless the Lord, O my soul, who
healeth all thy diseases’”).
179 2 Clem., Ep. ad Cor. i. Similar expressions are particularly common in Tatian, but indeed no apology is wholly devoid of them.
180 Celsus, who knew this kind of Christian preaching intimately, pronounced the Christians to be quacks. “The teacher of Christianity,”
he declares, “acts like a person who promises to restore a sick man to health and yet hinders him from consulting skilled physicians,
so as to prevent his own ignorance from being exposed.” To which Origen retorts, “And who are the physicians from whom we
deter simple folk?” He then proceeds to show that they cannot be the philosophers, and still less those who are not yet emancipated
from the coarse superstition of polytheism (III. lxxiv.).
181 Fragm. ix. (Otto, Corp. Apol. iii., p. 258). Cp. also the beautiful wish expressed at the beginning of 3 John: περὶ πάντων εὔχομαι
σε εὐοδοῦσθαι καὶ ὑγιαίνειν, καθῶς εὐοδοῦταί σου ἡ ψυχή (ver. 2).
diseased and suffering from terrible ulcers and wounds already mortified, but were also lying already
among the dead . . . .; he who is the giver of life and of light, our great physician,182 king and lord,
the Christ of God.”183 “The physician cannot introduce any salutary medicines into the body that
113 needs to be cured, without having previously eradicated the trouble seated in the body or averted
the approaching trouble. Even so the teacher of the truth cannot convince anyone by an address on
truth, so long as some error still lurks in the soul of the hearer, which forms an obstacle to his
arguments” (Athenagoras, de resurr. i.). “Were we to draw from the axiom that ‘disease is diagnosed
by means of medical knowledge,’ the inference that medical knowledge is the cause of disease, we
should be making a preposterous statement. And as it is beyond doubt that the knowledge of salvation
is a good thing, because it teaches men to know their sickness, so also is the law a good thing,
inasmuch as sin is discovered thereby.”184
As early as 2 Tim. ii. 17, the word of heretics is said to eat “like a gangrene.” This expression
recurs very frequently, and is elaborated in detail. “Their talk is infectious as a plague” (Cyprian,
114 de Lapsis, xxxiv.). “Heretics are hard to cure,” says Ignatius (ad Ephes., vii., δυσθεράπευτος);
“. . . . there is but one physician, Jesus Christ our Lord.” In the pastoral epistles the orthodox doctrine
is already called “sound teaching” as opposed to the errors of the heretics.
Most frequently, however, bodily recovery is compared to penitence. It is Ignatius again who
declares that “not every wound is cured by the same salve. Allay sharp pains by soothing
fomentations.”185 “The cure of evil passions,” says Clement at the opening of his Paedagogus, “is
effected by the Logos through admonitions; he strengthens the soul with benign precepts like
182 Cp. Ep. ad Diogn. ix. 6, pseudo-Justin, de Resurr. x.: “Our physician, Jesus Christ”; Clem., Paedag. i. 2. 6: “The Logos of the
Father is the only Paeonian physician for human infirmities, and the holy charmer (ἅγιος ἐπῳδός) for the sick soul” (whereupon
he quotes Ps. lxxxii. 2-3): “The physician’s art cures the diseases of the body, according to Democritus, but wisdom frees the
soul from its passions. Yet the good instructor, the Wisdom, the Logos of the Father, the creator of man, cares for all our nature,
healing it in body and in soul alike—he ὁ πανακὴς τῆς ἀνθρωπότητος ἰατρός ὁ σωτήρ (the all-sufficient physician of humanity,
the Saviour),” whereupon he quotes Mark ii. 2. See also ibid., i. 6. 36, and i. 12. 100. “Hence the Logos also is called Saviour,
since he has devised rational medicines for men; he preserves their health, lays bare their defects, exposes the causes of their
evil affections, strikes at the root of irrational lusts, prescribes their diet, and arranges every antidote to heal the sick. For this is
the greatest and most royal work of God, the saving of mankind. Patients are irritated at a physician who has no advice to give
on the question of their health. But how should we not render thanks to the divine instructor,” etc. (Paedag. i. 8. 64-65).
183 Eus., H.E., v. 4. 11 (already referred to on p. 106). Cp. also the description of the Bible in Aphraates as “the books of the wise
Physician,” and Cypr., de Op., i.: “Christ was wounded to cure us of our wounds. . . . . When the Lord at his coming had healed
that wound which Adam caused,” etc. Metaphors from disease are on the whole very numerous in Cyprian; cp., e.g., de Habitu,
ii.; de Unitate, iii.; de Lapsis, xiv., xxxiv.
184 Origen, opposing the Antinomians in Comm. in Rom., iii. 6 (Lommatzsch, vi. p. 195), Hom. in Jerem., xix. 3. Similarly Clem.,
Paedag., i. 9. 88: “As the physician who tells a patient that he has fever is not an enemy to him—since the physician is not the
cause of the fever but merely detects it (οὐκ αἴτιος, ἀλλ᾽ ἔλεγχός) neither is one who blames a diseased soul ill-disposed to that
person.” Cp. Methodius (Opp. I. p. 52, Bonwetsch): “As we do not blame a physician who explains how a man may become
strong and well,” etc.; see also I. 65: “For even those who undergo medical treatment for their bodily pains do not at once regain
health, but gladly bear pain in the hope of their coming recovery.”
185 Ad Polyc., ii. The passage is to be taken allegorically. It is addressed to Bishop Polycarp, who has been already (i) counselled
to “bear the maladies of all”; wisely and gently is the bishop to treat the erring and the spiritually diseased. In the garb given it
by Ignatius, this counsel recurs very frequently throughout the subsequent literature; see Lightfoot’s learned note. Also Clem.
Alex., Fragm. (Dindorf, iii. 499): “With one salve shalt thou heal thyself and thy neighbor (who slanders thee), if thou acceptest
the slander with meekness”; Clem. Hom., x. 18: “The salve must not be applied to the sound member of the body, but to the
suffering”; and Hermes Trismeg., περὶ βοτ. χυλ., p. 331: “Do not always use this salve.”
soothing medicines,186 and directs the sick to the full knowledge of the truth.” “Let us follow the
practice of physicians (in the exercise of moral discipline), says Origen,187 “and only use the knife
when all other means have failed, when application of oil and salves and soothing poultices leave
the swelling still hard.” An objection was raised by Christians who disliked repentance, to the effect
that the public confession of sin which accompanied the penitential discipline was at once an injury
to their self-respect and a misery. To which Tertullian replies (de Poen., x.): “Nay, it is evil that
ends in misery. Where repentance is undertaken, misery ceases, because it is turned into what is
salutary. It is indeed a misery to be cut, and cauterized, and racked by some pungent powder; but
the excuse for the offensiveness of means of healing that may be unpleasant, is the cure they work.”
This is exactly Cyprian’s point, when he writes188 that “the priest of the Lord must employ salutary
remedies.189 He is an unskilled physician who handles tenderly the swollen edges of a wound and
115 allows the poison lodged in the inward part to be aggraved by simply leaving it alone. The wound
must be opened and lanced; recourse must be had to the strong remedy of cutting out the corrupting
parts. Though the patient scream out in pain, and wail or weep, because he cannot bear it—afterwards
he will be grateful, when he feels that he is cured.” But the most elaborate comparison of a bishop
to a surgeon occurs in the Apostolic Constitutions (ii. 41). “Heal thou, O bishop, like a pitiful
physician, all who have sinned, and employ methods that promote saving health. Confine not thyself
to cutting or cauterizing or the use of corrosives, but employ bandages and lint, use mild and healing
drugs, and sprinkle words of comfort as a soothing balm. If the wound be deep and gashed, lay a
plaster on it that it may fill up and be once more like the rest of the sound flesh. If it be dirty, cleanse
it with corrosive powder, i.e., with words of censure. If it has proud flesh, reduce it with sharp
plasters, i.e., with threats of punishment. If it spreads further, sear it, and cut off the putrid
flesh—mortify the man with fastings. And if after all this treatment thou findest that no soothing
poultice, neither oil nor bandage, can be applied from head to foot of the patient, but that the disease
is spreading and defying all cures, like some gangrene that corrupts the entire member; then, after
great consideration and consultation with other skilled physicians, cut off the putrified member,
lest the whole body of the church be corrupted. So be not hasty to cut it off, nor rashly resort to the
saw of many a tooth, but first use the lancet to lay open the abscess, that the body may be kept free
from pain by the removal of the deep-seated cause of the disease. But if thou seest anyone past
repentance and (inwardly) past feeling, then cut him off as an incurable with sorrow and
lamentation.”190
186 i. 1. 3, ἤπια φάρμακα (see Homer).
187 In l. Jesu Nave, viii. 6 (Lomm. xi. 71). Cp. Hom. in Jerem., xvi. 1.
188 De Lapsis, xiv. Penitence and bodily cures form a regular parallel in Cyprian’s writings; cp. Epist. xxxi. 6-7, lv. 16, lix. 13, and
his Roman epistle xxx. 3. 5. 7. Novatian, who is responsible for the latter, declares (in de Trinit., v.) that God’s wrath acts like
a medicine.
189 Cp. pseudo-Clem., Ep. ad Jac., ii.: “The president (the bishop) must hold the place of a physician (in the church), instead of
behaving with the violence of an irrational brute.”
190 Cp. Clem. Alex., Paedag., i. 8. 64 f.: “Many evil passions are cured by punishment or by the inculcation of sterner commands.
. . . . Censure is like a surgical operation on the passions of the soul. The latter are abscesses on the body of the truth, and they
must be cut open by the lancet of censure. Censure is like the application of a medicine which breaks up the callosities of the
passions, and cleanses the impurities of a lewd life, reducing the swollen flesh of pride, and restoring the man to health and truth
once more.” Cp. i. 9. 83; also Methodius, Opp., I. i. p. 115 (ed. Bonwetsch).
It must be frankly admitted that this constant preoccupation with the “diseases” of sin had results
which were less favorable. The ordinary moral sense, no less than the aesthetic,191 was deadened.
If people are ever to be made better, they must be directed to that honorable activity which means
moral health; whereas endless talk about sin and forgiveness exercises, on the contrary, a narcotic
influence. To say the least of it, ethical education must move to and fro between reflection on the
past (with its faults and moral bondage) and the prospect of a future (with its goal of aspiration and
the exertion of all one’s powers). The theologians of the Alexandrian school had some sense of the
latter, but in depicting the perfect Christian or true gnostic they assigned a disproportionate space
to knowledge and correct opinions. They were not entirely emancipated from the Socratic fallacy
that the man of knowledge will be invariably a good man. They certainly did surmount the “educated”
man’s intellectual pride on the field of religion and morality.192 In Origen’s treatise against Celsus,
whole sections of great excellence are devoted to the duty and possibility of even the uneducated
person acquiring health of soul, and to the supreme necessity of salvation from sin and weakness.193
Origen hits the nail upon the head when he remarks (VII. lx.) that “Plato and the other wise men
117 of Greece, with their fine sayings, are like the physicians who confine their attention to the better
classes and despise the common man, whilst the disciples of Jesus carefully study to make provision
for the great mass of men.”194 Still, Origen’s idea is that, as a means of salvation, religion merely
forms a stage for those who aspire to higher levels. His conviction is that when the development
of religion has reached its highest level, anything historical or positive becomes of as little value
as the ideal of redemption and salvation itself. On this level the spirit, filled by God, no longer
needs a Saviour or any Christ of history at all. “Happy,” he exclaims (Comm. in Joh., i. 22; Lomm.,
i. p. 43), “happy are they who need no longer now God’s Son as the physician of the sick or as the
shepherd, people who now need not any redemption, but wisdom, reason, and righteousness alone.”
In his treatise against Celsus (III. lxi. f.) he draws a sharp distinction between two aims and boons
191 It was at this that the Emperor Julian especially took umbrage, and not without reason. As a protest against the sensuousness of
paganism, there grew up in the church an æsthetic of ugliness. Disease, death, and death’s relics—bones and putrefaction—were
preferred to health and beauty, whilst Christianity sought to express her immaterial spirit in terms drawn from the unsightly
remnants of material decay. How remote was all this artificial subtlety of an exalted piety from the piety which had pointed men
to the beauty of the lilies in the field! The Christians of the third and fourth centuries actually begin to call sickness health, and
to regard death as life.
192 Clem. Alex., Strom., vii. 48. 4: ὡς ὁ ἰατρὸς ὑγίειαν παρέχεται τοῖς συνεργοῦσι πρὸς ὑγίειαν, οὕτως καὶ ὁ θεὸς τὴν ἀΰδιον
σωτηρίαν τοῖς συνεργοῦσι πρὸς γνῶσίν τε καὶ εὐπραγίαν (“Even as the physician secures health for those who cooperate with
him to that end, so does God secure eternal salvation for those who cooperate with him for knowledge and good conduct”).
193 C. Cels., III. 54: “We cure every rational being with the medicine of our doctrine.”
194 In VII. lix. there is an extremely fine statement of the true prophet’s duty of speaking in such a way as to be intelligible and
encouraging to the multitude, and not merely to the cultured. “Suppose that some food which is wholesome and fit for human
nourishment, is prepared and seasoned so delicately as to suit the palate of the rich and luxurious alone, and not the taste of
simple folk, peasants, laborers, poor people, and the like, who are not accustomed to such dainties. Suppose again that this very
food is prepared, not as epicures would have it, but to suit poor folk, laborers, and the vast majority of mankind. Well, if on this
supposition the food prepared in one way is palatable to none but epicures, and left untasted by the rest, while, prepared in the
other way, it ministers to the health and strength of a vast number, what persons shall we believe are promoting the general
welfare most successfully—those who cater simply for the better classes, or those who prepare food for the multitude? If we
assume that the food in both cases is equally wholesome and nourishing, it is surely obvious that the good of men and the public
welfare are better served by the physician who attends to the health of the multitude than by him who will merely attend to a
few.” And Origen was far removed from anything like the narrow-mindedness of orthodoxy, as is plain from this excellent
remark in III. xiii.: “As only he is qualified in medicine who has studied in various schools and attached himself to the best
system after a careful examination of them all . . . . so, in my judgment, the most thorough knowledge of Christianity is his who
has carefully investigated the various sects of Judaism and of Christianity.”
in the Christian religion, one higher and the other lower. “To no mystery, to no participation in
wisdom ‘hidden in a mystery,’ do we call the wicked man, the thief, the burglar, etc., but to healing
118 or salvation. For our doctrine has a twofold appeal. It provides means of healing for the sick, as is
meant by the text, ‘The whole need not a physician, but the sick.’ But it also unveils to those who
are pure in soul and body ‘that mystery which was kept secret since the world began, but is now
made manifest by the Scriptures of the prophets and the appearing of our Lord Jesus Christ.’ . . . .
God the Word was indeed sent as a physician for the sick, but also as a teacher of divine mysteries
to those who are already pure and sin no more.”195
Origen unites the early Christian and the philosophic conceptions of religion. He is thus superior
to the pessimistic fancies which seriously threatened the latter view. But only among the cultured
could he gain any following. The Christian people held fast to Jesus as the Saviour.
No one has yet been able to show that the figure of Christ which emerges in the fifth century,
probably as early as the fourth, and which subsequently became the prevailing type in all pictorial
representations, was modeled upon the figure of Æsculapius. The two types are certainly similar;
the qualities predicated of both are identical in part; and no one has hitherto explained satisfactorily
why the original image of the youthful Christ was displaced by the later. Nevertheless, we have no
means of deriving the origin of the Callixtine Christ from Æsculapius as a prototype, so that in the
119 meantime we must regard such a derivation as a hypothesis, which, however interesting, is based
upon inadequate evidence. There would be one piece of positive evidence forthcoming, if the statue
which passed for a likeness of Jesus in the city of Paneas (Cæsarea Philippi) during the fourth
century was a statue of Æsculapius. Eusebius (H.E., vi. 18) tells how he had seen there, in the house
of the woman whom Jesus had cured of an issue of blood, a work of art which she had caused to
be erected out of gratitude to Jesus. “On a high pedestal beside the gates of her house there stands
the brazen image of a woman kneeling down with her hands outstretched as if in prayer. Opposite
this stands another brazen image of a man standing up, modestly attired in a cloak wrapped twice
round his body, and stretching out his hand to the woman. At his feet, upon the pedestal itself, a
strange plant is growing up as high as the hem of his brazen cloak, which is a remedy for all sorts
of disease. This statue is said to be an image of Jesus. Nor is it strange that the Gentiles of that age,
who had received benefit from the Lord, should express their gratitude in this fashion.” For various
reasons it is unlikely that this piece of art was intended to represent Jesus, or that it was erected by
the woman with an issue of blood;196 on the contrary, the probability is that the statuary was thus
interpreted by the Christian population of Paneas, probably at an early period. If the statue originally
195 So Clem. Alex., Paed., i. 1. 3: ἴσαι οὐκ ἐστιν ὑγίεια καὶ γνῶσις, ἀλλ᾽ ἡ μὲν μαθήσει, ἡ δὲ ἰάσει περιγίνεται· οὐκ ἂν οὖν τις νοσῶν
ἔτι πρότερόν τι τῶν διδασκαλικῶν ἐκμάθοι πρὶν ἢ τέλεον ὑγιᾶναι· οὐδὲ γὰρ ὠσαύτως πρὸς τοὺς μανθάνοντας ἢ κάμνοντας
ἀεὶ τῶν παραγγελμάτων ἕκαστον λέγεται, ἀλλὰ πρὸς οὓς μὲν εἰς γνῶσιν, πρὸς οὓς δὲ εἰς ἴασιν. καθάπερ οὖν τοῖς νοσοῦσι τὸ
σῶμα ἰατροῦ χρῄζει, ταύτῃ καὶ τοῖς ἀσθενοῦσι τὴν ψυχὴν παιδαγωγοῦ δεῖ, ἵν᾽ ἡμῶν ἰάσηται τὰ πάθη, εἶτα δὲ καὶ διδασκάλου,
ὃς καθηγήσεται πρὸς καθαρὰν γνώσεως ἐπιτηδειότητα εὐτρεπίζων τὴν ψυχήν, δυναμένην χωρῆσαι τὴν ἀποκάλυψιν τοῦ λόγου
(“Health and knowledge are not alike; the one is produced by learning, the other by healing. Before a sick person, then, could
learn any further branch of knowledge, he must get quite well. Nor is each injunction addressed to learners and to patients alike;
the object in one case is knowledge, and in the other a cure. Thus, as patients need the physician for their body, so do those who
are sick in soul need, first of all, an instructor, to heal our pains, and then a teacher who shall conduct the soul to all requisite
knowledge, disposing it to admit the revelation of the Word”).
196 Cp. Hauck, Die Entstehung des Christus-typus (1880), p. 8 f.
represented Æsculapius, as the curative plant would suggest, we should have here at least one step
between “Æsculapius the Saviour” and “Christ the Saviour.” But this interpretation of a pagan
saviour or healer is insecure; and even were it quite secure, it would not justify any general
conclusion being drawn as yet upon the matter. At any rate we are undervaluing the repugnance
felt even by Christians of the fourth century for the gods of paganism, if we consider ourselves
entitled to think of any conscious transformation of the figure of Æsculapius into that of Christ.197
Hitherto we have been considering the development of Christianity as the religion of “healing,”
as expressed in parables, ideas, doctrine, and penitential discipline. It now remains for us to show
that this character was also stamped upon its arrangements for the care of bodily sickness.
“I was sick and ye visited me. . . . . As ye have done it unto one of the least of these my brethren,
ye have done it unto me.” In these words the founder of Christianity set the love that tends the sick
in the center of his religion, laying it on the hearts of all his disciples. Primitive Christianity carried
it in her heart; she also carried it out in practice.198 Even from the fragments of our extant literature,
although that literature was not written with any such intention, we can still recognize the careful
attention paid to works of mercy. At the outset we meet with directions everywhere to care for sick
people. “Encourage the faint-hearted, support the weak,” writes the apostle Paul to the church of
Thessalonica (1 Thess. v. 14), which in its excitement was overlooking the duties lying close at
hand. In the prayer of the church, preserved in the first epistle of Clement, supplications are expressly
offered for those who are sick in soul and body.199 “Is any man sick? Let him call for the elders of
the church,” says Jas. v. 14—a clear proof that all aid in cases of sickness was looked upon as a
121 concern of the church.200 This comes out very plainly also in the epistle of Polycarp (vi. 1), where
the obligations of the elders are displayed as follows: “They must reclaim the erring, care for all
the infirm, and neglect no widow, orphan, or poor person.” Particulars of this duty are given by
Justin, who, in his Apology (ch. lxvii.), informs us that every Sunday the Christians brought free-will
offerings to their worship; these were deposited with the president (or bishop), “who dispenses
them to orphans and widows, and to any who, from sickness or some other cause, are in want.” A
197 In the eyes of Christians, Æsculapius was both a demon and an idol; no Christian could take him as a model or have any dealings
with him. Some Roman Christians, who were devotees of learning, are certainly reported in one passage (written by a fanatical
opponent, it is true) to have worshipped Galen (Eus., H.E., v. 28); but no mention is made of them worshipping Æsculapius. In
addition to the passages cited above, in which early Christian writers deal with Æsculapius (who is probably alluded to also as
far back as Apoc. ii. 23), the following are to be noted: Justin, Apol., I, xxi., xxii., xxv., liv. (passages which are radically
misunderstood when it is inferred from them that Justin is in favor of the god); Tatian, Orat., xxi.; Theoph., ad Autol., i. 9;
Tertull., de Anima, i. (a passage which is specially characteristic of the aversion felt for this god); Cyprian’s Quod Idola, i.;
Orig., c. Cels., iii., xxii.-xxv., xxviii., xlii. Clement explains him in Protr., ii. 26, after the manner of Euhemerus: τὸν γὰρ
εὐεργετοῦντα μὴ συνιέντες θεὸν ἀνέπλασάν τινας σωτῆρας Διοσκούρους . . . . καὶ Ἀσκληπιὸν ἰατρόν (“Through not understanding
the God who was their benefactor, they fashioned certain saviours, the Dioscuri . . . . and Æsculapius the physician”). A number
of passages (e.g., Protr. ii. 20, ἰατρὸς φιλάργυρος ἦν, “he was an avaricious physician,” and iv. 52) show how little Clement
cared for him.
198 Cp. the beautiful sentences of Lactantius, Div. Inst., vi. 12 (especially p. 529, Brandt): Aegros quoque quibus defuerit qui adsistat,
curandos fovendosque suscipere summae humanitatis et magnae operationis est (“It is also the greatest kindness possible and a
great charity to undertake the care and maintenance of the sick, who need some one to assist them”).
199 1 Clem. lix.: τοὺς ἀσθενεῖς (such is the most probable reading) ἴασαι . . . . ἐξανάστησον τοὺς ἀσθενοῦντας, παρακάλεσον τοὺς
ὀλιγοψυχοῦντας (“Heal the sick, . . . . raise up the weak, encourage the faint-hearted”). Cp. the later formulas of prayer for the
sick in App. Constit., viii. 10 and onwards; cp. Binterim, Denkwürdigkeiten, vi. 3, pp. 17 f.
200 Cp. 1 Cor. xii. 26: “If one member suffers, all the members suffer with it.”
similar account is given by Tertullian in his Apology (ch. xxxix.), where special stress is laid on
the church’s care for old people who are no longer fit for work. Justin is also our authority for the
existence of deacons whose business it was to attend the sick.
Not later than the close of the third century, the veneration of the saints and the rise of chapels
in honor of martyrs and saints led to a full-blown imitation of the Æsculapius-cult within the church.
Cures of sickness and infirmities were sought. Even the practice of incubation must have begun by
this time, if not earlier; otherwise it could not not have been so widely diffused in the fourth century.
The teachers of the church had previously repudiated it as heathenish; but, as often happens in
similar circumstances, it crept in, though with some alteration of its ceremonies.
In its early days the church formed a permanent establishment for the relief of sickness and
poverty, a function which it continued to discharge for several generations. It was based on the
broad foundation of the Christian congregation; it acquired a sanctity from the worship of the
congregation; and its operations were strictly centralized. The bishop was the superintendent (Apost.
Constit., iii. 4), and in many cases, especially in Syria and Palestine, he may have actually been a
physician himself.201 His executive or agents were the deacons and the order of “widows.” The
latter were at the same time to be secured against want, by being taken into the service of the church
122 (cp. 1 Tim. v. 16). Thus, in one instruction dating from the second century,202 we read that, “In
every congregation at least one widow is to be appointed to take care of sick women;203 she is to
be obliging and sober, she is to report cases of need to the elders, she is not to be greedy or addicted
to drink, in order that she may be able to keep sober for calls to service during the night.” She is
to “report cases of need to the elders,” i.e., she is to remain an assistant (cp. Syr. Didasc. xv. 79 f.).
Tertullian happens to remark (de Præscr. 41) in a censure of women belonging to the heretical
associations, that “they venture to teach, to debate, to exorcise, to promise cures, probably even to
baptize.” In the Eastern Church the order of widows seems to have passed on into that of
“deaconesses” at a pretty early date, but unfortunately we know nothing about this transition or
about the origin of these “deaconesses.”204
In the primitive church female assistants were quite thrown into the shadow by the men. The
deacons were the real agents of charity. Their office was onerous; it was exposed to grave peril,
especially in a time of persecution, and deacons furnished no inconsiderable proportion of the
martyrs. “Doers of good works, looking after all by day and night”—such is their description (Texte
201 Achelis (Texte u. Unters. xxv. 2 1904, p. 381) attempts to prove that the author of the Syriac Didascalia was at once a bishop
and a physician; he shows (p. 383) that similar combinations were not entirely unknown (cp. de Rossi’s Roma Sotter., tav. XXI.
9, epitaph from San Callisto, Διονυσιου ιατρου πρεσβυτερου; Zenobius, physician and martyr in Sidon in the reign of Diocletian,
Eus., H.E. viii. 13; a physician and bishop in Tiberias, Epiph., Hær. xxx. 4; Theodotus, physician and bishop in Laodicea Syr.;
Basilius, episcopus artis medicinæ gnarus, at Ancyra, Jerome, de Vir. Ill. 89; in Can. Hipp. iii. § 18, the gift of healing is asked
for the bishop and presbyter at ordination, while viii. § 53 presupposes that anyone who possessed this gift moved straightway
to be enrolled among the clergy). Cp. Texte u. Unters. viii. 4. pp. 1-14 (“Christian doctors”).
202 Cp. Texte u. Unters. ii. 5. p. 23.
203 “But thou, O widow, who art shameless, seest the widows, thy comrades, or thy brethren lying sick, yet troublest not to fast or
pray for them, to lay hands on them or to visit them, as if thou wert not in health thyself or free” (Syr. Didasc. xv. 80).
204 They are first mentioned in Pliny’s letter to Trajan.
u. Unters. ii. 5, p. 24), one of their main duties being to look after the poor and sick.205 How much
they had to do and how much they did, may be ascertained from Cyprian’s epistles206 and the genuine
123 Acts of the Martyrs. Nor were the laity to be exempted from the duty of tending the sick, merely
because special officials existed for that purpose. “The sick are not to be overlooked, nor is anyone
to say that he has not been trained to this mode of service. No one is to plead a comfortable life, or
the unwonted character of the duty, as a pretext for not being helpful to other people”—so runs a
letter of pseudo-Justin (c. xvii.) to Zenas and Serenus. The author of the pseudo-Clementine epistle
“de virginitate” brings out with special clearness the fact that to imitate Christ is to minister to the
sick, a duty frequently conjoined with that of “visiting orphans and widows” (visitare pupillos et
viduas). Eusebius (de mart. Pal. xi. 22) bears this testimony to the character of Seleucus, that like
a father and guardian he had shown himself a bishop and patron of orphans and destitute widows,
of the poor and of the sick. Many similar cases are on record. In a time of pestilence especially, the
passion of tender mercy was kindled in the heart of many a Christian. Often had Tertullian (Apolog.
xxxix.) heard on pagan lips the remark, corroborated by Lucian, “Look how they love one another!”207
As regards therapeutic methods, the case stood as it stands today. The more Christians renounced
and hated the world, the more skeptical and severe they were against ordinary means of healing
(cp.,e.g., Tatian’s Oratio xvii.-xviii.). There was a therapeutic “Christian science,” compounded
of old and new superstitions, and directed against more than the “dæmonic” cures (see the following
section). Compare, by way of proof, Tertullian’s Scorp. i: “We Christians make the sign of the
cross at once over a bitten foot, say a word of exorcism, and rub it with the blood of the crushed
animal.” Evidently the sign of the cross and the formula of exorcism were not sufficient by
themselves.
205 Cp. Ep. pseudo-Clem. ad Jacob. 12: οἱ τῆς ἐκκλησίας διάκονοι τοῦ ἐπισκόπου συνετῶς ῥεμβόμενοι ἔστωσαν ὀφθαλμοί, ἑκάστου
τῆς ἐκκλησίας πολυπραγμονοῦντες τὰς πράξεις . . . . τοὺς δὲ κατὰ σάρκα νοσοῦντας μανθανέτωσαν καὶ τῷ ἀγνοῦντι πλήθει
προσαντιβαλλέτωσαν, ἵν᾽ ἐπιφαίνωνται, καὶ τὰ δέοντα ἐπὶ τῇ τοῦ προκαθεζομένου γνώμῃ παρεχέτωσαν (“Let the deacons of
the church move about intelligently and act as eyes for the bishop, carefully inquiring into the actions of every church member
. . . let them find out those who are sick in the flesh, and bring such to the notice of the main body who know nothing of them,
that they may visit them and supply their wants, as the president may judge fit”).
206 In the epistles which he wrote to the church from his hiding-place, he is always reminding them not to neglect the sick.
207 I merely note in passing the conflict waged by the church against medical sins like abortion (Did. ii. 2; Barn. xix. 5; Tert., Apol.
ix.; Minuc. Felix., xxx. 2; Athenag., Suppl. xxxv.; Clem., Paed. ii. 10, 96, etc.), and the unnatural morbid vices of paganism. It
was a conflict in which the interests of the church were truly human; she maintained the value and dignity of human life, refusing
to allow it to be destroyed or dishonored at any stage of its development. With regard to these offences, she also exerted some
influence upon the State legislation, in and after the fourth century, although even in the third century the latter had already
approximated to her teaching on such points.
THE CONFLICT WITH DEMONS208
DURING the early centuries a belief in demons, and in the power they exercised throughout the
world, was current far and wide. There was also a corresponding belief in demon possession, in
consequence of which insanity frequently took the form of a conviction, on the part of the patients,
that they were possessed by one or more evil spirits. Though this form of insanity still occurs at
the present day, cases of it are rare, owing to the fact that wide circles of people have lost all belief
in the existence and activity of demons. But the forms and phases in which insanity manifests itself
always depend upon the general state of culture and the ideas current in the social environment, so
that whenever the religious life is in a state of agitation, and a firm belief prevails in the sinister
activity of evil spirits, “demon possession” still breaks out sporadically. Recent instances have even
shown that a convinced exorcist, especially if he is a religious man, is able to produce the phenomena
of “possession” in a company of people against their will, in order subsequently to cure them.
“Possession” is also infectious. Supposing that one case of this kind occurs in a church, and that it
is connected by the sufferer himself, or even by the priest, with sin in general or with some special
form of sin; supposing that he preaches upon it, addressing the church in stirring language, and
declaring that this is really devil’s play, then the first case will soon be followed by a second and
by a third.209 The most astounding phenomena occur, many of whose details are still inexplicable.
126 Everything is doubled—the consciousness of the sufferer, his will, his sphere of action. With perfect
sincerity on his own part (although it is always easy for frauds to creep in here), the man is at once
conscious of himself and also of another being who constrains and controls him from within. He
thinks and feels and acts, now as the one, now as the other; and under the conviction that he is a
double being, he confirms himself and his neighbors in this belief by means of actions which are
at once the product of reflection and of an inward compulsion. Inevitable self-deception, cunning
actions, and the most abject passivity form a sinister combination. But they complete our idea of
a psychical disease which usually betrays extreme susceptibility to “suggestion,” and, therefore,
for the time being often defies any scientific analysis, leaving it open to anyone to think of special
and mysterious forces in operation. In this region there are facts which we cannot deny, but which
we are unable to explain.210 Furthermore, there are “diseases” in this region which only attack
superhuman individuals, who draw from this “disease” a new life hitherto undreamt of, an energy
which triumphs over every obstacle, and a prophetic or apostolic zeal. We do not speak here of this
kind of “possession”; it exists merely for faith— or unbelief.
208 Based on the essay from which the previous section has largely borrowed. Cp. on this point Weinel, Die Wirkungen des Geistes
und der Geister im nachapost. Zeitalter (1899), pp. 1 f., and the article “Dämonische” in the Protest. Real Encykl., iv. , by J.
Weiss.
209 Tertullian (de Anima ix.) furnishes an excellent example of the way in which morbid spiritual states (especially visions) which
befell Christians in the church assemblies depended upon the preaching to which they had just listened. One sister, says Tertullian,
had a vision of a soul in bodily form, just after Tertullian had preached on the soul (probably it was upon the corporeal nature
of the soul). He adds quite ingenuously that the content of a vision was usually derived from the scriptures which had just been
read aloud, from the psalms, or from the sermons.
210 Cp. the biography of Blumhard by Zündel (1881); Ribot’s Les maladies de la personnalité (Paris, 1885), Les maladies de la
mémoire (Paris, 1881), and Les maladies de la volonté (Paris, 1883) [English translations of the second in the International
Scientific Series, and of the first and third in the Religion of Science Library, Chicago]; see also Jundt’s work, Rulman Merswin:
un problème de psychologie religieuse (Paris, 1890), especially pp. 96 f.; also the investigations of Forel and Krafft-Ebing.
In the case of ordinary people, when disease emerges in connection with religion, no unfavorable
issue need be anticipated. As a general rule, the religion which brings the disease to a head has also
127 the power of curing it, and this power resides in Christianity above all other religions. Wherever
an empty or a sinful life, which has almost parted with its vitality, is suddenly aroused by the
preaching of the Christian religion, so that dread of evil and its bondage passes into the idea of
actual “possession,” the soul again is freed from the latter bondage by the message of the grace of
God which has appeared in Jesus Christ. Evidence of this lies on the pages of church history, from
the very beginning down to the present day. During the first three centuries the description of such
cases flowed over into the margin of the page, whereas nowadays they are dismissed in a line or
two. But the reason for this change is to be found in the less frequent occurrence, not of the cure,
but of the disease.
The mere message or preaching of Christianity was not of course enough to cure the sick. It
had to be backed by a convinced belief or by some person who was sustained by this belief. The
cure was wrought by the praying man and not by prayer, by the Spirit and not by the formula, by
the exorcist and not by exorcism. Conventional means were of no use except in cases where the
disease became an epidemic and almost general, or in fact a conventional thing itself, as we must
assume it often to have been during the second century. The exorcist then became a mesmerist,
probably also a deluded impostor. But wherever a strong individuality was victimized by the demon
of fear, wherever the soul was literally convulsed by the grip of that power of darkness from which
it was now fain to flee, the will could only be freed from its bondage by some strong, holy, outside
will. Here and there cases occur of what modern observers, in their perplexity, term “suggestion.”
But “suggestion” was one thing to a prophet, and another thing to a professional exorcist.
In the form in which we meet it throughout the later books of the Septuagint, or in the New
Testament, or in the Jewish literature of the Imperial age, belief in the activity of demons was a
comparatively late development in Judaism. But during that period it was in full bloom.211 And it
was about this time that it also began to spread apace among the Greeks and Romans. How the
128 latter came by it, is a question to which no answer has yet been given. It is impossible to refer the
form of belief in demons which was current throughout the empire, in and after the second century,
solely to Jewish or even to Christian sources. But the naturalizing of this belief, or, more correctly,
the development along quite definite lines of that early Greek belief in spirits, which even the
subsequent philosophers (e.g., Plato) had supported — all this was a process to which Judaism and
Christianity may have contributed, no less than other Oriental religions, including especially the
Egyptian,212 whose priests had been at all times famous for exorcism. In the second century a regular
class of exorcists existed, just as at the present day in Germany there are “Naturärzte,” or Nature
211 Cp. the interesting passage in Joseph., Ant. viii. 2. 5:Παρέσχε Σολομῶνι μαθεῖν ὁ θεὸς καὶ τὴν κατὰ τῶν δαιμόνων τέχνην εἰς
ὠφέλειαν καὶ θεραπείαν τοῖς ἀνθρώποις· ἐπῳδάς τε συνταξάμενος αἷς παρηγορεῖται τὰ νοσήματα καὶ τρόπους ἐξορκώσεων
κατέλιπεν, οἷς οἱ ἐνδούμενοι τὰ δαιμόνια ὡς μηκέτ᾽ ἐπανελθεῖν ἐκδιώξουσι· καὶ αὕτη μέχρι νῦν παρ᾽ ἡμῖν ἡ θεραπεία πλεῖστον
ἰσχύει (“God enabled Solomon to learn the arts valid against demons, in order to aid and heal mankind. He composed incantations
for the alleviation of disease, and left behind him methods of exorcism by which demons can be finally expelled from people.
A method of healing which is extremely effective even in our own day”). Compare also the story that follows this remark. The
Jews must have been well known as exorcists throughout the Roman empire.
212 And also the Persian.
physicians, side by side with skilled doctors. Still, sensible people remained skeptical, while the
great jurist Ulpian refused (at a time when, as now, this was a burning question) to recognize such
practitioners as members of the order of physicians. He was even doubtful, of course, whether
“specialists” were physicians in the legal sense of the term.213
The characteristic features of belief in demons214 during the second century were as follows. In
the first place, the belief made its way upwards from the obscurity of the lower classes into the
upper classes of society, and became far more important than it had hitherto been; in the second
place, it was no longer accompanied by a vigorous, naïve, and open religion which kept it within
bounds; furthermore, the power of the demons, which had hitherto been regarded as morally
indifferent, now came to represent their wickedness; and finally, when the new belief was applied
to the life of individuals, its consequences embraced psychical diseases as well as physical. In view
of all these considerations, the extraordinary spread of belief in demons, and the numerous outbursts
of demonic disease, are to be referred to the combined influence of such well-known factors as the
dwindling of faith in the old religions, which characterized the Imperial age, together with the rise
of a feeling on the part of the individual that he was free and independent, and therefore flung upon
his inmost nature and his own responsibility. Free now from any control or restraint of tradition,
the individual wandered here and there amid the lifeless, fragmentary, and chaotic debris of traditions
belonging to a world in process of dissolution; now he would pick up this, now that, only to discover,
himself at last driven, often by fear and hope, to find a deceptive support or a new disease in the
absurdest of them all.215
Such was the situation of affairs encountered by the gospel. It has been scoffingly remarked
that the gospel produced the very diseases which it professed itself able to cure. The scoff is justified
in certain cases, but in the main it recoils upon the scoffer. The gospel did bring to a head the
diseases which it proceeded to cure. It found them already in existence, and intensified them in the
course of its mission. But it also cured them, and no flight of the imagination can form any idea of
what would have come over the ancient world or the Roman empire during the third century, had
it not been for the church. Professors like Libanius or his colleagues in the academy at Athens, are
130 of course among the immortals; people like that could maintain themselves without any serious
change from century to century. But no nation thrives upon the food of rhetoricians and philosophers.
At the close of the fourth century Rome had only one Symmachus, and the East had only one
Synesius. But then, Synesius was a Christian.
In what follows I propose to set down, without note or comment, one or two important notices
of demon-possession and its cure from the early history of the church. In the case of one passage
213 Cp. the remarkable passage in Dig. Leg. xiii. c. 1, § 3: Medicos fortassis quis accipiet etiam eos qui alicuius partis corporis vel
certi doloris sanitatem pollicentur: ut puta si auricularis, si fistulæ vel dentium, non tamen si incantavit, si inprecatus est si ut
vulgari verbo impostorum utar, exorcizavit: non sunt ista medicinæ genera, tametsi sint, qui hos sibi profuisse cum praedicatione
adfirmant (“Perchance we should admit as physicians those also who undertake to cure special parts of the body or particular
diseases, as, for example, the ear, ulcers, or the teeth; yet not if they employ incantations or spells, or—to use the term current
among such impostors—if they ‘exorcise.’ Though there are people who loudly maintain that they have been helped thereby.”)
214 The scientific statement and establishment of this belief, in philosophy, goes back to Xenocrates; after him Posidonius deserves
special mention. Cp. Apuleius, de Deo Socratis.
215 Jas. iii. 15 speaks of a σοφία δαιμονιώδης.
I shall sketch the spread and shape of belief in demons. This Tertullian has described, and it is a
mistake to pass Tertullian by.—In order to estimate the significance of exorcism for primitive
Christianity, one must remember that according to the belief of Christians the Son of God came
into the world to combat Satan and his kingdom. The evangelists, especially Luke, have depicted
the life of Jesus from the temptation onwards as an uninterrupted conflict with the devil; what he
came for was to destroy the works of the devil. In Mark (i. 32) we read how many that were possessed
were brought to Jesus, and healed by him, as he cast out the demons (i. 34). “He suffered not the
demons to speak, for they knew him” (see also Luke iv. 34, 41). In i. 39 there is the general statement:
“He preached throughout all Galilee in the synagogues and cast out the demons.” When he sent
forth the twelve disciples, he conferred on them the power of exorcising (iii. 15), a power which
they forthwith proceeded to exercise (vi. 13; for the Seventy, see Luke x. 17); whilst the scribes at
Jerusalem declared he had Beelzebub,216 and that he cast out demons with the aid of their prince.217
The tale of the “unclean spirits” who entered a herd of swine is quite familiar (v. 2), forming, as it
does, one of the most curious fragments of the sacred story, which has vainly taxed the powers of
believing and of rationalistic criticism. Another story which more immediately concerns our present
purpose is that of the Canaanite woman and her possessed daughter (vii. 25 f.). Matt. vii. 15 f.
131 (Luke ix. 38) shows that epileptic fits, as well as other nervous disorders (e.g., dumbness, Matt.
xii. 22, Luke xi. 14), were also included under demon-possession. It is further remarkable that even
during the lifetime of Jesus exorcists who were not authorized by him exorcised devils in his name.
This gave rise to a significant conversation between Jesus and John (Mark ix. 38). John said to
Jesus, “Master, we saw a man casting out demons in thy name, and we forbade him, because he
did not follow us.” But Jesus answered, “Forbid him not. No one shall work a deed of might in my
name and then deny me presently; for he who is not against us, is for us.” On the other hand, another
saying of our Lord numbers people who have never known him (Matt. vii. 22) among those who
cast out devils in his name. From one woman among his followers Jesus was known afterwards to
have cast out “seven demons” (Mark xvi. 9, Luke viii. 2), and among the mighty deeds of which
all believers were to be made capable, the unauthentic conclusion of Mark’s gospel enumerates
exorcism (xvi. 17).218
It was as exorcisers that Christians went out into the great world, and exorcism formed one very
powerful method of their mission and propaganda. It was a question not simply of exorcising and
vanquishing the demons that dwelt in individuals, but also of purifying all public life from them.
For the age was ruled by the black one and his hordes (Barnabas); it “lieth in the evil one,” κεῖται
ἐν πονηρῷ (John). Nor was this mere theory; it was a most vital conception of existence. The whole
world and the circumambient atmosphere were filled with devils; not merely idolatry, but every
phase and form of life was ruled by them. They sat on thrones, they hovered around cradles. The
earth was literally a hell, though it was and continued to be a creation of God. To encounter this
hell and all its devils, Christians had command of weapons that were invincible. Besides the evidence
216 John the Baptist was also said to have been possessed (cp. Matt. xi. 18).
217 Jesus himself explains that he casts out demons by aid of the spirit of God (Matt. xii. 28), but he seems to have been repeatedly
charged with possessing the devil and with madness (cp. John vii. 20, viii. 48 f., x. 20).
218 Indeed, it is put first of all.
drawn from the age of their holy scriptures, they pointed to the power of exorcism committed to
them, which routed evil spirits, and even forced them to bear witness to the truth of Christianity.
132 “We,” says Tertullian towards the close of his Apology (ch. xlvi.), “we have stated our case fully,
as well as the evidence for the correctness of our statement— that is, the trustworthiness and
antiquity of our sacred writings, and also the testimony borne by the demonic powers themselves
(in our favor).” Such was the stress laid on the activity of the exorcists.219
In Paul’s epistles,220 in Pliny’s letter, and in the Didachê, they are never mentioned.221 But from
Justin downwards, Christian literature is crowded with allusions to exorcisms, and every large
church at any rate had exorcists. Originally these men were honored as persons endowed with
special grace, but afterwards they constituted a class by themselves, in the lower hierarchy, like
lectors and sub-deacons. By this change they lost their pristine standing.222 The church sharply
distinguished between exorcists who employed the name of Christ, and pagan sorcerers, magicians,
etc.;223 but she could not protect herself adequately against mercenary impostors, and several of her
exorcists were just as dubious characters as her “prophets.” The hotbed of religious frauds was in
Egypt, as we learn from Lucian’s Peregrinus Proteus, from Celsus, and from Hadrian’s letter to
Servian.224 At a very early period pagan exorcists appropriated the names of the patriarchs (cp.
133 Orig., c. Cels. I. xxii.), of Solomon, and even of Jesus Christ, in their magical formulæ; even Jewish
exorcists soon began to introduce the name of Jesus in their incantations.225 The church, on the
contrary, had to warn her own exorcists not to imitate the heathen. In the pseudo-Clementine de
Virginitate we read (i. 12): “For those who are brethren in Christ it is fitting and right and comely
to visit people who are vexed with evil spirits, and to pray and utter exorcisms over them, in the
rational language of prayer acceptable to God, not with a host of fine words neatly arranged and
studied in order to win the reputation among men of being eloquent and possessed of a good memory.
Such folk are just like a sounding pipe, or a tinkling cymbal, of not the least use to those over whom
they pronounce their exorcisms. They simply utter terrible words and scare people with them, but
never act according to a true faith such as that enjoined by the Lord when he taught that ‘this kind
goeth not out save by fasting and prayer offered unceasingly, and by a mind earnestly bent (on
God).’ Let then make holy requests and entreaties to God, cheerfully, circumspectly, and purely,
219 In the pseudo-Clementine epistle “on Virginity” (i. 10), the reading of Scripture, exorcism, and teaching are grouped as the most
important functions in religion.
220 See, however, Eph. vi. 12; 2 Cor. xii. 7, etc.
221 No explanation has yet been given of the absence of exorcism in Paul. His doctrine of sin, however, was unfavorable to such
222 The history of exorcism (as practised at baptism, and elsewhere on its own account) and of exorcists is far too extensive to be
discussed here; besides, in some departments it has not yet been sufficiently investigated. Much information may still be anticipated
from the magical papyri, of which an ever-increasing number are coming to light. So far as exorcism and exorcists entered into
the public life of the church, see Probst’s Sakramente und Sakramentalien, pp. 39 f., and Kirchliche Disziplin, pp. 116 f.
223 Cp. the apologists, Origen’s reply to Celsus, and the injunction in the Canons of Hippolytus (Texte u. Unters. vi. 4, pp. 83 f.):
“Οἰωνιστής vel magus vet astrologus, hariolus, somniorum interpres, praestigiator . . . . vel qui phylacteria conficit . . . . hi omnes
et qui sunt similes his neque instruendi neque baptizandi sunt.” Observe also the polemic against the magical arts of the Gnostics.
224 Vopiscus, Saturn. 8: “Nemo illic archisynagogus Judaeorum, nemo Samarites, nemo Christianorum presbyter, non mathematicus,
non haruspex, non aliptes.”
225 Compare the story of the Jewish exorcists in Acts xix. 13: “Now certain of the itinerant Jewish exorcists also undertook to
pronounce the name of the Lord Jesus over those who were possessed by evil spirits. ‘I adjure you,’ they said, ‘by the Jesus
whom Paul preaches.’” It is admitted, in the pseudo-Cypr. de Rebapt. vii., that even non-Christians were frequently able to drive
out demons by using the name of Christ.
without hatred or malice. For such is the manner in which we are to visit a sick (possessed) brother
or a sister . . . . without guile or covetousness or noise or talkativeness or pride or any behavior
alien to piety, but with the meek and lowly spirit of Christ. Let them exorcise the sick with fasting
and with prayer; instead of using elegant phrases, neatly arranged and ordered, let them act frankly
like men who have received the gift of healing from God, to God’s glory. By your fastings and
prayers and constant watching, together with all the rest of your good works, mortify the works of
the flesh by the power of the Holy Spirit. He who acts thus is a temple of the Holy Spirit of God.
134 Let him cast out demons, and God will aid him therein. . . . The Lord has given the command to
‘cast out demons’ and also enjoined the duty of healing in other ways, adding, ‘Freely ye have
received, freely give.’ A great reward from God awaits those who serve their brethren with the gifts
which God has bestowed upon themselves.” Justin writes (Apol. II. vi.): “The Son of God became
man in order to destroy the demons. This you can now learn from what transpires under your own
eyes. For many of our Christian people have healed a large number of demoniacs throughout the
whole world, and also in your own city, exorcising them in the name of Jesus Christ, who was
crucified under Pontius Pilate; yet all other exorcists, magicians, and dealers in drugs failed to heal
such people. Yea, and such Christians continue still to heal them, by rendering the demons impotent
and expelling them from the men whom they possessed.” In his dialogue against the Jews (lxxxv.),
Justin also writes: “Every demon exorcised in the name of the Son of God, the First-born of all
creatures, who was born of a virgin and endured human suffering, who was crucified by your nation
under Pontius Pilate, who died and rose from the dead and ascended into heaven—every demon
exorcised in this name is mastered and subdued. Whereas if you exorcise in the name of any king
or righteous man, or prophet, or patriarch, who has been one of yourselves, no demon will be subject
to you. . . . Your exorcists, I have already said, are like the Gentiles in using special arts, employing
fumigation and magic incantations.” From this passage we infer that the Christian formulae of
exorcism contained the leading facts of the story of Christ.226 And Origen says as much, quite
unmistakably, in his reply to Celsus (I. vi.): “The power of exorcism lies in the name of Jesus,
which is uttered as the stories of his life are being narrated.”227
Naturally one feels very skeptical in reading how various parties in Christianity denied each
other the power of exorcism, explaining cures as due either to mistakes or to deception. So Irenæus
(II. xxxi. 2): “The adherents of Simon and Carpocrates and the other so-called workers of miracles
were convicted of acting as they acted, not by the power of God, nor in truth, nor for the good of
men, but to destroy and deceive men by means of magical illusions and universal deceit. They do
more injury than good to those who believe in them, inasmuch as they are deceivers. For neither
can they give sight to the blind or hearing to the deaf, nor can they rout any demons save those sent
by themselves—if they can do even that.”228 With regard to his own church, Irenæus (cp. below,
226 In the formula of exorcism the most important part was the mention of the crucifixion; cp. Justin’s Dial. xxx., xlix., lxxvi.
227 Ἰσχύειν δοκοῦσιν . . . . τῷ ὀνόματι Ἰησοῦ μετὰ τῆς ἐπαγγελίας τῶν περὶ αὐτὸν ἱστοριῶν.
228 Cp. the sorry and unsuccessful attempts of the church in Asia to treat the Montanist prophetesses as demoniacs who required
exorcism. Compare with this Firmilian’s account (Cypr., Epist. lxxv. 10) of a Christian woman who felt herself to be a prophetess,
and “deceived” many people: Subito apparuit illi unus de exorcistis, vir probatus et circa religiosam disciplinam bene semper
conversatus, qui exhortatione quoque fratrum plurimorum qui et ipsi fortes ac laudabiles in fide aderant excitatus erexit se contra
illum spiritum nequam revincendum . . . . ille exorcista inspiratus dei gratia fortiter restitit et esse illum nequissimum spiritum
qui prius sanctus putabatur ostendit (“Suddenly there appeared before her one of the exorcists, a tried man, of irreproachable
ch. iv.) was convinced that the very dead were brought back to life by its members. In this, he
maintains, there was neither feint, nor error, nor deception, but astounding fact, as in the case of
our Lord himself. “In the name of Jesus, his true disciples, who have received grace from him, do
fulfill a healing ministry in aid of other men, even as each has received the free gift of grace from
him. Some surely and certainly drive out demons, so that it frequently happens that those thus
purged from demons also believe and become members of the church.229 Others again, possess a
fore-knowledge of the future, with visions and prophetic utterances. . . . . And what shall I more
say? For it is impossible to enumerate the spiritual gifts and blessings which, all over the world,
136 the church has received from God in the name of Jesus Christ, who was crucified under Pontius
Pilate, and which she exercises day by day for the healing of the pagan world, without deceiving
or taking money from any person. For as she has freely received them from God, so also does she
freely give” (ἰατροὶ ἀνάργυροι).
The popular notion prevalent among the early Christians, as among the later Jews, was that,
apart from the innumerable hosts of demons who disported themselves unabashed throughout
history and nature, every individual had beside him a good angel who watched over him, and an
evil spirit who lay in wait for him (cp., e.g., the “Shepherd” of Hermas). If he allowed himself to
be controlled by the latter, he was thereby “possessed,” in the strict sense of the word; i.e., sin itself
was possession. This brings out admirably the slavish dependence to which any man is reduced
who abandons himself to his own impulses, though the explanation is naively simple. In the belief
in demons, as that belief dominated the Christian world in the second and third centuries, it is easy
to detect features which stamp it as a reactionary movement hostile to contemporary culture. Yet
it must not be forgotten that the heart of it enshrined a moral and consequently a spiritual advance,.
viz., in a quickened sense of evil, as well as in a recognition of the power of sin and of its dominion
in the world. Hence it was that a mind of such high culture as Tertullian’s could abandon itself to
this belief in demons. It is interesting to notice how the Greek and Roman elements are bound up
with the Jewish Christian in his detailed statement of the belief (in the Apology), and I shall now
quote this passage in full. It occurs in connection with the statement that while demons are ensconced
behind the dead gods of wood and stone, they are forced by Christians to confess what they are,
viz., not gods at all, but unclean spirits. At several points we catch even here the tone of irony and
sarcasm over these “poor devils” which grew so loud in the Middle Ages, and yet never shook
belief in theist. But, on the whole, the description is extremely serious. People who fancy at this
time of day that they would possess primitive Christianity if they only enforced certain primitive
137 rules of faith, may perhaps discover from what follows the sort of coefficients with which that
Christianity was burdened.230
conduct in the matter of religious discipline. At the urgent appeal of many brethren present, themselves as courageous and
praiseworthy in the faith, he roused himself to meet and master that wicked spirit. . . . Inspired by the grace of God, that exorcist
made a brave resistance, and showed that the spirit which had previously been deemed holy, was in reality most evil”).
229 Still it seems to have been made a matter of reproach, in the third century, if any one had suffered from possession. Cornelius
taxes Novatian (cp. Euseb., H.E. vi. 43) with having been possessed by a demon before his baptism, and having been healed by
an exorcist.
230 Next to Tertullian, it is his predecessor Tatian who has given the most exact description of the Christian doctrine of demons (in
his Oratio ad Græcos vii.-xviii.). The demons introduced “Fatum” and polytheism. To believers, i.e., to men of the Spirit
(πνευμάτικοι), they are visible, but psychic men (ψύχικοι) are either unable to see them, or only see them at rare intervals
“We Christians,” says Tertullian (ch. xxii. f.), “affirm the existence of certain spiritual beings.
Nor is their name new. The philosophers recognize demons; Socrates himself waited on a demon’s
impulse, and no wonder—for a demon is said to have been his companion from childhood, detaching
his mind, I have no doubt, from what was good! The poets, too, recognize demons, and even the
ignorant masses use them often in their oaths. In fact, they appeal in their curses to Satan, the prince
of this evil gang, with a sort of instinctive knowledge of him in their very souls. Plato himself does
not deny the existence of angels, and even the magicians attest both kinds of spiritual beings. But
it is our sacred scriptures which record how certain angels, who fell of their own free will, produced
a still more fallen race of demons, who were condemned by God together with their progenitors
and with that prince to whom we have already alluded. Here we cannot do more than merely describe
their doings. The ruin of man was their sole aim. From the outset man’s overthrow was essayed by
these spirits in their wickedness. Accordingly they proceed to inflict diseases and evil accidents of
all kinds on our bodies, while by means of violent assaults they produce sudden and extraordinary
excesses of the soul. Both to soul and to body they have access by their subtle and extremely fine
substance. Invisible and intangible, those spirits are not visible in the act; it is in their effects that
they are frequently observed, as when, for example, some mysterious poison in the breeze blights
138 the blossom of fruit trees and the grain, or nips them in the bud, or destroys the ripened fruit, the
poisoned atmosphere exhaling, as it were, some noxious breath. With like obscurity, the breath of
demons and of angels stirs up many a corruption in the soul by furious passions, vile excesses, or
cruel lusts accompanied by varied errors, the worst of which is that these deities commend themselves
to the ensnared and deluded souls of men,231 in order to get their favorite food of flesh—fumes and
of blood offered up to the images and statues of the gods. And what more exquisite food could be
theirs than to divert then from the thought of the true God by means of false illusions? How these
illusions are managed, I shall now explain. Every spirit is winged; angel and demon alike. Hence
in an instant they are everywhere. The whole world is just one place to them. ’Tis as easy for them
to know as to announce any occurrence; and as people are ignorant of their nature, their velocity
is taken for divinity. Thus they would have themselves sometimes thought to be the authors of the
events which they merely report—and authors, indeed, they are, not of good, but occasionally of
evil events. The purposes of Divine providence were also caught up by them of old from the lips
of the prophets, and at present from the public reading of their works. So picking up in this way a
partial knowledge of the future, they set up a rival divinity for themselves by purloining prophecy.
But well do your Crœsuses and Pyrrhuses know the clever ambiguity with which these oracles were
framed in view of the future. . . . . As they dwell in the air, close to the stars, and in touch with the
clouds, they can discern the preliminary processes in the sky, and thus are able to promise the rain
whose coming they already feel. Truly they are most kind in their concern for health! First of all,
they make you ill; then, to produce the impression of a miracle, they enjoin the use of remedies
(xv.-xvi.). Illnesses arise from the body, but demons assume the final responsibility for them. “Sometimes, indeed, they convulse
our physical state with a storm of their incorrigible wickedness; but smitten by a powerful word of God they depart in terror,
and the sick man is cured.” Tatian does not deny, as a rule, that possessed persons are often healed, even apart from the aid of
Christians. In the pseudo-Clementine Homilies (ix. 10. 16-18) there is also important information upon demons. For the Christian
belief in demons, consult also Diels, Elementum (1899), especially pp. 50 f.
231 This ranks as the chef-d’œuvre of iniquity on the part of the demons; they are responsible for introducing polytheism, i.e., they
get worshipped under the images of dead gods, and profit by sacrifices, whose odor they enjoy.
which are either unheard of or have quite an opposite effect; lastly, by withdrawing their injurious
influence, they get the credit of having worked a cure. Why, then, should I speak further of their
other tricks or even of their powers of deception as spirits—of the Castor apparitions, of water
139 carried in a sieve, of a ship towed by a girdle, of a beard reddened at a touch—things done to get
men to believe in stones as gods, instead of seeking after the true God?
“Moreover, if magicians call up ghosts and even bring forward the souls of the dead, if they
strangle boys in order to make the oracle speak, if they pretend to perform many a miracle by means
of their quackery and juggling, if they even send dreams by aid of those angels and demons whose
power they have invoked (and, thanks to them, it has become quite a common thing for the very
goats and tables to divine), how much more keen will be this evil power in employing all its energies
to do, of its own accord and for its own ends, what serves another’s purpose? Or, if the deeds of
angels and demons are exactly the same as those of your gods, where is the pre-eminence of the
latter, which must surely be reckoned superior in might to all else? Is it not a more worthy conception
that the former make themselves gods by exhibiting the very credentials of the gods, than that the
gods are on a level with angels and demons? Locality, I suppose you will say, locality makes a
difference; in a temple you consider beings to be gods whom elsewhere you would not recognize
as such! . . . .
“But hitherto it has been merely a question of words. Now for facts, now for a proof that ‘gods’
and ‘demons’ are but different statues for one and the same substance. Place before your tribunals
any one plainly possessed by a demon. Bidden speak by any Christian whatsoever, that spirit will
confess he is a demon, just as frankly elsewhere he will falsely pretend to be a god.232 Or, if you
like, bring forward any one of those who are supposed to be divinely possessed, who conceive
divinity from the fumes which they inhale bending over an altar, and (“ructando curantur”) are
delivered of it by retching, giving vent to it in gasps. Let the heavenly virgin herself, who promises
rain, let that teacher o£ healing arts, Æsculapius, ever ready to prolong the life of those who are on
the point of death, with Socordium, Tenatium (?), and Asclepiadotum—let them then and there
140 shed the blood of that daring Christian, if—in terror of lying to a Christian—they fail to admit they
are demons. Could any action be more plain? Any proof more cogent? Truth in its simplicity stands
here before your eyes; its own worth supports it; suspicion there can be none. Say you, it is a piece
of magic or a trick of some sort? . . . . What objection can be brought against something exhibited
in its bare reality? If, on the one hand, they (the demons) are really gods, why do they pretend (at
our challenge) to be demons? From fear of us? Then your so-called ‘Godhead’ is subordinated to
us, and surely no divinity can be attributed to what lies under the control of men. . . . . So that
‘Godhead’ of yours proves to be no godhead at all; for if it were, demons would not pretend to it,
nor would gods deny it. . . . . Acknowledge that there is but one species of such beings, namely,
demons, and that the gods are nothing else. Look out, then, for gods! For now you find that those
whom you formerly took for such, are demons.”
In what follows, Tertullian declares that the demons, on being questioned by Christians, not
only confess they are themselves demons, but also confess the Christian’s God as the true God.
232 In this, as in some other passages of the Apology, Tertullian’s talk is too large.
“Fearing God in Christ, and Christ in God, they become subject to the servants of God and Christ.
Thus at our touch and breath, overpowered by the consideration and contemplation of the (future)
fire, they leave human bodies at our command, reluctantly and sadly, and—in your
presence—shamefacedly. You believe their lies; they believe them when they tell the truth about
themselves. When anyone lies, it is not to disgrace but to glorify himself. . . . . Such testimonies
from your so-called deities usually result in a making people Christians.”
In ch. xxvii. Tertullian meets the obvious retort that if demons were actually subject to Christians,
the latter could not possibly succumb helplessly to the persecutions directed against them. Tertullian
contradicts this. The demons, he declares, are certainly like slaves under the control of the Christians,
but like good-for-nothing slaves they sometimes blend fear and contumacy, eager to injure those
of whom they stand in awe. “At a distance they oppose us, but at close quarters they beg for mercy.
Hence, like slaves that have broken loose from workhouses, or prisons, or mines, or any form of
141 penal servitude, they break out against us, though they are in our power, well aware of their
impotence, and yet rendered the more abandoned thereby. We resist this horde unwillingly, the
same as if they were still unvanquished, stoutly maintaining the very position which they attack,
nor is our triumph over them ever more complete than when we are condemned for our persistent
In ch. xxxvii. Tertullian once more sums up the service which Christians render to pagans by
means of their exorcists. “Were it not for us, who would free you from those hidden foes that are
ever making havoc of your health in soul and body—from those raids of the demons, I mean, which
we repel from you without reward or hire?” He says the same thing in his address to the magistrate
Scapula (ii.): “We do more than repudiate the demons: we overcome them, we expose then daily
to contempt, and exorcise them from their victims, as is well known to many people.”233 This
endowment of Christians must therefore have been really acknowledged far and wide, and in a
number of passages Tertullian speaks as if every Christian possessed it.234 It would be interesting
if we could only ascertain how far these cures of psychical diseases were permanent. Unfortunately,
nothing is known upon the point, and yet this is a province where nothing is more common than a
merely temporary success.
Like Tertullian, Minucius Felix in his “Octavius” has also treated this subject, partly in the
same words as Tertullian (ch. xxvii.).235 The apologist Theophilus (ad Autolyc. ii. 8) writes: “The
Greek poet spoke under the inspiration, not of a pure, but of a lying spirit, as is quite obvious from
142 the fact that even in our own day possessed people are sometimes still exorcised in the name of the
true God, whereupon their lying spirits themselves confess that they are demons, the actual demons
233 See also the interesting observations in de Anima i.
234 2Cp., for example, de Corona xi. Other Christian writers also express themselves to the same effect, e.g., the speech of Peter in
the pseudo-Clementine Homilies (ix. 19), which declares that Christians at baptism obtain a gift of healing other people by means
of exorcisms: “Sometimes the demons will flee if you but look on them, for they know those who have surrendered themselves
to God, and flee in terror because they honor such people” (ἐνίοτε δὲ οἱ δαίμονες μόνον ἐνιδόντων ὑμῶν φεύξονται· ἴσασιν
γὰρ τοὺς ἀποδεδωκότας ἑαυτοὺς τῷ θεῷ, διὸ τιμῶντες αὐτοὺς πεφοβημένοι φεύγουσιν).
235 “Adjurati (daemones) per deum verum et solum inviti miseris corporibus inhorrescunt, et vel exiliunt statim vel evanescunt
gradatim, prout fides patientis adiuvat aut gratia curantis adspirat. Sic Christianos de proximo fugitant, quos longe in coetibus
per vos lacessebant,” etc.
who formerly were at work in the poets.” This leads us to assume that the possessed frequently
cried out the name of “Apollo” or of the Muses at the moment of exorcising. As late as the middle
of the third century Cyprian also speaks, like earlier authors, of demonic cures wrought by Christians
(ad Demetr. xv.): “O if thou wouldst but hear and see the demons when they are adjured by us,
tormented by spiritual scourges, and driven from the possessed bodies by racking words; when
howling and groaning with human voices (!), and feeling by the power of God the stripes and blows,
they have to confess the judgment to come! Come and see that what we say is true. And forasmuch
as thou sayest thou dost worship the gods, then believe even those whom thou dost worship. Thou
wilt see how those whom thou implorest implore us; how those of whom thou art in awe stand in
awe of us. Thou wilt see how they stand bound under our hands, trembling like prisoners—they to
whom thou dost look up with veneration as thy lords. Verily thou wilt be made ashamed in these
errors of thine, when thou seest and hearest how thy gods, when cross-questioned by us, at once
yield up the secret of their being, unable, even before you, to conceal those tricks and frauds of
theirs.”236 Similarly in the treatise To Donatus (ch. v.): “In Christianity there is conferred (upon
pure chastity, upon a pure mind, upon pure speech) the gift of healing the sick by rendering poisonous
potions harmless, by restoring the deranged to health, and thus purifying them from ignominious
pains, by commanding peace for the hostile, rest for the violent, and gentleness for the unruly, by
143 forcing—under stress of threats and invective—a confession from unclean and roving spirits who
have come to dwell within mankind, by roughly ordering them out, and stretching them out with
struggles, howls, and groans, as their sufferings on the rack increase, by lashing them with scourges,
and burning them with fire. This is what goes on, though no one sees it; the punishments are hidden,
but the penalty is open. Thus what we have already begun to be, that is, the Spirit we have received,
comes into its kingdom.” The Christian already rules with regal power over the entire host of his
raging adversary.237
Most interesting of all are the discussions between Celsus and Origen on demons and possessed
persons, since the debate here is between two men who occupied the highest level of contemporary
culture.238 Celsus declared that Christians owed the power they seemed to possess to their invocation
and adjuration of certain demons.239 Origen retorted that the power of banishing demons was actually
236 See also Quod Idola Dei non sint (vii.), and Cypr., Ep. lxix. 15: “Hodie etiam geritur, ut per exorcistas voce humana et potestate
divina flagelletur et uratur et torqueatur diabolus, et cum exire se et homines dei dimittere saepe dicat, in eo tamen quod dixerit
fallat . . . . cum tamen ad aquam salutarem adque ad baptismi sanctificationem venitur, scire debemus et fidere [which sounds
rather hesitating], quia illic diabolus opprimitur” (“This goes on today as well, in the scourging and burning and torturing of the
devil at the hands of exorcists, by means of the human voice and the divine power, and in his declaring that he will go out and
leave the men of God alone, yet proving untrue in what he says. . . . . However, when the water of salvation and the sanctification
of baptism is reached, we ought to know and trust that the devil is crushed there”).
237 Compare with this Lactantius, Divin. Instit. ii. 15, iv. 27, who repeats in part the description of Cyprian, but lays special emphasis
on the sign of the cross as a means of salvation from demons.
238 Origen (in Hom. xv. 5, in Jesu Nave xi., pp. 141 f.) has developed a theory of his own to explain the suppression of demons by
the church, especially in the light of its bearing upon the spread of Christianity. “Anyone who vanquishes a demon in himself,
e.g., the demon of lewdness, puts it out of action; the demon is cast into the abyss, and cannot do any harm to anyone. Hence
there are far fewer demons now than before; hence, also, a large number of demons having been overthrown, the heathen are
new free to believe, as they would not be did whole legions of demons exist as formerly” (“Et inde est quod plurimo daemonum
numero iam victo ad credulitatem venire gentes relaxantur, qui utique nullatenus sinerentur, si integras eorum, sicut prius fuerant,
subsisterent legiones”).
239 The ethical principles of Christianity, says Celsus (I. iv. f.), are common to Christians and philosophers alike, while the apparent
strength of the former lies in the names of a few demons and in incantations.
vested in the name of Jesus and the witness of his life, and that the name of Jesus was so powerful
that it operated by itself even when uttered by immoral persons (c. Cels. I. vi.). Both Origen and
Celsus, then, believed in demons; and elsewhere (e.g., I. xxiv. f.) Origen adduces the old idea of
the power exercised by the utterance of certain “names”; in fact, he indicates a secret “science of
names”240 which confers power on the initiated, although of course one had to be very careful to
144 recite the names in the proper language. “When recited in the Egyptian tongue, the one class is
specially efficacious in the case of certain spirits whose power does not extend beyond such things
and such a sphere, whilst the other class is effective with some spirits if recited in Persian, and so
forth.” “The name of Jesus also comes under this science of names, as it has already expelled
numerous spirits from the souls and bodies of mankind and shown its power over those who have
thus been freed from possession.”241 Origen several times cites the fact of successful exorcism (I.
xlvi., xlvii.), and the fact is not denied by Celsus, who admits even the “miracles” of Jesus. Only,
his explanation was very different (lxviii.). “The magicians,” he said, “undertake still greater
marvels, and men trained in the schools of Egypt profess like exploits, people who for a few pence
will sell their reverend arts in the open market-place, expelling demons from people, blowing
diseases away with their breath, calling up the spirits of the heroes, exhibiting expensive viands,
with tables, cakes, and dainties, which are really non-existent, and setting inanimate things in motion
as if they really possessed life, whereas they have but the semblance of animals. If any juggler is
able to perform feats of this kind, must we on that account regard him as ‘God’s son’? Must we
not rather declare that such accomplishments are merely the contrivances of knaves possessed by
evil demons?” Christians are jugglers or sorcerers or both; Christ also was a master of demonic
arts—such was the real opinion of Celsus.242 Origen was at great pains to controvert this very
grievous charge (see, e.g., I. lxviii.). And he succeeded. He could appeal to the unquestionable fact
145 that all Christ’s works were wrought with the object of benefiting men.243 Was it so with magicians?
Still, in this reproach of Celsus there lay a serious monition for the church and for the Christians,
a monition which more than Celsus canvassed. As early as the middle of the second century a
Christian preacher had declared, “The name of the true God is blasphemed among the heathen by
reason of us Christians; for if we fulfill not the commands of God, but lead an unworthy life, they
turn away and blaspheme, saying that our teaching is merely a fresh myth and error.”244 From the
middle of the second century onwards the cry was often raised against Christians, that they were
jugglers and necromancers, and not a few of them were certainly to blame for such a charge.245
240 Περὶ ὀνομάτων τὰ ἐν ἀπορρήτοις φιλοσοφεῖν.
241 See on this point the statement of Origen’s pupil Dionysius, Bishop of Alexandria (in Euseb., H.E. vii. 10. 4), for the reason
why the Valerian persecution broke out. Here pagan and Christian exorcisers opposed each other. Of the latter, Dionysius says:
“There are and were among them many persons whose very presence and look, though they merely breathed and spoke, were
able to scatter the delusive counsels of the sinful demons.” Local persecution of Christians elsewhere, and indeed the great
persecution under Diocletian, arose in this way, pagan priests affirming that the presence of Christians who attended the sacrifices
hindered their saving influence, etc.
242 He gives his opinion of the Gnostic exorcisers in particular in VI. xxxix. f.
243 Cp., e.g., III. xxviii., and I. lxviii.
244 2 Clem. xiii. 3, μῦθόν τινα καὶ πλάνην.
245 Origen, who himself admits that Christian exorcists were usually uneducated people, asserts deliberately and repeatedly that
they employed neither magic nor sorcery but prayer alone and “formulæ of exorcism which are so plain that even the plainest
man can make use of them” (c. Cels. VII. iv.: σὺν οὐδενὶ περιέργῳ καὶ μαγικῷ ἢ φαρμακευτικῷ πράγματι, ἀλλὰ μόνῃ εὐχῇ καὶ
ὁρκώσεσιν ἁπλουστέραις καὶ ὅσα ἂν δύναιτο προσάγειν ἁπλούστερος ἄνθρωπος. Cp. Comm. in Matth. xiii. 7, vol. iii., p. 224).
Cures of demon-possession practised by unspiritual men as a profession must have produced a
repellent impression on more serious people, despite the attractive power which they did exercise
(Tert., Apol. xxiii., “Christianos facere consuerunt”). Besides, frivolous or ignorant Christians must
often have excused themselves for their sins by pleading that a demon had seduced them, or that
it was not they who did the wrong but the demon.246 But there was hardly any chance of the matter
being cleared up in the third century. Christians and pagans alike were getting more and more
entangled in the belief in demons. In their dogmas and their philosophy of religion, polytheists
certainly became more and more attenuated as a sublime monotheism was evolved; but in practical
life they plunged more helplessly than ever into the abysses of an imaginary world of spirits. The
146 protests made by sensible physicians247 were all in vain.
THE GOSPEL OF LOVE AND CHARITY248
“I was hungry, and ye fed me; I was thirsty, and ye gave me drink; I was a stranger, and ye took
me in; naked, and ye clothed me; I was sick, and ye visited me; I was in prison, and ye came to me.
In as much as ye did it unto one of the least of these my brethren, ye did it unto me.”
These words of Jesus have shone so brilliantly for many generations in his church, and exerted
so powerful an influence, that one may further describe the Christian preaching as the preaching
of love and charity. From this standpoint, in fact, the proclamation of the Saviour and of healing
would seem to be merely subordinate, inasmuch as the words “I was sick, and ye visited me” form
but one link in the larger chain.
Among the extant words and parables of Jesus, those which inculcate love and charity are
especially numerous, and with them we must rank many a story of his life.249 Yet, apart altogether
246 Cp. Origen, de Princip. iii. 2. 1: “Hence some of the less intelligent believers think that all human transgressions arise from their
[i.e., the demons’] antagonistic powers, which constrain the mind of the sinner” (“Unde et simpliciores quique domino Christo
credentium existimant, quod omnia peccata, quaecumque commiserint homines, ex istis contrariis virtutibus mentem delinquentium
perurgentibus fiant”).
247 So the famous physician Posidonius at the close of the fourth century, of whom Philostorgius (H.E. viii. 10, reported by Photius)
narrates: “He said, though incorrectly, that it was not by the incentive of demons` that men grew frenzied, but that it was the bad
juices of certain sick bodies which wrought the mischief; since the power of demons was in no whit hostile to the nature of man”
(λέγειν αὐτόν, ὅμως οὐκ ὀρθῶς οὐχὶ δαιμόνων ἐπιθέσει τοὺς ἀνθρώπους ἐκβαχεύεσθαι, ὑγρῶν δέ τινων κακοχυμίαν τὸ πάθος
ἐργάζεσθαι· μὴ γὰρ εἶναι τὸ παράπαν ἰσχὺν δαιμόνων ἀνθρώπων φύσιν ἐπηρεάζουσαν).
248 In his work, Die christliche Liebestätigkeit in der alten Kirche (1st ed., 1882; Eng. trans., Christian Charity in the Ancient
Church, Edinburgh), Uhlhorn presents a sketch which is thorough, but unfair to paganism. The Greeks and Romans also were
acquainted with philanthropy.
249 One recalls particularly the parable of the good Samaritan, with its new definition of “neighbor” and also the parable of the lost
son; among the stories, that of the rich young man. The gospel of the Hebrews tells the latter incident with especial impressiveness.
“Then said the Lord to him, How canst thou say, ‘I have kept the law and the prophets,’ when it is written in the law, ‘Thou shall
from the number of such sayings, it is plain that whenever he had in view the relations of mankind,
the gist of his preaching was to enforce brotherliness and ministering love, and the surest part of
the impression he left behind him was that in his own life and labors he displayed both of these
148 very qualities. “One is your Master, and ye are all brethren”; “Whoso would be first among you
shall be servant of all; for the Son of Man came not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to
give his life a ransom for many.” It is in this sense that we are to understand the commandment to
love one’s neighbor. How unqualified it is, becomes evident from the saying, “Love your enemies,
bless them that curse you, do good to them that hate you, pray for them that despitefully use you
and persecute you;250 that ye may be sons of your Father in heaven, for he maketh his sun to rise
on the evil and the good, and sendeth rain on the just and the unjust.” “Blessed are the
merciful”—that is the keynote of all that Jesus proclaimed, and as this merciful spirit is to extend
from great things to trifles, from the inward to the outward, the saying which does not pass over
even a cup of cold water (Matt. x. 42) lies side by side with that other comprehensive saying,
“Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.” Brotherliness is love on a footing of equality;
ministering love means to give and to forgive, and no limit is to be recognized. Besides, ministering
love is the practical expression of love to God.
While Jesus himself was exhibiting this love, and making it a life and a power, his disciples
were learning the highest and holiest thing that can be learned in all religion, namely, to believe in
the love of God. To them the Being who had made heaven and earth was “the Father of mercies
and the God of all comfort”—a point on which there is no longer any dubiety in the testimony of
the apostolic and post-apostolic ages. Now, for the first tine, that testimony rose among men, which
cannot ever be surpassed, the testimony that God is Love. The first great statement of the new
religion, into which the fourth evangelist condensed its central principle, was based entirely and
exclusively on love: “We love, because He first loved us,” “God so loved the world,” “A new
commandment give I unto you, that ye love one another.” And the greatest, strongest, deepest thing
Paul ever wrote is the hymn commencing with the words: “Though I speak with the tongues of
149 men and angels, but have not love, I am become sounding brass or a clanging cymbal.” The new
language on the lids of Christians was the language of love.
But it was more than a language, it was a thing of power and action. The Christians really
considered themselves brothers and sisters, and their actions corresponded to this belief. On this
point we possess two unexceptionable testimonies from pagan writers. Says Lucian of the Christians:
“Their original lawgiver had taught them that they were all brethren, one of another. . . . They
become incredibly alert when anything of this kind occurs, that affects their common interests. On
such occasions no expense is grudged.” And Tertullian (Apolog. xxxix.) observes: “It is our care
for the helpless, our practice of loving kindness, that brands us in the eyes of many of our opponents.
‘Only look,’ they say, ‘look how they love one another!’ (they themselves being given to mutual
hatred). ‘Look how they are prepared to die for one another!’251 (they themselves being readier to
love thy neighbor as thyself’? And look, many of thy brethren, sons of Abraham, are lying in dirt and dying of hunger, while
thy house is full of many possessions, and never a gift comes from it to them.”
250 The saying “Fast for them that persecute you” is also traditional (Didachê i.).
251 Also Cæcilius (in Minuc. Felix, ix.): “They recognise each other by means of secret marks and signs, and love one another almost
before they are acquainted.”
kill each other).” Thus had this saying became a fact: “Hereby shall all men know that ye are my
disciples, if ye have love one to another.”
The gospel thus became a social message. The preaching which laid hold of the outer man,
detaching him from the world, and uniting him to his God, was also a preaching of solidarity and
brotherliness. The gospel, it has been truly said, is at bottom both individualistic and socialistic.
Its tendency towards mutual association, so far from being an accidental phenomenon in its history,
is inherent in its character. It spiritualizes the irresistible impulse which draws one man to another,
and it raises the social connection of human beings from the sphere of a convention to that of a
moral obligation. In this way it serves to heighten the worth of man, and essays to recast
contemporary society, to transform the socialism which involves a conflict of interests into the
socialism which rests upon the consciousness of a spiritual unity and a common goal. This was
ever present to the mind of the great apostle to the Gentiles. In his little churches, where each person
150 bore his neighbor’s burden, Paul’s spirit already saw the dawning of a new humanity, and in the
epistle to the Ephesians he has voiced this feeling with a thrill of exultation. Far in the background
of these churches—i.e., when they were what they were meant to be—like some unsubstantial
semblance, lay the division “between Jew and Gentile, Greek and Barbarian, great and small, rich
and poor. For a new humanity had now appeared, and the apostle viewed it as Christ’s body, in
which every member served the rest and each was indispensable in his own place. Looking at these
churches, with all their troubles and infirmities, he anticipated, in his exalted moments of enthusiasm,
what was the development of many centuries.252
We cannot undertake to collect from the literature of the first three centuries all the passages
where love and charity are enjoined. This would lead us too far afield, although we should come
across much valuable material in making such a survey. We would notice the reiteration of the
summons to unconditional giving, which occurs among the sayings of Jesus, whilst on the contrary
we would be astonished to find that passages enforcing the law of love are not more numerous, and
that they are so frequently overshadowed by ascetic counsels; we would also take umbrage at the
spirit of a number of passages in which the undisguised desire of being rewarded for benevolence
stands out in bold relief.253 Still, this craving for reward is not in every case immoral, and no
conclusion can be drawn from the number of times when it occurs. The important thing is to
252 Warnings against unmercifulness, and censures of this temper, must have begun, of course, at quite an early period; see the
epistle of James (iv.-v.) and several sections in the “Shepherd” of Hermas.
All these points are illustrated throughout the literature, from the Didachê and Hermas downwards. For unconditional
giving, see Did. 1. 5 f.: παντὶ τῷ αἰτοῦντί σε δίδου καὶ μὴ ἀπαίτει· πᾶσι γὰρ θέλει δίδοσθαι ὁ πατὴρ ἐκ τῶν ἰδίων χαρισμάτων.
μακάριος ὁ διδοὺς κατὰ τὴν ἐντολήν· ἀθῷος γάρ ἐστιν. οὐαὶ τῷ λαμβάνοντι· εἰ μὲν γάρ χρείαν ἔχων λαμβάνει τις, ἀθῷος ἔσται·
ὁ δὲ μὴ χρείαν ἔχων δώσει δίκην, ἵνα τί ἔλαβε καὶ εἰς τί· ἐν συνοχῇ δὲ γενόμενος ἐξετασθήσεται περὶ ὧν ἔπραξε, καὶ οὐκ
ἐξελεύσεται ἐκεῖθεν, μέχρις οὗ ἀποδῷ τὸν ἔσχατον κοδράντην (“Give to everyone who asks of thee, and ask not back again;
for the Father desireth gifts to be given to all men from his own bounties. Blessed is he who gives according to the commandment,
for he is guiltless. But woe to him who receives; for if a man receives who is in need, he is guiltless, but if he is not in need he
shall give satisfaction as to why and wherefore he received, and being confined he shall be examined upon his deeds, and shall
not come out till he has paid the uttermost farthing”). The counsel of unconditional giving, which is frequently repeated, is
closely bound up with the question of earthly possessions in the early church, and consequently with the question of asceticism.
determine what actually took place within the sphere of Christian charity and active love, and this
we shall endeavor to ascertain.
Three passages may be brought forward to show the general activities which were afoot.
In the official writing sent by the Roman to the Corinthian church c. 96 A.D., there is a description
of the first-rate condition of the latter up till a short time previously (1 Clem. i., ii.), a description
which furnishes the pattern of what a Christian church should be, and the approximate realization
of this ideal at Corinth. “Who that had stayed with you did not approve your most virtuous and
steadfast faith? Who did not admire your sober and forbearing Christian piety? Who did not proclaim
the splendid style of your hospitality? Who did not congratulate you on your perfect and assured
knowledge? For you did everything without respect of persons; you walked by the ordinances of
God, submitting to your rulers and rendering due honor to your senior men. Young persons also
you charged to have a modest and grave mind; women you instructed to discharge all their tasks
with a blameless, grave, and pure conscience, and to cherish a proper affection for their husbands,
teaching them further to look after their households decorously, with perfect discretion. You were
all lowly in mind, free from vainglory, yielding rather than claiming submission, more ready to
give than to take; content with the supplies provided by God and holding by them, you carefully
laid up His words in your hearts, and His sufferings were ever present to your minds. Thus a
profound and unsullied peace was bestowed on all, with an insatiable craving for beneficence. . . . .
Theoretically, from the very outset, there was to be neither property nor wealth at all; such things belong to the world which
Christians were to renounce. Consequently, to devote one’s means to other people was a proceeding which demanded a fresh
point of view; to part with one’s property was the authorized and most meritorious course of action, nor did it matter, in the first
instance, who was the recipient. In practical life, however, things were very different, and this was constantly the result of the
very theory just mentioned, since it never gave up the voluntary principle (even the attempt at communism in Jerusalem, if there
even was such an attempt, did not exclude the voluntary principle). It was by means of this principle that Christian love maintained
its power. In practical life, complete renunciation of the world was achieved only by a few; these were the saints and heroes.
Other people were in precisely the same position, with the same feelings and concern, as serious, devoted Catholics at the present
day; they were actuated by motives of ascetics and of love alike. It is needless, therefore, to depict this state of matters in closer
detail. The extreme standpoint is represented by Hermas, Sim. (see above, pp. 97 f.).
A great deal has been written upon early Christian “communism,” but nothing of the kind ever existed in the great Gentile
church—for we need not take any account of an isolated phenomenon like the semi-pagan sect of the Carpocratians and their
communism. Monastic “communism” is only called such by a misuse of the term, and, besides, it is irrelevant to our present
subject. Even on the soil of Jewish Christianity, no communism flourished, for the example of the Essenes was never followed.
Uhlhorn remarks truly (op. cit., p. 68; Eng. trans., 74) that “we cannot more radically misconceive the so-called ‘communism’
of early Christianity than by conceiving it as an institution similar to those which existed among the Essenes and the Therapeutæ.
It is far more correct to represent the state of things as an absence of all institutions whatsoever.” Directions not infrequently
occur (e.g., Barn. xix. 8; Tert., Apol. xxxix.) which have a communistic ring, but they are not to be taken in a communistic sense.
The common formula οὐκ ἐρεῖς ἴδια εἶναι (“thou shalt not say these things are thine own”) simply enjoins liberality, forbidding
a man to use his means merely for his own advantage.
I have already remarked that, upon the whole, the voluntary principle was never abandoned in the matter of Christian giving
and the scale of gifts. This statement, however, admits of one qualification. While the West, so far as I can judge, knew nothing
as yet of the law of first-fruits and tithes throughout our epoch (for Cyprian, de Unit. xxvi., is not to be understood as implying
the law of tithes), in some quarters of the East the law of first-fruits was taken over at a very early period (see Didachê xiii.).
From the Didachê it passed, as an apostolic regulation, into all the Oriental apostolic constitutions. Origen, however, does not
appear to regard it yet as a law of the church, though even he admits the legitimacy of it (in Num. Hom. xi. 1; in Jos. Nav. Hom.,
xvii.).
Day and night you agonized for all the brotherhood, that by means of compassion and care the
number of God’s elect might be saved. You were sincere, guileless, and void of malice among
yourselves. Every sedition and every schism was an abomination to you. You lamented the
transgressions of your neighbors and judged their shortcomings to be your own. You never rued
an act of kindness, but were ready for every good work.”
Then Justin concludes the description of Christian worship in his Apology (c. lxvii.) thus: “Those
who are well-to-do and willing, give as they choose, each as he himself purposes; the collection is
then deposited with the president, who succours orphans, widows, those who are in want owing to
153 sickness or any other cause, those who are in prison, and strangers who are on a journey.”
Finally, Tertullian (Apolog. xxxix.) observes: “Even if there does exist a sort of common fund,
it is not made up of fees, as though we contracted for our worship. Each of us puts in a small amount
one day a month, or whenever he pleases; but only if he pleases and if he is able, for there is no
compulsion in the matter, everyone contributing of his own free will. These monies are, as it were,
the deposits of piety. They are expended upon no banquets or drinking-bouts or thankless
eating-houses, but on feeding and burying poor people, on behalf of boys and girls who have neither
parents nor money, in support of old folk unable now to go about, as well as for people who are
shipwrecked, or who may be in the mines or exiled in islands or in prison—so long as their distress
is for the sake of God’s fellowship—themselves the nurslings of their confession.”
In what follows we shall discuss, so far as may be relevant to our immediate purpose:—
1. Alms in general, and their connection with the cultus and officials of the church.
2. The support of teachers and officials.
3. The support of widows and orphans.
4. The support of the sick, the infirm, and the disabled.
5. The care of prisoners and people languishing in the mines.
6. The care of poor people needing burial, and of the dead in general.
7. The care of slaves.
8. The care of those visited by great calamities.
9. The churches furnishing work, and insisting upon work.
10. The care of brethren on a journey (hospitality), and of churches in poverty or any peril.
1. Alms in general and in connection with the cultus.—Liberality was steadily enjoined upon
Christians; indeed, the headquarters of this virtue were to lie within the household, and its proof
was to be shown in daily life. From the apostolic counsels down to Cyprian’s great work de Opere
et Eleemosynis, there stretches one long line of injunctions, in the course of which ever-increasing
154 stress is laid upon the importance of alms to the religious position of the donor, and upon the
prospect of a future recompense. These points are already prominent in Hermas, and in 2 Clem.
we are told that “almsgiving is good as a repentance from sin; fasting is better than prayer, but
almsgiving is better than either” (καλὸν ἐλεεμοσύνη ὡς μετάνοια ἁμαρτίας, κρείσσων νηστεία
προσευχῆς, ἐλεεμοσύνη δὲ ἀμφοτέρων). Cyprian develops alms254 into a formal means of grace,
the only one indeed which remains to a Christian after baptism; in fact he goes still further,
representing alms as a spectacle which the Christian offers to God.255
It is not our business to follow up this aspect of almsgiving, or to discuss the amount of injury
thus inflicted on a practice which was meant to flow from a pure love to men. The point is that a
great deal, a very great deal, of alms was given away privately throughout the Christian churches.256
As we have already seen, this was well known to the heathen world.257
But so far from being satisfied with private almsgiving,258 early Christianity instituted, apparently
from the first, a church fund (Tertullian’s arca), and associated charity very closely with the cultus
254 De Op. et Eleem. 1: “Nam cum dominus adveniens sanasset illa quae Adam portaverat vulnera et venena serpentis antiqui
curasset, legem dedit sano et pracepit ne ultra jam peccaret, ne quid peccanti gravius eveniret. Coartati eramus et in angustum
innocentiae praescriptione conclusi, nec haberet quid fragilitatis humanae infirmitas atque imbecillitas faceret; nisi iterum pietas
divina subveniens justitiae et misericordiae operibus ostensis viam quandam tuendae salutis aperiret ut sordes postmodum,
quascumque contrahimus, eleemosynis abluamus (“For when the Lord had at his advent cured the wounds which Adam brought,
and healed the poison of the old serpent, he gave a law to the sound man and bade him sin no more, lest a worse thing should
befall the sinner. We were restrained and bound by the commandment of innocence. Nor would human weakness and impotence
have any resource left to it, unless the divine mercy should once more come to our aid, by pointing out works of righteousness
and mercy, and thus opening a way to obtain salvation, so that by means of alms we may wash off any stains subsequently
contracted”).
255 Op. cit., xxi.: “Quale munus cuius editio deo spectante celebratur! Si in gentilium munere grande et gloriosum videtur proconsules
vel imperatores habere presentes, et apparatus ac sumptus apud munerarios maior est ut possint placere maioribus—quanto
inlustrior muneris et maior est gloria deum et Christum spectatores habere, quanto istic et apparatus uberior et sumptus largior
exhibendus est, ubi ad spectaculum conveniunt caelorum virtutes, conveniunt angeli omnes, ubi munerario non quadriga vel
consulatus petitur sed vita aeterna praestatur, nec captatur inanis et temporarius favor vulgi sed perpetuum praemium regni
caelestis accipitur” (“What a gift is it which is set forth for praise in the sight of God! If, when the Gentiles offer gifts, it seems
a great and glorious thing to have proconsuls or emperors present, and if their better classes make greater preparations and display
in order to please the authorities—how much more illustrious and splendid is the glory of having God and Christ as the spectators
of a gift! How much more lavish should be the preparation, how much more liberal the outlay, in such a case, when the powers
of heaven muster to the spectacle, when all the angels gather when the donor seeks no chariot or consulship, but life eternal is
the boon; when no fleeting and fickle popularity is craved for, but the lasting reward of the kingdom of heaven is received!”).
256 The pagan in Macarius Magnes (iii. 5) declares that several Christian women had become beggars by their lavish donations.
“Not in the far past, but only yesterday, Christians read Matt. xix. 21 to prominent women and persuaded them to share all their
possessions and goods among the poor, to reduce themselves to beggary, to ask charity, and then to sink from independence into
unseemly pauperism, reducing themselves from their former good position to a woebegone condition, and being finally obliged
to knock at the doors of those who were better off.”
257 With Clement of Alexandria, the motive of love to men is steadily kept in the front rank; cp. Paed. iii., and in particular the fine
saying in iii. 7. 39: καθάπερ τῶν φρεάτων ὅσα πέφυκεν βρύειν ἀπαντλούμενα εἰς τὸ ἀρχαῖον ἀναπιδύει μέτρον, οὕτως ἡ
μετάδοσις ἀγαθὴ φιλανθρωπίας ὑπάρχουσα πηγή, κοινωνοῦσα τοῖς διψῶσι ποτοῦ αὔξεται πάλιν καὶ πίμπλαται (“Even as such
wells as spring up rise to their former level even after they have been drained, so that kindly spring of love to men, the bestowal
of gifts, imparts its drink to the thirsty, and is again increased and replenished”). Cyprian (in de Unit. xxvi.) complains of a lack
of benevolence: “Largitas operationis infracta est. . . . nunc de patrimonio nec decimas damus et cum vendere jubeat dominus,
emimus potius et augemus” (“Liberality in benevolence is impaired . . . . we do not now give even the tithe of our patrimony
away. The Lord bids us sell, but we prefer to buy and lay up”).
258 One recommendation very frequently made, was to stint oneself by means of fasting in order to give alms. In this way, even the
poor could afford something. See Hermas Sim. v.; Aristides, Apol. xv. (“And if anyone among them is poor or needy, and they
have no food to share, they fast for two or three days, that they may meet the poor man’s need of sustenance”); Apost. Constit.
v. 1, etc. The habit also prevailed in pre-Christian ages. Otherwise, whenever the question is raised, how alms are to be provided,
and officials of the church. From the ample materials at our disposal, the following outline may be
sketched:—Every Sunday (cp. already 1 Cor. xvi. 2), or once a month (Tertullian), or whenever
one chose, gifts in money or kind (stips) were brought to the service and entrusted to the president,
156 by whom they were laid on the Lord’s table and so consecrated to God.259 Hence the recipient
obtained them from the hand of G d. “Tis God’s grace and philanthropy that support you,” wrote
bishop Cornelius (Eus., H.E. vi. 43). The president decided who were to be the recipients, and how
much was to be allocated to each, a business in which he had the advice of the deacons, who were
expected to be as familiar as possible with the circumstances of each member, and who had the
further task of distributing the various donations, partly at the close of worship, partly in the homes
of the indigent. In addition to regular voluntary assessments—for, as the principle of liberty of
choice was strictly maintained, we cannot otherwise describe these offerings—there were also
extraordinary gifts, such as the present of 200,000 sesterces brought by Marcion when, as a Christian
from Asia, he entered the Roman church about the year 139.260
Among these methods of maintenance we must also include the love-feasts, or agapæ, with
which the Lord’s Supper was originally associated, but which persisted into a later age. The idea
of the love-feast was that the poor got food and drink, since a common meal, to which each
contributed as he was able, would unite rich and poor alike. Abuses naturally had to be corrected
at an early stage (cp. 1 Cor. xi. 18 f.), and the whole affair (which was hardly a copy of the pagan
feasts at the Thiasoi) never seems to have acquired any particular importance upon the whole.261
From the very first, the president appears to have had practically an absolute control over the
donations;262 but the deacons had also to handle them as executive agents. The responsibility was
heavy, as was the temptation to avarice and dishonesty; hence the repeated counsel, that bishops
(and deacons) were to be ἀφιλάργυροι, “no lovers of money.” It was not until a later age that certain
principles came to be laid down with regard to the distribution of donations as a whole, from which
no divergence was permissible.
This system of organized charity in the churches worked side by side with private
benevolence—as is quite evident from the letters and writings of Cyprian. But it was inevitable
one is pointed to work; in fact, this is almost the only point at which work is taken into consideration at all within the sphere of
the religious estimate. See Eph. iv. 28 (“Let him that stole, steal no more, but rather work with his hands at honest work, so that
he may have something to give the needy”); and Barn. xix. 10: διὰ χειρῶν σου ἐργάσῃ εἰς λύτρον ἁμαρτιῶν σου [the reference
being to alms]. Cp. my short study (in the “Evangelisch-Sozial” Magazine, 1905, pp. 48 f.) on “The Primitive Christian Conception
of the Worth of Labour.”
259 The relation of stips and oblationes is a question which has not been cleared up yet, and need not be raised here.
260 See on this point Book 4, Chap. I. (1). The money was returned.
261 Cp. also Jude ver. 12; Tert., Apol. xxxix.; de Ieiun. xvii.; Clem., Paed. ii. 1. We need not enter into the controversies over the
agapæ; cp. Keating’s The Agape and the Eucharist (1901), Batiffol’s Études d’hist. et de théol. positive (1902), pp. 279 f., and
Funk on “L’Agape” (Rev. d’hist. ecclésiastique, t. iv. 1, 1903). In later days the feasts served to satisfy the poor at the graves of
the martyrs. Constantine justified this practice of feasts in honor of the dead against objections which were apparently current;
cp. his address to the council (xii.), where he dwells expressly on their charitable uses: τὰ συμπόσια (for the martyrs, at their
graves) πρὸς ἔλεον καὶ ἀνάκτησιν τῶν δεομένων ποιούμενα καὶ πρὸς βοήθειαν τῶν ἐκπεσόντων. ἅπερ ἂν τις φορτικὰ εἶναι
νομίζῃ, οὐ κατὰ τὴν θείαν καὶ μακαρίαν διδασκαλίαν φρονεῖ (“These feasts are held for the purpose of helping and restoring
the needy, and in aid of the outcast. Anyone who thinks them burdensome, does not judge them by the divine and blessed rule
of life”).
262 On the traces of an exception to this rule in the Apostolic Constitutions, see Texte u. Untersuch. ii. 5, pp. 12 f., 58.
that the former should gradually handicap the latter, since it wore a superior lustre of religious
sacredness, and therefore, people were convinced, was more acceptable to God. Yet, in special
cases, private liberality was still appealed to. One splendid instance is cited by Cyprian (Epist.
lxii.), who describes how the Carthaginian churches speedily raised 100,000 sesterces (between
£850 and £1000).263
In 250 A.D. the Roman church had to support about 100 clergy and 1500 poor persons. Taking
the yearly cost of supporting one man at £7, 10s. (which was approximately the upkeep of one
slave), we get an annual sum of £12,000. If, however (like Uhlhorn, op. cit., p. 153; Eng. trans., p.
159), we allow sixty Roman bushels of wheat per head a year at 7s. 6d., we get a total of about
£4300. It is safe to say, then, that about 250 A.D. the Roman church had to expend from half a
million to a million sesterces (i.e., from £5000 to £10,000) by way of relief.
The demands made upon the church funds were heavy, as will appear in the course of the
following classification and discussion.
2. The support of teachers and officials.—The Pauline principle264 that the rule about a “laborer
being worthy of his hire” applied also to missionaries and teachers, was observed without break or
hesitation throughout the Christian churches. The conclusion drawn was that teachers could lay
claim to a plain livelihood, and that this claim must always have precedence of any other demand
upon the funds. When a church had chosen permanent officials for itself, these also assumed the
right of being allowed to claim a livelihood, but only so far as their official duties made inroads
upon their civil occupations.265 Here, too, the bishop had discretionary power; he could appropriate
and hand over to the presbyters and deacons whatever he thought suitable and fair, but he was
159 bound to provide the teachers (i.e., missionaries and prophets) with enough to live on day by day.
263 For special collections ordered by the bishop, see Tertull., de Jejun. xiii., and Clem., Hom. iii. 71: ὁπότε χρεία τινὸς πόρου πρὸς
τὸ ἀναγκαῖον γένοιτο, ἅμα οἱ πάντες συμβάλλεσθε (“Whenever any funds are needed, club together, all of you”).
264 Paul even describes the principle as a direction of Jesus himself; see 1 Cor. ix. 14:
265 The circumstances are not quite clear; still, enough is visible to corroborate what has been said above. Church officials were
not, in the first instance, obliged to abandon their civil calling, and so far as that provided then with a livelihood they had no
claim on the church’s funds. But in the course of time it became more and more difficult, in the larger churches, to combine civil
employment with ecclesiastical office. There is one very instructive account in the Clementine homilies (iii. 71) which indicates
that some people were skeptical upon the duty of supporting the bishop and clergy. The author writes: Ζακχαῖος [the bishop]
μόνος ὑμῖν ὅλος ἑαυτὸν ἀσχολεῖν ἀποδεδωκώς, κοιλίαν ἔχων καὶ ἑαυτῷ μὴ εὐσχολῶν, πῶς δύναται τὴν ἀναγκαίαν πορίζειν
τροφήν; οὐχὶ δὲ εὔλογόν ἐστιν πάντας ὑμᾶς τοῦ ζῆν αὐτοῦ πρόνοιαν ποιεῖν, οὐκ ἀναμένοντας αὐτὸν ὑμᾶς αἰτεῖν; τοῦτο γὰρ
προσαιτοῦντός ἐστιν· μᾶλλον δὲ τεθνήξεται λιμῷ ἢ τοῦτο ποιεῖν ὑποσταίη· πῶς δὴ καὶ ὑμεῖς οὐ δίκην ὑφέξετε, μὴ λογισάμενοι
ὅτι “ἄξιός ἐστιν ὁ ἐργάτης τοῦ μισθοῦ αὐτοῦ”; καὶ μὴ λεγέτῶ τις· Οὐκοῦν ὁ δωρεὰν παρασχεθεὶς λόγος πωλεῖται; μὴ γένοιτο·
εἴ τις γὰρ ἔχων πόθεν ζῆν λάβοι, οὗτος πωλεῖ τὸν λόγον—εἰ δὲ μὴ ἔχων τοῦ ζῆν χάριν λαμβάνει τροφήν, ὡς καὶ ὁ κύριος
ἔλαβεν ἔν τε δείπνοις καὶ φίλοις, οὐδὲν ἔχων ὁ εἰς αὖθις πάντα ἔχων, οὐχ ἁμαρτάνει. ἀκολούθως οὖν τιμᾶτε [by an honorarium]
πρεσβυτέρους, κατηχητάς, διακόνους χρησίμους, χήρας εὖ βεβιωκυίας, ὀρφανοὺς ὡς ἐκκλησίας τέκνα (“Zacchaeus alone has
devoted himself wholly to your interests; he needs food, and yet has no time to provide for himself; how then is he to get the
requisitive provisions for a livelihood? Is it not reasonable that you should all provide for his support? Do not wait for him to
ask you—asking is a beggar’s rôle, and he would rather die than stoop to that. Shall not you also incur punishment for failing
to consider that ‘the labourer is worthy of his hire’? Let no one say, ‘Then is the word which was given freely, to be sold?’ God
forbid. If any man has means and yet accepts any help, he sells the word. But there is no sin in a man without means accepting
support in order to live—as the Lord also accepted gifts at supper and among his friends, he who had nothing though he was the
Lord of all things. Honor, then, in appropriate fashion the elder catechists, useful deacons, respectable widows, and orphans as
Obviously, this could not fail to give rise to abuses. From the Didachê and Lucian we learn that
such abuses did arise, and that privileges were misemployed.266
3. The support of widows and orphans.267—Wherever the early Christian records mention poor
persons who require support, widows and orphans are invariably in the foreground. This corresponds,
on the one hand, with the special distress of their position in the ancient world, and on the other
hand with the ethical injunctions which had passed over into Christianity from Judaism. As it was,
widows and orphans formed the poor κατ’ ἐξοχήν The church had them always with her. “The
Roman church,” wrote bishop Cornelius, “supports 1500 widows and poor persons” (Eus., H.E.
vi. 43). Only widows, we note, are mentioned side by side with the general category of recipients
of relief. Inside the churches, widows had a special title of honor, viz., “God’s altar,”268 and even
Lucian the pagan was aware that Christians attended first and foremost to orphans and to widows
(Peregrin. xii.). The true worship, James had already urged (i. 27), is to visit widows and orphans
in their distress, and Hermas (Mand. viii. 10) opens his catalogue of virtues with the words: χήραις
ὑπηρετεῖν, ὀρφανοὺς καὶ ὑστερουμένους ἐπισκέπτεσθαι (“to serve widows and visit the forlorn
and orphans”).269 It is beyond question that the early church made an important contribution to the
amelioration of social conditions among the lower classes, by her support of widows.270 We need
160 not dwell on the fact, illustrated as early as the epistles to Timothy, that abuses crept into this
department. Such abuses are constantly liable to occur wherever human beings are relieved, in
whole or in part, of the duty of caring for themselves.271
children of the church”). A fixed monthly salary, such as that assigned by the church of Theodotus to her bishop Natalis, was
felt to be obnoxious. (Cp. the primitive story in Eus., H.E. v. 28).
266 Details will be found below, in the chapter [Book III. Chap. 1] on the mission-agents.
267 In the liturgy, widows and orphans are also placed immediately after the servants of the church.
268 See Polycarp, ad Phil. iv.; Tert., ad Uxor. i. 7; pseudo-Ignat., Tars. 9; and Apos. Constit. ii. 26 (where the term is applied also
to orphans; cp. iv. 3). I shall not discuss the institution of Widows, already visible in the first epistle to Timothy, which also
tended to promote their interests. The special attention devoted to widows was also meant to check the undesirable step of
remarriage.
269 In Vis. II. 4. 3, it is remarkable also how prominent are widows and orphans. See Aristides, Apol. xv.: “They do not avert their
attention from widows, and they deliver orphans from anyone who oppresses them.” Instances of orphans being adopted into
private families are not wanting. Origen, for example, was adopted by a Christian woman (Eus., H.E. vi. 2); cp. Acta Perpet. et
Felic. xv.; Apost. Const. iv. 1. Lactantius (Instit. vi. 12) adduces yet another special argument for the duty of supporting widows
and orphans: “God commands them to be cared for, in order that no one may be hindered from going to his death for righteousness’
sake on the plea of regard for his dear children, but that he may promptly and boldly encounter death, knowing that his beloved
ones are left in God’s care and will never lack protection.”
270 See, further, Herm., Simil. i. v. 3, ix. 26-27, x. 4; Polyc., Epist. vi. 1; Barn. xx. 2; Ignat., Smyrn. vi. (a propos of heretics: “They
care not for love, or for the widow, or for the orphan, or for the afflicted, or for the prisoner or ransomed, or for the hungry or
thirsty”—περὶ ἀγάπης οὐ μέλει αὐτοῖς, οὐ περὶ χήρας, οὐ περὶ ὀρφανοῦ, οὐ περὶ θλιβομένου, οὐ περὶ δεδεμένου ἢ λελυμένου,
ἢ περὶ πεινῶντος ἢ διψῶντος), ad Polyc. iv.; Justin’s Apol. I. lxvii.; Clem., Ep. ad Jacob. 8 (τοῖς μὲν ὀρφανοῖς ποιοῦντες τὰ
γονέων, ταῖς δὲ χήραις τὰ ἀνδρῶν, “acting the part of parents to orphans and of husbands to widows”); Tert., ad Uxor. i. 7-8;
Apost. Constit. (Bks. III., IV.); and pseudo-Clem., de Virgin. i. 12 (“pulchrum et utile est visitare pupillos et viduas, imprimis
pauperes qui multos habent liberos”). For the indignation roused by the heartlessness of many pagan ladies, who were abandoned
to luxury, read the caustic remark of Clement (Paedag. iii. 4. 30): παιδίον δὲ οὐδὲ προσίενται ὀρφανὸν αἱ τοὺς ψιττακοῦς καὶ
τοὺς χαραδριοὺς ἐκτρέφουσαι (“They bring up parrots and curlews, but will not take in the orphan child”).
271 Scandalmongering, avarice, drunkenness, and arrogance had all to be dealt with in the case of widows who were being maintained
by the church. It even happened that some widows put out to usury the funds they had thus received (cp. Didasc. Apost. xv.;
Texte u. Unters. xxv. 2. pp. 78, 274 f.) But there were also highly gifted widows. In fact (cp. Apost. Constit.), it was considered
that true widows who persevered in prayer received revelations.
4. The support of the sick, the infirm, the poor, and the disabled.—Mention has already been
made of the cure of sick people; but where a cure was impossible the church was bound to support
the patient by consolation (for they were remembered in the prayers of the church from the very
first; cp. 1 Clem. lix. 4), visitation,272 and charitable gifts (usually in kind). Next to the sick came
those in trouble (ἐν θλίψει) and people sick in soul (κάμνοντες τῇ ψυχῇ, Herm. Mand. viii. 10) as
a rule, then the helpless and disabled (Tertullian singles out expressly senes domestici), finally the
poor in general. To quote passages would be superfluous, for the duty is repeatedly inculcated;
161 besides, concrete examples are fairly plentiful, although our records only mention such cases
incidentally and quite accidentally.273 Deacons, “widows,” and deaconesses (though the last-named
were apparently confined to the East) were set apart for this work. It is said of deacons in the
Apostolic Constitutions (see Texte u. Unters. ii. 5. 8 f.): “They are to be doers of good works,
exercising a general supervision day and night, neither scorning the poor nor respecting the person
of the rich; they must ascertain who are in distress and not exclude them from a share in the church
funds, compelling also the well-to-do, to put money aside for good works.” Of “widows” it is
remarked, in the same passage, that they should render aid to women afflicted by disease, and the
trait of φιλόπτωχος (a lover of the poor) is expected among the other qualities of a bishop.274 In an
old legend dating from the Decian persecution, there is a story of the deacon Laurentius in Rome,
who, when desired to hand over the treasures of the church, indicated the poor as its only treasures.
This was audacious, but it was not incorrect; from the very first, any possessions of the church were
steadily characterized as poor funds; and this remained true during the early centuries.275 The
excellence of the church’s charitable system, the deep impression made by it, and the numbers that
it won over to the faith, find their best voucher in the action of Julian the Apostate, who attempted
an exact reproduction of it in that artificial creation of his, the pagan State-church, in order to
deprive the Christians of this very weapon. The imitation, of course, had no success.276
Julian attests not only the excellence of the church’s system of relief, but its extension to
non-Christians. He wrote to Arsacius (Sozom. v. 16): “These godless Galileans feed not only their
own poor but ours; our poor lack our care.” This testimony is all the more weighty inasmuch as
our Christian sources yield no satisfactory data on this point. Cp., however, under (8), and Paul’s
injunction in Gal. vi. 10: “Let us do good to all, especially to those who belong to the household
of the faith.” “True charity,” says Tertullian (Apol. xlii.), “disburses more money in the streets than
your religion in the temples.” The church-funds were indeed for the use of the brethren alone, but
private beneficence did not restrict itself to the household of faith. In a great calamity, as we learn
272 See Tert., ad Uxor. ii. 4, on the difficult position of a Christian woman whose husband was a pagan: “Who would be willing to
let his wife go through street after street to other men’s houses, and indeed to the poorest cottages, in order to visit the brethren?”
273 Naturally, nether private nor, for the matter of that, church charity was to step in where a family was able to support some helpless
member; but it is evident, from the sharp remonstrance in 1 Tim. v. 8, that there were attempts made to evade this duty (“If
anyone does got provide for his own people, and especially for his own household, he has renounced the faith and is worse than
an infidel”).
274 Apost. Constit., in Texte u. Unters. ii. 5. 8 f. In the Vita Polycarps (Pionius) traits of this bishop are described which remind us
of St Francis. On the female diaconate, see Uhlhorn (op. cit., 159-171; Eng. trans., 165 f.).
275 It was not possible, of course, to relieve all distress, and Tertullian (de Idolat., xxiii.) mentions Christians who had to borrow
money from pagans. This does not seem to have been quite a rare occurrence.
276 We may certainly conclude that a register was kept of those who bad to be maintained. This very fact, however, was a moral
support to poor people, for it made them sure that they were not being neglected.
from reliable evidence (see below), Christians did extend their aid to non-Christians, even exciting
the admiration of the latter.
5. Care for prisoners and for people languishing in the mines.—The third point in the catalogue
of virtues given by Hermas is: ἐξ ἀναγκῶν λυτροῦσθαι τοὺς δούλους τοῦ θεοῦ (“Redeem the
servants of God from their bonds”). Prisoners might be innocent for various reasons, but above all
there were people incarcerated for their faith or imprisoned for debt, and both classes had to be
reached by charity. In the first instance, they had to be visited and consoled, and their plight alleviated
by gifts of food.277 Visiting prisoners was the regular work of the deacons, who had thus to run
frequent risks; but ordinary Christians were also expected to discharge this duty. If the prisoners
163 had been arrested for their faith, and if they were rather distinguished teachers, there was no hardship
in obeying the command; in fact, many moved heaven and earth to get access to prisoners,278 since
it was considered that there was something sanctifying about intercourse with a confessor. In order
to gain admission they would even go the length of bribing the gaolers,279 and thus manage to
smuggle in decent meals and crave a blessing from the saints. The records of the martyrs are full
of such tales. Even Lucian knew of the practice, and pointed out the improprieties to which it gave
rise. Christian records, particularly those of a later date,280 corroborate this, and as early as the
Montanist controversy it was a burning question whether or no any prominent confessor was really
an impostor, if, after being imprisoned for misdemeanors, he made out as if he had been imprisoned
on account of the Christian faith. Such abuses, however, were inevitable, and upon the whole their
number was not large. The keepers, secretly impressed by the behavior of the Christians, often
consented of their own accord to let them communicate with their friends (Acta Perpet. ix.: “Pudens
miles optio, præpositus carceris, nos magnificare coepit, intelligens magnam virtutem esse in nobis;
qui multos ad nos admittebat, ut et nos et illi invicem refrigeraremus” (“Pudens, a military
subordinate in charge of the prison, began to have a high opinion of us, since he recognized there
164 was some great power of God in us. He let many people in to see us, that we and they might refresh
one another”).
277 Heb. x. 34, τοῖς δεσμίοις συνεπαθήσατε; Clem. Rom. lix. 4 (in the church’s prayer), λύτρωσαι τοὺς δεσμίους ἡμῶν; Ignat.,
Smyrn. vi. (the duty of caring περὶ δεδεμένου ἢ λελυμένου); Clem., Ep. ad Jacob. 9 (τοῖς ἐν φυλακαῖς ἐπιφαινόμενοι ὡς δύνασθε
βοηθεῖτε); Arist., Apol. xv. (“And if they hear that anyone of their number is imprisoned or in distress for the sake of their
Christ’s name, they all render aid in his necessity, and if he can be redeemed, they set him free”). Of the young Origen we are
told (Eus., H.E. vi. 3) that “not only was he at the side of the holy martyrs in their imprisonment, and until their final condemnation,
but when they were led to death he boldly accompanied them into danger.” Cp. Tert., ad Mart. i f. (both the church and charitable
individuals supplied prisoners with food), Acta Pass. Perpet. iii.; Petri Alex., Ep. c. 2 (Lagarde’s Reliq. jur. eccles., p. 64, 14
f.), c. 11 (ibid., p. 70, 1 f.), c. 12 (ibid., p. 70, 20 f.).
278 Thekla, in the Acta Theclæ, is one instance, and there are many others; e.g., in Tertull., ad Uxor. ii. 4.
279 As in Thekla’s case; see also Lucian’s Peregr. xii., and the Epist. Lugd., in Euseb., H.E. v. 1. 61.
280 Cp. Lucian, Peregr. xii., xiii., xvi. (“costly meals”). Tertullian, at the close of his life, when he was filled with bitter hatred
towards the Catholic church, wrote thus in de Jejun. xii.: “Plainly it is your way to furnish restaurants for dubious martyrs in the
gaols, lest they miss their wonted fare and so grow weary of their life, taking umbrage at the novel discipline of abstinence! One
of your recent martyrs (no Christian he!) was by no means reduced to this hard régime. For after you had stuffed him during a
considerable period, availing yourselves of the facilities of free custody, and after he had disported himself in all sorts of baths
(as if these were better than the bath of baptism), and in all resorts of pleasure in high life (as if these were the secret retreats of
the church), and with all the seductive pursuits of such a life (preferable, forsooth, to life eternal)—and all this, I believe, just
in order to prevent any craving for death—then on the last day, the day of his trial, you gave him in broad daylight some medicated
wine (in order to stupefy him against the torture)!”
If any Christian brethren were sentenced to the mines, they were still looked after, even there.281
Their names were carefully noted; attempts were made to keep in touch with them; efforts were
concocted to procure their release,282 and brethren were sent to ease their lot, to edify and to
encourage them.283 The care shown by Christians for prisoners was so notorious that (according to
Eusebius, H.E. v. 8) Licinius, the last emperor before Constantine who persecuted the Christians,
passed a law to the effect that “no one was to show kindness to sufferers in prison by supplying
them with food, and that no one was to show mercy to those who were starving in prison.” “In
addition to this,” Eusebius proceeds to relate, “a penalty was attached, to the effect that those who
showed compassion were to share the fate of the objects of their charity, and that those who were
humane to the unfortunate were to be flung into bonds and imprisonment and endure the same
suffering as the others.” This law, which was directly aimed at Christians, shows, more clearly than
anything else could do, the care lavished by Christians upon their captive brethren, although much
may have crept in connection with this which the State could not tolerate.
But they did more than try to merely alleviate the lot of prisoners. Their aim was to get them
ransomed. Instances of this cannot have been altogether rare, but unfortunately it is difficult for us
to form any judgment on this matter, since in a number of instances, when a ransom is spoken of,
we cannot be sure whether prisoners or slaves are meant. Ransoming captives, at any rate, was
regarded as a work which was specially noble and well-pleasing to God, but it never appears to
have been undertaken by any church. To the last it remained a monopoly of private generosity and
along this line individuals displayed a spirit of real heroism.284
281 Cp. Dionysius of Corinth (in Eus., H.E., iv. 23), who pays a brilliant testimony to the Roman church in this connection.
282 Cp. the story told by Hippolytus (Ref. [Philos.] ix. 12) of the Roman bishop Victor, who kept a list of all Christians sentenced
to the mines in Sardinia, and actually procured their liberty through the intercession of Marcia to the Emperor Commodus.
283 Some extremely beautiful examples of this occur in the treatise of Eusebius upon the Palestinian martyrs during the Diocletian
persecution. The Christians of Egypt went to the most remote mines, even to Cilicia, to encourage and edify their brethren who
were condemned to hard labor in these places. In the mines at Phæno a regular church was organized. Cp. also Apost. Constit.
v. 1: Εἴ τις Χριστιανὸς διὰ τὸ ὄνομα τοῦ χριστοῦ . . . . κατακριθῇ ὑπὸ ἀσεβῶν εἰς . . . . μέταλλον, μὴ παρίδητε αὐτόν, ἀλλ᾽ ἐκ τοῦ
κόπου καὶ τοῦ ἱδρῶτος ὑμῶν πέμψατε αὐτῷ εἰς διατροφὴν αὐτοῦ καὶ εἰς μισθοδοσίαν τῶν στρατιωτῶν (“If any Christian is
condemned for Christ’s sake . . . . to the mines by the ungodly, do not overlook him, but from the proceeds of your toil and sweat
send him something to support himself and to reward the soldiers”).
284 Herm. Sim., I.: ἀντὶ ἀγρῶν ἀγοράζετε ψυχὰς θλιβομένας, καθά τις δυνατός ἐστιν (“Instead of fields buy souls in trouble, as
each of you is able”); Sim., X. v. 2 f.; Clem. Rom. lv. 2: ἐπιστάμεθα πολλοὺς ἐν ἡμῖν παραδεδωκότας ἑαυτοὺς εἰς δεσμά, ὅπως
ἑτέρους λυτρώσονται· πολλοὶ ἑαυτοὺς ἐξέδωκαν εἰς δουλείαν, καὶ λαβόντες τὰς τιμὰς αὐτῶν ἑτέρους ἐψώμισαν (“We know
that many of our own number have given themselves up to be captives, in order to ransom others; many have sold themselves
to slavery, and with the price of their own bodies they have fed others”); Apost. Constit. iv. 9: τὰ ἐκ τοῦ δικαίου κόπου ἀθροιζόμενα
χρήματα διατάσσετε διακονοῦντες ἀγορασμοὺς τῶν ἁγίων, ῥυόμενοι δούλους καὶ αἰχμαλώτους, δεσμίους, ἐπηρεαζομένους,
ἥκοντας ἐκ καταδίκης κ.τ.λ. (“All monies accruing from honest labor do ye appoint and apportion to the redeeming of the saints,
ransoming thereby slaves and captives, prisoners, people who are sore abused or condemned by tyrants,” etc.), cp. v. 1-2. In
Idolol. xxiii., Tertullian refers to release from imprisonment for debt, or to the efforts made by charitable brethren to prevent
such imprisonment. When the Numidian robbers carried off the local Christians, the Carthaginian church soon gathered the sum
of 100,000 sesterces as ransom-money, and declared it was ready to give still ampler aid (Cypr., Ep. 62). When the Goths captured
the Christians in Cappadocia about the year 255, the Roman church sent contributions in aid of their ransom (Basil., Ep. ad Dam.
lxx.). See below (10) for both of these cases. The ransoming of captives continued even in later days to be reckoned a work of
special merit. Le Blant has published a number of Gallic inscriptions dating from the fourth and fifth centuries, in which the
dead person is commended because “he ransomed prisoners.”
6. Care of poor people requiring burial, and of the dead in general.—We may begin here with
the words of Julian, in his letter to Arsacius (Soz., v. 15): “This godlessness (i.e., Christianity) is
mainly furthered by its philanthropy towards strangers and its careful attention to the bestowal of
the dead.” Tertullian declares (see p. 153) that the burial of poor brethren was performed at the
expense of the common fund, and Aristides (Apol. xv.) corroborates this, although with him it takes
the form of private charity. “Whenever,” says Aristides, “one of their poor passes from the world,
one of them looks after him and sees to his burial, according to his means.” We know the great
166 importance attached to an honorable burial in those days, and the pain felt at the prospect of having
to forego this privilege. In this respect the Christian church was meeting a sentiment which even
its opponents felt to be a human duty. Christians, no doubt, were expected to feel themselves superior
to any earthly ignominy, but even they felt it was a ghastly thing not to be buried decently. The
deacons were specially charged with the task of seeing that everyone was properly interred (Const.
Ap. iii. 7),285 and in certain cases they did not restrict themselves to the limits of the brotherhood.
“We cannot bear,” says Lactantius (Instit. 6.12), “that the image and workmanship of God should
be exposed as a prey to wild beasts and birds, but we restore it to the earth from which it was
taken,286 and do this office of relatives even to the body of a person whom we do not know, since
in their room humanity must step in.”287 At this point also we must include the care of the dead
167 after burial. These were still regarded in part as destitute and fit to be supported. Oblations were
presented in their name and for the welfare of their souls, which served as actual intercessions on
their behalf. This primitive custom was undoubtedly of immense significance to the living; it
comforted many an anxious relative, and added greatly to the attractive power of Christianity.288
285 A certain degree of luxury was even allowed to Christians; cp. Tertull., Apol. xlii.: “If the Arabians complain of us [for giving
them no custom], let the Sabeans be sure that the richer and more expensive of their wares are used as largely in burying Christians
as in fumigating the gods.” Another element in a proper burial was that a person should lie among his companions in the faith.
Anyone who buried his people beside non-Christians needlessly incurred severe blame. Yet about the middle of the third century
we find a Spanish bishop burying his children among the heathen; cp. Cyprian, Ep. lxvii. 6: “Martialis [episcopus] præter
gentiliam turpia et lutulenta conviva in collegio diu frequentata filios in eodem collegio exterarum gentium more apud profana
sepulcra deposuit et alienigenis consepelivit” (“Martialis himself frequented for long the shameful and filthy banquets of the
heathen in their college, and placed his sons in the same college, after the custom of foreign nations, amid profane sepulchres,
burying them along with strangers”). Christian graves have been found now and then in Jewish cemeteries.
286 Christians were therefore opposed to cremation, and tried to gather even the fragments of their brethren who had been martyred
in the flames. The belief of the “simplices” about the resurrection of the body wavered a little in view of the burning of the body,
but the theologians always silenced any doubts, though even they held that burning was a piece of wickedness. Cp. Epist. Lugd.
(Eus., H.E. v. 1, towards the close; Tert., de Anima li.: “Nec ignibus funerandum aiunt (i.e., some pagans), parcentes superfluo
animae (i.e., because particles of the soul still clung to the body). Alia est autem ratio pietatis istius (i.e., of Christianity), non
reliquiis animae adulatrix, sed crudelitatis etiam corporis nomine aversatrix, quod et ipsum homo non mereatur poenali exitu
impendi”; Tert., de Resurr. i.: “Ego magis ridebo vulgus, tum quoque, cum ipsos defunctos atrocissime exurit, quos postmodum
gulisossime nutrit. . . . . O pietatem de crudelitate ludentem!” (“I have greater derision for the crowd, particularly when it
inhumanely burns its dead, only to pamper them afterwards with luxurious indulgence. . . . . Out upon the piety which mocks
its victims with cruelty!”). The reasons which seem to have led Christians from the first to repudiate cremation have not been
preserved. We can only surmise what they were.
287 The question of the relation between the churches and the collegia tenuiorum (collegia funeraticia) may be left aside. Besides,
during the past decade it has passed more and more out of notice. No real light has been thrown by such guilds upon the position
of the churches, however convincing may be the inference that the rights obtained by these collegia may have been for a time
available to Christians as well. Cp. Neumann, Röm. Staat und Kirche, i. 102 f.
288 Tertullian is our first witness for this custom. It did not spring up independently of pagan influence, though it may have at least
one root within the Christian cultus itself. Tertullian attacked the common pagan feasts of the dead and the custom of bringing
food to the graves; but this rooted itself as early as the third century, and was never dislodged.
7. Care for slaves. — It is a mistake to suppose that any “slave question” occupied the early
church. The primitive Christians looked on slavery with neither a more friendly nor a more hostile
eye than they did upon the State and legal ties.289 They never dreamt of working for the abolition
of the State, nor did it ever occur to them to abolish slavery for humane or other reasons — not
even amongst themselves. The New Testament epistles already assume that Christian masters have
slaves (not merely that pagan masters have Christian slaves), and they give no directions for any
change in this relationship. On the contrary, slaves are earnestly admonished to be faithful and
obedient.290
Still, it would not be true to assert that primitive Christianity was indifferent to slaves and their
condition. On the contrary, the church did turn her attention to them, and effected some change in
their condition. This follows from such considerations as these:—
(a) Converted slaves, male or female, were regarded in the full sense of the term as brothers
and sisters from the standpoint of religion. Compared to this, their position in the world was reckoned
a matter of indifference.291
(b) They shared the rights of church members to the fullest extent. Slaves could even become
clergymen, and in fact bishops.292
(c) As personalities (in the moral sense) they were to be just as highly esteemed as freemen.
The sex of female slaves had to be respected, nor was their modesty to be outraged. The same
289 The Didachê (iv. 11) even bids slaves obey their (Christian) masters ὡς τύπῳ θεοῦ (“as a type of God”).
290 The passages in Paul’s epistles are well known; see also 1 Peter. In his letter to Philemon, Paul neither expects nor asks the
release of the slave Onesimus. The only possible sense of 1 Cor. vii. 20 f. (ἕκαστος ἐν τῇ κλήσει ᾗ ἐκλήθη, ἐν ταύτῃ μενέτω·
δοῦλος ἐκλήθης; μή σοι μελέτω· ἀλλ᾽ εἰ καὶ δύνασαι ἐλεύθερος γενέσθαι, μᾶλλον χρῆσαι) is that the apostle counsels slaves
not even to avail themselves of the chance of freedom. Any alteration of their position would divert their minds to the things of
earth—such seems to be the writer’s meaning. It is far from certain whether we may infer from this passage that Christian slaves
begged from Christian masters the chance of freedom more often than their pagan fellows. Christian slave-owners often appear
in the literature of the second and third centuries. Cp. Athenag., Suppl., xxxv.; Acta Perpetuæ; etc.
291 Paul is followed on this point by others; e.g., Tatian, Orat., xi.; Tertull., de Corona, xiii.; and Lactantius, Instit., v. 16, where,
in reply to the opponents who cry out, “You too have masters and slaves! Where then is your so-called equality?” the answer is
given, “Alia causa nulla est cur nobis invicem fratrum nomen impertiamus nisi quia pares esse nos credimus. Nam cum omnia
humana non corpore sed spiritu metiamur, tametsi corporum sit diversa condicio, nobis tamen servi non sunt, sed eos et habemus
et dicimus spiritu fratres, religone conservos” (“Our sole reason for giving one another the name of brother is because we believe
we are equals. For since all human objects are measured by us after the spirit and not after the body, although there is a diversity
of condition among human bodies, yet slaves are not slaves to us; we deem and term them brothers after the spirit and
fellow-servants in religion”). De Rossi (Boll. di Arch. Christ. 1866, p. 24) remarks on the fact that the title “slave” never occurs
in the sepulchral inscriptions of Christianity. Whether this is accidental or intentional, is a question which I must leave undecided.
On the duty of Christian masters to instruct their slaves in Christianity, cp. Arist., Apol., xv.: “Slaves, male and female, are
instructed so that they become Christians, on account of the love felt for them by their masters; and when this takes place, they
call them brethren without any distinction whatsoever.”
292 The Roman presbyter or Bishop, Pius, the brother of Hermas, must have belonged to the class of slaves. Callistus, the Roman
bishop, was originally a slave. Cp. the eightieth canon of Elvira: “Prohibendum ut liberti, quorum patroni in saeculo fuerint, ad
clerum non promoveantur” (“It is forbidden to hinder freemen from being advanced to the rank of clergy, whose owners may
be still alive”).
virtues were expected from slaves as from freemen, and consequently their virtues earned the same
honor.293
(d) Masters and mistresses were strictly charged to treat all their slaves humanely,294 but, on
the other hand, to remember that Christian slaves were their own brethren.295 Christian slaves, for
their part, were told not to disdain their Christian masters, i.e., they were not to regard themselves
170 as their equals.296
(e) To set a slave free was looked upon, probably from the very beginning, as a praiseworthy
action;297 otherwise, no Christian slave could have had any claim to be emancipated. Although the
primitive church did not admit any such claim on their part, least of all any claim of this kind on
the funds of the church, there were cases in which slaves had their ransom paid for out of such
funds.298 The church never condemned the rights of masters over slaves as sinful; it simply saw in
293 Ample material on this point is to be found in the Acts of the Martyrs. Reference may be made in especial to Blandina, the Lyons
martyr, and to Felicitas in the Acts of Perpetua. Not a few slaves rank among “the holy martyrs” of the church. Unless it had
been set down, who would imagine that Blandina was a slave—Blandina, who is held in high honor by the church, and whose
character has such noble traits? In Euseb., Mart. Pal. (Texte u. Unters. xxiv. 2. p. 78), we read: “Porphyry passed for a slave of
Pamphilus, but in love to God and in amazing confession of his faith he was a brother, nay more, a beloved son, to Pamphilus,
and was like his teacher in all things.”—Cp., however, the penitential ordinance appointed for those astute Christian masters
who had forced their Christian slaves to offer sacrifice during the Diocletian persecution (canons 6 and 7 of Peter Alex., in
Routh’s Reliq. Sacr. iv. 29 f.). The masters are to do penance for three years καὶ ὡς ὐποκρινάμενοι καὶ ὡς καταναγκάσαντες
τοὺς ὁμοδούλους θῦσαι, ἅτε δὴ παρακούσαντες τοῦ ἀποστόλου τὰ αὐτὰ θέλοντος ποιεῖν τοὺς δεσπότας τοῖς δούλοις, ἀνιέντας
τὴν ἀπειλήν, εἰδότας, φησίν, ὅτι καὶ ὑμῶν καὶ αὐτῶν ὁ κύριός ἐστιν ἐν οὐρανοῖς, καὶ προσωπολήψια παρ᾽ αὐτῷ οὐκ ἔστιν (Eph.
vi. 9; then follows Col. iii. 11) . . . σκοπεῖν ὀφείλοῦσιν ὃ κατειργάσαντο θελήσαντες τὴν ψυχὴν ἑαυτῶν σῶσαι, οἱ τοὺς συνδούλους
ἡμῶν ἑλκύσαντες ἐπὶ εἰδωλολατρείαν δυναμένους καὶ αὐτοὺς ἐκφυγεῖν, εἰ τὸ δίκαιον καὶ τὴν ἰσότητα ἦσαν αὐτοῖς παρασχόντες,
ὡς πάλιν ὁ ἀπόστολος λέγει (Col. vi. 1) (“for having played the hypocrite and for having compelled their fellow-servants to
sacrifice—in disobedience to the apostle, who enjoins masters and servants to do the same things, and to forbear threatening,
knowing, saith he, that you and they have a Lord in heaven, with whom there is no respect of persons. . . . They ought to consider
this compulsion of theirs, due to their desire to save their own lives, by which they drag our fellow-servants into idolatry, when
they could themselves avoid it—that is, if masters treated them justly and equitably, as the apostle once more observes”). Only
a single year’s penance was imposed on slaves thus seduced. Tertullian, on the contrary (de Idol., xvii.), shows that the same
courage and loyalty was expected from Christian slaves and freedom as from the highly born. The former were not to hand the
wine or join in any formula when they attended their pagan lords at sacrifice. Otherwise they were guilty of idolatry. For attempts
on the part of pagan masters to seduce their slaves from the faith, cp. Acta Pionii, ix., etc.
294 A beautiful instance of the esteem and position enjoyed by a Christian female slave in a Christian home, is afforded by Augustine
in his description of the old domestic (“famula decrepita”) belonging to his maternal grandfather’s house, who had nursed his
grandfather as a child (“sicut dorso gandiuscularum puellarum parvuli portari solent” = as little children are often carried on the
backs of older girls); i.e., she was active as early as the year 300 A.D. “On account of her age and her excellent character, she
was highly respected by the heads of that Christian home. Hence the charge of her master’s daughters [i.e., including Monica]
was given her, and she fulfilled her duty thoroughly [better than the mother did]. When necessary, she was strict in restraining
the girls with a holy firmness, and in teaching them with a sober judgment” (“Propter senectam ac mores optimas in domo
christiana satis a dominis honorabatur; unde etiam curam filiarum dominicarum commissam diligenter gerebat, et erat in eis
coercendis, cum opus esset, sancta severitate vehemens atque in docendis sobria prudentia,” Confess. ix. 8. 17). The basis of
Augustine’s own piety rested on this slave!
295 A long series of testimonies, from the Lyons epistle onwards, witnesses to the fact that Christian masters had heathen slaves.
Denunciations of their Christian masters by such slaves, and calumnies against Christian worship, cannot have been altogether
uncommon.
296 As early as 1 Tim. vi. 1 f. It proves that Christianity must have been in many cases “misunderstood” by Christian slaves.
297 Authentic illustrations of this are not available, of course.
298 From the epistle of Ignatius to Polycarp (iv.) two inferences may be drawn: (1) that slaves were ransomed with money taken
from the church collections, and (2) that no claim to this favor was admitted. Δούλους καὶ δούλας μὴ ὑπερηφάνει· ἀλλὰ μηδὲ
αὐτοὶ φυσιούσθωσαν [Christian slaves could easily lose their feelings of deference towards Christian owners], ἀλλ᾽ εἰς δόξαν
them a natural relationship. In this sphere the source of reform lay, not in Christianity, but in general
considerations derived from moral philosophy and in economic necessities.
From one of the canons of the Council of Elvira (c. 300 A.D.), as well as from other minor
sources, we learn that even in the Christian church, during the third century in particular, cases
unfortunately did occur in which slaves were treated with revolting harshness and barbarity.299 In
general, one has to recollect that even as early as the second century a diminution of the great
slave-establishment can be detected—a diminution which, on economic grounds, continued during
171 the third century. The liberation of slaves was frequently a necessity; it must not be regarded, as a
rule, in the light of an act prompted by compassion or brotherly feeling.
8. Care for people visited by great calamities.—As early as Hebrews x. 32 f. a church is
commended for having nobly stood the test of a great persecution and calamity, thanks to sympathy
and solicitous care. From that time onward, we frequently come across counsels to Christian brethren
to show themselves especially active and devoted in any emergencies of distress; not counsels
merely, but also actual proofs that they bore fruit. We shall not, at present, go into cases in which
churches lent aid to sister churches, even at a considerable distance; these fall to be noticed under
section 10. But some examples referring to calamities within a church itself may be set down at
this stage of our discussion.
When the plague raged in Alexandria (about 259 A.D.), bishop Dionysius wrote (Euseb., H.E.,
vii. 22): “The most of our brethren did not spare themselves, so great was their brotherly affection.
They held fast to each other, visited the sick without fear, ministered to them assiduously, and
served them for the sake of Christ. Right gladly did they perish with them. . . . Indeed many did
die, after caring for the sick and giving health to others, transplanting the death of others, as it were,
into themselves. In this way the noblest of our brethren died, including some presbyters and deacons
and people of the highest reputation. . . . . Quite the reverse was it with the heathen. They abandoned
172 those who began to sicken, fled from their dearest friends, threw out the sick when half dead into
the streets, and let the dead lie unburied.”
A similar tale is related by Cyprian of the plague at Carthage. He exclaims to the pagan
Demetrianus (x.): “Pestem et luem criminaris, cum peste ipsa et lue vel detecta sint vel aucta crimina
θεοῦ πλέον δουλευέτωσαν, ἵνα κρείττονος ἐλευθερίας ἀπὸ θεοῦ τύχωσιν· μὴ ἐράτωσαν ἀπὸ τοῦ κοινοῦ ἐλευθεροῦσθαι, ἵνα μὴ
δοῦλοι εὑρεθῶσιν ἐπιθυμίας (“Despise not male or female slaves. Yet let not these again be puffed up, but let them be all the
better servants to the glory of God, that they may obtain a better freedom from God. Let them not crave to be freed at the public
cost, lest they be found to be slaves of lust”).
299 Canon v.: “Si qua femina furore zeli accensa flagris verberaverit ancillam suam, ita ut intra tertium diem animam cum cruciatu
effundat,” etc. (“If any mistress, in a fit of passion, scourges her handmaid, so that the latter expires within three days,” etc.).
Canon xli. also treats of masters and slaves. We do not require to discuss the dispensation given by Callistus, bishop of Rome,
to matrons for entering into sexual relations with slaves, as the object of this dispensation was to meet the case of high-born
ladies who were bent on marriage, and not to admit that slaves had equal rights. Hippol. Philos., ix. 12: καὶ γυναιξὶν ἐπέτρεψεν,
εἰ ἄνανδροι εἶεν καὶ ἡλικίᾳ γε ἐκκαίοιντο ἀναξίᾳ ἢ ἑαυτῶν ἀξίαν μὴ βούλοιντο καθαιρεῖν διὰ τὸ νομίμως γαμηθῆναι, ἔχειν
ἕνα ὃν ἂν αἱρήσωνται, σύγκοιτον, εἴτε οἰκέτην, εἴτε ἐλεύθερον, καὶ τοῦτον κρίνειν ἀντὶ ἀνδρὸς μὴ νόμῳ γεγαμημένην (“He
even permitted women, if unmarried and inflamed with a passion unworthy of their age, or unwilling to forfeit their position for
the sake of a legal marriage, to have any one they liked as a bedfellow, either slave or free, and to reckon him their husband
although he was not legally married to them”).
singulorum, dum nec infirmis exhibetur misericordia et defunctis avaritia inhiat ac rapina. Idem ad
pietatis obseqium timidi,300 ad impia lucra temerarii, fugientes morientium funera et adpetentes
spolia mortuorum” (“You blame plague and disease, when plague and disease either swell or
disclose the crimes of individuals, no mercy being shown to the weak, and avarice and rapine gaping
greedily for the dead. The same people are sluggish in the discharge of the duties of affection, who
rashly seek impious gains; they shun the deathbeds of the dying, but make for the spoils of the
dead”). Cyprian’s advice is seen in his treatise de Mortalitate. His conduct, and the way he inspired
other Christians by his example, are narrated by his biographer Pontianus (Vita, ix. f.): “Adgregatam
primo in loco plebem de misercordiae bonis instruit. Docet divinae lectionis exemplis . . . . tunc
deinde subiungit nun esse mirabile, si nostros tantum debito caritatis obsequio foveremus; cum
enim perfectum posse fieri, qui plus aliquid publicano vel ethnico fecerit, qui malum bono vincens
et divinae clementiae instar exercens inimicos quoque dilexerit. . . . . Quid Christiana plebs faceret,
cui de fide nomen est? distributa sunt ergo continuo pro qualitate hominum atque ordinum ministeria
[organized charity, then]. Multi qui paupertatis beneficio sumptus exhibere non poterant, plus
sumptibus exhibebant, compensantes proprio labore mercedem divitiis omnibus cariorem . . . .
fiebat itaque exuberantium operum largitate, quod bonum est ad omnes, non ad solos domesticos
fidei (“The people being assembled together, he first of all urges on them the benefits of mercy.
By means of examples drawn from the sacred lessons, he teaches them. . . . Then he proceeds to
173 add that there is nothing remarkable in cherishing merely our own people with the due attentions
of love, but that one might become perfect who should do something more than heathen men or
publicans, one who, overcoming evil with good, and practicing a merciful kindness like to that of
God, should love his enemies as well. . . . What should a Christian people do, a people whose very
name was derived from faith? The contributions are always distributed then according to the degree
of the men and of their respective ranks. Many who, on the score of poverty, could not make any
show of wealth, showed far more than wealth, as they made up by personal labor an offering dearer
than all the riches in the world. Thus the good done was done to all men, and not merely to the
household of faith, so richly did the good works overflow”).
We hear exactly the same story of practical sympathy and self-denying love displayed by
Christians even to outsiders, in the great plague which occurred during the reign of Maximinus
Daza (Eus., H.E., ix. 8): “Then did they show themselves to the heathen in the clearest light. For
the Christians were the only people who amid such terrible ills showed their fellow feeling and
humanity by their actions. Day by day some would busy themselves with attending to the dead and
burying them (for there were numbers to whom no one else paid any heed); others gathered in one
spot all who were afflicted by hunger throughout the whole city, and gave bread to them all. When
this became known, people glorified the Christians’ God, and, convinced by the very facts, confessed
the Christians alone were truly pious and religious.”
It may be inferred with certainty, as Eusebius himself avows, that cases of this kind made a
deep impression upon those who were not Christians, and that they gave a powerful impetus to the
propaganda.
300 Cp. Cyprian, per Pont., ix.: “Jacebant interim tota civitate vicatim non jam corpora, sed cadavera plurimorum” (“Meanwhile all
over the city lay, not bodies now, but the carcasses of many”).
9. The churches furnishing work and insisting upon work.—Christianity at the outset spread
chiefly among people who had to work hard. The new religion did not teach its votaries “the dignity
of labor” or “the noble pleasure invariably afforded by work” What it inculcated was just the duty
of work.301 “If any will not work, neither let him eat” (2 Thess. iii. 10). Over and again it was
174 enunciated that the duty of providing for others was conditioned by their incapacity for work. The
brethren had soon to face the fact that some of their numbers were falling into restless and lazy
habits, as well as the sadder fact that these very people were selfishly trying to trade upon the charity
of their neighbors. This was so notorious that even in the brief compass of the Didachê there is a
note of precautions which are to be taken to checkmate such attempts, while in Lucian’s description
of the Christians he singles out, as one of their characteristic traits, a readiness to let cunning
impostors take advantage of their brotherly love.302
Christianity cannot be charged at any rate with the desire of promoting mendicancy or with
underestimating the duty of work.303 Even the charge of being “infructuosi in negotiis” (of no use
in practical affairs) was repudiated by Tertullian. “How so?” he asks. “How can that be when such
people dwell beside you, sharing your way of life, your dress, your habits, and the same needs of
life? We are no Brahmins or Indian gymnosophists, dwelling in woods and exiled from life. . . .
We stay beside you in this world, making use of the forum, the provision-market, the bath, the
booth, the workshop, the inn, the weekly market, and all other places of commerce. We sail with
you, fight at your side, till the soil with you, and traffic with you; we likewise join our technical
skill to that of others, and make our works public property for your use” (Apol., xlii.).304 Even clerics
were not exempted from making a livelihood,305 and admirable sayings on the need of labor occur
in Clement of Alexandria as well as in other writers. We have already observed (pp. 155 f.) that
175 one incentive to work was found in the consideration that money could thus be gained for the
purpose of supporting other people, and this idea was by no means thrown out at random. Its frequent
repetition, from the epistle to the Ephesians onwards, shows that people recognized in it a powerful
motive for the industrious life. It was also declared in simple and stirring language that the laborer
was worthy of his hire, and a fearful judgment was prophesied for those who defrauded workmen
of their wages (see especially Jas. v. 4 f.). It is indeed surprising that work was spoken of in such
301 At the same time there was a quiet undercurrent of feeling expressed by the maxim that absolute devotion to religion was a
higher plane of life—“The heavenly Father who feeds the ravens and clothes the lilies will provide for us.” Apostles and prophets
(with the heroes of asceticism, of course, from the very outset) did not require to work. The idea was that their activity in preaching
demanded their entire life and occupied all their time.
302 The pseudo-Clementine de Virgin., i. 11, contains a sharp warning against the “otiosi,” or lazy folk, who chatter about religion
instead of attending to their business.
303 Cp. 2 Thess. iii. 6: παραγγέλλομεν ὑμῖν ἐν ὀνόματι τοῦ κυρίου Ι. Χ. στέλλεσθαι ὑμᾶς ἀπὸ παντὸς ἀδελφοῦ ἀτάκτως
περιπατοῦντος, cp. verse 12.
304 “Tertullian at this point is suppressing his personal views; he speaks from the standpoint of the majority of Christians. In reality,
as we see from the treatise de Idololatria, he was convinced that there was hardly a single occupation or business in which any
Christian could engage without soiling his conscience with idolatry.
305 The earliest restrictions on this point occur in the canons of the Synod of Elvira (canon xix.). They are very guarded. “Episcopi,
presbyteres et diacones de locis suis [this is the one point of the prohibition] negotiandi causa non discedant. . . . sane ad victum
sibi conquirendum aut filium, aut libertum, aut mercenarium, aut amicum, aut quemlibet mittant; et si voluerint negotiari, intra
provinciam negotientur” (“Let no bishop or presbyter or deacon leave his place for the purpose of trading. . . . he can, of course,
send his son, or his freedman, or his hired servant, or a friend, or anyone else, to procure provisions; but if he wishes to transact
business, he must confine himself to his own sphere”).
a sensible way, and that the duty of work was inculcated so earnestly, in a society which was so
liable to fanaticism and indolence.
But we have not yet alluded to what was the really noticeable feature in this connection. We
have already come across several passages which would lead us to infer that, together with the
recognition that every Christian brother had the right to a bare provision for livelihood, the early
Christian church also admitted its obligation to secure this minimum either by furnishing him with
work or else by maintaining him. Thus we read in the pseudo-Clementine homilies (cp. Clem.,
viii.): “For those able to work, provide work; and to those incapable of work, be charitable.”306
Cyprian also (Ep., ii.) assumes that if the church forbids some teacher of dramatic art to practice
his profession, it must look after him, or, in the event of his being unable to do anything else, provide
176 him with the necessaries of life.307 We were not aware, however, if this was really felt to be a duty
by the church at large, till the discovery of the Didachê. This threw quite a fresh light on the situation.
In the Didachê (xii.) it is ordained that no brother who is able to work is to be maintained by any
church for more than two or three days. The church accordingly had the right of getting rid of such
brethren. But the reverse side of this right was a duty. “If any brother has a trade, let him follow
that trade and earn the bread he eats. If he has no trade, exercise your discretion in arranging for
him to live among you as a Christian, but not in idleness. If he will not do this (i.e., engage in the
work with which you furnish him), he is trafficking with Christ (χριστέμπορος). Beware of men
like that.” It is beyond question, therefore, that a Christian brother could demand work from the
church, and that the church had to furnish him with work. What bound the members together, then,
was not merely the duty of supporting one another—that was simply the ultima ratio; it was the
fact that they formed a guild of workers, in the sense that the churches had to provide work for a
brother whenever he required it. This fact seems to me of great importance, from the social
standpoint. The churches were also labor unions. The case attested by Cyprian proves that there is
far more here than a merely rhetorical maxim. The Church did prove in this way a refuge for people
in distress who were prepared to work. Its attractive power was consequently intensified, and from
the economic standpoint we must attach very high value to a union which provided work for those
who were able to work, and at the same time kept hunger from those who were unfit for any labor.
10. Care for brethren on a journey (hospitality) and for churches in poverty or peril.308—The
diaconate went outside the circle of the individual church when it deliberately extended its labors
306 παρέχοντες μετὰ πάσης εὐφροσύνης τὰς τροφάς . . . . τοῖς ἀτέχνοις διὰ τῶν ἐπιτηδευμάτων ἐννούμενοι τὰς προφάσεις τῆς
ἀναγκαίας τροφῆς· τεχνίτῃ ἔργον, ἀδρανεῖ ἔλεος (“Providing supplies with all kindliness . . . . furnishing those who have no
occupation with employment, and thus with the necessary means of livelihood. To the artificer, work; to the incapable, alms”).
307 “Si paenurian talis et necessitatem paupertatis obtendit, potest inter ceteros qui ecclesiae alimentis sustinentur huius quoque
necessitatis adiuvari, si tamen contentus sit frugalioribus et innocentibus cibis nec putet salario se esse redimendum, ut a peccatis
cesset” (“Should such a person allege penury and the necessities of poverty, his wants may also be met among those of the other
people who are maintained by the church’s aliment—provided always that he is satisfied with plain and frugal fare. Nor is he
to imagine he must be redeemed by means of an allowance of money, in order to cease from sins”).
308 I have based this section on a study of my own which appeared in the Monatsschrift f. Diakonie und innere Mission (Dec. 1879,
Jan. 1880); but, as the relations of the individual church with Christendom in general fall to be noticed in this section, I have
thought it appropriate to treat the subject in greater detail. The ideal background of all this enterprise and activity may be seen
in Tertullian’s remark (de Præscr., xx.): “Omnes ecclesiae una; probant unitatem ecclesarum communcatio pacis et appellatio
fraternitatis et contesseratio hospitalitatis” (“All churches are one, and the unity of the churches is shown by their peaceful
intercommunion, the title of brethren, and the bond of hospitality”).
to include the relief of strangers, i.e., in the first instance of Christian brethren on their travels. In
our oldest account of Christian worship on Sunday (Justin, Apol., I. lxvii.; see above, p. 153),
strangers on their travels are included in the list of those who receive support from the
church-collections. This form of charity was thus considered part of the church’s business, instead
of merely being left to the goodwill of individuals; though people had recourse in many ways to
the private method, while the virtue of hospitality was repeatedly inculcated on the faithful.309 In
the first epistle of Clement to the Corinthian church, it is particularly noted, among the distinguishing
virtues of the church, that anyone who had stayed there praised their splendid sense of hospitality.310
178 But during the early centuries of Christianity it was the Roman church more than any other which
was distinguished by the generosity with which it practiced this virtue. In one document from the
reign of Marcus Aurelius, a letter of Dionysius the bishop of Corinth to the Roman church, it is
acknowledged that the latter has maintained its primitive custom of showing kindness to foreign
brethren. “Your worthy bishop Soter has not merely kept up this practice, but even extended it, by
aiding the saints with rich supplies, which he sends from time to time, and also by addressing
blessed words of comfort to brethren coming up to Rome, like a loving father to his children” (Eus.,
309 Rom. xii. 13, “Communicating to the necessities of the saints, given to hospitality”; 1 Pet. iv. 9, “Using hospitality one towards
another without murmuring”; Heb. vi. 10, xiii. 2, “Forget not to show love to strangers, for thereby some have entertained angels
unawares.” Individuals are frequently commended by Paul to the hospitality of the church; e.g., Rom. xvi. 1 f., “Receive her in
the Lord, as becometh the saints.” See also 3 John 5-8. In the “Shepherd” of Hermas (Mand. viii. 10) hospitality is distinctly
mentioned in the catalogue of virtues, with this remarkable comment: ἐν γὰρ τῇ φιλοξενίᾳ εὑρίσκεται ἀγαθοποίησίς ποτε (“for
benevolence from time to time is found in hospitality”), while in (Sim., viii. 10. 3), praise is assigned to those Christians who
εἰς τοὺς οἴκους αὐτῶν ὑπεδέξαντο τοὺς δούλους τοῦ θεοῦ (“gladly welcomed God’s servants into their houses”). Aristides, in
his Apology (xv.), says that if Christians “see any stranger, they take him under their roof and rejoice over him as over a very
brother” (ξένον εἂν ἴδωσιν, ὑπὸ στέγην εἰσάγουσι καὶ χαίρουσιν ἐπ᾽ αὐτῷ ὡς ἐπὶ ἀδελφῷ ἀληθινῷ). The exercise of hospitality
by private individuals towards Christian brethren is assumed by Tertullian to be a duty which no one dare evade; for, in writing
to his wife (ad Uxor. ii. 4), he warns her against marrying a heathen, should he (Tertullian) predecease her, on the ground that
no Christian brother would get a spiritual reception in an alien household. But hospitality was inculcated especially upon officials
of the church, such as elders (bishops) and deacons, who practiced this virtue in the name of the church at large; cp. 1 Tim. iii.
2, Tit. i. 8 (1 Tim. v. 10). In Hermas (Sim., ix. 27. 2) hospitable bishops form a special class among the saints, since “they gladly
received God’s servants into their houses at all times, and without hypocrisy.” In the Didachê a comparatively large amount of
space is taken up with directions regarding the care of travelers, and Cyprian’s interest in strangers is attested by his seventh
letter, written to his clergy at Carthage from his place of retreat during the Decian persecution. He writes: “I beg you will attend
carefully to the widows, and sick people, and all the poor. You may also pay the expenses of any strangers who may be in need,
out of my own portion which I left with my fellow-presbyter Rogatianus. In case it should be all used, I hereby forward by the
hands of Naricus the acolyte another sum of money, so that the sufferers may be dealt with more promptly and liberally”
(“Viduarum et infirmorum et omnium pauperum curam peto diligenter habeatis, sed et peregrinis si qui indigentes fuerint sumptus
suggeratis de quantitate mea propria quam apud Rogatianum compresbyterum nostrum dimisi. Quae quantitas ne forte iam
erogata sit, misi eidem per Naricum acoluthum aliam portionem, ut largius et promptius circa laborantes fiat operatio”). Cp. also
Apost. Const., iii. 3 (p. 98, 9 f., ed. Lagarde), and Ep. Clem. ad Jacob. (p. 9, 10 f., ed. Lagarde): τοὺς ξένους μετὰ πάσης προθυμίας
εἰς τοὺς ἑαυτῶν οἴκους λαμβάνετε (“Receive strangers into your homes with all readiness”). In his satire on the death of
Peregrinus (xvi.), Lucian describes how his hero, on becoming a Christian, was amply provided for on his travels: “Peregrinus
thus started out for the second time, and betook himself to traveling; he had an ample allowance from the Christians, who
constituted themselves his bodyguard, so that he lived in clover. Thus for some time he provided for himself in this fashion.”
From the pseudo-Clementine epistle de Virginitate one also learns to appreciate the appeal and exercise of hospitality. Finally,
Julian (Ep. ad Arsac.) emphasizes ἡ περὶ τοὺς ξένους φιλανθρωπία among Christians, and wishes that his own party would
imitate it (see above, p. 162).
310 1 Clem. i. 2: τίς γὰρ παρεπιδημήσας πρὸς ὑμᾶς . . . . τὸ μεγαλοπρεπὲς τῆς φιλοξενίας ὑμῶν ἦθος οὐκ ἐκήρυξεν; (“What person
who has sojourned among you . . . . has not proclaimed your splendid, hospitable disposition?”); cp. above, p. 152.
H.E., iv. 23. 10). We shall return to this later on; meanwhile it may be pointed out, in this connection,
that the Roman church owed its rapid rise to supremacy in Western Christendom, not simply to its
179 geographical position within the capital of the empire, or to the fact of its having been the seat of
apostolic activity throughout the West, but also to the fact that it recognized the special obligation
of caring for Christians in general, which fell to it as the church of the imperial capital. A living
interest in the collective church of Christ throbbed with peculiar intensity throughout the Roman
church, as we shall see, from the very outset, and the practice of hospitality was one of its
manifestations. At a time when Christianity was still a homeless religion, the occasional travels of
the brethren were frequently the means of bringing churches together which otherwise would have
had no common tie; while in an age when Christian captives were being dragged off, and banished
to distant spots throughout the empire, and when brethren in distress sought shelter and solace, the
practical proof of hospitality must have been specially telling. As early as the second century one
bishop of Asia Minor even wrote a book upon this virtue.311 So highly was it prized within the
churches that it was put next to faith as the genuine proof of faith. “For the sake of his faith and
hospitality, Abraham had a son given him in his old age.” “For his hospitality and piety was Lot
saved from Sodom.” “For the sake of her faith and hospitality was Rahab saved.” Such are the
examples of which, in these very words, the Roman church reminds her sister at Corinth.312 Nor
was this exercise of hospitality merely an aid in passing. The obligation of work imposed by the
Christian church has been already mentioned (cp. pp. 173 f.); if any visitors wished to settle down,
they had to take up some work, as is plain from the very provision made for such cases. Along
roads running through waste country hospices were erected. The earliest case of this occurs in the
Acta Archelai313 (fourth century).
It was easy to take advantage of a spirit so obliging and unsparing (e.g., the case of Proteus
Peregrinus, and especially the churches’ sad experience of so-called prophets and teachers). Heretics
180 could creep in, and so could loafers or impostors. We note, accordingly, that definite precautions
were taken against these at quite an early period. The new arrival is to be tested to see whether or
not he is a Christian (cp. 2 and 3 John; Did., xii.). In the case of an itinerant prophet, his words are
to be compared with his actions. No brother is to remain idle in any place for more than two days,
or three at the very most; after that, he must either leave or labor (Did., xii.). Later on, any brother
on a journey was required to bring with him a passport from his church at home. Things must have
come to a sad pass when (as the Didachê informs us) it was decreed that any visitor must be adjudged
a false prophet without further ado, if during an ecstasy he ordered a meal and then partook of it,
or if in an ecstasy he asked for money. Many a traveler, however, who desired to settle down, did
not come with empty hands; such persons did not ask, they gave. Thus we know (see above) that
when Marcion came from Pontus and joined the Roman church, he contributed 200,000 sesterces
to its funds (Tert., de Præscr., xxx.). Still, such cases were the exception; as a rule, visitors were
in need of assistance.
311 Melito of Sardes, according to Eusebius (H.E., iv. 26. 2).
312 1 Clem. x. 7, xi. 1, xii. 1.
313 Ch. iv.: “Si quando veluti peregrinans ad hospitium pervenisset, quae quidem diversoria hospitalissimus Marcellus instruxerat.”
Care lavished on brethren on a journey blossomed naturally into a sympathy and care for any
distant churches in poverty or peril. The keen interest shown in a guest could not cease when he
left the threshold of one’s house or passed beyond the city gates. And more than this, the guest
occupied the position of a representative to any church at which he arrived; he was a messenger to
them from some distant circle of brethren who were probably entire strangers and were yet related
to them. His account of the distress and suffering of his own church, or of its growth and spiritual
gifts, was no foreign news. The primitive churches were sensible that their faith and calling bound
them closely together in this world; they felt, as the apostle enjoined, that “if one member suffer,
all the members suffer with it, while if one member is honored, all the members rejoice with it” (1
Cor. xii. 26). And there is no doubt whatever that the consciousness of this was most vigorous and
vital in the very ages during which no external bond as yet united the various churches, the latter
standing side by side in almost entire independence of each other. These were the ages when the
181 primitive article of the common symbol, “I believe in one holy church,” was really nothing more
than an article of faith. And of course the effect of the inward ties was all the stronger when people
were participating in a common faith which found expression ere long in a brief and vigorous
confession, or practicing the same love and patience and Christian discipline, or turning their hopes
in common to that glorious consummation of Christ’s kingdom of which they had each received
the earnest and the pledge. These common possessions stimulated brotherly love; they made strangers
friends, and brought the distant near. “By secret signs and marks they manage to recognize one
another, loving each other almost before they are acquainted”; such is the description of Christians
given by the pagan Cæcilius (Min. Felix, ix. 3). Changes afterwards took place; but this vital sense
of belonging to one brotherhood never wholly disappeared.
In the great prayers of thanksgiving and supplication offered every Sabbath by the churches,
there was a fixed place assigned to intercession for the whole of Christendom throughout the earth.
Before very long this kindled the consciousness that every individual member belonged to the holy
unity of Christendom, just as it also kept them mindful of the services which they owed to the
general body. In the epistles and documents of primitive Christianity, wherever the church-prayers
emerge their ecumenical character becomes clear and conspicuous.314 Special means of intercourse
were provided by epistles, circular letters, collections of epistles, the transmission of acts or of
official records, or by travelers and special messengers. When matters of importance were at stake,
the bishops themselves went forth to settle controversial questions or to arrange a common basis
of agreement. It is not our business in these pages to describe all this varied intercourse. We shall
confine ourselves to the task of gathering and explaining those passages in which one church comes
to the aid of another in any case of need. Poverty, sickness, persecution, and suffering of all kinds
formed one class of troubles which demanded constant help on the part of churches that were better
182 off; while, in a different direction, assistance was required in those internal crises of doctrine and
of conduct which might threaten a church and in fact endanger its very existence. Along both of
these lines the brotherly love of the churches had to prove its reality.
The first case of one church supporting another occurs at the very beginning of the apostolic
age. In Acts xi. 27 f. we read that Agabus in Antioch foretold a famine. On the news of this, the
314 Cp. 1 Clem. lix. 2 f, with my notes ad loc. Polyc., Phil., xii. 2 f.
young church at Antioch made a collection on behalf of the poor brethren in Judæa, and dispatched
the proceeds to them by the hands of Barnabas and Paul.315 It was a Gentile Christian church which
was the first, so far as we are aware, to help a sister church in her distress. Shortly after this, the
brotherly love felt by young Christian communities drawn from pagans in Asia and Europe is
reported to have approved itself on a still wider scale. Even after the famine had passed, the mother
church at Jerusalem continued poor. Why, we do not know. An explanation has been sought in the
early attempt by which that church is said to have introduced a voluntary community of goods; it
was the failure of this attempt, we are to believe, that left the local church impoverished. This is
merely a vague conjecture. Nevertheless, the poverty at Jerusalem remains a fact. At the critical
conference in Jerusalem, when the three pillar-apostles definitely recognized Paul’s mission to the
Gentiles, the latter pledged himself to remember the poor saints at Jerusalem in distant lands; and
the epistles to the Galatians, the Corinthians, and the Romans, show how widely and faithfully the
apostle discharged this obligation. His position in this matter was by no means easy. He had made
himself responsible for a collection whose value depended entirely on the voluntary devotion of
the churches which he founded. But he was sure he could rely on them, and in this he did not deceive
himself. Paul’s churches made his concerns their own, and money for the brethren far away at
Jerusalem was collected in Galatia, Macedonia, and Achaia. Even when the apostle had to endure
183 the prospect of all his work in Corinth being endangered by a severe local crisis, he did not fail to
remember the business of the collection along with more important matters. The local arrangements
for it had almost come to a standstill by the time he wrote, and the aim of his vigorous, affectionate,
and graceful words of counsel to the church is to revive the zeal which had been allowed to cool
amid their party quarrels (2 Cor. viii. 9). Not long afterwards he is able to tell the Romans that
“those of Macedonia and Achaia freely chose to make a certain contribution for the poor saints at
Jerusalem. They have done it willingly, and indeed it was a debt. For if the Gentiles have been
made partakers of their spiritual things, they owe it to them also to minister to them in secular
things” (Rom. xv. 26 f.). In this collection Paul saw a real duty of charity which rested on the Gentile
churches, and one has only to realize the circumstances under which the money was gathered in
order to understand the meaning it possessed for the donors themselves. As yet, there was no coming
or going between the Gentile and the Judean Christians, though the former had to admit that the
latter were one with themselves as brethren and as members of a single church. The churches in
Asia and Europe were imitators of the churches of God in Judæa, (1 Thess. ii. 14), yet they had no
fellowship in worship, life, or customs. This collection formed, therefore, the one visible expression
of that brotherly unity which otherwise was rooted merely in their common faith. This was what
lent it a significance of its own. For a considerable period this devotion of the Gentile Christians
to their distressed brethren in Jerusalem was the sole manifestation, even in visible shape, of the
consciousness that all Christians shared an inner fellowship. We do not know how long the
contributions were kept up. The great catastrophes which occurred in Palestine after 65 A.D. had
a disastrous effect at any rate upon the relations between Gentile Christians and their brethren in
315 No doubt, the account (in Acts) of the Antiochene donation and of the journey of Barnabas and Paul to Jerusalem does lie open
to critical suspicion (see Overbeck, ad loc.).
Jerusalem and Palestine.316—Forty years later the age of persecutions burst upon the churches,
though no general persecution occurred until the middle of the third century. When some churches
184 were in distress, their possessions seized317 and their existence imperilled, the others could not feel
happy in their own undisturbed position. Succor of their persecuted brethren seemed to them a
duty, and it was a duty from which they did not shrink. Justin (loc. cit.) tells us that the maintenance
of imprisoned Christians was one of the regular objects to which the church collections were
devoted, a piece of information which is corroborated and enlarged by the statement of Tertullian,
that those who languished in the mines or were exiled to desert islands or lay in prison all received
monies from the church.318 Neither statement explains if it was only members of the particular
church in question who were thus supported. This, however, is inherently improbable, and there
are express statements to the contrary, including one from a pagan source. Dionysius of Corinth
(Eus., H.E., iv. 23. 10) writes thus to the Roman Christians about the year 170: “From the very first
you have had this practice of aiding all the brethren in various ways and of sending contributions
to many churches in every city, thus in one case relieving the poverty of the needy, or in another
providing for brethren in the mines. By these gifts, which you have sent from the very first, you
Romans keep up the hereditary customs of the Romans, a practice your bishop Soter has not merely
maintained but even extended.” A hundred years later Dionysius, the bishop of Alexandria, in
writing to Stephen the bishop of Rome, has occasion to mention the churches in Syria and Arabia.
Whereupon he remarks in passing, “To them you send help regularly, and you have just written
them another letter” (Eus., H.E., vii. 5. 2). Basil the Great informs us that under bishop Dionysius
185 (259-269 A.D.) the Roman church sent money to Cappadocia to purchase the freedom of some
Christian captives from the barbarians, an act of kindness which was still remembered with gratitude
in Cappadocia at the close of the fourth century.319 Thus Corinth, Syria, Arabia, and Cappadocia,
all of them churches in the East, unite in testifying to the praise of the church at Rome; and we can
understand, from the language of Dionysius of Corinth, how Ignatius could describe that church
as the προκαθημένη τῆς ἀγάπης, “the leader of love.”320 Nor were other churches and their bishops
behindhand in the matter. Similar stories are told of the church at Carthage and its bishop Cyprian.
From a number of letters written shortly before his execution, it is quite clear that Cyprian sent
money to provide for the Christians who then lay captive in Numidia (Ep. lxxvi.-lxxix.), and
elsewhere in his correspondence there is similar evidence of his care for stranger Christians and
foreign churches. The most memorable of his letters, in this respect, is that addressed to the bishops
of Numidia in 253 A.D. The latter had informed him that wild hordes of robbers had invaded the
country and carried off many Christians of both sexes into captivity. Whereupon Cyprian instituted
316 The meaning of Heb. vi. 10 is uncertain. I may observe at this point that more than three centuries later Jerome employed this
Pauline collection as an argument to enforce the duty of all Christians throughout the Roman empire to support the monastic
settlements at the sacred sites of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. In his treatise against Vigilantius (xiii.), who had opposed the
squandering of money to maintain monks in Judæa, Jerome argues from 2 Cor. 8, etc., without more ado, as a scriptural warrant
for such collections.
317 Even by the time of Domitian, Christian churches were liable to poverty, owing to the authorities seizing their goods; cp. Heb.
x. 34 (if the epistle belongs to this period), and Eus., H.E., iii. 17.
318 Tert., Apol., xxxix.: “Si qui in metallis et si qui in insulis, vel in custodiis, dumtaxat ex causa dei sectae, alumni suae confessionis
fiunt” (cp. p. 153).
319 Basil, Ep. ad Damasum Papam (lxx).
320 Ign., ad Rom., proœmium. Cp. Zahn, ad loc.: “In caritatis operibus semper primum locum sibi vindicavit ecclesia Romana”
(“The Roman church always justified her primacy in works of charity”).
a collection on their behalf and forwarded the proceeds to the bishops along with the following
letter (Ep. lxii.). It is the most elaborate and important document from the first three centuries
bearing upon the support extended to one church by another, and for that reason we may find space
for it at this point.
“Cyprian to Januarius, Maximus, Proculus, Victor, Modianus, Nemesianus, Nampulus, and
Honoratus, the brethren: greeting.
“With sore anguish of soul and many a tear have I read the letter which in your loving solicitude
you addressed to me, dear brethren, with regard to the imprisonment of our brothers and sisters.
Who would not feel anguish over such misfortunes? Who would not make his brother’s grief his
own? For, says the apostle Paul: Should one member suffer, all the others suffer along with it; and
186 should one member rejoice, the others rejoice with it also. And in another place he says: Who is
weak, and I am not weak? We must therefore consider the present imprisonment of our brethren
as our imprisonment, reckoning the grief of those in peril as our grief. We form a single body in
our union, and we ought to be stirred and strengthened by religious duty as well as by love to redeem
our members the brethren.
“For as the apostle Paul once more declares: Know ye not that ye are God’s temple and that
the Holy Spirit dwelleth in you? Though love failed to stir us to succor the brethren, we must in
this case consider that it is temples of God who are imprisoned, nor dare we by our procrastination
and neglect of fellow-feeling allow temples of God to remain imprisoned for any length of time,
but must put forth all our energies, and with all speed manage by mutual service to deserve the
grace of Christ our Lord, our Judge, our God. For since the apostle Paul says: So many of you as
are baptized into Christ have put on Christ, we must see Christ in our imprisoned brethren, redeeming
from the peril of imprisonment him who redeemed us from the peril of death. He who took us from
the jaws of the devil, who bought us with his blood upon the cross, who now abides and dwells in
us, he is now to be redeemed by us for a sum of money from the hands of the barbarians. . . . . Will
not the feeling of humanity and the sense of united love incline each father among you to look upon
those prisoners as his sons, every husband to feel, with anguish for the marital tie, that his wife
languishes in that imprisonment?” Then, after an account of the special dangers incurred by the
consecrated “virgins”—“our church, having weighed and sorrowfully examined all those matters
in accordance with your letter, has gathered donations for the brethren speedily, freely, and liberally;
for while, according to its powers of faith, it is ever ready for any work of God, it has been raised
to a special pitch of charity on this occasion by the thought of all this suffering. For since the Lord
says in his gospel: I was sick and ye visited me, with what ampler reward for our alms will he now
say I was in prison and ye redeemed me? And since again he says I was in prison and ye visited
187 me, how much better will it be for us on the day of judgment, when we are to receive the Lord’s
reward, to hear him say: I was in the dungeon of imprisonment, in bonds and fetters among the
barbarians, and ye rescued me from that prison of slavery! Finally, we thank you heartily for
summoning us to share your trouble and your noble and necessary act of love, and for offering us
a rich harvest-field wherein to scatter the seeds of our hope, in the expectation of reaping a very
plentiful harvest from this heavenly and helpful action. We transmit to you a sum of a hundred
thousand sesterces [close upon £1000] collected and contributed by our clergy and people here in
the church over which by God’s mercy we preside; this you will dispense in the proper quarter at
your own discretion.
“In conclusion, we trust that nothing like this will occur in future, but that, guarded by the power
of God, our brethren may henceforth be quit of all such perils. Still, should the like occur again,
for a test of love and faith, do not hesitate to write of it to us; be sure and certain that while our
own church and the whole of the church pray fervently that this may not recur, they will gladly and
generously contribute even if it does take place once more. In order that you may remember in
prayer our brethren and sisters who have taken so prompt and liberal a share in this needful act of
love, praying that they may be ever quick to aid, and in order also that by way of return you may
present them in your prayers and sacrifices, I add herewith the names of all. Further, I have subjoined
the names of my colleagues (the bishops) and fellow-priests, who like myself were present and
made such contributions as they could afford in their own name and in the name of their people; I
have also noted and forwarded their small sums along with our own total. It is your duty—faith
and love alike require it—to remember all these in your prayers and supplications.
“Dearest brethren, we wish you unbroken prosperity in the Lord. Remember us.”
Plainly the Carthaginian church is conscious here of having done something out of the common.
But it is intensely conscious also of having thus discharged a duty of Christian love, and the religious
188 basis of the duty is laid down in exemplary fashion. It is also obvious that so liberal a grant could
not be taken from the proceeds of the ordinary church-collections.
Yet another example of Cyprian’s care for a foreign church is extant. In the case (cp. above, p.
175) already mentioned of the teacher of the histrionic art who is to give up his profession and be
supported by the church, if he has no other means of livelihood, Cyprian (Ep. ii.) writes that the
man may come to Carthage and find maintenance in the local church if his own church is too poor
to feed him.321
Lucian’s satire on the death of Peregrinus, in the days of Marcus Aurelius, is a further witness
to the alert and energetic temper of the interest taken in churches at the outbreak of persecution or
during a period of persecution. The governor of Syria had ordered the arrest of this character, who
is described by Lucian as a nefarious impostor. Lucian then describes the honor paid him, during
his imprisonment, by Christians, and proceeds as follows: “In fact, people actually came from
several Asiatic townships, sent by Christians, in the name of their churches, to render aid, to conduct
the defence, and to encourage the man. They become incredibly alert when anything of this kind
occurs that affects their common interests. On such occasions, no expense is grudged. Thus they
pour out on Peregrinus, at this time, sums of money which were by no means trifling, and he drew
from this source a considerable income.”322 What Lucian relates in this passage cannot, therefore,
321 “Si illic ecclesia non sufficit ut laborantibus praestat alimenta, poterit se ad transferre (i.e., to Carthage), et hic quod sibi ad
victum atque ad vestitum necessarium fuerit accipere” (“If the local church is not able to support those who need labor, let it
send them on to us to get the needful food and clothing”).
322 It may be observed at this point that there were no general collections in the early church, like those maintained by the Jews in
the Imperial age. The organization of the churches would not tend greatly to promote any such undertakings, since Christians
had no headquarters such as the Jews possessed in Palestine.
have been an infrequent occurrence. Brethren arrived from afar in the name of their churches, not
merely to bring donations for the support of prisoners, but also to visit them in prison, and to
encourage them by evidences of love; they actually endeavored to stand beside them in the hour
189 of trial. The seven epistles of Ignatius form, as it were, a commentary upon these observations of
the pagan writer. In them we find the keen sympathy shown by the churches of Asia Minor as well
as by the Roman church in the fortunes of a bishop upon whom they had never set eyes before: we
also get a vivid sense of their care for the church at Antioch, which was now orphaned. Ignatius is
being taken from Antioch to Rome in order to fight with beasts at the capital, and meanwhile the
persecution of Christians at Antioch proceeds apace. On reaching Smyrna, he is greeted by deputies
from the churches of Ephesus, Magnesia, and Tralles. After several days’ intercourse, he entrusts
them with letters to their respective churches, in which, among other things, he warmly commends
to the brethren of Asia Minor his own forlorn church. “Pray for the church in Syria,” he writes to
the Ephesians. “Remember the church in Syria when you pray,” he writes to the Trallians; “I am
not worthy to belong to it, since I am the least of its members.” And in the letter to the Magnesians
he repeats this request, comparing the church at Antioch to a field scorched by the fiery heat of
persecution, which needs some refreshing dew: the love of the brethren is to revive it.323 At the
same time we find him turning to the Romans also. There appears to have been some brother from
Ephesus who was ready to convey a letter to the Roman church, but Ignatius assumes they will
learn of his fortunes before the letter reaches them. What he fears is, lest they should exert their
influence at court on his behalf, or rob him of his coveted martyrdom by appealing to the Emperor.
The whole of the letter is written with the object of blocking the Roman church upon this line of
action.324 But all that concerns us here is the fact that a stranger bishop from abroad could assume
that the Roman church would interest itself in him, whether he was thinking of a legal appeal or of
the Roman Christians moving in his favor along some special channels open to themselves. A few
days afterwards Ignatius found himself at Troas, accompanied by the Ephesian deacon Burrhus,
190 and provided with contributions from the church of Smyrna.325 Thence he writes to the churches
of Philadelphia and Smyrna, with both of which he had become acquainted during the course of
his journey, as well as to Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna. Messengers from Antioch cached him
at Troas with news of the cessation of the persecution at the former city, and with the information
that some churches in the vicinity of Antioch had already dispatched bishops or presbyters and
deacons to congratulate the local church (Philad., x. 2). Whereupon, persuaded that the church of
Antioch had been delivered from its persecution through the prayers of the churches in Asia Minor,
Ignatius urges the latter also to send envoys to Antioch in order to unite with that church in thanking
God for the deliverance. “Since I am informed,” he writes to the Philadelphians (x. 1 f.), “that, in
answer to your prayers and love in Jesus Christ, the church of Antioch is now at peace, it befits
you, as a church of God, to send a deacon your delegate with a message of God for that church, so
that he may congratulate the assembled church and glorify the Name. Blessed in Jesus Christ is he
who shall be counted worthy of such a mission; and ye shall yourselves be glorified. Now it is not
323 Eph., xxi. 2; Trall., xii. 1; Magn., xiv.
324 Even here Ignatius remembers to commend the church at Antioch to the church of Rome (ix.): “Remember in your prayers the
Syrian church, which has God for its shepherd now instead of me. Jesus Christ alone shall be its overseer (bishop)—he and your
love together.”
325 Philad., xi. 2; Smyrn., xii. 1.
impossible for you to do this for the name of God, if only you have the desire.” The same counsel
is given to Smyrna. The church there is also to send a messenger with a pastoral letter to the church
of Antioch (Smyrn., xi.). The unexpected suddenness of his departure from Troas prevented Ignatius
from addressing the same request to the other churches of Asia Minor. He therefore begs Polycarp
not only himself to despatch a messenger with all speed (Polyc., vii. 2), but to write in his name to
the other churches and ask them to share the general joy of the Antiochene Christians either by
messenger or by letter (Polyc., viii. 1). A few weeks later the church at Philippi wrote to Polycarp
that it also had made the acquaintance of Ignatius during that interval; it requested the bishop of
Smyrna, therefore, to forward its letter to the church of Antioch whenever he sent his own messenger.
Polycarp undertakes to do so. In fact, he even holds out the prospect of conveying the letter himself.
191 As desired by them, he also transmits to them such letters of Ignatius as had come to hand, and
asks for reliable information upon the fate of Ignatius and his companions.326
Such, in outline, is the situation as we find it in the seven letters of Ignatius and in Polycarp’s
epistle to the Philippians. What a wealth of intercourse there is between the churches! What public
spirit! What brotherly care for one another! Financial support retires into the background here. The
foreground of the picture is filled by proofs of that personal cooperation by means of which whole
churches, or again churches and their bishops, could lend mutual aid to one another, consoling and
strengthening each other, and sharing their sorrows and their joys. Here we step into a whole world
of sympathy and love.
From other sources we also learn that after weathering a persecution the churches would send
a detailed report of it to other churches. Two considerable documents of this kind are still extant.
One is the letter addressed by the church of Smyrna to the church of Philomelium and to all Christian
churches, after the persecution which took place under Antonius Pius. The other is the letter of the
churches in Gaul to those in Asia Minor and Phrygia, after the close of the bloody persecution
under Marcus Aurelius.327 In both letters the persecution is described in great detail, while in the
former the death of bishop Polycarp is specially dwelt on, since the glorious end of a bishop who
was well known in the East and West alike had to be announced to all Christendom. The events,
which transpired in Gaul, had a special claim upon the sympathy of the Asiatic brethren, for at least
a couple of the latter, Attalus of Pergamum and Alexander, a Phrygian, had suffered a glorious
martyrdom in the Gallic persecution. The churches also took advantage of the opportunity to
communicate to the brethren certain notable experiences of their own during the period of
persecution, as well as any truths which they had verified. Thus the Smyrniote church speaks very
192 decidedly against the practice of people delivering themselves up and craving for martyrdom. It
gives one melancholy instance of this error (Mart. Polyc., iv.). The churches of Gaul, for their part
(in Eus., H.E., v. 2), put in a warning against excessive harshness in the treatment of penitent
apostates. They are able also to describe the tender compassion shown by their own confessors. It
was otherwise with the church of Rome. She exhorted the church of Carthage to stand fast and firm
326 Polyc., ad Phil., xiii.
327 It is preserved, though not in an entirely complete form, by Eusebius (H.E., v. 1 f.). The Smyrniote letter also occurs in an
abbreviated form in Eusebius (iv. 15); the complete form, however, is also extant in a special type of text, both in Greek and
during the Decian persecution,328 and at a subsequent period conferred with it upon its mode of
dealing with apostates.329 Here a special case was under discussion. Cyprian, the bishop of Carthage,
had fled during the persecution; nevertheless, he had continued to superintend his church from his
retreat, since he could say with quite a good conscience that he was bound to look after his own
people. The Romans, who had not been at first informed of the special circumstances of the case,
evidently viewed the bishop’s flight with serious misgiving; they thought themselves obliged to
write and encourage the local church. The fact was, no greater disaster could befall a church in a
period of distress than the loss of its clergy or bishop by death or dereliction of duty. In his treatise
on “Flight during a Persecution,” Tertullian relates how deacons, presbyters, and bishops frequently
ran away at the outbreak of a persecution, on the plea of Matt. x. 23: “If they persecute you in one
city, flee unto another.” The result was that the church either collapsed or fell a prey to heretics.330
The more dependent the church became upon its clergy, the more serious were the consequences
to the church of any failure or even of any change in the ranks of the latter. This was well understood
193 by the ardent persecutors of the church in the third century, by Maximin I, by Decius, by Valerian,
and by Diocletian. Even a Cyprian could not retain control of his church from a place of retreat!
He had to witness it undergoing shocks of disastrous force. It was for this very reason that the sister
churches gave practical proof of their sympathy in such crises, partly by sending letters of comfort
during the trial, as the Romans did, partly by addressing congratulations to the church when the
trial had been passed. In his church history Eusebius furnishes us with selections from the ample
correspondence of Dionysius, bishop of Corinth, and one of these letters, addressed to the church
of Athens, is relevant to our present purpose. Eusebius writes as follows (H.E., IV. xxiii. 2 f.): “The
epistle exhorts them to the faith and life of the gospel, which Dionysius accuses them of
undervaluing. Indeed, he almost says they have fallen away from the faith since the martyrdom of
Publius, their bishop, which had occurred during the persecution in those days. He also mentions
Quadratus, who was appointed bishop after the martyrdom of Publius, and testifies that by the zeal
of Quadratus they were gathered together again and had new zeal imparted to their faith.” The
persecution which raged in Antioch during the reign of Septimius Severus claimed as its victim
the local bishop of that day, one Serapion. His death must have exposed the church to great peril,
for when the episcopate was happily filled up again, the bishop of Cappadocia wrote a letter of his
own from prison to congratulate the church of Antioch, in the following terms: “The Lord has
lightened and smoothed my bonds in this time of captivity, by letting me hear that, through the
328 Ep. viii. in Cyprian’s correspondence (ed. Hartel).
329 Cp. my study (in the volume dedicated to Weizsäcker, 1892) on “The letters of the Roman clergy from the age of the papal
vacancy in 250 A.D.” There is also an interesting remark of Dionysius of Alexandria in a letter addressed to Germanus which
Eusebius has preserved (H.E., vii. 11. 3). Dionysius tells how “one of the brethren who were present from Rome accompanied”
him to his examination before Æmilianus the governor (during the Valerian persecution).
330 “Sed cum ipsi auctores, id est ipsi diaconi et presbyteri et episcopi fugiunt, quomodo laicus intellegere potuerit, qua ratione
dictum: Fugite de civitate in civitatem? (Tales) dispersum gregem faciunt et in praedam esse omnibus bestiis agri, dum non est
pastor illis. Quod nunquam magis fit, quam cum in persecutione destituitur ecclesia a clero” (“But when the very authorities
themselves—deacons, I mean, and presbyters and bishops—take to flight, how can a layman see the real meaning of the saying,
‘Flee from city to city’? Such shepherds scatter the flock and leave it a prey to every wild beast of the field, by depriving it of
a shepherd. And this is specially the case when a church is forsaken by the clergy during persecution”).—De Fuga, xi.
providence of God, the bishopric of your holy church has been undertaken by Asclepiades, whose
services to the faith qualify him thoroughly for such a position” (Eus., H.E., VI. xi. 5).
Hitherto we have been gleaning from the scanty remains of the primitive Christian literature
whatever bore upon the material support extended by one church to another, or upon the mutual
assistance forthcoming in a time of persecution. But whenever persecutions brought about internal
crisis and perils in a church, as was not infrequently the case, the sympathetic interest of the church
extended to this sphere of need as well, and attempts were made to meet the situation. Such cases
now fall to be considered—cases in which it was not poverty or persecution, but internal abuses
and internal dangers, pure and simple, which drew a word of comfort or of counsel from a sister
church or from its bishop.
In this connection we possess one document dating from the very earliest period, viz., the close
of the first century, which deserves especial notice. It is the so-called first epistle of Clement, really
an official letter sent by the Roman church to the Corinthian.331 Within the pale of the latter church
a crisis had arisen, whose consequences were extremely serious. All we know, of course, is what
the majority of the church thought of the crisis, but according to their account certain newcomers,
of an ambitious and conceited temper, had repudiated the existing authorities and led a number of
the younger members of the church astray.332 Their intention was to displace the presbyters and
deacons, and in general to abolish the growing authority of the officials (xl.-xlviii.). A sharp struggle
ensued, in which even the women took some part.333 Faith, love, and brotherly feeling were already
threatened with extinction (i.-iii.). The scandal became notorious throughout Christendom, and
indeed there was a danger of the heathen becoming acquainted with the quarrel, of the name of
Christ being blasphemed, and of the church’s security being imperilled.334 The Roman Church
stepped in. It had not been asked by the Corinthian church to interfere in the matter; on the contrary,
it spoke out of its own accord.335 And it did so with an affection and solicitude equal to its candor
and dignity. It felt bound, for conscience’ sake, to give a serious and brotherly admonition, conscious
195 that God’s voice spoke through its words for peace,336 and at the same time for the strict maintenance
of respect towards the authority of the officials (cp. xl. f.). Withal it never forgets that its place is
merely to point out the right road to the Corinthians, not to lay commands upon them;337 over and
again it expresses most admirably its firm confidence that the church knows the will of God and
will bethink itself once more of the right course.338 It even clings to the hope that the very agitators
will mend their ways (cp. liv.). But in the name of God it asks that a speedy end be put to the
scandal. The transmission of the epistle is entrusted to the most honored men within its membership.
“They shall be witnesses between us and you. And we have done this that you may know we have
had and still have every concern for your speedy restoration to peace” (lxiii. 3). The epistle concludes
331 Cp. the inscription.
332 Cp. i. 1, iii. 3, xxxix. 1, xlvii. 6, etc.
333 This is probable, from i. 3, xxi. 6.
334 Cp. xlvii. 7, i. 1.
335 i. 1, xlvii. 6-7.
336 Cp. lix. 1, lvi. 1, lxiii. 2.
337 Cp. especially lviii. 2: δέξασθε τὴν συμβουλὴν ἡμῶν (“accept our counsel”).
338 Cp. xl. 1, xlv. 2 f., liii. 1, lxii. 3.
by saying that the Corinthians are to send back the envoys to Rome as soon as possible in joy and
peace, so that the Romans may be able to hear of concord regained with as little delay as possible
and to rejoice speedily on that account (lxv. 1). There is nothing in early Christian literature to
compare with this elaborate and effective piece of writing, lit up with all the brotherly affection
and the public spirit of the church. But similar cases are not infrequent. The church at Philippi, for
example, sent a letter across the sea to the aged Polycarp at Smyrna, informing him of a sad affair
which had occurred in their own midst. One of their presbyters, named Valens, had been convicted
of embezzling the funds of the church. In his reply, which is still extant, Polycarp treats this
melancholy piece of news (Polyc., ad Phil., xi.). He does not interfere with the jurisdiction of the
church, but he exhorts and counsels the Philippians. They are to take warning from this case and
avoid avarice themselves. Should the presbyter and his wife repent, the church is not to treat them
as enemies, but as ailing and erring members, so that the whole body may be saved. The bishop
lets it be seen that the church’s treatment of the case does not appear to him to have been entirely
196 correct. He exhorts them to moderate their passion and to be gentle. But, at the same time, in so
doing he is perfectly conscious of the length to which he may venture to go in opposing an outside
church. When Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, is being conveyed across Asia Minor, he takes the
opportunity of writing brief letters to encourage the local churches in any perils to which they may
be exposed. He warns them against the machinations of heretics, exhorts them to obey the clergy,
urges a prudent concord and firm unity, and in quite a thorough fashion gives special counsels for
any emergency. At the opening of the second century a Roman Christian, the brother of the bishop,
desires to lay down the via media of proper order and discipline at any crisis in the church, as he
himself had found that via, between the extremes of laxity and rigor. His aim is directed not merely
to the Roman church but to Christendom in general (to the “foreign cities”); he wishes all to learn
the counsels which he claims to have personally received from the Holy Spirit through the church
(Herm. Vis. ii. 4). In the days of Marcus Aurelius it was bishop Dionysius of Corinth in particular
who sought (no doubt in his church’s name as well as in his own) by means of an extensive
correspondence to confirm the faith of such churches, even at a great distance, as were in any peril.
Two of his letters, those to the Athenians and the Romans, we have already noticed, but Eusebius
gives us the contents of several similar writings, which he calls “catholic” epistles. Probably these
were meant to be circulated throughout the churches, though they were collected at an early date
and also (as the bishop himself is forced indignantly to relate) were interpolated. One letter to the
church at Sparta contains an exposition of orthodox doctrine with an admonition to peace and unity.
In the epistle to the church of Nicomedia in Bithynia he combats the heresy of Marcion. “He also
wrote a letter to the church in Gortyna, together with the other churches in Crete, praising their
bishop Philip for the testimony borne to the great piety and steadfastness of his church, and warning
them to guard against the aberrations of heretics. He also wrote to the church of Amastris, together
with the other churches in Pontus. . . . . Here he adds explanations of some passages from Holy
197 Scripture, and mentions Palmas, their bishop, by name. He gives them long advice, too, upon
marriage and chastity, enjoining them also to welcome again into their number all who come back
after any lapse whatsoever, be it vice or heresy. There is also in his collection of letters another
addressed to the Cnosians (in Crete), in which he exhorts Pinytus, the bishop of the local church,
not to lay too heavy and sore a burden on the brethren in the matter of continence, but to consider
the weakness of the majority” (Eus., H.E., iv. 23). Such is the variety of contents in these letters.
Dionysius seems to have spoken his mind on every question, which agitated the churches of his
day, nor was any church too remote for him to evince his interest in its inner fortunes.
After the close of the second century a significant change came over these relationships, as the
institution of synods began to be adopted. The free and unconventional communications, which
passed between the churches (or their bishops) yielded to an intercourse conducted upon fixed and
regular lines. A new procedure had already come into vogue with the Montanist and Quartodeciman
controversies, and this was afterwards developed more highly still in the great Christological
controversies and in the dispute with Novatian. Doubtless we still continue to hear of cases in which
individual churches or their bishops displayed special interest in other churches at a distance, nor
was there any cessation of voluntary sympathy with the weal and woe of any sister church. But this
gave place more than ever both to an interest in the position taken up by the church at large in view
of individual and particular movements, and also to the support of the provincial churches.339 Keen
interest was shown in the attitude taken up by the churches throughout the empire (or their bishops)
upon any critical question. On such matters harmony could be arranged, but otherwise the provincial
churches began to form groups of their own. Still, for all this, fresh methods emerged in the course
of the third century by which one church supported or rallied another, and these included the custom
198 of inviting the honored teachers of one church to deliver addresses in another, or of securing them,
when controversies had arisen, to pronounce an opinion, to instruct the parties, and to give a
judgment in the matter. Instances of this are to be found, for example, in the career of the great
theologian Origen.340 Even in the fourth and fifth centuries, the material support of poor churches
from foreign sources had not ceased; Socrates, in his church history (vii. 25) notes one very brilliant
example of the practice.
THE RELIGION OF THE SPIRIT AND OF POWER, OF MORAL EARNESTNESS AND
HOLINESS\341
In its missionary activities the Christian religion presented itself as something more than the
gospel of redemption and of ministering love; it was also the religion of the Spirit and of power.
No doubt, it verified its character as Spirit and power by the very fact that it brought redemption
and succor to mankind, freeing them from demons (see above, pp. 125 f.) and from the misery of
life. But the witness of the Spirit had a wider reach than even this. “I came to you in weakness and
fear and with great trembling; nor were my speech and preaching in persuasive words of wisdom
339 Instances of this occur, e.g., in the correspondence of Cyprian and of Dionysius of Alexandria.
340 Cp. Eus., H.E., vi. 19. 15; 33. 2; 37; 32. 2.
341 In presenting this aspect of the Christian religion, one has either to be extremely brief or very copious. In the volume which has
been already mentioned (on p. 125), Weinel has treated it with great thoroughness. Here I shall do no more than adduce the
salient points.
but in demonstration of the Spirit and of power” (1 Cor. ii. 3, 4). Though Paul in these words is
certainly thinking of his conflict with demons and of their palpable defeat, he is by no means
thinking of that alone, but also of all the wonderful deeds that accompanied the labors of the apostles
and the founding of the church. These were not confined to his own person. From all directions
they were reported, in connection with other missionaries as well. Towards the close of the first
century, when people came to look back upon the age in which the church had been established,
the course of events was summed up in these words (Heb. ii. 3): “Salvation began by being spoken
through the Lord, and was confirmed for us by those who heard it, while God accompanied their
witness by signs and wonders and manifold miracles and distributions of the holy Spirit.”
The variety of expressions342 here is in itself a proof of the number of phenomena which emerge
in this connection. Let us try to single out the most important of them.
(1) God speaks to the missionaries in visions, dreams, and ecstasy, revealing to them affairs of
moment and also trifles, controlling their plans, pointing out the roads on which they are to travel,
the cities where they are to stay, and the persons whom they are to visit. Visions occur especially
after a martyrdom, the dead martyr appearing to his friends during the weeks that immediately
follow his death, as in the case of Potamiæna (Eus., H.E., vi. 5), or of Cyprian, or of many others.
It was by means of dreams that Arnobius (Jerome, Chron., p. 326) and others were converted.
Even in the middle of the third century, the two great bishops Dionysius and Cyprian343 were both
visionaries. Monica, Augustine’s mother, like many a Christian widow, saw visions frequently;
she could even detect, from a certain taste in her mouth, whether it was a real revelation or a
dream-image that she saw (Aug., Conf., vi. 13. 23: “Dicebat discernere se nescio quo sapore, quem
verbis explicare non poterat, quid interesset inter revelantem te et animam suam somniantem”).
She was not the first who used this criterion.
(2) At the missionary addresses of the apostles or evangelists, or at the services of the churches
which they founded, sudden movements of rapture are experienced, many of them being simultaneous
seizures; these are either full of terror and dismay, convulsing the whole spiritual life, or exultant
outbursts of a joy that sees heaven opened to its eyes. The simple question, “What must I do to be
saved?” also bursts upon the mind with an elemental force.
(3) Some are inspired who have power to clothe their experience in words—prophets to explain
the past, to interpret and to fathom the present, and to foretell the future.344 Their prophecies relate
to the general course of history, but also to the fortunes of individuals, to what individuals are to
do or leave undone.
342 Cp. Justin’s Dial. xxxix.: φωτιζόμενοι διὰ τοῦ ὀνόματος τοῦ χριστοῦ τούτου· ὁ μὲν γὰρ λαμβάνει συνέσεως πνεῦμα, ὁ δὲ βουλῆς,
ὁ δὲ ἴσχύος, ὁ δὲ ἰάσεως, ὁ δὲ προγνώσεως, ὁ δὲ διδασκαλίας, ὁ δὲ φόβου θεοῦ (“Illuminated by the name of Christ. For one
receives the spirit of understanding, another the spirit of counsel, another the spirit of might, another the spirit of healing, another
the spirit of foreknowledge, another the spirit of teaching, another the spirit of the fear of God”).
343 Cp. my essay on “Cyprian als Enthusiast” in the Zeitschrift für die neutest. Wissenschaft iii. (1902), pp. 177 f.
344 These prophecies do not include, however, the Christian Sibylline oracles. The Jewish oracles were accepted in good faith by
Christians, and quoted by them (ever since Hermas) as prophetic; but the production of Christian Sibyllines did not begin, in all
likelihood, till after the middle of the third century. These oracles are an artificial and belated outcome of the primitive Christian
enthusiasm, and are simply a series of forgeries. Cp. my Chronologie i., pp. 581 f., ii., pp. 184 f.
(4) Brethren are inspired with the impulse to improvise prayers and hymns and psalms.
(5) Others are so filled with the Spirit that they lose consciousness and break out in stammering
speech and cries, or in unintelligible utterances—which can be interpreted, however, by those who
(6) Into the hands of others, again, the Spirit slips a pen, either in an ecstasy or in exalted
moments of spiritual tension; they not merely speak but write as they are bidden.
(7) Sick persons are brought and healed by the missionaries, or by brethren who have been but
recently awakened; wild paroxysms of terror before God’s presence are also soothed, and in the
name of Jesus demons are cast out.
(8) The Spirit impels men to an immense variety of extraordinary actions—to symbolic actions
which are meant to reveal some mystery or to give some directions for life, as well as to deeds of
heroism.
(9) Some perceive the presence of the Spirit with every sense; they see its brilliant light, they
hear its voice, they smell the fragrance of immortality and taste its sweetness. Nay more; they see
celestial persons with their own eyes, see them and also hear them; they peer into what is hidden
or distant or to come; they are even rapt into the world to come, into heaven itself, where they listen
to “words that cannot be uttered.”345
(10) But although the Spirit manifests itself through marvels like these, it is no less effective
in heightening the religious and the moral powers, which operate with such purity and power in
certain individuals that they bear palpably the stamp of their divine origin. A heroic faith or
confidence in God is visible, able to overthrow mountains, and towering far above the faith that
lies in the heart of every Christian; charitable services are rendered which are far more moving and
stirring than any miracle; a foresight and a solicitude are astir in the management of life, that operate
as surely as the very providence of God. When these spiritual gifts, together with those of the
apostles, prophets, and teachers, are excited, they are the fundamental means of edifying the
churches, proving them thereby to be “churches of God.”
The amplest evidence for all these traits is to be found in the pages of early Christian literature
from its earliest record down to Irenæus, and even further. The apologists allude to them as a familiar
and admitted fact, and it is quite obvious that they were of primary importance for the mission and
propaganda of the Christian religion. Other religions and cults could doubtless point to some of
these actions of the Spirit, such as ecstasy, vision, demonic and anti-demonic manifestations, but
nowhere do we find such a wealth of these phenomena presented to us as in Christianity; moreover,
and this is of supreme importance, the fact that their Christian range included the exploits of moral
345 Cp., however, Orig., Hom. xxvii. 11, in Num. (vol. 10, p. 353): “In visions there is wont to be temptation, for the angel of evil
sometimes transforms himself into an angel of light. Hence you must take great care to discriminate the kind of vision, just as
Joshua the son of Nun on seeing a vision knew there was a temptation in it, and at once asked the figure, Art thou on our side,
or on our foes’?” (“Solet in visionibus esse tentatio; nam nonnunquam angelus iniquitatis transfigurat se in angelum lucis, et
ideo cavendum est et sollicite agendum, ut scienter discernas visionum genus, sicut et Iesus Nave, cum visionem viderit, sciens
in hoc esse tentationem, statim requisit ab eo qui apparuit et dicit: Noster es an adversariorum?”). See also what follows.
heroism, stamped them in this field with a character which was all their own and lent them a very
telling power. What existed elsewhere merely in certain stereotyped and fragmentary forms, appeared
within Christianity in a wealth of expression where every function of the spiritual, the mental, and
the moral life seemed actually to be raised above itself.346
In all these phenomena there was an implicit danger, due to the great temptation which people
felt either to heighten them artificially, or credulously to exaggerate them,347 or to imitate them
fraudulently, or selfishly to turn them to their own account.348
It was in the primitive days of Christianity, during the first sixty years of its course, that their
effects were most conspicuous, but they continued to exist all through the second century, although
in diminished volume.349 Irenæus confirms this view.350 The Montanist movement certainly gave
346 We must not ignore the fact that these proofs of “the Spirit and power” were not favorable to the propaganda in all quarters.
Celsus held that they were trickery, magic, and a gross scandal, and his opinion was shared by other sensible pagans, although
the latter were no surer of their facts than Celsus himself. Paul had observed long ago that, instead of recommending Christianity,
speaking with tongues might on the contrary discredit it among pagans (see 1 Cor. xiv. 23: “If the whole congregation assemble
and all speak with tongues, then will not uneducated or unbelieving men, who may chance to enter, say that you are mad?”).
347 At that period, as all our sources show, belief in miracles was strong upon the whole; but in Christian circles it seems to have
been particularly robust and unlimited, tending more and more to deprive men of any vision of reality. Compare, for example,
the apocryphal Acts, a genre of literature whose roots lie in the second century. We must also note how primitive popular legends
which were current acquired a Christian cast and got attached to this or that Christian hero or apostle or saint. One instance of
this may be seen in the well-known stories of corpses which moved as if they could still feel and think. Tertullian (de Anima,
li.) writes thus: “I know of one woman, even within the church itself, who fell peacefully asleep, after a singularly happy though
short married life, in the bloom of her age and beauty. Before her burial was completed, when the priest had begun the appointed
office, she raised her hands from her side at the first breath of his prayer, put them in the posture of devotion, and, when the holy
service was concluded, laid them back in their place. Then there is the other story current among our people, that in a certain
cemetery one corpse made way of its own accord for another to be laid alongside of it” (this is also told of the corpse of bishop
Reticius of Autun at the beginning of the fourth century).
348 Cp. what has been already said (p. 132) on exorcists being blamed, and also the description of the impostor Marcus given by
Irenæus in the first book of his great work. When the impostor Peregrinus joined the Christians, he became (says Lucian) a
“prophet,” and as such secured for himself both glory and gain. The Didachê had already endeavored to guard the churches
against men of this kind, who used their spiritual gifts for fraudulent ends. There were even Christian minstrels; cp. the
pseudo-Clementine epistle de Virginitate, ii. 6: “Nec proicimus sanctum canibus nec margaritas ante porcos; sed dei laudes
celebramus cum omnimoda disciplina et cum omni prudentia et cum omni timore dei atque animi intentione. Cultum sacrum
non exercemus ibi, ubi inebriantur gentiles et verbis impuris in conviviis suis blasphemant in impietate sua. Propterea non
psallimus gentilibus neque scripturas illis praelegimus, ut ne tibicinibus aut cantoribus aut hariolis similes simus, sicut multi,
qui ita agunt et haec faciunt, ut buccella panis saturent sese et propter modicum vini eunt et cantant cantica domini in terra aliena
gentilium ac faciant quod non licet” (“We do not cast what is holy to the dogs nor throw pearls before swine, but celebrate the
praises of God with perfect self-restraint and discretion, in all fear of God and with deliberate mind. We do not practice our
sacred worship where the heathen get drunk and impiously blaspheme with impure speech at their banquets. Hence we do not
sing to the heathen, nor do we read aloud our scriptures to them, that we may not be like flute-players, or singers, or soothsayers,
as many are who live and act thus in order to get a mouthful of bread, going for a sorry cup of wine to sing the songs of the Lord
in the strange land of the heathen and doing what is unlawful”). See also the earlier passage in i. 13: May God send workmen
who are not “operarii mercenarii, qui religionem et pietatem pro mercibus habeant, qui simulent lucis filios, cum non sint lux
sed tenebrae, qui operantur fraudem, qui Christum in negotio et quaestu habeant” (“mere hirelings, trading on their religion and
piety, irritating the children of light although they themselves are not light but darkness, acting fraudulently, and making Christ
a matter of profit and gain”).
349 They must have been generally and inevitably discredited by the fact that the various parties in Christianity during the second
century each denied that the other possessed the Spirit and power, explaining that when such phenomena occurred among its
opponents they were the work of the devil, and unauthentic.
350 He actually declares (see above, p. 135) that people are still raised from the dead within the Christian church (ii. 31. 2). On the
spiritual gifts still operative in his day, cp. ii. 32. 4: Διὸ καὶ ἐν τῷ ἐκείνου ὀνόματι (that of Jesus) οἱ ἀληθῶς αὐτοῦ μαθηταὶ,
παῤ αὐτοῦ λαβόντες τὴν χάριν, ἐπιτελοῦσιν ἐπ᾽ εὐεργεσίᾳ τῇ τῶν λοιπῶν ἀνθρώπων, καθὼς εἷς ἕκαστος αὐτῶν δωρεὰν εἴληφε
new life to the “Spirit,” which had begun to wane; but after the opening of the third century the
phenomena dwindle rapidly, and instead of being the hall-mark of the church at large, or of every
individual community, they become no more than the endowment of a few favored individuals.
The common life of the church has now its priests, its altar, its sacraments, its holy book and rule
of faith. But it no longer possesses “the Spirit and power.”351 Eusebius is not the first (in the third
book of his history) to look back upon the age of the Spirit and of power as the bygone heroic age
205 of the church,352 for Origen had already pronounced this verdict on the past out of an impoverished
present.353 Yet this impoverishment and disenchantment hardly inflicted any injury now upon the
mission of Christianity. During the third century, that mission was being prosecuted in a different
way from that followed in the first and second centuries. There were no longer any regular
missionaries—at least we never hear of any such. And the propaganda was no longer an explosive
force, but a sort of steady fermenting process. Quietly but surely Christianity was expanding from
the centers it had already occupied, diffusing itself with no violent shocks or concussions in its
spread.
If the early Christians always looked out for the proofs of the Spirit and of power, they did so
from the standpoint of their moral and religious energy, since it was for the sake of the latter object
παῤ αὐτοῦ· οἱ μὲν γὰρ δαίμονας ἐλαύνουσι βεβαίως καὶ ἀληθῶς, ὥστε πολλάκισ καὶ πιστεύειν αὐτοὺς ἐκείνους τοὺς
καθαρισθάντας ἀπὸ τῶν πονηρῶν πνευμάτων καὶ εἶναι ἐν τῇ ἐκκλησίᾳ· οἱ δὲ καὶ πρόγνωσιν ἔχουσι τῶν μελλόντων καὶ
ὀπτασίας καὶ ῥήσεις προφητικάς· ἄλλοι δὲ τοὺς κάμνοντας διὰ τῆς τῶν χειρῶν ἐπιθέσεως ἰῶνται καὶ ὑγιεῖς ἀποκαθιστᾶσιν·
ἤδη δὲ καὶ νεκροὶ ἠγέρθησαν καὶ παρέμειναν σὺν ἡμῖν ἱκανοῖς ἔτεσι· καὶ τί γάρ; οὐκ ἔστιν ἀριθμὸν εἰπεῖν τῶν χαρισμάτων ὧν
κατὰ παντὸς τοῦ κόσμου ἡ ἐκκλησία παρὰ θεοῦ λαβοῦσα ἐν τῷ ὀνόματι Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ τοῦ σταυρωθέντος ἐπὶ Ποντίου Πιλάτου,
ἑκάστης ἡμέρας ἐπ᾽ εὐεργεσίᾳ τῇ τῶν ἐθνῶν ἐπιτελεῖ (cp. above, p.135). Irenæus distinctly adds that these gifts were gratuitous.
Along with other opponents of heresy, he blames the Gnostics for taking money and thus trading upon Christ. A prototype of
this occurs as early as Acts viii. 15 f. (the Case of Simon Magus), where it is strongly reprimanded (τὸ ἀργύριόν σου σὺν σοὶ
εἴη εἰς ἀπώλειαν, “Thy money perish with thee!”).
351 All the higher value was attached to such people as appeared to possess the Spirit. The more the phenomena of Spirit and power
waned in and for the general mass of Christians, the higher rose that cultus of heroes in the faith (i.e., ascetics, confessors, and
workers of miracles) which had existed from the very first. These all bear unmistakable signs of the Christ within them, in
consequence of which they enjoy veneration and authority. Gradually, during the second half of the third century in particular,
they took the place of the dethroned deities of paganism, though as a rule this position was not gained till after death.—Though
Cyprian still made great use of visions and dreams, he merely sought by their means to enhance his episcopal authority. In several
cases, however, they excited doubts and incredulity among people; cp. Ep. lxvi. 10: “Scio somnia ridicula et visiones ineptas
quibusdam videri” (“I know that to some people dreams seem absurd and visions senseless”). This is significant.
352 H. E., iii. 37: “A great many wonderful works of the Holy Spirit were wrought in the primitive age through the pupils of the
apostles, so that whole multitudes of people, on first hearing the word, suddenly accepted with the utmost readiness faith in the
Creator of the universe.”
353 In c. Cels. II. viii., he only declares that he himself has seen still more miracles. The age of miracles therefore lay for Origen in
earlier days. In II. xlvii. he puts a new face on the miracles of Jesus and his apostles by interpreting them not only as symbolic
of certain truths, but also as intended to win over many hearts to the wonderful doctrine of the gospel. Exorcisms and cures are
represented by him as still continuing to occur (frequently; cp. I. vi.). From I. ii. we see how he estimated the present and the
past of Christianity: “For our faith there is one especial proof, unique and superior to any advanced by aid of Grecian dialectic.
This diviner proof is characterized by the apostle as ‘the demonstration of the Spirit and of power’—‘the demonstration of the
Spirit’ on account of the prophecies which are capable of producing faith in hearer and reader, ‘the demonstration of power’ on
account of the extraordinary wonders, whose reality can be proved by this circumstance, among many other things, that traces
of them still exist among those who live according to the will of the Logos.”
that these gifts had been bestowed upon the church. Paul describes this object as the edification of
the entire church,354 while as regards the individual, it is the new creation of man from death to life,
206 from a worthless thing into a thing of value. This edification means a growth in all that is good (cp.
Gal. v. 22: “The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, long-suffering, gentleness, goodness, faith,
meekness, self-control”), and the evidence of power is that God has not called many wise after the
flesh, nor many noble, but poor and weak men, whom he transformed into morally robust and
intelligent natures. Moral regeneration and the moral life were not merely one side of Christianity
to Paul, but its very fruit and goal on earth. The entire labor of the Christian mission might be
described as a moral enterprise, as the awakening and strengthening of the moral sense. Such a
description would not be inadequate to its full contents.
Paul’s opinion was shared by Christians of the sub-apostolic age by the apologists and great
Christian fathers like Tertullian355 and Origen. Read the Didachê and the first chapter of Clemens
Romanus, the conclusion of Barnabas, the homily entitled “Second Clement,” the “Shepherd” of
207 Hermas, or the last chapter of the Apology of Aristides, and everywhere you find the ethical demands
occupying the front rank. They are thrust forward almost with wearisome diffuseness and with a
rigorous severity. Beyond all question, these Christian communities seek to regulate their common
life by principles of the strictest morality, tolerating no unholy members in their midst,356 and well
aware that with the admission of immorality their very existence at once ceases. The fearful
punishment to which Paul sentences the incestuous person (1 Cor. 5) is not exceptional. Gross
sinners were always ejected from the church. Even those who consider all religions, including
Christianity, to be merely idiosyncrasies, and view progress as entirely identical with the moral
progress of mankind—even such observers must admit that in these days progress did depend upon
the Christian churches, and that history then had recourse to a prodigious and paradoxical system
of levers in order to gain a higher level of human evolution. Amid all the convulsions of the soul
and body produced by the preaching of a judgment, which was imminent, and amid the raptures
excited by the Spirit of Christ, morality advanced to a position of greater purity and security. Above
354 Cp. pseudo-Clem., de Virgin., I. xi.: “Illo igitur charismate, quod a domino accepisti, illo inservi fratribus pneumaticis, prophetis,
qui dignoscant dei esse verba ea, quae loqueris, et enarra quod accepisti charisma in ecclesiastico conventu ad aedificationem
fratrum tuorum in Christo” (“Therefore with that spiritual gift which thou hast received from the Lord, serve the spiritual brethren,
even the prophets, who know that the words thou speakest are of God, and declare the gift thou hast received in the church-assembly
to the edification of thy brethren in Christ”).
355 The highly characteristic passage in Apol. xlv., may be quoted in this connection: “Nos soli innocentes, quid mirum, si necesse
est? enim vero necesse est. Innocentiam a deo edocti et perfecte eam novimus, ut a perfecto magistro revelatam, et fideliter
custodiamus, ut ab incontemptibili dispectore mandatam. Vobis autem humana aestimatio innocentiam tradidit, humana item
dominatio imperavit, inde nec plenae nec adeo timendae estis disciplinae ad innocentiae veritatem. Tanta est prudentia hominis
ad demonstrandum bonum quanta auctoritas ad exigendum; tam illa falli facilis quam ista contemni. Atque adeo quid plenius,
dicere: Non occides, an docere: ne irascaris quidem?” etc. (“We, then, are the only innocent people. Is that at all surprising, if
it is inevitable? And inevitable it is. Taught of God what innocence is, we have a perfect knowledge of it as revealed by a perfect
teacher, and we also guard it faithfully as commanded by a judge who is not to be despised. But as for you, innocence has merely
been introduced among you by human opinions, and it is enjoined by nothing better than human rules; hence your moral discipline
lacks the fullness and authority requisite for the production of true innocence. Human skill in pointing out what is good is no
greater than human authority in enforcing obedience to what is good; the one is as easily deceived as the other is disobeyed. And
so, which is the ampler rule—to say, ‘Thou shalt not kill,’ or ‘Thou shalt not so much as be angry’?”)
356 Martyr. Apoll., xxvi.: “There is a distinction between death and death. For this reason the disciples of Christ die daily, torturing
their desires and mortifying them according to the divine scriptures; for we have no part at all in shameless desires, or scenes
impure, or glances lewd, or ears attentive to evil, lest our souls thereby be wounded.”
all, the conflict undertaken by Christianity was one against sins of the flesh, such as fornication,
adultery, and unnatural vices. In the Christian communities, monogamy was held to be the sole
permissible union of the sexes.357 The indissoluble character of marriage was inculcated (apart from
the case of adultery),358 and marriage was also secured by the very difficulties which second marriages
208 encountered.359 Closely bound up with the struggle against carnal sins was the strict prohibition of
abortion and the exposure of infants.360 Christians further opposed covetousness, greed, and
dishonesty in business life; they attacked mammon-worship in every shape and form, and the pitiless
temper which is its result. Thirdly, they combated double-dealing and falsehood. It was along these
three lines, in the main, that Christian preaching asserted itself in the sphere of morals. Christians
were to be pure men, who do not cling to their possessions and are not self-seeking; moreover, they
were to be truthful and brave.
The apologists shared the views of the sub-apostolic fathers. At the close of his Apology,
addressed to the public of paganism, Aristides exhibits the Christian life in its purity, earnestness,
and love, and is convinced that in so doing he is expressing all that is most weighty and impressive
in it. Justin follows suit. Lengthy sections of his great Apology are devoted to a statement of the
moral principles in Christianity, and to a proof that these are observed by Christians. Besides, all
the apologists rely on the fact that even their opponents hold goodness to be good and wickedness
to be evil. They consider it superfluous to waste their time in proving that goodness is really
goodness; they can be sure of assent to this proposition. What they seek to prove is that goodness
among Christians is not an impotent claim or a pale ideal, but a power, which is developed on all
sides and actually exercised in life.361 It was of special importance to them to be able to show (cp.
the argument of the apostle Paul) that what was weak and poor and ignoble rose thereby to strength
209 and worth. “They say of us, that we gabble nonsense among females, half-grown people, girls, and
old women.362 Not so. Our maidens ‘philosophize,’ and at their distaffs speak of things divine”
(Tatian, Orat., xxxiii.). “The poor, no less than the well-to-do, philosophize with us” (ibid., xxxii.).
357 It formed part of the preparation for Christianity that monogamy had almost established itself by this time among the Jews and
throughout the Empire as the one legal form of union between the sexes. Christianity simply proclaimed as an ordinance of God
what had already been carried out. Contrary practices, such as concubinage, were still tolerated, but they counted for little in the
social organism. Of course the verdict on “fornication” throughout the Empire generally was just as lax as it had always been,
and even adultery on the man’s side was hardly condemned. The church had to join issue on these points.
358 We may ignore casuistry in this connection.
359 The second century was filled with discussions and opinions about the permissibility of second marriages.
360 Cp. the Didachê; Athenag., Suppl., xxxv., etc. (above, p. 123).
361 Celsus distinctly admits that the ethical ideas of Christianity agree with those of the philosophers (I. iv.); cp. Tert., Apol., xlvi.:
“Eadem, inquit, et philosophi monent atque profitentur” (“These very things, we are told, the philosophers also counsel and
profess”). Here too we must, however, recognize a complexio oppositorum, and that in a twofold sense. On the one hand, morality,
viewed in its essence, is taken as self-evident; a general agreement prevails on this (purity in all the relationships of life, perfect
love to one’s neighbors, etc.). On the other hand, under certain circumstances it is still maintained that Christian ethics are
qualitatively distinct from all other ethics, and that they cannot be understood or practiced apart from the Spirit of God. This
estimate answers to the double description given of Christian morality, which on one side is correct behavior in every relationship
on earth, while on the other side it is a divine life and conduct, which is supernatural and based on complete asceticism and
mortification. This extension of the definition of morality, which is most conspicuous in Tatian, was not, however, the original
creation of Christianity; it was derived from the ethics of the philosophers. Christianity merely took it over and modified it. This
is easily understood, if we read Philo, Clement, and Origen.
362 Celsus, III. xliv.: “Christians must admit that they can only persuade people destitute of sense, position, or intelligence, only
slaves, women, and children, to accept their faith.”
“Christ has not, as Socrates had, merely philosophers and scholars as his disciples, but also artizans
and people of no education, who despise glory, fear, and death.”363 “Among us are uneducated folk,
artizans, and old women who are utterly unable to describe the value of our doctrines in words, but
who attest them by their deeds.”364 Similar retorts are addressed by Origen to Celsus (in his second
book), and by Lactantius (Instit., VI. iv.) to his opponents.
A whole series of proofs is extant, indicating that the high level of morality enjoined by
Christianity and the moral conduct of the Christian societies were intended to promote, and actually
did promote, the direct interests of the Christian mission.365 The apologists not infrequently lay
great stress on this.366 Tatian mentions “the excellence of its moral doctrines” as one of the reasons
for his conversion (Orat., xxix.), while Justin declares that the steadfastness of Christians convinced
him of their purity, and that these impressions proved decisive in bringing him over to the faith
(Apol., II. xii.). We frequently read in the Acts of the Martyrs (and, what is more, in the genuine
sections) that the steadfastness and loyalty of Christians made an overwhelming impression on
those who witnessed their trial or execution; so much so, that some of these spectators suddenly
decided to become Christians themselves.367 But it is in Cyprian’s treatise “to Donatus” that we get
the most vivid account of how a man was convinced and won over to Christianity, not so much by
211 its moral principles, as by the moral energy which it exhibited. Formerly he considered it impossible
to put off the old man and put on the new. But “after I had breathed the heavenly spirit in myself,
363 Justin, Apol., II. x. He adds: δύναμίς ἐστιν τοῦ ἀρρήτου πατρὸς καὶ οὐχὶ ἀνθρωπείου λόγου κατασκευή (“He is a power of the
ineffable Father, and no mere instrument of human reason”). So Diognet. vii.: ταῦτα ἀνθρώπου οὐ δοκεῖ τὰ ἔργα, ταῦτα δύναμίς
ἐστι θεοῦ (“These do not look like human works; they are the power of God”).
364 Athenag., Suppl. xi.; cp. also Justin, Apol., I. lx.: παῤ ἡμῖν οὖν ἔστι ταῦτα ἀκοῦσαι καὶ μαθεῖν παρὰ τῶν οὐδὲ τοὺς χαρακτῆρας
τῶν στοιχείων ἐπισταμένων, ἰδιωτῶν μὲν καὶ βαρβάρων τὸ φθέγμα, σοφῶν δὲ καὶ πιστῶν τὸν νοῦν ὄντων, καὶ πηρῶν καὶ
χήρων τινῶν τὰς ὄψεις· ὡς συνεῖναι οὐ σοφίᾳ ἀνθρωπείᾳ ταῦτα γεγονέναι, ἀλλὰ δυνάμει θεοῦ λέγεσθαι (“Among us you can
hear and learn these things from people who do not even know the forms of letters, who are uneducated and barbarous in speech,
but wise and believing in mind, though some of them are even maimed and blind. From this you may understand these things
are due to no human wisdom, but are uttered by the power of God”). Tertull., Apol., xlvi.: “Deum quilibet opifex Christianus et
invenit, et ostendit, et exinde totum quod in deum quaeritur re quoque adsignat, licet Plato adfirmet factitatorem universitatis
neque inveniri facilem et inventum enarrari in omnes difficilem” (“There is not a Christian workman who does not find God,
and manifest him, and proceed to ascribe to him all the attributes of deity, although Plato declares the maker of the universe is
hard to find, and hard, when found, to be expounded to all and sundry”).
365 Ignat., ad Ephes. x.: ἐπιτρέψατε αὐτοῖς (i.e., the heathen) κἂν ἐκ τῶν ἔργων ὑμῖν μαθητευθῆναι· πρὸς τὰς ὀργὰς αὐτῶν ὑμεῖς
πραεῖς, πρὸς τὰς μεγαλορρημοσύνας αὐτῶν ὑμεῖς ταπεινόφρονες, πρὸς τὰς βλασφημίας αὐτῶν ὑμεῖς τὰς προσευχάς . . . . μὴ
σπουδάζοντες ἀντιμιμήσασθαι αὐτούς· ἀδελφοὶ αὐτῶν εὑρεθῶμεν τῇ ἐπιεικείᾳ· μιμητὰι τοῦ κυρίου σπουδάζωμεν εἶναι (“Allow
them to learn a lesson at least from your works. Be meek when they break out in anger, be humble against their vaunting words,
set your prayers against their blasphemies . . . .; be not zealous to imitate them in requital. Let us show ourselves their brethren
by our forbearance, and let us be zealous to be imitators of the Lord”).
366 Cp. also 2 Clem. lxiii.: τὰ ἔθνη ἀκούοντα ἐκ τοῦ στόματος ἡμῶν τὰ λόγια τοῦ θεοῦ ὡς καλὰ καὶ μεγάλα θαυμάζει· ἔπειτα
καταμαθόντα τὰ ἔργα ἡμῶν ὅτι οὐκ ἔστιν ἄξια τῶν ῥημάτων ὧν λέγομεν, ἔνθεν εἰς βλασφημίαν τρέπονται, λέγοντες εἶναι
μῦθόν τινα καὶ πλάνην (“When the Gentiles hear from our mouth the words of God, they wonder at their beauty and greatness;
then, discovering our deeds are not worthy of the words we utter, they betake themselves to blasphemy, declaring it is all a myth
and error”). Such instances therefore did occur. Indirectly, they are a proof of what is argued above.
367 Even the second oldest martyrdom of which we know, that of James, the son of Zebedee, as related by Clement of Alexandria
in his Hypotyposes (cp. Eus., H.E., ii. 9), tells how the accuser himself was converted and beheaded along with the apostle.—All
Christians recognised that the zenith of Christian morality was reached when the faith was openly confessed before the authorities,
but the sectarian Heracleon brought forward another view, which of course they took seriously amiss. His contention was that
such confession in words might be hypocritical as well as genuine, and that the only conclusive evidence was that afforded by
the steady profession, which consists in words and actions answering the faith itself (Clem. Alex., Strom., IV. ix. 71 f.).
and the second birth had restored me to a new manhood, then doubtful things suddenly and strangely
acquired certainty for me. What was hidden disclosed itself; darkness became enlightened; what
was formerly hard seemed feasible, and what had appeared impossible seemed capable of being
Tertullian and Origen speak in similar terms.
But it is not merely Christians themselves who bear witness that they have been lifted into a
new world of moral power, of earnestness, and of holiness; even their opponents bear testimony
to their purity of life. The abominable charges circulated by the Jews against the moral life of
Christians did hold their own for a long while, and were credited by the common people as well as
by many of the educated classes.368 But anyone who examined the facts found something very
different. Pliny told Trajan that he had been unable to prove anything criminal or vicious on the
part of Christians during all his examination of them, and that, on the contrary, the purpose of their
gatherings was to make themselves more conscientious and virtuous.369 Lucian represents the
Christians as credulous fanatics, but also as people of a pure life, of devoted love, and of a courage
212 equal to death itself. The last-named feature is also admitted by Epictetus and Aurelius.370 Most
important of all, however, is the testimony of the shrewd physician Galen. He writes (in his treatise371
“de Sententiis Politiæ Platonicæ”) as follows: “Hominum plerique orationem demonstrativam
continuam morte assequi nequeunt, quare indigent, ut instituantur parabolis. veluti nostro tempore
videmus homines illos, qui Christiani vocantur, fidem suam e parabolis petiisse. Hi tamen interdum
talia faciunt, qualia qui vere philosophantur. Nam quod mortem contemnunt, id quidem omnes ante
oculos habemus; item quod verecundia quadam ducti ab usu rerum venerearum abhorrent. sunt
enim inter eos et feminae et viri, qui per totam vitam a concubitu abstinuerint;372 sunt etiam qui in
animis regendis coercendisque et in acerrimo honestatis studio eo progressi sint, ut nihil cedant
368 Probably, e.g., by Fronto, the teacher of M. Aurelius (cp. the Octavius of Minutius Felix), and also by Apuleius, if the woman
described in Metam., ix. 14 (omnia prorsus ut in quandam caenosam latrinam in eius animam flagitia confluxerant—“every vice
had poured into her soul, as into some foul cesspool”) was a Christian (spretis atque calcatis divinis numinibus invicem certae
religionis mentita sacrilega presumptione dei, quem praedicaret unicum—“scorning and spurning the holy deities in place of
the true religion, she affected to entertain a sacrilegious conception of God—the only God, as she proclaimed”). The orator
Aristides observed in the conduct of Christians a mixture of humility and arrogance, in which he finds a resemblance between
them and the Jews (Orat., xlvi.). This is his most serious charge, and Celsus raises a similar objection (see Book III., Chapter
V.).
369 “Adfirmabant autem [i.e., the Christians under examination] hanc fuisse summam vel culpae suae vel erroris, quod essent soliti
stato die ante lucem convenire carmenque Christo quasi deo dicere secum invicem, seque sacramento non in scelus aliquod
obstringere, sed ne furta, ne latrocinia, ne adulteria committerent, ne fidem fallerent, ne depositum appellati abnegarent” (“They
maintained that the head and front of their offending or error had been this, that they were accustomed on a stated day to assemble
ere daylight and sing in turn a hymn to Christ as a god, and also that they bound themselves by an oath, not for any criminal
end, but to avoid theft or robbery or adultery, never to break their word, or to repudiate a deposit when called upon to refund
it”).
370 Both of course qualify their admission. Epictetus (Arrian, Epict. Diss., iv. 7. 6) declares that the Galileans’ ἀφοβία before tyrants
was due to habit, while Aurelius attributes the readiness of Christians to die, to ostentation (Med. xi. 3).
371 Extant in Arabic in the Hist. anteislam. Abulfedae (ed. Fleischer, p. 109). Cp. Kalbfleisch in the Festschrift für Gomperz (1902),
pp. 96 f., and Norden’s Kunstprosa, pp. 518 f.
372 From the time of Justin (and probably even earlier) Christians were always pointing, by way of contrast to the heathen, to the
group of their brethren and sisters who totally abjured marriage. Obviously they counted on the fact that such conduct would
evoke applause and astonishment even among their opponents (even castration was known, as in the case of Origen and of
vere philosophantibus.”373 One can hardly imagine a more impartial and brilliant testimony to the
morality of Christians. Celsus, too, a very prejudiced critic of Christians, finds no fault with their
moral conduct. Everything about them, according to him, is dull, mean, and deplorable; but he
never denies them such morality as is possible under the circumstances.
As the proof of “the Spirit and of power” subsided after the beginning of the third century, the
extraordinary moral tension also became relaxed, paving the way gradually for a morality which
was adapted to a worldly life, and which was no longer equal to the strain of persecution.374 This
began as far back as the second century, in connection with the question, whether any, and if so
what, post-baptismal sins could be forgiven. But the various stages of the process cannot be exhibited
in these pages. It must suffice to remark that from about 230 A.D. onwards, many churches followed
214 the lead of the Roman church in forgiving gross bodily sins, whilst after 251 A.D. most churches
also forgave sins of idolatry. Thus the circle was complete; only in one or two cases were crimes
of exceptional atrocity denied forgiveness, implying that the offender was not re-admitted to the
church. It is quite obvious from the later writings of Tertullian (“nostrorum bonorum status iam
mergitur,” de Pudic., i.), and from many a stinging remark in Origen’s commentaries, that even by
220 A.D. the Christian churches, together with their bishops and clergy, were no longer what they
had previously been, from a moral point of view;375 nevertheless (as Origen expressly emphasizes
against Celsus; cp. III. xxix.-xxx.) their morals still continued to excel the morals of other guilds
within the empire and of the population in the cities, whilst the penitential ordinances between 251
another person mentioned by Justin). Nor was this calculation quite mistaken, for the religious philosophy of the age was ascetic.
Still, the applause was not unanimous, even among strict moralists. The pagan in Macarius Magnes, III. xxxvi. (i.e., Porphyry)
urged strongly against Paul that in 1 Tim. iv. 1 he censures those who forbid marriage, while in 1 Cor. 7 he recommends celibacy,
even although he has to admit he has no word of the Lord upon virgins. “Then is it not wrong to live as a celibate, and also to
refrain from marriage at the order of a mere man, seeing that there is no command of Jesus extant upon celibacy? And how can
some women who live as virgins boast so loudly of the fact, declaring they are filled with the Holy Ghost like her who bore
Jesus?” The suspicious attitude of the early Christians towards sexual intercourse (even in marriage) comes out in Paul
unmistakably. On this point the apocryphal Acts of the Apostles (beginning with the Acts of Paul) are specially significant, as
they mirror the popular ideas on the subject. The following facts may be set down in this connection. (1) Marriage was still
tolerated as a concession to human weakness. (2) The restriction of sexual intercourse, or even entire abstinence from it, was
advocated and urgently commended. (3) Second marriage was designated “a specious adultery” (εὑπρεπὴς μοιχεία). (4) Virgins
were persuaded to remain as they were. (5) Instead of marriage, platonic ties (“virgines subintroductæ”) were formed, audaciously
and riskily. Cp. Tertull., de Resurr., viii.: “Virginitas et viduitas et modesta in occulto matrimonii dissimulatio et una notitia eius
(“Virginity and widowhood and secret self-restraint upon the marriage-bed and the sole practical recognition of that restraint
[i.e., monogamy]”). Such, in the order of diminuendo, were the four forms assumed by sexual asceticism.
373 “As a rule, men are unable to follow consecutively any argumentative speech, so that they need to be educated by means of
parables. Just as in our own day we see the people who are called Christians seking their faith from parables. Still, they occasionally
act just as true philosophers do. For their contempt of death is patent to us all, as is their abstinence from the use of sexual organs,
by a certain impulse of modesty. For they include women and men who refrain from cohabiting all through their lives, and they
also number individuals who in ruling and controlling themselves, and in their keen pursuit of virtue, have attained a pitch not
inferior to that of real philosophers.” Galen, of course, condemns the faith of Christians as a mere obstinate adherence to what
is quite unproven: περὶ διαφορᾶς σφυγμῶν, II. iv. (ἵνα μή τις εὐθὺς κατ᾽ ἀρχὰς, ὡς εἰς Μωυσοῦ καὶ Χριστοῦ διατριβὴν ἀφιγμένος,
νόμων ἀναποδείκτων ἀκούῃ—“That no one may hastily give credence to unproven laws, as if he had reached the way of life
enjoined by Moses and Christ”), and III. iii. (θᾶττον ἄν τις τοὺς ἀπὸ Μωυσοῦ καὶ Χριστοῦ μεταδιδάξειεν ἢ τοὺς ταῖς αἵρεσι
προστετηκότας ἰατρούς τε καὶ φιλοσόφους—“One could more easily teach novelties to the adherents of Moses and Christ than
to doctors and philosophers who are stuck fast in the schools”).
374 The number of those who lapsed during the persecutions of Decius and Diocletian was extraordinarily large; but Tertullian had
already spoken of “people who are only Christians if the wind happens to be favorable” (Scorp., i.).
375 The “Shepherd” of Hermas shows, however, the amount of trouble which even at an earlier period had to be encountered.
and 325, of which we possess no small number, point to a very earnest endeavor being made to
keep up morality and holiness of life. Despite their moral deterioration, the Christian churches must
have still continued to wield a powerful influence and fascination for people of a moral disposition.
But here again we are confronted with the complexio oppositorum. For the churches must have
also produced a powerful effect upon people in every degree of moral weakness, just on account
of that new internal development which had culminated about the middle of the third century. If
the churches hitherto had been societies which admitted people under the burden of sin, not denying
entrance even to the worst offender, but securing him forgiveness with God and thereafter requiring
him to continue pure and holy, now they had established themselves voluntarily or involuntarily
as societies based upon unlimited forgiveness. Along with baptism, and subsequent to it, they had
now developed a second sacrament; it was still without form, but they relied upon it as a thing
which had form, and considered themselves justified in applying it in almost every case—it was
the sacrament of penitence. Whether this development enabled them to meet the aims of their
215 Founder better than their more rigorous predecessors, or whether it removed them further from
these aims, is not a question upon which we need to enter. The point is that now for the first time
the attractive power of Christianity as a religion of pardon came fully into play. No doubt, everything
depended on the way in which pardon was applied but it was not merely a frivolous scoff on the
part of Julian the apostate when he pointed out that the way in which the Christian churches preached
and administered forgiveness was injurious to the best interests of morality, and that there were
members in the Christian churches whom no other religious societies would tolerate within their
bounds. The feature which Julian censured had arisen upon a wide scale as far back as the second
half of the third century. When clerics of the same church started to quarrel with each other, as in
the days of Cyprian at Carthage, they instantly flung at each other the most heinous charges of
fraud, of adultery, and even of murder. One asks, in amazement and indignation, why the offending
presbyter or deacon had not been long ago expelled from the church, if such accusations were
correct? To this question no answer can be given. Besides, even if these repeated and almost
stereotyped charges were not in every case well founded, the not less serious fact remains that one
brother wantonly taxed another with the most heinous crimes. It reveals a laxity that would not
have been possible, had not a fatal influence been already felt from the reverse side of the religion
of the merciful heart and of forgiveness.
Still, this forgiveness is not to be condemned by the mere fact that it was extended to worthless
characters. We are not called upon to be its judges. We must be content to ascertain, as we have
now ascertained, that while the character of the Christian religion, as a religion of morality, suffered
some injury in the course of the third century, this certainly did not impair its powers of attraction.
It was now sought after as the religion which formed a permanent channel of forgiveness to mankind.
Which was partly due, no doubt, to the fact that different groups of people were now appealing to
Yet, if this sketch of the characteristics of Christianity is not to be left unfinished two things
must still be noted. One is this: the church never sanctioned the thesis adopted by most of the
gnostics,376 that there was a qualitative distinction of human beings according to their moral
capacities, and that in consequence of this there must also be different grades in their ethical conduct
and in the morality which might be expected from them. But there was a primitive distinction
between a morality for the perfect and a morality which was none the less adequate, and this
distinction was steadily maintained. Even in Paul there are evident traces of this view alongside of
a strictly uniform conception. The Catholic doctrine of “præcepta” and “consilia” prevailed almost
from the first within the Gentile church, and the words of the Didachê which follow the description
of “the two ways” (c. vi.: “If thou canst bear the whole yoke of the Lord, thou shalt be perfect: but
if thou canst not, do what thou canst”) only express a conviction which was very widely felt. The
distinction between the “children” and the “mature” (or perfect), which originally obtained within
the sphere of Christian knowledge, overflowed into the sphere of conduct, since both spheres were
closely allied.377 Christianity had always her heroic souls in asceticism and poverty and so forth.
They were held in exceptional esteem (see above), and they had actually to be warned, even in the
sub-apostolic age, against pride and boasting (cp. Ignat., ad Polyc. v.: εἴ τις δύναται ἐν ἁγνείᾳ
217 μένειν εἰς τιμὴν τῆς σαρκὸς τοῦ κυρίου, ἐν ἀκαυχησίᾳ μενέτω· ἐάν καυχήσηται, ἀπώλετο—“If
anyone is able to remain in purity to the honor of the flesh of the Lord, let him remain as he is
without boasting of it. If he boast, he is a lost man;” also Clem. Rom. xxxviii.: ὁ ἁγνὸς ἐν τῇ σαρκὶ
ἤτω καὶ μὴ ἀλαζονευέσθω—“Let him that is pure in the flesh remain so and not boast about it”).
It was in these ascetics of early Christianity that the first step was taken towards monasticism.
Secondly, veracity in matters of fact is as liable to suffer as righteousness in every religion:
every religion gets encumbered with fanaticism, the indiscriminate temper, and fraud. This is writ
clear upon the pages of church history from the very first. In the majority of cases, in the case of
miracles that have never happened, of visions that were never seen, of voices that were never heard,
and of books that were never written by their alleged authors, we are not in a position at this time
of day to decide where self-deception ended and where fraud began, where enthusiasm became
deliberate and then passed into conventional deception, any more than we are capable of determining,
as a rule, where a harsh exclusiveness passes into injustice and fanaticism. We must content ourselves
with determining that cases of this kind were unfortunately not infrequent, and that their number
increased. What we call priest-craft and miracle-fraud were not absent from the third or even from
the second century. They are to be found in the Catholic church as well as in several of the gnostic
conventicles, where water was changed into wine (as by the Marcosians) or wine into water (cp.
the books of Jeû).
376 It is surprising that the attractiveness of these (gnostic) ideas was not greater than it seems to have been. But by the time that
they sought to establish their situation on Christian soil or to force their way in, the church’s organization was well knit together,
so that gnosticism could do no more in the way of breaking it up or creating a rival institution.
377 The ascetics are not only the “perfect” but also the “religious,” strictly speaking. Cp. Origen (Hom. ii. in Num., vol. x. p. 20),
who describes virgins, ascetics, and so forth, as those “qui in professione religionis videntur”; also Hom. xvii. in Luc. (vol. v.
p. 151), where, on 1 Cor. i. 2, he observes: “Memini cum interpretarer 1 Cor. i. 2 dixisse me diversitatem ecclesiae et eorum qui
invocant nomen domini. Puto enim monogamum et virginem et eum, qui in castimonia perseverat, esse de ecclesia dei, eum
vero, qui sit digamus, licet bonam habeat conversationem et ceteris virtutibus polleat, tamen non esse de ecclesia et de numero,
qui non habent rugam aut maculam aut aliquid istius modi, sed esse de secundo gradu et de his qui invocant nomen domini, et
qui salvantur quidem in nomine Jesu Christi, nequaquam tamen coronantur ab eo” (church = virgins, ascetics, and the once
married: those who call on the name of the Lord = the second rank, i.e., the twice married, even though their lives are pure
otherwise).
Christianity, as the religion of the Spirit and of power, contained another element which proved
of vital importance, and which exhibited pre-eminently the originality of the new faith. This was
its reverence for the lowly, for sorrow, suffering, and death, together with its triumphant victory
over these contradictions of human life. The great incentive and example alike for the eliciting and
the exercise of this virtue lay in the Redeemer’s life and cross. Blent with patience and hope, this
reverence overcame any external hindrance; it recognized in suffering the path to deity, and thus
triumphed in the midst of all its foes. “Reverence for what is beneath us—this is the last step to
218 which mankind were fitted and destined to attain. But what a task it was, not only to let the earth
lie beneath us, we appealing to a higher birthplace, but also to recognize humility and poverty,
mockery and despite, disgrace and wretchedness, suffering and death—to recognize these things
as divine.”378 Here lies the root of the most profound factor contributed by Christianity to the
development of the moral sense, and contributed with perfect strength and delicacy. It differentiates
itself, as an entirely original element, from the similar phenomena which recur in several of the
philosophical schools (e.g., the Cynic). Not until a much later period, however,—from Augustine
onwards,—did this phase of feeling find expression in literature.
Even what is most divine on earth has its shadow nevertheless, and so it was with this reverence.
It was inevitable that the new aesthetic, which it involved, should become an aesthetic of lower
things, of death and its grim relics; in this way it ceased to be aesthetic by its very effort to attain
the impossible, until finally a much later period devised an aesthetic of spiritual agony and raptures
over suffering. But there was worse behind. Routine and convention found their way even into this
phase of feeling. What was most profound and admirable was gradually stripped of its inner spirit
and rendered positively repulsive379 by custom, common talk, mechanical tradition, and ritual
practices. Yet, however strongly we feel about the unsightly phlegm of this corruption, and however
indignantly we condemn it, we should never forget that it represented the shadow thrown by the
most profound and at the same time the most heroic mood of the human soul in its spiritual exaltation;
it is, in fact, religion itself, fully ripe.
THE RELIGION OF AUTHORITY AND OF REASON, OF THE MYSTERIES AND OF
378 Goethe, Wanderjahre xxiv., p. 243.
379 Goethe (ibid., p. 255) has said the right word on this as well: “We draw a veil over those sufferings (the sufferings of Christ in
particular), just because we reverence them so highly. We hold it is a damnable audacity to take these mysterious secrets, in
which the depth of the divine sorrow lies hid, and play with them, fondle them, trick them out, and never rest until the supreme
object of reverence appears vulgar and paltry.”
“Some Christians [evidently not all] will not so much as give or accept any account of what
they believe. They adhere to the watchwords ‘Prove not, only believe,’ and ‘Thy faith shall save
thee.’ Wisdom is an evil thing in the world, folly a good thing.” So Celsus wrote about the Christians
(I. ix.). In the course of his polemical treatise he brings forward this charge repeatedly in various
forms; as in I. xii., “They say, in their usual fashion, ‘Enquire not’”; I. xxvi. f., “That ruinous saying
of Jesus has deceived men. With his illiterate character and lack of eloquence he has gained of
course almost no one but illiterate people”;380 III. xliv., “The following rules are laid down by
Christians, even by the more intelligent among them. ‘Let none draw near to us who is educated,
or shrewd, or wise. Such qualifications are in our eyes an evil. But let the ignorant, the idiots, and
the fools come to us with confidence’”; vi. x. f., “Christians say, ‘Believe first of all that he whom
I announce to thee is the Son of God.”’ “All are ready to cry out, ‘Believe if thou wilt be saved, or
else be gone.’ What is wisdom among men they describe as foolishness with God, and their reason
for this is their desire to win over none but the uneducated and simple by means of this saying.”
Justin also represents Christians being charged by their opponents with making blind assertions
and giving no proof (Apol., I. lii.), while Lucian declares (Peregr., xiii.) that they “received such
220 matters on faith without the slightest enquiry” (ἄνευ τινὸς ἀκριβοῦς πίστεως τὰ τοιαῦτα
παρεδέξαντο).
A description and a charge of this kind were not entirely unjustified. Within certain limits
Christians have maintained, from the very first, that the human understanding has to be captured
and humbled in order to obey the message of the gospel. Some Christians even go a step further.
Bluntly, they require a blind faith for the word of God. When the apostle Paul views his preaching,
not so much in its content as in its origin, as the word of God, and even when he notes the contrast
between it and the wisdom of this world, his demand is for a firm, resolute faith, and for nothing
else. “We bring every thought into captivity to the obedience of Christ” (2 Cor. x. 5), and—the
word of the cross tolerates no σοφία λόγου (no wisdom of speech), it is to be preached as foolishness
and apprehended by faith (1 Cor. i. 17 f.). Hence he also issues a warning against the seductions
of philosophy (Col. ii. 8). Tertullian advanced beyond this position much more boldly. He prohibited
Christians (de Præscr. viii. f.) from ever applying to doctrine the saying, “Seek and ye shall find.”
“What,” he exclaims (op. cit., vii.), “what has Athens to do with Jerusalem, or the Academy with
the church? What have heretics to do with Christians? Our doctrine originates with the porch of
Solomon, who had himself taught that men must seek the Lord in simplicity of heart. Away with
all who attempt to introduce a mottled Christianity of Stoicism and Platonism and dialectic! Now
that Jesus Christ has come, no longer need we curiously inquire, or even investigate, since the
gospel is preached. When we believe, we have no desire to sally beyond our faith. For our belief
is the primary and palmary fact. There is nothing further that we have still to believe beyond our
own belief. . . . . To be ignorant of everything outside the rule of faith, is to possess all knowledge.”381
380 Still Celsus adds that there are also one or two discreet, pious, reasonable people among the Christians, and some who are experts
in intelligent argument.
381 Cp. de Carne Christi, ii.: “Si propheta es, praenuntia aliquid; si apostolus, praedica publice; si apostolicus, cum apostolis senti;
si tantum Christianus es, crede quod traditum est” (“If you are a prophet, predict something; if an apostle, preach openly; if a
follower of the apostles, think as they thought; if you are merely a Christian individual, believe tradition”). But faith was many
a time more rigorous among the masses (the “simpliciores” or “simplices et idiotae”) than theologians—even than Tertullian
himself—cared. Origen’s laments over this are numerous (cp.,`e.g., de Princip., iv. 8).
Many missionaries may have preached in this way, not merely after but even previous to the
stern conflict with gnosticism. Faith is a matter of resolve, a resolve of the will and a resolve to
obey. Trouble it not by any considerations of human reason!
Preaching of this kind is only possible if at the same time some powerful authority is set up.
And such an authority was set up. First and foremost (cp. Paul), it was the authority of the revealed
will of God as disclosed in the mission of the Son to earth. Here external and internal authority
blended and coincided, for while the divine will is certainly an authority in itself (according to
Paul’s view), and is also capable of making itself felt as such, without men understanding its purpose
and right (Rom. 9 f.), the apostle is equally convinced that God’s gracious will makes itself
intelligible to the inner man.
Still, even in Paul, the external and internal authority vested in the cross of Christ is accompanied
by other authorities which claim the obedience of faith. These are the written word of the sacred
documents and the sayings of Jesus. In their case also neither doubt nor contradiction is permissible.
For all that, the great apostle endeavored to reason out everything, and in the last resort it is
never a question with him of any “sacrifice of the intellect” (see below). Some passages may seem
to contradict this statement, but they only seen to do so. When Paul demands the obedience of faith
and sets up the authority of “the word” or of “the cross,” he simply means that obedience of faith
which is inseparable from any religion whatsoever, no matter how freely and spiritually it may be
set forth. But, as Celsus and Tertullian serve to remind us (if any reminder at all is necessary on
this point), many missionaries and teachers went about their work in a very different manner. They
simply erected their authority wherever they went; it was the letter of Scripture more and more,382
but ere long it became the rule of faith, together with the church (the church as “the pillar and
222 ground of the truth,” στῦλος καὶ ἑδραίωμα τῆς ἀληθείας, as early as 1 Tim. iii. 15). True, they
endeavored to buttress the authority of these two magnitudes, the Bible and the church, by means
of rational arguments (the authority of the Bible being supported by the proof from the fulfillment
of prophecy, and that of the church by the proof from the unbroken tradition which reached back
to Christ himself and invested the doctrine of the church with the value of Christ’s own words). In
so doing they certainly did not demand an absolutely blind belief. But, first of all, it was assuredly
not every missionary or teacher who was competent to lead such proofs. They were adduced only
by the educated apologists and controversialists. And in the second place, no inner authority can
ever be secured for the Bible and the church by means of external proofs. The latter really remained
a sort of alien element. At bottom, the faith required was blind faith.
Still, it would be a grave error to suppose that for the majority of people the curt demand that
authorities must be simply believed and reason repudiated, acted as a serious obstacle to their
acceptance of the Christian religion.383 In reality, it was the very opposite. The more peremptory
382 For details on the significance of the Bible in the mission, see Chapter VIII.
383 Naturally it did repel highly cultured men like Celsus and Porphyry. For Celsus, see above, p. 219. Porphyry, the pagan in
Macarius Magnes (IV. ix.), writes thus on Matt. xi. 25: “As the mysteries are hidden from the wise and thrown down before
minors and senseless sucklings (in which case, of course, even what is written for minors and senseless people should have been
clear and free from obscurity), it is better to aim at a lack of reason and of education! And this is the very acme of Christ’s
sojourn upon earth, to conceal the ray of knowledge from the wise and to unveil it to the senseless and to small children!”
and exclusive is the claim of faith which any religion makes, the more trustworthy and secure does
that religion seem to the majority; the more it relieves them of the duty and responsibility of reflecting
upon its truth, the more welcome it is. Any firmly established authority thus acts as a sedative. Nay
more. The most welcome articles of faith are just the most paradoxical, which are a mockery of all
experience and rational reflection; the reason for this being that they appear to guarantee the
disclosure of divine wisdom and not of something which is merely human and therefore unreliable.
223 “Miracle is the favorite child of faith.” That is true of more than miracles; it applies also to the
miraculous doctrines which cannot be appropriated by a man unless he is prepared to believe and
obey them blindly.
But so long as the authorities consisted of books and doctrines, the coveted haven of rest was
still unreached. The meaning of these doctrines always lies open to some doubt. Their scope, too,
is never quite fixed. And, above all, their application to present-day questions is often a serious
difficulty, which leads to painful and disturbing controversies. “Blind faith” never gains its final
haven until its authority is living, until questions can be put to it, and answers promptly received
from it. During the first generations of Christendom no such authority existed; but in the course of
the second century and down to the middle of the third, it was gradually taking shape—I mean, the
authority of the church as represented in the episcopate. It did not dislodge the other authorities
of God’s saving purpose and the holy Scripture, but by stepping to their side it pushed them into
the background. The auctoritas interpretiva is invariably the supreme and real authority. After the
middle of the third century, the church and the episcopate developed so far that they exercised the
functions of a sacred authority. And it was after that period that the church first advanced by leaps
and bounds, till it became a church of the masses. For while the system of a living authority in the
church had still defects and gaps of its own—since in certain circumstances it either exercised its
functions very gradually or could not enforce its claims at all—these defects did not exist for the
masses. In the bishop or priest, or even in the ecclesiastical fabric and the cultus, the masses were
directly conscious of something holy and authoritative to which they yielded submission, and this
state of matters had prevailed for a couple of generations by the time that Constantine granted
recognition and privileges to Christianity. This was the church on which he conferred privileges,
this church with its enormous authority over the masses! These were the Christians whom he
declared to be the support of the throne, people who clung to the bishops with submissive faith and
who would not resist their divinely appointed authority! The Christianity that triumphed was the
224 Christianity of blind faith, which Celsus has depicted. When would a State ever have shown any
practical interest in any other kind of religion?
Christianity is a complexio oppositorum. The very Paul who would have reason brought into
captivity, proclaimed that Christianity, in opposition to polytheism, was a “reasonable service of
God” (Rom. xii. 1, λογικὴ λατρεία), and declared that what pagans thought folly in the cross of
Christ seemed so to those alone who were blinded, whereas what Christians preached was in reality
the profoundest wisdom. He went on to declare that this was not merely reserved for us as a wisdom
to be attained in the far future, but capable of being understood even at present by believers as such.
He promised that he would introduce the “perfect” among them to its mysteries.384 This promises
(cp., e.g., 1 Cor. ii. 6 f., σοφίαν ἐν τοῖς τελείοις) he made good; yet he never withheld this wisdom
from those who were children or weak in spiritual things. He could not, indeed he dared not, utter
all he understood of God’s word and the cross of Christ—λαλοῦμεν θεοῦ σοφίαν ἐν μυστηρίῳ τὴν
ἀποκεκρυμμένην (“We speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, even the hidden wisdom”)—but
he moved freely in the realm of history and speculation, drawing abundantly from “the depths of
the riches and wisdom and knowledge of God.” In Paul one feels the joy of the thinker who enters
into the thoughts of God, and who is convinced that in and with and through his faith he has passed
from darkness into light, from confusion, cloudiness, and oppression into the lucid air that frees
225 the soul.
“We have been rescued from darkness and lifted into the light”—such was the chant which
rose from a chorus of Christians during those early centuries. It was intellectual truth and lucidity
in which they reveled and gloried. Polytheism seemed to them an oppressive night; now that it was
lifted off them, the sun shone clearly in the sky! Wherever they looked, everything became clear
and sure in the light of spiritual monotheism, owing to the living God. Read, for example, the epistle
of Clemens Romanus,385 the opening of the Clementine Homily,386 or the epistle of Barnabas;387
listen to the apologists, or study Clement of Alexandria and Origen. They gaze at Nature, only to
rejoice in the order and unity of its movement; heaven and earth are a witness to them of God’s
omnipotence and unity. They ponder the capacities and endowments of human nature, and trace in
them the Creator. In human reason and liberty they extol his boundless goodness; they compare
the revelations and the will of God with this reason and freedom, and lo, there is entire harmony
between them! Nothing is laid on man which does not already lie within him, nothing is revealed
which is not already presupposed in his inward being. The long-buried religion of nature, religion
μετὰ λόγου, has been rediscovered.388 They look at Christ, and scales fall, as it were, from their
eyes! What wrought in him was the Logos, the very Logos by which the world had been created
and with which the spiritual essence of man was bound up inextricably, the Logos which had
wrought throughout human history in all that was noble and good, and which was finally obliged
384 For the “perfect,” see p. 216. They constitute a special class for Paul. The distinction came to be sharply drawn at a later period,
especially in the Alexandrian school, where one set of Christian precepts was formed for the “perfect” (“those who know”),
another for believers. Christ himself was said by the Alexandrians (not merely by the gnostics) to have committed an esoteric
doctrine to his intimate disciples and to have provided for its transmission. Cp. Clement of Alexandria, as quoted in Eus., H.E.,
ii. 1: Ἰακώβῳ τῷ δικαίῳ καὶ Ἰωάννῃ καὶ Πέτρῳ μετὰ τὴν ἀνάστασιν παρέδωκεν τὴν γνῶσιν ὁ κύριος, οὗτοι τοῖς λοιποῖς
ἀποστόλοις παρέδωκαν, κ.τ.λ. (“The Lord delivered all knowledge after the resurrection to James the Just, and John, and Peter;
they delivered it to the rest of the apostles, and the rest of the apostles to the seventy,” etc.).
385 Especially chap. xix. f.
386 2 Clem. i. 4-6: τὸ φὼς ἡμῖν ἐχαρίσατο . . . . πηροὶ ὄντες τῇ διανοίᾳ προσκυνοῦντες λίθους καὶ ζύλα καὶ χρυσὸν καὶ ἄργυρον
καὶ χαλκόν, ἔργα ἀνθρώπων . . . . ἀμαύρωσιν οὖν περικείμενοι καὶ τοιαύτης ἀχλύος γέμοντες ἐν τῇ ὁράσει ἀνεβλέψαμεν (“He
bestowed on us the light . . . . we were blind in understanding, worshipping stones and stocks and gold and silver and brass, the
works of men. . . . . Thus, girt with darkness and oppressed by so thick a mist in our vision, we regained our sight”). There are
numerous passages of a similar nature.
387 Cp. chap. i., chap. ii. 2 f.
388 Cp. Justin’s Apology, Tertullian’s tract de Testimonio Animæ, etc.
to reveal its power completely in order to dissipate the obstacles and disorders by which man was
beset—so weak was he, for all the glory of his creation. Lastly, they contemplate the course of
226 history, its beginning, middle, and end, only to find a common purpose everywhere, which is in
harmony with a glorious origin and with a still more glorious conclusion. The freedom of the
creature, overcome by the allurements of demons, has occasioned disorders, but the disorders are
to be gradually removed by the power of the Christ-Logos. At the commencement of history
humanity was like a child, full of good and divine instincts, but as yet untried and liable to temptation;
at the close, a perfected humanity will stand forth, fated to enter immortality. Reason, freedom,
immortality—these are to carry the day against error, failure, and decay.
Such was the Christianity of many people, a bright and glad affair, the doctrine of pure reason.
The new doctrine proved a deliverance, not an encumbrance, to the understanding. Instead of
imposing foreign matter on the understanding, it threw light upon its own darkened contents.
Christianity is divine revelation, but it is at the same time pure reason; it is the true philosophy.
Such was the conception entertained by most of the apologists, and they tried to show how the
entire content of Christianity was embraced by this idea. Anything that did not fit in, they left out.
It was not that they rejected it. They simply explained it afresh by means of their “scientific” method,
i.e., the method of allegorical spiritualizing, or else they relegated it to that great collection of
evidence, the proof of prophecy. In this way, anything that seemed obnoxious or of no material
value was either removed or else enabled to retain a formal value as dart of the striking proof which
confirmed the divine character of Christianity. It is impossible in these pages to exhibit in detail
the rational philosophy which thus emerged;389 for our immediate purpose it is enough to state that
a prominent group of Christian teachers existed as late as the opening of the fourth century (for
Lactantius was among their number) who held this conception of Christianity. As apologists and
as teachers ex cathedra they took an active part in the Christian mission. Justin,390 for example, had
his “school,” no less than Tatian. The theologians in the royal retinue of Constantine also pursued
227 this way of thinking, and it permeated any decree of Constantine that touched on Christianity, and
especially his address to the holy council.391 When Eusebius wishes to make the new religion
intelligible to the public at large, he describes it as the religion of reason and lucidity; see, for
example, the first book of his church history and the life of Constantine with its appendices. We
might define all these influential teachers as “rationalists of the supernatural,” to employ a technical
term of modern church history; but as the revelation was continuous, commencing with creation,
never ceasing, and ever in close harmony with the capacities of men, the term “supernatural” is
I have endeavored to expound it in my Dogmengeschichte I. , pp. 462-507 [Eng. trans., iii. 267 f.].
390 See the Acta Justini, and his Apology. We know that Tatian had Rhodon as one of his pupils (Eus., H.E. v. 13).
391 This address, even apart from its author, is perhaps the most impressive apology ever written (for its genuineness, see my
Chronologie, ii. pp. 116 f., and Wendland in Philolog. Wochenschr. 1902, No. 8). It was impressive for half-educated readers,
i.e., for the educated public of those days. Very effectively, it concludes by weaving together the (fabricated) prophecies of the
Sibylline oracles and the (interpolated) Eclogue of Virgil, and by contrasting the reign of Constantine with those of his predecessors.
The Christianity it presents is exclusive; even Socrates finds no favor, and Plato is sharply censured (ch. ix.) as well as praised.
Still, it is tinged with Neoplatonism. The Son of God as such and as the Christ is put strongly in the foreground; he is God, at
once God’s Son and the hero of a real myth. But everything shimmers in a sort of speculative haze which corresponds to the
style, the latter being poetic, flowery, and indefinite.
really almost out of place in this connection. The outcome of it all was a pure religious rationalism,
with a view of history all its own, in which, as was but natural, the final phenomena of the future
tallied poorly with the course traversed in the earlier stages. From Justin, Commodian, and Lactantius,
we learn how the older apocalyptic and the rationalistic moralism were welded together, without
any umbrage being taken at the strange blend which this produced.
But authority and reason, blind faith and clear insight, do not sum up all the forms in which
Christianity was brought before the world. The mental standpoint of the age and its religious needs
were so manifold that it was unwilling to forgo any form, even in Christianity, which was capable
228 of transmitting anything of religious value. It was a complex age, and its needs made even the
individual man complex. The very man who longed for an authority to which he might submit
blindfold, often longed at the same moment for a reasonable religion; nor was he satisfied even
when he had secured them both, but craved for something more, for sensuous pledges which gave
him a material representation of holy things, and for symbols of mysterious power. Yet, after all,
was this peculiar to that age? Was it only in these days that men have cherished such desires?
From the very outset of the Christian religion, its preaching was accompanied by two outward
rites, neither less nor more than two, viz., baptism and the Lord’s supper. We need not discuss
either what was, or what was meant to be, their original significance. The point is, that whenever
we enter the field of Gentile Christianity, their meaning is essentially fixed; although Christian
worship is to be a worship in spirit and in truth, these sacraments are sacred actions which operate
on life, containing the forgiveness of sins, knowledge, and eternal life.392 No doubt, the elements
of water, bread, and wine are symbols, and the scene of operation is not external; still, the symbols
do actually convey to the soul all that they signify. Each symbol has a mysterious but real connection
with the fact which it signifies.
To speak of water, bread, and wine as holy elements, or of being immersed in water that the
soul might be washed and purified: to talk of bread and wine as body and blood, or as the body and
the blood of Christ, or as the soul’s food for immortality: to correlate water and blood—all this
kind of language was quite intelligible to that age. It was intelligible to the blunt realist, as well as
to the most sublime among what may be called “the spiritualists.” The two most sublime spiritualists
of the church, namely, John and Origen, were the most profound exponents of the mysteries, while
the great gnostic theologians linked on their most abstract theosophies to realistic mysteries. They
were all sacramental theologians. Christ, they held, had connected, and in fact identified, the
229 benefits he brought to men with symbols; the latter were the channel and vehicle of the former; the
man who participates in the unction of the holy symbol gets grace thereby. This was a fact with
which people were familiar from innumerable mysteries; in and with the corporeal application of
the symbol, unction or grace was poured into the soul. T he connection seemed like a predestined
harmony, and in fact the union was still more inward. The sentence of the later schoolmen,
392 See the gospel of John, the epistle of John, and the Didachê with its sacramental prayer.
“Sacramenta continent gratiam,” is as old as the Gentile church, and even older, for it was in
existence long before the latter sprang into being.
The Christian religion was intelligible and impressive, owing to the fact that it offered men
sacraments.393 Without its mysteries, people would have found it hard to appreciate the new religion.
But who can tell how these mysteries arose? No one was to blame, no one was responsible. Had
230 not baptism chanced to have been instituted, had not the observance of the holy supper been enjoined
(and can any one maintain that these flowed inevitably from the essence of the gospel?), then some
sacrament would have been created out of a parable of Jesus, not of a word or act of some kind or
another. The age for material and certainly for bloody sacrifices was now past and gone; these were
no longer the alloy of any religion. But the age of sacraments was very far from being over; it was
in full vigor and prime. Every hand that was stretched out for religion, tried to grasp it in sacramental
form; the eye saw sacraments where sacraments there were none, and the senses gave them body.394
Water and blood, bread and wine—though the apostle Paul was far from being a sacramental
theologian, yet even he could not wholly avoid these mysteries, as is plain if one will but read the
tenth chapter of First Corinthians, and note his speculations upon baptismal immersion. But Paul
was the first and almost395 the last theologian of the early church with whom sacramental theology
was really held in check by clear ideas and strictly spiritual considerations. After him all the
flood-gates were opened, and in poured the mysteries with their lore. In Ignatius, who is only sixty
years later than Paul, they had already dragged down and engulfed the whole of intelligent theology.
A man like the author of Barnabas believes he has fathomed the depths of truth when he connects
393 Many, of course, took umbrage at the Lord’s supper as the eating and drinking of flesh and blood. The criticism of the pagan
(Porphyry) in Mac. Magnes, III. xv., is remarkable. He does not attack the mystery of the supper in the Synoptic tradition, but
on John vi. 53 (“Except ye eat my flesh and drink my blood, ye have no life in yourselves”) he observes: “Is it not, then, bestial
and absurd, surpassing all absurdity and bestial coarseness, for a man to eat human flesh and drink the blood of his fellow
tribesman or relative, and thereby win life eternal? [Porphyry, remember, was opposed to the eating of flesh and the tasting of
blood in general.] Why, tell me what greater coarseness could you introduce into life, if you practice that habit? What further
crime will you start, more accursed than this loathsome profligacy? The ear cannot bear to hear it mentioned—and by ‘it,’ I am
far from meaning the action itself, I mean the very name of this strange, utterly unheard of offence. Never, even in extraordinary
emergencies, was anything like this offence enacted before mankind in the most fantastic presentations of the Erinyes. Not even
would the Potidæans have admitted anything like this, although they had been debilitated by inhuman hunger. Of course we
know about Thyestes and his meals, etc. [then follow similar cases from antiquity]. All these persons unintentionally committed
this offence. But no civilized person ever served up such food, none ever got such gruesome instructions from any teacher. And
if thou wert to pursue thine inquiries as far as Scythia or the Macrobii of Ethiopia, or to travel right round the margin of the sea
itself, thou wouldst find people who eat lice and roots, or live on serpents, and make mice their food, but all refrain from human
flesh. What, then, does this saying mean? For even although it was meant to be taken in a more mystical or allegorical (and
therefore profitable) sense, still the mere sound of the words upon the ear grates inevitably on the soul, and makes it rebel against
the loathsomeness of the saying. . . . . Many teachers, no doubt, attempt to introduce new and strange ideas. But none has ever
devised a precept so strange and horrible as this, neither historian nor philosopher, neither barbarian nor primitive Greek. See
here, what has come over you that you foolishly exhort credulous people to follow such a faith? Look at all the mischief that is
set thus afoot to storm the cities as well as the villages! Hence it was, I do believe, that neither Mark nor Luke nor Matthew
mentioned this saying, just because they were of opinion that it was unworthy of civilized people, utterly strange and unsuitable
and quite alien to the habits of honorable life.”
394 By the end of the second century, at the very latest, the disciplina arcani embraced the sacraments, partly owing to educational
reasons, partly to the example of pagan models. It rendered them still more weighty and impressive.
395 Not quite the last, for Marcion and his disciples do not seem to have been sacramental theologians at all.
his ideas with the water, the blood, and the cross. And the man who wrote these words—“There
are three that bear witness, the Spirit and the water and the blood, and these three agree in one” (1
231 John v. 8)—had a mind which lived in symbols and in mysteries. In the book of Revelation the
symbols generally are not what we call “symbols” but semi-real things — e.g., the Lamb, the blood,
the washing and the sprinkling, the seal and the sealing. Much of this still remains obscure to us.
What is the meaning, for example, of the words (1 John ii. 27) about the “unction,” an unction
conveying knowledge which is so complete that it renders any further teaching quite unnecessary?
But how is this, it may be asked? Is not John a thorough “spiritualist”? And are not Origen,
Valentinus, and Basilides also “spiritualists”? How, then, can we assert that their realistic expressions
meant something else to them than mere symbols? In the case of John this argument can be defended
with a certain amount of plausibility, since we do not know his entire personality. All we know is
John the author. And even as an author he is known to us merely on one side of his nature, for he
cannot have always spoken and written as he does in his extant writings. But in regard to the rest,
so far as they are known to us on several sides of their characters, the plea is untenable. This is
plain from a study of Clement and Origen, both of whom are amply accessible to us. In their case
the combination of the mysterious realistic element with the spiritual is rendered feasible by the
fact that they have simply no philosophy of religion at all which is capable of being erected upon
one level, but merely one which consists of different stories built one upon the other.396 In the highest
of these stories, realism of every kind certainly vanishes; in fact, even the very system of intermediate
agencies and forces, including the Logos itself, vanishes entirely, leaving nothing but God and the
souls that are akin to him. These have a reciprocal knowledge of each other’s essence, they love
each other, and thus are absorbed in one another. But ere this consummation is reached, a ladder
must be climbed. And every stage or rung has special forces which correspond to it, implying a
theology, a metaphysic, and an ethic of its own. On the lowest rung of the ascent, religion stands
in mythological guise accompanied by sacraments whose inward value is as yet entirely unknown.
232 Even so, this is not falsehood but truth. It answers to a definite state of the soul, and it satisfies this
by filling it with bliss. Even on this level the Christian religion is therefore true. Later on, this
entirely ceases, and yet it does not cease. It ceases, because it is transcended; it does not cease,
because the brethren still require this sort of thing, and because the foot of the ladder simply cannot
be pulled away without endangering its upper structure.
After this brief sketch we must now try to see the significance of the realistic sacramental
theology for these spiritualists. Men like Origen are indeed from our standpoint the most obnoxious
of the theologians who occupied themselves with the sacraments, the blood, and the atonement. In
and with these theories they brought back a large amount of polytheism into Christianity by means
of a back-door, since the lower and middle stories of their theological edifice required397 to be
396 This construction is common to them and to the idealist philosophers of their age.
397 For a considerable length of time one of the charges brought by Christians against the Jews was that of angel-worship (Preaching
of Peter, in Clem. Alex., Strom., vi. 5; Arist., Apol., xiv. Celsus also is acquainted with this charge, and angel-worship is, of
course, a note of the errorists combated in Colossians). Subsequently the charge came to be leveled against the Christians
themselves, and Justin had already written rather incautiously (Apol. I. vi.): [τὸν θεὸν] καὶ τὸν παρ᾽ αὐτοῦ υἱὸν ἐλθόντα καὶ
διδάξαντα ἡμᾶς ταῦτα καὶ τὸν τῶν ἄλλων ἑπομένων καὶ ἐξομοιουμένων ἀγαθῶν ἀγγέλων στρατόν, πνεῦμά τε τὸ προφητικὸν
σεβόμεθα καὶ προσκυνοῦμεν (“Both God and the Son who came from him and taught us these things, also the host of the other
furnished with angels and archangels, æons, semi-gods, and deliverers of every sort. This was due
both to cosmological and to soteriological reasons, for the two correspond like the lines AB and
BA.398 But, above all, theology was enabled by this means to respond to the very slightest pressure
of popular religion, and it is here, of course, that we discover the final clue to the singular enigma
now before us. This theology of the mysteries and of these varied layers and stages afforded the
best means of conserving the spiritual character of the Christian religion upon the upper level, and
at the same time of arranging any compromise that might be desirable upon the lower. This was
233 hardly the result of any conscious process. It came about quite naturally, for everything was already
present in germ at the very first when sacraments were admitted into the religion.399
So much for the lofty theologians. With the inferior men the various stages dropped away and
the sacramental factors were simply inserted in the religion in an awkward and unwieldy fashion.
Read over the remarks made even in that age by Justin the rationalist upon the “cross,” in the
fifty-fifth chapter of his Apology. A more sturdy superstition can hardly be imagined. Notice how
Tertullian (de Bapt., i.) speaks of “water” and its affinity with the holy Spirit! One is persuaded,
too, that all Christians with one consent attributed a magical force, exercised especially over demons,
to the mere utterance of the name of Jesus and to the sign of the cross. One can also read the stories
of the Lord’s supper told by Dionysius of Alexandria, a pupil of Origen, and all that Cyprian is
able to narrate as to the miracle of the host. Putting these and many similar traits together, one feels
driven to conclude that Christianity has become a religion of magic, with its center of gravity in
the sacramental mysteries. “Ab initio sic non erat” is the protest that will be entered. “From the
beginning it was not so.” Perhaps. But one must go far back to find that initial stage—so far back
that its very brief duration now eludes our search.
Originally the water, the bread and wine (the body and the blood), the name of Jesus, and the
cross were the sole sacraments of the church, whilst baptism and the Lord’s super were the sole
mysteries. But this state of matters could not continue. For different reasons, including reasons of
philosophy, the scope of all sacraments tended to be enlarged, and so our period witnesses the
further rise of sacramental details—anointing, the laying on of hands, sacred oil and salt, etc. But
the most momentous result was the gradual assimilation of the entire Christian worship to the
ancient mysteries. By the third century it could already rival the most imposing cultus in all paganism,
234 with its solemn and precise ritual, its priests, its sacrifices, and its holy ceremonies.
These developments, however, are by no means to be judged from the standpoint of Puritanism.
Every age has to conceive and assimilate religion as it alone can; it must understand religion for
itself, and make it a living thing for its own purposes. If the traits of Christianity which have been
described in the preceding chapters have been correctly stated, if Christianity remained the religion
good angels who follow and are made like to him, and also the prophetic Spirit—these we worship and adore”). The four words
πνεῦμά τε τὸ προφητικὸν are supposed by some to be an interpolation.
398 As to the “descent” and “ascent” of the soul, cp. Anz., “Zu Frage nach dem Ursprung des Gnosticismus” (Texte u. Unters. xv.
4, 1897).
399 The necessity of priests and sacrifices was an idea present from the first in Gentile Christianity—even at the time when Christians
sought with Paul to know of spiritual sacrifices alone and of the general priesthood of believers. Cp. Justin’s Dial., cxvi.: οὐ
δέχεται παρ᾽ οὐδενὸς θυσίας ὁ θεός, εἰ μὴ διὰ τῶν ἱερέων αὐτοῦ (“God receives sacrifices from no one, save through his priests”).
of God the Father, of the Saviour and of salvation, of love and charitable enterprise, then it was
perhaps a misfortune that the forms of contemporary religion were assumed. But the misfortune
was by no means irreparable. Like every living plant, religion only grows inside a bark. Distilled
religion is not religion at all.
Something further, however, still remains to be considered.
We have already seen how certain influential teachers—teachers, in fact, who founded the
whole theology of the Christian Church—felt a strong impulse, and made it their definite aim, to
get some rational conception of the Christian religion and to present it as the reasonable religion
of mankind. This feature proved of great importance to the mission and extension of Christianity.
Such teachers at once joined issue with contemporary philosophers, and, as the example of Justin
proves, they did not eschew even controversy with these opponents. They retained all that they had
in common with Socrates, Plato, and the Stoics; they showed how far people could go with them
on the road; they attempted to give an historical explanation400 of the points in common between
themselves and paganism; and in this way they inaugurated the great adjustment of terms which
was inevitable, unless Christians chose to remain a tiny sect of people who refused to concern
235 themselves with culture and scientific learning. Still, as these discussions were carried on in a purely
rational spirit, and as there was a frankly avowed partiality for the idea that Christianity was a
transparently rational system, vital Christian truths were either abandoned or at any rate neglected.
This meant a certain impoverishment, and a serious dilution, of the Christian faith.
Such a type of knowledge was certainly different from Paul’s idea of knowledge, nor did it
answer to the depths of the Christian religion. In one passage, perhaps, the apostle himself employs
rational considerations of a Stoic character, when those were available for the purposes of his
apologetic (cp. the opening sections of Romans), but he was hardly thinking about such ideas when
he dwelt upon the Christian σοφία, σύνεσις, ἐπιστήμη, and γνῶσις (“wisdom,” “intelligence,”
“understanding,” and “knowledge”). Something very different was present to his mind at such
moments. He was thinking of absorption in the being of God as revealed in Christ, of progress in
the knowledge of his saving purpose, manifested in revelation and in history, of insight into the
nature of sin or the power of demons (those “spirits of the air”) or the dominion of death, of the
boundless knowledge of God’s grace, and of the clear anticipation of life eternal. In a word, he had
in view a knowledge that soared up to God himself above all thrones, dominions, and principalities,
and that also penetrated the depths from which we are delivered—a knowledge that traced human
history from Adam to Christ, and that could, at the same time, define both faith and love, both sin
400 Jewish Alexandrian philosophers had been the pioneers in this direction, and all that was really needed was to copy them. But
they had employed a variety of methods in their attempt, amongst which a choice had to he made. All these attempts save one
were childish. One was quite appropriate, viz., that which explained the points of agreement by the sway of the same Logos
which worked in the Jewish prophets and in the pagan philosophers and poets. One attempt, again, was naïve, viz., that which
sought to expose the Greek philosophers and poets as plagiarists—though Celsus tried to do the same thing with reference to
Christ. Finally, it was both naive and fanatical to undertake to prove that all agreements of the philosophers with Christian
doctrine were but a delusion and the work of the devil.
Paradoxical as it may appear, these phases of knowledge were actually fertilized and fed by
the mysteries. From an early period they attached themselves to the mysteries. It was in the train
of the mysteries that they crossed from the soil of heathenism, and it was by dint of the mysteries
that they grew and developed upon the soil of Christianity. The case of the mysteries was at that
time exactly what it was afterwards in the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries. Despite all their
236 acuteness, it was not the rationalists among the schoolmen who furthered learning and promoted
its revival—it was the cabbalists, the natural philosophers, the alchemists, and the astrologers. What
was the reason of this, it may be asked? How can learning develop itself by aid of the mysteries?
The reply is very simple. Such development is possible, because learning or knowledge is attained
by aid of the emotions and the imagination. Both are therefore able to arouse and to revive it. The
great speculative efforts of the syncretistic philosophy of religion, whose principles have been
already outlined (cp. pp. 30 f.), were based upon the mysteries (i.e., upon the feelings and fancies,
whose products were thrown into shape by the aid of speculation). The gnostics, who to a man were
in no sense rationalists, attempted to transplant these living and glowing speculations to the soil of
Christianity, and withal to preserve intact the supremacy of the gospel. The attempt was doomed
to fail. Speculations of this kind contained too many elements alien to the spirit of Christianity
which could not be relinquished.401 But as separate fragments, broken up as it were into their
constituent elements, they were able to render, and they did render, very signal services to a fruitful
Christian philosophy of religion—these separate elements being originally prior perhaps to the
combinations of later ages. All the more profound conceptions generated within Christianity
subsequently to the close of the first century, all the transcendental knowledge, all those tentative
ideas, which nevertheless were of more value than mere logical deductions—all this sprang in large
measure from the contact of Christianity with the ancient lore of the mysteries. It disengaged
profound conceptions and rendered them articulate. This is unmistakable in the case of John or of
237 Ignatius or of Irenæus, but the clearest case is that of the great Alexandrian school. Materials
valuable and useless alike, sheer fantasy and permanent truth which could no longer be neglected,
all were mixed up in a promiscuous confusion—although this applies least of all to John, who,
more than anyone, managed to impress a lofty unity even upon the form and expression of his
thoughts. Such ideas will, of course, be little to the taste of anyone who holds that empiricism or
rationalism confines knowledge within limits which one must not so much as try to overleap; but
anyone who assigns greater value to tentative ideas than to a deliberate absence of all ideas
whatsoever, will not be disposed to underestimate the labor expended by the thinkers of antiquity
in connection with the mysteries. At any rate, it is beyond question that this phase of Christianity,
which went on developing almost from the very hour of its birth, proved of supreme importance
to the propaganda of the religion. Christianity gained special weight from the fact that in the first
place it had mysterious secrets of its own, which it sought to fathom only to adore them once again
in silence, and secondly, that it preached to the perfect in another and a deeper sense than it did to
401 These included the distinction between the god of creation (the demiurgus) and the god of redemption (redemption corresponding
to emanation, not to creation), the abandonment of the Old Testament god, the dualistic opposition of soul and body, the
disintegration of the redemptive personality, etc. Above all, redemption to the syncretist and the gnostic meant the separation
of what had been unnaturally conjoined, while to the Christian it meant the union of what had been unnaturally divided. Christianity
could not give up the latter conception of redemption, unless she was willing to overturn everything. Besides, this conception
alone was adequate to the monarchical position of God.
simple folk. These mysterious secrets may have had, as it is plain that they did have, a deadening
effect on thousands of people by throwing obstacles in the way of their access to a rational religion;
but on other people they had a stimulating effect, lending them wings to soar up into a supra-sensible
world.402
This ascent into the supra-sensible world (θεοποίησις, apotheosis) was the last and the highest
word of all. The supreme message of Christianity was its promise of this divine state to every
believer. We know how, in that age of the twilight of the gods, all human hopes concentrated upon
this aim, and consequently a religion which not only taught but realized this apotheosis of human
nature (especially in a form so complete that it did not exclude even the flesh) was bound to have
an enormous success. Recent investigations into the history of dogma have shown that the
development of Christian doctrine down to Irenæus must be treated in this light, viz., with the aim
of proving how the idea of apotheosis—that supreme desire and dream of the ancient world, whose
inability to realize it cast a deep shadow over its inner life—passed into Christianity, altered the
original lines of that religion, and eventually dominated its entire contents.403 The presupposition
for it in primitive Christianity was the promise of a share in the future kingdom of God. As yet no
one could foresee what was to fuse itself with this premise and transform it. But Paul coordinated
with it the promise of life eternal in a twofold way: as given to man in justification (i.e., in the
Spirit, as an indissoluble inner union with the love of God), and as infused into man through holy
media in the shape of a new nature. The fourth evangelist has grasped this double idea still more
vividly, and given it sharper outline. His message is the spiritual and physical immanence of life
eternal for believers. Still, the idea of love outweighs that of a natural transformation in his
conception of the unity of believers with the Father and Son, so that he only approaches the verge
of the conception. “We have become gods.” He still seems to prefer the expression “children of
God.” The apologists also keep the idea of apotheosis secondary to that of a full knowledge of
God,404 but even after the great epoch when “gnosticism” was opposed and assimilated, the church
went forward in the full assurance that she understood and preached apotheosis as the distinctive
product of the Christian religion. When she spoke of “adoptio” by God, or of “participatio dei,”
239 for example, although a spiritual relationship continued to be understood, yet its basis and reality
lay in a sacramental renewal of the physical nature: “Non ab initio dii facti sumus; sed primo quidem
homines, tunc demum dii” (We were not made gods at first; at first we were men, thereafter we
became gods at length). These are the words of Irenæus (cp. IV. xxxviii. 4, and often elsewhere),
and this was the doctrine of Christian teachers after him. “Thou shalt avoid hell when thou hast
402 With this comparative appreciation of speculation in early Christianity, we concede the utmost that can be conceded in this
connection. It is a time-honored view that the richest fruit of Christianity, and in fact its very essence, lies in that “Christian”
metaphysic which was the gradual product of innumerable alien ideas dragged into contact with the gospel. But this assertion
deserves respect simply on the score of its venerable age. If it were true, then Jesus Christ would not be the founder of his religion,
and indeed he would not even be its forerunner, since be neither revealed any philosophy of religion nor did he lay stress on
anything which from such a standpoint is counted as cardinal. The Greeks certainly forgot before very long the Pauline saying
ἐκ μέρους γινώσκομεν . . . . βλέπομεν γὰρ ἄρτι δι᾽ ἐσόπτρου ἐν αἰνίγματι (“We know in part . . . . for now we see in a mirror,
darkly”;), and they also forgot that as knowledge (γνῶσις) and wisdom (σοφία) are charismatic gifts, the product of these gifts
affords no definition of what Christianity really is. Of the prominent teachers, Marcion, Apelles, and to some extent Irenæus,
were the only ones who remained conscious of the limitations of knowledge.
403 Cp. my Dogmengeschichte (third ed.) i., especially pp. 516 f. [Eng. trans., iii. 275 f.].
404 Yet cp. Justin., Dial. cxxiv., a parallel to the great section in John. x. 33 f.
gained the knowledge of the true God. Thou shalt have an immortal and incorruptible body as well
as a soul, and shalt obtain the kingdom of heaven. Thou who hast lived on earth and knows the
heavenly King, shalt be a friend of God and a joint-heir with Christ, no longer held by lusts, or
sufferings, or sicknesses. For thou hast become divine, and all that pertains to the God-life hath
God promised to bestow on thee, seeing that thou, now become immortal, art deified.”405 This was
the sort of preaching which anyone could understand, and which could not be surpassed.
Christianity, then, is a revelation which has to be believed, an authority which has to be obeyed,
the rational religion which may be understood and proved, the religion of the mysteries or the
sacraments, the religion of transcendental knowledge. So it was preached. It was not that every
missionary expressed but one aspect of the religion. The various presentations of it were all mixed
up together, although every now and then one of them would acquire special prominence. It is with
amazement that we fathom the depths of this missionary preaching; yet those who engaged in it
were prepared at any moment to put everything else aside and rest their whole faith on the confession
that “There is one God of heaven and earth, and Jesus is the Lord.”
THE TIDINGS OF THE NEW PEOPLE AND OF THE THIRD RACE: THE HISTORICAL
AND POLITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS OF CHRISTENDOM
The gospel was preached simultaneously as the consummation of Judaism, as a new religion,
and as the restatement and final expression of man’s original religion. Nor was this triple aspect
preached merely by some individual missionary of dialectic gifts; it was a conception which emerged
more or less distinctly in all missionary preaching of any scope. Convinced that Jesus, the teacher
and the prophet, was also the Messiah who was to return ere long to finish off his work, people
passed from the consciousness of being his disciples into that of being his people, the people of
God: ὑμεῖς γένος ἐκλεκτόν, βασίλειον ἱεράτευμα, ἔθνος ἅγιον, λαὸς εἰς περιποίησιν (1 Pet. ii. 9:
“Ye are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for possession”); and in so far
as they felt themselves to be a people, Christians knew they were the true Israel, at once the new
people and the old.
This conviction that they were a people—i.e., the transference of all the prerogatives and claims
of the Jewish people to the new community as a new creation which exhibited and realized whatever
was old and original in religion—this at once furnished adherents of the new faith with a political
405 Hippol., Philos. x. 34. Cp. pseudo-Hippolytus, Theoph., viii.: εἰ ἀθάνατος γέγονεν ὁ ἄνθρωπος, ἔσται καὶ θεός (“If man become
immortal, he shall also be divine”).
and historical self-consciousness. Nothing more comprehensive or complete or impressive than
this consciousness can be conceived. Could there be any higher or more comprehensive conception
than that of the complex of momenta afforded by the Christians’ estimate of themselves as “the
true Israel,” “the new people,” “the original people,” and “the people of the future,” i.e., of eternity?
241 This estimate of themselves rendered Christians impregnable against all attacks and movements
of polemical criticism, while it further enabled them to advance in every direction for a war of
conquest. Was the cry raised, “You are renegade Jews”—the answer came, “We are the community
of the Messiah, and therefore the true Israelites.” If people said, “You are simply Jews,” the reply
was, “We are a new creation and a new people.” If, again, they were taxed with their recent origin
and told that they were but of yesterday, they retorted, “We only seem to be the younger People;
from the beginning we have been latent; we have always existed, previous to any other people; we
are the original people of God.” If they were told, “You do not deserve to live,” the answer ran,
“We would die to live, for we are citizens of the world to come, and sure that we shall rise again.”
There were one or two other quite definite convictions of a general nature specially taken over
by the early Christians at the very outset from the stores accumulated by a survey of history made
from the Jewish standpoint. Applied to their own purposes, these were as follows:—(1) Our people
is older than the world; (2) the world was created for our sakes;406 (3) the world is carried on for
our sakes; we retard the judgment of the world; (4) everything in the world is subject to us and
must serve us; (5) everything in the world, the beginning and course and end of all history, is
revealed to us and lies transparent to our eyes; (6) we shall take part in the judgment of the world
and ourselves enjoy eternal bliss. In various early Christian documents, dating from before the
middle of the second century, these convictions find expression, in homilies, apocalypses, epistles,
and apologies,407 and nowhere else did Celsus vent his fierce disdain of Christians and their
shameless, absurd pretensions with such keenness as at this point.408
406 By means of these two convictions, Christians made out their case for a position superior to the world, and established a connection
between creation and history.
407 Cp. the epistles of Paul, the apocalypse of John, the “Shepherd” of Hermas (Vis. ii. 4. 1), the second epistle of Clement (xiv.),
and the Apologies of Aristides and Justin (II. vii.). Similar statements occur earlier in the Jewish apocalypses.
408 He is quite aware that these pretensions are common to Jews and Christians, that the latter took them over from the former, and
that both parties contended for the right to their possession. Μετὰ ταῦτα , observes Origen (c. Cels. IV. xxiii.), συνήθως ἑαυτῷ
γελῶν τὸ Ἰουδαίων καὶ Χριστιανῶν γένος πάντας παραβέβληκε νυκτερίδων ὁρμαθῷ ἢ μύρμηξιν ἐκ καλιᾶς προελθοῦσιν ἢ
βατράχοις περὶ τέλμα συνεδρεύουσιν ἢ σκώληξιν ἐν βορβόρου γωνίᾳ ἐκκλησιάζουσι καὶ πρὸς ἀλλήλους διαφερομένοις, τίνες
αὐτῶν εἶεν ἁμαρτωλότεροι, καὶ φάσκουσιν ὅτι πάντα ἡμῖν ὁ θεὸς προδηλοῖ καὶ προκαταγγέλλει, καὶ τὸν πάντα κόσμον καὶ
τὴν οὐράνιον φορὰν ἀπολιπὼν καὶ τὴν τοσαύτην γῆν παριδὼν ἡμῖν μόνοις πολιτεύεται καὶ πρὸς ἡμᾶς μόνους ἐπικηρυκεύεται
καὶ πέμπων οὐ διαλείπει καὶ ζητῶν, ὅπως ἀεὶ συνῶμεν αὐτῷ. καὶ ἐν τῷ ἀναπλάσματί γε ἑαυτοῦ παραπλησίους ἡμᾶς ποιεῖ
σκώληξι, φάσκουσιν ὅτι ὁ θεός ἐστιν, εἶτα μετ᾽ ἐκεῖνον ἡμεῖς ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ γεγονότες πάντῇ ὅμοιοι τῷ θεῷ, καὶ ἡμῖν πάντα
ὑποβέβληται, γῆ καὶ ὕδωρ καὶ ἀὴρ καὶ ἄστρα, καὶ ἡμῶν ἕνεκα πάντα, καὶ ἡμῖν δουλεύειν τέτακται. λέγουσι δέ τι παρ᾽ αὐτῷ οἱ
σκώληκες, ἡμεῖς δηλαδή, ὅτι νῦν, ἐπειδή τινες [ἐν] ἡμῖν πλημμελοῦσιν, ἀφίξεται θεὸς ἢ πέμψει τὸν υἱόν, ἵνα καταφλέξῃ τοὺς
ἀδίκους, καὶ οἱ λοιποὶ σὺν αὐτῷ ζωὴν αἰώνιον ἔχωμεν. καὶ ἐπιφέρει γε πᾶσιν ὅτι ταῦτα [μᾶλλον] ἀνεκτὰ σκωλήκων καὶ
βατράχων ἢ Ἰουδαίων καὶ Χριστιανῶν πρὸς ἀλλήλους διαφερομένων (“In the next place, laughing as usual at the race of Jews
and Christians, he likens them all to a flight of bats, or a swarm of ants crawling out of their nest, or frogs in council on a marsh,
or worms in synod on the corner of a dunghill, quarrelling as to which of them is the greater sinner, and declaring that ‘God
discloses and announces all things to us beforehand; God deserts the whole world and the heavenly region and disregards this
great earth in order to domicile himself among us alone; to us alone he makes his proclamations, ceasing not to send and seek
But for Christians who knew they were the old and the new People, it was not enough to set
this self-consciousness over against the Jews alone, or to contend with them for the possession of
the promises and of the sacred book;409 settled on the soil of the Greek and Roman empires, they
had to define their position with regard to this realm and its “people.” The apostle Paul had already
done so, and in this he was followed by others.
In classifying mankind Paul does speak in one passage of “Greeks and barbarians” alongside
of Jews (Rom. i. 14), and in another of “barbarians and Scythians” alongside of Greeks (Col. iii.
11); but, like a born Jew and a Pharisee, he usually bisects humanity into circumcised and
uncircumcised—the latter being described, for the sake of brevity, as “Greeks.”410 Beside or over
against these two “peoples” he places the church of God as a new creation (cp., e.g., 1 Cor. x. 32,
“Give no occasion of stumbling to Jews or Greeks or to the church of God”). Nor does this mere
juxtaposition satisfy him. He goes on to the conception of this new creation as that which is to
embrace both Jews and Greeks, rising above the differences of both peoples into a higher unity.
The people of Christ are not a third people to him beside their neighbors. They represent the new
grade on which human history reaches its consummation, a grade which is to supersede the previous
grade of bisection, cancelling or annulling not only national but also social and even sexual
distinctions.411 Compare, e.g., Gal. iii. 28: οὐκ ἔνι Ἰουδαῖος οὐδὲ Ἕλλην, οὐκ ἔνι ἄρσεν καὶ θῆλυ·
πάντες γὰρ ὑμεῖς εἷς ἐστε ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ, or Gal. v. 6: ἐν Χριστῷ Ἰησοῦ οὔτε περιτομή τι ἰσχύει
οὔτε ἀκροβυστία, ἀλλὰ πίστις δι᾽ ἀγάπης ἐνεργουμένη (cp. vi. 15, οὔτε γὰρ περιτομή τι ἐστιν οὔτε
ἀκροβυστία, ἀλλὰ καινὴ κτίσις, and 2 Cor. v. 17). 1 Cor. xii. 13: ἐν ἑνὶ πνεύματι ἡμεῖς πάντες εἰς
ἓν σῶμα ἐβαπτίσθημεν, εἴτε Ἰουδαῖοι εἴτε Ἕλληνες, εἴτε δοῦλοι εἴτε ἐλεύθεροι. Coloss. iii. 11:
ὅπου οὐκ ἔνι Ἕλλην καὶ Ἰουδαῖος, περιτομὴ καὶ ἀκροβυστία, βάρβαρος, Σκύθης, δοῦλος, ἐλεύθερος.
244 Most impressive of all is Ephes. ii. 11 f.: μνημονεύετε ὅτι ποτὲ ὑμεῖς τὰ ἔθνη . . . . ἦτε
ἀπηλλοτριωμένοι τῆς πολιτείας τοῦ Ἰσραήλ . . . . (ὁ Χριστός) ἐστιν ἡ εἰρήνη ἡμῶν, ὁ ποιήσας τὰ
ἀμφότερα ἓν καὶ τὸ μεσότοιχον τοῦ φραγμοῦ λύσας . . . . ἵνα τοὺς δύο κτίσῃ ἐν αὑτῷ εἰς ἕνα καινὸν
ἄνθρωπον ποιῶν εἰρήνην, καὶ ἀποκαταλλάξῃτοὺς ἀμφοτέρους ἐν ἑνὶ σώματι. Finally, in Rom.
9-11 Paul promulgates a philosophy of history, according to which the new People, whose previous
that we may company with him for ever.’ And in his representation of us, he likens us to worms that declare ‘there is a God, and
next to him are we whom he has made in all points like unto himself, and to whom all things are subject—land and water, air
and stars; all things are for our sakes, and are appointed to serve us.’ As he puts it, the worms, i.e., we Christians, declare also
that ‘since certain of our number commit sin, God will come or send his son to burn up the wicked and to let the rest of us have
life eternal with himself.’ To all of which he subjoins the remark that such discussions would be more tolerable among worms
and frogs than among Jews and Christians”).
409 This controversy occupies the history of the first generation, and stretches even further down. Although the broad lines of the
position taken up by Christians on this field were clearly marked out, this did not exclude the possibility of various attitudes
being assumed, as may be seen from my study in the third section of the first volume of the Texte u. Untersuchungen (1883),
upon “the anti-Jewish polemic of the early church.”
410 Even in the passage from Colossians the common expression “Greek and Jew, circumcision and uncircumcision” (Ἕλλην καὶ
Ἰουδαῖος, περιτομὴ καὶ ἀκροβυστία) is put first; “barbarian, Scythian, bond and free” (βάρβαρος, Σκύθης, δοῦλος, ἐλεύθερος)
follows as a rhetorical amplification.
411 It was in the conception of Christ as the second Adam that the conception of the new humanity as opposed to the old, a conception
which implies a dual division, was most deeply rooted. The former idea obviously played a leading part in the world of Pauline
thought, but it was not introduced for the first time by him; in the Messianic system of the Jews this idea already held a place
of its own. In Paul and in other Christian thinkers the idea of a dual classification of mankind intersects that of a triple classification,
but both ideas are at one in this, that the new humanity cancels the old.
history fell within the limits of Israel, includes the Gentile world, now that Israel has been rejected,
but will embrace in the end not merely “the fulness of the Gentiles” (πλήρωμα τῶν ἐθνῶν) but
also “all Israel” (πᾶς Ἰσραήλ).
Greeks (Gentiles), Jews, and the Christians as the new People (destined to embrace the two
first)—this triple division now becomes frequent in early Christian literature, as one or two examples
will show.412
The fourth evangelist makes Christ say (x. 16): “And other sheep have I which are not of this
fold; them also I must bring, and they shall hear my voice, and there shall be one flock, one
shepherd.” And again, in a profound prophetic utterance (iv. 21 f.): “The hour cometh when neither
in this mountain [that of the Samaritans, who stand here as representatives of the Gentiles] nor in
Jerusalem shall ye worship the Father; ye worship what ye know not; we worship what we know,
for salvation is of the Jews. But the hour cometh and now is, when the true worshippers shall
worship the Father in spirit and truth.” This passage is of importance, because it is something more
than a merely formal classification; it defines, in a positive manner, the three possible religious
412 For Christians as the new People, see the “Shepherd” of Hermas, and Barn. v. 7 (Χριστὸς) ἑαυτῷ τὸν λαὸν τὸν καινὸν ἑτοιμάζων
(Christ preparing himself the new people); vii. 5, ὑπὲρ ἁμαρτιῶν μέλλων τοῦ λαοῦ τοῦ καινοῦ προσφέρειν τὴν σάρκα (Christ
about to offer his flesh for the sins of the new people); xiii. 6, βλέπετε . . . . τὸν λαὸν τοῦτον [new and evidently young] εἶναι
πρῶτον (ye see that this people is the first); 2 Clem. ad Cor. ii. 3, ἔρημος ἐδόκει εἶναι ἀπὸ τοῦ θεοῦ ὁ λαὸς ἡμῶν, νυνὶ δὲ
πιστεύσαντες πλείονες ἐγενόμεθα τῶν δοκούντων ἔχειν θεόν (“Our people seemed to be forsaken of God, but now we have
become more numerous by our faith than those who seemed to possess God”); Ignat., ad Ephes. xix.-xx.; Aristides, Apol., xvi.
(“truly this people is new, and a divine admixture is in them”); Orac. Sibyll., i. 383 f., βλαστὸς νεός ἀνθήσείεν ἐξ ἐθνῶν (“a
fresh growth shall blossom out of the Gentiles”). Bardesanes also calls the Christians a new race. Clement (Paed. I. v. 15, on
Zech. ix. 9) remarks: οὐκ ἤρκει τὸ πῶλον εἰρηκέναι μόνον, ἀλλὰ καὶ τὸ νέον προσέθηκεν αὐτῷ, τὴν ἐν Χριστῷ νεολαίαν τῆς
ἀνθρωπότητος . . . . ἐμφαίνων (“To say ‘colt’ was not enough; ‘young’ had to be added, in order to bring out the youth of
humanity”); and in I. v. 20 he observes, νέοι ὁ λαὸς ὁ καινὸς πρὸς ἀντιδιαστολὴν τοῦ πρεσβυτέρου λαοῦ τὰ νέα μαθόντες ἀγαθά
(“In contradistinction to the older people, the new people are young because they have learned the new blessings”). See also I.
vii. 58, καὶ γὰρ ἦν ὡς ἀληθῶς διὰ μὲν Μωσέως παιδαγωγὸς ὁ κύριος τοῦ λαοῦ τοῦ παλαιοῦ, δι᾽ αὑτοῦ δὲ τοῦ νέου καθηγεμὼν
λαοῦ, πρόσωπον πρὸς πρόσωπον (“For it was really the Lord who instructed the ancient people by Moses; but the new people
he directs himself, face to face”). The expression “new people” was retained for a long while in those early days; cp., e.g.,
Constant., ad s. Coet. xix., κατὰ χρόνον τοῦ Τιβερίου ἠ τοῦ σωτῆρος ἐξέλαμψε παρουσία . . . . ἠ τε νέα τοῦ δήμου διαδοχὴ
συνέστη, κ.τ.λ. (“About the time of Tiberius the advent of the Saviour flashed on the world . . . . and the new succession of the
people arose,” etc.). On the other hand, Christians are also the “non-gens,” since they are not a nation; cp. Orig., Hom. I. in Ps.
xxxvi. (vol. xii. p. 155): “Nos sumus ‘non gens’ [Deut. xxxii. 21], qui pauci ex ista civitate credimus, et alii ex alia, et nusquam
gens integra ab initio credulitatis videtur assumpta. Non enim sicut Iudaeorum gens erat vel Aegyptiorum gens ita etiam
Christianorum genus gens est una vel integra, sed sparsim ex singulis gentibus congregantur.”—For Christians as a distinctive
genus, or as the genus of the truly pious, see Mart. Polyc., iii. 2, ἠ γενναιότης τοῦ θεοφιλοῦς καὶ θεοσεβοῦς γένους τῶν
Χριστιανῶν (“the brave spirit of the God-beloved and God-fearing race of Christians”); xiv., πᾶν τὸ γένος τῶν δικαίων (“the
whole race of the righteous”); Martyr. Ignat. Antioch., ii., τὸ τῶν Χριστιανῶν θεοσεβὲς γένος (“the pious race of Christians”).
Also Melito, in Eus., H.E., iv. 26. 5, τὸ τῶν θεοσεβῶν γένος (“the race of the pious”), Arnobius, i. 1 (“Christiana gens”),
pseudo-Josephus, Testim. de Christo (τὸ φῦλον τῶν Χριστιανῶν—the tribe of the Christians); Orac. Sibyll., iv. 136, εὐσεβέων
φῦλον, etc. Several educated Christians correlated the idea of a new and at the same time a universal people with the Stoic
cosmopolitan idea, as, for example, Tertullian, who points out more than once that Christians only recognise one state, i.e., the
world. Similarly, Tatian writes (Orat., xxviii.): “I repudiate your legislation; there ought to be only one common polity for all
men” (τῆς παρ᾽ ὑμῖν κατέγνων νομοθεσίας· μίαν μὲν γὰρ ἐχρῆν εἶναι καὶ κοινὴν ἁπάντων τὴν πολιτείαν). This democratic
and cosmopolitan feature of Christianity was undoubtedly of great use to the propaganda among the lower and middle classes,
particularly throughout the provinces. Religious equality was felt, up to a certain degree, to mean political and social equality
standpoints and apportions them among the different peoples. First of all, there is ignorance of
God, together with an external and therefore an erroneous worship (=the Gentiles, or Samaritans);
secondly, there is a true knowledge of God together with a wrong, external worship (= the Jews);
and thirdly, there is true knowledge of God together with worship that is inward and therefore true
(=the Christians). This view gave rise to many similar conceptions in early Christianity; it was the
246 precursor of a series of cognate ideas which formed the basis of early Christian speculations upon
the history of religion. It was the so-called “gnostics” in particular who frankly built their systems
upon ideas of this kind. In these systems, Greeks (or pagans), Jews, and Christians sometimes
appear as different grades; sometimes the two first are combined, with Christians subdivided into
“psychic” (ψύχικοι) and “pneumatic” (πνευμάτικοι) members; and finally a fourfold division is
also visible, viz., Greeks (or pagans), Jews, churchfolk, and “pneumatic” persons.413 During that
period, when religions were undergoing transformation, speculations on the history of religion were
in the air; they are to be met with even in inferior and extravagant systems of religion.414 But from
all this we must turn back to writers of the Catholic church with their triple classification.
In one early Christian document from the opening of the second century, of which unfortunately
we possess only a few fragments (i.e., the Preaching of Peter, in Clem., Strom., vi. 5. 41), Christians
are warned not to fashion their worship on the model of the Greeks or of the Jews (μὴ κατὰ τοὺς
Ἕλληνας σέβεσθε τὸν θεόν . . . μηδὲ κατὰ Ἰουδαίους σέβεσθε . . . . μηδὲ κατὰ Ἰουδαίους σέβεσθε).
Then we read: ὥστε καὶ ὑμεῖς ὁσίως καὶ δικαίως μανθάνοντες ἃ παραδίδομεν ὑμῖν, φυλάσσεσθε
καινῶς τὸν θεὸν διὰ τοῦ Χριστοῦ σεβόμενοι· εὕρομεν γὰρ ἐν ταῖς γραφαῖς καθῶς ὁ κύριος λέγει·
ἰδοὺ διατίθεμαι ὑμῖν καινὴν διαθήκην οὐχ ὡς διεθέμην τοῖς πατράσιν ὑμῶν ἐν ὄρει Χωρήβ· νέαν
ἡμῖν διέθετο, τὰ γὰρ Ἑλλήνων καὶ Ἰουδαίων παλαιά, ὑμεῖς δὲ οἱ καινῶς αὐτὸν τρίτῳ γένει
σεβόμενοι Χριστιανοί (“So do you keep what you have learnt from us holily and justly, worshipping
God anew through Christ. For we find in the scriptures, as the Lord saith, Behold I make a new
247 covenant with you, not as I made it with your fathers in Mount Horeb. A new covenant he has made
with us, for that of the Greeks and Jews is old, but ye who worship him anew in the third manner
are Christians”).415
This writer also distinguishes Greeks, Jews, and Christians, and distinguishes them, like the
fourth evangelist, by the degree of their knowledge and worship of God. But the remarkable thing
is his explicit assumption that there are three classes, neither more nor less, and his deliberate
description of Christianity as the new or third genus of worship. There are several similar passages
which remain to be noticed, but this is the earliest of them all. Only, it is to be remarked that
413 It is impossible here to go into the question of how this ethnological division of humanity intersected and squared with the other
religious division made by the gnostics, viz., the psychological (into “hylic,” “psychic,” and “pneumatic” persons).
414 With regard to the religious system of the adherents of Simon Magus, we have this fragmentary and obscure piece of information
in Irenæus (I. xxiii.): Simon taught that “he himself was he who had appeared among the Jews as the Son, who had descended
in Samaria as the Father, and made his advent among other nations as the holy Spirit” (“Semetipsum esse qui inter Judaeos
quidem quasi fllius apparuerit, in Samaria autem quasi pater descenderit, in reliquis vero gentibus quasi spiritus sanctus
adventaverit”).
415 The term “religio Christiana” does not occur till Tertullian, who uses it quite frequently. The apologists speak of the distinctive
θεοσέβεια of Christians.
Christians do not yet call themselves “the third race”; it is their worship which is put third in the
scale. The writer classifies humanity, not into three peoples, but into three groups of worshippers.
Similarly the unknown author of the epistle to Diognetus. Only, with him the conception of
three classes of worshippers is definitely carried over into that of three peoples (“Christians esteem
not those whom the Greeks regard as gods, nor do they observe the superstition of the Jews . . . .
[thou enquirest] about the nature of this fresh development or interest which has entered life now
and not previously,” ch. i.; cp. also ch. v.: “They are attacked as aliens by the Jews, and persecuted
by the Greeks”). This is brought out particularly in his endeavor to prove that as Christians have a
special manner of life, existing socially and politically by themselves, they have a legitimate claim
to be ranked as a special “nation.”
In his Apology to the Emperor Pius, Aristides distinctly arranges human beings in three “orders,”
which are equivalent to nations, as Aristides assigns to each its genealogy—i.e., its historical origin.
He writes (ch. ii.): φανερὸν γάρ ἐστιν ἡμῖν, ὦ βασιλεῦ, ὅτι τρία γένη εἰσὶν ἀνθρώπων ἐν τῷδε τῷ
κόσμῳ· ὧν εἰσὶν οἱ τῶν παρ᾽ ὑμῖν λεγομένων θεῶν προσκυνηταὶ καὶ Ἰουδαῖοι καὶ Χριστιανοί·
αὐτοὶ δὲ πάλιν οἱ τοὺς πολλοὺς σεβόμενοι θεοὺς εἰς τρία διαιροῦνται γένη, Χαλδαίους τε καὶ
248 Ἕλληνας καὶ Αἰγυπτίους (then follows the evidence for the origin of these nations, whilst the
Christians are said to “derive their genealogy from Jesus Christ”).416
How seriously Irenæus took this idea of the Christians as a special people, is evident from his
remarks in iv. 30. The gnostics had attacked the Jews and their God for having appropriated the
gold and silver vessels of the Egyptians. To which Irenæus retorts that it would be much more true
to accuse Christians of robbery, inasmuch as all their possessions originated with the Romans.
“Who has the better right to gold and silver? The Jews, who took it as a reward for their labor in
Egypt? or we, who have taken gold from the Romans and the rest of the nations, though they were
not our debtors?” This argument would be meaningless unless Irenæus regarded Christians as a
nation which was sharply differentiated from the rest of the peoples and had no longer anything to
do with them. As a matter of fact, he regarded the exodus of Israel from Egypt as a type of the
“profectio ecclesiae e gentibus” (iv. 30. 4).
416 “It is clear to us, O king, that there are three orders of mankind in this world; these are, the worshippers of your acknowledged
gods, the Jews, and the Christians. Furthermore, those who worship a plurality of gods are again divided into three orders, viz.,
Chaldeans, Greeks, and Egyptians.” In the Syrian and Armenian versions the passage runs somewhat otherwise. “This is clear,
O king, that there are four races of men in the world, barbarians and Greeks, Jews and Christians” (omitting altogether the further
subdivision of the Greeks into three classes). Several scholars prefer this rendering, though it should be noted that Hippolytus
also, in Philos., x. 30 (twice) and 31 (twice), contrasts the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Greeks with the Jews and Christians. Still,
the question is one of minor importance for our present purpose.—Justin (Dial. cxxiii.) also derives Christians from Christ, not
as their teacher but as their progenitor: ὡς ἀπὸ τοῦ ἑνὸς Ἰακὼβ ἐκείνου, τοῦ καὶ Ἰσραὴλ ἐπικληθέντος, τὸ πᾶν γένος ὑμῶν
προσηγόρευτο Ἰακὼβ καὶ Ἰσραήλ, οὕτω καὶ ἡμεῖς ἀπὸ τοῦ γεννήσαντος ἡμᾶς εἰς θεὸν Χριστοῦ . . . . καὶ θεοῦ τέκνα ἀληθινὰ
καλούμεθα καὶ ἐσμέν . . . . (“As all your nation has been called Jacob and Israel from the one man Jacob, who was surnamed
Israel, so from Christ who begat us unto God . . . . we are called, and we are, God’s true children”).
The religious philosophy of history set forth by Clement of Alexandria rests entirely upon the
view that these two nations, Greeks and Jews, were alike trained by God, but that they are now (see
Paul’s epistle to the Ephesians) to be raised into the higher unity of a third nation. It may suffice
249 to bring forward three passages bearing on this point. In Strom., iii. 10. 70, he writes (on the saying
“where two or three are gathered together,” etc.): εἴη δ᾽ ἂν καὶ ἡ ὁμόνοια τῶν πολλῶν ἀπὸ τῶν
τριῶν ἀριθμουμένη μεθ᾽ ὧν ὁ κύριος, ἡ μία ἐκκλησία, ὁ εἷς ἄνθρωπος, τὸ γένος τὸ ἕν. ἢ μή τι μετὰ
μὲν τοῦ ἑνὸς τοῦ Ἰουδαίου ὁ κύριος νομοθετῶν ἦν, προφητεύων δὲ ἤδη καὶ τὸν ῾Ιερεμίαν
ἀποστέλλων εἰς Βαβυλῶνα, ἀλλὰ καὶ τοὺς ἐξ ἐθνῶν διὰ τῆς προφητείας καλῶν, συνῆγε λαοὺς
τοὺς δύο, τρίτος δὲ ἦν ἐκ τῶν δυεῖν κτιζόμενος εἷς καινὸν ἄνθρωπον, ᾧ δὴ ἐμπεριπατεῖ τε καὶ
κατοικεῖ ἐν αὐτῇ τῇ ἐκκλησίᾳ (“Now the harmony of the many, calculated from the three with
whom the Lord is present, might signify the one church, the one man, the one race. Or was the Lord
legislating with the one Jew [at Sinai], and then, when he prophesied and sent Jeremiah to Babylon,
calling some also from the heathen, did he collect the two peoples together, while the third was
created out of the twain into a new man, wherein he is now resident, dwelling within the church”).
Again, in Strom., v. 14. 98, on Plato’s Republic, iii. p. 415: εἰ μή τι τρεῖς τινας ὑποτιθέμενος φύσεις,
τρεῖς πολιτείας, ὡς ὑπέλαβόν τινες, διαγράφει, καὶ Ἰουδαίων μὲν ἀργυρᾶν, Ἑλλήνων δὲ τρίτην
[a corrupt passage, incorrectly read as early as Eus., Prepar., xiii. 13; on the margin of L there is
the lemma, Ἑλλήνων σιδηρὰν ἢ χαλκήν, Χριστιανῶν χρυσῆν], Χριστιανῶν δέ, οἷς ὁ χρυσὸς ὁ
βασιλικὸς ἐγκαταμέμικται, τὸ ἅγιον πνεῦμα (“Unless he means by his hypothesis of three natures
to describe, as some conjecture, three polities, the Jews being the silver one, and the Greeks the
third [the lemma running thus:—“The Greeks being the iron or brass one, and the Christians the
gold one”], along with the Christians, with whom the regal gold is mixed, even the holy Spirit”).
Finally, in Strom., vi. 5. 42: ἐκ γοῦν τῆς Ἑλληνικῆς παιδείας, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐκ τῆς νομικῆς εἰς τὸ ἓν
γένος τοῦ σωζομένου συνάγονται λαοῦ οἱ τὴν πίστιν προσιέμενοι, οὐ χρόνῳ διαιρουμένων τῶν
τριῶν λαῶν, ἵνα τις φύσεις ὑπολάβοι τριττάς, κ.τ.λ. (“From the Hellenic discipline, as also from
that of the law, those who accept the faith are gathered into the one race of the people who are
saved—not that the peoples are separated by time, as though one were to suggest three different
natures,” etc.).417
Evidence may be led also from other early Christian writers to show that the triad of “Greeks
(Gentiles), Jews, and Christians” was the church’s basal conception of history.418 It was employed
with especial frequency in the interpretation of biblical stories. Thus Tertullian enlists it in his
exposition of the prodigal son (de Pudic., viii. f.); Hippolytus (Comm. in Daniel, ed. Bonwetsch,
p. 32) finds the Christians in Susanna, and the Greeks and Jews in the two elders who lay snares
for her; while pseudo-Cyprian (de Mont. Sina et Sion, vii.) explains that the two thieves represent
the Greeks and Jews. But, so far as I am aware, the blunt expression “We Christians are the third
race” only occurs once in early Christian literature subsequent to the Preaching of Peter (where,
417 Clement (Strom., ii. 15. 67) once heard a “wise man” explain that Gentiles (“seat of the ungodly”), Jews (“way of sinners”), and
heretics (“seat of the scornful”) were meant in Ps. i. 1. This addition of “heretics” is simply due to the passage under discussion.
418 The letter of Hadrian to Servianus (Vopisc., Saturnin., viii.) is to be included among these witnesses, if it is a Christian fabrication:
“Hunc (nummum) Christiani, hunc Judaei, hunc omnes venerantur et gentes” (“Christians, Jews, and all nations worship this
one thing, money”).
moreover, it is simply Christian worship which is described as the third class), and that is in the
pseudo-Cyprianic tract de Pascha Computus (c. 17), written in 242-243 A.D. Unfortunately, the
context of the expression is not quite clear. Speaking of hell-fire, the author declares it has consumed
the opponents of Ananias, Azarias, and Misael, “et ipsos tres pueros a dei filio protectos—in
mysterio nostro qui sumus tertium genus hominum—non vexavit” (“Without hurting, however,
those three lads, protected by the Son of God—in the mystery which pertains to us who are the
third race of mankind”). It is hard to see how the writer could feel he was reminded of Christians
as the third race of men by the three children who were all-pleasing in God’s sight, although they
were cast into the fiery furnace; still, reminded he was, and at any rate the inference to be drawn
from the passage is that he must have been familiar with the description of Christians as a “third
race.” What sense he attached to it, we are not yet in a position to determine with any certainty;
but we are bound to assume, in the first instance, from our previous investigations, that Christians
251 were to him a third race alongside of the Greeks (Gentiles) and Jews. Whether this assumption is
correct or false, is a question to be decided in the second section of our inquiry.
The consciousness of being a people,419 and of being indeed the primitive and the new people,
did not remain abstract or unfruitful in the church; it was developed in a great variety of directions.
In this respect also the synagogue had led the way at every point, but Christianity met its claim by
making that claim her own and extending it, wherever this was possible, beyond the limits within
which Judaism had confined it.
There were three cardinal directions in which the church voiced her peculiar consciousness of
being the primitive people. (1) She demonstrated that, like any other people, she had a characteristic
life. (2) She tried to show that so far as the philosophical learning, the worship, and the polity of
other peoples were praiseworthy, they were plagiarized from the Christian religion. (3) She began
to set on foot, though merely in the shape of tentative ideas, some political reflections upon her
own actual importance within the world-empire of Rome, and also upon the positive relation between
the latter and herself as the new religion for the world.
1. The proofs advanced by early Christianity with regard to its πολιτεία [citizenship] were
twofold. The theme of one set was stated by Paul in Philippians iii. 20: “Our citizenship (πολιτεία)
is in heaven” (cp. Heb. xiii. 13 f.: “Let us go outside the camp . . . . for here we have no permanent
city, but we seek one which is to come”). On this view Christians feel themselves pilgrims and
252 sojourners on earth, walking by faith and not by sight; their whole course of life is a renunciation
of the world, and is determined solely by the future kingdom towards which they hasten. This mode
of life is voiced most loudly in the first similitude of Hermas, where two cities with their two lords
419 Cp. the first book of the Church History of Eusebius, especially ch. iv.: τῆς μὲν γὰρ τοῦ σωτῆρος ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ παρουσίας
νεωστὶ πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις ἐπιλαμψάσης, νέον ὁμολογουμένως ἔθνος, οὐ μικρὸν οὐδ᾽ ἀσθενὲς οὐδ᾽ ἐπὶ γωνίας που γῆς ἱδρυμένον,
ἀλλὰ καὶ πάντων τῶν ἐθνῶν πολυανθρωπότατόν τε καὶ θεοσεβέστατον . . . . τὸ παρὰ τοῖς πᾶσι τῇ τοῦ Χριστοῦ προσηγορίᾳ
τετιμημένον (“It is agreed that when the appearance of our Saviour Jesus Christ recently broke upon all men, there appeared a
new nation, admittedly neither small nor weak nor dwelling in any corner of the earth, but the most numerous and pious of all
nations . . . . honored by all men with the title of Christ”).
are set in opposition—one belonging to the present, the other to the future. The Christian must have
nothing whatever to do with the former city and its lord the devil; his whole course of life must be
opposed to that of the present city, with its arrangements and laws. In this way Christians were able
emphatically to represent themselves as really a special people, with a distinctive course of life;
but they need not have felt surprised when people took them at their word, and dismissed them
with the remark: πάντες ἑαυτοὺς φονεύσαντες πορεύεσθε ἤδη παρὰ τὸν θεὸν καὶ ἡμῖν πράγματα
μὴ παρέχετε (“Go and kill yourselves, every one of you; begone to God at once, and don’t bother
us”), quoted by Justin, Apol., II. iv.
This, however, represented but one side of the proof that Christianity had a characteristic life
and order of its own. With equal energy an attempt was made to show that there was a polity realized
in Christianity which was differentiated from that of other nations by its absolute morality (see
above, pp. 205 f.). As early as the apostolic epistles, no point of dogma is more emphatically brought
forward than the duty of a holy life, by means of which Christians are to shine as lights amid a
corrupt and crooked generation. “Not like the Gentiles,” nor like the Jews, but as the people of
God—that is the watchword. Every sphere of life, down to the most intimate and trivial, was put
under the control of the Spirit and re-arranged; we have only to read the Didachê in order to find
out the earnestness with which Christians took “the way of life.” In line with this, a leading section
in all the Christian apologies was occupied by the exposition of the Christian polity as a polity
which was purely ethical, the object being in every case to show that this Christian polity was in
accordance with the highest moral standards, standards which even its opponents had to recognize,
and that for this very reason it was opposed to the polity of the other nations. The Apologies of
253 Justin (especially I. xiv. f.), Aristides (xv.), Tatian and Tertullian especially, fall to be considered
in this light.420 The conviction that they are in possession of a distinctive polity is also voiced in
the notion of Christians as the army of the true God and of Christ.421
2. The strict morality, the monotheistic view of the world, and the subordination of the entire
life of man, private and social, to the regulations of a supreme ethical code—all this is “what has
420 The belauded description in the epistle to Diognetus (v. 6) is a fine piece of rhetoric, but not much more than that. The author
manages to express three aspects, as it were, in a single breath: the Christian polity as the climax of morals, the Christian aloofness
from the world, and the inwardness by which this religion was enabled to live in the midst of the world and adapt itself to all
outward conditions without any loss of purity. A man who is able to weave these ideas into one perfect woof, either stands on
the high level of the fourth evangelist—a position to which the author can hardly be promoted—or else incurs the suspicion of
paying no serious attention to any one of the three ideas in question.
421 Hermas (Sim. ix. 17) brings forward one most important aspect of the Christian polity, viz., its power of combining in a mental
and moral unity peoples of the most varied capacities and customs. The stones built into the tower (i.e., the church) from the
various mountains (the nations) are at first many-colored, but upon being built in, they all acquire the same white color: λαβόντες
τὴν σφραγῖδα μίαν φρόνησιν ἔσχον καὶ ἕνα νοῦν, καὶ μία πίστις αὐτῶν ἐγένετο καὶ μία ἀγάπη . . . . διὰ τοῦτο ἡ οἰκοδομὴ τοῦ
πύργου μιᾷ χρόᾳ ἐγένετο λαμπρὰ ὡς ὁ ἥλιος (“On receiving the seal they had one understanding and one mind, one faith and
one love became theirs . . . . wherefore the fabric of the tower became of one color, bright as the sun”); cp. also Iren., I. 10. 2.
Celsus (c. Cels., VIII. lxxii.) longed ardently for such a unity of mankind, instead of humanity being split up into nationalities.
But he regarded it as a mere Utopia. Εἰ γὰρ δὴ οἷόν τε εἰς ἕνα συμφρονῆσαι νόμον τοὺς τὴν ᾿Ασίαν καὶ Εὐρώπην καὶ Λιβύην
Ἕλληνάς τε καὶ βαρβάρους ἄχρι περάτων νενεμημένους (“Were it at all possible that the inhabitants of Asia, Europe, and Libya,
Greeks and barbarians alike, should unite to obey one law”). On which Origen remarks: ἀδύνατον τοῦτο νομίσας εἶναι ἐπιφέρει
[sc. Celsus] ὅτι ὁ τοῦτο οἰόμενος οἶδεν οὐδέν (“Judging this an impossibility, he adds that anyone who thinks it possible knows
nothing at all”).
been from the very first” (“quod ab initio fuit”). Now as the church finds this once more repeated
in her own life, she recognizes in this phenomenon the guarantee that she herself, though apparently
the youngest of the nations, is in reality the oldest. Furthermore, as she undertakes to bring forward
proof for this conviction by drawing upon the books of Moses, which she appropriated for her own
use (cp. Tatian, Theophilus, Clement, Tertullian, and Julius Africanus),422 she is thereby dethroning
the Jewish people and claiming for herself the primitive revelation, the primitive wisdom, and the
254 genuine worship. Hence she acquires the requisite insight and courage, not merely to survey and
appropriate for herself the content of all connected with revelation, wisdom, and worship that had
appeared on the horizon of other nations, but to survey and estimate these materials as if they were
merely copies made from an original in her own possession. We all know the space devoted by the
early Christian apologies to the proof that Greek philosophy, so far as it merited praise and was
itself correct, had been plagiarized from the primitive literature which belonged to Christians. The
efforts made in this direction culminate in the statement that “Whatever truth is uttered anywhere
has come from us.” The audacity of this assertion is apt to hide from us at this time of day the
grandeur and vigor of the self-consciousness to which it gives expression. Justin had already claimed
any true piece of knowledge as “Christian,” whether it occurred in Homer, the tragedians, the comic
poets, or the philosophers. Did it never dawn on him, or did he really suspect, that his entire
standpoint was upset by such an extension of its range, and that what was specifically “Christian”
was transformed into what was common to all men? Clement of Alexandria, at any rate, who
followed him in this line of thought, not merely foresaw this inference, but deliberately followed
By comparing itself with philosophy, early Christianity gave itself out as a “philosophy,” while
those who professed it were “philosophers.” This, however, is one form of its self-consciousness
which must not be overrated, for it is almost exclusively confined to the Christian apologetic and
polemic. Christians never doubted, indeed, that their doctrine was really the truth, and therefore
the true philosophy. But then it was infinitely more than a philosophy. It was the wisdom of God.
They too were different from mere philosophers; they were God’s people, God’s friends. It suited
their polemic, however, to designate Christianity as philosophy, or “barbarian” philosophy, and
255 adherents of Christianity as “philosophers.” And that for two reasons. In the first place, it was the
only way of explaining to outsiders the nature of Christian doctrine—for to institute a positive
comparison between it and pagan religions was a risky procedure. And in the second place, this
presupposition made it possible for Christians to demand from the State as liberal treatment for
themselves as that accorded to philosophy and to philosophic schools. It is in this light, pre-eminently,
that we must understand the favorite parallel drawn by the apologists between Christianity and
philosophy. Individual teachers who were at the head either of a school (διδασκαλεῖον) within the
422 Note in passing that this marks the beginning in general of the universal chronography of history, and consequently of the general
Christian outlook upon the entire course of human history.
church or of an independent school, did take the parallel more seriously;423 but such persons were
in a certain sense merely adjuncts of catholic Christendom.424
The charge of plagiarism was not merely levelled against philosophy, so far as philosophy was
genuine, but also against any rites and methods of worship which furnished actual or alleged parallels
to those of Christianity. Little material of this kind was to be found in the official cults of the Greeks
and Romans, but this deficiency was more than remade up for by the rich spoil which lay in the
mysteries and the exotic cults, the cult of Mithra, in particular, attracting the attention of Christian
apologists in this connection at a very early period. The verdict on all such features was quite
simple: the demons, it was argued, had imitated Christian rites in the cults of paganism. If it could
not be denied that those pagan rites and sacraments were older than their Christian parallels, the
plea readily suggested itself that the demons had given a distorted copy of Christianity previous to
its real appearance, with the object of discrediting it beforehand. Baptism, the Lord’s supper, the
256 rites of expiation, the cross, etc., are instances in point. The interests of dogma are always able to
impinge on history, and they do so constantly. But here we have to consider some cases which are
specially instructive, since the Christian rites and sacraments attained their final shape under the
influence of the mysteries and their rites (not, of course, the rites of any special cultus, but those
belonging to the general type of the mysteries), so that dogma made the final issue of the process
its first cause. Yet even in this field the quid pro quo appears in a more favorable light when we
notice that Christendom posits itself as the original People at the dawn of human history, and that
this consciousness determines their entire outlook upon that history. For, in the light of this
presupposition, the Christians’ confiscation of those pagan rites and ceremonies simply denotes
the assertion of their character as ideally human and therefore divine. Christians embody the
fundamental principles of that divine revelation and worship which are the source of human history,
and which constitute the primitive possession of Christianity, although that possession has of course
lain undiscovered till the present moment.
3. The most interesting side of the Christian consciousness of being a people, is what may be
termed, in the narrower sense of the word, the political. Hitherto, however, it has been studied less
than the others. The materials are copious, but up till now little attention has been paid to them. I
shall content myself here with laying bare the points of most inportance.425
The political consciousness of the primitive church was based on three presuppositions. There
was first of all the political element in the Jewish apocalyptic, which was called forth by the demand
of the imperial cultus and the terror of the persecution. Then there was the rapid transference of
423 Such teachers, with their small groups, hardly felt themselves to be the “primitive people.” Their consciousness of entire
independence was expressed in the titles of “gifted “and “learned.” We shall have to discuss the Christian διδασκαλεῖα [instruction]
and its significance for the Christian propaganda in another connection; but we can well understand how pagans found the
Christians’ claim to be “learned” and “philosophers” a peculiarly ridiculous and presumptuous pretension. On their part, they
dubbed Christians as credulous, and scoffed at them as πιστοί (“believers”), who put faith in foreign fables and old wives’ gossip.
424 They have nothing to do with the primitive shape assumed by Christianity, that of Jesus as the teacher and the disciples as his
pupils.
425 Tertullian’s sentence (Apol., xxxviii.): “Nulla magis res nobis aliena quam publica; unam omnium rempublicam agnoscimus,
mundum” (“Nothing is more alien to us than politics; we acknowledge but one universal state, the world”) has a Stoic tinge; at
best, it may be taken with a grain of salt. Besides, people who despise the state always pursue a very active policy of their own.
the gospel from the Jews to the Greeks, and the unmistakable affinity between Christianity and
Hellenism, as well as between the church and the world-wide power of Rome. Thirdly, there was
257 the fall and ruin of Jerusalem and the Jewish state. The first of these elements stood in antithesis
to the two others, so that in this way the political consciousness of the church came to be defined
in opposite directions and had to work itself out of initial contradictions.
The politics of Jewish apocalyptic viewed the world-state as a diabolic state, and consequently
took up a purely negative attitude towards it. This political view is put uncompromisingly in the
apocalypse of John, where it was justified by the Neronic persecution, the imperial claim for worship,
and the Domitianic reign of terror. The largest share of attention, comparatively speaking, has been
devoted by scholars to this political standpoint, in so far as it lasted throughout the second and the
third centuries, and quite recently (1901) Neumann has discussed it thoroughly in his study of
Hippolytus. The remarkable thing is that although Christians were by no means nunmerous till after
the middle of the second century, they recognized that Christianity formed the central point of
humanity as the field of political history as well as its determining factor. Such a self-consciousness
is perfectly intelligible in the case of Judaism, for the Jews were really a large nation and had a
great history behind them. But it is truly amazing that a tiny set of people should confront the entire
strength of the Roman empire,426 that it should see in the persecution of the Christians the chief role
of that empire, and that it should make the world’s history culminate in such a conflict. The only
explanation of this lies in the fact that the church simply took the place of Israel, and consequently
258 felt herself to be a people; this implied that she was also a political factor, and indeed the factor
which ranked as decisive alongside of the state and by which in the end the state was to be overcome.
Here we have already the great problem of “church and state” making its appearance, and the
uncompromising form given to it at this period became normal for succeeding ages. The relationship
between these two powers assumed other forms, but this form continued to lie concealed beneath
them all.
This, however, is only one side of the question. The transition of the gospel from the Jews to
the Greeks, the unmistakable affinity between Christianity and Hellenismn, as well as between the
church and the Roman world-power, and finally the downfall of the Jewish state at the hands of
Rome—these factors occasioned ideas upon the relation of the empire to the church which were
very different from the aims of the accepted apocalyptic. Any systematic treatment of this view
would be out of place, however; it would give a wrong impression of the situation. The better way
will be, as we are dealing merely with tentative ideas, to get acquainted with the most important
features and look at them one after another.
426 Tertullian was the first who was able to threaten the state with the great number of Christians (Apol., xxxvii., written shortly
before 200 A.D.), for up till then people had merely endeavored to hold out the terrors of the calamities at the close of the world
and the return of Christ. Although Christians still lacked a majority in the empire, still (from the outset) a substitute for this, so
to speak, was found in the telling fact of the broad diffusion of Christianity throughout the whole empire and beyond its bounds.
Even as early as the first generations, the fact that Christians were to be found everywhere strengthened and molded their
self-consciousness. In contrast to nations shut up within definite boundaries, even though these were as large as those of the
Parthians, Tertullian calls Christians (Apol., xxxvii.) the “gens totius orbis,” i.e., the people of the whole world. And this had
been felt long before even Tertullian wrote.
2 Thess. ii. 5-7 is the oldest passage in Christian literature in which a positive meaning is
attached to the Roman empire. It is represented there, not as the realm of antichrist, but, on the
contrary, as the restraining power by means of which the final terrors and the advent of antichrist
are held in check. For by τὸ κατέχον (ὁ κατέχων), “that which (or he who) restrains,” we must
understand the Roman empire. If this be so, it follows that the church and the empire could not be
considered merely as diametrically opposed to each other.
Rom. xiii. 1 f. makes this quite plain, and proceeds to draw the inference that civil authority is
θεοῦ διάκονος (“a minister of God”), appointed by God for the suppression of wickedness; resistance
to it means resistance to a divine ordinance. Consequently one must not merely yield to its force,
but obey it for conscience’ sake. The very payment of taxes is a moral duty. The author of 1 Pet.
ii. 13 ff.427 expresses himself in similar terms. But he goes a step further, following up the fear of
259 God directly with honor due to the emperor (πάντας τιμήσατε, τὴν ἀδελφότητα ἀγαπᾶτε, τὸν θεὸν
φοβεῖσθε, τὸν βασιλέα τιμᾶτε).428 Nothing could be more loyal than this conception, and it is
noticeable that the author was writing in Asia Minor, among the provinces where the imperial cultus
flourished.
Luke begins his account of Christ with the words (ii. 1): ἐγένετο ἐν ταῖς ἡμέραις ἐκείναις
ἐξῆλθεν δόγμα παρὰ Καίσαρος Αὐγούστου ἀπογράφεσθαι πᾶσαν τὴν οἰκουμένην. As has been
correctly surmised, the allusion to the emperor Augustus is meant to be significant. It was the
official and popular idea that with Augustus a new era dawned for the empire; the imperial throne
was its “peace,” the emperor its saviour (σωτήρ). Behind the earthly saviour, Luke makes the
heavenly appear—he, too, is bestowed upon the whole world, and what he brings is peace (ver. 14,
ἐπὶ γῆς εἰρήνη).429 Luke hardly intended to set Augustus and Christ in hostile opposition; even
Augustus and his kingdom are a sign of the new era. This may also be gathered front the book of
Acts, which in my opinion has not any consciously political aim; it sees in the Roman empire, as
260 opposed to Judaism, the sphere marked out for the new religion, it stands entirely aloof from any
hostility to the emperor, and it gladly lays stress upon such facts as prove a tolerant mood on the
part of the authorities towards Christians in the past.
427 Cp. Tit. iii.1. With regard to Paul’s language in Romans, one may recollect what a quiet and happy time the early years of Nero
428 Greek Christians usually called the emperor βασιλεύς (“king”), a common title in the East, where it had not the same servile
associations as “rex” had on the lips of people in the West. But βασιλεύς was also a title of the Lord Christ (κύριος Χριστός)
which Christians dared not avoid uttering (not merely on account of “the kingdom of God,” βασιλεία τοῦ θεοῦ, but also because
Jesus had called himself by this name: John xviii. 33 f.). This occasioned a painful dilemma, though prudent Christians made
strenuous efforts to repudiate the apparent treason which their religious usage of this title inevitably suggested, and to make it
clear that by “kingdom” and “king” they understood nothing earthly or human, but something divine (so already Justin’s Apol.,
I. vi.). Some hotspurs, no doubt, declared to their judges that they recognised only one king or emperor (God or Christ), and so
drew upon themselves just punishment. But these cases were very rare. Christ was also called “imperator” in the West, but not
in writings intended for publicity.
429 Even the expression used in Eph. ii. 14, αὐτὸς ἐστιν ἡ εἰρήνη ἡμῶν (“he is our peace”), is modelled on the language applied to
the emperor in Asia Minor. I have shown elsewhere how strongly this language has influenced the terminology of Luke in the
above-mentioned passage of his gospel. No doubt we have to think of Micah v. 4, in connection with Eph. ii. 14 and Luke ii.
14. But this converging of different lines was quite characteristic of the age and the idea in question.
Justin (Apol., I. xii.) writes to the emperor: ἀρωγοὶ ὑμῖν καὶ σύμμαχοι πρὸς εἰρήνην ἐσμὲν
πάντων μᾶλλον ἀνθρώπων (“We, more than any others, are your helpers and allies in promoting
peace”), admitting thereby that the purpose of the empire was beneficial (pax terrena), and that the
emperors sought to effect this purpose. Also, in describing Christians as the power430 best adapted
to secure this end—inasmuch as they shun all crime, live a strictly moral life, and teach a strict
morality, besides scaring and exorcising those supreme enemies of mankind, the demons—he too,
in a certain sense, affirms a positive relationship between the church and the state.
When the author of the epistle to Diognetus differentiates Christians from the world (the state)
as the soul from the body (ch. vi.) and elaborates his account of their relationship in a series of
antitheses, he is laying down at the same time a positive relation between the two magnitudes in
question: ἐγκέκλεισται μὲν ἡ ψυχὴ τῷ σώματι, συνέχει δὲ αὐτὴ τὸ σῶμα· καὶ Χριστιανοὶ κατέχονται
μὲν ὡς ἐν φρουρᾷ τῷ κόσμῳ, αὐτοὶ δὲ συνέχουσι τὸν κόσμον (“The soul is shut up in the body,
and yet holds the body together; so Christians are kept within the world as in a prison, yet they hold
the world together,”). Similarly Justin (Apol. II. vii.).
All this implies already a positive political standpoint,431 but the furthest step in this direction
was taken subsequently by Melito (in Eus., H.E., iv. 26). It is no mere accident that he writes in
261 loyal Asia Minor. By noting Luke’s suggestion with regard to Augustus, as well as all that had
been already said elsewhere upon the positive relations subsisting between the church and the
world-empire, Melito could advance to the following statement of the situation in his Apology to
Marcus Aurelius:—
“This philosophy of ours certainly did flourish at first among a barbarian people. But springing
up in the provinces under thy rule during the great reign of thy predecessor Augustus, it brought
rich blessings to thine empire in particular. For ever since then the power of Rome has increased
in size and splendor; to this hast thou succeeded as its desired possessor, and as such shalt thou
continue with thy son if thou wilt protect the philosophy which rose under Augustus and has risen
with the empire, a philosophy which thine ancestors also held in honor along with other religions.
The most convincing proof that the flourishing of our religion has been a boon to the empire thus
happily inaugurated, is this—that the empire has suffered no mishap since the reign of Augustus,
but, on the contrary, everything has increased its splendor and fame, in accordance with the general
430 Wherever mention is made of the power of the Christian people which upholds the state and frees humanity, it is always these
two factors which are in view—their strict morality and their power over demons. Others also wield the former weapon, though
not so well. But the second, the power over demons, pertains to Christians alone, and therefore they render an incomparable
service to the state and to the human race, small though their numbers may be. From this conviction there grew up in Christianity
the consciousness of being the power which conserves and emancipates mankind in this world.
431 I might also include here the remark of Athenagoras in his “Supplicatio” to the emperors (xviii.): ἔχοιτε ἀφ᾽ ἑαυτῶν καὶ τὴν
ἐπουράνιον βασιλείαν ἐξετάζειν· ὡς γὰρ ὑμῖν πατρὶ καὶ υἱῷ πάντα κεχείρωται, ἄνωθεν τὴν βασιλείαν εἰληφόσιν—βασιλέως
γὰρ ψυχὴ ἐν χειρὶ θεοῦ, φησὶ τὸ προφητικὸν πνεῦμα—οὕτως ἑνὶ τῷ θεῷ καὶ τῷ παῤ αὐτοῦ λόγῳ υἱῷ νοουμένῳ ἀμερίστῳ πάντα
ὑποτέτακται (“May you be able to discover the heavenly kingdom by considering yourselves! For as all things are subject to
you, father and son, who have received the kingdom from above—since the king’s soul is in the hand of God, saith the spirit of
prophecy,—so are all things subordinate to the one God and to the Logos proceeding from him, even the Son, who is not
apprehended apart from him”).
Melito’s ideas432 need no analysis; they are plainly and clearly stated. The world-empire and
the Christian religion are foster-sisters; they form a pair; they constitute a new stage of human
history; the Christian religion means blessing and welfare to the empire, towards which it stands
as the inward to the outward. Only when Christianity is protected and permitted to develop itself
freely, does the empire continue to preserve its size and splendor. Unless one is to suppose that
262 Melito simply wanted to flatter—a supposition for which there is no ground, although there was
flattery in what he said—the inference is that in the Christianity which formed part of the
world-empire he really recognized a co-ordinate and sustaining inward force. Subsequent
developments justified this view of Melito, and in this light his political insight is marvellous. But
still more marvellous is the fact that at a time like this, when Christians were still a feeble folk, he
actually recognized in Christianity the one magnitude parallel to the state, and that simply on the
ground of religion—i.e., as being a spiritual force which was entrusted with the function of supporting
the state.433
There is yet another early Christian writer on whom the analogy of Christendom and the
world-empire dawned (a propos of its œcumenical range); only, he attempted to explain it in a very
surprising fashion, which betrayed a deep hostility towards the empire. Hippolytus writes (in Dan.,
iv. 9): “For as our Lord was born in the forty-second year of the emperor Augustus, whence the
Roman empire developed, and as the Lord also called all nations and tongues by means of the
apostles and fashioned believing Christians into a people, the people of the Lord, and the people
which consists of those who bear a new name—so was all this imitated to the letter by the empire
of that day, ruling ‘according to the working of Satan’: for it also collected to itself the noblest of
every nation, and, dubbing them Romans, got ready for the fray. And that is the reason why the
first census took place under Augustus, when our Lord was born at Bethlehem; it was to get the
men of this world, who enrolled for our earthly king, called Romans, while those who believed in
a heavenly king were termed Christians, bearing on their foreheads the sign of victory over death.”
The œcumenical range of the Roman empire is, therefore, a Statanic aping of Christianity. As
the demons purloined Christian philosophy and aped the Christian cultus and sacraments, so also
did they perpetrate a plagiarism against the church by founding the great imperial state of Rome!
This is the self-consciousness of Christendom expressed in perhaps the most robust, but also in the
most audacious form imaginable! The real cosmopolitan character of Christianity is stated by
Octavius (Min. Felix, xxxiii.) thus: “Nos gentes nationesque distinguimus: deo una domus est
mundus hic totus” (“We draw distinctions between nations and races, but to God the whole of this
world is one household”).
432 Tertullian’s opinion was different. He knew of no solidarity of Christianity and the empire: “Sed et Cæsares credidissent super
Christo, si aut Cæsares non essent necessarii saeculo, aut si et Christiani potuissent esse Cæsares” (Apol., xxi.: “Yes, the very
Cæsars would have believed on Christ, if Cæsars had not been necessary to the world, or if they could have been Cæsars and
Christians as well”).
433 Cp. also Orig., c. Cels., VIII. lxx.: ἀλλ᾽ οἱ καθ᾽ ὑπόθεσιν Κέλσου πάντες ἂν πεισθέντες Ῥωμαῖοι εὐχόμενοι περιέσονται τῶν
πολεμίων ἤ οὐδὲ τὴν ἀρχὴν πολεμήσονται, φρουρούμενοι ὑπὸ θείας δυνάμεως, τῆς διὰ πεντήκοντα δικαίους πέντε πόλεις
ὅλας ἐπαγγειλαμένης διασῶσαι (“According to the notion of Celsus, if all the Romans are brought to believe, they will either
overcome their foes by praying, or refrain from fighting altogether, being guarded by that power divine which promised to save
five entire cities for the sake of fifty just persons”).
Origen’s political views are more accurate, but how extravagant are his ideas! In chapters
lxvii.-lxxv. of his eighth book against Celsus, by dint of a fresh interpretation given to a primitive
Christian conception, and a recourse to a Platonic idea, he propounds the idea that the church, this
κόσμος τοῦ κόσμου (in Joh. vi. 38), or universe of the universe, is the future kingdom of the whole
world, destined to embrace the Roman empire and humanity itself, to amalgamate and to replace
the various realms of this world.. Cp. ch. lxviii.: “For if, in the words of Celsus, all were to do as
we do, then there is no doubt whatever that even the barbarians would become law-abiding and
humane, so soon as they obeyed the Word of God; then would all religions vanish, leaving that of
Christ alone to reign. And reign it will one day, as the Word never ceases to gain soul after soul.”
This means the reversal of the primitive Christian hope. The church now presents itself as the
civilizing and cohesive power which is to create, even in the present age, a state that shall embrace
an undivided humanity. Origen, of course, is not quite sure whether this is feasible in the present
age. No further away than ch. lxxii., a propos of the question (to which Celsus gave a negative
answer) whether Asia, Europe, and Libya, Greeks and barbarians alike, could agree to recognize
one system of laws, we find him writing as follows: “Perhaps,” he says, “such a result would not
indeed be possible to those who are still in the body; but it would not be impossible to those who
are released from the body” (καὶ τάχα ἀληθῶς ἀδύνατον μὲν τὸ τοιοῦτο τοῖς ἔτι ἐν σώμασι οὐ μὲν
ἀδύνατον καὶ ἀπολυθεῖσιν αὐτῶν).434 In II. xxx. he writes: “In the days of Jesus, righteousness
264 arose and fulness of peace, beginning with his birth. God prepared the nations for his teaching, by
causing the Roman emperor to rule over all the world; there was no longer to be a plurality of
kingdoms, else would the nations have been strangers to one another, and so the apostles would
have found it harder to carry out the task laid on them by Jesus, when he said, ‘Go and teach all
In his reply to Celsus (III. xxix.-xxx.), this great father of the church, who was at the same time
a great and sensible statesman, submits a further political consideration, which is not high-flown
this time, but sober. It has also the advantage of being impressive and to the point. Although the
passage is somewhat lengthy. I quote it here, as there is nothing like it in the literature of early
Christianity [Greek text in Hist. Dogma, ii. 126]:—
“Apollo, according to Celsus, required the Metapontines to consider Aristeas as a god. But the
Metapontines considered Aristeas was a man, and perhaps not even a respectable man, and this
conviction of theirs seemed to them more valid than the declaration of the oracle that Aristeas was
a god and deserving of divine honor. Consequently they would not obey Apollo, and no one regarded
Aristeas as a god. But with regard to Jesus, we may say that it proved a blessing to the human race
to acknowledge him as God’s son, as God appearing in a human soul and body. . . . . God, who
sent Jesus, brought to nought all the conspiracies of the demons and gave success to the gospel of
Jesus over the whole earth for the conversion and amelioration of mankind, causing churches
everywhere to be established, which should be ruled by other laws than those of superstitious,
licentious, and evil men. For such is the character of the masses who constitute the assemblies
throughout the various towns. Whereas, the churches or assemblies of God, whom Christ instructs,
434 I do not understand, any more than Origen did, the political twaddle which Celsus (lxxi.) professes to have heard from a Christian.
It can hardly have come from a Christian, and it is impossible nowadays to ascertain what underlay it. I therefore pass it by.
are ‘lights in the world,’ compared to the assemblies of the districts among which they live as
strangers. For who would not allow that even the inferior members of the church, and such as take
265 a lower place when judged by the standard of more eminent Christians—even these are far better
people than the members of profane assemblies?
“Take the church of God at Athens; it is a peaceable and orderly body, as it desires to please
God, who is over all. Whereas the assembly of the Athenians is refractory, nor can it be compared
in any respect to the local church or assembly of God. The same may be said of the church of God
at Corinth and the local assembly of the people, as also of the church of God at Alexandria and the
local assembly in that city. And if any candid person hears this and examines the facts of the case
with a sincere love for the truth, he will admire him who conceived the design and was able to
realize it, establishing churches of God to exist as strangers amid the popular assemblies of the
various cities. Furthermore, if one compares the council of the Church of God with that of the cities,
one by one, it would be found that many a councillor of the church is worthy to be a leader in God’s
city, if such a city exists in the world; whereas other councillors in all parts of the world show not
a trait of conduct to justify the superiority born of their position, which seems to give them
precedence over their fellow-citizens. Such also is the result of any comparison between the president
of the church in any city and the civic magistrates. It will be found that, in the matter of conduct,
even such councillors and presidents of the church as are extremely defective arid indolent compared
to their more energetic colleagues, are possessed of virtues which are in general superior to those
of civic councillors and rulers.”
At this point I shall break off the present part of our investigation. The evidence already brought
forward will suffice to give some idea of how Christians held themselves to be the new People and
the third race of mankind, and also of the inferences which they drew from these conceptions. But
how did the Greeks and Romans regard this phenomenon of Christianity with its enormous claims?
This is a question to which justice must be done in an excursus.
CHRISTIANS AS A THIRD RACE, IN THE JUDGMENT OF THEIR OPPONENTS
For a proper appreciation of the Greek and Roman estimate of Christianity, it is essential, in
the first instance, to recollect how the Jews were regarded and estimated throughout the empire,
since it was generally known that the Christians had emanated from the Jews.
Nothing is more certain than that the Jews were distinguished throughout the Roman empire
as a special people in contrast to all others. Their imageless worship (ἀθεότης), their stubborn
refusal to participate in other cults, together with their exclusiveness (ἀμιξία), marked them off
from all nations as a unique people.435 This uniqueness was openly acknowledged by the legislation
of Cæsar. Except for a brief period, the Jews were certainly never expected to worship the emperor.
267 Thus they stood alone by themselves amid all the other races who were included in, or allied to,
the Roman empire. The blunt formula “We are Jews” never occurs in the Greek and Roman literature,
so far as I know;436 but the fact was there, i.e., the view was widely current that the Jews were a
national phenomenon by themselves, deficient in those traits which were common to the other
nations.437 Furthermore, in every province and town the Jews, and the Jews alone, kept themselves
aloof from the neighboring population by means of their constitutional position and civic demeanor.
Only, this very uniqueness of character was taken to be a defect in public spirit and patriotism, as
well as an insult and a disgrace, from Apollonius Molon and Posidonius down to Pliny, Tacitus,
and later authors,438 although one or two of the more intelligent writers did not miss the “philosophic”
character of the Jews.439
Disengaging itself from this Jewish people, Christianity now encountered the Greeks and
Romans. In the case of Christians, some of the sources of offence peculiar to the Jews were absent;
but the greatest offence of all appeared only in heightened colors, viz., the ἀθεότης and the ἀμιξία
(μισανθρωπία). Consequently the Christian religion was described as a “superstitio nova et malefica”
(Suet., Nero, 16), as a “superstitio prava, immodica” (Plin., Ep., x. 96, 97), as an “exitiabilis
superstitio” (Tacit., Annal., xv. 44), and as a “vana et demens superstitio” (Min. Felix, 9), while
the Christians themselves were characterized as “per flagitia invisi,” and blamed for their “odium
generis humani.”440
435 There were also their special customs (circumcision, prohibition of swine’s flesh, the sabbath, etc.), but these did not contribute
so seriously as ἀθεότης and ἀμιξία to establish the character of the Jews for uniqueness; for customs either identical or somewhat
similar were found among other Oriental peoples as well. For ἀθεότης (cp. my essay on “The Charge of Atheism in the First
Three Centuries,” Texte u. Unters., xxviii. 4), see Pliny, Hist. Nat., xiii. 4. 46: “gens contumelia numinum insignis” (“a race
distinguished by its contempt for deities”); Tacit., Hist., v. 5: “Judaei mente sola unumque numen intellegunt . . . . igitur nulla
simulacra urbibus suis, nedum templis sistunt; non regibus haec adolatio non Cæsaribus honor” (“the Jews conceive of their
deity as one, by the mind alone . . . . hence there are no images erected in their cities or even in their temples. This reverence is
not paid to kings, nor this honor to the Cæsars”); Juv., Satir., xiv. 97: “nil praeter nubes et caeli numen adorant” (“they venerate
simply the clouds and the deity of the sky”), etc. For μισανθρωπία and ἀμιξία, see Tacit. (loc.cit.): “Apud ipsos fides obstinata,
misericordia in promptu, sed adversus omnes alios hostile odium” (“Among themselves their honesty is inflexible, their compassion
quick to move, but to all other persons they show the hatred of antagonism”); and earlier still, Apollonius Molon (in Joseph.,
Apion. ii. 14). Cp. Schürer’s Gesch. des jüd. Volk., III. , p. 418 [Eng. trans., II. ii. 295].
436 Yet, cp. Epist. Aristeas § 16 (ed. Wendland, 1900, p. 6): τὸν πάντων ἐπόπτην καὶ κτίστην θεὸν οὗτοι σέβονται, ὃν καὶ πάντες,
ἡμεῖς δὲ προσονομάζοντες ἑτέρως Ζῆνα καὶ Δία.
In Egypt a clear-cut triple division obtained—Egyptians, Greeks, and Jews. Cp. Schürer III. , p. 23 [Eng, trans., II. ii. 231].
438 Apollonius Molon in Joseph., Apion., II. 15, “The most stupid of the barbarians, ἄθεοι, μισάνθρωποι”; Seneca (in August., de
Civit., vi. 11), “sceleratissima gens”; Tacitus (Hist., v. 8), “despectissima pars servientium—taeterrima gens”; Pliny (loc. cit.),
Marcus Aurelius (in Ammian, xxii. 5), and Cæcilius (in Min. Felix, x.), “Judaeorum misera gentilitas.”
439 Aristotle (according to Clearchus), (φιλόσοφοι παρὰ Σύροις); Theophrastus (according to Porphyry), ἅτε φιλόσοφοι τὸ γένος
ὄντες); Strabo (xvi. 2. 35, pp. 760 f.); and Varro (in August., de Civit., iv. 31).
440 Tacitus (loc. cit.); cp. Tertull., Apol. xxxv., “publici hostes”; xxxvii., “hostes maluistis vocare generis humani Christianos” (you
prefer to call Christians the enemies of the human race); Minuc., x., “pravae religionis obscuritas”; viii., “homines deploratae,
inlicitae ac desperatae factionis” (reprobate characters, belonging to an unlawful and desperate faction); “plebs profanae
Several sensible people during the course of the second century certainly took a different view.
Lucian saw in Christians half crazy, credulous fanatics, yet he could not altogether refuse them his
respect. Galen explained their course of life as philosophic, and spoke of them in terms of high
esteem.441 Porphyry also treated them, and especially their theologians, the gnostics and Origen, as
respectable opponents.442 But the vast majority of authors persisted in regarding them as an utter
abomination. “Latebrosa et lucifuga natio,” cries the pagan Cæcilius (in Minut. Felix, viii. f.), “in
publicum muta, in angulis garrula; templa ut busta despiciunt, deos despuunt, rident sacra . . . .
occultis se notis et insignibus noscunt et amant mutuo paene antequam noverint . . . . cur nullas
aras habent, templa nulla, nulla nota simulacra . . . . nisi illud quod colunt et interprimunt, aut
punieudum est aut pudendum? unde autem vel quis ille aut ubi deus unicus, solitarius, destitutus,
quem non gens libera, non regna, non saltem Romana superstitio noverunt? Judaeorum sola et
misera gentilitas unum et ipsi deum, sed palam, sed templis, aris, victimis caeremoniisque coluerunt,
269 cuius adeo nulla vis ac potestas est, ut sit Romanis numinibus cum sua sibi natione captivus. At
iam Christiani quanta monstra, quae portenta confingunt.”443 What people saw—what Cæcilius saw
before him—was a descending series, with regard to the numina and cultus: first Romans, then
Jews, then Christians.
So monstrous, so repugnant are those Christians (of whose faith and life Cæcilius proceeds to
tell the most evil tales), that they drop out of ordinary humanity, as it were. Thus Cæcilius indeed
calls them a “natio,” but he knows that they are recruited from the very dregs of the nations, and
consequently are no “people” in the sense of a “nation.” The Christian Octavius has to defend them
against this charge of being a non-human phenomenon, and Tertullian goes into still further details
in his Apology and in his address ad Nationes. In both of these writings the leading idea is the
refutation of the charge brought against Christianity, of being something exceptional and utterly
inhuman. “Alia nos opinor, natura, Cyropennæ [Cynopae?] aut Sciapodes,” we read in Apol., viii.,
“alii ordines dentium, alii ad incestam libidinem nervi? . . . . homo est enim et Christianus et quod
coniurationis”; ix., “sacraria taeterrima impiae citionis” (abominable shrines of an impious assembly); “eruenda et execranda
consensio” (a confederacy to be rooted out and detested).
441 The passage is extant only in the Arabic (see above, p. 212).
442 Of the historical basis of the Christian religion and its sacred books in the New Testament, Porphyry and the Neoplatonists in
general formed no more favorable opinion than did Celsus, while even in the Old Testament they found (agreeing thus far with
the Christian gnostics) a great deal of folly and falsehood. The fact is, no one, not even Celsus, criticised the gospel history so
keenly and disparagingly as Porphyry. Still, much that was to be found in the books of Moses and in John appeared to them of
value. Further, they had a great respect for the Christian philosophy of religion, and endeavored in all seriousness to come to
terms with it, recognizing that it approximated more nearly than that of the gnostics to their own position. The depreciatory
estimate of the world and the dualism which they found in gnosticism seemed to them a frivolous attack upon the Godhead. Per
contra Porphyry says of Origen: “His outward conduct was that of a Christian and unlawful. But he thought like a Greek in his
views of matter and of God, and mingled the ideas of the Greeks with foreign fables” (in Eus., H.E., vi. 19). On the attitude of
Plotinus towards the gnosis of the church and gnosticism, cp. Karl Schmidt in Texte u. Unters., N.F. v. part 4.
443 “Apeople who skulk and shun the light of day, silent in public but talkative in holes and corners. They despise the temples as
dead-houses, they scorn the gods, they mock sacred things . . . . they recognize each other by means of secret tokens and marks,
and love each other almost before they are acquainted. Why have they no altars, no temples, no recognized images . . . . unless
what they worship and conceal deserves punishment or is something to be ashamed of? Moreover, whence is he, who is he,
where is he, that one God, solitary and forsaken, whom no free people, no realm, not even a Roman superstition, has ever known?
The lonely and wretched race of the Jews worshipped one God by themselves, but they did it openly, with temples, altars, victims,
and ceremonies, and he has so little strength and power that he and all his nation are in bondage to the deities of Rome! But the
Christians! What marvels, what monsters, do they feign!”
et tu” (“We are of a different nature, I suppose! Are we Cyropennae or Sciapodes? Have we different
teeth, different organs for incestuous lust? . . . . Nay, a Christian too is a man, he is whatever you
are.” In Apol., xvi., Tertullian is obliged to refute wicked lies told about Christians which, if true,
would make Christians out to be quite an exceptional class of human beings. Whereas, in reality,
“Christiani homines sunt vobiscum degentes, eiusdem victus, habitus, instructus, eiusdem ad vitam
270 necessitatis. neque enim Brachmanae aut Indorum gymnosophistae sumus, silvicolae et exules vitae
. . . . si caeremonias tuas non frequento, attamen et illa die homo sum” (Apol., xlii.: “Christian men
live beside you, share your food, your dress, your customs, the same necessities of life as you do.
For we are neither Brahmins nor Indian gymnosophists, inhabiting the woods, and exiles from
existence. If I do not attend your religious ceremonies, none the less am I a human being on the
sacred day”). “Cum concutitur imperium, concussis etiam ceteris membris eius utique et nos, licit
extranei a turbis aestimemur,444 in aliquo loco casus invenimur” (Apol., xxxi.: “When the state is
disturbed and all its other members affected by the disturbance, surely we also are to be found in
some spot or another, although we are supposed to live aloof from crowds.” It is evident also from
the nicknames and abusive epithets hurled at them, that Christians attracted people’s attention as
something entirely strange (cp., e.g., Apol. 1).
In his two books ad Nationes, no less than in the Apology, all these arguments also find
contemporary expression. Only in the former one further consideration supervenes, which deserves
special attention, namely, the assertion of Tertullian that Christians were called “genus tertium”
271 (the Third race) by their opponents. The relevant passages are as follows:—
Ad Nat., I. viii.: “Plane, tertium genus dicimur. An Cyropennae aliqui vel Sciapodes vel aliqui
de subterraneo Antipodes? Si qua istic apud vos saltem ratio est, edatis velim primum et secundum
444 Hence the request made to Christians is quite intelligible: “Begone from a world to which you do not belong, and trouble us
not.” Cp. the passage already cited [p. 252] from Justin’s Apol. II. iv., where Christians are told by their opponents, πάντες
ἑαυτοὺς φονεύσαντες πορεύεσθε ἤδη παρὰ τὸν θεὸν καὶ ἡμῖν πράγματα μὴ παρέχετε Tertullian relates (ad Scap. v.) how Arrius
Antoninus, the proconsul of Asia, called out to the Christians who crowded voluntarily to his tribunal in a time of persecution,
“You miserable wretches; if you want to die, you have precipices and ropes.” Celsus (in Orig., c. Cels. VIII. lv.) writes: “If
Christians decline to render due honor to the gods or to respect those appointed to take charge of the religious services, let them
not grow up to manhood or marry wives or have children or take any part in the affairs of this life, but rather be off with all
speech, leaving no posterity behind them, that such a race may become utterly extinct on earth.” Hatred of the empire and
emperor, and uselessness from the economic standpoint—these were standing charges against Christians, charges which the
apologists (especially Tertullian) were at great pains to controvert. Celsus tries to show Christians that they were really trying
to cut off the branch on which they sat (VIII. lxviii.): “Were all to act as you do, the emperor would soon be left solitary and
forlorn, and affairs world presently fall into the hands of the wildest and most lawless barbarians. Then it would be all over with
the glory of your worship and the true wisdom among men.” As the Christians were almost alone among religionists in being
liable to this charge of enmity to the empire, they were held responsible by the populace, as everybody knows, for any great
calamities that occurred. The passages in Tertullian bearing on this point are quite familiar; but one should also compare the
parallel statements in Origen (in Matt. Comment Ser., xxxix.). Henceforth Christians appear a special group by themselves.
Maximinus Daza, in his rescript to Sabinus (Eus., H.E., ix. 9), speaks of the ἔθνος τῶν Χριστιανῶν (the nation of the Christians),
and the edict of Galerius reluctantly admits that Christians succeeded in combining the various nations into a relative unity by
means of their commandments (Eus., H.E., viii. 17. 7): τοσαύτη αὐτοὺς πλεονεξία παρεσχήκει καὶ ἄνοια κατειλήφει, ὡς μὴ
ἕπεσθαι τοῖς ὑπὸ τῶν πάλαι καταδειχθεῖσιν . . . . ἀλλὰ κατὰ τὴν αὐτῶν πρόθεσιν καὶ ὡς ἕκαστος ἐβούλετο, οὕτως ἑαυτοῖς καὶ
νόμους ποιῆσαι καὶ τούτους παραφυλάστειν καὶ ἐν διαφόροις διάφορα πλήθη συνάγειν (“Such arrogance had seized them and
such senselessness had mastered them, that instead of following the institutions of their ancestors . . . . they framed laws for
themselves according to their own purpose, as each desired, and observed these laws, and thus held various gatherings in various
places”).
genus, ut ita de tertio constet. Psammetichus quidem putavit sibi se de ingenio exploravisse prima
generis. dicitur enim infantes recenti e partu seorsum a commercio hominum alendos tradidisse
nutrici, quam et ipsam propterea elinguaverat, ut in totum exules vocis humanae non auditu formarent
loquellam, sed de suo promentes eam primam nationem designarent cuius sonum natura dictasset.
Prima vox ‘beccos’ renuntiata est; interpretatio eius ‘panis’ apud Phrygas nomen est; Phryges
primum genus exinde habentur . . . . sint nunc primi Phryges, non tamen tertii Christiani. Quantae
enim aliae gentium series post Phrygas? verum recogitate, ne quos tertium genus dicitis principem
locum obtineant, siquidem non ulla gens non Christiana. itaque quaecunque gens prima, nihilominus
Christiana. ridicula dementia novissimos diciti et tertios nominatis. sed de superstitione tertium
genus deputamur, non de natione, ut sint Romani, Judaei, dehinc Christiani. ubi autem Graeci?
vel si in Romanorum suberstitionibus censentur, quoniam quidem etiam deos Graeciae Roma
sollicitavit, ubi saltem Ægyptii, et ipsi, quod sciam, privatae curiosaeque religionis? porro si tam
monstruosi, qui tertii loci, quales habendi, qui primo et secundo antecedunt?” (“We are indeed
272 called the third race of men! Are we monsters, Cyropennae, or Sciopades, or some Antipodeans
from the underworld? If these have any meaning for you, pray explain the first and second of the
races, that we may thus learn the ‘third.’ Psammetichus thought he had ingeniously hit upon primeval
man. He removed, it is said, some newly born infants from all human intercourse and entrusted
their upbringing to a nurse whom he had deprived of her tongue, in order that being exiled entirely
from the sound of the human voice, they might form their words without hearing it, and derive
them from their own nature, thus indicating what was the first nation whose language was originally
dictated by nature. The first word they uttered was ‘beccos,’ the Phrygian word for bread. The
Phrygians, then, are held to be the first race . . . . If, then, the Phrygians are the first race, still it
does not follow that the Christians are the third. For how many other races successively came after
the Phrygians? But take heed lest those whom you call the third race take first place, since there
is no nation which is not Christian. Whatever nation, therefore, is the first, is nevertheless Christian
now. It is senseless absurdity for you to call us the latest of nations and then to dub us the Third.
.But, you say, it is on the score of religion and not of nationality that we are considered to be third;
it is the Romans first, then the Jews, and after that the Christians. What about the Greeks then? Or
supposing that they are reckoned among the various Roman religions (since it was from Greece
that Rome borrowed even her deities), where do the Egyptians at any rate come in, since they
possess a religion which, so far as I know, is all their own, and full of secrecy? Besides, if those
who occupy the third rank are such monsters, what must we think of those who precede them in
the first and second?”).
Further, in ad Nat., I. xx. (after showing that the charges brought against Christians recoil upon
their adversaries the heathen), Tertuilian proceeds: “Habetis et vos tertium genus etsi non de tertio
ritu, attamem de tertio sexu. Illud aptius de viro et femina viris et feminis iunctum” (“You too have
your ‘third race’ [i.e., of eunuchs], though it is not in the way of a third religion, but of a third sex.
273 Made up of male and female in conjunction, it is better suited to pander to men and women!”)
Add also a passage fromn the treatise Scorpiace (x.: a word to heretics who shunned martyrdom):
“Illic constitues et synagogas Judaeorum fontes persecutionum, apud quas apostoli flagella perpessi
sunt, et populos nationum cum suo quidem circo, ubi facile conclamant: ‘Usque quo genus tertium?’”
(“Will you set up there [i.e., in heaven] also synagogues of the Jews—which are fountains of
persecution—before which the apostles suffered scourging, and heathen crowds with their circus,
forsooth, where all are ready to shout, ‘How long are we to endure this third race?’”).
From these passages we infer:—
i. That “the third race” (genus tertium) as a designation of Christians on the lips of the heathen
was perfectly common in Carthage about the year 200. Even in the circus people cried, “Usque
quo genus tertium?”
ii. That this designation referred exclusively to the Christian method of conceiving and
worshipping God. The Greeks, Romans, and all other nations passed for the first race (genus
primum), in so far as they mutually recognized each other’s gods or honored foreign gods as well
as their own, and had sacrifices amid images. The Jews (with their national God, their exclusiveness,
and a worship which lacked images but included sacrifice)445 constituted the second race (genus
alterum). The Christians, again (with.their spiritual God, their lack of images and sacrifices, and
the contempt for the gods—contemnere deos—which they shared with the Jews446), formed the
Third race (genus tertium).
iii. When Tertullian talks as if the whole system of classification could denote the chronological
series of the nations, it is merely a bit of controversial dialectic. Nor has the designation of “the
274 Third race” (genus tertium) anything whatever to do either with the virginity of Christians, or, on
the other hand, with the sexual debaucheries set down to their credit.447
445 Cp. ad Nat., I. viii.
446 Cp. what is roundly asserted in ad Nat., I. viii.: “It is on the score of religion and not of nationality that we are considered to be
third; it is the Romans first, then the Jews, and after that the Christians.” Also, I. xx.: “Tertium genus [dicimur] de ritu” (“We
are called a third race on the ground of religion”). It seems to me utterly impossible to suppose that Tertullian might have been
mistaken in this interpretation of the title in question.
447 Passages may indeed be pointed out in which either virginity (or unsexual character) or unnatural lust is conceived as “genus
tertium” (a third race), or as a race (genus) in general (Tertull., de Virg. Vel., vii.: “Si caput mulieris vir est, ubique et virginis,
de qua fit mulier illa quae nupsit, nisi si virgo tertium genus est monstrosum aliquod sui capitis.” “If the man is the head of the
woman, he is also the head of the virgin, for out of a virgin comes the woman who marries; unless she is some monstrosity with
a head of its own, a third race”). Cp. op cit., v., where the female sex is “genus secundi hominis”; pseudo-Cypr., de Pudic. vii.,
“Virginitas neutrius est sexus”; and Clem. Alex., Paedag., II. x. 85, οὐδὲ γὰρ αἰδοῖα ἔχει ἡ ὕαινα ἅμα ἄμφω, ἄρρενος καὶ θήλεος,
καθὼς ὑπειλήφασί τινες, ἑρμαφροδίτους τερατολογοῦντες καὶ τρίτην ταύτην μεταξὺ θηλείας καὶ ἄρρενος ἀνδρόγυνον
καινοτομοῦντες φύσιν [a similar sexual analogy]. Cp., on the other hand, op. cit., I. iv. 11, where there is a third condition
common to both sexes, viz., that of being human beings and also children; also Lampridius, Alex. Sever., xxiii.: “Idem tertium
genus hominum eunuchos dicebat” (“He said eunuchs were a third race of mankind”). Obviously, however, such passages are
irrelevant to the point now under discussion.
All these results448 were of vital importance to the impression made by Christianity (and
Judaism449) upon the pagan world. As early as the opening of the second century Christians designate
their religion as “the third method” of religion (cp. the evidence above furnished by the Preaching
of Peter), and frankly declare, about the year 240 A.D., “We are the third race of mankind” (cp. the
275 evidence of the treatise de Pascha Computus).450 Which proves that the pagans did borrow this
conception, and that (even previously to 200 A.D.)451 they described the Jews as the second and the
Christians as the third race of men. This they did for the same reason as the Christians, on account
of the nature of the religion in question.
It is indeed amazing! One had certainly no idea that in the consciousness of the Greeks and
Romans the Jews stood out in such bold relief from the other nations, and the Christians from both,
or that they represented themselves as independent “genera,” and were so described in an explicit
formula. Neither Jews nor Christians could look for any ample recognition,452 little as the demarcation
was intended as a recognition at all.
The polemical treatises against Christians prove that the triple formula “Romans, etc., Jews,
and Christians” was really never absent from the minds of their opponents. So far as we are
acquainted with these treatises, they one and all adopt this scheme of thought: the Jews originally
276 parted company with all other nations, and after leaving the Egyptians, they formed an ill-favored
species by themselves, while it is from these very Jews that the Christians have now broken off,
retaining all the worst features of Judaism and adding loathsome and repulsive elements of their
448 It is remarkable that Tertullian is only aware of the title “tertium genus” as a pagan description of Christians, and not as one also
applied by Christians to themselves. But despite his silence on the fact that Christians also designated their religion as “the third
kind” of religion, we must nevertheless assume that the term rose as spontaneously to the lips of Christians as of their opponents,
since it is unlikely, though not impossible, that the latter borrowed it from Christian literature. (Consequently Fronto, in his lost
treatise against the Christians, must have made polemical use of the title “genus tertium” which he found in Christian writings,
and by this means the term passed out into wider currency among the heathen. Yet in Minucius Felix it does not occur.) To recall
the chronological succession of its occurrences once again: at the opening of the second century one Christian writer (the author
of the Preaching of Peter) calls the Christian religion “the third kind” of religion; in the year 197, Tertullian declares, “Tertium
genus dicimur” (“We are called the third race”); while in 242-243 A.D. a Roman or African Christian (pseudo-Cyprian) writes,
“Tertium genus sumus” (“We are the third race”).
449 I add, Judaism—for hitherto in our discussion we could not determine with absolute certainty whether any formula was current
which distinguished the Jews from all other peoples with regard to their conception and worship of God. Now it is perfectly
plain. The Jews ranked in this connection as an independent magnitude, a “genus alterum.”
450 It is now clear that we were right in conjecturing above that the Romans were to pseudo-Cyprian the first race, and the Jews the
second, as opposed to the Third race.
451 How long before we do not know. By the end of the second century, at any rate, the title was quite common. It is therefore hardly
possible to argue against the authenticity of Hadrian’s epistle to Servianus (see above) on the ground that it contains this triple
division: “Hunc [nummum] Christiani, hunc Judaei, hunc omnes venerantur et gentes” (“This pelf is revered by the Christians,
the Jews, and the nations”). But the description of Romans, Greeks, etc., as “gentes” is certainly very suspicious; it betrays,
unless I am mistaken, the pen of a Christian writer.
452 Thanks to Varro, who had a genius for classification, people had been accustomed among literary circles, in the first instance,
to grade the gods and religions as well. Perhaps it was under the influence of his writings (and even Tertullian makes great play
with them in his treatise ad Nationes) that the distinction of Jews and Christians as “the second and third ways” obtained primarily
among the learned, and thence made its way gradually into the minds of the common people. It is utterly improbable that this
new classification was influenced by the entirely different distinction current among the Egyptians (see above), of the three γένη
(Egyptians, Greeks, and Jews). Once it was devised, the former conception must have gone on working with a logic of its own,
setting Judaism and Christianity in a light which was certainly not intended at the outset. It developed the conception of three
circles, of three possible religions! Strangely enough, Tertullian never mentions the “genus tertium” in his Apology, though it
was contemporaneous with the ad Nationes. Was the fact not of sufficient importance to him in encountering a Roman governor?
own. Such was the line taken by Celsus, Porphyry, and Julian in their anti-Christian writings. Celsus
speaks of the γένος of the Jews, and opposes both γένη in the sharpest manner to all other nations,
in order to show that when Christians, as renegade Jews, distinguish themselves from this γένος—a
γένος which is, at least, a people— they do so to their own loss. He characterizes Christians (VIII.
ii.) as ἀποτειχίζοντες ἑαυτοὺς καὶ ἀπορρηγνύντες ἀπὸ τῶν λοιπῶν ἀνθρώπων (“people who
separate themselves and break away front the rest of mankind”). For all that, everything in
Christianity is simply plagiarized from a plagiarism, or copied from a copy. Christians per se have
no new teaching (μάθημα, I. iv.; cp. II. v. and IV. xiv.). That they have any teaching at all to present,
is simply due to the fact that they have kept back the worst thing of all, viz., their στασιάζειν πρὸς
τὸ κοινόν (“their revolt against the common weal”).453 Porphyry—who, I imagine, is the
anti-Christian controversialist before the mind of Eusebius454—in his Preparatio, i. 2, begins by
treating Christians as a sheer impossibility, inasmuch as they will not and do not belong to the
Greeks or to the barbarians. Then he goes on to say: καὶ μηδ᾽ αὐτῷ τῷ παρὰ Ἰουδαίοις τιμουμένῳ
θεῷ κατὰ τὰ παῤ αὐτοῖς προσανέχειν νόμιμα, καινὴν δὲ τινα καὶ ἐρήμην ἀνοδίαν ἑαυτοῖς συντεμεῖν
μήτε τὰ Ἑλλήνων μήτε τὰ Ἰουδαίων φυλάττουσαν (“Nor do they adhere to the rites of the God
worshipped by the Jews according to their customs, but fashion some new and solitary vagary for
themselves of which there is no trace in Hellenism or Judaism”). So that he also gives the triple
classification. Finally, Julian (Neumann, p.164) likewise follows the division of Ἕλληνες, Ἰουδαῖοι,
and Γαλιλαῖοι [Greeks, Jews, Galileans]. The Galileans are neither Greeks nor Jews; they have
277 come from the Jews, but have separated from them and struck out a path of their own. “They have
repudiated every noble and significant idea current among us Greeks, and among the Hebrews who
are descended from Moses; yet they have lifted from both sources everything that adhered to these
imitations like an ill-omened demon, taking their godlessness from the levity of the Jews, and their
careless and lax way of living from our own thoughtlessness and vulgarity.”
Plainly, then, Greek and Jews and Christians were distinguished throughout upon the ground
of religion, although the explicit formula of “the third race” occurs only in the West. After the
middle of the third century, both empire and emperor learnt to recognize and dread the third race
of worshippers as a “nation,” as well as a race. They were a state within the state. The most
instructive piece of evidence in this connection is the account of Decius given by Cyprian (Ep. lv.
9): “Multo patientius et tolerabilius audivit levari adversus se aemulum principem quam constitui
Romae dei sacerdotem” (“He would hear of a rival prince being set up against himself with far
more patience and equanimity than of a priest of God being appointed at Rome”). The terrible edict
issued by this emperor for the persecution of Christians is in the first instance the practical answer
given by the state to the claims of the “New People” and to the political view advocated by Melito
and Origen. The inner energy of the new religion comes out in its self-chosen title of “the New
People” or “the Third race” just as plainly as in the testimony extorted from its opponents, that in
Christianity a new genus of religion had actually emerged side by side with the religions of the
nations and of Judaism. It does not afford much direct evidence upon the outward spread and
453 The τρίτον γένος which Celsus mentions rather obscurely in V. lxi. has nothing to do with the third race which is our present
topic. It refers to distinctions within Christianity itself.
454 Cp. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorf in the Zeitschrift für neutestamentliche Wissenschaft, i. 2, pp. 101 f.
strength of Christianity, for the former estimate emerged, asserted itself, and was recognized at an
early period, when Christians were still, in point of numbers, a comparatively small society.455 But
it must have been of the highest importance for the propaganda of the Christian religion, to be so
distinctly differentiated from all other religions and to have so lofty a consciousness of its own
278 position put before the world.456 Naturally this had a repelling influence as well on certain circles.
Still it was a token of power, and power never fails to succeed.
THE RELIGION OF A BOOK AND A HISTORICAL REALIZATION
Christianity, unlike Islam, never was and never became the religion of a book in the strict sense
of the term (not until a much later period, that of rigid Calvinism, did the consequences of its
presentation as the religion of a book become really dangerous, and even then the rule of faith
remained at the helm). Still, the book of Christianity—i.e., in the first instance, the Old
Testament—did exert an influence which brought it to the verge of becoming the religion of a book.
Paul, of course, when we read him aright, was opposed to this development, and wide circles
throughout Christendom—both the gnostics and the Marcionites — even went the length of entirely
repudiating the Old Testament or of ascribing it to another god altogether, though he too was
righteous and dependent on the most high God.457 But in the catholic church this gnostic criticism
was indignantly rejected, whilst the complicated position adopted by the apostle Paul towards the
book was not understood at all. The Old Testament, interpreted allegorically, continued to be the
sacred book for these Christians, as it was for the Jews, from whom they aimed to wrest it.
This attitude to the Old Testament is quite intelligible. What other religious society could
produce a book like it?458 How overpowering and lasting must have been the impression made by
it on Greeks, educated and uneducated alike, once they learnt to understand it! Many details might
be strange or obnoxious, but the instruction and inspiration of its pages amply made up for that. Its
280 great antiquity—stretching in some parts, as men held, to thousands of years459—was already proof
positive of its imperishable value; its contents
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2843
|
__label__wiki
| 0.92957
| 0.92957
|
White nationalist Spencer drowned out by protesters
Originally published October 19, 2017 at 11:41 am Updated October 19, 2017 at 6:04 pm
JASON DEAREN
GAINESVILLE, Fla. (AP) — Counter demonstrators greatly outnumbered white nationalist Richard Spencer’s supporters on Thursday at the University of Florida, their chants drowning Spencer out during his speech.
Outside, hundreds more people protested with signs and anti-Nazi chants alongside hundreds of police officers there to prevent violence.
Anti-Spencer protesters shouted, “Not in our town! Not in our state! We don’t want your Nazi hate!” and “Let’s go Gators” during his speech, frustrating the head of the National Policy Institute.
Three or four skirmishes occurred during the long afternoon after single Spencer supporters confronted the counter demonstrators, trying to speak and rile the crowds up. One man, wearing a white shirt with swastikas drawn on, was punched and chased out of the area. At least three others were quickly surrounded by crowds that shouted them down, chanting “Whose streets? Our streets!” and pushed them until they left the area or were chased behind police lines.
Most Read Nation & World Stories
House condemns Trump 'racist' tweets in extraordinary rebuke VIEW
Diver stumbles upon a giant jellyfish as big as she is: Watch the video
Prosecutors want Mexican megachurch leader held without bail VIEW
Yosemite to restore names to historic attractions under $12 million settlement
'Justice wasn't served': 50 years since Chappaquiddick VIEW
The Alachua County Sheriff said two people were arrested. Sean Brijmohan, 28, was charged with possession of a firearm on school property. The office said in a tweet that he had brought a gun onto the campus after being hired by a media organization as security. David Notte, 34, was charged with resisting an officer without violence.
Five people had minor injuries and were immediately treated by fire rescue teams, authorities said.
The school estimated it would spend $600,000 on security to ensure no repeat of violent clashes connected to a white nationalist gathering in Charlottesville, Virginia, that left one dead in August.
School officials cited the Charlottesville violence in rejecting an initial request from Spencer to speak at the university. They later relented on free speech grounds.
Florida’s governor had declared a state of emergency for the event.
AP photographer Chris O’Meara contributed to this report.
Follow Jason Dearen on Twitter: http://www.twitter.com/JHDearen
The Seattle Times does not append comment threads to stories from wire services such as the Associated Press, The New York Times, The Washington Post or Bloomberg News. Rather, we focus on discussions related to local stories by our own staff. You can read more about our community policies here.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2845
|
__label__wiki
| 0.538911
| 0.538911
|
Jump Rope (Double Unders)
How to Do Double Unders By Wodstar
Wodstar demonstrates how to do a double under.
CrossFit - Mikko Salo's Training: Double Unders
There is no doubting the work capacity of Mikko Salo. Ever since his debut at the 2009 European Regional he has set the bar high. At the 2009 Games he commanded attention with amazing performances in back to back events that exposed an enormous bandwith of physical capacities. Again at the 2010 CrossFit Games, where he finished in 5th place, his performance was elite. However, there are still a handful of skill-based movements that put a cramp in the '09 champ's style when they are pulled from the hopper. The double-under is one such movement. During his decompression from the 2010 CrossFit Games, Mikko stayed in California and trained at CrossFit Santa Cruz. In this video, Hollis Molloy coaches Mikko towards success in the highly frustrating movement. It's frightening to think of a Mikko with the skills to match his capacities. http://games2010.crossfit.com/blog/2010/09/mikko-double-unders,811/
The Buddy Lee System for Jump Rope
Originally published December 5, 2007
Jump Rope Variations - Buddy Lee
Originally published January 4, 2008
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2846
|
__label__cc
| 0.728441
| 0.271559
|
Culture|June 6, 2011|
By Ashley Mateo
Rebecca Gayheart Loves Veggies, Hiking and The Chrysalis Foundation
You know Rebecca Gayheart from her roles on the big and small screen, but you may not know the actress has a heart of gold--the Chrysalis activist and Butterfly Ball founder celebrates her charity's tenth anniversary this week.
Alfie Agius
Chrysalis 9th Annual Butterfly Ball 2010
Gayheart and her husband Eric Dane at the Butterfly Ball
The Chrysalis Foundation, a Los Angeles-based nonprofit organization, is dedicated to helping homeless and low-income individuals become self-sufficient with resources and support. In a town full of glitter and gowns, the less fortunate can be overlooked. To raise awareness, Gayheart launched the Butterfly Ball, a glamorous gathering of Hollywood's elite which also honors a local citizen who shows consistent commitment to the charity. We caught up with Gayheart before the ball, which takes place on June 11.
How SELF's Favorite Celebrities Give Back
SELF: What initially inspired you to get involved with Chrysalis?
Rebecca Gayheart: I loved that Chrysalis was a local charity and I was able to witness the clients transformation firsthand. Seeing them become self-sufficient was all-inspiring to me.
SELF: What has been the most rewarding experience during your time with Chrysalis and the Butterfly Ball?
RG: The most rewarding part of being involved with Chrysalis is spending time with the clients. They remind me that anything is possible, and seeing the great changes they make in their lives inspires me to make changes for the better in my own life.
SELF: What made you decide to honor Hollywood director Scott Stuber at this year's Butterfly Ball?
RG: Scott Stuber was an honoree at our first annual Butterfly Ball so it felt only fitting to bring him back for our tenth anniversary. It is advocates like him who keep Chrysalis alive by raising funds and getting the word out. His huge success in the entertainment industry as well as extreme generosity make him a winning combination for a great honoree.
SELF: Your daughter Billie recently turned one. Do you feel it's important that she is raised with a sense of the importance of charity work?
RG: Absolutely. I definitely got my philanthropic genes from my mom and dad. They taught me from a very early age to always lend a helping hand to anyone in need and I hope to raise my daughter to be a very kind and charitable person.
SELF: This year marks the tenth anniversary of the Butterfly Ball, which you've turned into a wildly successful charity event. What do you see for the future of the event, as well as the Chrysalis organization itself?
RG: Ten years ago, with the help of ten of my close friends, I founded the Butterfly Ball to help the homeless in Los Angeles. I couldn't be more proud that over the last decade, the Butterfly Ball has grown to be the success that it is today--each year attended by 800 industry professionals and raising over $1 million to provide critical services to homeless in Los Angeles. It is my sincere hope that the event continues to grow and fund Chrysalis' life changing programs so that Chrysalis can provide assistance not only in Los Angeles, but throughout California.
SELF: Now, of course, a couple of SELFy questions: How do you and your husband keep each other healthy?
RG: We encourage each other to be active. My husband just bought me the most beautiful bicycle for mothers day. We try to bring the best out in each other.
SELF: What are your healthiest habits?
RG: I drink a lot of water, I try to get as much sleep as possible (which isn't easy with a one-year-old!) and I eat my veggies.
SELF: What's your typical workout regimen?
RG: I work out with a trainer three times a week and I try to take long walks and hikes.
How Volunteering Can Change Your Life
How Hayden Panettiere, Cat Deeley and More Stay Fit and Happy
Vote For Hollywood's Hottest Beach Bodies
Celebs Doing Good, Charity, Rebecca Gayheart
Culture16 Ways Type A People Keep Their Homes (Practically) Spotless
Culture49 Travel Essentials Travel Experts Never Go on Vacation Without
Culture7 Things Frequent Travelers Do to Save Money for Vacations
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2848
|
__label__cc
| 0.720327
| 0.279673
|
Digital Library AAA Commons People
Sharpening Our Vision
AAA Centennial
Accounting Hall of Fame
AAA Meetings
Sections Meetings
All Meetings
Thinking of a PhD?
Accounting Faculty Directory
Accounting Education Newsletter
Information For Scholars
Calls for Submissions
FASB & GARS
COSO
Pathways Commission
AECM
Links and Organizations
AEN Newsletter
Sections & Regions
I am a job seeker
AIS Section Awards
The Accounting Information Systems (AIS) Section of the American Accounting Association (AAA) seeks nominations for the 2016 Notable Contribution to the AIS Literature and the 2016 Outstanding Dissertation Awards. Award winners will be honored with plaques presented at the AIS Section Business Meeting at the 2016 AAA Annual Meeting.
Criteria applicable to both awards:
Impact on accounting information systems research, theory, or practice communities.
Relevance to and impact on the IS and/or accounting research and practice communities.
Topical or methodological originality and innovation.
Exceptional development of theory.
Awards will be granted only if the committee deems the research contribution meets criteria.
The author of the work must be a member of the AIS Section of the AAA during the 2015-2016 academic year.
The entry should not be simultaneously submitted for consideration for an award sponsored by any other section of the American Accounting Association.
Criteria unique to the Contribution to the Literature Award:
Consideration shall be given to peer-reviewed books, monographs, and journal articles on research topics and methods in the field of accounting information systems (broadly defined).
Published journal articles may be in any journal.
The work must have been published prior to December 31, 2014.
Criteria unique to the Outstanding Dissertation Award:
The dissertation must have been defended no earlier than January 30, 2015 but no later than January 30, 2016.
Nomination must be made by an AAA AIS Section member; Self-nominations are encouraged.
Nominating emails should include statements of the importance of the work and its current or potential impact on accounting information systems theory or practice.
An electronic copy of the work must be provided. For the Outstanding Dissertation Award, a working paper that meets the criteria for submission to JIS should be provided.
Submissions must be in either Word or pdf format; electronic submission only.
Members of this year's Award Committee are not eligible.
Please send nominations to the appropriate Committee Chair:
Notable contributions to the literature: Vern Richardson (VRichardson@walton.uark.edu)
Outstanding Dissertation: Barry Mishra (barry.mishra@ucr.edu)
DEADLINE FOR NOMINATIONS: March 15, 2016
info@aaahq.org
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2850
|
__label__wiki
| 0.532784
| 0.532784
|
“My Very End of the Universe is indispensable reading for anyone who loves fiction that defies categorization—and for anyone who simply loves engrossing stories cast in superb prose. Each of these novellas-in-flash is exquisite in its own distinct way, and collectively they demonstratewhat is possible when we break the traditional confines of form and dare to invent something new.”
—Laura van den Berg, author of The Isle of Youth
“In tornado-flung trailer parks and icy lakes, citrus groves and drugstore aisles, the characters of My Very End of the Universe yearn to soar like Superman but are, more often, prayed for. Daughters struggle to rescue mothers, sons clobber the weak, outlaws menace and bedazzle—and in 1893, a newborn says ‘Hello?’ in a tiny, astonishing voice. Compact, intense, and thrilling, these five novellas-in-flash show us that even in the smallest spaces, we can learn how to fly.”
—Rebecca Meacham, author of Let’s Do and Morbid Curiosities
“The five novellas-in-flash in My Very End of the Universe are excellent type specimens of the genre, and the accompanying craft essays help give this chimeric form a theory and a practice. Writers interested in story structure owe it to themselves to add this book to their office bookshelves, but it’s adventurous readers who will surely benefit the most, finding themselves thrilled by the surprising tales within.”
—Matt Bell, author of In the House upon the Dirt Between the Lake and the Woods
'These are the people we don’t read enough about—people who don’t have enough and won’t ever make enough but get by anyway… In the final story, 'Bottle Rockets,’ Cherry Tree and Clay are lighting fireworks: ‘Multicolored balls of fire scattered in all directions and then exploded as they dropped. We ooh’d and ah’d while wave after wave of luminous fury danced around our heads.’ If there is a phrase that could capture the power of Shampoo Horns it would be “luminous fury”—the bright intense energy of Teel’s prose, it illuminates.'
—Roxane Gay, author of An Untamed State and Bad Feminist
“At the end of his passage about the explosions like bottle rockets, Kerouac writes that ‘in the middle you see the blue centerlight pop and everybody goes "Awww!’’ So it is with Shampoo Horns, a fearless, fabulous flash across the stars.”
—Randall Brown, author of Mad to Live
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2851
|
__label__cc
| 0.610133
| 0.389867
|
Tyrehl Byk
If you ever hear that the brilliant artist Tyrehl Byk (pictured below) is presenting one of his particle shows, go. You're guaranteed to be mesmerized and amazed for the better part of an hour as a dazzling parade of particles move around and over you in a stream-of-consciousness sort of performance. Usually in partnership with a musician, Tyrehl's events are presented in something of an amphitheatre—it's essential that you take a seat as you watch the performance, because your camera control is relinquished, allowing Tyrehl to zoom your view around in space to see the animations from various perspectives, including way overhead. (You can see the audience in the image above—click to zoom in.)
This evening I had a chance to catch an event at MadPea, presented in collaboration with the musician Ultraviolet Alter. While for this performance Ultra was composing on the fly, Tyrehl by necessity pre-planned the elements of his presentation and then engaged in a live interplay with the music. "We did an hour jam friday night—just the two of us so she could see the new effects I created," he remarked. "She has more ability to improvise than I do—I can't create the particles on the moment. I have to use what I've set out and use the camera angles to make them look interesting." He has a wide assortment of options from which to pick: "I have two computers, one with a HUD with over 200 buttons, and this one with a HUD with about 50." Tyrehl was quick to credit Najure Ibor with lending a hand for some of the trickier aspects of this evening's show.
Tyrehl is an artist in real life, with a body of conventional photography and another of pure non-commissioned digital art. He's planning to have "a more conventional gallery exhibit of some particle sculptures" in the near future—stay tuned. If I hear of upcoming performances, I'll tweet them, but you can also contact Tyrehl inworld to get on his listserv.
(And—at risk of sounding like a broken record!—I'll mention once again that it's always essential to tip these great artists when you can.)
I decided to stop by Boudoir tonight—I love the originality of Precious Restless's creations, always so striking and unique—and immediately picked up "The Thing," a walking hand avatar for only L$250. I love this thing (no pun intended!)—it fits like hand in glove. *coughs* It's fun to try with different AOs, and I had a crazy time this evening at Flashmans dancing with the lovely Phideaux Mayo (below). I just loved how she wrapped her hands around my fingers. (Guys take note: the nails on this hand look pretty feminine to me, just sayin'.)
Treptower Park
If you love urban decay, then Squonk Levenque has built just the thing for you: Treptower Park, inspired by an existing abandoned amusement park in the former East Berlin. It's a dark waterly world (use the suggested Windlight settings for best effect, although personally I like Glassy for the water better than Murky) featuring not only the broken down park, but also abandoned industrial areas. (It can be hard to see these photos at this size, so click on them to zoom in.)
Click on stuff as you explore the amusement park area—you can ride the still-functioning carousel, enter the jack-in-the-box and jump on the trampoline. There's a tombstone near the landing point that will drag you underground. Peppered here and there are a few freebies, and also some helmets for sale by Squonk's partner, Miuccia Klaar, around the northeast corner.
P.S. Thanks once again to my friend M for finding cool places like this! And please do make a contribution to help support Treptower Park if you can—there's a donation thing somewhere around the middle of the sim.
Crommhold
When I saw a couple photos of Crommhold in the Blogging Elf's blog, I thought it looked promising, and I wasn't disappointed when I visited. It's a lush land of flowers, ferns and forests, open to the public but especially welcoming to non-humans—as its co-owner Cromm Slade says, "from mystics to elves and the fae in the woods, all the forrest kinn are welcome."
He emphasized to me that it's a non-roleplaying sim, although roleplayers are welcome. And he said he's always tweaking it—he toured me around, showing me many hidden spaces, but when I returned today one of them, the grotto, seems to have disappeared (and lovely it was, too!). There's a place for magic creation known as the Rune Keep (you'll have to move the disguised rock door to enter), and a place for mermaids under the waterfall (including a hidden bed chamber below) with an elven cove nearby.
Cromm's partner, Ava Verino-Slade, has created a companion sim, and to get there you'll have to find the teleporter hidden on the main Crommhold island. "Another realm even more beautiful—and my wife built it all from scratch," says Cromm. "I cheat a lot—buy and mould is my style," he quipped. If you find the teleporter, you'll arrive at her land, which is pictured below, also enchanting. (The unicorns you'll discover have fun poses.) Both sims are perfect for photos and provide lots of fun exploration.
North Yard
When you arrive in a sim and the land description says, "Reaver Land. We Hate Everyone" and "No commercial photography/activity, EVAR."—well, you might have second thoughts about hanging around. But North Yard is worth the stay.
It's part of a group of sims known as The Wastelands, which were founded almost exactly five years ago, on January 19, 2007. (I guess I should have waited a couple days to post this!) The largest and oldest post apocalyptic community in Second Life, the larger Wastelands comprise the sims of The Wastelands, The Junkyard, The Great Fissure, Fort Stygian, Malady Bog, Hambone Slash, Ashvasta, Cormac, Kronbelt, The Rot, Burnt Oak and North Yard. Each is distinct in style, and I really love North Yard for its utter desolation. The Wastelands are more than a bunch of picturesque sims, however—they're a small gaming platform with complex rules, about which you can read here. (As far as I can tell, visitors are quite welcome.)
If you're not using a viewer that follows sim windlight settings, the suggested one is [TOR] SUNRISE - Defenderz 1, which produces the effect shown here. One of the larger structures in North Yard is the First Church of Gid (picture immediately above), where you can leave a donation on the offering plate. You'll also find little encampments such as Hannibal's Camp and the Crone's Shack. (And don't worry about coming across a Reaver—a resident manimal told me they're quite rare: "havent seen a reaver in. well ever" he remarked.)
P.S.: Thanks to M (a.k.a. MissMoe Requiem) for the suggestion!
The Avatar Machine
Ready for a good laugh? Then head to the sim known as LOL and check out The Avatar Machine, a fun creation by pallina60 Loon. Here, just in case your legs are tired from walking and your arms are sore from flying, The Avatar Machine takes you on a silly little journey—your avatar will be bumped, whisked and jostled about until you complete the end of the fun ride. There are some free items you can pick up here too.
Down below on the main part of the sim, called Circo Loon - Meshtriciattolandia Editions, are installations by Gebedia Yoshikawa, Opensource Obscure, Miru Lane and Lila Iwish, in addition to some by pallina60 Loon. I'm not sure everything was functioning on my last visit, but it's an enjoyable place to explore and to pick up a few freebie items. (As always, I'll urge to you donate if you can.) :)
Thanks to Rose Borchovski for a heads up about The Avatar Machine.
It's a delight that the Chouchou sims have returned to Second Life. Long a favorite of residents, the sims reopened on January 8th: the main sim of Chouchou, along with Chouchou V (known as Memento mori) and Chouchou XVI (known as The Babel). On Chouchou proper, one might say that less is more—a quiet and delicate water world is articulated by only a few objects, notably a ladder reaching way overhead (which one could climb in the last iteration of Chouchou, if I remember correctly), a tree and a piano.
When you arrive, you might want to grab the HUD that's available—it lengthens the ZoomTime with the intent that your camera movements might seem a bit more cinematic. Be sure to turn your draw distance up to 512, and by all means turn on your sound stream. This last point is important, because Chouchou is actually a more than a sim: it's the musical group of juliet Heberle and arabesque Choche, and the music you'll hear on the sims is all theirs. Take the teleport at the base of the ladder up to Chouchou's live performance venue, called Islamey. (Check their website or join the group to stay posted on performances.)
The sim subtitled Memento mori features a cathedral in the sky. Climb the staircases to reach to uppermost level, and be careful not to fall, as there are gaping holes in the floor! There's a large bell in the cathedral that chimes on the hour, although I've never heard it myself—I keep forgetting to be there at the top of the hour. :)
The last of the three sims is the most significant musically. The Babel is a fascinating installation populated with hundreds of small boxes, each of which contains a sound. The black boxes, bearing labels such as piano 156 or glidesyn001, are instrumental sounds, and the gray boxes, with labels such as juliet_F1, are the sounds of juliet's voice. A click on any given box will commence its sound, and there is some logic as to how the boxes are arranged. (You can read more about this in the book near the landing point.) Climb the stairs (which will seem endless!) to get up to a shop area where you can purchase the boxes for yourself.
And even if you don't purchase any sounds, do consider making a donation to help maintain these lovely sims. The band's music is also for sale, of course—more on their site.
I don't even know how to begin to describe Locus, an extraordinary new build by DB Bailey (who in real life is the architect David Denton). Well, I can start with a color: red! There's plenty of that, in great brilliance and in many shades, punctuated by yellow, orange, neon blue, periwinkle and a touch of green.
Populating the center of the island of Locus are a countless number of latticed phantom building walls (some of which evoke Romanesque or Gothic churches (not that I'm well studied in architectural history)), structures reminiscent of Greek temples piled high on one another, a central statue of Atlas holding up the world, archways, caverns and a wealth of other forms, all amazingly blended with the textures of the tall walls that surround the sim, so that one can't really tell at first where the build stops and the wall begins. It's almost disorienting at times, and I find myself smiling at how marvelous it is.
The build occupies the entire sim, and you'll want to turn you draw distance up high enough that you can see clear across. As you hunt around you'll find some unusual spots—I was surprised to find a little red house surrounded by red palm trees near a waterfall. DB says he's always working on it—"I never know where this is all going," he remarked.
I learned of Locus through the brilliant machinimatographer NicoleXMoonwall—take a look here. Watch her stuff, it's great. :)
Alchemy Immortalis Sims for Sale
Today a note rolled in from Alchemy Immortalis, the fabulous creators of homes, instruments, jewelry, sims and more—the duo of Alchemy and Immortalis Cyannis—that said, "Selling Our Sims," meaning the one full and three homestead sims that adjoin their main shop sim of Alchemy Immortalis: Empress and Hierophant, Ceangal, Inis Caiseal (full sim), and Saerlaith.
These are among the most photographed of Second Life sims—Empress and Hierophant in particular—and it's a tragedy that they'll likely be broken up, but Alchemy and Immortalis say that want to return to the development of the original sim, and need to be freed up from the administrative tasks that come with maintaining the other four (some of which have had short-term B&B style rental options). (Click here to see a map of the layout.)
With designs that reflect the feel of rugged rural Ireland, the windswept sims are populated with winding hills, peaks and valleys, coastal waterways, narrow roadways, occasional sheep, rain and breathtaking views. Having spent a good amount of time there, I know there are many who frequently visit. (Of course, I'm wishing now I had taken many more photos!)
To purchase a homestead you have to already own a full sim, and Alchemy told me that she didn't anticipate she would want the sims to stay adjacent to the Alchemy Immortalis sim, with the possible exception of Empress and Hierophant. "We're hoping they'll end up with folks who will enjoy them as much as we have. Labour of love they've been," she added. Thanks, Alchemy and Immortalis, for having shared these gifts with the Second Life community!
By the way, you can also purchase many Alchemy Immortalis products on the Marketplace, including the "Elements of Empress and Hierophant" package from which you can build your own similar sim, and the enchanting Gatehouse Cottage, which I'm happy to have had as my own home for nearly a year now.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2856
|
__label__wiki
| 0.55651
| 0.55651
|
Vice Magazine Takes Action Bronson To Eat At World Class Restaurant Marea
by Alex Keyes
You want the life Action Bronson has. After getting high in his apartment in Queens, Bronson heads over the two Michelin star winning restaurant Marea. With him came his friend and associate Big Body Bes as well as a Vice camera crew. Bronson is given a tour of the whole restaurant by Head Chef Michael White, including some of the fish they were going to be eating that night. Specializing in seafood, Marea is renowned for being one of the best restaurants in New York. In fact, according to Marea's website, chef White was recently recognized as one of the 40 most influential New Yorkers under 40 by Crain’s New York Business. Having personally experienced the cuisine that Bronson was about the indulge in, I knew that this video was going to be very enjoyable. To quote Bes: "This ain't no Red Lobster shit son."
Hilarity ensures when Bronson and Bes sit down to eat. Classical music lightly plays in the background as the duo boorishly gorge themselves on the world class seafood. Bronson, a chef himself, manages to be eloquent at points, describing some of his favorite ingredients and things he loves about the dishes. Bes unfortunately does not share in his partners culinary fluency, interspersing conversation with anecdotes about sandwiches from the Bronx and shout outs to eating with spoons. Regardless, the video is still amusing. At the end of the video Bronson declares, "This is the time of meal that can't be singled out, to pick the best would be unfair to the meal, this meal was outta control."
This video is the first in a series Vice has dedicated to following Action and his associates to his favorite restaurants. Bronson clearly knows good food, so it will be interesting to see where and with whom the next video takes us.
Via: Vice Magazine
East Coast Rap Hip Hop
The Best Hip Hop Music Videos & Songs of 2014 [Zumic Staff Picks]
News East Coast Rap Hip Hop Southern Rap Trap Underground Hip Hop West Coast Rap World Rap Action Bronson Big K.R.I.T. Common Drake J. Cole Joey Bada$$ Kendrick Lamar Lil Wayne Lloyd Nicki Minaj Rae Sremmurd Run The Jewels Schoolboy Q T.I. Talib Kweli Tinashe Until The Ribbon Breaks Wiz Khalifa Young Thug Lil Herb Wu Tang Clan
Action Bronson Announces 'Blue Chips 7000' Tour Dates: Ticket Pre...
Tickets Hip Hop Action Bronson Canada United States
"The Chairman's Intent" - Action Bronson [YouTube Music Video]
Music Hip Hop Action Bronson Flushing, NY Official Music Video
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2857
|
__label__cc
| 0.734618
| 0.265382
|
Category: Dealership Operations
Disruption is normal: Mills
September 4, 2018 / no comments / 367 views
Disruption is not “the new normal”, it has always been normal, delegates at the AADA National Dealer Convention heard on Tuesday morning. In his address, titled ‘Mobility Is and Always Will Be the Dealer’s Business’, guest breakfast speaker Charles Mills…
THE HARDEST CALL ANY LEADER MUST MAKE
October 19, 2016 / no comments / 1250 views
The hardest call to be made in leadership is to hire, promote and attract people who have the right character but don’t yet have the necessary skills. My philosophy in this area is simple: If you want to be successful,…
SHOULD YOU SELL YOUR DEALERSHIP?
June 2, 2016 / no comments / 763 views
Previously we have questioned the future of the retail automotive store, noting the increasing move to online showrooms and a growing willingness of customers to shop for vehicles in cyberspace. With significant changes coming in the automotive industry over the…
CUT SUPER ADMIN BY 70 PER CENT WITH SUPERSTREAM
The Australian Taxation Office (ATO) says small businesses can cut the time spent on superannuation administration by around 70 percent via its SuperStream product. SuperStream is the new way of making super contributions. Employers send super contributions electronically in a…
DEALER PROFITABILITY AT 1.5%
March 7, 2016 / no comments / 940 views
The Deloitte Dealer Profitability Report for November 2015 shows that the average Australian Dealer profitability, as measured by net profit as a percentage of sales (NP%S), was 1.5% in November 2015. The result was 0.2 percentage points down on the…
ATO TO BROADEN TAX TRANSPARENCY
AADA urges all Dealers to ensure their affairs are in order after the Australian Taxation Office (ATO) recently published the tax details of about 1,500 large corporate taxpayers, with plans to also report tax details in relation to 300 private…
ATO TO FOCUS ON LARGE BUSINESS
The Australian Taxation Office has put large businesses on notice that it is focusing on them this financial year to ensure they pay their fair share of tax. The ATO released a statement in December stating that it “will work…
CAPITAL GAINS TAX CHANGES TO HELP GROWTH – MINSITER
Dealers wanting to change their legal structure can now do so without attracting a Capital Gains Tax (CGT) liability. In early February the Federal Government introduced a Bill to Parliament as the final plank in its $5.5 billion ‘Growing Jobs…
FEDERAL GOVERNMENT PUSH TO END SUPERANNUATION RATE RISES
The Federal Government is preparing to dump a planned rise in compulsory superannuation that would add $20 billion a year to employers’ wage bills. Under the previous Labor Government, the super guarantee levy was scheduled to rise from 9 to…
HOW TO AVOID A POST-CHRISTMAS TAX HANGOVER
December 22, 2015 / no comments / 5645 views
With Christmas approaching, most companies will be planning to reward their staff with a celebration and perhaps a gift to mark the end of the year. When planning such events it’s wise to consider the tax consequences associated with such…
Got a question, comment or want to tell us your theory on the meaning of life? Write to us at editor@automotivedealer.com.au. Letters must be addressed to the editor and should be short and sweet (no more than 150 words).
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2862
|
__label__wiki
| 0.589351
| 0.589351
|
Stars and stellar evolution
Herbig-Haro Jet HH 24
Stars and stellar evolution Herbig-Haro Jet HH 24
About Zoomable Gallery
Zoomable image
How to use in the classroom
Mouse over the image and scroll to zoom in and out, or use the blue buttons that appear in the lower right corner of the image.
NASA's Hubble Space Telescope has photographed what looks like a cosmic, double-bladed lightsaber. In the center of the image, partially obscured by a dark, Jedi-like cloak of dust, a newborn star shoots twin jets out into space as a sort of birth announcement to the universe.
This celestial lightsaber does not lie in a galaxy far, far away, but rather inside our home galaxy, the Milky Way. It's inside a turbulent birthing ground for new stars known as the Orion B molecular cloud complex, located 1,350 light-years away.
The prominent HH object shown in this image is HH 24. Overall, just a handful of HH jets have been spotted in this region in visible light, and about the same number in the infrared. Hubble's observations for this image were performed in infrared light, which enabled the telescope to peer through the gas and dust cocooning the newly forming stars and capture a clear view of the HH objects inside. Learn more at HubbleSite's NewsCenter.
NASA and ESA
ACKNOWLEDGMENT:
NASA, ESA, the Hubble Heritage (STScI/AURA)/Hubble-Europe (ESA) Collaboration, D. Padgett (GSFC), T. Megeath (University of Toledo), and B. Reipurth (University of Hawaii)
IMAGE DOWNLOADS
High-resolution JPG for print
WARNING: For download only. This file is too big to be viewed in most browsers.
Celestial Lightsabers: The Stellar Jets of HH 24 (3-D Fly)
MPEG-4 (H.264)
Celestial Lightsabers: The Stellar Jets of HH 24 (2-D Zoom and 3-D Fly)
(23.3 MB)
E/PO Resources
Universe of Learning
Zoomable Gallery
Servicing Mission 4
Tactile Astronomy
Tonight's Sky
Amazing Space uses astronomical discoveries to inspire and educate about the wonders of our universe.
This material is based upon work supported by NASA under cooperative agreement award number NNX16AC65A and contracts NAS5-26555 and NAS5-03127. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2863
|
__label__cc
| 0.686519
| 0.313481
|
Mario Acevedo is the author of The Nymphos of Rocky Flats and the forthcoming X-Rated Bloodsuckers.
I asked him what he has been reading. His reply:
Last year I attended BoucherCon, one of the big mystery conferences for both authors and fans. A constant and loud screech from the writers was, “Read? I barely have time to write!”
So with time at a premium, you would think I'd plow into heavy, brainy reading material. You know, Nobel Prize winners. Or dig into the scholarly opinions of The Economist.
Instead, I get my dose of current events from Mad Magazine. Not only is the sarcasm more honest than any of the double-speak we get from our government, it’s intentionally funny and less tragic. My favorite article from this issue: The Iraq War chess set. Among the rules: for every insurgent we kill, three take his place. (Do the math.) The pawns: Their side, suicide bomber jihadists. Our side, National Guardsmen.
I am reading books. As a fantasy writer, I wasn’t familiar with Jim Butcher’s work (shame on me) and figured it to be heavy into gothic horror. Was I wrong. (Butcher, what a name for a writer of vampires and other supernatural monsters.) His Dresden Files series is urban fantasy told with a wry smirk. What makes the stories so enjoyable is Butcher knows how to craft a phrase. As in Blood Rites when Butcher introduces the villain: “Lord Raith’s smile made me think of sharks and skulls.” Wow. Them’s good words.
To make me look smart, I do read literary NYT stuff. I recently finished Running With Scissors by Augusten Burroughs. He gives us a family more dysfunctional and weird than anything in Butcher’s fantasy novels (Yet again, life trumps art. None of his characters was as loopy as a murderous, love struck Navy captain astronaut wearing diapers.) Burroughs’ mastery of prose kept me hooked with gems like this description of Dr. Finch’s mistress:
“Geraldine was the female equivalent of a diesel Mercedes sedan. She was, it seemed to me then, well over six feet tall. She was broad-shouldered and broad-faced. When she lumbered into the room, the word mistress did not come to mind.”
Read the results of the Page 69 Test for Mario's The Nymphos of Rocky Flats.
His new book, X-Rated Bloodsuckers, comes out in March.
Visit his official website.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2865
|
__label__wiki
| 0.908097
| 0.908097
|
Vol. 11, Issue 338 - Monday, December 4, 2006
M | T | W | T | F | S | S
STAR-BULLETIN / DECEMBER 1995
Marathoner Benson Masya, from Kenya, poses for a photo with Diamond Head in the background. A three-time Honolulu Marathon winner, Masya died in 2003.
Lifestyle and illness felled Honolulu Marathon winner
Kenyan Benson Masya will be inducted in the hall of fame
By Dave Reardon
dreardon@starbulletin.com
Even the greatest marathoners in the world can't run from epidemic disease.
Zane Branson can't prove it and he doesn't want to come right out and say it. But if he was not completely convinced his friend Benson Masya died from the AIDS virus, he would not even imply it.
The 34th Annual Honolulu Marathon
Start: Sunday, 5 a.m., at intersection of Ala Moana Boulevard and Queen Street; ends at Kapiolani Park.
Participants: About 29,000 runners are expected.
Prize money: $40,000 each for winners in men's and women's division, and an extra $10,000 for breaking course record; $150,000 total purse.
Dominant nation: The Kenyans have won the men's division 16 times since 1985. Women from former Soviet republics have won nine of the last 10.
Course records: Jimmy Muindi, Kenya, 2:11.12; Lyubov Morgunova, Russia, 2:27.33
Economic impact: $100 million in visitor spending and $4.4 million in tax revenue.
"I don't know how you can avoid saying that," Branson said in a phone interview Thursday. "It was always unofficial. He never was tested. There's no medical record. But overwhelming speculation is that's what it is. To skip over that is not appropriate."
Masya was a Kenyan distance-running great who died in 2003 at 33 -- an age when many runners are still peaking. He won the Honolulu Marathon in 1991, 1992 and 1994 and will be inducted into the race's hall of fame Thursday night at the Oahu Country Club.
In Kenya, great distance runners are treated like rock stars. They are national heroes and celebrities, and they are among the few people who have disposable income in a country where the per capita income is around $360 U.S.
Masya is remembered fondly in Honolulu, where he left positive impressions.
"Benson was a huge talent and the No. 1 road racer in the world at one time when he ran here," Honolulu Marathon President Jim Barahal said. "It was a big thing for us that he would run here. It showed the world we could attract a top runner again (after another three-time winner, Ibrahim Hussein)."
Masya liked to spend his money on having a good time, said Branson, who was Masya's agent.
"Benson had a careless lifestyle and likely it contributed to his death," Branson said. "Benson was a loving, caring guy. But he always thought he was invincible. Money? He'll just win another race next week and get more."
Masya was a postal worker and boxer before he got serious about competitive running. His racing style has been described as "muscular," and in 1994 he won his third Honolulu Marathon despite trailing the leaders by as many as 45 seconds before taking the lead at the 19th mile.
During this time, Masya liked to party -- not a unique trait for a Kenyan running star.
STAR-BULLETIN / NOVEMBER 1995
Josiah Thungwane and Honolulu Marathon hall of fame nominee Benson Masya put their soles into the race.
Paul Kipkoech (10K world champion in 1987) and Richard Chelimo (10K Olympic silver medalist in 1992) both also died after long, unexplained illnesses.
"On the track and road circuit, all three runners had well-deserved reputations as party animals, guys who liked a good time and enjoyed a drink," wrote Steven Downes for an article in Scotland on Sunday in 2003 after Masya's death. "All three, though, ended their days as sad, skeletal figures, suffering from some form of mystery, debilitating illness. ... Never mentioned explicitly, but widely suspected, is that all three champion runners perished, along with 1.5 million other Kenyans, as the result of HIV infection."
Branson said Masya ran "his last great race" at the Portsmouth 10 Mile in 1996.
"Two weeks later after that, he was a jogger. Benson's body had just given up," Branson said. "I think the drinking led to that. He started drinking in the States when he was racing well. He was introverted with a hard exterior, but he was warm inside. Benson was generous and when he was drunk, people took advantage of that."
Masya died nearly penniless. Branson and Honolulu Marathon champions Cosmos Ndeti and Jimmy Muindi provide financial help to Masya's widow, Joan, and their three sons.
"Certainly coming from Kenya, the great runners win staggering amounts of money relative to their economy," Barahal said. "But they're still vulnerable to the same forces as other people in Kenya, such as AIDS. Lifestyle issues have unfortunately been a problem for several great Kenyan runners."
Branson holds drug-awareness conferences for athletes. He wants to get the word out that even world-class competitors are vulnerable to HIV and AIDS.
"My personal position is that I was a friend of Benson and I work for HIV prevention in Kenya and Serbia," Branson said. "The more people know about it, the sooner Kenya can get out of it.
"There's no shame."
Inside | Dec. 4
» Myanmar village gets medicine, plus Aloha
» Lifestyle, illness felled Marathon winner
» Aiea overpass nears fix
» Temporary span frees Kipahulu
» Kids under 7 will need car-seat boosts
» New leader for agency that helps at-risk youth
» Doctor pushes his limit
» Pact would protect rare birds
» Planner shaped state through numerous roles
» Yuletide tunes for the holiday season
» Eddie Vedder fuels Pearl Jam's tour-ending tour de force
» Students winning more scholarships
» Portfolio: Haleiwa town
» Keiki Kalikimaka
» Digital Slob
» Cel Shaded
» Crescendo
» Dickerson named most valuable player
» Warrior Replay
» Rainbows wait for Rebels to visit
» Rainbow Wahine playing 3 in SoCal
» Kahuku answered all critics and questions this season
» Keeping guard in Kapolei
» Ocean Pointe drainage plan under attack
» Tech View
» Taking climate case to Supreme Court a risky undertaking
Columns | Dec. 4
Cel Shaded
Jason Yadao
Digital Slob
Curt Brandao
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2871
|
__label__cc
| 0.545368
| 0.454632
|
Location: Archon Manuscripts Manuscript Collections Eugene Angert Papers (MSS005) Finding Aid
Eugene Angert Papers (MSS005)
Contact us about this collection
Eugene Angert Papers (MSS005), 1913-1939 | MSS Manuscripts
Printer-friendly | Contact Us About This Collection
Title: Eugene Angert Papers (MSS005), 1913-1939
Predominant Dates:1913-1939
ID: MSS/MSS/005
Primary Creator: Angert, Eugene, 1877-1929
Extent: 1.0 Boxes
Scope and Contents of the Materials
The Eugene Angert Papers include correspondence from the First National Bank of St Louis to Vera Angert, Eugene’s wife, concerning a memorial tribute to her husband. Also included is a 149-page typescript of The Perpetual Student, and The Flag Hunters, or Tell It to the Danes, two musical comedies written by Eugene Agert. Also included is a typed catalogue of Angert’s personal library.
Collection Historical Note
Eugene Angert (October 21, 1877 – May 1929) was an American lawyer. Born in St. Charles, Missouri, Angert received an A.B. from St. Louis University in 1896 and his LL. B. from Harvard in 1899. He practiced law in St. Louis (1900) and in 1912 he became a member of the law firm James, Hacker, Sullivan and Angert. He married Miss Vera Giannini of St. Louis in 1912. He also was the director of the First National Bank, the Securities Investment and the American National Assurance Company. In 1928, he organized the St. Louis Horticulture Society.
Repository: MSS Manuscripts
Access Restrictions: Open
Use Restrictions:
Users of the collection must read and agree to abide by the rules and procedures set forth in the Materials Use Policies.
Providing access to materials does not constitute permission to publish or otherwise authorize use. All publication not covered by fair use or other exceptions is restricted to those who have permission of the copyright holder, which may or may not be Washington University.
If you wish to publish or license Special Collections materials, please contact Special Collections to inquire about copyright status at (314) 935-5495 or spec@wumail.wustl.edu. (Publish means quotation in whole or in part in seminar or term papers, theses or dissertations, journal articles, monographs, books, digital forms, photographs, images, dramatic presentations, transcriptions, or any other form prepared for a limited or general public.)
Acquisition Method: Received with Angert Collection, 1959.
Preferred Citation: Name of the Collection, Washington University Libraries, Department of Special Collections
Box and Folder Listing
Browse by Box:
[Box 1],
Folder 5: Typescript manuscript The Perpetual Student, a musical farce, by Eugene Angert and Miss Josephine Angert. Produced by the Harvard Club of St. Louis. Music by Man Zach, 1913: May 23
Includes printed musical score and photographs of cast members. [Bound]; limp red simulated leather covers. 9 ½ x 12,” 140 pages
Folder 6: Typescript with autograph corrections of The Flag Hunters, or Tell It to the Danes, a musical comedy in two acts, No date
Canvas covers. 11 ½ x 9,” 61 pages
Folder 7: Typescript catalogue of the private library of Eugene H. Angert, 1933: July
Titles arranged alphabetically by room. Title page notes collection catalogues by Margaret Moody, and bears the sticker with name and St. Louis address of Mrs. Borden S. Veeder. Moderate autograph revisions and additions in pencil, red pencil, and black ink. Black paper covers, clipping in pages. 9 x 11 1/3,” 46 pages
Using 10.5MB of memory. (Peak of 10.71MB.)
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2872
|
__label__wiki
| 0.787059
| 0.787059
|
Home » Blog » other » Aero Commander 100. Specifications. A photo.
Aero Commander 100. Specifications. A photo.
Aero Commander 100 - an easy four-aircraft developed in 1960, the «Aero Commander» the American aircraft manufacturer.
Aero Commander 100 photo
Multiple aircraft Aero Commander 100, also known under such names as the Darter Commander and Lark Commander, was developed by US aircraft manufacturers in the mid-50-ies of the last century. The plane was designed «Aero Commander» engineers as aircraft, capable of competing with the famous American aircraft companies like «Cessna», «Piper» and «Beechcraft», with the main distinguishing feature of the aircraft must be a ball low cost.
Design Air Aero Commander ship 100 is very similar to the appearance of aircraft companies «Cessna» produced in the same period, however, if the plane had to quickly gain in its value terms of popularity, in terms of flight performance of the aircraft is seriously inferior models of other aircraft manufacturers.
The plane model Aero Commander 100 made its first flight in 1960 year, however, the prototype was not able to demonstrate any prospects for the future start of production, and therefore the more a year is being revised.
Photo Aero Commander 100
The aircraft cabin Aero Commander 100, depending on the modification of the aircraft, allows you to accommodate on board from three to four people, including one pilot. In fact, the project could begin to be used in the commercial sphere, however, the low reliability of the aircraft and poor handling made it unpopular, so the aircraft did not receive any propagation. In addition to transporting people on board, the aircraft can also be adapted for transporting small loads, however, since the airplane's output was limited to the minimum number of aircraft built, this possibility was not realized by consumers.
The Aero Commander 100 aircraft has a piston-type propulsion system consisting of one four-cylinder aircraft engine of the Lycoming O-320-A brand (depending on the version), which allowed the aircraft to develop thrust in the 150 hp and accelerate to speed in 205 km \ h The plane could overcome the distance to 820 kilometers, however, due to low reliability, these figures were not able to attract buyers.
Aircraft Aero Commander 100
Aero Commander 100 model aircraft existed in the following variants:
Volaircraft Model 10 - The basic prototype of the aircraft, first tested in the 1960 year;
Volaire 1035 - triple version of the aircraft;
Volaire 1050 - Quadruple aircraft equipped with a power plant model Lycoming O-320;
Aero Commander 100 - An upgraded version of the version of Volaire 1050;
Aero Commander 100A - An upgraded version of the version of Volaire 1035;
Darter commander - An improved version of Aero Commander 100 aircraft? With a number of technical and visual changes and amendments;
Lark Commander 180 - A modified version of the aircraft with improved aerodynamic shape of the fuselage and a more powerful powerplant brand Lycoming O-360.
Specifications Aero Commander 100.
Crew: 1 people;
Passenger: 3 people (depending on version);
aircraft Length: 6,86 m (depending on version).
Wingspan: 10,68 m (depending on version).
Plane Height: 2,84 m (depending on version).
Weight of empty aircraft: 581 kg. (Depending on version);
Payload: 440 kg. (Depending on version);
Maximum takeoff weight: 1021 kg. (Depending on version);
Cruising speed: 205 km \ h. (Depending on version);
Maximum flight speed: 215 km \ h. (Depending on version);
Maximum flight distance: 820 km .;
Maximum flight height: 3960 m .;
aircraft engine type: a piston;
Powerplant: Lycoming O-320-A (depending on version);
Power: 150 hp (Depending on version).
Aircraft airlines
Avia.pro
Turku Airport
Airline Air Alledzhiant
Berlin Schoenefeld Airport
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2873
|
__label__cc
| 0.680749
| 0.319251
|
Writing skills for creative writers
Great poetry and prose begin when the writer puts the right words in the right places. Learn how and why the rules and conventions of language matter in this course, which combines creative writing with opportunities to learn/revise essential points of grammar and useful literary concepts. Suitable for beginning writers looking to build confidence, and those with more experience who would like to practise these essential skills.
Learning and revising language and literary skills, and using them as a tool to express yourself creatively.
Students say: "It gave me keys that opened up my creativity"; "There was a variety of interesting tasks to challenge me"; "No judgment, supportive teacher and class"; "I liked the pace, the size of the group, the easy-to-follow lessons."
The Tutor: Jennifer Wong is a writer, researcher, and translator, currently finalizing her PhD in poetry at Oxford Brookes University. Her poems have been included in anthologies such as The Birdbook: Saltwater and Shore, Eight Hong Kong Poets, Lung Jazz: Young British Poets, World Record: An Anthology and Becoming Poets: The Asian English Experience. She has reviewed for Poetry London, Poetry Review, Asian Review of Books, Magma Poetry and Sabotage Reviews. She has taught as an Associate Lecturer in Creative Writing at Oxford Brookes, and led an international online course on multiculturalism in contemporary poetry at Poetry School.
Build reserves the right to change course tutors from those advertised in this outline. In line with our refund policy we are unable to grant a refund on the grounds of a change of tutor.
We’ll examine the concept of Standard English, and consider its role in creative writing. We’ll look at sentence structures, paragraphs and verb tenses. We’ll explore how figurative language works, when it should be used and when it is best avoided. We’ll look at new words and their uses. We’ll revise the rules for punctuation of dialogue and other problem areas. We’ll examine poetic forms, and use them. We’ll ask the question: can the rules be deliberately broken for creative effect? (The answer is yes, but you have to know what they are first.).
- Identify any difficulties you have with written English, and remedy them
- Identify the characteristics of Standard English
- Use the rules of grammar and punctuation effectively in your creative writing
- Identify the characteristics of figurative language, and how to use it
- Identify and work with a variety of poetic forms
- Write authentic-sounding dialogue.
If your grasp of written English is good enough for everyday purposes (reading for pleasure, writing formal and informal letters, dealing with official documents), but you feel you would like help using your language skills for creative writing, this course is for you.
There will be a balance between formal teaching, writing in class, and group discussion. You'll be given assignments to write at home, will have the opportunity to present your work to the group, and will be asked to hand in work to the tutor for assessment.
All writing courses at Build will involve an element of workshop. This means that students will produce work which will be discussed in an open and constructive environment with the tutor and other students. The college operates a policy of constructive criticism, and all feedback on another student’s work by the tutor and other students should be delivered in that spirit.
For classes longer than one day regular reading and writing exercises will be set for completion at home to set deadlines.
Please bring your own writing materials. You are welcome to bring a laptop or tablet to use during in-class writing exercises if you feel it will help you.
We recommend that those new to writing at Build try one of our Ways into Creative Writing courses. Call the writing department for advice and guidance if you are not sure which course to take next.
All students are invited to join us at Late Lines, our regular performance night for Build writers. Students are also encouraged to submit their work to Between the Lines, our annual anthology of creative writing. For the latest news, courses and events, stay in touch with the Department on and Twitter.
This was the first time in my life that I enjoyed learning about grammar. The course is structured so that important points about grammar are covered with examples given. Students are encouraged to practise these concepts through writing creatively and commenting on each other's work. The tutor answered all grammar questions that came up and suggested further resources for those who wished to learn more. Short homework assignments are given and I found each one fun to complete because it always involved a creative writing element. I never spent more than half an hour on each assignment. The course is also incredibly well organised so I felt at ease and well supported the whole time. At the end of the course each student got to hand in up to three pieces of work in order to get detailed feedback on grammar. The course met all my learning goals, but the cherry on top was that it did that in a fun way.
Review by Bonnie / (Posted on 09/07/2015)
[The tutor] is an amazing teacher.
Review by Anna / (Posted on 13/04/2015)
Course Code: HW286
Mon, day, 23 Sep - 02 Dec '19
Mon, day, 13 Jan - 23 Mar '20 Mon, day, 20 Apr - 06 Jul '20 Finished Mon, day, 29 Apr - 08 Jul '19
best-cooler.reviews/best-soft-sided-cooler-guide/
www.best-cooler.reviews/pelican-coolers-for-sale/
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2880
|
__label__cc
| 0.679285
| 0.320715
|
New Release: Captivated, by Perri Forrest
London Tanner’s day just went from bad to worse.
She’s fresh off the weekend and shows up to the job that she loves, and has dedicated herself to for the past 12 years. In the middle of checking emails, and preparing to begin her day, Carter Hampton enters her office space and requests her presence in his office. Once there, she finds herself on the other end of accusations of fraud that she firmly denies. After arguing her point for what seems like forever, she soon hears the words, “Today is your last day”, pour from his mouth.
Defeated and broken, London decides to drop a bomb of her own, prior to her departure. Having had the last word, she leaves the building in tears and with her final paycheck in hand. With nowhere else to turn, she heads to the arms of the only person she knows can love her past the devastation of the moment.
It’s no secret that London’s boyfriend Brandon wants her to move to Southern California to begin a life with him, and now that she has no job to return to, she can do just that. However, as London prepares to leave the old life behind and enter a new phase, the unexpected occurs…they want her back.
Reluctantly, she takes them up on their offer. She still has unfinished business with the company she’s given her all to—having been with the company since she was eighteen, it’s the only job she knows. However, London soon finds out that it’s not just the company that wants her back, but the very person to crush her world in the first place.
Carter Hampton reenters her life. It’s not like she didn’t notice before, but now even more so…He’s charismatic, attractive, and extremely wealthy.
London tries to hold on to the contempt she feels for Carter, but it isn’t long before she finds that it isn’t an emotional hold she can separate herself from. As he settles deeper and deeper into her heart, the feelings can no longer be denied. She has to face the fact, and stop running from what she has been fighting to believe for so long…that she is Captivated by the very thought of him.
Amazon US: http://amzn.to/1vE24uO
Amazon UK: http://tinyurl.com/lh9z5fh
London was in deep thought. She was shaken. She still felt Carter’s hands, his lips, and her
willing participation. Why was she even entertaining thoughts of this person who almost allowed
another person to tear her world down? Why the attraction? She was supposed to hate him! He
was as guilty as Annie, if not more. He held the power!
The way he spoke to her that day rang in her ear. She shrunk against herself remembering
how she felt—the humiliation, the tears, the emotion. The trip to San Diego where she couldn’t
immediately give herself over to Brandon because of the hurt she felt.
She was on autopilot. She was hot and she was bothered and there was no quick fix in sight.
Since she and Brandon had parted ways, she had no one on radar to put her out of her misery.
Her vibrator was a good source, but somehow with hours left to get through the day, she didn’t
think it would help. That was way too many hours off.
There was a rising urge coming from between her legs that wouldn’t go away no matter how
tightly she gripped her thighs together. It was unbearable. It had total control over her thought
process, as well as her actions.
When London found herself headed back up the elevators and toward Mercedes, the lie fell
from her lips so easily, it surprised even her.
“Hi again, Mercedes,” she said. She wore a nervous smile. “Can you please ring Carter for
me? I forgot an item on the agenda that’s of the utmost importance.”
Four minutes later, Carter appeared in the area behind reception and signaled towards London
to come to his office.Once they were inside, he appeared slightly nervous, and stood near the door running his hand through his short, dark waves. “What…did you come back to rip me a new one?”
London didn’t immediately respond. Instead, she walked to the bar and poured a double shot
of Vodka. She tipped the glass upward, allowing the warmth to flow through to her chest.
“Whoa!” he exclaimed. “You might wanna slow down, London. I don’t stock the cheap
Still no response. She boldly sized him up as she poured another shot.
Suave and fucking debonair, Carter Hampton.
Why do I want you in a way that I know I shouldn’t?
Carter crossed his arms across his chest as he watched London take down her shot. She
replaced her glass on the bar’s surface.
“Should I pour me one too and join the party? Will this entire exchange be one-sided? How
much of this do you—”
“Lock the door…” London instructed.
His eyes got wide for a brief second as though he had heard her incorrectly.
“Lock the door…” she repeated.
Doing as he was told, Carter turned around slowly to adjust the lock, then turned back in her
direction. Once the door was secure, with no chance of surprise interruptions, she asked: “Are you
Everything from there happened quickly because she feared that she would come to her
senses and leave without getting what she came for.
Down the corridor, past his office, was something that she hadn’t even expected—a fully
furnished bedroom, with big screen television, small stereo system, full bathroom, and king sized
bed.
“Don’t get shy on me now, Carter. Come here. This is what you wanted, right?” She unzipped
the side of her dress and allowed it to fall to the ground of his bedroom floor. “I mean the way
you look at me,” she said, removing her matching bra and panty set. “The way you kissed me not too long ago…” She walked toward him and removed his blazer, tie and all the other blockages.
When she pulled down his boxer briefs, she nodded in approval. “Yes, even better than I
expected,” she said stroking his protruding manhood.
She stepped back from where he stood and moved to the center of his bed ready to receive
him, “This is what you want, right?”
It was what he wanted, and without a second thought Carter made his move. Face first, he
wasted no time going straight to dessert where he teased, licked, sucked, and devoured every
inch of her sweetness. Her cove met his mouth with frenzied thrusts as she lost herself in the
thrill of him.
It was only once her cries simmered that she realized she was coming down from a high—the
most intense orgasm she had ever had the pleasure of. Around them both, the room became
eerily quiet. And although she resided in the realm of euphoria, the reality of what happened hit
her like a ton of bricks.
Her body was thankful. Her mind was racing.
Perri Forrest was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, and raised in sunny California. She describes herself
as a trilogy—a Businesswoman who navigates through Corporate America flawlessly from
Human Resources to Project Management, a Sociologist with a burning desire to save the world,
and an Author who loves writing life into fiction.
When Perri suffered the devastating loss of her first cousin on her birthday, in 2006, with a few
months left to complete her undergraduate studies, she barely made it through. A good friend not
only suggested that she begin blogging to journal her moods and thoughts, that same friend
gifted her with a newly designed blog platform, which birthed her first e-journal.
The blog opened a whole new world for Perri and served as a place she could express candidly,
about life. When her blog was discovered and she began receiving compliments on not just her
candor, but on her writing style as well, it fueled the fire, and thoughts of penning a novel
resurfaced.
The lingering doubts of, “Who would even want to read your work?” were replaced with, “Worry
about an audience later, and just do it.”
And that she did.
Perri writes what she likes to call, “Multicultural Mayhem, laced with Sex, Cursing, Sass and the
Occasional Happily Ever After.”
Perri plans to perfect her craft and delve into other genres, down the line. With “Amazon
bestselling author,” added to her list of credits, Perri is in the writing game for the long haul and
has no intentions of putting down her pen any time soon.
Follow Perri Forrest
Facebook Author Page
Facebook Friend page
Amazon Book Page
GIVEAWAY LINK
Goodreads NG
Goodreads 2GBGW
2 Girls A Book And A Glass Of Wine
Thank you for taking part x
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2883
|
__label__cc
| 0.55303
| 0.44697
|
Anderson Cooper 360
The Ed Show
ABC News Good Morning America
60 Minutes on CNBC : CNBC : September 3, 2012 2:00pm-3:00pm EDT
Sep 3, 2012 09/12
by CNBC
billionaires a generation apart who revolutionized the world of computing and the internet. facebook ceo mark zuckerberg and paul allen, microsoft's cofounder. we begin with mark zuckerberg and facebook. if you have a facebook account, you've probably reconnected with an old pal, shared photos with your family, and gotten advice from your friends on what to buy and what to read. but facebook has bigger plans. it wants to turn the entire web into one big social network. lesley stahl first talked with mark zuckerberg in 2008, and three years later, we sat down with mark again. he gave us a preview of his site's new profile page, a change that would affect the 500 million people who were then using facebook, an idea that zuckerberg had cooked up in his dorm room at harvard. >> when you first thought about this--19 years old--is this what you had in mind? did you see this far into the future, or is it way beyond what you dreamed? >> well, it's funny. i mean, when i was getting started, you know, with my roommates in college, you never think that you could build this company or anything like
billionaires a generation apart who revolutionized the world of computing and the internet. facebook ceo mark zuckerberg and paul allen, microsoft's cofounder. we begin with mark zuckerberg and facebook. if you have a facebook account, you've probably reconnected with an old pal, shared photos with your family, and gotten advice from your friends on what to buy and what to read. but facebook has bigger plans. it wants to turn the entire web into one big social network. lesley stahl first...
Facebook CEO Mark Zukerberg : CSPAN : September 15, 2012 8:00pm-8:30pm EDT
zucker work on a feature of facebook. then offer an internet occupy nor andrew keen on the status social media. after that, and look at some of the 9/11 more gills held this week. -- memorials held this week. mark zuckerberg says his social network of stock performance has been disappointing. he sat down to talk about the future of baseball -- of facebok book. and this is about 35 minutes. >> please join me in welcoming to the stage facebook founder mark zuckerberg and techcrunch founder michael arrington. [applause] they already yelling. >> what is that? did i mess up already? there are a few more people in here. i think they want to hear what you have to say. welcome to techcrunch. >> thank you for having me perplexed and this venue probably looks familiar. -- thank you for having me. >>this venue look probably looked familiar. >> you get more people in here that we do. >> are you ready? a few questions to start. he went public on may 18th and the stock has lost half its value roughly. >> just get right into it. [laughter] >> if you could have done anything differently with hindsight,
zucker work on a feature of facebook. then offer an internet occupy nor andrew keen on the status social media. after that, and look at some of the 9/11 more gills held this week. -- memorials held this week. mark zuckerberg says his social network of stock performance has been disappointing. he sat down to talk about the future of baseball -- of facebok book. and this is about 35 minutes. >> please join me in welcoming to the stage facebook founder mark zuckerberg and techcrunch founder...
Press Here : KNTV : September 23, 2012 9:00am-9:30am PDT
tweet out a sale or give a discount to facebook users to drive traffic, but experts on toys are not experts on social media. businesses are left wondering what works, what doesn't, and how do you measure it? i mean shaun knows, he's the ceo of new york city's giraffe. joined by john schwartz and rich. there are people and companies pouring millions into social media and goes back to the original problem, they haven't got the metric to figure out if this is going to work or not. >> that's correct. it's a big problem. >> it's a huge problem. i don't think we've seen businesses do that recently where that kind of summon chasing so many uncertain sort of things. >> you're right. it's part of trying to compete with basically amazon. every retailer on earth is trying to figure out what am i supposed to do online, how do i become successful, how do i not give up my entire business to amazon or e-bay? they are all trying to figure out the best channel to reach consumers. fortunately for silicon valley, there's another company, facebook, google, pinterest. >> the pinterest got my attention.
tweet out a sale or give a discount to facebook users to drive traffic, but experts on toys are not experts on social media. businesses are left wondering what works, what doesn't, and how do you measure it? i mean shaun knows, he's the ceo of new york city's giraffe. joined by john schwartz and rich. there are people and companies pouring millions into social media and goes back to the original problem, they haven't got the metric to figure out if this is going to work or not. >> that's...
Mad Money : CNBC : September 4, 2012 6:00pm-7:00pm EDT
facebooker regularly. to me, the stocks are saying europe will do the right thing. he points out the more important bond markets are saying otherwise. here's the bottom line, though. rebounds like the one we got today make me feel more confident that mr. market knows good things are on the horizon in europe. and that gives me more confidence that the worse it gets the better it gets will once again play ou to the positive. unlike so many others, i don't want to flee the market because of that gauntlet or because september is historically the worst month of year. you shouldn't either. let's go to brett in new mexico. >> caller: i'm calling from the four corners area of new mexico. >> i'm loving that. what's up? >> caller: i'm holding out on malycorp for any glitter of hope. is it time to buy more, average down, sell and take the loss or hold it? >> i vice president liked molycorp for many, many points. jim. >> caller: and army boo-yah in washington. >> thank you for serving. boo-yah right back at you. >> caller: ariba, inc., arba was recently bought out by s.a.p. what happens to us sh
facebooker regularly. to me, the stocks are saying europe will do the right thing. he points out the more important bond markets are saying otherwise. here's the bottom line, though. rebounds like the one we got today make me feel more confident that mr. market knows good things are on the horizon in europe. and that gives me more confidence that the worse it gets the better it gets will once again play ou to the positive. unlike so many others, i don't want to flee the market because of that...
Fast Money : CNBC : September 11, 2012 5:00pm-6:00pm EDT
of hit. america the great, america the resilient. >>> breaking news. facebook ceo mark zuckerberg set to deliver his first public comments since the ipo. we will bring you those comments as soon as they begin. you see the stage there awaiting for participants to walk out. let's turn to our traders here. what does zuckerberg need to say tonight to restore confidence in a stock that is down 15%. >> we can monetize mobile. i don't know that is what he will say. i don't expect that at all. i think he shouldn't focus on the stock price. that is beyond his control. he shouldn't have investors focus on it much the same way that he doesn't focus on his stock price. >> the problem is it looks like he is not delivering on fundamentals either. you are the only one here on the desk who can make a case for owning facebook. >> i do own it through the weekly calls. i think what he needs to do is go back to where this company was six months ago. i don't know if that's possible. if he can i think the stock has been beaten down so much there is a lot of upside from here. when this ipo came out the
of hit. america the great, america the resilient. >>> breaking news. facebook ceo mark zuckerberg set to deliver his first public comments since the ipo. we will bring you those comments as soon as they begin. you see the stage there awaiting for participants to walk out. let's turn to our traders here. what does zuckerberg need to say tonight to restore confidence in a stock that is down 15%. >> we can monetize mobile. i don't know that is what he will say. i don't expect that...
KQEH (PBS) (KQED Plus)
Nightly Business Report : KQEH : September 11, 2012 6:30pm-7:00pm PDT
by KQEH
- profile tech company was out talking late today. facebook's c.e.o mark zuckerberg made his first public appearance since his company sold stock to the public in may. shares of facebook trade at about half the price they were when it went public. they were $38 a share that first day; today, they closed below $19.50 after a 3.3% gain today. this afternoon, zuckerberg said the long-term for the company rests with its mobile strategy. >> tom: max wolf is a senior analyst and chief economist at greencrest capital. joining us tonight from the nasdaq. so max, how about it. do you think the markets understatementing facebook? >> well, i slirt hope so, especially for those people who bought it around $38. i know they think so soo. it's disheart ening to see a lesser focus on the investor community. on the our hand i think it was good to see zuckerberg go out there, be honest, adegrees the short falls, the quote unquite disappointment around the i. p. o., which i know was a $50 billion market loss, was fairly widely felt. to begin the process hopefully of rebuilding faith and rebuilding co
- profile tech company was out talking late today. facebook's c.e.o mark zuckerberg made his first public appearance since his company sold stock to the public in may. shares of facebook trade at about half the price they were when it went public. they were $38 a share that first day; today, they closed below $19.50 after a 3.3% gain today. this afternoon, zuckerberg said the long-term for the company rests with its mobile strategy. >> tom: max wolf is a senior analyst and chief economist...
Options Action : CNBC : September 2, 2012 6:00am-6:30am EDT
now you stay safe. bye-bye. this is ""options action"." facebook hit another all-time low. fear not. dan nathan can get your money back in just under four months. he'll break it all down. how would you like to buy boeing for just over a buck. it's options trade on the aerospace giant and they will show you how to make some money too and why were those traders on molycorp calls? the action begins right now. and live in the nasdaq market sight, i'm mandy drury in for melissa lee. these are the traders in times square. the markets are getting a bernanke bounce. the dow, nasdaq, s&p and gold higher on hopes of more qe. but, there was one stock that was really breaking the hearts of retail traders yet again and that would be facebook. is there any hope for this fiasco? let's get in the money now and find out. i believe this performance comes on a day that tech was quite strong. >> it was quite strong. first things first. you were a sight for sore eyes. you thought you were going to have us talk to a chair. >> that's later on in the show. >> listen, we had the bounce and a lot of risk ass
now you stay safe. bye-bye. this is ""options action"." facebook hit another all-time low. fear not. dan nathan can get your money back in just under four months. he'll break it all down. how would you like to buy boeing for just over a buck. it's options trade on the aerospace giant and they will show you how to make some money too and why were those traders on molycorp calls? the action begins right now. and live in the nasdaq market sight, i'm mandy drury in for melissa...
Street Signs : CNBC : September 12, 2012 2:00pm-3:00pm EDT
we'll see greater facebook integration. the cool thing about whenever there is an executive like ea, 30 minutes ago, the video game company executive stepped on stage and showed off the stock. we can bring up maybe ea guys. got a pop. whenever we see or hear discussion about a specific company, those stocks do tend to move. maybe not apple, but the other stocks do tend to move. >> those in the periphery. it is kind of ironic. iphone bigger and the ipad potentially smaller. >>> mark zuckerberg made his first comments last night since the facebook ipo in may. a lot of people were surprised at just how poised and confident he was up there on the stage. >> that's right, mandy. we've done a lot of zuckerberg interviews. we heard him speak a number of times and he certainly seemed a lot more comfortable than he has in the past. he came across as pretty relaxed, confident and realistic pin stead of insisting he's focused solely on facebook's product, he made a point of saying that he cares about facebook's shareholders and he acknowledged the company's challenges. >> is there a morale prob
we'll see greater facebook integration. the cool thing about whenever there is an executive like ea, 30 minutes ago, the video game company executive stepped on stage and showed off the stock. we can bring up maybe ea guys. got a pop. whenever we see or hear discussion about a specific company, those stocks do tend to move. maybe not apple, but the other stocks do tend to move. >> those in the periphery. it is kind of ironic. iphone bigger and the ipad potentially smaller. >>>...
Internet & Silicon Valley : CSPAN : September 15, 2012 11:30pm-12:30am EDT
news. we have more people playing games on facebook platform now that we have in the past. 235 million people play games monthly. so that israel. the thing i'm spending most of my time now is -- so that is real. the thing i missed in the most of my time now is -- facebook should be about people building apps inside our environment. people being able to bring contacts from aps back to facebook. you're starting to see a lot of interesting stuff. spotify is kiiling it. air bnb is doing interesting stuff. a lot of interesting things that are going on. that is one of the areas i am personally excited about. all developers want more distribution. one of the reason things we did on the margin between platform and ads -- this new way of thinking. we lost a product recently -- we luanched a products recently -- we launched a product recently that allows you as a developer to put in a different market segments and say how much you're willing to pay for it. and you embed the facebook sek into your app. we give social context. it has great roi. we have done a bunch of private testing and is workin
news. we have more people playing games on facebook platform now that we have in the past. 235 million people play games monthly. so that israel. the thing i'm spending most of my time now is -- so that is real. the thing i missed in the most of my time now is -- facebook should be about people building apps inside our environment. people being able to bring contacts from aps back to facebook. you're starting to see a lot of interesting stuff. spotify is kiiling it. air bnb is doing...
Facebook CEO Mark Zukerberg : CSPAN : September 15, 2012 11:00pm-11:30pm EDT
and c-span.org. watch engage. next, the future of facebook. been author and internet on to burn your andrew keen. then a look at some of the 9/11 memorial's held this week. >> this week, prime minister david cameron talks about the tribune strikes and the economy, including new unemployment numbers that showed jobless figure is down. he also talks about encouraging chinese investments in the u.k. prime minister's questions at 9:00 p.m. eastern sunday on c- span. >> 28-year-old facebook ceo mark zuckerbrg says that his company's stock performance has been disappointing. these are his first public remarks since facebook went public in may. these remarks are about 35 men against. -- about 35 minutes. >> please join me in welcoming to the stage facebook founder mark zuckerberg and techcrunch founder michael arrington. [applause] they are already yelling. >> what is that? did i mess up already? there are a few more people in here. i think they want to hear what you have to say. welcome to techcrunch. >> thank you for having me. >> this venue probably looks familiar. you probably feel fair
and c-span.org. watch engage. next, the future of facebook. been author and internet on to burn your andrew keen. then a look at some of the 9/11 memorial's held this week. >> this week, prime minister david cameron talks about the tribune strikes and the economy, including new unemployment numbers that showed jobless figure is down. he also talks about encouraging chinese investments in the u.k. prime minister's questions at 9:00 p.m. eastern sunday on c- span. >> 28-year-old...
Press Here : KNTV : September 9, 2012 9:00am-9:30am PDT
morning, everyone. i'm scott mcgrew. if you use facebook to find old friends and linkedin to find new jobs, what do you use to find a copy of the great gatsby at 10:00 at night the night before the book report is due? you can run from house to house asking the neighbors or do the very same thing on your computer using a new social network called neck door. it's kind of a craigslist meets facebook, a social network of neighborhoods. membership in nextdoor is restricted to people who can prove they live in your neighborhood. which means the conversations are ultra local. discussions about the new principal at the school or questions about why they're tearing up the streets and often warnings of a break-in that you'd never hear about on television or read about in the newspaper. >> both successful, occasionally controversial. he's the founder of next door, which is less than one year old and is growing quickly joined by tim mcnicholas of fortune, as well. let me start with this idea that i think facebook is vulnerable here. there is -- you can post on facebook, hey, does anybody have a c
morning, everyone. i'm scott mcgrew. if you use facebook to find old friends and linkedin to find new jobs, what do you use to find a copy of the great gatsby at 10:00 at night the night before the book report is due? you can run from house to house asking the neighbors or do the very same thing on your computer using a new social network called neck door. it's kind of a craigslist meets facebook, a social network of neighborhoods. membership in nextdoor is restricted to people who can prove...
Options Action : CNBC : September 29, 2012 6:00am-6:30am EDT
seems to care about tonight and that is facebook. shares surging more than 6% after it announces it will move into the e-commerce space. is america's long national nightmare over? a game changer for facebook? >> not likely. here is the situation. the sentiment was so poor heading into the last few weeks and we saw the bounce it got off of zuckerburg's speech at the tech crunch and the way it sold off after bearish cover story. today these guys are so levered to desktop advertising. today they introduce something where they are a gift giving service where you do not have to leave facebook. there is one of the things that he has been suggesting that they can do to monetize. >> he did a very nice job when he gave that little speech. any kind of news could be observed as a real positive with a lot of dialogue because they have so many users. they don't have to do a lot of things right. this is a stock that trades at a high multiple. you are saying you have about a billion users out there. >> we don't know is the bottom line. >> this is a tiny step. they are going to allow people to send
seems to care about tonight and that is facebook. shares surging more than 6% after it announces it will move into the e-commerce space. is america's long national nightmare over? a game changer for facebook? >> not likely. here is the situation. the sentiment was so poor heading into the last few weeks and we saw the bounce it got off of zuckerburg's speech at the tech crunch and the way it sold off after bearish cover story. today these guys are so levered to desktop advertising. today...
Mad Money : CNBC : September 4, 2012 11:00pm-12:00am EDT
make you more money. >> coming up, social status. it's been a nonstop slide for facebook since going public and losing nearly half its value. but who's really to blame for its sagging share price? cramer's answer may surprise you. and later, sunshine. since sunrise senior living ceo appeared on the show last year, its stock has more than doubled, receiving a takeover bid at a 62% premium. but are there other bidders that could still drive it higher? cramer asks the ceo next. all coming up on "mad money." >>> say what you will about facebook, the ipo was a fiasco, the stock is a disaster area and the company mite very well be run by a bunch of jokers if not midnight tokers, and we've all been wondering where in the world is waldo zuckerberg, although we were gratified tonight that he filed with the government saying he won't sell his shares for at least a year. hallelujah! i'm not here to blame zuckerberg for the collapse of the stock or praise him for not wanting to sell down here. in fact, somebody has to admit that facebook is not solely to blame for the fact that its stock keeps g
make you more money. >> coming up, social status. it's been a nonstop slide for facebook since going public and losing nearly half its value. but who's really to blame for its sagging share price? cramer's answer may surprise you. and later, sunshine. since sunrise senior living ceo appeared on the show last year, its stock has more than doubled, receiving a takeover bid at a 62% premium. but are there other bidders that could still drive it higher? cramer asks the ceo next. all coming...
back in facebook for free? you don't have to like zuck. you just have to like the trade on the social giant. he'll show you how to get your money back. talk about two crude cats. khouw and carter have a a way to buy halliburton stock for just $1. why were options traders renting. scott nations explains. the action begins now. >>> live from the nasdaq at the world's largest i'm melissa lee. these are the traders here in times square. stocks rebounding. off the lows today. still feeling the pain from spain. the best third quarter in two years is in the books. there is only one stock that america seems to care about tonight and that is facebook. shares surging more than 6% after it announces it will move into the e-commerce space. is america's long national nightmare over? let's find out. a game changer for facebook? or just short covering? >> not likely. here is the situation. the sentiment was so poor heading into the last few weeks and we saw the bounce it got off of zuckerburg's speech at the tech crunch and the way it sold off after a cover story suggesting that the stock is worth $
back in facebook for free? you don't have to like zuck. you just have to like the trade on the social giant. he'll show you how to get your money back. talk about two crude cats. khouw and carter have a a way to buy halliburton stock for just $1. why were options traders renting. scott nations explains. the action begins now. >>> live from the nasdaq at the world's largest i'm melissa lee. these are the traders here in times square. stocks rebounding. off the lows today. still feeling...
Washington This Week : CSPAN : September 16, 2012 2:00pm-4:12pm EDT
opportunity for facebook? or is it your weakness? >> it really is back to what i was saying before. mobile is -- there are going to be more users. each user is going to spend more time, and for the amount of time we spend, we will be making more money. it is pretty easy to paint the picture for all of those. more users in the world. more engagers. more users engaged on a daily basis. since we did the new version of the ios app, we have seen already the amount of feed stories that people consumed per user on a daily basis. we have shown that in addition to already been ahead on global engagement, there are huge things we can do that can move the needle on the. i am really optimistic, because you know mobil is a lot closer to tv then desktop. on desktop, for the past five or six years, we have had these right-hand columns, the ads. we have had a team that has worked largely in isolation to build this service that any product team at facebook can use. you are building a product. you can with these ads on the side of your product. with mobile, that will not be the answer. what we are seeing no
opportunity for facebook? or is it your weakness? >> it really is back to what i was saying before. mobile is -- there are going to be more users. each user is going to spend more time, and for the amount of time we spend, we will be making more money. it is pretty easy to paint the picture for all of those. more users in the world. more engagers. more users engaged on a daily basis. since we did the new version of the ios app, we have seen already the amount of feed stories that people...
Fast Money Halftime Report : CNBC : September 5, 2012 12:00pm-1:00pm EDT
>>> our twitter question today what dan mark zuckerberg say to turn facebook shares around? our favorite today john writes we're giving some consideration to running this thing like a business. there's an idea. that's it for us today. let's give wapner a big welcome home. "fast money halftime" starts right now. >> all right carl. thanks so much. welcome to the halftime report. here is what we're following on the show today. zuckerberg friends shareholders. the facebook founder is not selling. should you be buying? and china, correction or crash? a dire prediction for that country's economy and stock market. and what it means to your investments. we're trading all of the big movers today with pete najarian, john najarian, simon baker and steve grasso. our top story the market's moment of truth. investors bracing for big news from draghi, bernanke, on friday's jobs report. pete najarian the next seven days could very well decide whether this market takes a leg up, a leg down, how do you see it? are you as bullish as you've been? >> i continue to be bullish and here is why. when i
>>> our twitter question today what dan mark zuckerberg say to turn facebook shares around? our favorite today john writes we're giving some consideration to running this thing like a business. there's an idea. that's it for us today. let's give wapner a big welcome home. "fast money halftime" starts right now. >> all right carl. thanks so much. welcome to the halftime report. here is what we're following on the show today. zuckerberg friends shareholders. the facebook...
The Gavin Newsom Show : CURRENT : September 21, 2012 11:00pm-12:00am PDT
by CURRENT
much more reindicate at this time in our schools but we begin with facebook. elliot, it's great to have you on the show. >> happy to be here. >> gavin: is it a bigger challenge that suck success in many ways scrutiny, folks like me in public life looking down, issues, i don't want to bud you with aburdenyou, interact with elects officials, billions of dollars cash, expected to spend it, and people can criticize instagram worth $740 million versus now the billion and it was valdiron. what's the challenge of success from your enter tech sniff. >> weperspective. >> we had lots of conversation about his whether being public would change us. in many of the ways that you were suggesting. even in talking from my role, which has been a role that manages our external relationships with the press with people -- individual citizens with users governments and regulators. i think it's wrong to suggestion there is a transformation now that we are a public company. to be sure there is another audience, constituency of investors. but as you know, we were pretty thoroughly scrutinized by regulators
much more reindicate at this time in our schools but we begin with facebook. elliot, it's great to have you on the show. >> happy to be here. >> gavin: is it a bigger challenge that suck success in many ways scrutiny, folks like me in public life looking down, issues, i don't want to bud you with aburdenyou, interact with elects officials, billions of dollars cash, expected to spend it, and people can criticize instagram worth $740 million versus now the billion and it was...
Options Action : CNBC : September 14, 2012 5:00pm-5:30pm EDT
facebook? don't ask this guy. >> the performance of the stock has been disappointing. >> because we will show you how to get your money back, too. plus five is alive. the release of iphone 5 has sent apple to another all-time high. an options trade can double your money by the end of the year. why were options traders digging dole foods? the action begins now. >>> live from the nasdaq i'm melissa lee. these are the traders here. we will get to the trades in a second. the fed fix is in. stocks hitting five year highs today in hopes of more stimulus. the goal tonight is clear, give you names and strategies to profit. let's get into money and start with our resident. do you finally say uncle? >> the fix is in here. we have the election coming up. in a lot of ways we have to consolidate some of the price action we have seen. we are starting to see the financials the way they participated. we are seeing rotation out of defensive names. it probably has to consolidate. we are going to need to see consolidation at the multi year highs. >> what are you saying in terms of call activity? >> we
facebook? don't ask this guy. >> the performance of the stock has been disappointing. >> because we will show you how to get your money back, too. plus five is alive. the release of iphone 5 has sent apple to another all-time high. an options trade can double your money by the end of the year. why were options traders digging dole foods? the action begins now. >>> live from the nasdaq i'm melissa lee. these are the traders here. we will get to the trades in a second. the...
CNN Newsroom : CNN : September 11, 2012 3:00pm-4:00pm EDT
as ceo. but just a short time from now, facebook's mark zuckerberg answers critics in public. and as syrians run for their lives, one of hollywood's most recognizable stars visits with those forced to flee. there are a lot of warning lights and sounds vying for your attention. so we invented a warning you can feel. introducing the all-new cadillac xts. available with a patented safety alert seat. when there's danger you might not see, you're warned by a pulse in the seat. it's technology you won't find in a mercedes e-class. the all-new cadillac xts has arrived, and it's bringing the future forward. as part of a heart healthy diet. that's true. ...but you still have to go to the gym. ♪ the one and only, cheerios [ male announcer ] red lobster's endless shrimp is back... but only for a limited time! try as much as you like, any way you like! like parmesan crusted shrimp just $14.99. i'm ryan isabell and i sea food differently. try the #1 gastroenterologist recommended probiotic. align. align naturally helps maintain digestive balance. ♪ ooh, baby, can i do for you today? ♪ try a
as ceo. but just a short time from now, facebook's mark zuckerberg answers critics in public. and as syrians run for their lives, one of hollywood's most recognizable stars visits with those forced to flee. there are a lot of warning lights and sounds vying for your attention. so we invented a warning you can feel. introducing the all-new cadillac xts. available with a patented safety alert seat. when there's danger you might not see, you're warned by a pulse in the seat. it's technology you...
WBAL (NBC)
Mad Money : WBAL : September 5, 2012 3:00am-4:00am EDT
by WBAL
the ceo next. and later, social status. it's been a nonstop slide for facebook since going public and losing nearly half its value. but who's really to blame for its sagging share price? cramer's answer may surprise you. plus, sunshine. since sunrise senior living ceo appeared on the show last year, its stock has more than doubled receiving a takeover bid at a 62% premium. but there are other bidders that could still drive it higher. cramer asks the ceo next. all coming up on "mad money." don't miss a second of "mad money." follow @jimcramer on twitter. have a question, tweet cramer, #madtweets. send him an e-mail at madmoney.cnbc.com or call us at 1-800-743-cnbc. miss something? head to madmoney.cnbc.com. what does fall smell like? head north, to someplace pristine like acadia national park. there is nothing like the parks this time of year. the falling leaves, the crisp air, the perfect inspiration for air wick's fall collection. yeah, when i smell all those things, i know fall is in the air. the fall collection brought to you by air wick and the national park foundation. someth
the ceo next. and later, social status. it's been a nonstop slide for facebook since going public and losing nearly half its value. but who's really to blame for its sagging share price? cramer's answer may surprise you. plus, sunshine. since sunrise senior living ceo appeared on the show last year, its stock has more than doubled receiving a takeover bid at a 62% premium. but there are other bidders that could still drive it higher. cramer asks the ceo next. all coming up on "mad...
The Communicators : CSPAN : September 1, 2012 6:30pm-7:00pm EDT
important tool. we use it for communications. we have 288 facebook pages with 13 million fans. i think we have almost 200 official twitter accounts with a couple million followers. we are using it for communication, but of greater consequence in my opinion is part of what we are looking at our some really tough traditional foreign policy challenges -- are some really tough traditional foreign-policy challenges and thinking about how we can apply to america's unique strengths of our ability and technology and see how we can apply this to any given foreign policy challenge. >> when you release information via facebook or twitter -- >> we do. there are times when the official statement from our spokesperson or from the department will come over twitter. it is interesting to think about syria. no member of the united states government will ever be able to get a fair shake on syrian media, and we have a terrific ambassador to syria named robert ford. what he began doing was his way of communicating with the syrian public since he was being blacked out of traditional media in syria was
important tool. we use it for communications. we have 288 facebook pages with 13 million fans. i think we have almost 200 official twitter accounts with a couple million followers. we are using it for communication, but of greater consequence in my opinion is part of what we are looking at our some really tough traditional foreign policy challenges -- are some really tough traditional foreign-policy challenges and thinking about how we can apply to america's unique strengths of our ability and...
ABC7 News 430AM : KGO : September 12, 2012 4:30am-5:00am PDT
by KGO
be keeping a close look at facebook stock later this morning to see if it will gain more ground after mark zuckerberg spoke out about the company's disappointing stock offering. zuckerberg speaking out publicly for the first time yesterday about facebook's ipo he didn't apologize for the 50% drop in the share price. he admitted facebook needs to focus more on mobile users. >>> there are more users, ole, the second is that, per person using facebook on mobile, -- there's more engagement and they are spending more time. the third is per amount of time people spend on mobile we think we'll make more money than on desk top. >> facebook's stock rose 3 1/2 % at yesterday's close, $19.43. general motors a will have more on zuckerberg at 7:00. generating ref nu from mobile use is what -- revenue from mobile use is what investor are wondering about. >>> let's talk about live doppler and show you in the north bay where fog is developing along 101, thickest santa rosa 3/4 mile visibility. moisture moving away once again from california. we are going to have high pressure slowly build over
be keeping a close look at facebook stock later this morning to see if it will gain more ground after mark zuckerberg spoke out about the company's disappointing stock offering. zuckerberg speaking out publicly for the first time yesterday about facebook's ipo he didn't apologize for the 50% drop in the share price. he admitted facebook needs to focus more on mobile users. >>> there are more users, ole, the second is that, per person using facebook on mobile, -- there's more...
WBFF (FOX)
FOX 45 News at 500 : WBFF : September 13, 2012 5:00pm-5:30pm EDT
by WBFF
pointing to a posting on his facebook page that said as &pmuch. he commented on how i was the first day of school .... and last day of his life. gladden is currently on suicide wwtch at the baltimore county detention center. 22:30:42 i think he 3 center.county detention the baltimore suicide watch at the baltimore county detention center. 22:30:42 i think he expected to be killed and i think he desired to be killed yes as sad as that is i think that was the reality of this caae. butt bite 22:27:47 you have an adolescent who's alone scared independent automous despressed and overwhelmed by his personal circumstances ;55 although gladden's bail hearing was postponed.... his attorneys did begin the as juvenile. the state has d - charged him as an adult. glaaden faces 28 counts following a shooting at perry hall high that left one student critcally injured. among those charges attempted first degree murder.lepola foo 45 news at 5. check out... the entire interview... with...gladden's lawyers ...on fox baltimoreedot com.../. there's been an arresttin the double ssootinn... that left ...o
pointing to a posting on his facebook page that said as &pmuch. he commented on how i was the first day of school .... and last day of his life. gladden is currently on suicide wwtch at the baltimore county detention center. 22:30:42 i think he 3 center.county detention the baltimore suicide watch at the baltimore county detention center. 22:30:42 i think he expected to be killed and i think he desired to be killed yes as sad as that is i think that was the reality of this caae. butt bite...
Markets Now : FBC : September 24, 2012 11:00am-1:00pm EDT
by FBC
for facebook to prove the value of its advertising, the social networking site is using new ways to track data. dennis neal is covering that story and he is here now. dennis, hello. >> cheryl, you know, looks like facebook is bent on violating our digital privacy yet again as it struggles to prove its ads do work. so data logic is going to look at whether facebook users bought something after an ad popped up on facebook. so far they look at 45 campaigns and found that in like 75% of cases for every dollar spent on facebook, 3 dollars in sales resulted. so facebook under pressure from wall street to prove itself. that stock is still way below the $38 offering price, like 21 now. privacy protectors are upset. facebook says look individual user identity is never revealed. new study just numbers and percentages. when you post the most intimate details of your likes dislikes and histories and hobbies on facebook for thousands of people to see, is there any presumption of privacy? cheryl: i don't think everyone does that. i don't do that. don't you think though that the american internet
for facebook to prove the value of its advertising, the social networking site is using new ways to track data. dennis neal is covering that story and he is here now. dennis, hello. >> cheryl, you know, looks like facebook is bent on violating our digital privacy yet again as it struggles to prove its ads do work. so data logic is going to look at whether facebook users bought something after an ad popped up on facebook. so far they look at 45 campaigns and found that in like 75% of...
SFGTV: San Francisco Government Television
SFGTV : September 8, 2012 2:00pm-2:30pm PDT
by SFGTV
graduate with a degree, but to have a job as well. >> thank you. >> is an gonzalez, from facebook. and want to follow up that it is great to hear you are pursuing an education in technology, particularly in the bay area. we just launched facebook academy, where we have students working from east palo alto. to expose our youth to technology -- that is the future. i think what is interesting is social media, where we work on a social jobs partnership. how do we leverage the social web? i want to put this on the table as part of the broader conversation. for example, zynga would not exist without facebook. zynga has more employees than facebook. if we can bring the youth into all of this and the development of apps, i think we have a wonderful opportunity. >> at jomon, would you take away from that experience? -- at jawbone, what do you take away from that experience? >> to be active and take the initiative in the office. i worked at the front desk, doing office coordination. i make sure all the other employees making this technology are happy, and everything is going seamlessly. i want t
graduate with a degree, but to have a job as well. >> thank you. >> is an gonzalez, from facebook. and want to follow up that it is great to hear you are pursuing an education in technology, particularly in the bay area. we just launched facebook academy, where we have students working from east palo alto. to expose our youth to technology -- that is the future. i think what is interesting is social media, where we work on a social jobs partnership. how do we leverage the social...
Power Lunch : CNBC : September 24, 2012 1:00pm-2:00pm EDT
. for yahoo! it's the direction. for facebook it's new fears and threats regarding privacy, and then, of course, there is apple. there has been some sort of disturbance at the factory of a major apple supplier in china. there have been problems with foxconn before, and now they have broiled back up to the surface. is it a case of a few rotten apples or not? we'll look at that. also today, million dollar foreclosures on million dollar homes. foreclosing on the rich and famous. you'll want to hear these stories certainly but first ty is down at the nyse. >> welcome, everybody, to "power lunch." we'll start with what really has become the talk of the internet today. let's take a look at a picture from the "new york times" website right now. that is a shattered guard booth at a foxconn plant in taiwan, china. workers there involved in a disturbance and the plant reportedly closed. the foxconn plant there builds a lot of high-tech gear. we're not exactly sure who was fighting whom, but one reporter in the "new york times" says workers were battling with security guards there. not the firs
. for yahoo! it's the direction. for facebook it's new fears and threats regarding privacy, and then, of course, there is apple. there has been some sort of disturbance at the factory of a major apple supplier in china. there have been problems with foxconn before, and now they have broiled back up to the surface. is it a case of a few rotten apples or not? we'll look at that. also today, million dollar foreclosures on million dollar homes. foreclosing on the rich and famous. you'll want to...
... maryland is... in... custody today.. / hanks... to... facebook..../ police... say... 29-year-old... dylan.. naeckee... was captured... clicked... "like"... on... a... virginia sheriff's... facebook page..../naecker... is... a... registered ...sex offender.../ who... allegedly... fled the area... without ...telling police.../. his girrfriend... face... charges. just... days... after the death of the u-s protests... are... spreading across... the middle east. east. prottsters .. ssormiig the u-s embassy compound ...in yemen.../ demonstrators... tearing down... signs.../ and... burning the american flag, .../ but,... not enteeing ffice buildings.../.the,,, clashes... follow... the deadly attack... on the u-s consulate ... in four americans - were killed.../ &p, including... the... u-s ambassador... to libya... / chris stevens..../while... not confirmed.... some... are... saying the attack... may have been pre-planned. 53-104"the firepower deployed, the number of fighters n the ground, the sophistication of the attack, really point to a pre-planned operation." operation."the violence
... maryland is... in... custody today.. / hanks... to... facebook..../ police... say... 29-year-old... dylan.. naeckee... was captured... clicked... "like"... on... a... virginia sheriff's... facebook page..../naecker... is... a... registered ...sex offender.../ who... allegedly... fled the area... without ...telling police.../. his girrfriend... face... charges. just... days... after the death of the u-s protests... are... spreading across... the middle east. east. prottsters .....
Politics & Public Policy Today : CSPAN : September 10, 2012 10:00am-12:00pm EDT
from facebook. two great health leaders and our department, pam hyde and b jonathan blum have contributed so much to this important work. we are here today because we all have a role to play in preventing our friends, family members, colleagues, and neighbors from reaching the point where they think there is no hope and they take their own lives. that work has never been more critical than it is today. in the 1990's, we sell a slow but steady decline and the number of americans lost to suicide. since then, suicide rates have begun to rise again. today, suicide is the third leading cause of death for young people ages 15-24. we have seen especially alarming trends in our armed forces. just this july, the army lost 38 soldiers to suicide, an all-time one-month high. these are heartbreaking because they are preventable. that is why two years ago today, defense secretary robert gates and i launched the national action alliance for suicide prevention. under the leadership of senator smith and secretary mchuggh, the lines brought together advocates from private and philanthropic sec
from facebook. two great health leaders and our department, pam hyde and b jonathan blum have contributed so much to this important work. we are here today because we all have a role to play in preventing our friends, family members, colleagues, and neighbors from reaching the point where they think there is no hope and they take their own lives. that work has never been more critical than it is today. in the 1990's, we sell a slow but steady decline and the number of americans lost to...
Fox 45 Early Edition : WBFF : September 14, 2012 5:00am-5:30am EDT
facebook... may be making ou fat. p3 3 3 friday, septemberr14. 3 14.friday, september 14. 3 3 3 3 3 3 attorneysswant the 15-year old... perry hall high school shooting suspect tried as a juvenile.robert gladden's attorneyy made the request in courttyesterday. here with more on how the is - teens mental state could be a deciding factor. good morning guys,15 year old robert gladden appeared in it is in this mug shot... he a black t-shirt and black baggy pants. both sides were in court for his bail review hearing... that hearing was postponedd though because the defense said they needed more time to review some medical records. gladden is indicted on 29 counts following the erry hall school shooting that critically injured another student named daniel.although the state charged hii as an adult... gladden's attorney's want that changed. sot 22:25:35 at that age...yyu don't throw somebody away at age 15 for a bad act 3 actmental hospital doctors he has since been placed on suicide watch. while the events that landed him in jail remain a blur... gladden's attorneys say... ooe day he would l
facebook... may be making ou fat. p3 3 3 friday, septemberr14. 3 14.friday, september 14. 3 3 3 3 3 3 attorneysswant the 15-year old... perry hall high school shooting suspect tried as a juvenile.robert gladden's attorneyy made the request in courttyesterday. here with more on how the is - teens mental state could be a deciding factor. good morning guys,15 year old robert gladden appeared in it is in this mug shot... he a black t-shirt and black baggy pants. both sides were in court for his...
The Communicators : CSPAN2 : September 3, 2012 8:00pm-8:30pm EDT
facebook or twitter? >> guest: we do. there are times when the official statement from the spokesperson or the department will come over twitter. it's interesting to think about syria, frx, and syria know member of the united states government will ever be able to get a fair shake on syrian media. we have a terrific ambassador in syria named robert 0 ford. his way of communicates since he was being blacked out was publish on facebook and so a lot of what he shared both with the syrian people as well as with the outside world came from posting he made on facebook. even things like satellite photos demonstrating atrocity by the assad regime the way the state department published the comment was over facebook. >> host: you wrote that the 21ist seize i have a terrible time to be a control freak. >> guest: it is. we live in a time where the kind of control that a ceo or secretary of at a time might have had fifteen, twenty, twentd five years ago, that kind of control that leader had then is gone, and it's not coming back. it used to be the case that the most people got their new
facebook or twitter? >> guest: we do. there are times when the official statement from the spokesperson or the department will come over twitter. it's interesting to think about syria, frx, and syria know member of the united states government will ever be able to get a fair shake on syrian media. we have a terrific ambassador in syria named robert 0 ford. his way of communicates since he was being blacked out was publish on facebook and so a lot of what he shared both with the syrian...
CNN Newsroom : CNNW : September 24, 2012 12:00pm-1:00pm PDT
made public on facebook. let's go straight to dan simon, live for us in san francisco. what is the story here? >> reporter: well, i'll tell you what, we want to be very cautious and deliberate in how we approach this, this coming out just a little while ago, a couple of french newspapers are reporting that private messages sent on facebook are now just spontaneously showing up on people's walls or timelines. these messages go back to 2007, 2009, a couple of u.s.-based bloggers are reporting the same issue, but here is the thing, facebook say they have looked into this and they say that these were public wall postings to begin with, so there is no issue here. i want to put up a full screen quote of what facebook says, it says a small number of users raised concerns after what they mistakenly believed to be private messages appeared on their timeline. engineers investigated these reports and found the messages were older wall posts that had always been visible on the user's profile pages. facebook is satisfied that there has been no breach of user privacy. we got a he said/she said.
made public on facebook. let's go straight to dan simon, live for us in san francisco. what is the story here? >> reporter: well, i'll tell you what, we want to be very cautious and deliberate in how we approach this, this coming out just a little while ago, a couple of french newspapers are reporting that private messages sent on facebook are now just spontaneously showing up on people's walls or timelines. these messages go back to 2007, 2009, a couple of u.s.-based bloggers are...
Squawk on the Street : CNBC : September 25, 2012 9:00am-12:00pm EDT
stocks are all overvalued but he said he would buy shares of facebook and that the ipo decline is not a national tragedy. >> and payday for michael kors who stands to make $200 million. he remains long in the shares of this long-flying ipo. >>> caterpillar is cutting the earnings forecast and seeing a bigger drop in demand for earth moving equipment because of weaker commodity prices. they say economic growth is slowing more than the company had expected, but jim, it is for 2015. this morning you're looking at analysts viewing this in different ways. >> right. i think there's a lot of people, carl, who were saying, of course, hey, it is obviously the world is slowing. a lot of people say, look, what they're really doing is saying even in this environment we're going to make far more money than we have in the previous downturns if we get it at $6 in earnings, which is well below what they think they can earn. we'll still pay the dividend. i come back and say the acquisition, which they made and a lot of people were critical of, is working. that the synergies are working. that the c
stocks are all overvalued but he said he would buy shares of facebook and that the ipo decline is not a national tragedy. >> and payday for michael kors who stands to make $200 million. he remains long in the shares of this long-flying ipo. >>> caterpillar is cutting the earnings forecast and seeing a bigger drop in demand for earth moving equipment because of weaker commodity prices. they say economic growth is slowing more than the company had expected, but jim, it is for...
KICU
Bay Area News at 7 : KICU : September 11, 2012 7:00pm-7:30pm PDT
by KICU
improve children's safety. >> when facebook zuckerberg speaks, does the community listen? >> a warming trend. coming up, what you can expect for wednesday. we'll take a look where we'll see the temperatures the hottest. >>> slowly but are you say the power is returning to san jose after a car crash affected more than 3500 customers. the car hit a power pole on san jose avenue dropping wires in the middle of the street. it took three hours to restore the electricity but dozens remained powerless. >>> a drug sting to protect the most vulnerable population in one of san francisco's tedious neighborhoods. police targeted areas where it's common for children to see drug use as their walking to school. >> reporter: there's always something happening in san francisco. >> this is a crazy place to grow up. >> reporter: the principal says it's tough to be a child here, even to be a kindergarten teacher. >> we incorporate the word drugs. there is drugs, and they learn right off the bat what needles are. even condoms, you name it. >> reporter: that's why san francisco police conducted operation sa
improve children's safety. >> when facebook zuckerberg speaks, does the community listen? >> a warming trend. coming up, what you can expect for wednesday. we'll take a look where we'll see the temperatures the hottest. >>> slowly but are you say the power is returning to san jose after a car crash affected more than 3500 customers. the car hit a power pole on san jose avenue dropping wires in the middle of the street. it took three hours to restore the electricity but...
catch more options actions every friday at 5:00. checkout the show on the new facebook page. please like us. >>> from chips to retail we are telling you how to trade. mark zuckerburg had plenty to say at the tech crunch disrupt yesterday. our trade of the day lies behind this curtain. it is still to come. [ male announcer ] trading's like a high-speed train. and you don't want to miss it with thinkorswim by td ameritrade. you get knock-your-socks-off tools, simple one-click orders, real-time paper trading to hone your skills, plus anytime you need it support. ♪ stocks, options, futures, and forex. get your trading on track. thinkorswim by td ameritrade. trade commission free for 60 days, plus get up to $600 when you open an account. oh, hey alex. just picking up some, brochures, posters copies of my acceptance speech. great! it's always good to have a backup plan, in case i get hit by a meteor. wow, your hair looks great. didn't realize they did photoshop here. hey, good call on those mugs. can't let 'em see what you're drinking. you know, i'm glad we're both running a nice, clean
catch more options actions every friday at 5:00. checkout the show on the new facebook page. please like us. >>> from chips to retail we are telling you how to trade. mark zuckerburg had plenty to say at the tech crunch disrupt yesterday. our trade of the day lies behind this curtain. it is still to come. [ male announcer ] trading's like a high-speed train. and you don't want to miss it with thinkorswim by td ameritrade. you get knock-your-socks-off tools, simple one-click orders,...
KPIX (CBS)
CBS 5 Eyewitness News at 6PM : KPIX : September 11, 2012 6:00pm-7:00pm PDT
by KPIX
but there has been a huge outcry on internet sites, facebook, a virtual petitions. >> i have over 12,000 petitioners and that are all in support of may. they think that this case is somewhat preposterous. and ridiculous. you know, people are saying and asking questions, what is this horse doing in an off leash area? don't they know that horses and dogs don't get along? >> we have had incidents where dogs have attacked horses in golden gate park. but, i have not seen any this severe to where the owner was not able to control the dog at all, and the dog went on a half mile journey after the horse and did not give up. >> charlie is here now at animal care and control but is about to go to uc-davis for behavioral exam and there are negotiations, non. charlie may be scared but given to another owner. and the support continues to grow. >> as for the horse, he has gone out to pasture last couple of days, he was in the stable for 20 days, he was not able to get out. his future is not clear, he will survive but he may never be back with a policeman again. >> i wonder if the people in davis
but there has been a huge outcry on internet sites, facebook, a virtual petitions. >> i have over 12,000 petitioners and that are all in support of may. they think that this case is somewhat preposterous. and ridiculous. you know, people are saying and asking questions, what is this horse doing in an off leash area? don't they know that horses and dogs don't get along? >> we have had incidents where dogs have attacked horses in golden gate park. but, i have not seen any this severe...
CNN Newsroom : CNNW : September 22, 2012 2:00pm-3:00pm PDT
to people on facebook. but plenty of companies do that. so we make something else. we help make life a little easier, more convenient, more rewarding, more entertaining. year after year. it's the reason why we don't have customers. we have members. american express. welcome in. >>> nakoula basseley nakoula is a wanted man, the producer of the anti-muslim film that generated so much ang-- anger i the muslim world, already in hiding. there is a bounty on his head. he already has two groups in mind, the taliban and al qaeda who could gladly do what he calls a noble deed. the minister made it clear to cnn that this is his own idea and not the official position of pakistan's government. he feels it is his duty to do this. >>> and counter protests growing in the libyan city where the u.s. ambassador, chris stevens, and four others were killed. cnn's arwa damon has more now, from benghazi. >> this probably is one of the few countries where we are seeing mass demonstrations, not just in support of the united states, but more condemning the attack that took place on the u.s. consulate in
to people on facebook. but plenty of companies do that. so we make something else. we help make life a little easier, more convenient, more rewarding, more entertaining. year after year. it's the reason why we don't have customers. we have members. american express. welcome in. >>> nakoula basseley nakoula is a wanted man, the producer of the anti-muslim film that generated so much ang-- anger i the muslim world, already in hiding. there is a bounty on his head. he already has two...
Closing Bell : CNBC : September 18, 2012 3:00pm-4:00pm EDT
. apple stock reaches $700. facebook, $120. which is the better value? the answer may surprise you. >>> and gaffe or reality check? are mitt romney's comments harsh or the hard truth america has to face? we'll debate coming up on the "closing bell." [ male announcer ] the 2013 smart comes with 8 airbags, a crash management system and the world's only tridion safety cell which can withstand over three and a half tons. small in size. big on safety. since ameriprise financial was founded back in 1894, they've been committed to putting clients first. helping generations through tough times. good times. never taking a bailout. there when you need them. helping millions of americans over the centuries. the strength of a global financial leader. the heart of a one-to-one relationship. together for your future. ♪ [ male announcer ] the exceedingly nimble, ridiculously agile, tight turning, fun to drive 2013 smart. ♪ tight turning, fun to drive 2013 smart. extra curricular activities help provide a sense of identity and a path to success. joining the soccer team. getting help with math.
. apple stock reaches $700. facebook, $120. which is the better value? the answer may surprise you. >>> and gaffe or reality check? are mitt romney's comments harsh or the hard truth america has to face? we'll debate coming up on the "closing bell." [ male announcer ] the 2013 smart comes with 8 airbags, a crash management system and the world's only tridion safety cell which can withstand over three and a half tons. small in size. big on safety. since ameriprise financial...
Fox 45 Morning News : WBFF : September 6, 2012 6:00am-9:00am EDT
to this city-people are facebook page... megan has more on theirrreaction. peaction. good morninggguys,peoole all over baltimore... and across the nation are waking up with heavy hearts this morning... hearing this news.this is the tt baltimore. baltimmre.on our facebook page... people are sharing their memories:--craig ssys: i had the privilege of knowing mr. modell. he was a kind and gentle man. his sons are great and what a nice amily. thanks memory.--bob simply wrote... rip art modell--tyre writes: a legend in this town.--jean called him baltimore's hero --for some people they're appreciation for mr modell went even deeper... todd wrote on facebook... mr odell brought football back at the right time. itthelped me and my dad ith loss of my stepmom . thoss sunday's at memorial stadium helped our hhaling process and made our bond strrnger. let alone he fflled a void that baltimore had since 83. i am forever have his rightful place in thee nfllhall of fame for all he has done for the nnl as well. again... mr. modell died early this morning from heart failure.we're going to
to this city-people are facebook page... megan has more on theirrreaction. peaction. good morninggguys,peoole all over baltimore... and across the nation are waking up with heavy hearts this morning... hearing this news.this is the tt baltimore. baltimmre.on our facebook page... people are sharing their memories:--craig ssys: i had the privilege of knowing mr. modell. he was a kind and gentle man. his sons are great and what a nice amily. thanks memory.--bob simply wrote... rip art...
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2887
|
__label__cc
| 0.741704
| 0.258296
|
Page 1, 18 August 1900 — NEWS OF THE WEEK.
AS we write on Friday the official news has just been received, yid, Berlin, that the Allied troops have entered Pekin without fighting; that the Legations have been relieved, and the foreigners liberated. The relief felt throughout the world can hardly be exaggerated, but we must leave all comment on this most happy turn in affairs till more details are received, and till the mystery of the Legation telegrams is solved. Meantime we must record that the composite force of British, Indian, American, and Japanese troops met much less resistance on the road to Pekin than was expected. The losses from the extreme heat have, according to the American General Chaffee, been rather serious, but the casualties, except in the first fight at Pei-tsang, have not been heavy. The Chinese infantry showed themselves unable to resist the charge either of the British, the Indians, or the Japanese, while the Tartar cavalry fled before the Bengal Lancers. Those broad facts are much more important than details of skirmishes, for they imply that the Chinese, though better armed than in previous wars, are not yet fully dis- ciplined, or able to contend in the open with any hope. Whether this inferiority is universal, or may be found to be partial if there is further fighting, which it must be remem- bered is quite possible, remains to be seen, but it looks for the present as if China had acted prematurely, and before her rulers' idea of making an army had been sufficiently carried out.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2888
|
__label__cc
| 0.644583
| 0.355417
|
Page 11, 7 March 1835 — LETTERS FROM PARIS, BY 0. P. Q. No. X XXV.
7 MARCH 1835, Page 11
LETTERS FROM PARIS, BY 0. P. Q. No. X XXV.
FRANCE WITHOUT A GOVERNMENT.
TO TUE EDITOR OF THE SPECTATOR.
Paris, 4th March 1835.
SIR—This is Ash Wednesday, or "Lea Cendres." Yesterday was Fat Tuesday, or pancake-day—i. e. I" Mardi Gras." Yesterday all Paris was feasting, and to-day all Paris is fasting ! The rioting of yesterday needs the repose of to-day. There is in this something like compensation. Yesterday, men wore masks to hide their follies; but to-day they are even more brazen, and young, fat Catholic priests mark the pure white foreheads of the pretty damsels with burnt cork, cut out in the figure of a cross, to denote their faith and repentance. Yesterday, though the wind was cold enough to cut them in two, the Parisians were promenading on the Boulevards, and Lord SEYMOUR, as king of the fools, wore a fool's cap nearly big enough to cover his ears. " C'est tin milord Anglais," cried the gaping throng, as he threw about his sugar-plums and bon-bons ! He had at least the merit of being sin. gular, for no one imitated his example. To-day, thousands of the throng of yesterday are confined to their beds, with colds and sore throats ; but as all this is the result of pleasure, I have no doubt they will not complain of theirjlisasters. Thus, though France is without a Government, the Parisians are not without their aintisennents. The most entertaining Fat Tuesday I ever passed in Paris, was when the people were throwing down the Archbishop's Palace atone end of the capital, and were dancing a few minutes after on the Boulevards ! Fifteen years' popular and well-founded grudges asainst die Jesuits, were all paid off in nearly as many minutes ; but M. GUIZOT has since called this sacrilege ! So we will say no more. To-day, i. e. on Ash Wednesday 1835, France is without a Govern- ment ! " No matter," say you ; and I reply, " No matter." It is quite astonishing to see of how little use is a Government, and how quietly people can go on without one. But such long interregnums as these are almost dangerous ; for sensible people are likely to make this re- flection—viz. " How much money is expended in maintaining a Go- vernment which does so little, and is so useless." It was a wise maxim on the part of Kings to persuade men into the belief that the King never dies. The rogues were afraid lest if there should even be half an hour when there Was no King, that the people would find out that Kings were not indispensable. So " be Roi est mort," is pronounced with the same breath, as " Vive le Roi !" What a mercy for us all that we are thus supplied with an uninterrupted succession of legitimate princes ! By the by, it is reported to-day, that the Emperor of Austria is dead. We know by a telegraphic despatch that he is dying. But let the Austrians console themselves, and let us feel no alarm ; there is a fine, plump, fat-headed son to succeed, who re- joice; in the name of Franix.sxn, and is King of Hungary. The late Emperor (for I believe he is dead) insisted on receiving the last sacra- ment on the 25th. It is instructive to observe how kings become reli- gious in their last moments. But surely the shades of hundreds of his Italian victims must have hovered round his dying pillow and disturbed his tianquillity. Oh ! the hundreds of noble-minded men who, for their love of liberty, have died on scaffolds, or in dungeons, in the Austrian dominions since when in 1804 he ascended the Imperial throne. But I am wandering. He has left behind him an abundance of heirs and heiresses of all his fortune, and perchance of all his vices. France is without a Government ! Can she remain so much longer ? Oh dear, yes ! the people eat, drink, labour, pay taxes, go to church, say their prayers, dance, read the journals, sigh for VICTOR Bocci's new play, and read Abbe DE LA MENNAis' new Melanges, just the same as if TITTERS were still rampant, and as if GUIZOT were still glorious. M. DE IttEDERER, the Palace pamphleteer, if he shah read this my admission, will draw from it an argument in favour of his system, which is that of making Louis PIIILIP Emperor and Autocrat of all the Frances, as NICHOLAS is of all the Russias. These short-sighted Academicians have lived long enough, not to see, but to be blind. They mistake the momentary apathy of the people for indifference, and their cot:chant character for the hour, they misconstrue into permanent tameness and change of disposition. They are grievously mistaken ? The lion must sleep as well as prowl, must repose as well as roar, and must prepare for combat as well as vanquish. France is without a Government ! How is this ? I will tell you in a few words. Louis Pirate has come to the end of his system. He has played out all his best cards ; he has nothing remaining but pawns at chess ; and his adversary, the people, has got knights and castles c n his side. To speak without a figure—there are only about a dozen men in all France, who will be Ministers of the King Louis PHILIP, subject to the conditions he imposes ; and, therefore, he is obliged to ring the changes upon Souvr and TRIERS, DE BROGUE and GUIZOT, DE RIGBY and SEBASTIAN!; and then hack again to TRIERS and GUIZOT, SEEAS- TIANI and SOULT, DE RIGNY and DE BROGLIE, and so on, and so on, and so on, to the end of the chapter. At last, all these dozen of none- suches have begun to perceive that even the Chamber of Deputies no longer looks upon them as indispensable. They continue to say them- selves, that they "have saved the country." But the answer is, "Yes, you have saved it ; but you have saved it from peace, from plenty, and from union and happiness." There are two remedies for this state of things--and but two. I do not mean durable remedies, or that are to he efficacious for many years or even months to come. But there are two remedies for the moment.
The first is to establish a Military Government A. la MEMBER, and i Ia SOUI.T. Louis PHILIP Autocrat! The Chamber of Depu- ties to eat humble pie. The Chamber of Peers to be a Senate ! There is certainly a lack of what we mean by the word senators when we pronounce it ; but never mind—any one who can read and write can register decrees and edicts ; and RCEDERER and the courtiers on Ash Wednesday 1835 ask for nothing more. This idea of a military go- vernment is undoubtedly not very popular in France ; but it is nothing when we are used to it. Why should we not become as used to skin- ning as the eels ? IsTaroixoN flayed us for a long while ; and though be fell at last a victim to his own system, perhaps the Orleans coun- cillors may hit upon a new mode of skinning, which may last longer and become finally popular. I admit that just now there is a good deal of repugnance to this skinning plan ; but tastes differ, and public opinion changes; and as the Times is now in love with the Tories, who can tell but that the Debats may one day write the Te Deum over the downfal of a representative monarchy?
France is without a Government ! There is a second mode of remedying for the time being this little inconvenience ; and that is by calling Dem to office, and by giving him orders to form a Parlia- mentary Cabinet. But this implies a dead beat of the Palace. This implies, Down with the French Tories ! This implies, Down with the
Doctrinaires ! This implies, that Ministers are henceforth to be real Ministers, and not lawyers' clerks or notaries' apprentices. This im.. plies, that we are to begin to have something like a Representative Government, and that we are to be guided and governed by a Charter. So I am very incredulous. LOUIS PHII.IP lost his voice two days ago with a had cold ; but yesterday he had regained it to meet SEBASTIAN! and Sour.r, who both declined the honour of accepting the post of Pre- sident. This is very alarming for the new monarchy. What ! refuse one hundred thousand francs a year, besides wood and candles, and profits at the Bourse, and a percentage on Government contracts, and divers other little perquisites, in the shape of snuffboxes set with diamonds, and portraits surrounded with pearls ! Come, gentlemen,
courage, courage! There are still six good months before you! Sign the two next receipts for the two next quarters' salary ! I will not promise you many such opportunities ; brat take what you can, and when you can ; for the lion is beginning to wake, and one of these days he will make one or two mouthfuls of you all just before breakfast. This is our position on Ash Wednesday 1835. It will be very different on Ash Wednesday 1836; you may swear to that.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2889
|
__label__cc
| 0.550531
| 0.449469
|
Wireless - page 3
November 12, 2014 Broadband's Impact/International/Net Neutrality/Wireless
Internet Society of New York Event Surveys Broadband Landscape at Home and Abroad
NEW YORK, November 12, 2014 - The Internet Society of New York (ISOC-NY) and the Federal Communications Bar Association gathered at Brooklyn Law School's Forchelli Center on a beautiful November day here. The views of Brooklyn from the 22nd floor, across to Staten Island and New Jersey, were breathtaking. The action was indoors in a… Keep Reading
October 29, 2014 Broadband Data/Fiber/NTIA/Wireless
Attendees at Connect Michigan Conference Want Rural High-Speed Broadband
WASHINGTON, October 29, 2014 – Small business owners, teachers, librarians and representatives broadband industry official gathered at the 2014 Michigan Broadband Conference in the city of Lansing on Wednesday to discuss affordable and innovative ways to enhance Michiganians’ internet access. The conference was hosted by Connect Michigan, a Michigan subsidiary of the non-profit national group… Keep Reading
October 7, 2014 FCC/Fiber/Mobile Broadband/Net Neutrality/Wireless
Broadband Roundup: A Spectrum Efficiency Challenge, Comcast Comments, Verizon Vexes Industry
WASHINGTON, October 7, 2014 – Federal Communications Commissioner Jessica Rosenworcel and wireless industry pioneer Marty Cooper took to the opinion page of the San Jose Mercury News to offer their thoughts on the future of wireless spectrum. As they emphasized the importance and centrality of mobile devices and Internet access, the two highlighted the limited… Keep Reading
October 2, 2014 FCC/Media/Media Ownership/Wireless
Broadband Roundup: FTC Against Public Utility Broadband Regulation, Holder Slaps Tech Industry, and FCC Video News
WASHINGTON, October 2, 2014 - Federal Trade Commissioner Maureen Ohlhausen warned that reclassifying broadband under public utility regulation including in Title II of the Communications Act would put ISPs beyond the legal reach of the FTC, the Washington Post reported. The item was previously reported in Broadband Breakfast. Currently, the FTC is not able to… Keep Reading
September 29, 2014 Broadband's Impact/FCC/Net Neutrality/Wireless
An Active Debate Over Whether Wireless Broadband Must Also Play Under Net Neutrality Rules
WASHINGTON, September 29, 2014 – Whether or not mobile Internet providers will be subject to the same net neutrality rules as wired broadband providers has become an increasingly prominent factor in the current debate over net neutrality rules. The proposal laid out by the Federal Communications Commission in May would only be applicable to wired… Keep Reading
September 23, 2014 FCC/Fiber/Net Neutrality/Wireless
Broadband Roundup: FTC a Loser Under Title II, Rural Gigabit Projects, and Wireless Sponsored Data
WASHINGTON, September 23, 2014 - In a filing with the Federal Communications Commission, the Federal Trade Commission noted that some of its regulatory authority would be lost if the FCC decided to regulate broadband as a public utility. The FTC protects the privacy and security of consumer data by imposing obligations on broadband service providers… Keep Reading
September 22, 2014 Net Neutrality/Wireless
Broadband Roundup: Tech Companies Support Muni Broadband, Open Internet A Civil Rights Issue, Former AT&T Partners Caution Against DirecTV Bid
WASHINGTON, September 22, 2014 – The Internet Association asked the Federal Communications Commission to carefully consider blocking state laws that inhibit municipalities from enlarging their government run Internet networks, The Hill reported. The association, while abstaining from directly asking the federal government to strike down laws in Tennessee and North Carolina, did say that the… Keep Reading
July 30, 2014 FCC/Net Neutrality/Wireless
Speakers at Minority Telecom Conference Call Broadband a 21st Century Civil Right
WASHINGTON, July 30, 2014 - Speakers at a Minority Media Telecommunications Council conference here on Monday advocated for expanded minority-based involvement with and access to broadband capital. "Broadband is the 21st Century's civil right and our laws must reflect the digital shift," said Rep. G.K. Butterfield, D-N.C, at the MMTC’s twelfth annual telecom policy conference.… Keep Reading
July 29, 2014 Fiber/Wireless
NetAmerica Alliance Hails Rural 4G LTE Benefits From Partnership with Sprint
WASHINGTON, July 29, 2014 – An alliance designed to serve the wireless broadband needs of rural America has partnered with Sprint to provide fourth-generation LTE service to members of the NTCA that are calling themselves the Rural Broadband Alliance, according to details unveiled in a webinar on Thursday, July 24. In a webinar hosted by… Keep Reading
July 3, 2014 Fiber/Mobile Broadband/Net Neutrality
Broadband Roundup: Baltimore Fiber, T-Mobile Throttling, and Cybersecurity Legislation Concerns
WASHINGTON, July 3, 2014 - Leaders of the Baltimore Broadband Campaign are saying that Comcast has a monopoly over fast internet services in the city of Baltimore. Over a course of two years, Comcast customers pay about $1,000 for standard "triple play service, write Philip Spevak, Stan Wilson and Anthony Gill in an Op-Ed in… Keep Reading
June 30, 2014 Broadband Roundup/Copyright/Wireless
Broadband Roundup: With Aereo off the Air for Now, Alternatives Seek Advantage, and Legislators Advocate for Municipal Broadband
WASHINGTON, June 30, 2014 -Following the Supreme Court's blow last week against Aereo, the video streaming service has shut down indefinitely as it drags back into the lower courts. Aereo CEO Chet Kanojia wrote a letter to consumers explaining the decision. "We have decided to pause our operations temporarily as we consult with the court… Keep Reading
June 25, 2014 Broadband Roundup/FCC/Wireless
Broadband Roundup: Klobuchar and Lee Question Comcast-Time Warner, Less Rural Wireless, and Mayors Seek Net Neutrality
WASHINGTON, June 25, 2014 - Sens. Amy Klobuchar, D-Minn., and Mike Lee, R-Utah, have raised concerns over the proposed Comcast/Time Warner Cable merger in a letter to the Federal Communications Commission, according to Broadcasting & Cable. At issue is the potential for a reduction in outlets for traditional video programming, innovation in broadband, and price… Keep Reading
June 18, 2014 Broadband Data/Broadband's Impact/FCC/Wireless
FCC Releases Latest Report on Measuring Broadband; Gap Between Actual and Advertised Speeds is Closing
WASHINGTON, June 18, 2014 - Most internet service providers are delivering upload and download broadband speeds as advertised, according to the Federal Communications Commission, although there is room for improvement in consistency of speed. In its "Measuring Broadband America" report released Thursday, the FCC said that, on average, ISPs are delivering 101 percent of advertised… Keep Reading
June 18, 2014 Broadband Roundup/Media Ownership/Mobile Broadband/Wireless
Broadband Roundup: Wireless Data Exploding, Will Sprint Succeed with T-Mobile, Cybersecurity Bill
WASHINGTON, June 18, 2014 - A new study by Wireless Association CTIA reported that between 2012 and 2013, mobile traffic and data increased by 120 percent. That's 383 times the data usage from 2008. The result was $331 billion worth of investments into wireless networks last year, according to the association. On the communications merger… Keep Reading
June 9, 2014 Broadband Roundup/Broadband's Impact/FCC/Net Neutrality/Wireless
Broadband Roundup: AT&T Won’t Block Internet, Google and Vodafone Working to ‘Seal Cracks’ in Net
WASHINGTON, June 9, 2014 - In a blog post on Friday, AT&T gave its assurance that paid prioritization was not part of the telecommnications gianits plans. "Not a single [internet service provider] has asserted a desire or right to engage in any of these practices to create 'fast lanes and slow lanes.' AT&T certainly has… Keep Reading
June 5, 2014 Broadband Roundup/Broadband's Impact/FCC/Wireless
Broadband Roundup: Sprint and T-Mobile Proposal, Mobile Broadband Rising, Media Ownership Rules
WASHINGTON, June 5, 2014 - Another significant telecommunications merger proposition is underway between Sprint and T-Mobile. The Wall Street Journal reported that the acquisition would cost Sprint $32 billion, or about $40 per share in cash and stock. Sprint and T-Mobile are the third and fourth largest wireless operators in the United States, respectively. The… Keep Reading
May 21, 2014 Broadband Roundup/Broadband's Impact/Cybersecurity/Wireless
Broadband Roundup: Germany Rebuffs Surveillance for Repression, Wearable Technology in the Body and Cyber-Attacks
WASHINGTON, May 21, 2014 - ABC News reported that Germany plans to limit their exports of surveillance technology to states "that fail to respect their human rights." The action is a response to recent allegations made against intelligence agencies, claiming that surveillance programs have been unwarranted and non-transparent. Economy Minister Sigmar Gabriel said he wanted to keep… Keep Reading
May 19, 2014 Broadband Roundup/Broadband's Impact/Media/Media Ownership/Net Neutrality/Wireless
Broadband Roundup: AT&T-DirecTV Merger and its Impact on the Marketplace
WASHINGTON, May 19, 2014 - AT&T announced that it would acquire DirecTV in a $48.5 billion deal, according to multiple sources. The agreement may allow AT&T to position itself in a way to rival cable firms. AT& would acquire about 20 million of DirecTV's customers. The Washington Post recounts that the stated goal of the… Keep Reading
May 19, 2014 Broadband's Impact/FCC/Net Neutrality/Wireless
Building a Legal Case for Net Neutrality Rules, FCC’s Wheeler Hopes Courts Will Look Favorably on His Logic
WASHINGTON, May 19, 2014 – The D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals struck down the Federal Communications Commission’s last two efforts to enshrine network neutrality. So what makes current chairman Tom Wheeler feel as though he can succeed where two of his predecessors failed? The answers lie in the details of the 85-page order – called a “Notice of Proposed Rulemaking” in the legalese of Washington telecommunications bureaucrats – released late on Thursday. At its core, Wheeler aims to regulate broadband providers without having to treat them as regulated entities. [...] Keep Reading
January 21, 2014 Expert Opinion/FCC/Fiber/Spectrum
Expert Opinion: On Backhaul, Sprint is Playing Both Sides of the Street
Wall Street and K Street are separated by a mere 225 miles, but for many companies they are worlds apart. In particular, industry observers would do well to compare everything said to policymakers with statements by the same competitors made to Wall Street investors. Defense companies, for example, warned policymakers that sequestration would spell the… Keep Reading
January 8, 2014 Autonomous Vehicles/Broadband's Impact/Innovation/Wireless
The Internet of Everything, 3D Printing, 4K Video, and Robotic Drones: Among Broadband Breakfast’s Top 5 Trends From CES
LAS VEGAS, January 8, 2014 - Coming to the International Consumer Electronics Show year after year enables a technology observer to see the evolutionary power continuously wrought by the digital revolution.
Herewith follows Broadband Breakfast's impressionistic list of five top trends emerging from the mammoth trade show here.
As the trade show isn't even half-over, we're not aiming for definitiveness with this list. Rather, we aim to glimpse the future of technology in a context that changes with the start of every year.
[...] Keep Reading
January 7, 2014 Broadband's Impact/Cybersecurity/Innovation/Wireless
Bringing Moore’s Law Off the Desktop and Into the Cloud By Intel CEO at Consumer Electronics Show
LAS VEGAS, January 7, 2014 - Just six months on the job, the new CEO of Silicon Valley computing giant Intel came to the International Consumer Electronics Show here to hail the power of tiny. "Most of my career, computing has been something that you hold in your hand, in your pocket, or that sits on a desk," said CEO Brian Krzanich. "That idea is about to be transformed." "We are entering this tiny world," he said, referring to the Intel Tri-Gate three-dimensional 22 nanometer transistor, and "tiny could not be better." Future advances toward 14 nanometer transistors are in the works, he said. [...] Keep Reading
December 16, 2013 Broadband's Impact/Expert Opinion/National Broadband Plan/Recovery Act/Spectrum
On Broadband: At the Beginning of a Cycle, a Low-Controversy Federal Communications Commission
WASHINGTON, December 16, 2013 - Last Thursday's testimony, by the full group of Federal Communications Commissioners at the House Energy and Commerce Committee, restores the pulse of the nation's technology and communications policy issues to a "low-tension" state. We've seen this perennial cycle before: first, an issue stirs immense conflict among the agency's five members.… Keep Reading
October 15, 2013 Broadband Calendar/Broadband TV/Congress/FCC/Public Safety/Wireless
Discussion About Needs and Issues in FirstNet at Broadband Breakfast Club Virtual Event
October 15, 2013 - The Broadband Breakfast Club posted the video of its virtual discussion, "How Will FirstNet Improve Public Safety Communications?" featuring William Vallee, State Broadband Policy Coordinator, Office of Consumer Counsel, State of Connecticut; Brett Kilbourn, Vice President of Government and Industry Affairs, Utilities Telecom Council; and Penny Rubow, Program Manager for the FirstNet program in the State of Arkansas. PLEASE BEGIN WATCHING THE VIDEO AT THE 5:00 MINUTE MARK: technical difficulties led to preview content being recorded. Keep Reading
October 11, 2013 Broadband TV/Congress/Public Safety/Wireless
Panelists Named for FirstNet Webinar on Tuesday, October 15, at 11 a.m. ET: Britt, Kilbourne, Vallee
October 11, 2013 - The Broadband Breakfast Club's second virtual event, a FREE webinar on the topic of "How Will FirstNet Improve Public Safety Communications?" to take place on Tuesday, October 15, at 11 a.m. ET/10 a.m. CT., will feature Michael Britt, Program Manager, State of Arizona CIO's Strategic Enterprise Technology Office; Brett Kilbourn, Vice… Keep Reading
September 25, 2013 Press Releases/Public Safety/Wireless
Next Broadband Breakfast Club Virtual Event – on FirstNet – to Take Place on Tuesday, October 15, at 11 a.m. ET
WASHINGTON, September 25, 2013 - Following the successful launch of its first Broadband Breakfast Club virtual event, the company announced its second FREE webinar, to take place on Tuesday, October 15, at 11 a.m. ET/10 a.m. CT. The event will feature a discussion on the topic of "How Will FirstNet Improve Public Safety Communications?" REGISTER NOW for the Broadband Breakfast Club Virtual Event Keep Reading
September 6, 2013 NTIA/Public Safety/Spectrum/Wireless
Commerce Department Continues State Planning Grants for FirstNet; Special Review Committee Set for Next Week
WASHINGTON, September 6, 2013 - The National Telecommunications and Information Administration of the Commerce Department on Friday announced that it had awarded planning grants for seven states and two territories to help prepare for the First Responder Network Authority, or FirstNet. The awards, to Massachusetts, Minnesota, North Dakota, Puerto Rico, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia and… Keep Reading
July 24, 2013 Congress/House of Representatives/Mobile Broadband/Spectrum/Wireless
Hearing Examines Implementation of Incentive Auction
WASHINGTON, July 24, 2013 — The House Subcommittee on Communications and Technology held a hearing Tuesday on the upcoming spectrum auction, focusing primarily on possible restrictions on larger carriers and efforts to ensure that broadcasters are treated fairly. The question of whether or not to impose restrictions on AT&T Inc. and Verizon Communications Inc. dominated much… Keep Reading
July 12, 2013 Advanced Energy/Broadband's Impact/Smart Grid/Wireless
Experts Discuss Future of Smart Grids, Advanced Meters and the Need for Standards
WASHINGTON, July 12, 2013 – A panel discussion held Wednesday afternoon addressed advances in smart grid technology as well as the challenge ahead for the future, at the 10th annual National Town Meeting on Demand Response and Smart Grid. Jason Wilson, Senior Vice President of Business Management and Product Development for On-Ramp Wireless, said that… Keep Reading
July 12, 2013 Advanced Energy/Smart Grid/Wireless
Future of Smart Grids Intertwined with Smart Cities and Broadband
WASHINGTON, July 12, 2013 – A group of experts gave a presentation on the role of smart cities in advancing smart grid and other energy efficient technology at the National Town Meeting on Demand Response and Smart Grid on Thursday morning. Eugenie Birch, Chair of the Graduate Group in City Planning at the University of… Keep Reading
July 2, 2013 Mobile Broadband/Spectrum/Wireless
Institute for Local Self-Reliance Releases Wireless Fact Sheet to Educate Policy Makers
WASHINGTON, July 2, 2013 - The Institute for Local Self-Reliance released a fact sheet describing the basic principles behind wireless internet technology and policy on June 17. The fact sheet defines the basic terminology associated with wireless internet such as fixed wireless and data caps. It describes the differences between licensed and unlicensed spectrum and… Keep Reading
July 1, 2013 Wireless
Gigabit Libraries Network Unveils Super Wi-Fi Project to Spur Wireless Connectivity to Libraries
WASHINGTON, July 1, 2013 – On Monday the Gigabit Libraries Network announced a pilot project that will equip libraries across the country with a new technology dubbed “super Wi-Fi.” The Gigabit Libraries Network will undergo a selection process to choose which libraries will be included in the program. Those selected will receive a base station… Keep Reading
June 28, 2013 Advanced Energy/Broadband TV/FCC/Fiber/Infrastructure/NTIA/Privacy/Rural Utilities Service/Smart Grid/Wireless
Broadband Breakfast Club Video on Smart Grid Initiative Plays Up Fiber and Wireless Role for Advanced Energy
WASHINGTON, June 28, 2013 - The status of the development of the national smart grid and its relationship to broadband buildouts was the center of discussion at the June 2013 Broadband Breakfast Club. The concept of smart grid is a marriage of intelligence and communications, said David Wollman, Deputy Director of the Smart Grid and… Keep Reading
June 27, 2013 Congress/House of Representatives/Spectrum/Wireless
Subcommittee Hearing Assesses Spectrum Clearing and Sharing Approaches
WASHINGTON, June 27, 2013 - Witnesses from government agencies and private industry underscored the importance of making more efficient use of radio-frequency spectrum, including sharing and utilization of new technology, at a hearing on Thursday afternoon. In his opening remarks at the Communications and Technology Subcommittee of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce, Rep.… Keep Reading
June 26, 2013 Spectrum/Wireless
Panel Discusses Spectrum Auctions, Internet Protocol Transition, and Broadband Adoption as Key Technology Policy Areas
WASHINGTON, June 26, 2013 – Spectrum policy, technology training and elevating the levels of broadband adoption and usage dominated a panel discussion here Wednesday, dubbed “The X-Factors of Tech Policy Today: Keeping Pace in the Broadband Race,” and hosted by the Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies. During the panel at the event, Rick… Keep Reading
June 20, 2013 Mobile Broadband/Wireless
New CEA Group Seeks to Set Standards to Reduce Distracted Driving
WASHINGTON, June 20, 2013 - The Consumer Electronics Association announced the formation of a group that will work to establish industry standards for designing devices in ways that will minimize distraction while operating vehicles earlier this week. The group, created by the CEA’s Portable Handheld and In-Vehicle Electronics Committee, will work to suggest standards for… Keep Reading
June 17, 2013 Advanced Energy/Expert Opinion/Public Safety/Smart Grid/Wireless
Utilities’ Economies of Scale for Broadband Fiber + Smart Grid Applications = Ultra-Fast Broadband Everywhere?
June 17, 2013 - The smart grid and broadband go together like mashed potatoes and gravy. And yet why is it so hard to get electric utilities and broadband experts to dialogue on the role that electric companies can play in expanding super-fast broadband? Tomorrow's June 2013 Broadband Breakfast Club, on Advanced Energy, Smart Grid… Keep Reading
Obama Launches Plan for More Efficient Federal Spectrum Use, Trumpets Improvements in Broadband Over Past Four Years
WASHINGTON, June 17, 2013 – President Barack Obama on Friday introduced several new initiatives to facilitate more efficient use of radio-frequency spectrum in order to encourage further development of wireless broadband. In addition to investments totaling to $100 million in the development of spectrum-sharing technologies and advanced communications, Obama also directed federal agencies to make… Keep Reading
June 12, 2013 Mobile Broadband/Spectrum/Wireless
AT&T CEO Urges Few Rules on Wireless Carriers’ Ability to Bid in Spectrum Auctions; Arkansas Sen. Mark Pryor Agrees
WASHINGTON, June 12, 2013 - Concerns over spectrum policy and data privacy dominated the conversation between AT&T Chairman and CEO Randall Stephenson and Sen. Mark Pryor, D-Ark., at a Wednesday panel on “Accelerating the Mobile Technology Revolution” at the Brookings Institution. Stephenson praised the approach that the Federal Communications Commission has taken with the incentive… Keep Reading
June 5, 2013 Broadband and Democratization/Broadband's Impact/FCC/Wireless
If These Experts Were the FCC Chairman, They Would Eliminate or Modernize Outdated Regulations
WASHINGTON, June 5, 2013 - The new Federal Communications Commission chairman needs to eliminate or modernize outdated regulations, according to a consensus of panelists at a Tuesday seminar, “If I Were the FCC Chairman,” hosted by the conservative Free State Foundation. The panel consisted of Gail MacKinnon, executive vice president and chief government relations officer… Keep Reading
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2904
|
__label__wiki
| 0.54613
| 0.54613
|
Cecil County Business Leaders Create PAC for 2012 Candidates
By Nancy Schwerzler
A bipartisan coalition of business leaders has formed a political action committee to support political candidates in Cecil County for the 2012 elections that will “promote the economic viability” of the county.
The group, dubbed “Cecil Business Leaders for Better Government,” has scheduled a kick-off event on Dec. 7 at Mick’s Crab House on Route 40 in Elkton to recruit supporters and explain its goals.
As testament to its serious intent, the group filed as a political action committee (PAC) with the state Board of Elections on 11/7/11, listing David K. Williams, of the Williams car dealership in Elkton, as chairman. The treasurer is Alan J. McCarthy of Chesapeake City, a distinguished equine veterinarian and member of the Cecil College Foundation board of directors. (Both attended Tuesday’s worksession of the county commissioners to observe the panel in action—or inaction.)
The organization has created a website that is still under development but outlines its goals and agenda: http://www.cecilbusinessleaders.com/default.html
Many of the organizers of the group have been dismayed at the current direction and leadership of the Cecil County Commissioners, especially the “Three Amigos” voting bloc majority of the current five-member Board. The Amigos bloc—consisting of Commissioners Diana Broomell (R-4), Michael Dunn (R-3) and James Mullin (R-1)– has been viewed as anti-business and regressive, repeatedly re-visiting many decisions made over the past four years by a previous Board of Commissioners.
“We need leaders,” said Harlan Williams, a Realtor who has been involved in organizing the group. “It’s ridiculous what is going on,” he said, and “we need to encourage people who are committed to community service to get involved” in local politics.
Unique among the new group’s goals is to “vett” potential candidates, or review their credentials and evaluate their qualifications and inform voters. Especially in the 2010 election, some largely unknown candidates with minimal credentials filed for election and voters were largely left in the dark about their personal backgrounds, education and qualifications for office.
The new PAC states its “mission” is “To recruit and support highly qualified candidates for elected offices, thereby promoting the economic viability of Cecil County.” Other goals include fundraising, voter education, public information and to “challenge anti-groups,” described as “any groups propagating false or misleading information on subjects of our interest” and such groups “will be met with factual and sound opposition.”
Although not named by the new PAC, the two most prominent groups of that description are the Appleton Regional Community Alliance (ARCA) and the Cecil Land Use Alliance (CLUA), which opposed the privatization of county water and sewer services. Those groups lost a lengthy and costly legal challenge to the sale but their allies among the Three Amigos threw up procedural roadblocks that eventually led the private Artesian Resources to abandon its contract to buy four county sewage treatment plants several months ago.
Under state election laws, a PAC may transfer $6,000 to an individual candidate— a larger amount than the $4,000 donation limit on an individual’s contributions to a candidate in an election cycle (which is generally a four year period under state law.)
There are already several PACs supporting Cecil County political candidates, including longstanding groups such as the Cecil County Republican Club’s PAC and a new “Republicans of Cecil PAC” aligned with the Smipkin political organization, led by Del. Michael Smigel and Sen. E.J. Pipkin, both R-36, in 2010. However, the new business group is bipartisan and its mission statement does not limit donations to candidates of any particular political party.
The political stakes are higher in 2012, with Cecil County slated to elect its first County Executive and two members of a new County Council under the new Charter Government system approved by voters in 2010. Seats held by current County Commissioners James Mullin (R-1) and Robert Hodge (R-5) are at stake in 2012.
Hodge has filed for re-election. [UPDATE: Mullin filed his candidacy papers for his 1st District seat on 11/28/11.] Previously, Mullin emphatically stated, in an appearance before an Earleville church group a few months ago, that he would not be a candidate for county executive.
For County Executive, only Democrat Robert McKnight, the mayor of North East, has filed his candidacy. Commissioner Tari Moore (R-2) has said she plans to run for county executive.
Tags: Business, cecil county, Cecil Times, ceciltimes, david williams, Democrat, Diana Broomell, election, harlan williams, james mullin, jim mullin, mccarthy, Michael Dunn, PAC, Political Action Committee, Politics, Republican, Robert Hodge, Tari Moore, veterinarian
7 Responses to Cecil County Business Leaders Create PAC for 2012 Candidates
Alexis on November 29, 2011 at 10:27 pm
Wonderful news! I’m glad that the business community is ready to defend us against the Smigiel-Pipkin-Broomell conspiracy to punish Cecil County.
Ken Jenkins on December 1, 2011 at 2:39 am
Laughable news! Looks like Mr. Wlliams is teaming up with Commissioner Hodge to turn rural Rt.40 into an eyesore like Kirkwood Highway by promoting water & sewer.
If money could buy certain county commissioner seats, Carl Roberts would have won his race in 2010, and the whole county would be paved by now.
Sorry. Cecil residents are smarter than that
Alexis on December 1, 2011 at 8:52 am
Rural Rt.40??? The “growth corridor” is between Rt.40 and I-95. Therefore Rt.40 should receive infrastructure. Was it unethical for your pal Broomell and her tag-along fellow Amigoes Mullin and Dunn to fire Vernon Thompson as Economic Development Director while killing the utilities that would attract business? Now she is packing the Ethics Commission with Broomell-Smigiel-Pipkin cronies. They need to be stopped.
Elk Voter on December 1, 2011 at 6:24 pm
I thought growth between R40 and I 95 was the goal of CLUA and ARCA? Now their heroine Commissioner Broomell wants to stop all responsible business growth. Due to the 3 Amigo’s killing the Artesian wastewater deal all non-users in the county will subsidize those who benefit from this service. I hope that Cecil residents are smart enough to correct their mistakes. Starting with Mullin in the next election.
SchoolMarm on December 2, 2011 at 10:01 am
Let me review my Cecil County Political Primer: Republicans are for businesses large and small and for growth, as that implies that Democrats hug trees and are against all businesses and growth. The Cecil County residents, too smart to elect Democrats, elect five Republican commissioners, three of whom vote together on issues and effectively stop growth/infrastructure. And some of you choose to blame Carl Roberts? What in the world is going on? The blame, or praise (though I do not hear much of that) for the leadership of the current commissioners is the doing of Republicans. Period.
Alexis on December 3, 2011 at 10:20 am
Your Cecil County Political Primer is not up to date. There is a third party in the county: The Smipkin Party. The ” 3 Amigos” (Broomell, Dunn, and Mullin) are merely fronts for Smigiel and Pipkin. There are lots of pro-business Democrats and tree-hugging Republicans.
Dr. Roberts’ removal [from Bainbridge board] was the result of a delegation vote and strictly political. The “3 Amigos” would not have been elected without Democratic votes. If you want to change things, start by voting Mullin out.
SchoolMarm on December 5, 2011 at 9:55 am
Certainly what you write it true and thank goodness folks can vote for whomever they choose (and one always needs to be wary of stereotypes).The last election they chose Republicans, period. A glance at the results in County elections shows this. People simply voted “out the rascals” and voted for Republicans, without carefully studying the candidates themselves. And now we pay the price. However, I believe to say Dr. Roberts would have paved the county seems extreme and to claim Cecil County residents are too smart to have voted for him is, at best, ironic.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2921
|
__label__wiki
| 0.773512
| 0.773512
|
Safer powerlines for Hungary's birds
© MME/BirdLife Hungary
MME (BirdLife in Hungary) in collaboration with electricity providers and the Ministry of Environment and Water in Hungary and aided by a new “Accessible Sky” agreement is working to successfully lower bird powerline mortality and aims to make Hungary’s powerlines safer by 2020.
MME (BirdLife in Hungary) have coordinated national surveys of powerline-induced bird mortality, covering 680 separate sections of powerline and involving 150 volunteers and National Park employees.
The red dots indicate the location and number of electrocuted birds found during the surveys (MME, BirdLife in Hungary).
Recent national surveys coordinated by the Hungarian Ornithological and Nature Conservation Society (MME: BirdLife in Hungary) have revealed that over 30,000 birds are killed by powerlines, electricity poles and pylons in Hungary every year. Raptors and corvids are among the most affected, with electrocution a significant source of mortality for globally threatened Saker Falcon Falco cherrug and Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca (classified as Endangered and Vulnerable on the 2008 IUCN Red List respectively), and Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus (classified as Near Threatened and declining in Europe). Electricity pylons annually account for 95% of human-induced White Stork Ciconia ciconia mortality in Hungary, and it is estimated that every year one in seven pylons kills a bird and one in eighteen kills a raptor (BirdLife International 2004, Demeter et al. 2004, BirdLife International 2008, K. Nagy and M. Horváth in litt. 2008).
The number of power-cuts caused by bird electrocutions along 30 km of medium voltage powerline in southwest Hungary before and after the insulation of pylon crossarms.
Vincze (2000)
For several years MME has been working in collaboration with electricity providers and the Ministry of Environment and Water in Hungary (MEW) to make these high mortality rates a thing of the past. MME has developed an insulating plastic cover for the metal crossarms of electricity poles to reduce the risk of electrocution for birds, and thanks to the voluntary work of electricity providers over 50,000 insulators have now been fitted. The number of electrocution events on stretches of powerline retrofitted in such a way has declined significantly as a result (Vincze 2000, Bagyura et al. 2004; see figure). MME has also designed and installed around 6,000 nesting platforms for White Stork Ciconia ciconia (80% of which nest on electricity poles in Hungary), and in collaboration with electrical engineers a new design of electricity pole has been developed which is proven to be effective in reducing the number of bird casualties (Haas et al. 2003, MEW 2005). Despite these efforts however, c.215,000 pylons are still considered to be highly-dangerous to birds within Hungary and electricity providers are not legally obliged to re-fit existing powerlines or to build newer safer models (Bagyura et al. 2004, Demeter et al. 2008).
Fortunately this is now about to change as MME, MEW and electricity providers have signed a voluntary agreement (the “Accessible Sky” agreement) which will form the basis of a long-term solution to bird electrocution in Hungary. In signing the agreement the parties have promised to manage and transform all dangerous powerlines in Hungary in order to make them more ‘bird-friendly’ by 2020. MME and MEW are now preparing a detailed map of the most dangerous areas and indicating priority stretches for retrofitting based on location, the distribution of priority bird species and observed mortality rates of those species.
Related Case Studies in other sections
Collision and electrocution of birds by powerlines is a conservation concern in Saudi Arabia
Collisions and electrocutions pose real threats for large-bodied, migratory bird species
In the Ukrainian steppes powerlines are hazardous to birds during migrations and in winter
Powerlines have a detrimental impact on Bonelli’s Eagle in Spain
Powerlines pose a threat to Italian birds
Related Species
Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca)
Red-footed Falcon (Falco vespertinus)
Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug)
White Stork (Ciconia ciconia)
BirdLife news archive: Agreement secures safer power lines for Hungary’s Birds
BirdLife news archive: Price of Power
BirdLife Position Statement on birds and powerlines
NABU – birds and powerlines (in German)
Magyar Madártani és Természetvédelmi Egyesület (Hungarian Ornithological and Nature Conservation Society, MME/BirdLife Hungary)
Bagyura, B., Szitta, T., Sándor, I., Viszló, L., Firmánszky, G., Forgách, B., Boldogh, S. and Demeter, I. (2004) A review of measures taken against bird electrocution in Hungary. Pp. 423–428 in R. D. Chancellor and B. -U. Meyburg, eds., Raptors worldwide. Budapest: World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls, and MME/BirdLife Hungary.
BirdLife International (2004) Birds in Europe: population estimates, trends and conservation status. Cambridge, U.K.: BirdLife International (BirdLife Conservation Series 12).
BirdLife International (2008) Threatened birds of the world 2008. CD-ROM. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International.
Demeter, I., Bagyura, J., Lovászi, P., Nagy, K., Kovács, A. and Horváth, M. (2004) Medium-voltage power lines and bird mortality in Hungary: experience, nature conservation requirements and suggestions. MME BirdLife.
Haas, D., Nipkow, M., Fiedler, G., Schneider, R., Haas, W. and Schürenberg, B. (2003) Protecting birds on powerlines: a practical guide on the risks to birds from electricity transmission facilities and how to minimise any such adverse effects. Bonn: NABU (German Society for Nature Conservation).MEW (2005) The first national report of Hungary. Prepared for the Third Meeting of the Parties (MOP3) to the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA), Dakar, Senegal.
Vincze, L. (2000) Madárvédelem a DÉDÁSZ Rt. Hálózatain. Madártávlat 6: 21 (in Bagyura, B., Szitta, T., Sándor, I., Viszló, L., Firmánszky, G., Forgách, B., Boldogh, S. and Demeter, I. (2004) A review of measures taken against bird electrocution in Hungary. Pp. 423–428 in R. D. Chancellor and B. -U. Meyburg, eds., Raptors worldwide. Budapest: World Working Group on Birds of Prey and Owls and MME/BirdLife Hungary.)
Compiled: 2008
BirdLife International (2008) Safer powerlines for Hungary's birds. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 17/07/2019
Key message: Practical solutions for widespread threats
A best practice guide for monitoring illegal killing and taking of birds
BirdLife Partners are supporting efforts to remove European Union subsidies that support overfishing
BirdLife Partners are supporting reform of the EU’s Common Agricultural Policy
BirdLife’s Forests of Hope programme will protect five million hectares of tropical forest
Climate change is being incorporated into conservation spatial planning
Conservation for birds and other biodiversity in Asia: a guide for governments and civil society
Conserving the jewels in the crown of the High Andes
Creating Permanent Forest Estates for the benefit of Fiji’s people and biodiversity
Creating two new protected areas for Madagascar's largest wetlands
Developing a market-based solution to the bird trade in Indonesia
For birds and people in the Jordan Valley: a landscape approach
Hunting ban reversed decline of White-headed Duck in Spain
Intensive habitat management has led to a spectacular increase in Kirtland's Warbler
Local self-regulation can be more effective at ensuring sustainable resource use than outright ban
Managing the hydrology of peatland sites could help Golden Plovers adapt to climate change
Peatland restoration in Belarus is reducing emissions while saving waterbirds
Promoting environmental safeguards for bioenergy
Pronatura is supporting local communities in Mexico to establish sustainable forestry practices
Protected areas are helping species to persist within their ranges and to colonise new areas
Purchasing and protecting key forest sites for nature conservation in the Americas
Reducing the impacts of power lines on birds
Restauración de pastos y cocinas mejoradas para la conservación de aves en la IBA Lago Junín
Shutting down wind farms during periods of peak migration can help protect migrating birds of prey
The design and siting of wind turbines can reduce the risk of collision to birds of prey
The use of more efficient cooking stoves is helping bird conservation at Lake Junín IBA, Peru
Towards sustainable hunting in the Middle East
Wetland conservation and environmental education in the heart of Harare
Wildlife-friendly farming versus land sparing
Working together to tackle the crisis in East Asian coastal wetlands
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2926
|
__label__wiki
| 0.667816
| 0.667816
|
5f - Balance Exercise 4: Four Stems
For this exercise, you will balance four elements: lead vocal, drum kit, bass, and
everything else. It’s no longer a challenge of one track versus the rest. Instead, you’ve got to work through the relative levels of multiple – but familiar – tracks, each competing to be heard, all needing to come together as a whole.
You’ll find five tracks in Soundation giving you a good deal of creative control over “In Your Eyes.”
The ‘Mix,’ a final mix of the tune based on the other tracks available here. It is a balanced mix. Your mission: use the other tracks to match this reference mix.
The “mix minus” track, which for this exercise is the full mix, minus the three tracks above – everything but the lead vocal, drums, and bass, labeled ‘Mix-PG Kit Bass.’
Manú Katché’s drum mix, labeled ‘Kit.’
Track four
Tony Levin’s bass mix, labeled ‘Bass.’
Track five
Peter Gabriel’s lead vocal track, labeled ‘PG.’
For this exercise, we again focus on a selected portion of the tune, one that captures the many changes in performances across the song structure: the first verse, pre-chorus, and chorus. This exercise will be the most difficult of the Mix Balance exercises yet, but also the most rewarding. You’ve got to juggle the priorities of the vocals, the drums and the bass, while getting them all to make musical sense versus the "mix minus" stem.
Stay focused, and repeat the now-familiar routine:
Balancing the Mix
Listen to the entire reference mix and acclimate yourself to the relative level of all the tracks: vocal, kick, snare, bass, piano, guitar, and the rest.
Mute the reference mix and pull up the other four tracks. As a starting point, raise the ‘PG’ vocal so that he’s singing to you at about the same level that you recall from the reference mix. Then raise the ‘Kit’ to a "good guess" starting level versus the vocal. Then raise the ‘Mix-PG Kit Bass’ track to taste. Lastly, raise the ‘Bass’ track to where it sounds about right.
Start to explore higher and lower fader positions for all parties involved. Develop a sense of what happens when there aren’t enough drums, and when there is too much. Same for bass, and vocal, and the mix minus portion. There is much to explore. You might start to lose a sense of what sounds right. It all sounds wrong. Or it all sounds fine. Which way is up? Help!?!? (That’s a normal reaction at this point).
Mute the ‘PG,’ ‘Kit,’ ‘Bass,’ and ‘Mix-PG Kit Bass’ tracks and unmute the ‘Mix’ track. Have a listen for the whole duration of the track with renewed focus on the level of every element of the mix. Listen from each track outwards. That is, focus on the vocal and assess its level compared to each of the other core elements of the mix. Then direct your focus to the drum kit and listen to its interaction with every element of the arrangement. Do the same with the bass, then the guitar, then the keyboards, etc.
Iterate back through Steps Three and Four, as many times as you like, but resist the urge to toggle back and forth between the reference mix and yours. Your goal is reign in all the options into a complete mix that you like, that sounds professional, that’s balanced.
Visit the Module 5: Project Share topic to learn how to save your work, export to Soundcloud, and share it with the PWYM Community.
Prior Exercises
Module 5 Exercises
Balance Exercise 1: Lead Vocals
Balance Exercise 2: Drum Kit
Balance Exercise 3: Bass
Balance Exercise 4: Stems
alexruthmann (Alex Ruthmann) 2014-11-18 13:52:23 UTC #3
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2929
|
__label__wiki
| 0.798594
| 0.798594
|
Walt Disney’s Goofy – on the Record
Cohl, McCay and Blackton Would Be Proud
May 27, 2015 posted by
Max Fleischer’s “Pudgy The Watchman” (1938)
Today, we’re going to look into a post-code Betty Boop with her little pal, Pudgy!
Many of the Fleischer cartoons featuring Betty Boop, including the early Talkartoons before her official series, are among the finest, and zaniest, in early 1930s animation. When the Production Code Administration’s enacted its stranglehold on film censorship, her character changed drastically and the series began to decline.
While the artists transmitted their stronger capabilities in plotting, timing and staging into their sensational Popeye series, Betty’s character went from lively to modest. Besides the wardrobe change from mini-skirt to knee-length collared dress – that were kept intact in publicity advertisements — Bimbo and Koko the Clown were cast aside in place of different characters – her pet dog Pudgy, her niece Buzzy and a crackpot inventor, Grampy – that often upstaged Betty herself. Pudgy the Watchman is an example of this titular character’s saccharine nature, and it also demonstrates the eccentricities of one-shot try-out characters – in this case, mouse “eradicator” Al E. Katt’s drunken stupor – that often served as the centerpiece.
De-facto director Tom Johnson contributed to the pure comedy sense in his Fleischer cartoons. According to a tintype bio in Fleischer’s Animated News, Johnson displayed an athletic prowess with swimming and relay teams in high school, and even ran a weekly comic strip “Freddie the Freshie” for The Evander News. He attended the State Teacher’s College to become a teacher but received a side job as a sign painter. Johnson arrived at the studio in 1930 starting in the story department, then switched to the animation department. He married his wife – whom he coincidentally went to the same high school with – in November 1934 and spent the remainder of his career at Famous Studios. Johnson’s last work was on the Joe Oriolo Felix The Cat TV series.
The second animator credited in Watchman, Harold Walker, handled the highest amount of footage in this cartoon. Walker started his career as Otto Messmer’s assistant on the Felix the Cat cartoons in 1920, after Sullivan signed a two-year contract to make cartoons for Paramount Magazine and kept that position for about a decade. He started at Fleischer’s animating in Willard Bowsky’s unit before moving over to Tom Johnson’s. Walker also worked in Dave Tendlar’s unit, credited in the 1942 Popeye, Blunder Below. After he left the studio, he designed an insect character named “Wellbee” for the Center for the Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
Tony DiPaola’s only credit for Fleischer was on their second feature Mr. Bug Goes to Town, released in 1941, but Fleischer’s Animated News’ October 1936 issue announced his promotion from in-betweener to animator. DiPaola worked on Gulliver’s Travels animating with Roland Crandall’s crew. He doesn’t have many scenes in Watchman, but like animator Jack Ozark, DiPaola probably did a good quantity of footage for Fleischer, but never enough to see more than one credit on a film.
Otto Feuer art from DC’s DODO AND THE FROG
According to a factoid from the Fleischer Animated News, before entering animation, Frank Endres received a real estate office as a gift from a politician but returned it a week later after “tasting business.” Endres began his career at Fleischer’s as an opaquer, sitting next to Jack Mercer. He later became an animator in Myron Waldman’s unit on the Color Classics and Betty Boop series and animated on the first Superman entry with Steve Muffatti. Endres was absent from Famous Studio during the war years due to his service in the Navy. He returned to Famous after the war and remained there until the mid-fifties. He migrated into television animation for Joe Oriolo’s Felix, Hal Seeger’s Batfink and Steve Krantz’s Spider-Man.
Otto Feuer was born in Germany and recieved his artistic education at the Cooper Union in New York City. Fleischer Animated News’ May 1935 issue reported that Feuer was an inbetweener at that time. He primarily worked in Orestes Calpini’s unit at Fleischer and Famous. He left the studio by October 1945, as reported in Top Cel. In the early forties, he drew funny animal comics when he joined publisher Benjamin Sangor’s studio. He handled stories for Better Publications and Dell Comics’ Animal Comics, where he drew stories profiling Famous Studios’ Cilly Goose. Feuer became one of the main artists for DC’s funny animal comic lines (Comic Cavalcade, Animal Antics, Funny Stuff, Funny Folks), working on many features such as The Raccoon Kids, The Dodo and the Frog and Peter Porkchops. He founded his own animation studio for animated television commercials, Animotion Associates, working with Fleischer/Famous animators Graham Place and Reuben Grossman. Feuer later worked at Filmation in the 70s and early 80s, a haven for ex-Paramount animators during that time.
The identifications for Watchman are culled from 1930s animation aficionado John Vincent’s mosaic, posted on his fantastic blog. The draft listing animators to their scenes, in the fashion of Fresh Vegetable Mystery, has not surfaced from this cartoon, but instead the storyboards and the footage list have. The standard turnaround time for a Fleischer short was six months from start to finish. It becomes fascinating to notice that the footage sheet for Watchman indicates animation started around December 1937 and later released August 1938 – an extra three months of production time. Did the delay in production coincide with the move from New York to Miami?
The storyboards in Tom Johnson’s unit are a series of non-descript thumbnail sketches on each page rather than consecutive drawings – more or less “thinking on paper” — with names/footage amounts added later. The document does not fully match the on-screen action, indicative from the additional scene numbers scrawled in, often shot as one single scene and set up as another, according to the camera fielding. Both documents do not include the close-up of Al E. Katt winking to the camera, so there’s no credit on the video. It might have been included at the last minute, and it could be Johnson since the Fleischer directors could choose which scenes they wanted to animate, but it’s ambiguous at this point. (More clarification on this confusion posted here.)
Enjoy this week’s breakdown video – with a stunning new transfer!
(Special thanks to Bob Jaques, Todd Levine, John Vincent and Jerry Beck)
Betty BoopMax FleischerMyron Waldman
John V
Looking again at the scene of the cat winking. In my post I suggested it could have been done as part of the previous scene but simply fielded differently. Not sure why I said that. Actually, they look like distinctly separate scenes to me now. Who did the animation though I have no idea.
Bob Jaques
I believe you mean during the production code instead of ‘post-code’. Post-code would be after the production code ceased to exist in the late 60’s.
Storyboard drawings are suppose to be blueprints for the film – not works of art. This particular one doesn’t need any explanation – unlike modern boards that need description because they are shipped to other countries for layout and animation, everything was done within the studio. The board process was flexible, adding and deleting scenes as needed during production. The scene in question with Al E. Katt was most likely an afterthought, and is important character beat revealing him as a con man.
On a side note – the poster drawing of Betty looks like she’s been pumping iron.
Evan Schad
Jerry-
I’ve the feelin’ that you got the idea to post “Baxter’s Breakdowns” from all the e-mail I sent you! If you did, thanks for listening. Devon is certainly the right fella to head this feature. Keep it up!
Todd Levine
Devon, I think you did a great job!!! Of course I have to say it is sort of cool seeing part of my collection here!!!
Uggh……not this short. There are better ways to dispose the villain than having him getting drunk on the job!
Suprisingly, some of the animators worked on 1946 Noveltoon, “Old MacDonald Had A Farm”….no wonder that short has a cutesy Fleischer feeling mixed with Harveytoon-era designs!
This cartoon is interesting because even Pudgy himself is sidelined in the cartoon in favor of a different cartoon character (the sleazy cat mouser)
And frankly, any stand-in for Pudgy is an improvement.
Oh, and the transfer really is stunning.
And gotta love the that attention to detail on storyboard page #4….
May 28, 2015 4:03:06 am
I guess they realized the code couldn’t dictate the contents of their storyboards.
Does anyone know whether this “new transfer” was done with the original negative, or just an old TV print? I know that the Paramount logos were cut off the original negatives, but I thought that the Paramount copyright lines and the original transitions to the animator credits were still on them, since most of the Boops with the “proscenium” opening still have them. But if they were cut off the original negatives too, that means that many of the 1935 and later Boops (as well as Talkartoons and other B & W Fleischer cartoons) have lost their animator credits.
I believe that the new transfers (for the Olive releases) were done off the original negatives – however, recent research by Steve Stanchfield has shown the original credits may still exist on another element (a master positive).
The Tom Johnson-helmed Pudgy cartoons tend to go more for straight comedy, while the Myron Waldman Pudgy efforts are heavier on the cuteness. So it’s not a shock to see he focused on the cat here, as the more likely source of comedy (though when Waldman kept his cuteness preference in check and focused on the annoyances of dealing with the New York City subway, “Riding the Rails” was probably the best cartoon featuring Betty’s pet pooch).
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2934
|
__label__wiki
| 0.856191
| 0.856191
|
Community Pages » Chaldean Justice League » Business & Finance
Michigan Economic Tail Spin Forces Chaldean Businesses to Leave the State
By Paul Gori :: Friday, October 24, 2008 :: 30552 Views :: Business & Finance
Michigan, USA – Chaldean businesses will soon feel another round of pinches as Michigan continues its economic free fall. Chrysler LLC, whose owner has been in talks to sell the automaker to General Motors Corp., said Friday it will cut 25 percent of its salaried work force starting next month and warned that it will make more restructuring announcements soon.
Chrysler, which has about 18,500 white-collar workers, said Friday it also will cut a quarter of its contract employees — those who work for other companies under contract with the automaker. About 5,000 people are likely to lose their jobs, although the company would not say how many contract workers it has.
“This will impact many Chaldean families,” says Joey Markos, owner of a dry cleaner with standing accounts for many Chrysler professionals. “Many Michigan small businesses will feel the loss. For every professional job that is lost, three times the impact is felt on small business. I lose the revenue. I can’t spend, expand, or hire anyone. I have to layoff two great workers; single mothers who have been with me for over five years.”
CEO Robert Nardelli said the moves are being made as the company "works to find new ways to operate." Vice Chairman and President Tom LaSorda said Friday that sales projections for the rest of this year and in 2009 aren't looking good, and he indicated that more factory closures could be coming.
Chrysler's sales are down 25 percent through the first nine months of the year, the worst decline of any major automaker. "We have to align our (factory) capacity with what's going on at retail," LaSorda said in an interview with Detroit radio station WWJ-AM. "And that's the tough decisions that we make. And of course, there's probably going to be more if it stays at this level."
Markos blames the anti-business environment in Michigan. “Higher taxes, government fees and regulations, and political leadership in this state have buried us in Michigan.” Markos adds that so many of his Chaldean business friends have opened businesses in other states. “Wireless phone services in Texas, a hotel in Kentucky, and my brother is opening a dry cleaner in Las Vegas. Anything to get out of Michigan,” he says.
Michigan's economy has been in a one state recession for the last 6 years. The unemployment rate is 7.6% far above the national average of 4.9%. Michigan home foreclosures are the highest in the nation at over 18,415. Michigan is one of only two states in the country to actually decrease its population in the latest census report. The Mackinac Center for Public Policy reports that Michigan's annual average rate of growth for the past four years is only 0.1%.
On Thursday, Chrysler announced it will cut 1,825 jobs by eliminating one shift at a Toledo, Ohio, Jeep plant and accelerating the closure of its sport utility vehicle factory in Newark, Del., because of the slowing global economy and a shift toward smaller vehicles.
The cuts are so dramatic that they likely spell the end for Chrysler as in independent company and could indicate it is preparing itself for sale, said Aaron Bragman, an auto analyst with the consulting company IHS Global Insight.
Markos says, “Unlike the government, Chrysler is going to have to control its spending and expenses. That is why Michigan economy sucks. Michigan politicians don’t know how to stop spending and the people keep voting in big spenders. This has to stop. It is sad that Chrysler has to lay-off so many people, but it has to in order to survive.”
Markos is dead-on. In a memo to employees, Nardelli urged them to work hard to control expenses and said the company will have to move faster than it has in the past to restructure.
"We recognize that in order to strengthen our competitive capability, and reduce the time and cost to achieve our objectives, we cannot operate as we have in the past," he wrote. "In the near future, we will be making organizational announcements as a result of restructuring actions reflecting the need to find new ways to operate."
“Too bad our governor didn’t have the courage to send a memo to government employees to stop spending. If she did, it may have prevented so much of the mess Michigan is in,” adds Markos after learning about Nardelli’s memo.
Media Propaganda, coruption, and conspiracy
Chaldean Justice League has noticed an ongoing and orchestrated bias in media. Presenting information in an unfair and unjust way seeds a mindset that bears the fruit of injustice. The propaganda used by the media has been recorded and captured by the Media Research Center.
We share their findings with the Chaldean community as a demonstration of media propaganda and the injustice born of such fraudulent journalism. The covert attempt to change the will of the people through propaganda is in itself corrupt.
The Chaldean Justice League (CJL) is a group of concerned Chaldean community leaders working to address issues of injustice. The CJL invites any Chaldean to join the league and assist in challenging unfair policies and practices.
CJL Efforts:
Miller Boycott (Program Ended): Organize efforts to boycott Miller brewing company for their support of anti-Christian hate groups.
Chaldean Business Discrimination (Program Ongoing): Organize businesses to address unfair municipal or vendor practices relating to permits and product purchasing.
Christmas Grinch List (Program Ongoing): A program to provide information on businesses that refuse to acknowledge Christmas while using the holy day as a means to entice shoppers. CLICK HERE
Voter Registration (Program Ongoing): Working with the Chaldean Caucus to register Chaldeans.
HDTV Converter Coupon Application (Program Ongoing): Working to assist the Chaldean community in receiiving the U.S. Govt. $80 coupons for digital television converters.
If you have a cause or concern you feel the Chaldean Justice League should consider please e-mail ChaldeanJustice@yahoo.com.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2935
|
__label__cc
| 0.608541
| 0.391459
|
Climb to the Stars
Stephanie Booth's online ramblings
Being the boss
Digital Crumble
Troubles musculo-squelettiques (Repetitive Strain Injury)
Tag: swabforamit
Amit Gupta Needs You, and Other South Asians Too (Join the Marrow Registry!) [en]
[fr] Amit Gupta, celui qui a démarré Jelly et Photojojo (entre autres), court le risque de mourir de leucémie aiguë s'il ne trouve pas un donneur de cellules souches du sang. La chance de trouver un donneur pour quelqu'un d'Asie du Sud est très faible -- c'est pourquoi l'entourage d'Amit (et tout internet s'y met) remue ciel et terre pour encourager un maximum de personnes du même groupe ethnique de s'enregistrer comme donneurs.
I should have blogged about this weeks ago. I’ve been anxiously watching the countdown of the time that was left to find a bone marrow donor for Amit Gupta.
I’ve been checking Facebook and Twitter in the hope that I would see good news announced.
The countdown now says 0.
It doesn’t mean it’s too late, but it means that if there is no good enough donor amongst the people currently in the registry, Amit will have to take his chances with extra rounds of chemo (with possibly lasting damage) to survive the acute leukemia he was diagnosed with only mid-September.
If caucasians have a roughly 90% chance of finding a matching donor should they need one, chances are much slimmer if you’re South Asian (1 chance in 20’000 of finding an exact match). The reasons, it seems:
the huge variety of HLA profiles (a set of genes) amongst South Asians
a general reluctance to register and if matched, to donate (50% or more of South Asians back out once matched).
Heck, if the Ugly Indian can keep a street clean in Bangalore, can he not join a marrow registry and possibly save a life?
I have to say that when I first heard that Amit needed a marrow donation, I imagined the procedure was something like a spinal tap. It isn’t. The donor’s stem cells are usually taken from the blood stream directly, or if needed from the hip or pelvis, not the spine. All in all, the procedure is close to giving blood. Not a huge deal, to be honest.
Team Gupta’s next move, Clark tells Wired.com, is to make sure people are aware of how simple and painless the donation process is. Marrow is extracted from the arm and generally takes six hours or so. The procedure is about as invasive as donating blood — it just takes longer.
And to join the registry, all you need to do is send back a cheek swab. It’s really easy.
Here’s how to help if you live in India.
Even if you’re not a match for Amit, you might be a match for somebody else whose life depends upon a bone marrow donation.
As for me, well, there’s little chance I may be a match for Amit (obviously). I looked up the Swiss Marrow Registry to sign up, and was quite disappointed to see that my heart operation seemed to rule me out. I checked with them, though, and it’s on a case-by-case basis. In my case, there’s happily no reason to rule me out on the basis of the operation I had over 30 years ago.
So, who is this Amit? I don’t really know him, though I had a couple of e-mail exchanges with him when I started the eclau Jelly. Yup, he’s behind that. And he also started Photojojo, which you should definitely join if you’re into photography.
But this goes beyond Amit: it’s an issue for the whole South Asian community. If you are South Asian, in India or elsewhere, please do see what you can do to help.
Stuff to Read and Watch [en] (2011)
India Web [en] (2000)
Amour, amitié… [en] (2002)
Bitter Chocolate [en] (2001)
A Book on Teenagers and the Internet [en] (2007)
Lift13, Maximilian Stern [en] (2013)
More Musings on My Blogging [en] (2009)
A Day at the Frankfurter Buchmesse [en] (2007)
Eat, Pray, Love: Damn You, Elizabeth Gilbert [en] (2011)
Futile but funny [en] (2000)
Author Stephanie BoothPosted on 02.12.2011 Categories Health, India, News and Politics, Social Media and the WebTags amitguptaneedsyou, bone marrow, donate, india, registry, south asia, swabforamitLeave a comment on Amit Gupta Needs You, and Other South Asians Too (Join the Marrow Registry!) [en]
Climb to the Stars is Stephanie Booth's personal site. Blog powered since summer 2000. Follow her on Twitter (@stephtara), Tumblr (Digital Crumble), Facebook and Google.
Want to work with Stephanie?
Revue: 3 links a week
Steph’s Intermittent Newsletter
Demande à Steph
Chaque semaine, un truc geek pour améliorer votre vie numérique. Ecrivez-moi avec vos questions!
Archives Select Month January 2019 (2) December 2018 (1) November 2018 (5) October 2018 (2) September 2018 (2) August 2018 (5) July 2018 (2) June 2018 (2) May 2018 (5) April 2018 (8) March 2018 (5) February 2018 (3) January 2018 (1) December 2017 (5) November 2017 (4) October 2017 (7) September 2017 (2) August 2017 (6) July 2017 (4) June 2017 (5) April 2017 (2) March 2017 (9) February 2017 (6) January 2017 (4) December 2016 (3) November 2016 (2) October 2016 (5) September 2016 (6) August 2016 (2) July 2016 (2) June 2016 (4) May 2016 (4) April 2016 (7) March 2016 (3) February 2016 (5) January 2016 (6) December 2015 (5) November 2015 (3) October 2015 (3) September 2015 (6) August 2015 (8) July 2015 (2) May 2015 (2) April 2015 (1) February 2015 (5) January 2015 (4) May 2014 (1) April 2014 (3) March 2014 (6) February 2014 (3) January 2014 (4) December 2013 (18) November 2013 (7) October 2013 (7) September 2013 (6) August 2013 (3) July 2013 (6) June 2013 (12) May 2013 (3) April 2013 (11) March 2013 (32) February 2013 (22) January 2013 (2) December 2012 (20) November 2012 (15) October 2012 (4) September 2012 (4) August 2012 (4) July 2012 (4) June 2012 (2) May 2012 (7) April 2012 (9) March 2012 (6) February 2012 (30) January 2012 (1) December 2011 (15) November 2011 (7) October 2011 (5) September 2011 (8) August 2011 (11) July 2011 (5) June 2011 (14) May 2011 (20) April 2011 (17) March 2011 (15) February 2011 (37) January 2011 (19) December 2010 (13) November 2010 (8) October 2010 (19) September 2010 (16) August 2010 (6) July 2010 (12) June 2010 (28) May 2010 (41) April 2010 (24) March 2010 (24) February 2010 (14) January 2010 (21) December 2009 (47) November 2009 (27) October 2009 (10) September 2009 (9) August 2009 (31) July 2009 (5) June 2009 (18) May 2009 (5) April 2009 (21) March 2009 (36) February 2009 (47) January 2009 (10) December 2008 (5) November 2008 (24) October 2008 (20) September 2008 (28) August 2008 (18) July 2008 (22) June 2008 (8) May 2008 (6) April 2008 (8) March 2008 (16) February 2008 (24) January 2008 (32) December 2007 (36) November 2007 (21) October 2007 (35) September 2007 (28) August 2007 (9) July 2007 (18) June 2007 (18) May 2007 (19) April 2007 (14) March 2007 (21) February 2007 (40) January 2007 (20) December 2006 (24) November 2006 (28) October 2006 (28) September 2006 (48) August 2006 (22) July 2006 (16) June 2006 (7) May 2006 (10) April 2006 (6) March 2006 (14) February 2006 (35) January 2006 (9) December 2005 (13) November 2005 (5) October 2005 (5) September 2005 (5) August 2005 (10) July 2005 (3) June 2005 (4) May 2005 (6) April 2005 (3) March 2005 (20) February 2005 (24) January 2005 (18) December 2004 (8) November 2004 (7) October 2004 (8) September 2004 (10) August 2004 (14) July 2004 (22) June 2004 (8) May 2004 (5) April 2004 (4) March 2004 (11) February 2004 (22) January 2004 (17) December 2003 (16) November 2003 (10) October 2003 (18) September 2003 (20) August 2003 (26) July 2003 (17) June 2003 (10) May 2003 (11) April 2003 (24) March 2003 (23) February 2003 (25) January 2003 (17) December 2002 (32) November 2002 (13) October 2002 (13) September 2002 (18) August 2002 (21) July 2002 (14) June 2002 (22) May 2002 (16) April 2002 (23) March 2002 (15) February 2002 (28) January 2002 (23) December 2001 (3) November 2001 (23) October 2001 (35) September 2001 (44) August 2001 (30) July 2001 (17) June 2001 (24) May 2001 (25) April 2001 (42) March 2001 (43) February 2001 (38) January 2001 (43) December 2000 (44) November 2000 (50) October 2000 (3) September 2000 (9) August 2000 (11) July 2000 (11)
Categories Select Category Being the boss (124) Culture (470) Animals (29) Books (90) Feminism (2) Food (31) Health (56) India (45) Martial Arts (2) Media (15) Music (44) News and Politics (23) Photography (71) Plants (1) Travels (115) Just Blogging (15) Language Geekiness (92) My corner of the world (229) My projects (546) 3 Links Newsletter (1) Blog de voyage ebookers.ch (32) Bloggy Friday (59) Chroniques du monde connecté (58) coComment (26) Conferences (299) Event Musings (10) Live Blogging (216) Coworking (25) Demande à Steph (9) Going Solo (5) Livre (14) Orange Blogger Relations (6) Solar Impulse (10) My work (73) Personal (428) Social Media and the Web (821) Blogging (81) Connected Life (142) Corporate (57) Digital Youth (31) Personal Presence (3) Technical (332) CTTS News (148) Web Standards (84) Wordpress (112) Thinking (44) Tools (47) Stuff that doesn’t fit (346) Does This Need a New Category? (19) Technology (73) OSX (12) Speech Recognition (9) Uncategorized (263) Understanding life and the world (196) Life Improvement (49) Psychology (39) Writing (187) Creative (112) On Writing (16)
Pascale on Les chats diabétiques: ce qu’il faut savoir
Gudrun on Coming Out as Single and Childless
Stephane Deschamps on Biais d’attribution: ne jugeons pas autrui aussi sévèrement
Martine on Biais d’attribution: ne jugeons pas autrui aussi sévèrement
Cazenelle on Bienheureux ceux qui pleurent car ils seront consolés (Mt 5.4)
Bienheureux ceux qui pleurent car ils seront consolés (Mt 5.4) – Climb to the Stars on Faire preuve de courage face au deuil
Bienheureux ceux qui pleurent car ils seront consolés (Mt 5.4) – Climb to the Stars on Le vrac du samedi soir qui va du coq à l’âne
Stephanie Booth on International School of Lausanne aka Commonwealth American School
Brendan Hickey on International School of Lausanne aka Commonwealth American School
Ton Zijlstra on Des bribes
Climb to the Stars Proudly powered by WordPress
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2953
|
__label__wiki
| 0.998512
| 0.998512
|
Category: STAR POWER
The biggest stars of the small screen chat to DQ about their latest projects, the standout roles during their acting careers and what the future holds for them in television.
An Emmy winner for her performance as the ferocious Aunt Lydia in The Handmaid’s Tale, Ann Dowd’s latest role takes her to the edge of the world for Australian miniseries Lambs of God.
Rob Lowe, the US actor best known for turns in The West Wing and Parks & Recreation, discusses his move to the UK to lead the cast of crime drama Wild Bill, his role as an executive producer and his passion for directing.
Moving into Beecham
After starring in Gurinder Chadha’s latest feature film, Viveik Kalra reunites with the writer/director for her new TV series, Beecham House. He tells DQ about the upstairs-downstairs drama, set in India in 1795.
Stana’s starring roles
Stana Katic, the star and executive producer of Absentia, talks to DQ about returning for the thriller’s second season and why she’s the type of actor who goes beyond just appearing on screen.
All Eyes on Mariana
Brazilian actor Mariana Ximenes discusses taking centre stage in Globo limited series Si Cierro Los Ojos Ahora (If I Close My Eyes Now).
Chimerican dream
Alessandro Nivola talks to DQ about his starring role in Channel 4 political drama Chimerica, making the leap from film to television and his commitment to working with only the best directors.
Relating to Hanna
Stars Esme Miles-Creed, Rhianne Barreto and Mireille Enos reflect on making Amazon Prime drama Hanna, based on the 2011 film of the same name.
Trying on a different hat
Actor Natalie Dormer explains how working on an independent feature film and Australian drama Picnic at Hanging Rock encouraged her to take more control behind the camera.
Becoming Bruna
Maria Bopp, star of Brazilian series Me Chama De Bruna (Call Me Bruna), tells DQ how the drama is breaking boundaries and leading the charge for greater female representation in television.
Curfew stars Sean Bean and Billy Zane join executive producers Will Gould and Frith Tiplady as they take DQ behind the wheel of the Sky1 action series about an illegal street race and the competitors who take part.
Doom’s day
The DC Universe streaming platform introduces a new band of superheroes in the form of Doom Patrol. April Bowlby, who plays Rita Farr, aka Elasti-Woman, tells DQ about the ‘amazing’ experience of making the show.
Hidden meaning
GoldenEye star Izabella Scorupco tells DQ why her latest part in Swedish drama Eldmärkt (Hidden) is the role of her life and how there are more exciting characters for her to play now than ever before.
New Dae
Lost and Hawaii Five-0 star Daniel Dae Kim tells DQ that while times are changing for non-white actors as TV dramas around the globe become increasingly diverse, there’s still work to be done.
Back from the dead
Tim Roth, Genevieve O’Reilly and Abigail Lawrie talk about returning for a second season of Tin Star, the Sky original drama packed full of twists and turns as a tortured police chief faces new threats in his battle to save his family and find forgiveness for his sins.
After spending eight years playing detective Saga Norén in The Bridge, Swedish actor Sofia Helin’s next screen role will see her portray a princess fighting for her country during the Second World War. She tells DQ about finding her voice and playing a royal in Atlantic Crossing.
Reinventing Javert
An upcoming adaptation of Victor Hugo’s 19th century novel Les Misérables will be the most satisfying version yet, says star David Oyelowo, as he explains why taking the character of Javert beyond his portrayal as a one-one-dimensional villain was his most challenging role to date.
Mrs Wilson’s war
The Affair star Ruth Wilson opens up about starring in three-part drama Mrs Wilson, which is based on the true story of her own grandmother who discovered her late husband lived a life full of secrets.
Raisin’ the dead
With cancelled comedy-drama Agatha Raisin set to be brought back to life on US streamer Acorn TV, star Ashley Jensen discusses what makes the show special.
Following a feature-length pilot in 2016, Tom Riley returns as a tortured detective in a full season of ITV drama Dark Heart. The actor tells DQ about reprising the role of DI Will Wagstaffe, playing a cop and filming in London’s Soho.
Lost and Person of Interest star Michael Emerson swaps science fiction for the Middle Ages with a starring role in The Name of the Rose. He tells DQ why the part was a dream come true.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2955
|
__label__cc
| 0.687499
| 0.312501
|
Who is jordin tootoo dating
Posted by / 22-Jul-2014 01:08
Kempny has picked up eight points with 54 blocks and 75 hits in 47 games.
Desjardins will be coming out of the lineup for Dennis Rasmussen.
Campbell had produced just three assists over his previous 20 contests.
He has 16 points and a plus-21 rating in 63 matches.
Rozsival meanwhile has collected a point with 20 blocks and 34 hits in 14 games.
Tootoo is still searching for his first points of the season through 35 games where he's picked up 16 PIMs and 31 hits.
Darling entered the game in relief of Corey Crawford early in the third period with the 'Hawks trailing 4-1.
The change seemed to spark the Blackhawks, as they were able to score three unanswered goals to tie the game.
Andrew Desjardins, Michal Kempny and Michal Rozsival will also be scratched.Keith has produced 48 points in 70 games this season.He has scored just three goals in 68 games this season after he produced a career-high 14 markers in 2015-16.He hasn't dressed since February 4, a span of nine games.Andrew Desjardins will be the other healthy scratch after dressing in the Blackhawks last game. Tootoo has yet to register a point in 36 games played, and averages a paltry six and a half minutes per game.
Desjardins has no goals and one assist in 39 games this season.
One thought on “who is jordin tootoo dating”
Free no sign up feet chats says:
- Private Chat - Here you can show yourself to the model through your web camera and do whatever you want to do, since this is the most preferred and popular type of online chat where real live sex chat takes place.
interracial dating in japan says:
Simplicity of use is a goal of ours at Chatrandom as we attempt to make the user's experience as easy as possible.
kangana ranaut dating
trey songz and chris brown dating
Free sex chat with house wife
Hook up telugu girls in bay area
Free sex hookup free membership
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2972
|
__label__wiki
| 0.77158
| 0.77158
|
Home Local News 100 Mihin Lanka employees worked 9 months without salaries – Presidential commission
100 Mihin Lanka employees worked 9 months without salaries – Presidential commission
One hundred employees, who were recruited to Mihin Lanka worked for nine months without salary, starting April 2008, retired Mihin Lanka employee Ingrid Catharine Guruge told the Presidential Commission of Inquiry (PCol) on irregularities at SriLankan Airlines, SriLankan Catering and Mihin Lanka today.
Guruge is the retired Ground Handling Manager at Mihin Lanka (Pvt.) Limited.
During her testimony, she informed the Commission that the Mihin Lanka had wet-leased (When leasing the aircraft with the entire crew) two aircraft from Bulgaria and Turkey in 2007 and after the expiration of their contract period in 2008, the two aircraft left the country and they had to work without salary for nine months.
“Mihin Lanka did not have flights for nine months and we hoped the new management would solve this issue,” she told Commission.
She said that during the period the CEO of the Mihin Lanka was Sajin Vaas Gunawardena and after this situation, the management had changed and Anura Bandara was appointed as CEO of Mihin Lanka (Pvt) Limited.
She informed the Commission that the employees, who were above age 55, worked under SriLankan Airlines, had retired on a Voluntary Retirement Scheme and joined Mihin Lanka (Pvt) in 2006.
She also informed the Commission that the ground handling part at the Mihin Lanka was performed by the SriLankan Airlines.
“On December 31, 2007, the SriLankan Airlines had moved out from their services of ground handling and took the equipment due to non-payment for ground handling,” she said.
“On December 31, 2007, we had to face a serious situation. Due to SriLankan Airlines moving out from ground handling, the engineering staff of Mihin Lanka had to push out the one aircraft physically to the runaway. Also, we had cancelled several flights on that day,” she informed the Commission.
She also informed the Commission that after the above incident certain second-hand German manufactured ground handling equipment were purchased by Mihin Lanka for the purpose of self-handling but there was no separate trained staff to handle the equipment and subsequently it was also handled by the SriLankan Airlines.
During her testimony, she also informed the Commission that Mihin Lanka was incorporated as a Budget Airline but the management had used that as a commercial plan.
“Mihin Lanka had the duty free facilities, food served in the flights and they had charged a baggage allowance as well,” she said.
Previous articlePolgahawela Export Processing Zone export revenue tops US$ 77.4 million
Next articleSri Lanka Cricket elections to be held soon – AG informs court of appeal
’Aaryawa-Baryawa’ stories no threat Sajith’s popularity: Harin
Showers & winds likely to enhance over south-western areas
Two lives claimed in an accident at Mellankulam
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2973
|
__label__wiki
| 0.713787
| 0.713787
|
Sunday, May 06, 2018 0
Silly Symphonies Part Four: 1933 – Who’s afraid of another Academy Award? – Inside the Magic (press release) (blog)
Inside the Magic (press release) (blog)New characters, which still influence Disney parks and entertainment today, made their debut and earned the studio another Academy Award. “Three Little Pigs” struck a chord with depression era viewers to the point that the song, “Who’s Afraid of the … …read more Source:: Academy Awards News By Google News
from WordPress https://ift.tt/2HRS6r7
GLAAD Media Awards New York Winners List: ‘Call Me By Your Name’, Samira Wiley, Ava DuVernay Among Honorees – Deadline
DeadlineThe announcement of the awards comes after the first wave of honorees were handed out in April during the Los Angeles ceremony. The New York event continued GLAAD’s Together movement with celebrities and attendees donning blue “&” pins, which …‘Call Me By Your Name’, Ava DuVernay, Samira Wiley Honoured At 29th GLAAD Media AwardsETCanada.com all […]
from WordPress https://ift.tt/2rlvZPS
Silly Symphonies Part Four: 1933 – Who’s afraid of...
GLAAD Media Awards New York Winners List: ‘Call Me...
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2975
|
__label__wiki
| 0.519722
| 0.519722
|
Human Capital Rating System Available at No Cost
JP Morgan Chase Has Much Room for Improvement, Ratings Find
A process for rating the organizational maturity of organizations developed in the United Kingdom is now available at no cost to help organizations “develop a greater understanding and the professional practice of organization maturity and human governance,” according to statement by Maturity Institute (MI) and Organizational Maturity Services (OMS) LLP. Organizations can use the methodology to score themselves, their clients, or companies in which they are considering an investment. See previous ESM article on the Maturity Institute and its OMINDEX.
The Maturity Institute recently used the template to rate JP Morgan Chase. Based on a review of filings and public ratings, JP Morgan received a B grade, with much room for improving shareholder value, lowering risks and creating a more engaging work environment. See below for more details.
Provide a Means of Comparison
Room for Improvement in Stakeholder Value
About the Maturity Institute
According to Stuart Woollard, Partner, OMS LLP, “Sharing this methodology will show boards, investors and key stakeholders the power of Organizational Maturity to analyse and measure so- called intangibles such as corporate culture, human governance and workforce management and, at the same time, understand their impact on sustainable value and material business risk. We know from our own experience with companies and the investment community that this is compelling technology that enables comparative measures of critical organizational factors that are currently missing. It also facilitates the design of roadmaps for powerful organizational change to make companies fit for purpose in today’s evolving business paradigm.”
Adds Paul Kearns, MI Chair: “We also see this as a crucial step in helping OM30+© become the defining global standard for measuring comparative organizational maturity which is linked to sustained value creation and risk mitigation. The original design of OMINDEX is aimed for ratings to sit alongside traditional credit ratings, which are unable to provide good whole system insight into current and future corporate ‘health’. We have now begun to see this aim being realized and hope sharing this IP (Intellectual Property) will greatly move us forward.”
The Maturity Index rating process was recently used by the Maturity Institute to rate Chase Bank, which received a grade of B, with a Total Stake Holder Value of 0.53 and a risk factor of 63%. Woollard says this means that Chase could nearly double its stakeholder value with a more strategic focus on human capital and significantly reduce risks to stakeholders. For instance, he noted, JP Morgan Chase has paid more than $28 billion in fines and penalties – funds that could be more productively deployed.
The ratings were based in part on the following conclusions from publicly available filings and information sources:
There is a significant gap between the organization’s public statements and external communications and the reality found in the evidence. This leads us to question the authenticity of JP Morgan’s declared principles and practices.
CEO remuneration has moved away from JP Morgan’s founding principle of an equitable reward system linking CEO pay to the workforce. It is now financially geared, encourages a focus on short-term earnings and, when set against MI’s global standard of TSV (Total Stakeholder Value), the CEO’s contribution falls short.
JP Morgan’s statement of purpose: “First class business... in a first class way” is contradicted by strong evidence of business conduct that continues to cause reputational damage.
JP Morgan’s Board has a conventional committee structure with shareholder interests being its prime concern.
JP Morgan’s post-GFC strategy of a “Fortress Balance Sheet” and “Fortress Controls” reads across to the creation of an unhealthy “Fortress Culture” that is largely impervious to external critique.
Performance management and executive reward is rooted in driving shareholder returns. In particular, the “People & Leadership” dimension is not connected to material value or risk outcomes. For example, JP Morgan claims success (Proxy Statement, 7 April 2016) is simply having “Created a new leadership development program...”
Customer/client service is seen as fundamental to JP Morgan’s definition of business success (i.e., to provide shareholder value). Some improvement is evident, but it still lags behind the best in class. The litany of misconduct suggests that it strategic emphasis on quality is overplayed and under-delivered. We also see this as an indication of an unhealthy disregard for the regulatory environment.
JP Morgan’s instances of misconduct include a recent “bribery” issue in China, a whistle blower sacking and “mortgage abuses.” The bank is either wholly unaware of, or in denial about, the extent to which this is symptomatic of its culture, simply stating in its 2015 Annual Report: “the conduct of a small group of employees, or of even a single employee, can reflect badly on all of us and can have significant ramifications for the entire firm.” This statement fails to identify what, if any, remedial management actions are required.
Culture and conduct initiatives have largely been a standard ‘boiler plate’ strategy e.g. issuing and promoting business principles and widespread training thereon. The company’s Chief Operating Officer has responsibility for culture and conduct program, and not human resources, but capability needs building here.
Management practice deploys conventional human resources processes focusing on talent attraction and retention, with a significant emphasis on diversity programs. This does not meet the MI standards of mature human capital management.
Innovation is primarily centred on technology investments to drive efficiencies, customer interaction and cross-selling. There is no strong evidence that an underlying, ‘human’ led, firm-wide system of knowledge capture, sharing and value creation is in place.
The Maturity Institute (MI) comprises a global network of professionally accredited leaders, practitioners and academics creating value for all stakeholders through organizational maturity that realises the full value of human potential for the benefit of society.
To obtain a copy of the OM30+ spreadsheet for self-scoring your organization, send your details (Name, Organization, Job Title) to Stuart Woollard. An outline pdf copy of the OM30+ is available online. The full working template is available here.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2976
|
__label__wiki
| 0.694437
| 0.694437
|
Potent anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of new derivatives of chalcone, pyridine, pyrazole, and isoxazole incorporated into 5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalene
Nehal A. Hamdy1, Gehan M. Kamel2
1 Applied Organic Chemistry Department, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
2 Pharmacology Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
Date of Submission 22-Jan-2012
Date of Acceptance 14-Mar-2012
Nehal A. Hamdy
Applied Organic Chemistry Department, National Research Centre, Dokki, 12622 Cairo
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000416046.32749.90
Synthesis of new series of 5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalene derivatives conjugated with chalcone, pyridine, pyrazole and isoxazole functionalities hoping to circumvent the unwanted ulcerogenic and other side effects of the already used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.
Most currently used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) suffer from limitation in their therapeutic uses, since they cause gastrointestinal and renal side effects related to inhibition of cyclooxygenase1 (Cox1) in tissues where prostaglandins exert physiological effects.
Reaction of 2-acetyl tetralin (1) with some aromatic aldehydes in the presence of malononitrile yielded 2-amino-3-cyanopyridine derivatives 2a–c. Condensation of compound 1 with aromatic aldehydes afforded the chalcone derivatives 3a–c. Then, compound 3a reacted with hydrazine hydrate or phenyl hydrazine and yielded pyrazoline derivatives 4 or 5, respectively. Also, the reaction of compound 3c with hydroxylamine hydrochloride afforded the isoxazole derivative 6. Anti-inflammatory properties of the synthesized compounds were evaluated in vivo utilizing formalin induced paw edema method in rats, analgesic activities were tested via both hot plate and writhing methods.
Derivatives 2c and 3c revealed promising results when the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and ulcerogenic activities of the synthesized compounds were evaluated. All of the compounds induced significant central and peripheral analgesia. The derivatives 2a, 2c, 3a, 3b, 3c, 5, and 6 showed higher activity than the standard ibuprofen.
Keywords: analgesic activity, anti-inflammatory, isoxazole, pyrazoline, pyridine, tetralin
Hamdy NA, Kamel GM. Potent anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of new derivatives of chalcone, pyridine, pyrazole, and isoxazole incorporated into 5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalene. Egypt Pharmaceut J 2012;11:22-30
Hamdy NA, Kamel GM. Potent anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of new derivatives of chalcone, pyridine, pyrazole, and isoxazole incorporated into 5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalene. Egypt Pharmaceut J [serial online] 2012 [cited 2019 Jul 17];11:22-30. Available from: http://www.epj.eg.net/text.asp?2012/11/1/22/136966
Importance of the pyridine ring in the chemistry of biological systems has been acknowledged because of its presence in many natural products of therapeutic importance that are involved in the oxidation–reduction process. The potent biological activity of various vitamins and drugs 1–4 is primarily ascribed to the presence of the pyridine ring in their molecular makeup. In contrast, cyanopyridine derivatives have promising antimicrobial 5, 6, anticancer 7, 8, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic 9, and colon tumor cell growth inhibitory 10 activities. Recently, some new heterocyclic compounds containing pyridine moiety were reported as anticancer and anti-inflammatory agents 11,12.
α,β-Unsaturated ketones are useful key intermediates 13,14 bearing the well-known chalcone pharmacophore. Chalcones can be isolated from several plants and are precursors of flavones and anthocyan compounds. Some of them exhibit antioxidant and anticancer properties. In fact, the pharmacological properties of chalcones are due to the presence of both α,β-unsaturation 15 and an aromatic ring. The pyrazole unit is the core structure in a number of natural products 16. Many pyrazole derivatives are known to exhibit a wide range of biological properties such as antihyperglycemic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, antibacterial, hypoglycemic, sedative-hypnotic 17, 18, and anticoagulant 19 activities. In particular, pyrazoles are important in medicinal chemistry 20 and were reported to have non-nucleoside HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitor 21 and antimicrobial activities 22. It was also reported that 5-substituted pyrazoles are presently undergoing pharmacological study as antagonists of cannabinoid receptors 1. It was proved that they are useful for the treatment of obesity 23. Moreover, many pyrazole derivatives have been reported as adenosine receptor antagonists having high affinity and selectivity 24. Furthermore, isoxazoles possess analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities 25.
In view of the above-mentioned facts and in continuation of our search for various biologically active molecules 26–29, we report here the synthesis of some new 3-cyano pyridine, chalcone, pyrazole, and isoxazole derivatives in addition to evaluation of their preliminary anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities.
Subjects and methods
All melting points were uncorrected and measured using an Electro-thermal IA 9100 apparatus (Shimadzu, Japan). Microanalytical data were obtained using a Vario El-Mentar apparatus (Shimadzu) at the National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt. Infrared (IR) spectra were recorded using a Biorad FTS 155 FT-IR spectrophotometer (ICB-IR Service Centre, Pozzuoli, Naples, Italy) and recorded as potassium bromide pellets on a Perkin-Elmer 1650 Spectrophotometer at the National Research Centre (Cairo, Egypt). 1H NMR experiments were conducted in DMSO at the ICB-NMR Service Centre (Pozzuoli, Naples, Italy), and shifts were referenced to TMS on a Bruker Avance-400 operating at 400 MHz. 1H NMR spectra were determined in DMSO-d 6 at 300 MHz (1H NMR) and 75 MHz (13C NMR) and determined on a JEOL-Ex-300 NMR spectrometer. Chemical shifts were expressed as parts per million (ppm) (δ values) against TMS as an internal reference (Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt). Mass spectra were obtained using an ion-trap MS instrument in electron impact mode at 70 eV (ICB-IR Service Centre) and determined on a Shimadzu GCMS-QP-1000EX mass spectrometer at 70 eV (Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt). Compound 1 was prepared according to a method reported previously 30.
General procedure for the preparation of compounds (2a–c)
A mixture of compound 1 (1.74 g, 0.01 mol), the appropriate aldehyde (2-chloro-5-nitrobenzaldehyde, 2-naphthaldehyde, or p-isopropyl benzaldehyde) (0.01 mol), malononitrile (0.66 g, 0.01 mol), and ammonium acetate (6.16 g, 0.08 mol) in n-butanol (30 ml) was refluxed for 6 h. The reaction mixture was concentrated, allowed to cool, and the separated product was filtered off, washed several times with diethyl ether, and recrystallized from the proper solvent to yield compounds 2a–c, respectively.
2-Amino-4-(2-chloro-5-nitrophenyl)-6-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)pyridine-3-carbonitrile (2a)
Yield (74%); m.p. 250–252°C (EtOH/DMF); IR spectrum (KBr, &ngr;, cm−1): 3354, 3227 (NH2), 2930 (CH, alicyclic), 2217 (CN), 1632 (C=N), 1526, 1345 (NO2); 1H NMR (DMSO-d 6 , δppm): 1.73 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 2.74 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 6.94 (s, 2H, NH2, exchangeable with D2O), 7.15 (d, J=8.4 Hz, 1H, Ar–H), 7.25 (s, 1H, Ar–H), 7.80 (d, J=7.6 Hz, 1H, Ar–H), 7.93–7.97 (m, 2H, Ar–H), 8.34–8.37 (m, 2H, Ar–H); 13C NMR (DMSO-d 6 ): δ (ppm): 22.52, 22.62, 28.70, 28.80 (4CH2), 127.70 (CN),109.19, 115.93, 120.75, 124.38, 125.46, 129.18, 131.17, 134.28, 136.90, 137.41, 138.53, 139.40, 146.25, 150.50, 159.17 (aromatic-C). MS m/z (%): 404 (M+, 100), 406 (35.35); Anal. calcd (%) for C22H17ClN4O2 (404.85): required C, 65.27; H, 4.23; N, 13.84; found C, 65.05; H, 4.43; N, 13.65.
2-Amino-4-(naphthalen-2-yl)-6-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)pyridine-3-carbonitrile (2b)
Yield (78%); m.p. 200–202°C (CHCl3); IR spectrum (KBr, &ngr;, cm−1): 3361, 3212 (NH2), 2932 (CH, alicyclic), 2202 (CN); 1H NMR (DMSO-d 6 , δppm): 1.75 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 2.77 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 6.92 (s, 2H, NH2, exchangeable with D2O), 7.12–8.08 (m, 11H, Ar–H); 13C NMR (DMSO-d 6 ): δ (ppm): 22.5, 29.5 (4CH2-tetralin), 113.7 (CN), 109.2, 114.7, 122.5, 125.6, 126.2, 127.7, 128.3, 128.4, 129.1, 129.4, 133.1, 134.4, 135.3, 135.7, 136.2, 154.4, 156.2, 161.9 (aromatic-C). MS m/z (%): 375 (M+, 42), 368 (80), 128 (100); Anal. calcd (%) for C26H21N3 (375.17): required C, 83.17; H, 5.64; N, 11.19; found C, 83.39; H, 5.44; N, 11.02.
2-Amino-4-(4-isopropylphenyl)-6-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)pyridine-3-carbonitrile (2c)
Yield (80%); m.p. 210–212°C (EtOH); IR spectrum (KBr, &ngr;, cm−1): 3324, 3194 (NH2), 2935 (CH, alicyclic), 2207 (CN); 1H NMR (DMSO-d 6 , δppm): 1.23 (d, J=6.3 Hz, 6H, 2CH3), 1.74 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 2.76 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 2.98 (m, 1H, CH), 6.74 (s, 2H, NH2, exchangeable with D2O); 6.92–8.28 (m, 8H, Ar–H); 13C NMR (DMSO-d 6 ): δ (ppm): 22.5, 29.5 (4CH2-tetralin), 113.7 (CN), 109.2, 111.4, 114.7, 119.4, 121.4, 121.9, 122.5, 128.4, 128.4, 128.6, 129.1, 129.4, 135.3, 135.5, 136.2, 136.6, 154.4, 156.2, 161.9 (aromatic-C). MS m/z (%): 367 (M+, 100); Anal. calcd (%) for C25H25N3 (367.49): required C, 81.71; H, 6.86; N, 11.43; found C, 81.64; H, 6.63; N, 11.29.
General procedure for the preparation of compounds (3a, b)
To a mixture of compound 1 (4.9 g, 0.028 mol) and 2-chloro-5-nitrobenzaldehyde or 2-naphthaldehyde (0.028 mol) in ethanol (30 ml) was added NaOH solution (15 ml, 30%) dropwise within 15 min. The reaction mixture was stirred for 3 h and left overnight at room temperature. The formed solid was collected and recrystallized from ethanol to yield compounds 3a, b, respectively.
(E)3-(2-Chloro-5-nitrophenyl)-1-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)prop-2-en-1-one (3a)
Yield (69%); m.p. 118–120°C; IR spectrum (KBr, &ngr;, cm−1): 2934 (CH, alicyclic), 1666 (C=O), 1524, 1347 (NO2); 1H NMR (DMSO-d 6 , δppm): 1.78 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 2.80 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 7.23 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H, Ar–H), 7.84 (d, J=8.7 Hz, 1H, COCH=), 7.90–7.97 (m, 3H, Ar–H), 8.15–8.25 (m, 2H, Ar–H, =CH), 8.9 (d, J=2.7 Hz, 1H, Ar–H); 13C NMR (DMSO-d 6 ): δ (ppm): 22.5, 29.5 (4CH2-tetralin), 121.5, 121.6, 122.5, 124.1, 128.2, 128.4, 129.1, 129.4, 132.1, 135.3, 136.2, 139.1, 145.4, 148.3 (aromatic-C), 189.0 (CO). MS m/z (%): 341 (M+, 40), 343 (13), 159 (50), 136 (100); Anal. calcd (%) for C19H16ClNO3 (341.79): required C, 66.77; H, 4.72; N, 4.10; found C, 66.96; H, 4.54; N, 4.31.
(E)-3-(Naphthalen-2-yl)-1-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)prop-2-en-1-one (3b)
Yield (76%); m.p. 154–156°C; IR spectrum (KBr, &ngr;, cm−1): 2942 (CH, alicyclic), 1651 (C=O), 1606 (C=C); 1H NMR (DMSO-d 6 , δppm): 1.78 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 2.81 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 7.25 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H, Ar–H), 7.56–8.32 (m, 11H, 9Ar–H, COCH=, =CH); 13C NMR (DMSO-d 6 ): δ (ppm): 22.5, 29.5 (4CH2-tetralin), 121.2, 122.5, 125.6, 126.2, 127.7, 128.4, 128.6, 129.1, 129.4, 133.1, 134.4, 135.3, 135.7, 136.2, 145.4 (aromatic-C), 189.0 (CO). MS m/z (%): 312 (M+, 100); Anal. calcd (%) for C23H20O (312.4): required C, 88.43; H, 6.45; found C, 88.25; H, 6.24.
(E)-3-(1-H-Indol-3-yl)-1-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)prop-2-en-1-one (3c)
A mixture of compound 1 (1.74 g, 0.01 mol) and 3-formyl indole (1.452 g, 0.01 mol) was dissolved in ethylene glycol (10 ml) containing piperidine (0.5 ml). The solution was then heated at 175–180°C for 10 min. After cooling, 5 ml of water and 0.5 ml of acetic acid were added. The crystals that deposited were filtered off and recrystallized from ethanol to yield compound 3c. Yield (74%); m.p. 208–210°C; IR spectrum (KBr, &ngr;, cm−1): 3218 (NH), 2934 (CH, alicyclic), 1657 (C=O); 1H NMR (DMSO-d 6 , δppm): 1.76 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 2.78 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 6.94–8.07 (m, 10H, 8Ar–H, =CH, COCH=), 11.69 (s, 1H, NH, exchangeable with D2O); 13C NMR (DMSO-d 6 ): δ (ppm): 22.5, 29.5 (4CH2-tetralin), 111.4, 119.4, 121.2, 121.4, 121.9, 122.5, 128.4, 128.6, 128.9, 129.1, 129.4, 135.5, 135.6, 136.2, 145.4 (aromatic-C), 189.0 (CO). MS m/z (%): 301 (M+, 100); Anal. calcd (%) for C21H19NO (301.15): required C, 83.69; H, 6.35; N, 4.65; found C, 83.87; H, 6.15; N, 4.56.
1-(5-(2-Chloro-5-nitrophenyl)-4,5-dihydro-1-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-7-yl)-1H-pyrazole-1-yl)ethane (4)
A solution of compound 3a (0.683 g, 0.02 mol) and hydrazine hydrate (1 g, 0.03 mol) in acetic acid (30 ml) was heated under reflux for 5 h. The reaction mixture was cooled and poured onto ice water. The precipitated product was filtered off, washed, and recrystallized from chloroform to yield compound 4. Yield (69%); m.p. 180–182°C; IR spectrum (KBr, &ngr;, cm−1): 2936 (CH, alicyclic), 1660 (C=O); 1H NMR (DMSO-d 6 , δppm): 1.72 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 2.35 (s, 3H, COCH3), 2.73 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 3.15 (dd, J=5.1,18.0 Hz, 1H, CH of pyrazoline ring >CHHa), 3.93 (dd, J=12.0,18.0 Hz, 1H, CH of pyrazoline ring >CHbH), 5.79 (dd, J=5.4, 12.0 Hz, 1H, CH of pyrazoline ring >CHcAr), 7.12 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H, Ar–H), 7.44 (s, 1H, Ar–H), 7.50 (d, J=8.1 Hz, 1H, Ar–H), 7.80 (d, J=9 Hz, 2H, Ar–H), 8.15 (dd, J=2.7, 8.7Hz, 1H, Ar–H); 13C NMR (DMSO-d 6 ): δ (ppm): 23.5 (CH3), 22.5, 29.5 (4CH2-tetralin), 122.5, 127.4, 128.4, 129.1, 129.4, 131.2, 131.6, 133.3, 134.6, 144.3, 145.3, 151.2 (aromatic-C), 168.0 (CO). MS m/z (%): 399 (M++2, 33); 397 (M+, 100); Anal. calcd (%) for C21H20ClN3O3 (397.12): required C, 63.40; H, 5.07; N, 10.56; found C, 63.21; H, 5.13; N, 10.72.
5-(2-Chloro-5-nitrophenyl)-4,5-dihydro-3-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazole (5)
A solution of compound 3a (0.673 g, 0.02 mol) and phenyl hydrazine (2.16 g, 0.02 mol) in absolute ethanol (50 ml) and triethylamine (0.5) was refluxed for 6 h. The formed precipitate was filtered off and recrystallized from ethanol to afford compound 5. Yield (67%); m.p. 268–270°C; IR spectrum (KBr, &ngr;, cm−1): 2942 (CH, alicyclic), 1596 (C=N); 1H NMR (DMSO-d 6 , δppm): 1.77 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 2.78 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 3.16 (dd, J=6.0, 17.4 Hz, 1H, CH pyrazoline ring >CHHa), 4.03 (dd, J=12.3, 17.4 Hz, 1H, CH of pyrazoline ring >CHbH), 5.71 (dd, J=6.0, 12.3 Hz, 1H, CH pyrazoline ring >CHcAr), 6.76 (t, J=7.5 Hz, 1H, Ar–H), 6.94 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H, Ar–H), 7.09–7.28 (m, 3H, Ar–H), 7.42 (s, 1H, Ar–H), 7.49 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H, Ar–H), 7.93 (d, J=9.6 Hz, 1H, Ar–H), 8.13–8.29 (m, 4H, Ar–H); 13C NMR (DMSO-d 6 ): δ (ppm): 22.5, 29.5 (4CH2-tetralin), 116.7, 120.3, 122.5, 125.5, 127.4, 128.4, 129.4, 129.5, 129.7, 131.2, 131.6, 133.3, 134.6, 135.3, 136.2, 143.4, 144.3, 145.3, 151.2 (aromatic-C). MS m/z (%): 433 (M++2, 22), 432 (M++1, 19), 431 (M+, 66), 77 (100); Anal. calcd (%) for C25H22ClN3O2 (431.14): required C, 69.52; H, 5.13; N, 9.73; found C, 69.42; H, 5.37; N, 9.65.
3-(4,5-Dihydro-3-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalene-7-yl)-isoxazol-5-yl)-1H-indole (6)
A solution of compound 3c (3.01 g, 0.01 mol) and hydroxylamine hydrochloride (0.7 g, 0.01 mol) in pyridine (40 ml) was refluxed for 8 h. The cooled reaction mixture was acidified with ice-cold dilute hydrochloric acid. The separated solid was filtered off, dried, and recrystallized from ethanol to afford compound 6. Yield (69%); m.p. 190–192°C (EtOH); IR spectrum (KBr, &ngr;, cm−1): 3412 (NH), 2949 (CH, alicyclic), 1610 (C=C); 1H NMR (DMSO-d 6 , δppm): 1.74 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 2.74 (m, 4H, 2CH2 of tetrahydronaphthalene), 3.53 (dd, J=9.3, 16.8 Hz, 1H, CH of isoxazoline ring >CHHa), 3.73 (dd, J=10.8, 16.8 Hz, 1H, CH of isoxazoline ring >CHbH ), 5.93 (dd, J=9.3, 10.8 Hz, 1H, CH of isoxazoline ring >CHcAr), 6.95–7.15 (m, 3H, Ar–H), 7.37–7.47 (m, 5H, Ar–H), 11.2 (s, 1H, NH, exchangeable with D2O); 13C NMR (DMSO-d 6 ): δ (ppm): 22.44, 22.46, 28.64, 28.94 (4CH2), 39.22, 39.50 (CHCH2), 111.70, 113.83, 118.67, 121.34, 123.34, 123.93, 125.20, 126.85, 126.95, 129.94, 136.79, 137.10, 138.74, 156.22 (aromatic-C). MS m/z (%): 316 (M+, 40), 225 (100); Anal. calcd (%) for C21H20N2O (316.16): required C, 79.72; H, 6.37; N, 8.85; found C, 79.54; H, 6.44; N, 8.65.
Biological evaluation
Adult male mice (20–25 g) were used for studying the analgesic activity. Adult male Wister albino rats (150–200 g) were used to study the anti-inflammatory activity. The animals (five per cage) were maintained under standard laboratory conditions (light period of 12 h/day and temperature 27±2°C) with access to food and water ad libitum. The experimental procedures were carried out in strict compliance with the Institutional Animal Ethics Committee regulations. All experiments were performed in the morning according to the guidelines for the care of laboratory animals 31.
Anti-inflammatory activity
Anti-inflammatory activity screening for the prepared compounds was determined in vivo by the standard formalin-induced paw edema method in rats 32. Wister albino rats of either sex weighing 150–200 g were divided into 11 groups of five animals each. Thickness of the left hind paw of each rat was measured (mm) using a vernier caliper before any drug administration (0 h). The control group received DMSO. Ibuprofen was given orally (50 mg/kg) as reference standard. The tested compounds 2a–c, 3a–c, and 4–6 dissolved in DMSO were administered orally (100 mg/kg) to the rest of the groups 1 h before induction of inflammation. Paw edema was induced by subcutaneous injection of 2.5% formalin solution (0.1 ml/rat) into the right hind paw of each rat. Paw thickness of each rat was measured after 30 min and 1, 2, and 3 h following formalin injection. Edema thickness (mm) was calculated by subtracting the zero-hour reading from each time reading. The anti-inflammatory activity was expressed as percentage inhibition of edema thickness in treated animals in comparison with the control group [Table 1]:
Table 1: Anti-inflammatory activity of the tested compounds (100 mg/kg, orally) against formalin-induced paw edema
where V c and V t are the thickness of edema for the control and drug-treated animal groups, respectively.
Analgesic activity
The hot-plate method: Analgesic activity of the tested compounds was determined by the hot-plate method as reported before 33. A total number of 55 mice were divided into 11 groups of five animals each. The first group was administered DMSO orally (0.2 ml/mice) and kept as negative control. Ibuprofen was given as standard drug (50 mg/kg) to the second group, and the tested compounds 2a–c, 3a–c, and 4–6 dissolved in DMSO were administered at a dose of 100 mg/kg body weight to the rest of the groups. Each animal was placed individually on a hot plate and maintained at 55°C. The time taken by the animals to lick the hind paw or jump out of the plate was taken as the reaction time, which was measured at 0, 30, 60, and 120 min. A cut off period of 30 s was considered as maximal latency to avoid paw injury 34. The pain inhibition percentage (PIP) 35 was calculated according to the following formula:
where T c and T t are the latency for the control and drug-treated animal groups.
The acetic acid-induced writhing test: This test was conducted using the method described by Collier et al. 36. Muscle contractions were induced in 11 groups of mice (five animals per group) by intraperitoneal injection of 0.6% solution of acetic acid (10 ml/kg). Thirty minutes before this administration, the animals in the first group were treated orally with DMSO (0.2 ml/mice) and they served as negative controls. Ibuprofen as the reference standard (50 mg/kg) and the tested compounds (2a–c, 3a–c, and 4–6) dissolved in DMSO were administered orally (100 mg/kg) to the animals of the rest of the groups. Immediately after administration of acetic acid the animals were placed in glass cages, and the number of ‘stretching’ per animal was recorded during the course of the next 15 min. Writhing movement was accepted as contraction of the abdominal muscles accompanied by stretching of hind limbs. There was significant reduction in the number of writhes in the drug-treated animals as compared with vehicle-treated animals. This was considered a positive analgesic response, and the percentage inhibition of writhing was calculated according to the method described by Collier et al. 36.
Ulcerogenic liability: Ulcerogenic liability was determined in albino rats according to the reported standard methods 37. Rats were divided into 11 groups of five animals each. The animals were fasted 18 h before drug administration. Animals in the first group were treated orally with 2 ml of DMSO aqueous suspension (1% w/v) and considered as the control group; ibuprofen was administered (50 mg/kg body weight) as a reference standard to the second group. The tested compounds 2a–c, 3a–c, and 4–6 were administered in the form of DMSO aqueous suspensions (100 mg/kg body weight) to the rest of the groups. Treatment was continued once daily for three successive days in all groups. An hour after the last dose, the animals were killed by cervical dislocation and the stomach was removed, opened along the greater curvature, and rinsed with saline. The gastric mucosa was examined with a magnifying lens (×10) for the presence of lesions in the form of hemorrhages or linear breaks and erosions. The ulcer index was calculated [Table 3] and the degree of ulcerogenic effect was expressed in terms of:
percentage incidence of ulcer divided by 10;
average number of ulcers per stomach; and
average severity of ulcers.
The ulcer index is the value that resulted from the sum of the above three values.
Results of anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities were represented as mean±SE. The significant difference between the groups was tested using one-way analysis of variance, followed by Dunnett’s test at P less than 0.05.
The general synthesis of the 3-cyano-2-aminopyridine derivatives 2a–c is illustrated in Scheme 1. [Additional file 1] We used the in-solution one-pot synthesis. In this respect, 2-acetyl tetralin (1) was reacted with the appropriate aldehyde (2-chloro-5-nitrobenzaldehyde, 2-naphthaldehyde, or 4-isopropyl benzaldehyde) in the presence of malononitrile and excess ammonium acetate in n-butanol. The respective pyridine derivatives 2a–c were obtained. 1H NMR spectra of these compounds showed singlet signals at δ 6.94, 6.92, and 6.74 ppm, respectively, which corresponded to the NH2 group in addition to the signals due to the aromatic protons. Mass spectra of the synthesized compounds showed molecular ion peaks [M+] corresponding to the molecular weights of the target compounds. The chlorine containing derivative 2a showed molecular ion peaks for [M+] and [M++2] at a ratio of 3 : 1 because of the isotopic nature of the chlorine atom. Infrared spectra of all compounds showed bands at 3194–3361 cm−1 region due to NH stretching vibrations of the amino group, in addition to a band around 2200 cm−1 (CN, stretching).
2-Acetyl-5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalene (1) also condensed with aromatic aldehydes (2-chlorobenzaldehyde, or 2-naphthaldehyde) in ethanolic sodium hydroxide under Claisen–Schmidt conditions to yield 1-[2-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthyl)]-3-aryl propenones 3a, b [Scheme 1]. The structures of 3a and b were confirmed by their IR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR, and mass spectra. IR spectra showed absorption bands at 1666–1651 cm−1 (C=O) and 1612–1606 cm−1 (C=C). Mass spectra showed ion peaks [M+] corresponding to their molecular weights. 1H NMR spectra of 3a and b showed signals at δ 7.23–8.32 ppm corresponding to the aromatic protons, in addition to the ethylene protons.
In contrast, condensation of compound 1 with 3-formyl indole takes place in ethylene glycol in the presence of piperidine on heating to 180°C for 20 min, according to the reported method 38, to yield 3c.IR spectrum showed absorption bands at 3218 cm−1 (NH) and 1657 cm−1 (C=O). Its mass spectrum showed molecular ion peak [M+] corresponding to the molecular weight, which is also the base peak; 1H NMR showed multiplet signals at δ 6.94–8.07 ppm corresponding to aromatic protons in addition to the ethylene protons and singlet signal at δ 11.6 ppm for NH.
Reaction of 3a with hydrazine hydrate in boiling acetic acid led to the formation of 1-acetyl-5-(2-chloro-5-nitrophenyl)-3-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazole (4) [Scheme 2]. [Additional file 2] Structure of 4 was assigned on the basis of its spectral data and elemental analysis. For example, IR spectrum revealed the carbonyl absorption band at 1660 cm−1, whereas its 1H NMR spectrum revealed singlet signal at δ 2.35 ppm for COCH3, δ 3.15, 3.93 ppm (d, d for unsymmetrical 2H of pyrazoline ring), and 5.79 (d, d for 1H of pyrazoline ring), in addition to the aromatic protons in the region δ 7.12–8.15 ppm. Its mass spectrum showed the molecular ion peak [M+] as the base peak at m/z (397).
Meanwhile, reaction of the same compound 3a with phenyl hydrazine in absolute ethanol in the presence of a few drops of triethylamine yielded 5-(2-chloro-5-nitrophenyl)-1-phenyl-3-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthlen-2-yl)-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazole (5). Its structure was confirmed on the basis of the disappearance of the carbonyl group in the IR spectrum. Its 1H NMR spectrum revealed signals at δ 3.16, 4.03 ppm (d, d for unsymmetrical 2H of pyrazoline ring), and 5.71 (d, d for 1H of pyrazoline ring), in addition to the aromatic protons in the region δ 6.76–8.29 ppm. In addition, the mass spectrum showed molecular ion peak [M+] at m/z (431).
Moreover, the reaction of chalcone 3c with hydroxylamine hydrochloride in boiling pyridine yielded 3-[2-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthyl)-5-indolyl]-4,5-dihydroisoxazoline (6). Its IR spectrum showed absorption bands characteristic for the C=N and NH, whereas its 1H NMR spectrum showed the absence of the ethylenic protons present in chalcone 3c.
The newly synthesized pyridine compounds 2a–c (100 mg/kg, orally) exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activity in formalin-induced rat paw edema. 2-Amino-4-(4-isopropylphenyl)-6-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)pyridine-3-carbonitrile (2c) exhibited the highest activity among this series [Table 1]. It showed 73.68% edema inhibition 3 h after formalin injection compared with 91.23% for the standard ibuprofen after the same period of time. Cyanopyridine derivatives were previously found to influence the inflammatory mediators nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), prostaglandin E-2 (PGE-2), cycloxygenase-2 (COX-2), and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX) 28,39.
Chalcone derivatives 3a and 3c showed enhanced anti-inflammatory activity, with maximum edema inhibition percentage of 61.40 and 73.68, respectively, 3 h after formalin injection, whereas 3b showed complete loss of activity. This result was in agreement with the previous report that showed the presence of a reactive α,β-unsaturated ketone group in the propenone side chain as being responsible for the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities 15. In addition, it was also reported that the value of the correlation coefficient of in-vitro COX-2 inhibition versus the in-vivo anti-inflammatory activity for these compounds is 0.61, which indicates that COX-2 inhibition may not be the sole mechanism by which these compounds act as anti-inflammatory agents and that other mechanisms such as inhibition of the lipoxygenase and hemeoxygenase-1 might be included 15. Other chalcone derivatives were found to have related dual COX-1/2- and 5/15-LOX-inhibiting effects 40.
The reaction of 3a with hydrazine hydrate to yield 1-(5-(2-chloro-5-nitrophenyl)-4,5-dihydro-1-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-7-yl)-1H-pyrazole-1-yl)ethane (4) greatly diminished its anti-inflammatory activity from 61.40% for the parent compound 3a to 22.81% for the obtained pyrazoline derivative 4. However. the reaction of 3a with phenyl hydrazine hydrate to obtain 5-(2-chloro-5-nitrophenyl)-4,5-dihydro-3-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazole (5) did not alter its recorded potency but strongly affected its kinetic manner by enhancement of metabolism and/or excretion. The pyrazoline derivative 5 exerted its maximum activity with 56.60% inhibition of edema 30 min after formalin injection, which decreased stepwise to 35.09% after 3 h. According to the activity relationship, it could be suggested that the attachment of a phenyl group to the pyrazoline moiety could improve the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of the derivatives 4 and 5. Similar findings were recorded in the previous studies of different pyrazoline analogs bearing phenyl groups 41,42. Despite its moderate activity at 30 min, compound 5 might have a poor kinetic pattern, resulting in an abrupt decrease in its activity.
The analgesic activity of the synthesized compounds was evaluated by hot-plate and acetic acid writhing methods as central 34 and peripheral 36 antinociceptive methods, respectively. From the obtained results [Table 2] and [Table 3] it could be concluded that all of the tested compounds showed significant activity (P<0.05). Results obtained by the pyridines 2a–c revealed that (2-amino-4-(2-chloro-5-nitrophenyl)-6-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl) pyridine-3-carbonitrile) 2a showed the highest analgesic activity using both hot-plate and acetic acid writhing methods. The peak of its analgesic activity against thermal stimuli was demonstrated 1 h after oral dosing with PIP 311.84%, which is superior to the value of 221.45% exerted by the standard ibuprofen 3 h after dosing. Therefore, despite this promising activity of compound 2a, the activity was not sustained on the same potency for a long time as it decreased to 98.38 and 60.25% (2 and 3 h after dosing), which is expected to be because of its rapid metabolism and/or excretion of the compound. Other previous studies have indicated that tetralin-2-aminopyridine carbonitrile derivatives exert significant pain perception in the hot-plate test rather than in writhing response 43.
Table 2: Analgesic activity of the tested compounds following oral administration (100 mg/kg, orally) in mice using hot-plate method
Table 3: Analgesic activity of the tested compounds (100 mg/kg, orally) on acetic acid writhing abdominal contractions
The synthetic derivative 2-amino-4-(4-isopropylphenyl)-6-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)pyridine-3-carbonitrile (2c) showed moderate analgesic activity using the hot-plate method with PIP 167.302 and 153.89% after 30 min and 1 h, respectively. These activities abruptly decreased afterward, in the same manner as that of compound 2a, indicating a similar kinetic profile for these two pyridine derivatives. It also exerted considerable activity in reducing numbers of abdominal contractions (74.06%) in the writhing test. The lowest analgesic activity of these tested pyridine series following either thermal or chemical stimulus was recorded for 2-amino-4-(naphthalen-2-yl)-6-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)pyridine-3-carbonitrile 2b, with PIP 72.492 and 67.49%, respectively, revealing that introduction of a naphthalene moiety in the amino pyridine nucleus greatly diminishes its analgesic activity.
Chalcone derivatives 3a–c showed analgesic activity, with the highest activity for 3b, and their PIP ranged from 320.64 to 382.02% 30 min–3 h after administration (orally). This was followed by 3c with the highest PIP at 323.301% 2 h after dosing. These recorded activities were significantly (P<0.05) higher than the 221.45% obtained by the standard ibuprofen 3 h after administration. Meanwhile, compound 3a exhibited maximum activity of 293.968% 30 min after treatment, followed by abrupt decrease to 61.83% within 3 h. In the acetic acid writhing test, all of the prepared chalcones significantly inhibited the number of abdominal contractions, with the highest activity for compound 3b at 90.17%, followed by 3a at 89.05%, and finally for 3c at 76.86%. Thus, it is clear that the analgesic activity of these chalcones is mediated by both central and peripheral mechanisms. The exact mechanism of the recorded analgesic activity is not a point of this study. However, the previous findings demonstrated that the antinociceptive mechanism of the chalcone series is varied according to their chemical structures. In this regard, it was found that different chalcone analogs were found to be potent cyclooxygenase inhibitors 44 and others exhibited anti-inflammatory activity through 1,2 lipoxygenase inhibition 45. Furthermore, chalcone derivatives containing he flurophenyl group act through selective inhibition of COX-2. However, replacing the flurophenyl group by the isopropylphenyl group in the same compound resulted in an optimal combination of in-vitro COX-1/2 and 5/15-LOX inhibitory effects 40. Some phenylsulfonyl urenyl chalcone derivatives exert their antinociceptive responses through dual inhibition of COX-2 and 5-LOX activities 46.
Results of new pyrazoline derivatives 1-(5-(2-chloro-5-nitrophenyl)-4,5-dihydro-1-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-7-yl)-1H-pyrazole-1-yl)ethane (4) and 5-(2-chloro-5-nitrophenyl)-4,5-dihydro-3-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazole (5) obtained by the hot-plate test revealed that compound 5 demonstrated better analgesic activity (P<0.05) compared with standard ibuprofen along the different time intervals, with maximum effect (323.30%) 2 h after dosing. However, mild activity was recorded for compound 4, with PIP 74.434–61.514%. Similar findings obtained using the acetic acid writhing test as higher inhibition of writhing response (78.863%) were recorded for compound 5 as compared with compound 4 (64.44%). Depending on the structure–activity relationship, it could be predicted that substitution of a phenyl group at position 1 of the pyrazole nucleus of compound 5 increases its antinociceptive activity. Similar suggestions were reported previously by Tabarelli et al. 47, and the authors suggested that some pyrazole derivatives involved antinociceptive activity through opioid mechanisms. Hence, our synthesized pyrazole derivatives showed analgesic activity using both the hot-plate and acetic acid writhing tests; hence, it was safe to decide that their pain perception inhibitory effects were through both central and peripheral mechanisms. A similar investigation was recorded for other benzimidazole–pyrazole series 48. Other earlier preliminary findings evaluated some of the previously synthesized 4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazole derivatives as promising antinociceptive agents using both the acetic acid writhing model and the hot-plate test 49,50.
The synthesized isoxazole derivative 3-(4,5-dihydro-3-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-7-yl)-isoxazol-5-yl)-1H-indole (6) exhibited a promising analgesic activity that was higher than that of the parent compound 3c using both hot-plate and writhing tests. Thus, it can be deduced that the reaction of the chalcone derivative (E)-3-(1-H-indol-3-yl)-1-(5, 6, 7, 8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)prop-2-en-1-one (3c) with hydroxylamine hydrochloride improves its analgesic activity. The latency time was significantly (P<0.05) prolonged against thermal stimulus 2 and 3 h after treatment (with 393.53 and 335.96% PIP, respectively), compared with ibuprofen (169.903 and 221.45%, respectively). However, the analgesic activity demonstrated 82.68% reduction in writhing response compared with ibuprofen (91.26%). Analgesic activities recorded for other isoxazole derivatives were found to be varied according to their mechanisms 51 depending on their chemical structures and the substituted groups even in the same compound. In this regard, 4,5-phenyl-4-isoxazolines exhibited potent analgesic activity, and most of these compounds were nonselective COX-2 inhibitors. However, those with methylsulfonyl or flourine substituents at the para position of the phenyl group were potent and selective COX-2 inhibitors 25.
In the same manner, 3,4-diarylisoxazole analogs of valdecoxib [4-(5-methyl-3-phenylisoxazol-4-yl)-benzensulfonamide] were found to be selective (COX-2) inhibitors. However, the removal of the sulfonamide group resulted in selective COX-1 inhibitors 52. Further studies are needed to determine the exact mechanism of the newly synthesized isoxazole compound 6.
Ulcerogenic liability
The ulcerogenic liability for the tested compounds in each series was determined in albino rats according to previously reported methods 37. The obtained data revealed that all of the tested compounds possessed less ulcerogenic potentialities (ulcer indexes of 10.14±0.45–13.5±0.47) compared with that of the standard drug ibuprofen (ulcer index of 20.96±0.88) [Table 4]. The obtained results of the tested pyridine derivatives were consistent with the results obtained by Fathalla et al. 43, which indicated that similar tetrahydronaphthalene compounds exhibited reduced gastric ulcerogenic activities compared with indomethacin. The lowest ulcerogenic activity among all of the tested compounds was recorded for compound 2c, which belongs to the pyridine series. Reduced ulcerogenic activity recorded for the tested pyrazole derivatives 4 and 5 might be attributed to their phenolic moiety, which is responsible for the reduced ulcerogenic activity of other related compounds.
Table 4: Ulcerogenic liability of the synthesized compounds
New 3-cyano pyridine and chalcone derivatives were synthesized. Chalcone derivatives of 3 were converted to pyrazole and isoxazole derivatives 4–6. Maximum anti-inflammatory activities were recorded for 2c and 3c. However, promising analgesic activity was established by the hot-plate method for most of the tested compounds, with higher activity for 2a, 2c, 3b, 3c, 5, and 6 compared with standard ibuprofen. Interestingly, compounds 3b–c, 5, and 6 possessed more pronounced activities compared with standard ibuprofen. In addition, these derivatives showed pronounced analgesia by the writhing test, with the highest activity for 2a, 3a, and 3b. All of the tested compounds showed reduced ulcerogenic potentialities.
This work was supported by the National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt. The authors are also grateful to Istituto di Chimica Biomolecolare Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Via Campi Flegrei, Pozzuoli, Naples, Italy, for facilities and support. The authors are especially grateful to Dr Guido Cimino, Dr Margrita Givengi, and Dr Maria Letizia Ciavatta for their valuable help.[52]
1. Joule J, Mills K, Smith G Heterocyclic chemistry. 19953rd ed London CRC Press
2. Roth HJ, Kleeman AK Pharmaceutical chemistry: drug synthesis. 1988 London Prentice Hall
3. Henry GD. De novo synthesis of substituted pyridines. Tetrahedron. 2004;60:6043–6061
4. Li AH, Moro S, Forsyth N, Melman N, Ji XD, Jacobson KA. Synthesis, CoMFA analysis and receptor docking of 3,5-diacyl-2, 4-dialkylpyridine derivatives as selective A3 adenosine receptor antagonists. J Med Chem. 1999;42:706–721
5. Altundas A, Ayvaz S, Logoglu E. Synthesis and evaluation of a series of aminocyanopyridines as antimicrobial agents. Med Chem Res. 2011;20:1–8
6. Amr AEGE, Mohamed AM, Ibrahim AA. Synthesis of some new chiral tricyclic and macrocyclic pyridine derivatives as antimicrobial agents. Z Naturforsch. 2003;58:861–868
7. Thompson PE, Manganiello V, Degerman E. Re-discovering PDE3 inhibitors - new opportunities for a long neglected target. Curr Top Med Chem. 2007;7:421–436
8. Abadi AH, Ibrahim TM, Abouzid KM, Lehmann J, Tinsley HN, Gary BD, et al. Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel pyridine derivatives as anticancer agents and phosphodiesterase 3 inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem. 2009;17:5974–5982
9. Manna F, Chimenti F, Bolasco A, Bizzarri B, Filippelli W, Filippelli A, et al. Anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic 4,6-disubstituted 3-cyano- 2-aminopyridines. Eur J Med Chem. 1999;34:245–254
10. Abadi AH, Abouel Ella DA, Lehmann J, Tinsley HN, Gary BD, Piazza GA, et al. Discovery of colon tumor cell growth inhibitory agents through a combinatorial approach. Eur J Med Chem. 2010;45:90–97
11. Abo Ghalia MH, Amr AEGE, Abdalah MM. Synthesis of some new (Nα -dipicolinoyl)-bis-L-leucyl-DL-norvalyl linear tetra and cyclic octa bridged peptides as new antiinflammatory agents. Z Naturforsch. 2003;58:903–910
12. Abo Ghalia M, Amr A. Synthesis and investigation of a new cyclo (Nα- dipicolinoyl) pentapeptide of a breast and CNS cytotoxic activity and an ionophoric specificity. Amino Acids. 2004;26:283–289
13. Marzinzik AL, Felder ER. Key intermediates in combinatorial chemistry: access to various heterocycles from α,β-unsaturated ketones on the solid phase. J Org Chem. 1998;63:723–727
14. Srikanth GSC, Castle SL. Advances in radical conjugate additions. Tetrahedron. 2005;61:10377–10441
15. Furusawa M, Tanaka T, Ito T, Nishikawa A, Yamazaki N, Nakaya K, et al. Antioxidant activity of hydroxyflavonoids. J Health Sci. 2005;51:376–378
16. Elguero JKatritzky AP, Rees CW, Scriven EFV. Pyrazoles. Comprehensive heterocyclic chemistry II: a review of the literature 1982–1995. 19961st ed. Oxford Pergamon:1–75
17. Cottineau B, Toto P, Marot C, Pipaud A, Chenault J. Synthesis and hypoglycemic evaluation of substituted pyrazole-4-carboxylic acids. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2002;12:2105–2108
18. Lee KY, Kim JM, Kim JN. Regioselective synthesis of 1,3,4,5-tetrasubstituted pyrazoles from Baylis—Hillman adducts. Tetrahedron Lett. 2003;44:6737–6740
19. Jia ZJ, Wu Y, Huang W, Zhang P, Song Y, Woolfrey J, et al. 1-(2-Naphthyl)-1H-pyrazole-5-carboxylamides as potent factor Xa inhibitors. Part 3: design, synthesis and SAR of orally bioavailable benzamidine-P4 inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2004;14:1229–1234
20. Lyga JW, Patera RM, Plummer MJ, Halling BP, Yuhas DA. Synthesis, mechanism of action and QSAR of herbicidal 3-substituted-2-aryl-4,5,6,7-tetrahydroindazoles. Pest Sci. 1994;42:29–36
21. Genin MJ, Biles C, Kesier BJ, Poppe SM, Tarpley WG, Yagi Y, et al. Novel 1,5-diphenylpyrazole nonnucleoside HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors with enhanced activity versus the delavirdine-resistant P236L mutant: lead identification and SAR of 3- and 4-substituted derivatives. J Med Chem. 2000;43:1034–1040
22. Chandrakantha B, Isloor AM, Shetty P, Isloor S, Malladi S, Fun HK. Synthesis, characterization and antimicrobial activity of novel ethyl 1-(N-substituted)-5-phenyl-1 H-pyrazole-4-carboxylate derivatives. Med Chem Res. 2011 [Article in Press]
23. Alekseeva OO, Mahadevan A, Wiley JL, Martin BR, Razdan RK. Synthesis of novel 5-substituted pyrazole derivatives as cannabinoid antagonists. Tetrahedron Lett. 2005;46:2159–2161
24. El Zein E, Kalla R, Li X, Perry T, Parkhill E, Palle V, et al. Novel 1,3-dipropyl-8-(1-heteroarylmethyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-xanthine derivatives as high affinity and selective A2B adenosine receptor antagonists. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2006;16:302–306
25. Habeeb AG, Praveen Rao PN, Knaus EE. Design and synthesis of 4,5-diphenyl-4-isoxazolines: novel inhibitors of cyclooxygenase-2 with analgesic and antiinflammatory activity. J Med Chem. 2001;44:2921–2927
26. Hamdy NA, Gamal El Deen AM, Abdel Aziza HA, Fakhra IMI. Modulationof carcinogen metabolizingenzymes by new fused heterocycles pendant to 5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalene derivatives. Eur J Med Chem. 2010;45:463–470
27. Abdel Aziz HA, Gamal Eldeen AM, Hamdy NA, Fakhr IM. Immunomodulatory and anticancer activities of some novel 2-substituted-6-bromo-3-methylthiazolo[3,2-a]benzimidazole derivatives. Arch Pharm. 2009;342:230–237
28. Hamdy NA, Gamal El Deen AM. New pyridone, thioxopyridine, pyrazolopyridine and pyridine derivatives that modulate inflammatory mediators in stimulated RAW 264.7 murine macrophage. Eur J Med Chem. 2009;44:4547–4556
29. Abdel Aziz HA, Hamdy NA, Gamal El Deen AM, Fakhr IM. Synthesis of new 2-substituted 6-bromo-3-methylthiazolo[3,2-alpha]-benzimidazole derivatives and their biological activities. Z Naturforsch. 2011;66C:7–16
30. Allinger NL, Jones ES. Synthesis of some functionally substituted benzocyclanones. J Org Chem. 1962;27:70–76
31. Zimmermann M. Ethical guidelines for investigations of experimental pain in conscious animals. Pain. 1983;16:109–110
32. Crunkhorn P, Meacock SC. Mediators of the inflammation induced in the rat paw by carrageenin. Br J Pharmacol. 1971;42:392–402
33. Vogel HG Drug discovery and evaluation: pharmacological assays. 1998 Berlin Springer
34. Tao YM, Li QL, Zhang CF, Xu XJ, Chen J, Ju YW, et al. LPK-26, a novel kappa-opioid receptor agonist with potent antinociceptive effects and low dependence potential. Eur J Pharmacol. 2008;584:306–311
35. Yin W, Wang TS, Yin FZ, Cai BC. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of brucine and brucine N-oxide extracted from seeds of Strychnos nux-vomica. J Ethnopharmacol. 2003;88:205–214
36. Collier HO, Dinneen LC, Johnson CA, Schneider C. The abdominal constriction response and its suppression by analgesic drugs in the mouse. Br J Pharmacol Chemother. 1968;32:295–310
37. Barsoum FF, Hosni HM, Girgis AS. Novel bis(1-acyl-2-pyrazolines) of potential anti-inflammatory and molluscicidal properties. Bioorg Med Chem. 2006;14:3929–3937
38. Tsukerman SV, Nikitchenko VM, Bugai AI, Lavrushin VF. Synthesis of chalcone analogs and derivatives of 2-pyrazoline form 3-formylindole. Chem Heterocycl Comp. 1969;5:268–272
39. Manna F, Chimenti F, Bolasco A, Filipelli A, Palla A, Filippelli W, et al. Anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic 4,6-disubstituted 3-cyanopyridine-2-ones and 3-cyano-2-aminopyridines. Eur J Med Chem. 1992;27:627–632
40. Rao PN, Chen QH, Knaus EE. Synthesis and structure-activity relationship studies of 1,3-diarylprop-2-yn-1-ones: dual inhibitors of cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases. J Med Chem. 2006;49:1668–1683
41. Amir M, Kumar H, Khan SA. Synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of pyrazoline derivatives as new anti-inflammatory and analgesic agents. Bioorg Med Chem Lett. 2008;18:918–922
42. Khode S, Maddi V, Aragade P, Palkar M, Ronad PK, Mamledesai S, et al. Synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of a novel series of 5-(substituted) aryl-3-(3-coumarinyl)-1-phenyl-2-pyrazolines as novel anti-inflammatory and analgesic agents. Eur J Med Chem. 2008;21:1–7
43. Fathalla OA, Anwar MM, Haiba ME, Nofal SM. Synthesis of novel tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl heterocycles for analgesic, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic evaluation. Acta Pol Pharm. 2009;66:259–270
44. Lin CN, Lee TH, Hsu MF, Wang JP, Ko FN, Teng CM. 2º,5º-Dihydroxychalcone as a potent chemical mediator and cyclooxygenase inhibitor. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1997;49:530–536
45. Heidari MR, Foroumadi A, Noroozi H, Samzadeh Kermani A, Azimzadeh BS. Study of the anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects of novel rigid benzofuran-3, 4-dihydroxy chalcone by formalin, hot-plate and carrageenan tests in mice. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2009;22:395–401
46. Araico A, Terencio MC, Alcaraz MJ, Domínguez JN, León C, Ferrándiz ML. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity of Me-UCH9, a dual cyclooxygenase-2/5-lipoxygenase inhibitor. Life Sci. 2007;80:2108–2117
47. Tabarelli Z, Rubin MA, Berlese DB, Sauzem PD, Missio TP, Teixeira MV, et al. Antinociceptive effect of novel pyrazolines in mice. Braz J Med Biol Res. 2004;37:1531–1540
48. Kaplancikli ZA, Turan Zitouni G, Ozdemir A, Can O, Chevallet P. Synthesis and antinociceptive activities of some pyrazoline derivatives. Eur J Med Chem. 2009;44:2606–2610
49. Machado P, Rosa FA, Rossatto M, da S, Sant’Anna G, Sauzem PD, Siqueira da Silva RM, et al. Synthesis and structure of novel 4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazoles: salicylic acid based analgesic agents. ARKIVOC. 2008;2007:281–297
50. Mohy El Din MM, Senbel AM, Bistawroos AA, El Mallah A, Nour El Din NA, Bekhit AA, et al. A novel COX-2 inhibitor pyrazole derivative proven effective as an anti-inflammatory and analgesic drug. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol. 2011;108:263–273
51. Sahu SK, Banerjee M, Sahu D, Behera CC, Pradhan GC, Azam MA. Synthesis, analgesic and antimicrobial activities of some novel isoxazole derivatives. Dhaka Univ J Pharm Sci. 2008;7:113–118
52. Di Nunno L, Vitale P, Scilimati A, Tacconelli S, Patrignani P. Novel synthesis of 3,4-diarylisoxazole analogues of valdecoxib: reversal cyclooxygenase-2 selectivity by sulfonamide group removal. J Med Chem. 2004;47:4881–4890
Hamdy NA
Kamel GM
isoxazole
pyrazoline
pyridine
tetralin
Results and disc...
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2977
|
__label__wiki
| 0.8085
| 0.8085
|
Audit committee wants principals to learn from Freedom Shores
Jason Schultz
July 16, 2014 Budget, Palm Beach County schools.
Members of the Palm Beach County School District’s audit committee want principals to look at what investigators found with a parent fundraising group at Freedom Shores Elementary School as a cautionary tale of what can happen without financial oversight from the school district.
“This is a good case study,” said Audit Committee Chairman Noah Silver during Tuesday morning’s audit committee meeting as the committee reviewed Inspector General Lung Chiu’s investigation of the Freedom Shores Elementary School Parent School Organization.
The organization is an independent group of parental volunteers who raise money to support the school. They maintained their funds in an outside account completely independent from the school district and the school and Inspector General Lung Chiu had no authority to audit them. The group’s board of directors voluntarily asked Chiu to come in and investigate last year after officers raised questions over how some of the group’s money was being spent.
According to the district’s investigative report, auditors found nearly $9,000 in purchases made from Thirty One, an online purse and bag sales company for which two former officers of the Parent School Organization were working as sales agents at the time. Investigators also claimed they found expenses without proper documentation, allegations from the group’s president that her signature was forged and at one point the president finding that the treasurer was keeping $13,000 from a fundraiser in a closet instead of depositing it in a bank.
According to the investigation report the group still raises money but has closed its external account and now deposits all its money into accounts that are maintained by Freedom Shores Elementary and thus subject to school district financial oversight. Silver said many parent fundraising group keep their funds in internal school accounts, accounting for as much as $75 million a year raised to help support schools. All of that money is subject to audits and oversight by the inspector general.
But some foundations and organizations that support schools keep their own accounts that are not required to be audited and the district has no authority to audit unless requested by the group.
Silver asked the district to send a memo to all school principals of the kind of problems that can occur when funds are kept in accounts that are outside the jurisdiction of the inspector general and inform principals that they have the option of asking the groups to bring that money under the school’s jurisdiction.
Chief Operating Officer Mike Burke said some groups, like Parent Teacher Associations, are required by their own bylaws and member organizations to keep their funds in independent accounts outside of the school district.
Two District 6 candidate forums next week
Ed Foundation hosting shopping fundraiser at Gardens Mall
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2982
|
__label__wiki
| 0.660363
| 0.660363
|
Jerrold Reber
Jerrold spent his childhood in southeastern Pennsylvania ingesting far too many TV shows and movies, thus creating a stark-raving mad geek. He’s a movie aficionado, binge-watches Netflix, and is a total TV junkie. His addiction has led to an unhealthy and rabid obsession of various geek pantheons – Star Trek, Star Wars, both DC *AND* Marvel, cult 80's and 90's television, Supernatural, The X-Files, Doctor Who, and, and...holy overload. He's still waiting to run away in a 1967 Impala or a blue police box.
FeaturedReviewsTVTV Shows
Three Seasons In, ‘Stranger Things’ Scares With Its Best Yet
Jerrold Reber July 9, 2019
Stranger Things Executive Produced by The Duffer Brothers and Shawn Levy Starring Winona Ryder, David Harbour, Millie Bobby Brown, and...
FeaturedMoviesReviews
‘Far From Home’ Swings High, Gets Tangled In Its Own Webs
Spider-Man: Far From Home Directed by Jon Watts Written by Chris McKenna and Erik Sommers Starring Tom Holland, Jake Gyllenhaal,...
‘Brightburn’ Is A Fearful, Gory Twist On The Superhero Origin
Jerrold Reber May 24, 2019
Brightburn Directed by David Yarovesky Starring Elizabeth Banks, David Denman, Jackson A. Dunn, and Gregory Alan Williams 91 Minutes Reber's...
‘John Wick: Chapter 3’ Makes Case To Be An Action Great
John Wick: Chapter 3 - Parabellum Directed by Chad Stahelski Starring Keanu Reeves, Halle Berry, Ian McShane, Laurence Fishburne, and...
Dead Is Better, But ‘Pet Sematary’ Doesn’t Outshine The Original
Jerrold Reber April 5, 2019
Pet Sematary Directed by Kevin Kölsch and Dennis Widmyer Story by Matt Greenburg, Screenplay by Jeff Buhler Starring Jason Clarke, John Lithgow, Amy...
Jordan Peele Shows Off The Best In ‘Us’
Jerrold Reber March 22, 2019
Us Written and Directed by Jordan Peele Starring Lupita Nyong'o, Winston Duke, Elisabeth Moss, and Tim Heidecker 116 Minutes Reber's...
‘Captain Marvel’ Proves Brie Larson Is Worthy Without Question
Jerrold Reber March 8, 2019
Captain Marvel Directed by Anna Boden and Ryan Fleck Starring Brie Larson, Samuel L. Jackson, Ben Mendelsohn, Jude Law, and...
‘The Lego Movie 2’ Builds A Wild Ride All Can Appreciate
Jerrold Reber February 8, 2019
The Lego Movie 2: The Second Part Directed by Mike Mitchell Starring Chris Pratt, Elizabeth Banks, Will Arnett, and Tiffany...
Bernthal Shines, But ‘Punisher’ Stalls In Second Season
Jerrold Reber January 22, 2019
The Punisher Executive Produced by Steven Lightfoot Starring Jon Bernthal, Ben Barnes, Jason R. Moore, and Josh Stewart All episodes...
‘Glass’ Nearly Broken By One Twist But Saved By Its Cast
Glass Written and Directed by M. Night Shyamalan Starring James McAvoy, Bruce Willis, Samuel L. Jackson, and Spencer Treat Clark...
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2984
|
__label__cc
| 0.539211
| 0.460789
|
Interview with Tobias S. Buckell (Interviewed by Jacques Barcia)
Official Tobias S. Buckell Website
Order “Halo: The Cole Protocol” HERE (November 25, 2008)
Order “Sly Mongoose” HERE
Read Reviews of “Sly Mongoose” via Adventures In Reading, Graeme’s Fantasy Book Review, Fantasy & Sci-fi Lovin’ Book Reviews, SF Reviews.net + SF Signal
Caribbean-born author Tobias S. Buckell is one of the newest voices of the so-called New Space Opera sub-genre. In his novels Crystal Rain, Ragamuffin and Sly Mongoose, Tobias has built an immense fictional universe that mixes traditional SF tropes with steampunk, zombies and Latin-American aesthetics. All that with a high dose of action and adventure packing serious issues like slavery, poverty and duty. In this interview, Buckell talks about his love for steampunk, the impact of foreign cultures in SF and current projects:
Q: So far, you've written three standalone novels (Crystal Rain, Ragamuffin and Sly Mongoose) set in the same universe. Could you give a description for those who haven't read them yet?
Tobias: Each of the three books is a far future adventure, featuring a repeating handful of characters with Caribbean backgrounds, living in a future dominated by aliens who rule over humanity in various ways. Each of the novels is about humanity's bid for freedom and self-governance, and with each novel a bit more of the tapestry I've created is pulled back so that people can dig deeper into this universe I'm creating.
Q: You've described Crystal Rain as a Caribbean steampunk novel. For Ragamuffin, you said it was a Caribbean space opera. What can you tell us about your latest novel Sly Mongoose?
Tobias: Sly Mongoose is pretty much a mash up of the space opera and steampunk elements I liked about the previous two books, with a dose of hard sf thrown in there. It's set on a Venus-like world, with floating cities and blimps, and people getting lowered down in the high pressure murk of the surface to scavenge for what they can.
Q: Zombies, flying cities, post-humans. How did you come up with the setting?
Tobias: The setting came from one Geoff Landis, doing a presentation on Venus, where he mentioned that at 100,000 feet or so, the incredible pressure relented, the heat dissipated to bearable levels, and breathable air was a lifting gas. I right away saw the potential to play with all these set pieces and have some fun. One thing pretty much led to another!
Q: The setting you've created is vast. How's your worldbuilding process?
Tobias: Well, I had Geoff's help here for the world of Chilo. As I thought about the setting my mind just branched out to the possibilities of the setting. As I wrote down and sketched out the cities, I modeled them somewhat on Greek city states, thinking that each city would be a civic society of its own, which then led to my descriptions of techno-democracies. The dangers of the surface begged to be used, so I looked to the high pressure diving suits used underwater for inspiration. Blimp attacks, since the crushing atmosphere and clouds would play a role, would play out like submarine battles. My imagination just ran with it all.
Q: Your books are full of action but also discuss themes like slavery, duty and poverty. Is there a priority between the two?
Tobias: Primarily I'm obsessed with entertaining the reader. I really want to make sure they always get a rip roaring, fast read, b/c it's what I bloody well want more of as a reader myself! I miss the compact novels of a few decades ago, and I read a lot of YA that is plotted and offered up in tight form these days.
But underneath I try to pack in a lot of stuff under the surface. My favorite review of my second novel, Ragamuffin, was from a reviewer who read it once and really enjoyed it. Then she went back for a second close read, and wrote this very flattering review of all the thematic stuff I'd packed in that she hadn't paid attention to on the first read, as she'd been caught up in the pace. So these things are important to me, but I can't stand 'preachy' fiction that hits you on the nose with its message, or strawman characters who embody the most simple and extreme argument of the position the author is trying to dispute.
Q: Having mixed so many genres and tropes, do labels apply to your work? If necessary, how would you label your own fiction?
Tobias: Space opera is the label I feel the most akin to, though I have a side-interest in steampunk that's been on the other burner ever since I read The Difference Engine. You'll see that creep into my work over and over again, but ultimately I love the big sweeping adventure of Space Opera.
Q: Space Opera is very strong again and you are one of the authors rewriting it, along with [John] Scalzi and [Alistair] Reynolds. What do you think this new wave of Space Opera has added to this sub-genre?
Tobias: I love the New Space Opera, and I'm digging what it's doing. The main addition is just freshness again, getting it incorporated right back into the heart of the genre and bringing in new readers with the adventure and scope.
Q: Some of the most interesting SF and fantasy authors today come from outside of the US and England. I'd call Ian McDonald, Ekaterina Sedia and Zoran Zivkovic as some easy examples. What do you think these “foreign” backgrounds, including yours, add to the SF field?
Tobias: They're adding a depth to the field that, to me, didn't feel as strong when I was first reading SF/F. It's very exciting to see authors liking Vandana Singh, Nnedi Okarafor, Nalo Hopkinson and others coming to the table. It brings more readers into our field, it makes it more welcoming to the future, and above all, it has gotten some damn fine science fiction and fantasy for us to read.
Q: You're one of the authors in the audio anthology Metatropolis. Can you tell us more about what the antho is? And what can you tell us about your particular piece?
Tobias: The anthology is a collaboration between John Scalzi, Elizabeth Bear, Karl Schroeder, Jay Lake and me. We brainstormed a common setting: the cities of the near future. Bouncing off each other, we then set out to write novellas that riffed on each other's stories.
My piece is a noir-ish riff on a future Detroit, and the attempts of people to reclaim abandoned parts of the city for a neo-green urban revival project, if Blackwater-types don't crack our hero's skull in first. It also features riffs on crowd-sourcing. I've been doing the Space Opera/far future thing for so long, it was great to write a long piece set in the near future for some very SF-nal exploration. I hope people find it interesting!
Q: What can you tell us about your current and/or next project? Any novels coming? Will there be more novels in Crystal Rain/Ragamuffin/Sly Mongoose's setting?
Tobias: Right away, this November 25th, is the next Halo novel, The Cole Protocol. I got to take my high-action instincts to town on a videogame that I play a great deal, so that was a lot of fun.
There are plans for more novels in the [Crystal Rain/Ragamuffin/Sly Mongoose] sequence, but there are some other projects on the table as well. To be honest I'll have definite time tables and plans early next year.
Larry said...
Jacques,
It seems both you and me had impeccable timing in interviewing Buckell. Fascinating to see how our questions parallel one another's in places and yet there are many areas that one covered that the other left untouched. Very cool interview, to say the least, and I think I have "hooked" my middle brother by noting Buckell is writing the next Halo book :D
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2985
|
__label__wiki
| 0.962025
| 0.962025
|
The National Announce Toronto Show with Father John Misty, Jenny Lewis, Julien Baker
By Calum Slingerland
No strangers to playing outdoors at Toronto's historic Fort York, the National are set to return to venue with some special guests for a stacked one-off show this summer.
Set to take place on August 4, the National will be joined by Father John Misty, Jenny Lewis, Julien Baker and Dan Edmonds.
General admission and VIP tickets for the show go on sale February 16 at 12 p.m. local time, both online and in person at Rotate This, Soundscapes and the Horseshoe Tavern. The National have partnered with PLUS1 to donate $1 from every ticket to Partners in Health Canada.
Three of the five acts on the bill delivered new albums last year, with the National releasing Sleep Well Beast, Father John Misty sharing Pure Comedy and Julien Baker releasing Turn Out the Lights.
Toronto, you knew we couldn't stay away for very long...
We're returning August 4th, bringing Father John Misty, @jennylewis, @julienrbaker, and @DanEdmnds along to Fort York.https://t.co/JrUsP4OQHJhttps://t.co/7hMNnDHySX pic.twitter.com/cTxqj1FqW1
— The National (@TheNational) February 13, 2018
More Jenny Lewis
More Father John Misty
More Julien Baker
More Dan Edmonds
Aug 28 @ 5:30PM - The National Burnaby @ Deer Lake Park
National | Alvvays
Oct 31 @ 7:00PM - Jenny Lewis Toronto @ Danforth Music Hall
Nov 01 @ 7:00PM - Jenny Lewis Montreal @ L'Astral
Oct 05 @ 12:00PM - Cicada Music & Arts Festival St. Catharines @ Henley Island
Born Ruffians | Wintersleep | Wooden Sky | Weather Station | Joel Plaskett Emergency | My Son The Hurricane | Mandevilles | Spencer Burton |
More Related Concerts
Bonnie "Prince" Billy and the National's Bryce Dessner Announce Collaborative Album
Always game for collaboration, Bonnie "Prince" Billy has teamed up with the National's Bryce Dessner and modern classical unit Eighth Blackb...
The National I Am Easy to Find
The National have always been the kind of band that enjoy a longer gestation period when making a new album. Following a four-and-a-half yea...
The National Release 'I Am Easy to Find' Short Film
The National have been teasing their upcoming album and short film I Am Easy to Find with audio and visual clips, but now the album's full c...
The National and Mike Mills Discuss Their Forthcoming "Small Miracle" Album and Film
According to frontperson Matt Berninger, the National's forthcoming new album, I Am Easy to Find, almost didn't happen. "We weren't orig...
The National Unveil New "Hairpin Turns" Video
The National will release their next album, I Am Easy to Find, later this month, and they've teased the forthcoming LP with a new video for...
Jenny Lewis Adds Toronto and Montreal Dates to North American Tour
Jenny Lewis just recently wrapped up a string of shows with Death Cab for Cutie, but the On the Line singer-songwriter has already added a r...
Jenny Lewis Shares Video for "Red Bull & Hennessy" with Beck, St. Vincent, Jeff Goldblum
Just under a week removed from releasing her On the Line album, Jenny Lewis has now shared a new video for single "Red Bull & Hennessy."...
Jenny Lewis On the Line
"I've been searching for the heart to tell you something," Jenny Lewis offers on "Hollywood Lawn." "I could get down on my knees / I've had...
Jenny Lewis on Ryan Adams Producing Her 'On the Line' LP: "Ultimately It's My Record"
Jenny Lewis releases her latest album On the Line later this week, and in a new interview, she's addressed her working relationship with Rya...
Phoebe Bridgers and Jenny Lewis Address Ryan Adams Abuse Claims in New Statements
As the fallout continues to mount around Ryan Adams over allegations of emotional abuse and inappropriate conduct with a minor, former colla...
Watch Father John Misty Perform New Song "Tell It Like It Is"
Father John Misty has been rather prolific as of late, releasing Pure Comedy, God's Favorite Customer and a Live at Third Man Records album...
Watch Beck, Father John Misty and Este Haim Perform "Where It's At" During California Wildfire Benefit
Father John Misty held a massive benefit concert at the Ace Hotel in Los Angeles in support of the California wildfires last night (December...
Father John Misty Details 'Live at Third Man Records' Album
Nearly a full year on from revealing plans to record a set of songs live at Third Man Records, Father John Misty has now detailed the accomp...
Relive Vancouver's Skookum Festival in Photos
This past weekend, the inaugural edition of Skookum Festival descended on Vancouver's Stanley Park for three days of music from acts both lo...
Father John Misty Covers Link Wray's "Fallin' Rain" for 'Castle Rock'
Father John Misty has released a cover of Link Wray's 1971 tune "Fallin' Rain." The new rendition of the song appears in a trailer for J...
Julien Baker, Craig Finn, Aaron Dessner Cover Frightened Rabbit for 'The Midnight Organ Fight' Covers Comp
Frightened Rabbit's The Midnight Organ Fight recently turned 10 years old, and to mark the occasion, a number of artists have recorded cover...
Julien Baker Releases "Red Door" and "Conversation Piece"
Julien Baker has unveiled two new songs that were previously only available on a Record Store Day 7-inch single. "Red Door" and "Convers...
Sled Island Reveals Initial 2019 Lineup with Japanese Breakfast, JPEGMAFIA, Le1f
After naming Julien Baker as their guest curator last month, organizers behind Calgary's Sled Island festival have lifted the curtain on the...
Julien Baker Named Sled Island 2019 Guest Curator
Julien Baker will be heading to Calgary later this year to perform and guest curate the 2019 Sled Island festival. The festival will tak...
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2992
|
__label__cc
| 0.522927
| 0.477073
|
In State Outdoors Travel
Little Wild Horse Canyon and Goblin Valley
When compared to its neighbor, Little Wild Horse slot canyon has kept a low profile. Just six miles from Goblin Valley State Park, the Little Wild Horse trail leads into Bell Canyon…
Didn’t Edward Abbey say, “everything in the desert will bite you, prick you, or sting you”? Our stay at Under Canvas Moab marked Andrew’s 30th birthday. It also marked the second time…
City Guide History In State Travel
When the Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroads met almost 150 years ago, newspapers across the country reported that the final spike was driven into the ground at Promontory Point, Utah.…
In State Travel
Zion/Springdale, Utah
What the town of Springdale, Utah lacks in winter tourist numbers, it more than makes up for in twinkling Christmas lights. I don’t believe there is home, hotel, or cactus that doesn’t spend…
City Guide In State Outdoors Travel
My first time on Antelope Island was everything I thought it wouldn’t be. I will forever associate islands with a small lump of sand only big enough for the two crossed…
‘Tis the off season – Moab
Although the majority of the beehive state boasts a four season calendar year, Moab only experiences two seasons; peak and off. After eight solid months of red-rock-t-shirt buying tourists, the town…
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2993
|
__label__cc
| 0.614154
| 0.385846
|
Decisions taken by Cabinet, Council or a Committee
For Cabinet, Full Council and some committees such as the Planning Committee, the decisions taken at each meeting are published as soon as possible following the meeting.
Browse Committee Decisions
Decisions taken by Individual Cabinet Members
Certain decisions can be taken by Individual Cabinet Members in consultation with the Leader of the Council. The categories of these decisions are set out at Paragraph 13, Part 3 of the council's Constitution.
Browse Individual Cabinet Member Decisions
Decisions taken by Officers
Some decisions are taken by officers under delegated powers. This means that the officer has been granted authority to take that decision either directly by the Cabinet, Committee or in some cases the Chief Executive or that their power to take the decision is set out in the council's Constitution.
Browse Officer Decisions
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line2995
|
__label__wiki
| 0.655431
| 0.655431
|
Other available languages: FR DE DA ES NL IT SV PT FI EL CS ET HU LT LV MT PL SK SL BG RO HR
European Commission - Statement
European Labour Authority ready to start working in October as decision is taken on new seat
Luxembourg, 13 June 2019
Today, just ahead of the meeting of the Council on Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumers in which Ministers are to formally adopt the Regulation establishing the European Labour Authority, Member States decided that Bratislava will host the seat of the European Labour Authority. Commissioner for Employment, Social Affairs, Skills and Labour Mobility, Marianne Thyssen, welcomed the decision:
“I congratulate the city of Bratislava and the government of Slovakia for being chosen to host the seat of the European Labour Authority.
From the start of my mandate, I have made fair labour mobility a key priority. Free movement boosts growth, helps businesses find the skills they need and gives everyone the opportunity to make the best use of their talents – but it needs to be well managed. This requires rules that are fair, clear and effectively enforced. The European Labour Authority is the jewel in the crown of this work. It will support labour mobility and give EU Member States the tools they need to cooperate more effectively and fight abuse.
The European Labour Authority regulation has been adopted in record-time and I am confident that the move of the European Labour Authority to Bratislava will be equally smooth and fast. The Authority will start operating from Brussels as of October until it moves to its host city. I look forward to seeing the Authority settle in and starting work from Bratislava as soon as possible.”
President Juncker first announced the idea of a European Labour Authority in his State of the Union address in September 2017. The Commission presented its proposal for establishing a Labour Authority in March 2018, and in February 2019, the European Parliament and the Council reached a provisional agreement. After the European Parliament, today also the Council formally adopted the Regulation establishing the European Labour Authority, which will enter into force in the coming days after its signature and publication. This new Authority will ensure that Union rules on labour mobility are enforced in a fair, simple and effective way. Following today's final adoption of the founding Regulation, it will be up and running in 2019 and will operate at full capacity by 2024. On 16 October 2019, the selection of the Management Board and the work programme of the European Labour Authority will be presented.
The selection of the seat of the Authority was made by common accord of the representatives of the governments of the Member States, following a procedure and criteria endorsed by Member States themselves. Under this procedure, the interested Member States were required to submit an offer to host the Authority by 6 May 2019, indicating in detail how the criteria are addressed and specifying the offered conditions.
Statement: Fair labour mobility: Commission welcomes agreement on the European Labour Authority
MEMO: Questions and Answers on the European Labour Authority (following the provisional agreement of 5 February 2019)
Factsheet: European Pillar of Social Rights: Towards fair labour mobility: Setting up a European Labour Authority
Follow Marianne Thyssen on Facebook and Twitter
Subscribe to the European Commission's free e-mail newsletter on employment, social affairs and inclusion
STATEMENT/19/2968
Christian WIGAND (+32 2 296 22 53)
Sara SOUMILLION (+32 2 296 70 94)
General public inquiries: Europe Direct by phone 00 800 67 89 10 11 or by email
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3002
|
__label__cc
| 0.597321
| 0.402679
|
Board index » Cafe » General
Music! What are you listening to now?
Grab a short black and come join in the non-cycling discussion. Favourite books, movies, holiday destinations, other sports - chat about it all in the cafe.
First unread post • 8641 posts • Page 417 of 433 • 1 ... 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420 ... 433
Re: Music! What are you listening to now?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=4&v=ktvJ2PiBgtQ
Brand new from the legendary Australian chanteuse, Julia Jacklin.
UK dates: Nov 27-London (sold out), 28-Manchester, 29-Glasgow.
EDIT---Tour update: all UK dates now officially completely sold out.
Last edited by oldcrank on 04 Oct 2018 01:00, edited 1 time in total.
oldcrank
42x16ss wrote:
42x16ss wrote: Just got home from seeing this incredible songwriter:
https://youtu.be/oGxT7A4LLz8
https://youtu.be/zKmWd8DPrEc
https://youtu.be/nYUcqmpHJbk
And of course https://youtu.be/uJ_1HMAGb4k
Miles from the prog metal and desert rock I’ve been listening to lately but amazing stuff.
Just watched the first video and it's fantastic. Great tune and visuals. The first 10 seconds are my favourite part. . At first I was wondering what the hell was going on, and then, yeah, it all makes sense.
What is desert rock?
Desert rock is a style typified by Queens of the Stone Age and Kyuss, named after concerts out in the Californian desert. It usually has a loose, clunky feel.
Vance Joy is really blowing up here in Australia, the fourth song I linked is his biggest followed by the first.
Ha! I took the reference literally and thought of Giant Sand, a band from Arizona.
Come to think of it, the sound can in a way be compared to Vance Joy
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p6PZM-DFGNQ
Yes, Giant Sand are great. One of the few country like band I can stomach. Obviously because of the guitar work popping up once in a while. And the melodies... Anyway, was listening to Gun Club, The Ocean Party, The Men and Volfgang Voigt today.
DJ Sprtsch
AIC - Would? (Unplugged version)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRDxDh-WwiM
It's hard not to love when great music and recording quality goes hand in hand
"If I had stopped for coffee, they would have done the same. They never got off my wheel." - Fabian Cancellara after Paris-Roubaix 2011.
Cance > TheRest
GnR!
https://youtu.be/2rYjzb5_3uI
I think it's the sign of a clean rider and a real sportsman to be attracted to the bigger challenge over the ultimate result. Good luck with the Giro/Tour double, Chris Froome. -Phil Gaimon
Forever The Best
Polvo ~ Can I Ride?
Even before they were the math-rocking, conventional-harmony-eschewing, critic-baiting masters of discordance they later became, Polvo could still write a great song. This has to be the band at their most catchy and fun, its their equivalent of, say, "Lee Remick" by the Go-Betweens or "Joyride" by Built to Spill - great songs not truly representative of what became the band's sound.
Libertine Seguros wrote: Polvo ~ Can I Ride?
Ah, the early-to-mid nineties.
I love music from every era, but I still contend that the indie rock scene during those years was sublime. So many great bands suddenly popped up--most of whom never received the fame and money they deserved. But they have provided me with a lifetime of timeless tunes.
Here's one:
Archers of Loaf--Web in Front
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ZkEob55qso&list=PLhSDY6742WkMHva949varR02wNLpGiNg9
Also, at DJ Sprtsh: I had never heard of Gun Club; they sound great. Sort of like Velvet Underground on uppers? I know nothing about music composition, so apologies if that's an unfair comparison.
Laura Marling, a truly great modern artist.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZhlsNeSHpq8
Yes, she is a master!
gregrowlerson
Excuse me, Greg, for swinging from the gentle weeps of Laura's guitar to some screams, just not sure tomorrow will
do the work.
Hear & watch.
sir fly
Location: beg
sir fly wrote: Excuse me, Greg, for swinging from the gentle weeps of Laura's guitar to some screams, just not sure tomorrow will
Thank you, sir fly for that musical interlude.
Now let's back to regularly scheduled programming. (I kid)
Ladies and gentlemen, Pram
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RQE9b6NgebI
Regularly scheduled programming requires caring audience... and overlapped essences make the daze.
So, no confusion here, I believe.
Their work reflects theirs history, I'd say.
Nine Inch Nails - Down In It
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QrrEo3hZABU
Tricycle Rider
Hey, I have that Polvo one, double 7". It's been a while since I listened to it though. Also like Exploded Drawing, but don't know much about their other stuff.
Gun Club - the first three albums are in a league of their own. Some can't stomach Jeffrey Lee Pierce's vocals, I think they're great. I also still very much enjoy JLP's solo outing from...87 or so, Wildweed.
“Wonderful Subdivision”
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=sd6IBjZ6aQw
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=TjD3Jr8sqno
Benny - Skateboard UH-AH-AH
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-kTPhWV-zI
DJ Sprtsch wrote: Hey, I have that Polvo one, double 7". It's been a while since I listened to it though. Also like Exploded Drawing, but don't know much about their other stuff.
Polvo are great, really love them. Cor Crane Secret is a great album essential to the development of that whole scene of math rock, a term that Polvo themselves disavowed, but obviously belong within, in much the same way as people like Bauhaus disavowed the "goth" term back in the early 80s. Before Bob Weston started producing them they had this raw, grungey production but still the skintight, taut musicianship and jazzy syncopation and irreverent song structures. I've been spinning a lot of the "borderline" math rock stuff like Slint, Shellac, Polvo and Rodan of late. And some more overt math rock, like Don Caballero and these guys.
Faraquet - Carefully Planned
I'm not sure how to define the term "math rock" but there were a couple bands I lurve who fit into the category.
One was Tar, but youtube footage does not exist.
The other is Drive Like Jehu.
They rock like the racetrack on welfare day.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kPkQJRUOcXM
Edited to add that I'm getting carried away.
Drive Like Jehu morphed into the terribly named Hot Snakes, but they are still awesome.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ktf-Y3pg60
Slowly.
Welcome to the Pleasure Dome - Frankie
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ycCLXLiZWs
Gavin Harrison - "Hatesong / Halo"
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s9PCreC7Lfk
Ten Years After - Goodmorning Little School Girl
Users browsing this forum: Sestriere and 4 guests
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3007
|
__label__wiki
| 0.554433
| 0.554433
|
BKU - BankUnited, Inc.
Bid 28.29 x 900
Ask 0.00 x 800
American City Business Journals • 8 days ago
BankUnited misses the mark for 'outstanding' CRA rating, again
The bank failed to boost its community lending to a level that would qualify as "outstanding."
Markit • 8 days ago
See what the IHS Markit Score report has to say about BankUnited Inc.
BankUnited Inc NYSE:BKUView full report here! Summary * Bearish sentiment is low * Economic output for the sector is expanding but at a slower rate Bearish sentimentShort interest | PositiveShort interest is extremely low for BKU with fewer than 1% of shares on loan. This could indicate that investors who seek to profit from falling equity prices are not currently targeting BKU. Money flowETF/Index ownership | NeutralETF activity is neutral. The net inflows of $2.58 billion over the last one-month into ETFs that hold BKU are not among the highest of the last year and have been slowing. Economic sentimentPMI by IHS Markit | NegativeAccording to the latest IHS Markit Purchasing Managers' Index (PMI) data, output in the Financials sector is rising. The rate of growth is weak relative to the trend shown over the past year, however, and is easing. Credit worthinessCredit default swapCDS data is not available for this security.Please send all inquiries related to the report to score@ihsmarkit.com.Charts and report PDFs will only be available for 30 days after publishing.This document has been produced for information purposes only and is not to be relied upon or as construed as investment advice. To the fullest extent permitted by law, IHS Markit disclaims any responsibility or liability, whether in contract, tort (including, without limitation, negligence), equity or otherwise, for any loss or damage arising from any reliance on or the use of this material in any way. Please view the full legal disclaimer and methodology information on pages 2-3 of the full report.
Simply Wall St. • 9 days ago
Does BankUnited, Inc.'s (NYSE:BKU) CEO Salary Compare Well With Others?
Raj Singh became the CEO of BankUnited, Inc. (NYSE:BKU) in 2017. This analysis aims first to contrast CEO compensation...
Zacks • 19 days ago
State Street Agrees to Pay $94.3M for Overcharging Customers
State Street (STT) agrees upon another settlement to resolve legal issues, with the payment of $94.3 million to the regulators.
Business Wire • 20 days ago
BankUnited, Inc. to Announce Second Quarter Results
BankUnited, Inc. announced today that financial results for the quarter ended June 30, 2019 will be made public in a news release on Wednesday, July 24, 2019 prior to the market opening.
BankUnited, Inc. Announces Quarterly Dividend
BankUnited, Inc. today announced that its Board of Directors has declared a quarterly cash dividend of $0.21 per common share. The dividend will be payable on July 31, 2019 to stockholders of record at the close of business on July 12, 2019.
BofA (BAC) Boosts Digitization, Unveils Digital Debit Card
Increased use of digital methods to do banking transactions encourages Bank of America (BAC) to introduce features to enhance clients' experience.
Here's Why M&T Bank (MTB) Stock is Worth Betting on Now
M&T Bank Corporation (MTB) appears to be a promising bet riding on strong organic growth, inorganic growth routes and long-term prospects.
T. Rowe Price (TROW) Rallies 16% YTD: Is More Upside Left?
T. Rowe Price (TROW) rallies 16%, year to date, on robust fundamentals and accomplishment of its core strategies.
BankUnited (BKU) Ratings Affirmed by Moody's, Outlook Stable
Moody's reiterates BankUnited's (BKU) ratings, courtesy of the efforts to develop direct banking franchise organically, and improvement in its loan portfolio.
Moody's • 26 days ago
BankUnited, National Association -- Moody's affirms BankUnited's ratings (senior at Baa3) and assigns provisional shelf ratings
Moody's Investors Service (Moody's) has affirmed the ratings of BankUnited, Inc. and its bank subsidiary, BankUnited, National Association, and also affirmed the bank's baa2 standalone baseline credit assessment (BCA). Moody's also assigned provisional ratings to BankUnited, Inc.'s shelf registration.
Insider Monkey • 27 days ago
Here’s What Hedge Funds Think About BankUnited (BKU)
World-class money managers like Ken Griffin and Barry Rosenstein only invest their wealthy clients' money after undertaking a rigorous examination of any potential stock. They are particularly successful in this regard when it comes to small-cap stocks, which their peerless research gives them a big information advantage on when it comes to judging their worth. […]
Loan Growth, Acquisitions Aid BankUnited's (BKU) Revenues
While higher costs are likely to hurt BankUnited's (BKU) bottom line, loan growth and efforts to improve fee income will likely aid the top line.
Fifth Third (FITB) to Shut Down 44 Branches in Chicago Area
Fifth Third (FITB) is undertaking branch closures in order to remove duplicate roles post the acquisition of MB Financial.
Business Wire • last month
BankUnited Hires General Counsel
BankUnited announced the hiring of Michael Alford as general counsel. With more than three decades of experience, Alford will be responsible for overseeing the company's legal and compliance functions.
Zacks • last month
Wells Fargo (WFC) to Divest Majority Interest in Eastdil
Wells Fargo (WFC) plans to close divesture of majority ownership in Eastdil Secured in fourth-quarter 2019.
Here's Why JPMorgan (JPM) Stock is a Solid Investment Choice
Strong fundamentals, prospects and efforts to further expand revenues are expected to drive JPMorgan (JPM) in the quarters ahead.
Simply Wall St. • last month
Is BankUnited, Inc. (NYSE:BKU) An Attractive Dividend Stock?
Could BankUnited, Inc. (NYSE:BKU) be an attractive dividend share to own for the long haul? Investors are often drawn...
Wells Fargo Proposes to Settle Auto Insurance Case for $386M
Wells Fargo (WFC) continues to make efforts to settle a two-year old lawsuit in order to concentrate more on the core business.
Wells Fargo (WFC) to Overhaul Commercial Banking Business
Wells Fargo (WFC) simplifies Commercial Banking unit in order to have leaders working closer to customers.
American City Business Journals • last month
These 2 banks had the largest Q1 profits in South Florida
Florida-based banks increased their lending but experienced a small drop in profits during the first quarter of 2019, according to the Federal Deposit Insurance Corp. The most profitable banks in the tri-county area, include Miami Lakes-based BankUnited (NYSE: BKU) – $70.8 million in first quarter profits – and Miami-based City National Bank – $37.9 million. Florida banks had a combined net income of $467 million in the first quarter, down from $511 million during the same time last year, when there were 127 banks based in the state. It also represents a fall from the $487 million in net income reported for the fourth quarter of 2018, when there were 117 Florida banks.
BankUnited Hires Director of Commercial Card Services
BankUnited announced the hiring of Joshua Kesner as senior vice president, director of commercial card services. With more than two decades of industry experience, Kesner will be responsible for launching the bank’s commercial card program and will be building out his team in Melville, New York. “We are very excited to welcome Josh to the BankUnited family,” said Thomas M. Cornish, chief operating officer.
Comerica's Strategic Growth Initiatives Aid, Costs Increase
Comerica (CMA) benefits from its strong capital position, rising revenues and focus to improve efficiency. However, rising costs and lack of loan diversification pose concerns.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3013
|
__label__wiki
| 0.764703
| 0.764703
|
T - AT&T Inc.
Bid 0.00 x 21500
Ask 0.00 x 21500
Market Cap 245.067B
Benzinga • 12 hours ago
Netflix Faces Content Shakeup As It Reports Q2 Earnings
Streaming service provider Netflix, Inc. (NASDAQ: NFLX) potentially faces several challenges in holding onto its market share as it prepares to release Q2 earnings after the closing bell Wednesday. NFLX shares are up about 40% since the start of the year even as companies like Apple Inc (NASDAQ: AAPL) announced plans to ratchet up their streaming game. With a dwindling sitcom library, NFLX recently learned that when its contract with NBCUniversal to stream The Office expires in 2020, it will not have the option to renew it.
CBS Warns That DirectTV, U-Verse Might Drop Network If Deal Isn't Reached By July 19
CBS Corporation (NYSE: CBS) said Tuesday it continues to negotiate “resolutely and in good faith” but warned that so far it has been unable to reach an agreement to keep its programming on various cable and satellite services owned by AT&T Inc. (NYSE: T), which could result in a blackout. The two companies are trying to work out an extension of a carriage agreement for CBS programming ahead of its expiration at midnight Pacific Time on Friday. “CBS has reached timely, fair agreements with hundreds of other cable, satellite, telco and internet providers to carry our industry-leading, fan-favorite programming,” the company said in a statement released Tuesday.
Motley Fool • 12 hours ago
3 Stocks to Buy With Dividends Yielding More Than 4%
Welltower, AT&T, and IBM sport markedly different risk profiles, but each one offers a big yield.
Investor's Business Daily • 13 hours ago
Netflix Earnings Preview: What To Expect From The Streamer's Report
Internet television network Netflix faces a raft of concerns as it prepares to post results late Wednesday. Wall Street will be looking for commentary on competition and cost controls.
American City Business Journals • 14 hours ago
Dallas fintech company wants to change the way we loan our friends money
Dennis Cail found a tucked-away idea during a closet clean-up – and now he's getting traction for his idea, Zirtue, raising $1 million. The company, which launched earlier this year, has accumulated about 11,000 registered users and has even landed a partnership with Dallas-based AT&T;.
AT&T inks multi-year agreement with IBM that touches on modern technology trends
This new push builds on the existing relationship in which AT&T; Business is IBM’s strategic global networking provider.
InvestorPlace • 14 hours ago
Disney Stock Has Runway, but Not in the Short-Term
Disney (NYSE:DIS) stock has seen a nice run since April, with shares up more than 30%. Investors are highly bullish on the announced Disney+ streaming service. But with the company's current valuation, is short-term upside limited?Source: Shutterstock Disney is a content machine, and the expansion of streaming will enhance monetization of its entertainment properties. But does this mean short-term upside to the Disney stock price? * 9 Retail Stocks Goldman Sachs Says Are Ready to Rip Read on to see whether the Magic Kingdom's share price still has runway.InvestorPlace - Stock Market News, Stock Advice & Trading Tips Content is King, and Disney is King of ContentDisney's decade-long acquisition spree (Marvel, Lucasfilm) capped off with the purchase of 21st Century Fox. With franchises such as The Simpsons and Avatar joining the portfolio of Star Wars, and the Marvel Universe, it is safe to say Disney is "King of Content."According to Box Office Mojo, Disney's film distribution arm (Buena Vista) had a 34.9% studio market share for the first half of 2019. Combined with 20th Century Fox's 3.9% market share, the combined Disney-21st Century Fox took home nearly 40% of theatrical box office receipts.While theatrical is only a small portion of film entertainment revenues, these figures indicate how the popularity of the company's content is leaps and bounds ahead of peers.Warner Bros., which is owned by AT&T (NYSE: T) subsidiary WarnerMedia, had only a 14.4% market share. Comcast's (NASDAQ:CMCSA) Universal had a 13.5% market share. Sony's (NYSE:SNE) Columbia Pictures had a 9.8% market share. Paramount Pictures, a unit of Viacom (NYSE:VIA) was far behind the pack, with just 5.1% studio market share.But is this extensive collection of entertainment franchises the company's key to beating Netflix (NASDAQ:NFLX), Alphabet (NASDAQ:GOOG, NASDAQ:GOOGL), Amazon (NASDAQ:AMZN), and Apple (NASDAQ:AAPL) in the streaming wars? Streaming Strategy Key Catalyst for Disney StockAfter the 21st Century Fox purchase, Disney owns two-thirds of streaming service Hulu. Disney now has full operational control, and can buy out Comcast's one-third stake as early as 2024.Along with ESPN+, Disney already has assets in place to rival Netflix in the streaming wars. Add in Disney+, and the company could leverage their content dominance into a commanding streaming market share.But in the short-term, the company's streaming platforms are losing money. Both ESPN+ and Hulu generate operating losses. Disney+ will lose money for several years as well, with the company anticipating the service to only reach profitability in 2024.Disney generates sufficient free cash flow ($2.7 billion alone in Q1 2019) to subsidize these losses, but in the short-term could see earnings take a dip. Excluding one-time items, the company's Q1 EPS was down 13% YoY.On the other hand, Disney may be able to use increased operating efficiencies to mitigate streaming losses. The 21st Century Fox acquisition is slated to be accretive to earnings, as the company expects $2 billion in cost synergies by 2021.Long-term, the streaming strategy could push the Disney stock price to new highs. But at the current valuation, can investors expect additional short-term upside? Valuation: DIS Stock Pricey, But Could See More ExpansionTo a value investor, Disney stock is a hard pass. Trading at 22 times forward earnings, and at an Enterprise Value/EBITDA ratio of 19, DIS stock sells at a premium to its direct peers:Viacom: 10 times forward earnings, EV/EBITDA of 7.7CBS (NYSE:CBS): 8 times forward earnings, EV/EBITDA of 9.5AT&T: 9 times forward earnings, EV/EBITDA of 7.7Comcast: 13.4 times forward earnings, EV/EBITDA of 10But comparing DIS stock's valuation to its "old media" peers may be the wrong way to look at the stock. To the investing community, Disney's killer combo of billion dollar franchises and streaming infrastructure justifies a premium valuation.If the company continues to meet expectations, investors could bid up the Disney stock price to a valuation closer to that of Netflix and Amazon.But are investors getting ahead of themselves? It could be five years before shareholders see a return on the streaming build-out. With several years until streaming becomes a cash cow, investors may have better opportunities to enter Disney stock down the road. Disney Stock Price Has Runway, But Not in the Short-TermDisney has proved itself time and time again to the investing community. Figuring out new ways to reinvent the wheel, the content juggernaut is a master at monetizing entertainment. With this impressive track record, it is highly likely the streaming strategy will be another game-changer.But the streaming growth story is fully baked into the Disney stock price. Short-term, this could mean that shares tread water at the current price level, potentially falling off if the company's quarterly results fail to meet expectations.Long-term, the streaming strategy could move the needle once it reaches profitability. But in terms of short-term gains, investors should be cautious before entering a position in DIS stock.As of this writing, Thomas Niel did not hold a position in any of the aforementioned securities. More From InvestorPlace * 2 Toxic Pot Stocks You Should Avoid * 9 Retail Stocks Goldman Sachs Says Are Ready to Rip * 7 Services Stocks to Buy for the Rest of 2019 * 6 Stocks to Buy and 1 to Sell Based on Insider Trading The post Disney Stock Has Runway, but Not in the Short-Term appeared first on InvestorPlace.
Streaming Already Looks Like a Problem for AT&T Stock
Finally, some good news for AT&T (NYSE:T) shareholders: T stock hit a seven-year low late last year, but it has rallied since. In fact, the AT&T stock price reached a 52-week high last week before a modest pullback.Source: Shutterstock However, I'm not buying the rally. I've long been a skeptic toward AT&T, and I see little reason to change. The merger between Sprint (NYSE:S) and T-Mobile (NASDAQ:TMUS) could provide some competitive help. But Alphabet (NASDAQ:GOOG, NASDAQ:GOOGL) and Dish Network (NASDAQ:DISH) reportedly are entering the market. Plus, AT&T continues to lose share to T-Mobile and Verizon Communications (NYSE:VZ).Admittedly, a 6% dividend is nice. But AT&T also has some $200 billion in debt. We've seen low-growth, high-debt dividend stocks like Anheuser-Busch InBev (NYSE:BUD) and Kraft Heinz (NASDAQ:KHC) cut their payouts in recent years. AT&T's dividend looks safe for now. But if the cellular business stumbles and DirecTV continues to decline, that may change.InvestorPlace - Stock Market News, Stock Advice & Trading TipsThe wild card here is WarnerMedia, built through last year's $85 billion acquisition of Time Warner. WarnerMedia not only adds potential growth, particularly in its HBO and Warner Bros. Entertainment divisions, it gives AT&T control of both content and distribution. That's something media companies increasingly have sought of late. * 7 Dependable Dividend Stocks to Buy But for the AT&T stock price to move higher, the acquisition needs to be a success, and WarnerMedia must grow. The announcement of that unit's plans for a new streaming service casts early doubt on those hopes. The Pricing Problem for HBO MaxWarnerMedia's new service will be called HBO Max, and that alone shows the problem here. WarnerMedia charges $15 per month for HBO Now, the unit's streaming service. The new service will include HBO, along with content from its Turner networks, Warner Bros. studio, and other properties like Looney Tunes.WarnerMedia naturally wants to price its new service in a way that captures the value of the non-HBO properties. But it has a problem. The standard plan from Netflix (NASDAQ:NFLX) costs $13. Disney (NYSE:DIS) is launching Disney+ in November for $6.99 a month.Thus, HBO Max probably is pricing between $15 and $18, according to reports (AT&T hasn't released an official figure yet). For the approximately 35 million existing subscribers, a shift makes sense. But WarnerMedia is then getting at most just $3 per month in incremental revenue from those subscribers.That incremental revenue -- at most slightly over $1 billion a year -- isn't much. And it isn't even free. WarnerMedia is foregoing an estimated $80 million in annual licensing revenue from Netflix just to reclaim the rights to Friends. It ostensibly will compete with its own TBS and TNT networks, which will lose advertising dollars as cord-cutting accelerates. Any incremental revenue from the current HBO subscriber base and the associated profit, still seems to leave WarnerMedia cannibalizing itself.So, the service must add new subscribers. But here's the exclusive content on HBO Max at its launch next year: HBO, Friends, The Fresh Prince of Bel Air, Pretty Little Liars, and content from The CW. There are other original series and movies. But is any customer going to pay $18 for that bundle if she's already passed on HBO? How many customers will pay a premium over Disney's and Netflix's cheaper content? Probably very few. The HBO Max Problem for T StockWarnerMedia head John Stankey has said his goal is for the streaming service to reach 70 to 90 million customers. As The Motley Fool pointed out, Disney has targeted 60 million to 90 million within five years. Netflix currently has 60 million U.S. subscribers.Even with an existing HBO base of 35 million, Stankey's goal seems hugely optimistic. There's little reason right now to see HBO Max outperforming those streaming rivals simply from a content standpoint. DirecTV Now subscriber numbers already are plunging, which bodes poorly for the new service. Execution, meanwhile, has been poor from the jump.Stankey originally publicly floated a three-tier pricing structure which, as CNBC reported, had barely been discussed with other senior executives. That concept was axed later. The Hollywood Reporter detailed the confusing rollout (and the questionable logo) of the service, closing by asking, "what the h-- is HBO Max, really?" That's a question WarnerMedia hasn't yet answered less than a year from the launch. AT&T Has Yet to Address the Cord-cutting CrisisAnd a failed streaming service is a big problem for T stock. It undercuts the entire rationale for combining AT&T with DirecTV and Time Warner. It very well may lead to declining earnings overall, as the mobile business stays sideways, profitable landline revenues continue to fall, and DirecTV and Turner both suffer from cord cutting. Without streaming driving growth, AT&T simply looks like a group of challenged business. Even worse, the company carries a debt load that is literally historic in its size.Particularly with the AT&T stock price back at the highs, investors are betting on some sort of success in streaming. Right now, I don't think that success is on the way. And I believe that, once again, T stock will give back its gains.As of this writing, Vince Martin has no positions in any securities mentioned. More From InvestorPlace * 2 Toxic Pot Stocks You Should Avoid * 7 Dependable Dividend Stocks to Buy * 10 Stocks Driving the Market to All-Time Highs (And Why) * 7 Short Squeeze Stocks With Big Upside Potential The post Streaming Already Looks Like a Problem for AT&T Stock appeared first on InvestorPlace.
Investing.com • 15 hours ago
Investing.com - Here are the top 3 things that could rock markets tomorrow.
PR Newswire • 15 hours ago
AT&T Invests More Than $625 million Over 3-Year Period to Boost Local Networks in the Washington Metropolitan Area
WASHINGTON, July 16, 2019 /PRNewswire/ -- At AT&T1, we invested more than $625 million in our Washington Metropolitan Area wireless and wired networks during 2016-2018. This investment has helped AT&T become the fastest wireless network in Washington D.C., and the nation, according to the second quarter 2019 results from tests taken with Speedtest® and analyzed by Ookla®.
HBO reclaims Emmy throne from Netflix with record 137 nominations
Netflix upped its total this year to 117, but it wasn’t enough to rule the TV awards season this time, as HBO earned the most nominations for a network in a single year.
With Red Hat, IBM just won a billion dollar AT&T deal
Just days into Red Hat’s tenure as an IBM company, and the marriage is already paying off for Big Blue.
Why the Math Favors the Premium on Netflix Stock
Recently, Forbes' contributor Panos Mourdoukoutas offered up a frightening thought, at least if you're vested in Netflix (NASDAQ:NFLX) stock. He suggested that the content-streaming giant is the new Tesla (NASDAQ:TSLA). That's only a compliment if you arbitrarily consider only the first half of this decade. But over the last several months, TSLA has largely incurred serious volatility, portending bad news for NFLX stock.Source: Shutterstock Of course, that's only if Mourdoukoutas' analysis is accurate. However, he does bring up some valid points. After all, Netflix stock, just like TSLA, is considered a "hot stock" by investors. Investments like NFLX trade heavily on sentiment and popular themes. In this comparison, NFLX trades on the massive popularity of streaming, while TSLA moves on potentially transformative electric vehicles.And although I'm broadly bullish on NFLX stock, I concede that Mourdoukoutas makes some great points. For instance, these two names don't just trade on blind faith. Concerning Netflix, streaming has revolutionized and utterly disrupted traditional media broadcast. When people talk about cutting the cord, they almost always have Netflix in mind.InvestorPlace - Stock Market News, Stock Advice & Trading Tips * 7 Dependable Dividend Stocks to Buy Furthermore, with Tesla, neither the company nor its CEO Elon Musk needs introduction. While I have contentions about Musk's unforced errors, he is a genius. And at the very least, he has forced the automotive industry to reconsider its longstanding position on the internal-combustion engine.Therefore, it's easy for investors to believe that they're riding a fundamentally sound narrative when they're actually trading on sentiment. As we saw with Tesla, its fundamentals showed vulnerabilities, hence taking down TSLA.Mourdoukoutas argues the same could happen with Netflix stock due to rising competition in the space, particularly with original content. Why NFLX Stock Is Still a Long-Term BuyNaturally, if you hold a substantial stake in NFLX stock, you want to know if Mourdoukoutas' argument has merit. Under this context, I'm afraid it does. While Netflix is unquestionably a brilliant content creator, the company is not guaranteed to hold this lofty advantage forever.But I think the real question is whether it's likely that Netflix stock suffers the same fate as TSLA; as in, a massive deflation in its share price. Here, I believe NFLX stakeholders can have reasonable confidence in the company's longer-term trajectory. Click to EnlargeThat's because NFLX isn't just a hot stock, but rather a growth stock. Obviously, this means that investors dive into shares because of the growth potential that will eventually transition to consistent earnings. Thus, a genuine growth stock should have a strong relationship between its price action and its top-line sales.And that's exactly what we see with NFLX stock. From the fourth quarter of 2006 through Q1 2019, the correlation coefficient between share price and revenue is 97%. From Q1 2013 through Q1 2019, we see an almost identical correlation strength.In other words, as the company generates more revenue, Netflix stock moves higher.But it's more than that. Netflix's revenue has gained tremendously in magnitude, and it matches the robust profits of NFLX. To put it simply, big revenue in Netflix translates to big returns in NFLX stock. Click to EnlargeMathematically, then, we can determine that Netflix is a classic growth stock. However, TSLA can't quite say the same thing. From Q2 2010 through Q1 2019, the correlation between sales and share price is 76%. But from Q1 2013, that correlation dips to 68%, and from Q1 2015, to 66%.Stated differently, TSLA is no longer a classic growth stock. Thus, it's not the greatest comparison to Netflix stock. Netflix Needs the Streaming Narrative to Stay the CourseNow before you load the boat with NFLX stock, let me clarify one point: just because TSLA is not the best example to compare Netflix with, it doesn't mean the streaming giant's equity will not suffer volatility. * 10 Monthly Dividend Stocks to Buy to Pay the Bills Going back to one of Mourdoukoutas' arguments, media behemoths like AT&T (NYSE:T) will challenge Netflix via its HBO acquisition. In the spirit of full disclosure, you should know that I bought T stock earlier this year. HBO was certainly on my mind when I did.That said, my argument is that Netflix is a genuine growth stock. Therefore, as long as that growth narrative remains intact, shares should move higher. Historically, we have only rarely seen NFLX break below its fundamentals.In my opinion, and the implied opinion of streaming-industry experts, the underlining sector can support multiple content creators. Therefore, Netflix has a strong consumer base from which it can grow both domestically and internationally. So, unless you have some compelling reason not to believe in streaming, I wouldn't worry too much about NFLX stock.As of this writing, Josh Enomoto is long T stock. More From InvestorPlace * 2 Toxic Pot Stocks You Should Avoid * 7 Dependable Dividend Stocks to Buy * 10 Stocks Driving the Market to All-Time Highs (And Why) * 7 Short Squeeze Stocks With Big Upside Potential The post Why the Math Favors the Premium on Netflix Stock appeared first on InvestorPlace.
Reuters • 16 hours ago
HBO sets Emmy nominations record and tops Netflix
AT&T Inc's premium cable network HBO scored a record 137 Emmy nominations, topping streaming service Netflix Inc in what has become an annual battle for bragging rights in the contest for television's biggest awards. A large chunk of HBO's tally came from medieval fantasy "Game of Thrones," which received 32 nominations, the highest total for a drama series in a single year.
LOS ANGELES, July 16 (Reuters) - HBO and its medieval fantasy series "Game of Thrones" led nominations on Tuesday television's Emmy awards. HBO got a leading 137 nominations, including 32 for "Game of Thrones." Netflix followed with 117 nominations. Amazon Studio's comedy "The Marvelous Mrs Maisel" got 20 nominations and HBO's "Chernobyl," a recreation of the 1986 Russian nuclear power disaster, had 19.
3 Top Dividend Stocks With Yields Over 5%
Just because AT&T, Shell, and Altria have high yields doesn't necessarily make them high risk.
Zacks • 19 hours ago
Netflix (NFLX) Q2 Earnings to Gain on Subscriber Growth, ARPU
Netflix's (NFLX) second-quarter 2019 results are likely to be driven by subscriber growth despite intensifying competition and price hikes.
Will Top-Line Growth Buoy Badger Meter's (BMI) Q2 Earnings?
Growing demand for E-Series meters, ORION Cellular endpoints and BEACON Advanced Metering Analytics managed solution is likely to translate into higher second-quarter 2019 revenues for Badger Meter (BMI).
4 Internet of Things Stocks That Will Connect Investors to Profit
[Editor's note: "4 Internet of Things Stocks That Will Connect Investors to Profit" was previously published in January 2019. It has since been updated to include the most relevant information available.]As the reach of wireless expands, the Internet of Things -- or IoT -- promises to become one of the more robust niches in tech over the next few years. As such, Internet of Things stocks should prosper along with the industry.Semiconductor firms play an essential role in the growth of the IoT industry. However, due in large part to factors not related to IoT, many of the best semiconductor stocks have seen their values drop dramatically in recent months.InvestorPlace - Stock Market News, Stock Advice & Trading Tips * 9 Retail Stocks Goldman Sachs Says Are Ready to Rip While this may put off some investors, many Internet of Things stocks now trade at valuations so low that they could become the best stocks in tech once a recovery begins. With low valuations, a potential for growth, and their critical roles in IoT, these four stocks appear well positioned to benefit investors: AT&T (T)AT&T (NYSE:T) stands in a uniquely strong position in the 5G market. Assuming T-Mobile (NASDAQ:TMUS) succeeds in acquiring Sprint (NYSE:S), Verizon (NYSE:VZ), AT&T, and T-Mobile will form a "Big Three" of wireless. Given the tens of billions in cost it takes to build a 5G network, the market will likely not see new entrants. Hence, most IoT devices will eventually run on services provided by one of these firms.I chose AT&T primarily because it maintains the lowest forward P/E ratio -- 9.3 -- and has the largest dividend yield -- currently 6% -- among the three.To a degree, T stock has become cheap for a reason. Unlike its other major peers, it has taken on tens of billions in debt to acquire a sizable media content library. Investor skepticism about this move likely explains the lower P/E ratio.Admittedly, I do not know if this strategy will succeed. What I do know is that AT&T can sell the content library if that business line fails. Also, with the oligopoly forming in the nascent 5G industry, chances of failure in that niche are near zero. Hence, I feel okay with collecting a 6% dividend while waiting for this approach to play out. Once AT&T finds their path to success, the P/E ratio should catch up to that of its peers. Due primarily to its 5G network, AT&T should eventually become one of the more successful Internet of Things stocks. NXP Semiconductor (NXPI)NXP Semiconductor (NASDAQ:NXPI) takes its place among Internet of Things stocks on many levels. The firm's work in chips for automotive, consumer, and industrial applications means IoT plays a critical role in the company's products. Through IoT, it connects devices ranging from cars to health monitors to drones.As a result, NXPI stock appears more immune to the chip glut that has hurt profit growth for many semiconductor companies. However, despite this immunity, the market has punished NXPI stock. It fell for most of 2018, losing over 35% of its value since hitting its all-time high in February. Granted, the failed takeover attempt by Qualcomm hurt the stock as well. However, with a forward P/E of 10.8, Wall Street values it as if it were being hit by the chip glut. * 9 Retail Stocks Goldman Sachs Says Are Ready to Rip Analyst forecasts indicate otherwise. For 2019, on average, they predict 10% profit growth. They think NXPI will see double-digit profit increases in 2020 as well. Moreover, as 5G networks launch in earnest in 2020, and self-driving cars take to the roads, IoT should take off exponentially. This should propel NXPI stock to more gains. With a market cap of $28.3 billion, its story has only just begun. Once the market notices the continued profit growth of NXPI, I doubt the P/E will remain so low for long. Qualcomm (QCOM)In recent years, Qualcomm (NASDAQ:QCOM) seems better known for its failed attempt to take over NXP or its court battles with Apple (NASDAQ:AAPL). However, Qualcomm has led the way in connectivity for decades. That has helped to make QCOM one of the leading Internet of Things stocks.Even without 5G, Qualcomm has already shipped over 1 billion IoT devices. The firm offers turnkey IoT solutions. Also, its latest 5G-compatible Snapdragon processor will further strengthen its IoT presence.IoT could also lead a recovery in long-suffering QCOM stock. QCOM has lost one-third of its value since reaching a multi-year high in 2014.Years of pain have taken its forward P/E to about 14.75. But analysts forecast a return of profit growth next year, as they expect its profit to increase by 35%. Forecasts also indicate double-digit earnings increase will continue after 2020.Investors should also take QCOM seriously as a dividend stock. It has hiked its payout for eight straight years. The company will pay $2.48 per share this year, amounting to a yield of nearly 3.3%. Even if the stock languishes, stockholders earn a decent return while they wait for a recovery. Hence, with a low valuation and a recovery in profits forecast, QCOM could become one of the more lucrative IoT stocks. Skyworks Solutions (SWKS)At first glance, Skyworks Solutions (NASDAQ:SWKS) may not stand out from other Internet of Things stocks. Like most IoT players, SWKS specializes in chips designed for RF and mobile communications. Its IoT chips appear in smartphones, wearables, appliances, medical devices, and many other areas. SWKS also provides IoT in the world's industrial and wireless infrastructure.Despite decades of trading history, IoT has put SWKS stock on the map. It traded in the single-digits for years after the dot-com bubble burst. However, it had risen as much as 28-fold from its 2009 low before pulling back in 2018.Like most of its peers, SWKS suffered as a chip shortage quickly became an oversupply situation. SWKS stock has fallen 20% from its 52-week high. Like other Internet of Things stocks, the decline appears overdone. Thanks to the dropoff, SWKS stock trades at just 12 times the consensus forward earnings estimate. * 9 Retail Stocks Goldman Sachs Says Are Ready to Rip Profits also appear positioned to recover once the industry works off the glut in available chips. For next year, Wall Street analysts, on average, forecast profit growth of 6.8%. They also believe those increases will reach the double-digits in future years. The move to 5G should ensure this growth continues. With few companies offering such a value proposition at so low of a P/E ratio, SWKS should see increased interest from investors in the near future.As of this writing, Will Healy did not hold a position in any of the aforementioned stocks. You can follow Will on Twitter at @HealyWriting. More From InvestorPlace * 2 Toxic Pot Stocks You Should Avoid * 9 Retail Stocks Goldman Sachs Says Are Ready to Rip * 7 Services Stocks to Buy for the Rest of 2019 * 6 Stocks to Buy and 1 to Sell Based on Insider Trading The post 4 Internet of Things Stocks That Will Connect Investors to Profit appeared first on InvestorPlace.
IBM And AT&T Announce Multi-Year Strategic Alliance
ARMONK, N.Y. and DALLAS, July 16, 2019 /PRNewswire/ -- IBM (NYSE: IBM) and AT&T (NYSE:T) today announced a multi-year strategic alliance. Under the agreement AT&T Communications will use IBM's expertise to modernize AT&T Business Solutions' internal software applications, enabling migrations to the IBM Cloud. In addition, IBM will provide infrastructure to support AT&T Business's applications.
What's in the Offing for Skyworks (SWKS) in Q3 Earnings?
Skyworks (SWKS) is expected to get hurt by softness in Chinese market. Moreover, unit decline across mobile business is likely to impact the third-quarter results.
Market Realist • 21 hours ago
AT&T’s WarnerMedia Segment to Cut Jobs
AT&T;’s WarnerMedia segment is planning job cuts from its ad sales unit as the company continues to reorganize the businesses it acquired.
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3014
|
__label__wiki
| 0.65108
| 0.65108
|
answeredquestions.html?_page=0&_properties=answer.isMinisterialCorrection,hansardHeading&answeringDeptSortName=Environment,%20Food%20and%20Rural%20Affairs&_sort=answer.answeringMemberPrinted
Animal Welfare: Microplastics
To ask the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, pursuant to the Answer of 18 April 2017 to Question 69988, whether her Department plans to make an assessment of the effect of microplastics on the welfare of land animals.
Andrew Rosindell
<p><B>The House of Commons was prorogued before the earliest date of answer for this Question.</B></p>
Biography information for Andrew Rosindell
Ivory: Sales
To ask the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, pursuant to the Answer of 18 April 2017 to Question 69979, for what reason that Answer does not refer to any assessment of the effectiveness of the ban on the sale of antique ivory objects made after 1947.
Weeds Act 1959
To ask the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, what recent assessment she has made of compliance with the Weeds Act 1959 across the UK.
Newcastle upon Tyne East
Mr Nicholas Brown
<p>We have not made an assessment of the effectiveness of the Weeds Act 1959 across the UK. Natural England (the delegated authority for investigating complaints about injurious weeds) monitors compliance with the Act through the collection of data such as the number of enforcement notices issued per year.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>There were 37 enforcement notices in 2013. However, we encourage communications between landowners and complainants to try and resolve any issues informally. In the vast majority of cases, this approach is successful.</p><p> </p>
Dan Rogerson
Biography information for Dan Rogerson
Biography information for Mr Nicholas Brown
To ask the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, how many staff employed by contractors working in her Department's central offices are paid below the London Living Wage as defined by the Living Wage Foundation; and what estimate she has made of the cost of ensuring that all such staff receive that wage.
Mrs Mary Glindon
<p>There are 2 major contracts arranged by the core Department which employ some people who earn less than the Living Wage or London Living Wage. Outside London, 179 people are employed on these contracts and earn less than the Living Wage. In London, 28 people are employed on these contracts and earn less than the London Living Wage, although 4 of those earn more than the national Living Wage.</p><p> </p><p>We do not currently have an accurate cost estimate for ensuring that all these staff are paid the living wage rates for the UK and London.</p><p> </p><p>It would incur disproportionate cost to examine all our smaller contracts.</p><p> </p><p>There are currently 9 temporary staff from employment agencies who are paid less than the UK Living Wage and employed outside London, and none in London paid less than the London Living Wage. These numbers can change at any time.</p>
To ask the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, how many staff employed by contractors working for her Department are paid below the Living Wage as defined by the Living Wage Foundation; and if she will estimate the cost to the public purse of ensuring that all staff employed by contractors working for her Department are paid that wage.
To ask the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, pursuant to the Answer of 10 September 2014 to Question 208409, what the maximum level of fine and sanction available for illegal tree felling was in each year since 1982; and when the level of fine or sanction was last reviewed and last increased under provisions in the Criminal Justice Act 1982.
<p>The penalty for felling a tree without the authority of a felling licence is prescribed by section 17 of the Forestry Act 1967. A person guilty of this offence is liable on summary conviction to a fine not exceeding level 4 on the standard scale or twice the sum which appears to the court to be the value of the tree, whichever is the higher. The standard scale of fines was introduced into the Forestry Act by the Criminal Justice Act 1982.</p><p> </p><p>Changes to the standard scale are made the Ministry of Justice and apply uniformly across all offences using the standard scale. The level 4 fine maximum at present is £2,500.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>Since 1982, the standard scale has been revised as follows:</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><table><tbody><tr><td><p>Level:</p></td><td><p>1982:</p></td><td><p>1992 (as amended by the Criminal Justice Act 1991):</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>1</p></td><td><p>£25</p></td><td><p>£200</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>2</p></td><td><p>£50</p></td><td><p>£500</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>3</p></td><td><p>£200</p></td><td><p>£1,000</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>4</p></td><td><p>£500</p></td><td><p>£2,500</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>5</p></td><td><p>£1,000</p></td><td><p>£5,000</p></td></tr></tbody></table><p> </p>
Biography information for Mrs Maria Miller
To ask the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, what progress she has made towards meeting the recovery target for construction and demolition waste in the Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC); and what steps she is taking to meet and enforce that target.
Bristol East
Kerry McCarthy
<p>The construction and demolition sector has made great strides in reducing the amount of waste that is sent to landfill. We are required to report on the recovery of construction and demolition waste across the UK, with a target of achieving a recovery rate of at least 70% by 2020. It is challenging to measure progress against this target and the methodology is being reviewed, but provisional estimates indicate that England is achieving a recovery rate that is comfortably above 70%, with the amount landfilled having decreased by over 40% between 2008 and 2012.</p><p> </p>
Biography information for Kerry McCarthy
Private Finance Initiative
To ask the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, how many private finance initiative projects her Department contracted for in each year from 1997 to 2010.
Brighton, Kemptown
Simon Kirby
<p>The Department entered into one private finance initiative (PFI) project in February 2001.</p>
Biography information for Simon Kirby
Oil: Refineries
To ask the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, when all licensed import and distribution terminals will be fully post-Buncefield compliant.
Glasgow North West
John Robertson
<p>In 2008 the Competent Authority (CA) published the containment policy, a framework for upgrading existing fuel sites so far as is reasonably practicable. Upgrades are being prioritised at higher risk sites and where measures are aimed at preventing release of fuel from tanks. In order to avoid disrupting operations and supplies, the upgrading work is being phased. All necessary upgrades are expected to be complete by 2028.</p><p>The 87 fuel terminals and 7 refineries have already completed many of the high risk and low cost improvements required. Improvement plans for upgrading storage tanks at the fuel terminals have also been agreed with the CA and progress against plans is monitored on an annual basis. A new risk assessment method for the very large tanks at the oil refineries was agreed with the CA in October this year and the refineries will submit their upgrading plans for approval by March 2015.</p><p> </p>
Biography information for John Robertson
To ask the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, what recent steps she has taken to promote flood defences.
Esher and Walton
Mr Dominic Raab
<p>We are spending more than £3.2 billion over period of this parliament, compared to £2.7 billion in the previous five years. By March 2015, we will have improved the level of protection to more than 165,000 households.</p><p>We have also improved the funding approach to encourage others to invest in flood defences, so even more schemes can be delivered.</p><p> </p><p> </p>
Biography information for Dominic Raab
# Counting has been applied to this query. PREFIX parl: <http://data.parliament.uk/schema/parl#> SELECT DISTINCT ?item WHERE { ?item a parl:WrittenParliamentaryQuestion ; parl:answer ?ans . ?item parl:answeringDeptSortName "Environment, Food and Rural Affairs" . OPTIONAL { ?item parl:answer ?___1 . ?___1 parl:answeringMemberPrinted ?___0 . } } ORDER BY ?___0 ?item OFFSET 0 LIMIT 10
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3016
|
__label__wiki
| 0.596786
| 0.596786
|
answeredquestions.html?tablingMemberPrinted.=Steve%20McCabe&_page=0&_properties=answer.isMinisterialCorrection,legislature,legislature,tablingMemberConstituency
Steve McCabe
To ask the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, pursuant to the Answer of 18 June 2019 to Question 263677, for what reason the letter sent to a universal credit claimant’s journal to confirm an advance payment does not specify the (a) amount to be repaid each month or (b) number of months that the repayments will last; and if he will add that information to that letter.
Birmingham, Selly Oak
<p>The Department encourages all Universal Credit claimants to actively consider how best to manage their personal budget, with additional advice and support available from work coaches and case managers. When an advance payment is appropriate, claimants decide what percentage of their expected monthly award to apply for and over what period to repay it, up to a maximum of 12 monthly instalments.</p><p>Claimants have the ability to make the decision for themselves on the time period for repayment. Most claimants (around 85%) choose to repay their advance over a 12-month period, with others repaying in a shorter timeframe.</p><p>The Department has taken a number of steps to ensure that advances meet the needs of claimants and that recovery arrangements are personalised and reasonable. From October 2019 we are reducing the maximum rate of deductions to 30 per cent and from October 2021 we are increasing the maximum recovery period for advances from 12 to 16 months.</p><p>Claimants can view their Universal Credit statement online to see how their award is calculated and a breakdown of what deductions are being made.</p><p>We are committed to keeping all Universal Credit services and processes, under review and will make improvements where necessary.</p>
Biography information for Steve McCabe
Armed Forces: Commonwealth
To ask the Secretary of State for the Home Department, if he will publish a response to EDM 2164 on visa costs for Commonwealth service personnel.
<p>All immigration and nationality fees are set within strict financial limits agreed with HM Treasury and Parliament, and are also aligned with clear principles that balance a number of complex factors, including the benefits likely to be accrued.</p><p>The issue of settlement fees for service personnel and their dependants is a complex matter to which the Home Office is giving careful and ongoing consideration.</p>
Whirlpool Corporation: Tumble Dryers
To ask the Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, what progress has been made on ensuring that (a) people who purchased a defective Whirlpool tumble driers are compensated and (b) those dryers are made safe.
<p>Under the agreed terms of the recall that Whirlpool is carrying out, consumers with an unmodified affected tumble dryer are entitled to a new replacement machine. This will be delivered and installed, with the old one removed, all at no cost. Alternatively, consumers can choose to upgrade to a different model for a reduced fee. A refund based on product age or a modification will be available to those consumers who do not want to take up the offer of a free replacement dryer from Whirlpool.</p>
Rochester and Strood
Kelly Tolhurst
Biography information for Kelly Tolhurst
Universal Credit: Fraud
To ask the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, what information her Department holds on the extent to which fraudulent claims for universal credit have been made by people using a loophole in the online application process to make an application and claim an advance using another person’s information.
<p>The Department is committed to bringing fraudsters to justice. Last year we, working alongside local authorities, recovered more than £1.1bn in fraud and error across all benefits and brought almost 5,000 prosecutions in 2017/18.</p><p> </p><p>As of June 2019, the Department has received around 42,000 fraud referrals from staff relating to potential fraudulent advance claims, which equates to less than 1 per cent of all Universal Credit claims.</p><p> </p><p>Our investigations are ongoing and we are therefore unable to provide details of how many may have used another person’s identity to make their claim, or to quantify the amount spent on investigations of this type. However, any cases in which this has occurred will be treated accordingly, with the continued use of both prosecutions and tough financial penalties to deter this fraudulent behaviour.</p><p> </p>
To ask the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, what information his Department holds on how much has been spent on investigating fraudulent universal credit claims that have been made by people using a loophole in the online application process to make an application and claim an advance using another person’s information.
To ask the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, what information her Department holds on the proportion of successful universal credit claims which are fraudulent; and how that figure compares to legacy benefits.
<p>Under Universal Credit (UC) claimants will only have one claim to benefit, whereas under Legacy, they may have made claims to multiple benefits. It is therefore not possible to draw a direct comparison between the caseloads of UC and Legacy benefits. UC will also incorporate Tax Credits which is currently administered by Her Majesty’s Revenue and Customs, who record their overpayments differently.</p><p> </p><p>The Department is open and transparent about the cost of fraud and error in the benefit system, publishing our National “Fraud and Error in the Benefit System” statistics each year which detail the amount we estimate is lost to both fraud and error across all benefits.</p><p> </p><p>Most welfare losses, across Government, arise from claimants failing to report changes of circumstances, Universal Credit (UC) provides a single, digital interface through which claimants can more easily report these changes. As such, once UC is fully rolled out, we expect cross-welfare losses to fraud, error and overpayments to be reduced by around £1 billion per year. UC also allows us to adjust benefit entitlement in line with changing circumstances in real time. Internal and external data matches are increasingly helping to inform benefit payments and alerting staff to check for any undeclared changes in people’s circumstances.</p><p /><p>As of June 2019, the Department has received around 42,000 fraud referrals from staff relating to potential fraudulent advance claims, which equates to less than 1 per cent of all Universal Credit claims.</p>
Disabled Students' Allowances
To ask the Secretary of State for Education, whether he plans to merge the allowances for non-medical, equipment and general support for disabled students’ allowance to permit more flexibility in how that allowance may be spent by undergraduate students.
<p>The department has no plans to merge the 4 separate Disabled Students’ Allowances currently available to undergraduate students.</p>
To ask the Secretary of State for Education, what steps he is taking to ensure that the specification of laptops supplied to students with vision impairment through the disabled students’ allowance is updated allow updating of necessary software over the duration of degree programme.
<p>The department is currently reviewing the specification of equipment provided to visually impaired students, to ensure that it remains fit for purpose throughout the duration of students’ courses.</p><p> </p><p>Students that experience issues with their equipment are advised to contact their assessment centre or Student Finance England so that these issues can be considered and rectified.</p>
To ask the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, pursuant to the Answer of 24 June to Question 266642, for what reasons her Department holds information on the number of universal credit claimants with an existing advance who also receive a maximum budgetary advance and have offered to repay that advance over the maximum time period allowed but does not hold information on the proportion of those people who have repaid their budget advance within the pre-agreed time period.
<p>The information requested is not readily available and to provide it would incur disproportionate cost. The Department does collect information on advances paid and repayments for all advances through the Universal Credit award. However, each advance’s repayment progress would need to be tracked separately and a date in which repayment is completed would need to be calculated.</p><p><strong> </strong></p>
To ask the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, pursuant to the Answer of 28 June to Question 266643, how many people received a universal credit payment between June 2015 and May 2019.
<p>Universal Credit payments are made at a household rather than individual level. The official Households on Universal Credit statistics series starts in August 2015 and the latest month that has been published so far is February 2019.</p><p> </p><p>2,600,000 households on Universal Credit received at least one payment between August 2015 and February 2019.</p><p> </p><p>Notes:</p><p> </p><p>1) Figures have been rounded to nearest 100,000.</p><p>2) Figures relate to both Universal Credit full service and Universal Credit live service.</p><p>3) If a household has a Managed Payment to Landlord in place, then some or all of their Universal Credit payment may have been paid directly to the landlord.</p><p><strong> </strong></p><p />
# Counting has been applied to this query. PREFIX dcterms: <http://purl.org/dc/terms/> PREFIX parl: <http://data.parliament.uk/schema/parl#> SELECT DISTINCT ?item WHERE { ?item a parl:WrittenParliamentaryQuestion ; parl:answer ?ans . ?item parl:tablingMemberPrinted "Steve McCabe" . OPTIONAL { ?item dcterms:date ?___0 . } } ORDER BY DESC(?___0) ?item OFFSET 0 LIMIT 10
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3017
|
__label__wiki
| 0.838922
| 0.838922
|
answeredquestions.html?_page=0&_properties=answer.isMinisterialCorrection,tablingMember.label,answer.dateOfAnswer,answeringDeptId&answer.answeringMemberPrinted=Penny%20Mordaunt&max-answer.questionFirstAnswered.=2019-05-20T16:40:23.527Z
What recent assessment she has made of the effect of the UK leaving the EU on the UK’s ability to tackle (a) hybrid and (b) cyber-enabled threats.
<p>The Government takes hybrid and cyber threats very seriously, and we are strengthening the UK’s defences against increasingly sophisticated attacks. This includes assessing how we will tackle these threats once we have left the EU.</p><p> </p><p>The security partnership agreed between the UK and the EU sets out the broadest and most comprehensive agreement between the EU and a third country.</p>
Biography information for John McNally
What recent assessment she has made of the adequacy of the (a) capabilities and (b) strength of the armed forces.
Robert Courts
<p>The Ministry of Defence launched the Modernising Defence Programme in January last year which looked across the spectrum at our current and planned capabilities, right through to our business practices.</p><p> </p><p>It is an ambitious programme, but we are confident that Defence is making the right capability investments and policy approaches to ensure we remain one of the strongest Defence players in Europe.</p>
Biography information for Robert Courts
To ask the Secretary of State for Defence, when she plans to publish her national carrier policy.
<p>As I said in my speech on 15 May, the national carrier policy will lay the blueprint for how we propose to utilise our aircraft carriers to deliver global Britain's objectives around the world. This policy is currently under development.</p>
Biography information for Nia Griffith
Occupied Territories: Humanitarian Aid
What recent assessment she has made of the humanitarian situation in the Occupied Palestinian Territories.
Karen Lee
<p>We continually monitor the humanitarian situation in the Occupied Palestinian Territories, and in particular the major pressure on Gaza’s health sector. Last month DFID announced a new aid package of £2 million to the International Committee for the Red Cross to support delivery of vital medicines, equipment and rehabilitation services.</p>
Biography information for Karen Lee
Middle East: Human Rights
What assessment the Government has made of the contribution of female human rights defenders to improving human rights for women in the Middle East.
North Ayrshire and Arran
Patricia Gibson
<p>The Foreign Office leads in this area and recognises the important work female human rights defenders do to protect and defend human rights. They do not have specific data on women’s contributions; however, the UK’s global network of embassies and high commissions works closely with human rights defenders, particularly women.</p>
Biography information for Patricia Gibson
Period Poverty
When the Government plans to establish the taskforce to tackle period poverty in the UK.
Lewisham East
Janet Daby
<p>The first meeting of the taskforce will be in June. Over the last couple of months we have been consulting with a number of charities and other experts on the most effective way for us to use the taskforce.</p><p> </p><p>I will be chairing the taskforce alongside two leading experts in the sector, alongside a number of enthusiastic and skilled experts. The taskforce will build on and promote the great work being done by individual organisations, supporting local partners to make their work more than the sum of its parts.</p>
Biography information for Janet Daby
Gender Recognition Act 2004
When the Government plans to publish its response to the Gender Recognition Act consultation.
Heywood and Middleton
Liz McInnes
<p>We have had an exceptional response rate to the consultation on the Gender Recognition Act, receiving over 100,000 responses. We are currently analysing all of these contributions and we intend to publish a response later this year.</p>
Biography information for Liz McInnes
Developing Countries: Maternal Mortality
To ask the Secretary of State for International Development, what steps her Department is taking to disseminate and implement the results of the Woman trial which found tranexamic acid has significant impact on reducing maternal mortality.
Dan Carden
<p>DFID works to improve maternal health through our focus on effective family planning, training health workers to manage obstetric emergencies and improving countries’ health systems. The Woman trial, carried out by the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, has shown that the drug tranexamic acid reduces bleeding and death from post-partum haemorrhage. We have disseminated these findings to our staff in countries. We are in discussion with some of our UN and NGO partners to identify the barriers to people accessing tranexamic acid.</p>
Biography information for Dan Carden
To ask the Secretary of State for International Development, what steps her Department is taking to reduce maternal mortality.
<p>Every year, the UK spends approximately £1 billion on reproductive, maternal, new-born and child health care.</p><p>The majority of maternal deaths are caused by complications during and following pregnancy and childbirth, such as severe bleeding, infections, complications from delivery and unsafe abortion. DFID works to reduce maternal mortality through a range of programmes, which focus on effective family planning, training health workers to manage obstetric emergencies and improving countries’ health systems to ensure health workers, drugs, equipment and transport are available when women and children need care.</p>
# Counting has been applied to this query. PREFIX dcterms: <http://purl.org/dc/terms/> PREFIX parl: <http://data.parliament.uk/schema/parl#> PREFIX xsd: <http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#> SELECT DISTINCT ?item WHERE { ?item a parl:WrittenParliamentaryQuestion ; parl:answer ?ans . ?___answer_0 parl:answeringMemberPrinted "Penny Mordaunt" . ?item parl:answer ?___answer_0 . ?___answer_0 parl:questionFirstAnswered ?___answer_questionFirstAnswered_1 . OPTIONAL { ?item dcterms:date ?___2 . } FILTER (?___answer_questionFirstAnswered_1 <= "2019-05-20T16:40:23.527Z"^^<http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#dateTime>) } ORDER BY DESC(?___2) ?item OFFSET 0 LIMIT 10
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3018
|
__label__wiki
| 0.862694
| 0.862694
|
answeredquestions.html?_page=0&_properties=answer.isMinisterialCorrection,tablingMember.label,tablingMember,date&_sort=registeredInterest&answer.answeringMember.label=Biography%20information%20for%20Baroness%20Neville-Rolfe
Biography information for Baroness Neville-Rolfe
To ask Her Majesty’s Government what is their assessment of the recent proposal by the Child Poverty and Social Justice Commission that unpaid internships should be illegal.
Baroness Berridge
<p>This Government is absolutely clear: exploitation of interns is unacceptable and we don’t hesitate to act where we find that employment law has been broken and someone who is entitled to the minimum wage hasn’t been paid it.</p><p> </p><p>Complaints from interns about non-payment of the minimum wage are prioritised by HMRC for investigation and HMRC will investigate every complaint made to the Pay and Work Rights Helpline.</p><p> </p><p>Research shows that internships and work experience programmes can be valuable opportunities for young people taking their first steps in the labour market. Our work on interns and the National Minimum Wage aims to achieve the right balance between ensuring that opportunities for young people are not cut off and minimising the risk of exploitation.</p><p> </p><p>Our concern, if we were to prohibit unpaid internships, is that this may lead to employers recruiting interns through informal and privileged networks with adverse effects on social mobility or have adverse consequences on the number of available opportunities.</p><p> </p><p>There is no definition of an internship in minimum wage legislation and interns are considered in the same way as everyone else with regards to whether the minimum wage is due. The key issue is whether or not they are workers as defined by minimum wage legislation. If they are, then they are eligible for the minimum wage unless a specific exemption applies. Volunteers are not workers and are not eligible for the minimum wage.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p>
Baroness Neville-Rolfe
Biography information for Baroness Berridge
To ask Her Majesty’s Government how many (1) 16 year-olds, (2) 17 year-olds, and (3) 18 year-olds started apprenticeships in the academic years 2012–13 and 2013–14 in England.
Lord Smith of Clifton
<p>Table 1 shows the number of apprenticeship starts for 16, 17 and 18 year olds in 2012/13 and provisional full year apprenticeship starts for the same ages in 2013/14. Provisional data are subject to change and should not be directly compared with data from earlier academic years.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p><strong>Table 1: Apprenticeship starts by age (2012/13 and 2013/14 provisional full year)</strong></p><p> </p><table><tbody><tr><td><p><strong> </strong></p></td><td><p><strong>2012/13</strong></p></td><td><p><strong>2013/14</strong></p></td></tr><tr><td><p> </p></td><td><p> </p></td><td><p>Full year</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>Age</p></td><td><p>Full year</p></td><td><p>(provisional)</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>16</p></td><td><p>25,080</p></td><td><p>25,170</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>17</p></td><td><p>35,810</p></td><td><p>38,320</p></td></tr><tr><td><p>18</p></td><td><p>53,430</p></td><td><p>54,140</p></td></tr></tbody></table><p> </p><p>Notes</p><p> </p><p>1) Volumes are rounded to the nearest 10.</p><p> </p><p>2) Age is calculated based on age at start of the programme rather than based on 31 August.</p><p> </p><p>3) Provisional data are subject to change and should not be directly compared with data from earlier academic years.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p>
Biography information for Lord Smith of Clifton
EU Grants and Loans
To ask Her Majesty’s Government which United Kingdom organisations have received European Union funding in the last year from structural, cohesion or other funds.
Lord Vinson
<p>The United Kingdom receives an allocation for the Structural Funds (the European Regional Development Fund and European Social Fund) but not the Cohesion Fund.</p><p> </p><p>A large number of United Kingdom organisations received European Funding under Structural Funds programmes in the last year. As these are too numerous to set down here, I have provided below details of websites which contain lists of beneficiary organisations.</p><p> </p><p>The links to the Structural Funds programmes are:</p><p> </p><p>ERDF Programmes in England: <a href="https://www.gov.uk/erdf-programmes-progress-and-achievements" target="_blank">https://www.gov.uk/erdf-programmes-progress-and-achievements</a>.</p><p> </p><p>ESF England and Gibraltar: <a href="https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/european-social-fund-2007-to-2013" target="_blank">https://www.gov.uk/government/collections/european-social-fund-2007-to-2013</a></p><p> </p><p>Devolved Administrations (ERDF & ESF)</p><p> </p><p>Northern Ireland: <a href="http://www.dfpni.gov.uk/index/finance/european-funding.htm" target="_blank">http://www.dfpni.gov.uk/index/finance/european-funding.htm</a></p><p> </p><p>Scotland: <a href="http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Business-Industry/support/17404/StructuralFunds2007-2013" target="_blank">http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Business-Industry/support/17404/StructuralFunds2007-2013</a></p><p> </p><p>Wales: <a href="http://wefo.wales.gov.uk/programmes/progress/searchprojects/?lang=en" target="_blank">http://wefo.wales.gov.uk/programmes/progress/searchprojects/?lang=en</a></p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>In terms of other sources of EU funding that BIS is responsible for, this includes the Framework Programme 7 for Research & Innovation with numerous participants from Higher Education, Research Organisations, Private Sector and Public bodies. Project information is not set out on the Commission website in such a way as to make it easy to identify UK recipients of EU funding in a calendar year.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>Another source of EU funding that BIS was responsible for was the Entrepreneurship and Innovation Programme (EIP) under the Competitiveness of Innovation and Enterprises (CIP). The latest beneficiaries report is the 2012 version. The following link will provide more information about the recipients of the programme, <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/cip/files/cip/docs/beneficiaries-report-october-2012_en.pdf" target="_blank">Beneficiaries Report October 2012 Final Version</a> – <a href="http://ec.europa.eu/cip/files/cip/docs/beneficiaries-report-october-2012.en.pdf" target="_blank">http://ec.europa.eu/cip/files/cip/docs/beneficiaries-report-october-2012.en.pdf</a></p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p>
Biography information for Lord Vinson
To ask Her Majesty’s Government, further to the Written Answer by Baroness Neville-Rolfe on 29 October (HL 2219), whether they have any plans to amend the minimum wage legislation to include interns and others not currently covered by it including those subject to the terms of the Ministerial and Other Salaries Act 1975.
Lord Jopling
<p>Many interns are already entitled to the National Minimum Wage. The term “intern” is not defined in any legislation: entitlement to the minimum wage depends on whether or not an individual is a worker for minimum wage purposes.</p><p> </p><p>The National Minimum Wage applies to all workers unless a specific exemption applies. If an intern is a worker they will be entitled to the minimum wage. An applicable exemption would be students in further or higher education performing work-experience for a period not exceeding 12 months which is part of their studies. It can be legitimate for employers to offer unpaid or ‘expenses-only’ opportunities in some circumstances – in particular where the individual is acting as a volunteer.</p><p> </p><p>Given this dependency on employment status, it is vital that employers and workers understand how this is determined. This is why last month, the Business Secretary announced a review of employment status, looking at how the system could be clarified, providing transparency for both individuals and employers. This is an internal review and findings will be presented to ministers early next year.</p><p> </p><p>There are currently no plans to specifically consider individuals covered by the Ministerial and Other Salaries Act 1975.</p><p> </p>
Biography information for Lord Jopling
To ask Her Majesty’s Government what are their reasons for proposing an extended three-year transition period from April 2015 for the implementation of section 74 of the Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act 2013, in the light of the current extent of counterfeiting.
Lord Clement-Jones
The Government’s reasons for proposing a three-year transition period for implementing s74 Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act 2013 are set out in its recent consultation which concluded on 27 October 2014 (https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/transitional-provisions-for-the-repeal-of-section-52-of-the-cdpa). This does not represent an extended transition period but the Government’s provisional judgement as to the shortest reasonable period, taking into account the needs of both right owners and those using the current law to trade lawfully. The Government is considering the evidence it received and will make its decision on transitional provisions in the light of this. Current items made under the aegis of s52 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 would not be considered counterfeits. Counterfeit products (i.e. goods which falsely carry the trade mark of a genuine brand without permission) are already subject to legal sanction under separate trade mark legislation.
Biography information for Lord Clement-Jones
To ask Her Majesty’s Government whether they intend that residential leases are to be considered consumer contracts and therefore covered by the Consumer Rights Bill.
Baroness Hayter of Kentish Town
<p>Chapter 4 of Part 1 of the Consumer Rights Bill applies to contracts between a trader and a consumer, for the trader to supply a service to a consumer. A residential lease itself is not considered a service, as it is an “interest in land”, and, as such, chapter 4 of the Consumer Rights Bill does not apply. Chapter 2 of Part 1 of the Consumer Rights Bill applies to contracts between a trader and a consumer, for the trader to supply goods to a consumer. Goods are defined as “tangible moveable items”, so do not include land which is immoveable property.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>Rights and protections specific to long residential leases are provided through landlord and tenant legislation, including the Landlord and Tenant Act 1985, Landlord and Tenant Act 1987, and the Commonhold and Leasehold Reform Act 2002.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>Leases are also contractual arrangements between a landlord and tenant or leaseholder which defines each party’s interests, rights and obligations in respect of the leasehold and, as such, Part 2 of the Consumer Rights Bill on Unfair Terms would apply where the landlord is a “trader” and the leaseholder a “consumer”.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>Part 1 and Part 2 of the Consumer Rights Bill will apply to contracts between a trader and a consumer entered into after the Bill comes into force.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p>
Biography information for Baroness Hayter of Kentish Town
To ask Her Majesty’s Government what measures they are putting in place to increase the proportion of small and medium-sized enterprises which take on apprentices.
Lord Storey
<p>The Apprenticeship Grant for Employers provides £1,500 to help smaller employers recruit a new apprentice aged 16 to 24. We have made £170m additional funding available over 2014-16 financial years to fund over 100,000 additional incentive payments. Provisional figures show that between Feb 2012 and July 2014 there were 95,200 apprenticeship starts for which a payment was made through the AGE Grant. A further 8,200 were in the pipeline (started but not yet paid).</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>Apprenticeship reforms are putting employers in the lead of designing apprenticeships, making it easier and more attractive for them to offer more in the future. Funding reforms will also provide a financial incentive to support smaller businesses taking on an apprentice.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p>
Biography information for Lord Storey
To ask Her Majesty’s Government whether they are investigating Quindell plc and its board of directors and financial advisers; and if not, whether they plan to do so.
Lord Myners
<p>Quindell plc is Alternative Investment Market (AIM) listed which is controlled by London Stock Exchange and any enquiry relating to possible market abuse sits within the remit of the Financial Conduct Authority.</p><p> </p><p>The Government’s Insolvency Service has discretionary powers under the Companies Acts to conduct enquiries on behalf of the Secretary of State where it appears that there has been misconduct in relation to the affairs of any company, including those not subject to formal insolvency.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>For the investigation process to be effective it is essential to maintain confidentiality at all stages and there is also a need to protect the commercial interest of companies against the danger of damage from malicious complaints. For these reasons there are legal restrictions on disclosing information obtained during an enquiry and The Service does not confirm or deny whether an investigation of a particular company is taking place.</p><p> </p><p>Where other regulators and investigating agencies are involved, the Insolvency Service would liaise closely to ensure public money is not wasted duplicating resources.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p>
Biography information for Lord Myners
Further Education: Teachers
To ask Her Majesty’s Government what percentage of teachers in further education colleges are employed on zero hours contracts.
Baroness Jones of Whitchurch
<p>The Department for Business Innovation and Skills does not collect information about the terms and conditions of employment of individuals working in the further education sector. Further education colleges are independent organisations responsible for determining the terms and conditions of their employees.</p><p> </p>
Biography information for Baroness Jones of Whitchurch
Directors: LGBT People
To ask Her Majesty’s Government, in the light of the action they have taken on gender and race, what efforts they are making to improve the representation of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people on corporate boards in the United Kingdom.
Lord Browne of Madingley
<p>Following Lord Davies’s Review on Women on Boards in 2011, we are now at 22.8% women on FTSE 100 boards (October 2014), from a starting point of 12.5% in 2011.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>The Secretary of State for Business innovation and Skills has also recently asked Trevor Phillips to start a new private sector led campaign which will look to address the lack of ethnic diversity in boardrooms, based in part on research that indicates the proportion of Black & Ethnic Minority people in leadership positions is lower than expected compared to the wider population (estimated at 5.1% and 14% respectively).</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>Recruitment, appointment and promotion should always be on merit, irrespective or gender, race, disability or sexual orientation. We believe it is in the best interests of business to tap into the widest talent pool and that by definition means a diverse and representative leadership team.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p>We expect that through the progress made on gender and the planned work on ethnic diversity, the momentum will help to improve diversity on corporate boards for all people from different backgrounds, including those from the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) community.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p>
Biography information for Lord Browne of Madingley
# Counting has been applied to this query. PREFIX parl: <http://data.parliament.uk/schema/parl#> PREFIX rdfs: <http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#> SELECT DISTINCT ?item WHERE { ?item a parl:WrittenParliamentaryQuestion ; parl:answer ?ans . ?___answer_answeringMember_1 rdfs:label "Biography information for Baroness Neville-Rolfe" . ?item parl:answer ?___answer_0 . ?___answer_0 parl:answeringMember ?___answer_answeringMember_1 . OPTIONAL { ?item parl:registeredInterest ?___2 . } } ORDER BY ?___2 ?item OFFSET 0 LIMIT 10
PREFIX dcterms: <http://purl.org/dc/terms/> PREFIX nfo: <http://www.semanticdesktop.org/ontologies/2007/03/22/nfo#> PREFIX parl: <http://data.parliament.uk/schema/parl#> PREFIX rdfs: <http://www.w3.org/2000/01/rdf-schema#> PREFIX skos: <http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/core#> CONSTRUCT {?item parl:tablingMemberPrinted ?___3 . ?item parl:hansardHeading ?___4 . ?item parl:legislature ?___5 . ?___5 skos:prefLabel ?___6 . ?item parl:answeringDeptSortName ?___7 . ?item parl:answeringDeptShortName ?___8 . ?item parl:answer ?___9 . ?___9 parl:questionFirstAnswered ?___10 . ?___9 parl:attachment ?___11 . ?___11 nfo:fileName ?___12 . ?___11 dcterms:title ?___13 . ?___9 parl:questionFirstMinisteriallyCorrected ?___14 . ?___9 parl:answeringMemberConstituency ?___15 . ?___9 parl:answeringMemberPrinted ?___16 . ?___9 parl:isMinisterialCorrection ?___17 . ?___9 parl:dateOfAnswer ?___18 . ?___9 parl:answeringMember ?___19 . ?___19 rdfs:label ?___20 . ?___9 parl:previousAnswerVersion ?___21 . ?___21 parl:attachment ?___22 . ?___22 nfo:fileName ?___23 . ?___22 dcterms:title ?___24 . ?___21 parl:answeringMemberConstituency ?___25 . ?___21 parl:answeringMemberPrinted ?___26 . ?___21 parl:answeringMember ?___27 . ?___9 parl:answerText ?___28 . ?___9 parl:groupedQuestionUIN ?___29 . ?item parl:questionText ?___30 . ?item parl:answeringDeptId ?___31 . ?item dcterms:date ?___32 . ?item parl:tablingMemberConstituency ?___33 . ?item parl:tablingMember ?___34 . ?___34 rdfs:label ?___35 . ?item parl:houseId ?___36 . ?item parl:registeredInterest ?___37 . ?item parl:answeringDeptPrinted ?___38 . ?item parl:uin ?___39 . } WHERE { { VALUES ?item { <http://data.parliament.uk/resources/156561> <http://data.parliament.uk/resources/100604> <http://data.parliament.uk/resources/101683> <http://data.parliament.uk/resources/157098> <http://data.parliament.uk/resources/157097> <http://data.parliament.uk/resources/100004> <http://data.parliament.uk/resources/147352> <http://data.parliament.uk/resources/142586> <http://data.parliament.uk/resources/155366> <http://data.parliament.uk/resources/156476> } } { ?item parl:tablingMemberPrinted ?___3 . } UNION { ?item parl:hansardHeading ?___4 . } UNION {{ ?item parl:legislature ?___5 . } OPTIONAL { { ?___5 skos:prefLabel ?___6 . } }} UNION { ?item parl:answeringDeptSortName ?___7 . } UNION { ?item parl:answeringDeptShortName ?___8 . } UNION {{ ?item parl:answer ?___9 . } OPTIONAL { { ?___9 parl:questionFirstAnswered ?___10 . } UNION {{ ?___9 parl:attachment ?___11 . } OPTIONAL { { ?___11 nfo:fileName ?___12 . } UNION { ?___11 dcterms:title ?___13 . } }} UNION { ?___9 parl:questionFirstMinisteriallyCorrected ?___14 . } UNION { ?___9 parl:answeringMemberConstituency ?___15 . } UNION { ?___9 parl:answeringMemberPrinted ?___16 . } UNION { ?___9 parl:isMinisterialCorrection ?___17 . } UNION { ?___9 parl:dateOfAnswer ?___18 . } UNION {{ ?___9 parl:answeringMember ?___19 . } OPTIONAL { { ?___19 rdfs:label ?___20 . } }} UNION {{ ?___9 parl:previousAnswerVersion ?___21 . } OPTIONAL { {{ ?___21 parl:attachment ?___22 . } OPTIONAL { { ?___22 nfo:fileName ?___23 . } UNION { ?___22 dcterms:title ?___24 . } }} UNION { ?___21 parl:answeringMemberConstituency ?___25 . } UNION { ?___21 parl:answeringMemberPrinted ?___26 . } UNION { ?___21 parl:answeringMember ?___27 . } }} UNION { ?___9 parl:answerText ?___28 . } UNION { ?___9 parl:groupedQuestionUIN ?___29 . } }} UNION { ?item parl:questionText ?___30 . } UNION { ?item parl:answeringDeptId ?___31 . } UNION { ?item dcterms:date ?___32 . } UNION { ?item parl:tablingMemberConstituency ?___33 . } UNION {{ ?item parl:tablingMember ?___34 . } OPTIONAL { { ?___34 rdfs:label ?___35 . } }} UNION { ?item parl:houseId ?___36 . } UNION { ?item parl:registeredInterest ?___37 . } UNION { ?item parl:answeringDeptPrinted ?___38 . } UNION { ?item parl:uin ?___39 . } }
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3019
|
__label__wiki
| 0.599232
| 0.599232
|
answeredquestions.html?_page=0&_properties=legislature.prefLabel,answeringDeptSortName&answeringDeptSortName=Treasury&max-answer.questionFirstAnswered.=2019-05-24T11:46:26.36Z
Renewable Energy: Finance
What recent assessment he has made of trends in the level of public funding for renewable energy since 2010.
Sefton Central
Bill Esterson
<p>The Government is committed to investing in renewable energy and our support has enabled the UK to become a world leader in clean growth with the fastest emissions reduction on a per person basis than any other G7 nation.</p><p> </p><p>We will spend £4.5 billion between 2016 and 2021 to support the development of renewable and low carbon heating through the Renewable Heat Incentive.</p><p> </p><p>The Government is also encouraging private sector innovation and £92 billion of private funding has been invested in clean energy in the UK since 2010.</p>
Biography information for Bill Esterson
Royal Fleet Auxiliary: Pay
What discussions he has had with the Secretary of State for Defence on the pay settlement for staff of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary.
<p>Royal Fleet Auxiliary personnel are part of the civil service. Therefore, responsibility for setting their pay and terms and conditions lies with the Cabinet Office and Ministry of Defence.</p><p> </p>
What fiscal steps his Department is taking to increase regional productivity.
Kingston upon Hull North
<p>The Government is investing in every region to drive jobs and growth, with 3.5 million more people in work since 2010. <br></p><p>Investments include the £2.5bn Transforming Cities Fund and the Local Growth Fund which has invested over £12bn since 2015, including £141m in the Humber Local Enterprise Partnership.</p><p> </p><p>Over 60% of jobs have been created since 2010 have been in regions outside London and the South East.</p>
Biography information for Diana Johnson
Public Health: Finance
To ask the Chancellor of the Exchequer, what steps he is taking to support the Government’s cross-departmental commitment to prioritising a public health approach in the forthcoming Spending Review, and whether that support will include allocating funding for evidence-based parenting support.
Mr George Howarth
<p>Decisions on public spending will be made in the round as part of the Spending Review process. As such, we will be working closely with other departments to assess public health priorities and ensure a joined-up approach across government.</p>
Biography information for Sir George Howarth
Tobacco: EU Law
To ask the Chancellor of the Exchequer, pursuant to the Answer of 12 April 2019 to Question 241464, what opportunity for appeal exists for economic operators in the event that the compensation offered by tobacco manufacturers for the equipment and software for the recording and transmission of product movement and transactional events to the data storage systems (Article 15(7) of TPD2014/40/EU) does not cover the cost to that operator of implementing the Tobacco Products (Traceability and Security Features) Regulations 2019.
Carolyn Harris
<p>Tobacco manufacturers have introduced a compensation scheme and appointed a third party provider to act as a single point of contact (SPoC) for all compensation claims. The SPoC appointed by the tobacco manufactures for the EU is Société Générale de Surveillance SA (SGS).</p><p> </p><p>If an economic operator is not happy with the level of compensation offered, they can appeal to SGS.</p>
Biography information for Carolyn Harris
Bingo and Football Pools: Taxation
To ask the Chancellor of the Exchequer, what recent assessment he has made of the effectiveness of the rate of gross profits tax levied on (a) bingo clubs and (b) the Football Pools; and for what reasons there is a difference between the two.
<p>No assessment has been made. The government recognises the significant role that bingo clubs play in bringing local communities together and contributing to British culture. This is why the government decided to reduce the rate of bingo duty to 10%.</p>
Football Pools: Taxation
To ask the Chancellor of the Exchequer, whether he has made an estimate of the revenue that could accrue to the public purse from a redeveloped football pools industry.
<p>No estimate has been made. Pool Betting Duty raises around £5m in revenue for the Exchequer per annum. Reducing the level of taxation would be likely to have at best a limited effect on the football pools. However, it could put revenue at risk, particularly through incentivising switching of products from fixed odds bets to pooled bets.</p><p> </p>
Mental Health Services: Finance
To ask the Chancellor of the Exchequer, whether he plans to ring-fence funding for mental health services.
Chuka Umunna
<p>Funding for mental health services will grow as a share of the overall NHS budget over the next five years, and the NHS long-term plan states that this will form “a new ringfenced local investment fund worth at least £2.3 billion a year by 2023/24.” This investment will enable further service expansion, for example new mental health crisis services for people of all ages and more mental health support in schools.</p>
Treasury: Brexit
To ask the Chancellor of the Exchequer, how many officials in his Department have been seconded away from their normal duties to work on the UK's withdrawal from the EU; and what effect that secondment of staff has had on the effectiveness of his Department.
Mr David Lammy
<p>HM Treasury does not hold information centrally on the work staff undertake while out on loan/secondment.</p><p> </p><p>We estimate that to search and locate any information held would exceed the appropriate limit, therefore can only be answered at a disproportionate cost.</p><p> </p><p>EU Exit is an all-of-government operation. The Department for Exiting the European Union is responsible for overseeing negotiations to leave the EU and establishing the future relationship between the UK and EU. The Department for International Trade works to secure UK and global prosperity by promoting and financing international trade and investment, and championing free trade.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p>Departments continually review workforce plans, reprioritise and assess changing needs, which includes identification and cessation of non-priority work where appropriate. We have accelerated our plans, and at the same time, the Civil Service as a whole is working to ensure that EU Exit Implementation is carried out to high quality without impacting public service delivery across the whole of government.</p>
Biography information for Mr David Lammy
# Counting has been applied to this query. PREFIX dcterms: <http://purl.org/dc/terms/> PREFIX parl: <http://data.parliament.uk/schema/parl#> PREFIX xsd: <http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#> SELECT DISTINCT ?item WHERE { ?item a parl:WrittenParliamentaryQuestion ; parl:answer ?ans . ?item parl:answeringDeptSortName "Treasury" . ?item parl:answer ?___answer_0 . ?___answer_0 parl:questionFirstAnswered ?___answer_questionFirstAnswered_1 . OPTIONAL { ?item dcterms:date ?___2 . } FILTER (?___answer_questionFirstAnswered_1 <= "2019-05-24T11:46:26.36Z"^^<http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#dateTime>) } ORDER BY DESC(?___2) ?item OFFSET 0 LIMIT 10
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3020
|
__label__wiki
| 0.810907
| 0.810907
|
answeredquestions.html?_page=0&_properties=tablingMember.label,answeringDeptShortName,answer.attachment.fileName,tablingMemberPrinted,tablingMember&hansardHeading=UK%20Research%20and%20Innovation:%20Grants
UK Research and Innovation: Grants
To ask the Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, what assessment he has made of the diversity of UK Research and Innovation grant recipients by (a) gender, (b) ethnicity, (c) disability and (d) socio-economic group.
Newcastle upon Tyne Central
Chi Onwurah
<p>UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) believes that Equality, Diversity and Inclusion (EDI) – of people and ideas – is crucial for delivering excellence in research and innovation. It has made EDI a priority – as a national research and innovation funder, as an employer, and as an influential voice in wider research and innovation sectors.</p><p> </p><p>The seven Research Councils have historically collected information on applicants for and recipients of funding regarding age, gender, ethnicity, and disability. The councils do not collect information on social-economic group. Neither Innovate UK nor Research England collect diversity data of applicants or those in receipt of funding or loans.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p>Successive UK Governments have supported the principle that funding for basic research should be awarded through competitive processes on the basis of excellence and likely impact - as assessed through peer review. This is widely considered to be a underpinning factor in the success of UK research, and a key enabler of value for money for tax payers money. Consequently, HM Government takes an arms length approach to research funding, in line with the Haldane Principle.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p>In addition, initial analysis of 2018-19 funding data from the seven research councils by gender shows that:</p><ul><li>71% of funding from research council grants and fellowships in 18/19 were awarded to bids led by men and 27% of funds were allocated to bids led by women. The remainder are bids where gender is undisclosed or not known.</li><li>42% of the funding for Fellowships went to female Fellows, 52% of the funds went to male Fellows and 6% of the funds went to Fellows with undisclosed or unknown gender.</li><li>73% of the funding for research grants were awarded to projects led by male Principle Investigators (PIs), 25% of the funds were awarded to projects led by female PIs and 2% of the funds were awarded to projects with PIs of undisclosed or unknown gender.</li></ul><p><br> UKRI has appointed Professor Jennifer Rubin, Executive Chair, Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) as the UKRI Champion for EDI, and established an External Advisory Group for EDI. The group is working with UKRI to identify and prioritise areas.</p><p> </p><p>UKRI aims to publish a UKRI-wide EDI Strategic Framework in Autumn 2019, which will help UKRI to bring together and scrutinise evidence on what works, develop and prioritise actions, and ensure that EDI is considered and supported in all that UKRI does.</p><p> </p><p>Work is currently underway to improve data collection and analysis capabilities about the people UKRI funds. A detailed cross-UKRI analysis of funding data will be published in Autumn 2019.</p>
Biography information for Chi Onwurah
# Counting has been applied to this query. PREFIX dcterms: <http://purl.org/dc/terms/> PREFIX parl: <http://data.parliament.uk/schema/parl#> SELECT DISTINCT ?item WHERE { ?item a parl:WrittenParliamentaryQuestion ; parl:answer ?ans . ?item parl:hansardHeading "UK Research and Innovation: Grants" . OPTIONAL { ?item dcterms:date ?___0 . } } ORDER BY DESC(?___0) ?item OFFSET 0 LIMIT 10
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3021
|
__label__wiki
| 0.654709
| 0.654709
|
answeredquestions.html?_pageSize=50&_page=0&_properties=tablingMember.label,tablingMember,answer.dateOfAnswer,hansardHeading,answer
Fire and Rescue Services: Finance
To ask the Secretary of State for the Home Department, if he will allocate more funding to the fire service in the 2019-20 financial year.
Warrington South
Faisal Rashid
<p>Fire and rescue services have the resources they need to do their important work and will receive around £2.3 billion in 2019/20.</p><p>Fire and Rescue Services funding requirements from 2020/21 will be considered as part of the Spending Review.</p>
Ruislip, Northwood and Pinner
Mr Nick Hurd
Biography information for Mr Nick Hurd
Biography information for Faisal Rashid
To ask the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, whether his Department has made an assessment of the (a) financial, (b) emotional and (c) medical implications for couples experiencing infertility problems of IVF services being decommissioned by clinical commissioning groups.
Coventry North East
Colleen Fletcher
<p>Infertility is recognised as a disease by all mainstream international health organisations. In the United Kingdom, infertility affects one in seven of all couples of child-bearing age. It can cause great psychological distress for those seeking to start a family, if not addressed. There are effective treatments and the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Fertility Guidelines set out clearly how the treatment can be offered in the most clinically and cost-effective way. The Government recognises that there is variation in the commissioning of National Health Service fertility services across England. Patients with infertility have every right to expect NHS services based on clinical need.</p><p> </p><p>Clinical commissioning groups (CCGs) have a statutory responsibility to commission healthcare services that meet the needs of their whole population, including fertility services. The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority’s guidance for commissioners is a new tool to help them implement NICE Fertility Guidelines and use the benchmark price treatments.</p><p> </p><p>I wrote to the Chief Executives of all CCGs in England on 17 June 2019 to promote the guidance and benchmark price, and strongly encourage them to implement fully the NICE Fertility Guidelines.</p><p><strong> </strong></p><p><strong> </strong></p>
Biography information for Colleen Fletcher
To ask the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, what recent steps his Department has take to ensure equity of access to IVF treatment throughout England.
To ask the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, what steps his Department has taken to prevent clinical commissioning groups from decommissioning IVF services.
Large Goods Vehicles: EU Countries
To ask the Secretary of State for Transport, what estimate he has made of the number of ECMT permits (a) required by UK haulier operations and (b) that will be made available in the event that the UK leaves the EU without a deal.
<p>The Government has been clear that it does not intend to rely on ECMT permits after we leave the EU. The EU has agreed a regulation on basic road connectivity which guarantees rights for UK hauliers to continue providing services between the UK and the EU should the UK leave without a deal. As it stands, the Regulation would come into effect if the UK left the EU without a deal and would last until 31 December 2019.</p><p>Going forward, we will be working with Member States to agree on bilateral arrangements. Many old bilateral agreements would become reinstated if we leave without a deal and we are confident that other bilaterals will be agreed swiftly, given it is in the interest of both sides for freight to continue to flow.</p><p>The UK’s allocation of ECMT permits for 2020 is a base quota of 174 which is equivalent to 2,088 annual Euro VI ECMT permits.</p>
Epsom and Ewell
Chris Grayling
Biography information for Chris Grayling
Horse Racing: Animal Welfare
To ask the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, pursuant to the Answer of 16 April 2019 to Question 242198 on Horse Racing: Animal Welfare, what the timescale is for improving the design of starting stalls.
<p>The Government is keen that the welfare needs of racehorses are well met, both during their racing lives and afterwards. The British Horseracing Authority (BHA) is responsible for the safety of racehorses at British racecourses and the BHA works alongside the RSPCA and World Horse Welfare to make horseracing as safe as possible.</p><p> </p><p>In relation to starting stalls, the incidence of stalls fatalities is low. In 2018 there was one stalls fatality over the course of 6,591 flat races. In addition the BHA Starting Team discuss any incident which occurs in the stalls with Veterinary Officers and staff handlers to improve safety.</p><p> </p><p>However, both I and the BHA consider that more can be done to make horseracing safer in general which is why I have been holding regular discussions with the BHA about this. Most recently on the 14 May, I met with the BHA as well as the new independent Chair of the BHA’s newly appointed Horse Welfare Board. This was a constructive meeting where the number of fatalities of racehorses was acknowledged and both sides agreed that further action is required to tackle avoidable harm and make the sport safer.</p><p> </p><p>The Board committed to doing all it can to improve welfare outcomes. I stressed the need for the BHA in conjunction with the Horse Welfare Board to develop a robust action plan that will deliver tangible results and intend to stay in regular contact with both the BHA and newly appointed Horse Welfare Board to continue to press for improvements in racehorse welfare.</p>
David Rutley
Biography information for David Rutley
Diego Garcia: Roads
To ask the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, to which nation the road named national highway on Diego Garcia in the British Indian Ocean Territory refers.
Glasgow North
Patrick Grady
<p>The main road on Diego Garcia that links different areas of the island is officially named Britannia Way. It is more commonly known as DG1 or National Highway.</p><p> </p>
South West Wiltshire
Dr Andrew Murrison
Biography information for Dr Andrew Murrison
Biography information for Patrick Grady
To ask the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, with reference to the NHS Long Term Plan implementation framework, how many people have carer passports; and what targets have been set to increase the adoption of those passports.
Worsley and Eccles South
Barbara Keeley
<p>Section 2.33 of NHS England’s Long Term Plan states:</p><p>“We will continue to identify and support carers, particularly those from vulnerable communities. Carers are twice as likely to suffer from poor health compared to the general population, primarily due to a lack of information and support, finance concerns, stress and social isolation. Quality marks for carer-friendly GP practices, developed with the Care Quality Commission (CQC), will help carers identify GP services that can accommodate their needs. We will encourage the national adoption of carer's passports, which identify someone as a carer and enable staff to involve them in a patient’s care, and set out guidelines for their use based on trials in Manchester and Bristol. These will be complemented by developments to electronic health records that allow people to share their caring status with healthcare professionals wherever they present.”</p><p> </p><p>There is currently no data on the number of Carer Passports nationally and the use of theses passports is variable across the country and across different health, care and community settings.</p><p> </p><p>Work commissioned by the Department and carried out by Carers UK and Carers Trust, led to the development of a carer passport resource. The Carer Passport resource is available at the following link:</p><p><a href="https://carerspassports.uk/" target="_blank">https://carerspassports.uk/</a></p><p>This provides information on existing passport frameworks and support for the development of carer passports across a range of settings. As part of NHS England’s commitments, we will be supporting the use of these passports and promoting this through the implementation of our Quality Markers in Primary Care (launched in June), ongoing development work with sustainability and transformation partnership and integrated care system localities and as an extension of work already in progress following the response to John’s Campaign within secondary care settings. More information about John’s Campaign is available at the following link:</p><p><a href="https://johnscampaign.org.uk/#/" target="_blank">https://johnscampaign.org.uk/#/</a></p><p> </p>
Biography information for Barbara Keeley
NHS: Training
To ask the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, with reference to the NHS Long Term Plan implementation framework system support offer, how many of the 75,000 staff to be trained on personalised care approaches will work in (a) autism and learning disability and (b) mental health services.
<p>Professionals working in autism, learning disability and mental health will have access to training on personalised care approaches. The exact number to be trained will be determined locally based on staffing levels and local needs.</p><p>The Care Act 2014 places responsibilities on local authorities in England to promote their local care markets. They are required to promote a diverse, sustainable, high quality market of care and support providers for people in their local area.</p><p>Local authorities are expected to understand and articulate likely future demand for services in their area; engage with care providers to understand the likely supply of services; provide signals to the market of their intent; and as needed, intervene in the market to stimulate change and innovation in providers to better meet the needs of people and communities.</p>
Social Services: Staff
To ask the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, with reference to the NHS Long Term Plan implementation framework system support offer, whether the Institute for Personalised Care will deliver support to staff working in social care.
<p>The Institute for Personalised Care will be in place in early September and their role is to develop products to support the quality assurance of training for clinical staff in personalised care. The products they will be responsible for include developing preferred provider frameworks and accreditation for health coaching and other elements of personalised care which is included in the current specification.</p><p>The Institute will not be delivering support to staff working in social care, but is able to provide support to staff working in integrated services.</p><p> </p><p><strong> </strong></p><p><strong> </strong></p>
To ask the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, with reference to the NHS Long Term Plan implementation framework system support offer, what criteria will be used to determine which areas receive transformation funding to develop, test and deliver new approaches to care.
<p>It is for NHS England and NHS Improvement national and regional teams to determine jointly the allocation approach, criteria and process for the distribution of transformation funding to develop their five-year strategic plans.</p>
Beef: South America
To ask the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, what plans he has to ban the import of beef from South America if it does not meet UK standards for sustainable farming after the UK leaves the EU.
<p>Our current high standards, including import requirements, will apply when we leave the EU. High standards and high quality are what our domestic and global customers demand, and that is what we will provide. We have been clear across Government, from the Prime Minister down, that we will not lower our standards in pursuit of trade deals.</p>
Universal Credit: Disqualification
To ask the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, how many claimants over the age of 60 in receipt of universal credit have been sanctioned in the last 12 months.
<p>Statistics on Universal Credit sanctions by age are published and can be found at:</p><p> </p><p><a href="https://stat-xplore.dwp.gov.uk/" target="_blank">https://stat-xplore.dwp.gov.uk/</a></p><p> </p><p>Guidance for users is available at:</p><p> </p><p><a href="https://stat-xplore.dwp.gov.uk/webapi/online-help/Getting-Started.html" target="_blank">https://stat-xplore.dwp.gov.uk/webapi/online-help/Getting-Started.html</a></p>
Autism and Learning Disability: Social Services
To ask the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, with reference to the NHS Long Term Plan implementation framework system support offer, how his Department will monitor growth in the independent and voluntary sector care and support market for autistic people and people with learning disabilities with more complex needs.
Emergency Services Network: Angus
To ask the Secretary of State for the Home Department, what the locations are of the Emergency Service Network sites that are planned to be deployed in Angus; when those masts will become operational; and which of those sites will enable mobile network operators other than EE to make use of those new sites.
Kirstene Hair
<p>The new Emergency Services Network (ESN) is the next-generation critical communications system that allows the police, fire and rescue and ambulance services to operate safely, collaborate and innovate. ESN represents value for money for the taxpayer through delivering steady state savings of over £200m pa compared to Airwave.</p><p>There will be a total of 13 sites as part of new ESN in Angus. EE have already activated 1 site which is near the village of Farnell, south of Brechin.</p><p>The remaining 12 sites are being built by the Home Office led Extended Area Service (EAS) Programme and the details you have requested can be seen in the table below. The Programme is currently agreeing terms with EE in regards activation of all EAS sites.</p><p> </p><p>*Passive build means that the site is completed but not yet activated. The Home Office is currently unable to give timeframes for activation.</p><table><tbody><tr><td>Location - Nearest Town/Village</td><td>Site Progress Status</td><td>Structure Type</td><td>Sharable to Multiple Operators</td><td>Passive Build Complete Forecast*</td></tr><tr><td>Rottal, Glenclover</td><td>In build</td><td>Shareable Lattice Tower</td><td>Yes</td><td>Sep-19</td></tr><tr><td>Glen Esk</td><td>Planning approved. Waiting legal completion</td><td>Shareable Lattice Tower</td><td>Yes</td><td>Mar-20</td></tr><tr><td>Tarfside, Glen Esk</td><td>Site Feasibility Carried Out</td><td>3rd Party Tower</td><td>Not known</td><td>Jul-20</td></tr><tr><td>Glen Lethnot</td><td>Site Feasibility Carried Out</td><td>3rd Party Tower</td><td>Not known</td><td>Jul-20</td></tr><tr><td>Glen Prosen</td><td>Planning approved. Waiting legal completion</td><td>Shareable Lattice Tower</td><td>Yes</td><td>Mar-20</td></tr><tr><td>Glen Prosen/Dykehead</td><td>Legally complete. Start on site Q3 2019</td><td>Shareable Lattice Tower</td><td>Yes</td><td>Nov-19</td></tr><tr><td>Tarfside, Glen Esk</td><td>Planning approved. Waiting legal completion</td><td>Shareable Lattice Tower</td><td>Yes</td><td>Mar-20</td></tr><tr><td>Edzell</td><td>Passive build complete forecast 31st July 2019</td><td>Shareable Lattice Tower</td><td>Yes</td><td>Jul-19</td></tr><tr><td>Blackwater Resevoir</td><td>Passive build complete forecast 31st July 2019</td><td>Shareable Lattice Tower</td><td>Yes</td><td>Jul-19</td></tr><tr><td>Craigiemeg</td><td>Legally complete. Start on site Q3 2019</td><td>Shareable Lattice Tower</td><td>Yes</td><td>Nov-19</td></tr><tr><td>Folda</td><td>Agreeing terms with Site Provider</td><td>Shareable Lattice Tower</td><td>Yes</td><td>Sep-20</td></tr><tr><td>Balintore</td><td>Site Feasibility Carried Out</td><td>3rd Party Tower</td><td>Not known</td><td>Jul-20</td></tr></tbody></table>
Biography information for Kirstene Hair
Telecommunications: Infrastructure
To ask the Secretary of State for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, pursuant to the Answer of 5 June 2019 to Question 257528 on Telecommunications: Infrastructure, whether the supply chain review is planned to be released before summer recess 2019; and what assessment he has made of the effect of a delay in publication on cyber-security.
Jo Platt
<p>The security and resilience of the UK’s telecoms networks is of paramount importance. We are committed to ensuring we have an effective policy and regulatory framework in place for the secure and resilient deployment of new fixed and 5G networks. The decisions of the Supply Chain Review will be announced to Parliament in due course.</p>
Margot James
Biography information for Margot James
Biography information for Jo Platt
Huawei: 5G
To ask the Minister for the Cabinet Office, pursuant to the Answer of 8 July 2019 to Question 272302 on Huawei: 5G, whether he has met with the operators that are known not to follow Huawei Cyber Security Evaluation Centre advice and guidance.
<p>Regular meetings take place between telecommunications operators and HM Government officials from the National Cyber Security Centre, Cabinet Office and the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport.</p><p><br>The National Cyber Security Centre engage with every operator who uses the Huawei Cyber Security Evaluation Centre to manage cyber security risks within their networks. Other operators may use the guidance that is publicly available on the NCSC website, which we cannot track, or advice from other relevant bodies such as Ofcom, the regulator.</p>
Department for Work and Pensions: Complaints
To ask the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, how many complaints to the Independent Complaints Commissioner are (a) allocated to a caseworker and (b) awaiting allocation to a caseworker as at 11 July 2019.
<p>When the Independent Case Examiner’s (ICE) office accepts a complaint for investigation, it will initially attempt to broker a solution between the complainant and the relevant business area or supplier, without having to request evidence to inform an investigation – this is known as “resolution”. If it’s not possible to resolve the complaint, the evidence will be requested and the case will await allocation to an Investigation Case Manager (ICM). The majority of complaints that are referred to ICE are complex and require a full investigation.</p><p> </p><p>Complaint investigations are dealt with by dedicated teams and complaints are usually brought into investigation in strict date order. The time complaints wait to be allocated for investigation varies depending on the volume and complexity of cases on hand and the available investigative resource. Productivity within the ICE Office increased during the 2018-19 reporting year, with the Office clearing 1,246 complaints, compared to 955 during the 2017-18 reporting year.</p><p> </p><p>As at 11 July 2019, there were 488 complaints under investigation (allocated to an ICM), and 1,377 complaints were awaiting allocation to an ICM.</p>
To ask the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, what the average time taken is between a case being accepted by the Independent Complaints Commissioner and being allocated to a caseworker in the most recent period for which figures are available; and if she will make a statement.
<p>Complaint investigations are dealt with by dedicated teams and complaints are usually brought into investigation in strict date order. The time complaints wait to be allocated to an Investigation Case Manager (ICM) varies depending on the volume and complexity of cases on hand and the available investigative resource. Productivity within the ICE Office increased during the 2018-19 reporting year, with the Office clearing 1,246 complaints, compared to 955 during the 2017-18 reporting year.</p><p><strong> </strong></p><p>As at 11 July 2019, the average time taken for a complaint which requires investigation to be allocated to an ICM was 52 weeks.</p>
Diets: Children
To ask the Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, what assessment he has made of the effect of the availability of diet apps on the mental health of school-aged girls; and if he will make a statement.
<p>No such assessment has been made.</p>
To ask the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, how many complaints for the Independent Complaints Commissioner were received in 2018; and how many of those complaints have been allocated to a caseworker.
<p>The Independent Case Examiner’s (ICE) Office received 5,307 complaints in 2018 of which 1,943 were accepted for examination. Of those complaints accepted, 567 have been allocated to Case Managers.</p>
To ask the Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, what steps his Department is taking to support businesses to develop new and more sustainable vegetation oils as a replacement for palm oil.
<p>The Government is committed to working with business and others to create a UK market for sustainably sourced palm oil for households and reduce the environmental impact of palm oil production overseas.</p><p> </p><p>In 2012, the Government convened an industry-led UK Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil. This brought together trade associations for palm oil-using sectors to improve reporting, traceability and understanding of supply chains to increase the use of certified palm oil. As a result the market share of sustainable palm oil in the UK has increased from 16% in 2010 to 75% in 2017.</p><p> </p><p>Internationally, as a member of the Amsterdam Declarations Partnership, the UK is driving 100% sustainable palm oil supply chains in Europe. The UK also supports the Tropical Forest Alliance (TFA) which recently secured the Marrakesh Declaration on palm oil. The Declaration has seen seven African palm oil producing countries and major companies agree principles for responsible palm oil.</p><p> </p><p>This builds on earlier Government efforts to tackle non-household use of vegetable oils such as palm oil in sectors such as biofuels, by promoting waste-derived biofuels. Two thirds of biofuels in 2017-2018 were from such wastes.</p><p> </p><p>We recognise that more remains to be done and will continue to explore opportunities to improve the sustainability of palm oil production.</p>
Foreign and Commonwealth Office: Ministers
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3022
|
__label__wiki
| 0.8037
| 0.8037
|
answeredquestions.html?_page=0&min-date=2018-11-02&_properties=answer.answeringMemberConstituency&_sort=houseId,-uin
To ask the Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, what steps her Department is taking to promote neuroinclusion in the workplace.
Morley and Outwood
Andrea Jenkyns
<p>We are committed to improving employment outcomes and inclusion for disabled people and people with health conditions, including those who are neuro-divergent. For example:</p><p> </p><p>Through the Disability Confident scheme, DWP is engaging with employers, offering online guidance and helping to promote the skills, talents and abilities of people with autism and associated hidden impairment conditions.</p><p> </p><p>A Disability Confident Toolkit has been developed to provide comprehensive information on autism and other hidden impairments, as well as guidance on employment and local authority services. This Toolkit has been promoted to all Government departments.</p><p> </p><p>Research published last year suggests Disability Confident has had a significant impact on disability employment practices. Almost half of employers interviewed said they had recruited at least one person with a disability, long-term health or mental health condition as a result of joining the scheme. This went up to nearly two thirds among larger employers.</p><p> </p><p>Access to Work offers eligible individuals practical advice and a discretionary grant of up to £59,200 per year to fund support above the level of an employer’s statutory obligation to make reasonable adjustments. Access to Work staff have a specialist knowledge of disabilities and health conditions, including neuro-divergent conditions, which enables them to offer customers tailored packages of support.</p><p> </p><p>DWP is working with the Supported Business Alliance (SBA) and The British Association for Supported Employment (BASE) to develop a new long term element of Access to Work, to support people working for a supported business, many of whom are neuro-divergent.</p><p> </p><p>DWP is also working in partnership with Department of Health and Social Care to publish a consultation on how employers can best support disabled people and people with long-term health conditions, including those who are neuro-divergent, to stay and thrive in work.</p>
Biography information for Andrea Jenkyns
To ask the Secretary of State for International Trade, what plans he has to use the Board of Trade to ensure that the constituent parts of the UK benefit from UK trade policy after the UK leaves the EU.
Giles Watling
<p>Establishing the Board of Trade has been one of this department’s major achievements over the last three years and it will continue to meet in all UK Nations and regions. It has representation from the Secretaries of State for Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and business advisers from across the UK, and will make sure all parts of the UK benefit from the jobs and investment that come with an independent trade policy.</p>
Dr Liam Fox
Biography information for Dr Liam Fox
Biography information for Giles Watling
Technology: Foreign Investment in UK
To ask the Secretary of State for International Trade, what recent assessment he has made of trends in the level of foreign direct investment in the UK tech sector.
Gillian Keegan
<p>The latest Tech Nation report showed the UK attracts more VC tech investment than any other European nation, with £6.3 billion raised in 2018. The UK is both a leading global financial hub and an Artificial Intelligence (AI) hub, home to more AI start-ups than any other European country with over 1000 companies and 600 investors.</p><p> </p><p>Last month during London Tech Week, my department announced a further £1.2 billion of new foreign direct investment in the UK tech sector which will create more than 850 jobs.</p>
Biography information for Gillian Keegan
Climate Change: Departmental Coordination
To ask the Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, what steps his Department is taking to facilitate cross-governmental co-operation on tackling climate change.
<p>Tackling climate change is a shared endeavour between all Government departments. BEIS Ministers and officials regularly engage with their counterparts across government on clean growth matters including delivery of the Clean Growth Strategy and progress against our carbon budgets.</p>
Norwich South
Clive Lewis
Biography information for Clive Lewis
# Counting has been applied to this query. PREFIX dcterms: <http://purl.org/dc/terms/> PREFIX parl: <http://data.parliament.uk/schema/parl#> PREFIX xsd: <http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#> SELECT DISTINCT ?item WHERE { ?item a parl:WrittenParliamentaryQuestion ; parl:answer ?ans . ?item dcterms:date ?___date_0 . OPTIONAL { ?item parl:houseId ?___1 . } OPTIONAL { ?item parl:uin ?___2 . } FILTER (?___date_0 >= "2018-11-02"^^<http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#dateTime>) } ORDER BY ?___1 DESC(?___2) ?item OFFSET 0 LIMIT 10
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3023
|
__label__wiki
| 0.714348
| 0.714348
|
answeredquestions.html?_page=0&min-date=2019-05-21&_properties=answer.isMinisterialCorrection,hansardHeading,answer.questionFirstAnswered,legislature&max-answer.questionFirstAnswered.=2019-06-18T14:50:57.76Z
NHS: Mental Health
What steps he is taking to help protect the mental health of NHS staff.
Thornbury and Yate
Luke Hall
<p>The NHS People Plan will develop a new offer for our people through which they will have voice and support including a focus on improved mental health.</p><p>This will build on progress implementing mental health standards in ‘Thriving at Work – a review of mental health and employers’, which have been included in NHS Standard Contracts and embedded in the National Health Service staff health and wellbeing framework.</p>
Biography information for Luke Hall
Government Departments: Procurement
To ask the Minister for the Cabinet Office, whether his Department has undertaken an assessment of the potential merits of adopting life-cycle costing in direct government procurement.
North Durham
Mr Kevan Jones
<p>I refer the Honourable Member to my answer given to Question 259078 on 3 June.</p>
Biography information for Mr Kevan Jones
Treasury: Contracts
To ask the Chancellor of the Exchequer, what contracts his Department has awarded in each of the last five years that were positively assessed on criteria for (a) UK content, (b) socio-economic weighting and (c) most economically advantageous tender.
<p>Contracts are awarded to suppliers submitting the most economically advantageous tender demonstrating the delivery of value for money.</p><p> </p><p>Crown Commercial Service, who act as HM Treasury’s commercial arm, have a policy of always considering social value, and building it into its commercial agreements wherever it is appropriate.</p><p> </p><p>The Government wants UK companies to be successful in public procurement but it is unlawful to negatively assess a bid from a foreign supplier, or a supplier with a foreign supply chain.</p>
To ask the Secretary of State for Education, what assessment he has made of the potential (a) social and (b) economic value of the additional grants that are available from the Erasmus+ programme for widening student participation in (i) the current programme and (ii) the 2021-27 programme.
Dulwich and West Norwood
<p>I refer The hon. Member for Dulwich and West Norwood to the answer I gave on 8 May 2019 to Question <a href="https://www.parliament.uk/business/publications/written-questions-answers-statements/written-question/Commons/2019-05-08/252019/" target="_blank">252019</a>.</p><p>Further to this, the government is considering the value for money of the UK's participation in the Erasmus+ programme. This includes a range of monetisable and non-monetisable benefits and costs to ensure we capture all sources of potential economic value and cost. We will also want to consider carefully the impact of any of these options on students from disadvantaged backgrounds and those with disabilities in our assessments.</p><p>This assessment is ongoing and is part of a wider, cross-government exercise on considering value for money of EU programmes.</p><p>Ultimately, any decisions about our participation in the Erasmus+ programme will also be a matter for wider negotiations about our future relationship with the EU.</p>
Biography information for Helen Hayes
To ask the Chancellor of the Exchequer, when he plans to respond to the Office of Tax Simplification's November 2018 report on inheritance tax.
East Londonderry
Mr Gregory Campbell
<p>The first report on Inheritance Tax published by the Office of Tax Simplification (OTS) in November 2018 made a number of recommendations to simplify the administration of the tax. The OTS has committed to publishing a second report in 2019 on simplifying the tax from a technical and design standpoint and the Government will consider their recommendations carefully. Any policy changes to Inheritance Tax will be considered by the Chancellor at fiscal events.</p><p> </p>
Hereford and South Herefordshire
Jesse Norman
Biography information for Mr Gregory Campbell
Local Government: Audit
To ask the Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government, what assessment he has made of the implications for his policies of the failure of EY to complete local authority audits within the required time limits.
<p>We are aware of this issue, affecting 19 local government bodies and, together with Public Sector Audit Appointments Ltd, are monitoring the situation. It is not acceptable for a professional services firm like EY to be unable to meet its contractual obligations to the statutory timetable and we expect the situation to be resolved as quickly as possible.</p><p>The forthcoming review of the local audit regime will consider the implications of our audit policy, including the timeliness of audit completion.</p>
Charter Flights: Licensing
To ask the Secretary of State for Transport, pursuant to the Answer of 8 May 2019 to Question 249823, Civil Aviation Authority, what recent estimate he has made of the scale of unlawful passenger transport operations.
<p>The CAA, as the independent safety regulator, has not made an estimate of the scale of unlawful passenger transport operations.</p><p> </p><p>There are strict rules in place that require commercial air transport operations to be operated by the holder of an Air Operator Certificate (AOC) and an Operating Licence (OL). It is an offence to operate a commercial air transport flight without an AOC or OL.</p><p> </p><p>Since 2016, the CAA’s investigations and enforcement team has received 21 allegations of illegal public transport. The CAA investigates such allegations and will prosecute people where there is sufficient evidence, and where it is in the public interest to do so. The CAA also conducts spot check visits to airfields and public events where aeroplane and helicopter operations take place, and where it finds evidence that a flight may have operated illegally it has the power to detain an aircraft and, where appropriate, take enforcement action.</p>
Northampton North
Michael Ellis
Biography information for Michael Ellis
Academies: Private Finance Initiative
To ask the Secretary of State for Education, what the current value is of PFI contracts for academy schools that are managed by local authorities; and how much Government funding is allocated to local authorities to undertake that work.
<p>After a school undergoes conversion to an academy, it is no longer managed by local authorities. In the majority of cases, local authorities typically charge a fee to the schools and academies within a private finance initiative (PFI) contract in respect of local authority management of the PFI contract. The Department does not hold details on these fees. For further information, please contact the relevant local authority.</p>
To ask the right hon. Member for Meriden, representing the Church Commissioners, which projects the Church of England funded to help transform communities as part of the Thy Kingdom Come events.
<p>Thy Kingdom Come is an ecumenical prayer movement started by the Archbishop of Canterbury in 2017, which has grown into an annual global movement of prayer. It is supported by His Holiness the Pope and in 2018 over 65 different denominations and traditions held events across 114 countries. Major beacon events took place in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. More information can be found here: <a href="https://www.thykingdomcome.global/" target="_blank">https://www.thykingdomcome.global/</a></p><p>Events take the form of large public gatherings, community prayer walks, meals and picnics in churches or parks. They bring together people from different traditions and denominations across all parts of the local community.</p><p>In Northern Ireland, both Roman Catholic and Church of Ireland Archbishops of Armagh issued a joint statement to support events taking place in St Anne’s Cathedral Belfast, St Macartin’s Cathedral Enniskillen, and St Mark’s Church Armagh. Their message can be read here: <a href="https://www.ireland.anglican.org/news/8866/joint-message-from-archbishop-eamon" target="_blank">https://www.ireland.anglican.org/news/8866/joint-message-from-archbishop-eamon</a></p><p>In County Londonderry, there were three events which saw churches of different denominations gather for prayer. Those that gathered came together and prayed for their local communities, schools, businesses and community projects, and that the Church be a point of unity and light.</p>
Dame Caroline Spelman
Biography information for Dame Caroline Spelman
To ask the Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government, what the status of a local authority’s Local Plan housing allocation is if it is contrary to the numbers required in the Government’s new housing formula; and steps the Government plans to take to ensure that the two are in conformity.
Dr David Drew
<p>An adopted Local Plan forms part of the Development Plan for an area and is the basis for making planning decisions. Government expects local plans and spatial development strategies to be reviewed to assess whether they need updating at least once every 5 years, and should then be updated as necessary. There will be occasions where there are significant changes in circumstances which may mean it is necessary to review the relevant strategic policies earlier than the statutory minimum of 5 years.</p>
Biography information for Dr David Drew
# Counting has been applied to this query. PREFIX dcterms: <http://purl.org/dc/terms/> PREFIX parl: <http://data.parliament.uk/schema/parl#> PREFIX xsd: <http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#> SELECT DISTINCT ?item WHERE { ?item a parl:WrittenParliamentaryQuestion ; parl:answer ?ans . ?item dcterms:date ?___date_0 . ?item parl:answer ?___answer_1 . ?___answer_1 parl:questionFirstAnswered ?___answer_questionFirstAnswered_2 . FILTER (?___date_0 >= "2019-05-21"^^<http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#dateTime>) FILTER (?___answer_questionFirstAnswered_2 <= "2019-06-18T14:50:57.76Z"^^<http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema#dateTime>) } ORDER BY DESC(?___date_0) ?item OFFSET 0 LIMIT 10
|
cc/2019-30/en_middle_0067.json.gz/line3024
|
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.