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Bel-Ami
(Redirected from Bel Ami)
This article is about the 1885 French novel. For other uses, see Bel Ami (disambiguation).
Bel-Ami ([bεl.a.mi], "Dear Friend") is the second novel by French author Guy de Maupassant, published in 1885; an English translation titled Bel Ami, or, The History of a Scoundrel: A Novel first appeared in 1903.
Ferdinand Bac
Literary realism
Paul Ollendorff
Published in English
LC Class
PZ3 .M445
Bel-Ami at French Wikisource
Bel-Ami at Wikisource
The story chronicles journalist Georges Duroy's corrupt rise to power from a poor former cavalry NCO in France's African colonies, to one of the most successful men in Paris, most of which he achieves by manipulating a series of powerful, intelligent, and wealthy women.
SynopsisEdit
The novel is set in Paris in the upper-middle class environment of the leading journalists of the newspaper La Vie Française and their friends. It tells the story of Georges Duroy, who has spent three years in military service in Algeria. After working for six months as a clerk in Paris, an encounter with his former comrade, Forestier, enables him to start a career as a journalist. From a reporter of minor events and soft news, he gradually climbs his way up to chief editor. Duroy initially owes his success to Forestier's wife, Madeleine, who helps him write his first articles and, when he later starts writing lead articles, she adds an edge and poignancy to them. At the same time, she uses her connections among leading politicians to provide him with behind the scenes information which allows him to become actively involved in politics. Duroy is also introduced to many politicians in Madame Forestier's drawing-room. Duroy becomes the lover of Forestiers' friend Mme de Marelle, another influential woman. Duroy later tries to seduce Madeleine Forestier to get even with her husband, but she repulses Duroy's sexual advances and offers that they become true friends without ulterior motives.
In a few months, Charles Forestier's health deteriorates and he travels to the south of France to regain it. Soon afterwards, Duroy receives a letter from Madeleine imploring him to join her and help her bear the last moments of her husband's life. When Forestier dies, Duroy asks Madeleine to marry him. After a few weeks to consider, she agrees. Georges now signs his articles Du Roy (an aristocratic style of French name) in order to add prestige to his name. The married couple travels to Normandy, the region of Georges's childhood, and meets his peasant parents. Finding the reality different from her romantic expectations, Madeleine feels very uncomfortable with his parents and so their stay with them is short. In the newspaper office, Duroy is ridiculed for having his articles written by his wife, just as the late Forestier had his articles written by her. His newspaper colleagues call him 'Forestier', which drives Georges mad and he becomes heavily jealous of Madeleine, insisting that she admit having been unfaithful to Forestier, but she never does.
In order to suppress the stings of jealousy, Duroy starts an affair with Mme Walter, the wife of the owner of the newspaper. He especially enjoys the conquest as he is her first extramarital lover. Later on, however, he regrets the decision, for he cannot get rid of her when he does not want her. Duroy's relations with his wife become estranged; at one point, he takes a police superintendent and three other police officers to a flat in which his wife is meeting Monsieur Laroche-Mathieu, her lover. They catch the two in the act of adultery, which was then a crime punishable under the law. Duroy used the police as witnesses of his wife's adultery to facilitate their divorce. He did not have her or her lover arrested although the police gave him the option to do so.
In the last two chapters, Duroy's ascent to power continues. Duroy, now a single man, makes use of his chief's daughter's infatuation with him, and arranges an elopement with her. The parents then have no other choice but to grant their assent to the marriage. The last chapter shows Duroy savouring his success at the wedding ceremony at which 'all those who figured prominently in society' are present. His thoughts, however, chiefly belong to Mme de Marelle who, when wishing him all the best, indicates that she has forgiven him for his new marriage and that their intimate meetings can be taken up again.
List of charactersEdit
Georges Duroy (Du Roy), an ex-soldier, journalist and a social climber
Charles Forestier, Duroy's former friend in the army, a journalist
Madeleine Forestier (Du Roy), Charles's and later Georges's wife who helps her husbands write their articles and has many connections among the powerful
Monsieur Laroche-Mathieu, a friend of Madeleine Forestier, a member of parliament, later a minister who owes his position and sudden wealth to La Vie Française, Madeleine Forestier's lover
Comte de Vaudrec, an old longtime friend and protector and probably also lover or lost father of Madeleine Forestier (Du Roy)
Clotilde de Marelle, the Forestiers' friend whose husband is away for long periods of time, Duroy's main lover
Laurine de Marelle, their young daughter, who comes up with the nickname Bel Ami.
Jacques Rival, a journalist
Norbert de Varenne, an old single bitter life-tired poet who is among the Vie Française staff
Monsieur Walter, the owner and chief editor of the Vie Francaise
Virginie Walter, his wife, later Duroy's lover
Suzanne Walter, their marriageable daughter, later Madame Du Roy
Rachel, a prostitute to whom Georges turns in times of financial crisis
AdaptationsEdit
Film and televisionEdit
The novel has been adapted for film and television several times:
Bel Ami, a 1939 German film
The Private Affairs of Bel Ami, 1947 American film starring George Sanders
Bel Ami (1955)
Bel Ami (1971), a five-episode BBC TV series[1]
Bel Ami, also known as Bel Ami: Beautiful Friend and For Men Only, a 1976 Swedish pornographic version, starring Harry Reems[2] which had the tagline "Harry Reems' Last Adult Film"[3]
Bel Ami, a 2005 French/Belgian TV movie, starring Sagamore Stévenin[4]
Bel Ami, a 2012 European co-production film with Robert Pattinson, Uma Thurman, Kristin Scott Thomas, Christina Ricci and Holliday Grainger
TheatreEdit
Still life with plaster statuette, a rose and two novels by Vincent van Gogh (Kröller-Müller Museum)
Miláček, a Czech stage version of the story, premiered on 11 April 2008 in City Theatre, Mladá Boleslav. It was directed by Pavel Khek, with Petr Mikeska in the title role of Georges Duroy.[5]
In July 2011, Bel Ami: The Musical was staged at the White Bear Theatre, London. It premiered on July 12. It was written and directed by Linnie Reedman, with music and lyrics composed by Joe Evans.
In February 2014, a contemporary musical adaptation of the book, Bel-Ami, was staged at the Charing Cross Theatre, London, performed by students of the London College of Music. The music and lyrics were written by Alex Loveless.
Cultural influenceEdit
John Braine, the English novelist, stated that his favourite author was Guy de Maupassant and that his first novel, Room at the Top (1957), was based on Bel Ami, but 'the critics didn't pick it up'.[citation needed]
^ Bel Ami (1971 TV version) on IMDb
^ For Men Only (1976) Release Info on IMDb
^ For Men Only (1976) Taglines on IMDb
^ Bel Ami (2005 version) on IMDb
^ "PETR MIKESKA - herec a režisér". estranky.cz. Retrieved 2 October 2015.
Bel Ami, free English translation e-book at Project Gutenberg.
Bel Ami public domain audiobook at LibriVox
Free audiobook: Bel-Ami ‹See Tfd›(in French)
Městské divadlo, Mladá Boleslav ‹See Tfd›(in Czech)
Bel Ami: a film official website
Petri Liukkonen. "Guy de Maupassant". Books and Writers
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bel-Ami&oldid=906538141"
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Cary Bates
Cary Bates (born 1948)[1] is an American comic book, animation, television and film writer. He is best known for his work on The Flash and Superman
Area(s)
BiographyEdit
Early careerEdit
Bates began submitting ideas for comic book covers to DC Comics at the age of 13, and a number of them were bought and published, the first as the cover to Superman #167 (Feb. 1964).[2][3] Bates began to sell stories to DC when he was 17.[4][5]
Bates is best known for his work for DC Comics on such titles as Action Comics, Captain Atom, The Flash, Superboy and the Legion of Super-Heroes, and Superman. He began working for the publisher in 1963 and continued to do so until the early 1990s. Among his contributions to the Superman mythos, he and artist Curt Swan co-created the supervillains Terra-Man[6] and the 1970s version of the Toyman[7] as well as the superhero Vartox.[8] In November 1972, Bates and artist Art Saaf launched the first Supergirl series.[9] Bates wrote two stories which featured a superhero wedding. In Superboy Starring the Legion of Super-Heroes #200 (Feb. 1974), the characters Bouncing Boy and Duo Damsel were married[10] and Justice League of America #121 (Aug. 1975) featured the marriage of Adam Strange and the character's longstanding love interest Alanna.[11] Superman #300 (June 1976) featured an out-of-continuity story by Bates and Elliot S. Maggin which imagined the infant Superman landing on Earth in 1976 and becoming a superhero in 2001. The tale was an inspiration for Mark Millar's Superman: Red Son limited series published in 2003.[12] Bates would end the marriage of another character when he wrote The Flash #275 (July 1979) wherein the title character's wife, Iris West Allen was killed.[13]
Bates appeared in his own comics as himself several times, alongside superheroes such as the Silver Age version of the Flash[14] and the Justice League of America.[3][15][16]
1980sEdit
Bates and artist Kurt Schaffenberger were the creative team for The New Adventures of Superboy, a series debuting in January 1980, which took the character out of the Legion of Super-Heroes and back into solo adventures.[17] He and artist Carmine Infantino crafted a Batman backup story for Detective Comics #500 (March 1981).[18][19] Infantino returned to The Flash title with issue #296 (April 1981) and he and Bates collaborated on the series, including issue #300 (Aug. 1981) which was in the Dollar Comics format[20] until its cancellation with issue #350 (October 1985). A major shakeup occurred when The Flash would inadvertently kill his wife's murderer, the Reverse-Flash, in The Flash #324 (Aug. 1983).[21] This led to an extended storyline titled "The Trial of the Flash" in which the hero must face the repercussions of his actions. Bates became the editor as well as the writer of The Flash title during this time and oversaw it until its cancellation in 1985.[22] "The Trial of the Flash" was collected in a volume of the Showcase Presents series in 2011.[23]
His final Superman stories were "Trapped in IMP-TV" in Superman #421 and "Superman for a Day" in Action Comics #581 (both cover dated July 1986).[2] Bates was one of the contributors to the DC Challenge limited series in 1986.[24] In 1987 and 1988, he wrote some stories for Marvel Comics' New Universe line and created the Video Jack series at Epic Comics with Keith Giffen.[2] His post-Superman work for DC included a Captain Atom series with Pat Broderick[25] and the Silverblade limited series with Gene Colan.[2][3]
Later career and other workEdit
His other work includes the comic strips The Lone Ranger (1980–1983),[26] Buck Rogers in the 25th Century (1981–1983), and Disney's Gargoyles during the 1990s. In 2008 he returned after a 20-year absence to Marvel and wrote True Believers, a limited series about a team trying to uncover secrets in the Marvel Universe.[27]
He was head scriptwriter on the 1988–1992 live action Superboy television series,[3] and co-wrote (with Mario Puzo and John Briley) the 1992 film Christopher Columbus: The Discovery, produced by Superman: The Movie producers Alexander and Ilya Salkind.
Bates made a return to writing Superman, this time as an Elseworlds story titled Superman: The Last Family of Krypton, published in August 2010.[2] Bates worked on the DC Comics nostalgic event DC Retroactive writing stories for the one-shot specials DC Retroactive: Flash - The '70s (with art by Benito Gallego and Sal Buscema), and DC Retroactive: JLA - The '70s (drawn by Gordon Purcell and Andy Smith), both released with September 2011 cover dates.[28]
Comics work includes:
DC ComicsEdit
Action Comics (Superman): #354, 356, 358, 366-370, 383-390, 392, 401, 403, 405, 407-408, 410, 412, 414-416, 419, 421-423, 425-428, 430-435, 438-439, 441-442, 444-446, 450, 453-454, 456, 460-466, 468-476, 480-485, 487-499, 501-512, 544, 548-549, 581 (1967–1986)
Adventure Comics (Supergirl): #381-382, 384, 386, 388-389, 391-392, 394, 396; (Vigilante): #426-427; (The Flash): #459-466 (1969–1979)
Captain Atom #1-46, 50, Annual #1-2 (1987–1991)
DC Challenge #11 (1986)
DC Comics Presents #10-11, 15, 73, 82 (1979–1985)
DC Comics Presents: Hawkman #1 (2004)
DC Retroactive: The Flash - The '70s (2011)
DC Retroactive: JLA - The '70s (2011)
DC Special Series (The Flash): #1, 11; (Superman): #5 (1977–1978)
DC Super Stars #12 (1977)
Detective Comics #500 (1981)
The Flash #179, 206, 209-212, 216, 218-292, 294-305, 307-312, 314-350 (1968–1985)
Hercules Unbound #10-12 (1977)
House of Mystery #240, 282 (1976–1980)
House of Secrets #144 (1977)
Justice League of America #116, 120-121, 123-124, 138-139 (1975–1977)
The New Adventures of Superboy #1-23, 26- 30, 32-33 (1980–1982)
New Guardians #2-12 (1988–1989)
Secret Origins vol. 2 #34, 40 (1988–1989)
Silverblade #1-12 (1987–1988)
Strange Sports Stories #4 (1974)
Superboy (Superboy): #148; (Legion of Super-Heroes): #173, 183-184, 188, 190-193, 195, 197-209, 211, 214-216, 218, 220, 222 (1965–1976)
Supergirl #1-4, 7-10 (1972–1974)
Superman #198, 200-201, 204, 209, 213, 214, 219, 200-221, 223, 230-231, 238, 240, 243, 246, 249-250, 255-259, 261, 263-264, 269, 275, 278-279, 281, 283-284, 288-289, 291, 294, 296-300, 327, 329, 353-369, 372-375, 379-386, 388-392, 401-402, 410, 412-413, 415, 418, 421, Annual #9, 12 (1967–1986)
The Superman Family #166, 169-173, 176-183, 195-198 (1974–1979)
Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane #96, 108-109, 112, 120-121, 123-127, 130-132, 134-137 (1969–1974)
Superman's Pal Jimmy Olsen #107, 109, 111, 157 (1967–1973)
Superman: The Last Family of Krypton, #1-3 (2010)
V #1-6, 9-16 (1985–1986)
Weird Western Tales #12-13, 15-17, 19 (1972–1973)
Wonder Woman #206, 213, 215 (1973–1975)
Wonder Woman vol. 2 #26 (1989)
World's Finest Comics #151, 167-169, 174, 176, 178, 180-182, 184, 189-191 (1965–1970)
Marvel ComicsEdit
Codename: Spitfire #10 (1987)
Fantastic Four Cosmic-Size Special #1 (2009)
Nightmask #3, 5 (1987)
Spitfire and the Troubleshooters #6-9 (1987)
Star Brand #8-9 (1987)
True Believers #1-5 (2008–2009)
Video Jack #1-6 (1987–1988)
Warren PublishingEdit
Creepy #83, 89, 92, 95, 99-100, 102, 109-111 (1976–1979)
Eerie #81, 96, 99-105, 107-109, 117 (1977–1980)
Vampirella #59, 67, 75, 79-80, 82, 111 (1977–1983)
^ ""Batdance" to "Bateson," Reading Room Index to the Comic Art Collection". East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University Libraries Special Collections. n.d. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016.
^ a b c d e Cary Bates at the Grand Comics Database
^ a b c d Eury (ed.), Michael (February 2013). "A Super Salute to Cary Bates". Back Issue!. Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing (62): 18–19. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
^ Cronin, Brian (June 3, 2005). "Comic Book Urban Legends Revealed #1". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on March 10, 2012. Retrieved March 9, 2012.
^ Stroud, Bryan D. (October 14, 2011). "Cary Bates Interview". The Silver Age Sage. Archived from the original on August 29, 2012.
^ McAvennie, Michael; Dolan, Hannah, ed. (2010). "1970s". DC Comics Year By Year A Visual Chronicle. London, United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-7566-6742-9. Scripter Cary Bates and artist Curt Swan chose an inopportune time for Superman to meet Terra-Man, a spaghetti Western-garbed menace who rode a winged horse and wielded lethal alien weaponry. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
^ McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 158: "Writer Cary Bates and artist Curt Swan gave Superman all the 'fun' he could handle with the savvy new Toyman in Action Comics #432."
^ McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 161: "Fans of John Boorman's 1974 sci-fi film Zardoz, starring Sean Connery in revealing red spandex, could appreciate writer Cary Bates and artist Curt Swan's inspiration for Vartox of Valeron."
^ McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 153: "Following a decade of back-up action and three years headlining Adventure Comics, Supergirl finally starred in her own series. For the inaugural issue, Cary Bates and artist Art Saaf enrolled Linda Danvers in college."
^ McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 159: "Bouncing Boy and Duo Damsel became the first Legionnaires to tie the knot. The wedding planners were writer Cary Bates and artist Dave Cockrum."
^ McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 165: "In August's Justice League of America #121, Adam Strange said 'I do' to his long-time love, Alanna, in a story by scripter Cary Bates and artist Dick Dillin."
^ Stroud, Bryan D. (December 2013). "Superman #300". Back Issue!. Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing (69): 31–33.
^ McAvennie "1970s" in Dolan, p. 182: "Life for the Fastest Man Alive screeched to a halt after writer Cary Bates and artist Alex Saviuk played 'The Last Dance' for the Flash's wife, Iris West Allen."
^ Bates, Cary (w), Novick, Irv (p), Blaisdell, Tex (i). "The Day I Saved the Life of the Flash" The Flash 228 (July–August 1974), DC Comics
^ Bates, Cary; Maggin, Elliot S. (w), Dillin, Dick (p), McLaughlin, Frank (i). "Where on Earth Am I?" Justice League of America 123 (October 1975), DC Comics
^ Bates, Cary; Maggin, Elliot S. (w), Dillin, Dick (p), McLaughlin, Frank (i). "Avenging Ghosts of the Justice Society!" Justice League of America 124 (November 1975), DC Comics
^ Manning, Matthew K. "1980s" in Dolan, p. 186: "After recently departing the pages of Superboy and the Legion of Super-Heroes, Superboy was free to pursue his own adventures...in this premiere issue written by Cary Bates and illustrated by Kurt Schaffenberger."
^ Manning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 193
^ Greenberger, Robert (December 2013). "Memories of Detective Comics #500". Back Issue!. Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing (69): 54–57.
^ Weiss, Brett (December 2013). "The Flash #300". Back Issue!. Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing (69): 58–60.
^ Manning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 203: "Written by Cary Bates, with art by Flash legend Carmine Infantino, the story saw...[the Flash] accidentally break the Reverse-Flash's neck."
^ Cary Bates (editor) at the Grand Comics Database
^ Bates, Cary (2011). Showcase Presents: Trial of the Flash. DC Comics. p. 592. ISBN 1-4012-3182-9.
^ Greenberger, Robert (August 2017). "It Sounded Like a Good Idea at the Time: A Look at the DC Challenge!". Back Issue!. Raleigh, North Carolina: TwoMorrows Publishing (98): 42.
^ Manning "1980s" in Dolan, p. 229: "March [1987] debuted the new Captain Atom in his first DC series, by writer Cary Bates and penciler Pat Broderick."
^ "Bates and Heath Premiere Lone Ranger - NY Times Syndicate Revives Classic Comic Strip". Comics Feature. New Media Publishing (12/13): 21. September–October 1981.
^ Richards, Dave (July 21, 2008). "Keep 'Em Honest: Bates on 'True Believers". Comic Book Resources. Archived from the original on February 8, 2012. Retrieved February 7, 2012.
^ Rogers, Vaneta (July 11, 2011). "Cary Bates Flash-es Back, Visits Retro Earth-Prime". Newsarama. Archived from the original on March 10, 2012. Retrieved March 9, 2012.
Strickler, Dave. Syndicated Comic Strips and Artists, 1924-1995: The Complete Index. Cambria, CA: Comics Access, 1995. ISBN 0-9700077-0-1.
Cary Bates at the Comic Book DB
Cary Bates at Mike's Amazing World of Comics
Cary Bates at the Unofficial Handbook of Marvel Comics Creators
Cary Bates on IMDb
Leo Dorfman Action Comics writer
Robert Kanigher The Flash writer
Mike Baron
(The Flash vol.2)
Elliot S! Maggin Superman writer
Dennis O'Neil Justice League of America writer
Elliot S! Maggin
Gerry Conway Superman writer
Elliot S! Maggin and
Bob Rozakis
n/a Captain Atom writer
Kelly Puckett
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cary_Bates&oldid=888220791"
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Crown of Ireland Act 1542
The Crown of Ireland Act 1542[1] is an Act of the Parliament of Ireland (33 Hen. 8 c. 1) which created the title of King of Ireland for King Henry VIII of England and his successors, who previously ruled the island as Lord of Ireland.
Parliament of Ireland
Long title
An Act that the King of England, his Heirs and Successors, be Kings of Ireland
Territorial extent
Kingdom of Ireland
Other legislation
Repealed by
Statute Law Revision (Pre-Union Irish Statutes) Act, 1962
Status: Current legislation
Revised text of statute as amended
The long title of the Act was "An Act that the King of England, his Heirs and Successors, be Kings of Ireland". Among the 18th-century Irish Patriot Party it was called the Act of Annexation.[2]
One of the earlier Christian overkingdoms, the Holy See of Rome, in 1171 abolished the High Kingship of Ireland (of 9th-century origin, successor to the Kingship of Tara) and devalued the ancient Kingdoms of Ireland.
Under Laudabiliter, a papal bull, the ancient realm was disestablished and turned into a feudal province of the Secretariat of State of the Roman Catholic Church under the temporal power of the monarch of England who henceforth held the title Lord of Ireland, relinquishing to the papacy annual the tribute levied upon the nobility and people of Ireland.
The Act was passed in the Parliament of Ireland, meeting in Dublin, on 18 June 1541, being read out to parliament in English and Irish.[3]
Further developments in the 16th centuryEdit
The secession of various European rulers during the Protestant Reformation, including Henry VIII, inspired the Papacy to initiate the Counter-Reformation. One consequence of this was that the Papacy required all Roman Catholic rulers to consider Protestant rulers (and their loyal subjects) as heretics, thus making their realms illegitimate under customary Roman Catholic international law.[citation needed] Consequently, the title "King of Ireland" was not initially recognised by Europe's Catholic monarchs and the Papacy. Instead, they remained committed in considering Ireland a feudal fief of the Papacy, to be granted to any Catholic sovereign who managed to secure the island Kingdom from the control of its Protestant monarchs.
After the death of Henry VIII's only legitimate son, Edward VI, the throne passed to his oldest daughter, Mary I, who was a devout Roman Catholic. Mary shortly thereafter married Philip of Spain, who was also staunchly Catholic. The new monarch restored papal authority in both England and Ireland. However, the status of Ireland as a kingdom remained in question: would the Papacy recognise Ireland's existence as a kingdom in its own right or maintain some fiction of temporal papal power in the land? To rectify this, Pope Paul IV issued a papal bull in 1555, Ilius, per quem Reges regnant, recognising Philip and Mary as King and Queen of England and its dominions including Ireland. Although this did not explicitly recognise Ireland as a kingdom, it represents the surrender of most of the Papacy's declared authority over Ireland, elevating it from a mere province of the Holy See to one that united Ireland's and England's crowns in one person.[4]
Mary died without issue in 1558, and the thrones of England and Ireland passed to her half-sister, Elizabeth I, who was a Protestant. Once again, both kingdoms were removed from papal authority. In reply, Pope Pius V issued a papal bull in 1570, Regnans in Excelsis, declaring "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime" to be a heretic and releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her and excommunicating any that obeyed her orders.
Subsequent developmentsEdit
Over the course of the next two centuries, the Papacy and Europe's Catholic rulers continued to recognise Ireland as a Kingdom in its own right, whilst at the same time asserting its Protestant monarchy as illegitimate. Simultaneously, they would incite Catholic rebellion to Protestants in the island as a means of recovering Ireland to a Catholic sovereign, preceding the establishment of a Catholic sovereign on the English and Scottish thrones. In reply, British diplomacy concentrated on receiving the recognition of the sovereignty of Ireland from Catholic Europe in the hope of thereby ending future Catholic sovereign incitements of the larger Catholic peasantry and securing the western flank of Great Britain from Catholic invasion.
Until 1801, Ireland continued to exist as a Kingdom in its own right, with its own Parliament. The government of Ireland, however, remained in English hands even after Grattan's constitution came into effect in the 1780s. Most of the country's population remained Catholic, but its Protestant minority remained socially, politically, and economically dominant; and even many Protestants were excluded from power as not being members of the established Church of Ireland. The Penal Laws preserving the position of the Protestant Ascendancy began to be dismantled in the 1780s and 1790s. However, fear of revolutionary violence in the wake of the French Revolution and the French Revolutionary Wars and subsequent republican Irish Rebellion of 1798 led the British government to seek the union of Ireland with Great Britain; this resulted in the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
The 20th centuryEdit
As a result of the Anglo-Irish Treaty that ended the Irish War of Independence, Ireland left the United Kingdom in 1922 and became the Irish Free State, a mostly self-governing Dominion that still retained the British monarch as its head of state. Shortly thereafter, six north-eastern counties (Northern Ireland) seceded from the Free State and rejoined the United Kingdom, but with their own parliament and system of government. Despite these fundamental changes, the 16th-century Act remained unamended on the statute books.
From a British perspective, the Irish Free State became legislatively independent with the passage in the British parliament of the Statute of Westminster 1931. However, the Irish Free State considered itself legislatively independent before its passage and did not recognize its legal situation as being changed. The country thereafter shared the person of its monarch with the United Kingdom and the other Dominions of the then-called British Commonwealth.
The Irish Free State adopted a new constitution in 1937, although the Irish monarchy was not abolished in UK law until the Republic of Ireland Act 1948. The Tudor Act remained on the republic's statute books until formally repealed in 1962.[5]
The act todayEdit
As of 2019[update], Northern Ireland remains a constituent part of the United Kingdom, and the act remains law there. However, the offence in the act making it treason to endanger the sovereign or her possession of the Crown now carries only a maximum sentence of life imprisonment, following the completion of the abolition of capital punishment in the United Kingdom in 1998.
Protestant Ascendancy
Style of the British Sovereign
High treason in the United Kingdom
Treason Act
Blackstone, Sir William and Stewart, James (1839). The Rights of Persons, According to the Text of Blackstone: Incorporating the Alterations Down to the Present Time. p. 92.
^ Short title as conferred in Northern Ireland by the Short Titles Act (Northern Ireland) 1951; the Act lacks a short title in the Republic of Ireland.
^ Grattan, Henry (1822). "Regency: Feb. 11, 1789". The Speeches of the Right Honourable Henry Grattan in the Irish, and in the Imperial Parliament. II. Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown. p. 114. Retrieved 22 February 2016. The act of Henry VIII., commonly called the act of annexation, proves and ascertains what the member's arguments would deny, the existence, properties, and prerogatives of the Irish crown. ; A Review of Mr. Grattan's Answer to the Earl of Clare's Speech (PDF). Part the first. Dublin: J. Milliken. 1800. p. 6. What by a bold flight of imperialism we now denominate the Act of Annexation, (33d Hen. VIII. c. 1.) was in truth no more than an alteration in the Royal style.
^ Moody, T. W.; et al., eds. (1989). A New History of Ireland. 8: A Chronology of Irish History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-821744-2.
^ "Crown of Ireland Act 1542". Heraldica. 25 July 2003. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
^ The Statute Law Revision (Pre-Union Irish Statutes) Act 1962, section 1 and Schedule Archived 11 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
Text of the Crown of Ireland Act (I) 1542 (c. 1) as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crown_of_Ireland_Act_1542&oldid=905900733"
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Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base
Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base is a base of the Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF) in northeast Thailand, approximately 250 km (157 mi) northeast of Bangkok and about 8 km (5 mi) south of the centre of Nakhon Ratchasima Province (also known as "Khorat" or "Korat"), the largest province in Thailand.
Camp Friendship
Part of Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF)
Near Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand
Aerial photograph of Korat RTAFB, 23 July 1987
Korat RTAFB
Location in Thailand
14°55′50″N 102°04′51″E / 14.93056°N 102.08083°E / 14.93056; 102.08083 (Korat RTAFB)Coordinates: 14°55′50″N 102°04′51″E / 14.93056°N 102.08083°E / 14.93056; 102.08083 (Korat RTAFB)
Pacific Air Forces (1964–1976)
Royal Thai Air Force (1955–1964; 1976–present)
Thirteenth Air Force (PACAF)
Occupants
United States Advisory Forces (1964–1965)
6234th Tactical Fighter Wing (Provisional) (1965–1966)
388th Tactical Fighter Wing (1966–1976)
354th Tactical Fighter Wing (Deployed Tennant) (1972–1974)
347th Tactical Fighter Wing (Tennant) (1974–1975)
IATA: VTUN
222 metres (728 ft) AMSL
Length and surface
6/24 9,843 yd (9,000 m) Concrete
Source: DAFIF[1]
During the Vietnam War, from 1962 to 1975, Korat RTAFB a front-line facility of the United States Air Force (USAF) in Thailand.
During the 1980s and early-1990s, the airfield was jointly operated as a civil airport for Nakhon Ratchasima. This ended with the opening of Nakhon Ratchasima Airport in the early-1990s.
UnitsEdit
Korat RTAFB is the home of the 1st RTAF Wing, consisting of three (101, 102, 103) squadrons. The airfield has a single 9,800 + foot runway with a single, full-length parallel taxiway.
102 Squadron flies 15 F-16A-15ADF and one F-16B-15ADF Fighting Falcon air defense airplanes acquired from the USAF and delivered to the RTAF in 2003 and 2004. These airplanes were acquired under the code name "Peace Naresuan IV".
103 Squadron flies eight F-16A and four F-16B acquired under the code name "Peace Naresuan I", five F-16A (of six delivered) under the code name "Peace Naresuan XI", and three F-16A and four F-16Bs acquired from the Republic of Singapore Air Force and delivered in late 2004. All F-16s are the block 15 version.
A detachment of 1 UH-1H Iroquois helicopters from 203 Squadron, Wing 2 is also based at Korat.
Cope TigerEdit
Korat RTAFB is a major facility for the Cope Tiger exercises, an annual, multinational exercise conducted in two phases in the Asia-Pacific region.
Cope Tiger involves air forces from the United States, Thailand, and Singapore, as well as U.S. Marine Corps aircraft deployed from Japan. US naval aircraft have also been involved in Cope Tiger. The flying training portion of the exercise promotes closer relations and enables air force units in the region to sharpen air combat skills and practice interoperability with US forces. Pilots fly both air-to-air and air-to-ground combat training missions.
Participating American aircraft have included the A-10 Thunderbolt II, F-15C/D Eagles, F-15E Strike Eagles, F/A-18A/C Hornets, F/A-18E/F Super Hornets, F-16C/D Fighting Falcons, E-3B/C Sentry Airborne Warning and Control Systems (AWACS) aircraft, KC-135 Stratotanker aerial refueling aircraft, C-130H Hercules airlift aircraft and HH-60G Pave Hawk helicopters.
Thai Forces fly F-16A/B Fighting Falcons, F-5E Tigers and ground attack L-39's, and Alpha Jets of 231 Squadron. Singaporean forces fly F-5Es, F-16C/D Fighting Falcons, KC-130B Hercules, E-2C Hawkeye, CH-47SD Chinooks and AS-532UL Cougars.
More than 1,100 people participate, including approximately 500 US service members and 600 service members from Thailand and Singapore.
Over the last few years, Cope Tiger has widened to include CSAR (Combat Search and Rescue) assets and in 2007 for the first time RTAFB Udon Thani was also used as a base during this exercise. These included a C-130E Hercules from 36 Airlift Squadron, 374 Airlift Wing (based at Yokota AB, Japan) in 2006, and a G-222 and a C-130H from the RTAF in 2007.
Since the 1980s United States Marine Corps F/A-18C Hornet fighters have used Korat as a base during Cobra Gold exercises.
1973 map of Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base (click on map for high resolution)
The origins of Korat Air Base dates back to the Japanese Occupation of Thailand during World War II. The Japanese Army established facilities on the land later used to build Korat Air Base, and a small support airfield was established there for logistics support of the facility and for the Japanese occupation forces in the area. After the end of the war, the facilities were taken over by the Thai government as a military base. Various Japanese facilities were used by the RTAF (including the airfield control tower) until the 1960s.
In 1961, the Kennedy administration feared a communist invasion or insurgency inside Thailand would spread from the Laotian Civil War. Political considerations with regards to the communist threat led the Thai government to allow the United States to covertly use five Thai bases for the air defense of Thailand and to fly reconnaissance flights over Laos under a "gentleman's agreement" with the United States. An advisory force of Army personnel was sent to Thailand and their first reports indicated that significant infrastructure improvement in the country would be needed in order for US forces to land in the Gulf of Siam and move north to the expected invasion areas along the Mekong River between Laos and Thailand.[2]
The United States Army Corps of Engineers were deployed and established a headquarters at the RTAF airfield that later became Korat RTAFB. The first facilities were built on the north side of the runway (14°56′22″N 102°04′59″E / 14.93944°N 102.08306°E / 14.93944; 102.08306 (Old Post)). They included a hospital, some barracks and some warehouses for equipment that was flown in using the existing runway.[2] Under the agreement, United States forces using Thai air bases were commanded by Thai officers. Thai air police controlled access to the bases, along with USAF Security Police, who assisted them in base defense using sentry dogs, observation towers, and machine gun bunkers. The Geneva Accords of 1962 ended the immediate threat, but both Camp Friendship and Korat RTAFB were developed as part of the buildup of forces in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War.[2]
The USAF mission at Korat RTAFB began in April 1962, when one officer and 14 airmen were temporarily assigned to the existing base as the joint US Military Advisory Group (JUSMAG). The army was engaged in the construction of Camp Friendship. Once completed, army forces moved into Camp Friendship, turning the facilities north of the Korat RTAFB runway over to the Thai armed forces.[3]
South of the existing runway, construction of a large air base was begun to support a full USAF combat wing. In July 1964, approximately 500 airmen and officers were deployed to begin construction, and the completion of essential base facilities was completed by October 1964, although due to its primitive nature, the air force living area was known for several years as "Camp Nasty" in counterpoint to the Army facility at Camp Friendship.[3] The army retained a portion of the aircraft parking ramp for logistical support of Camp Friendship. The APO for Korat RTAFB was APO San Francisco, 96288
US advisory forcesEdit
36th Tactical Fighter Squadron F-105D having MK-82 500 pound bombs being loaded prior to a mission, Korat, 1964
The first USAF units at Korat were under the command of the US Pacific Air Forces (PACAF). Korat was the location for TACAN station Channel 125 and was referenced by that identifier in voice communications during air missions. The mission of the USAF at Korat was to conduct operations in support of US commitments in Southeast Asia: North Vietnam, South Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. During the Vietnam War, pilots from Korat RTAFB primarily flew interdiction, direct air support, armed reconnaissance, and fighter escort missions.[3]
In mid-June 1964 2 HU-16s of the 33d Air Rescue Squadron were deployed to Korat to act as airborne rescue control ships in support of Yankee Team bombing operations over Laos.[4] They would remain at Korat until June 1965 when they were moved to Udorn RTAFB and then to Da Nang Air Base in South Vietnam and replaced at Korat by HC-54s.[4]:70
In response to the Gulf of Tonkin Incident on 31 July 1964, the 6441st Tactical Fighter Wing at Yokota Air Base, Japan deployed 8 F-105D Thunderchiefs of the 36th Tactical Fighter Squadron to Korat on 9 August and commenced operations the following day.[5] The 36th TFS remained at Korat until 29 October then returned to Japan. It was replaced by the 469th Tactical Fighter Squadron, also flying F-105Ds, which was deployed from the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing.[6] From 30 October through 31 December 1964, F-105s from the 80th Tactical Fighter Squadron were deployed from the 41st Air Division, Yokota AB, Japan.[3][7]
On 14 August 2 HH-43Bs were deployed to Korat to provide base search and rescue.[4]:53 In mid-1965 this unit was redesignated Detachment 4 38th Air Rescue Squadron.[4]:70
In December 1964, the 44th Tactical Fighter Squadron deployed to Korat from Kadena AB, Okinawa. The 44th would rotate pilots and personnel to Korat on a Temporary duty assignment (TDY) basis from 18 December 1964 – 25 February 1965, 21 April–22 June 1965 and 10–29 October 1965.[3][8]
The 44th TFS returned to Kadena AB, Okinawa and assignment to the 18th TFW, but on 31 December 1966, it became only a paper organization without aircraft. The high loss rate of the F-105s in the two combat wings at Korat and Takhli RTAFB required the squadron to send its aircraft to Thailand as replacement aircraft. The 44th remained a "paper organization" until 23 April 1967, when it returned to Korat, absorbing the personnel, equipment and resources of the 421st TFS.
6234th Tactical Fighter Wing (Provisional)Edit
18th Tactical Fighter Wing F-105s deploying to Korat RTAFB, Thailand 1965
67th TFS Republic F-105D-25-RE Thunderchief 61-0217 flown by Lt Col James Robinson Risner was flying this aircraft from Korat when he was shot down by anti-aircraft artillery on 16 September 1965
In April 1965, the 6234th Air Base Squadron was organized at Korat as a permanent unit under the 2d Air Division to support the TDY fighter units and their operations.[5]:147 This squadron was in existence until the end of April when it was discontinued and the 6234th Combat Support Group, the 6234th Support Squadron, and the 6234th Material Squadron were designated and organized as a result of a 3 May 1965 Pacific Air Forces (PACAF) special order.[3]
The 6234th Tactical Fighter Wing (Provisional) was activated in April 1965 as part of the 2d AD with Colonel William D. Ritchie, Jr. as commander. The wing had responsibility for all air force units in Thailand until permanent wings were established at other bases.[3]
Known deployed squadrons to Korat attached to the 6234th TFW were:
67th Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-105D) February-December 1965[3][9]
12th Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-105D) February-August 1965[3][10]
357th Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-105D) 12 June-8 November 1965 when it was reassigned to Takhli RTAFB.[11]
469th Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-105D) remained on TDY at Korat until 15 November 1965 when it was permanently assigned to the 6234th.[3]
68th Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-4C Phantom II) 25 July - 6 December 1965. This was part of the first deployment of the Phantom II to Southeast Asia, with two other squadrons (47th and 431st TFS) deploying to Ubon RTAFB. The squadron specialized in NIGHT OWL (night strike and flare) tactics and this was their main mission at Korat.[3][5]:182[12]
421st Tactical Fighter Squadron (F-105D) 20 November 1965 on.[3][13]
Wild Weasel Detachment (former 531st Tactical Fighter Squadron) (F-100F Super Sabre) November 1965 – July 1966.[14][5]:196
On 3 April 1965 the 67th TFS launched the first unsuccessful US airstrike against the Thanh Hóa Bridge.[15]
In 1965, the 6234th TFW and its subordinate units operating F-100s, F-105s, and F-4Cs flew 10,797 sorties totalling 26,165 hours. The wing's efforts merited the Presidential Unit Citation in March 1968.[3]
388th Tactical Fighter WingEdit
34th TFS F-105D Thunderchiefs of the 388th TFW undergo nighttime maintenance inside the big hangar at Korat in 1968. The large hangar sheltered the aircraft and its ground crews from intense tropical sunshine and heavy rains.
After a series of TDY deployments of F-105s to Korat, on 14 March 1966 the 388th Tactical Fighter Wing was activated and on 8 April was organised to replace the provisional PACAF 6234th TFW which was inactivated.[16]
By 1967, Korat RTAFB was home to as many as 34 operating units and about 6,500 USAF airmen. Korat also housed components of the RTAF and a detachment of No. 41 Squadron RNZAF New Zealand Bristol Freighters. The annual cost for base operations and maintenance was about US$12,000,000. The monthly average expenditure for munitions was on the order of US$4,360,000.
F-105 Thunderchief operationsEdit
The 388th TFW initially consisted of two F-105 Thunderchief squadrons, the 421st Tactical Fighter Squadron and the 469th Tactical Fighter Squadron. On 15 May 1966 the 44th Tactical Fighter Squadron was permanently attached to the 388th. The 421st and 469th Tactical Fighter Squadrons flew single-seat F-105Ds, while the 44th flew the two-seat F-105F.[3][16]
Approximately 50 F-105Ds on the flightline at Korat, 1 July 1968. KC-135s from U-Tapao are parked in the background
34th TFS F-105D 60-0518
Also on 15 May, an F-4C Phantom II squadron, the 34th Tactical Fighter Squadron[17] and an F-105F squadron, the 13th Tactical Fighter Squadron[18] were deployed and permanently attached to the 388th from the 347th TFW, Yokota AB, Japan and Kadena AB, Okinawa.[3]
The 388th TFW lost 48 aircraft in combat during 1967. Seven others were lost due to non-combat reasons. Forty-three pilots and electronic warfare officers (EWO) were listed as killed (KIA) or missing in action (MIA). Fifteen were rescued.[3]
In March 1967 F-105s from the 388th TFW carried out the first attacks on North Vietnam's Thái Nguyên ironworks, destroying its power plant on 16 March.[19] On 11 August 1967 388th TFW F-105s participated in the first attack on the Paul Doumer Bridge in Hanoi which successfully destroyed one span of the bridge.[19]:85
The high attrition rate of F-105Ds in Southeast Asian operations soon became a problem. The conversion of USAFE units to the F-4D Phantom enabled some of the European-based F-105Ds to be transferred to Southeast Asia, but this was not sufficient to offset the heavy attrition rate. On 23 April 1967, the 421st TFS was re-designated the 44th Tactical Fighter Squadron. In October 1967 the 44th TFS absorbed the mission and makeup of 13th TFS. The 13th was transferred to Udorn RTAFB to become an F-4D Phantom unit. Its aircraft and personnel were absorbed by the 44th TFS. With these re-organizations, the 44th TFS possessed both D and F model Thunderchiefs. The squadron's primary mission became one of flying escort to the wing's regular strike force to suppress anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) and surface-to-air missile (SAM).[3]
On 22 December 1967 President Lyndon Johnson visited Korat RTAFB, spending the night at the base.[19]:112-3
Wild WeaselsEdit
Further information: Wild Weasel
388th Tactical Fighter wing F-105F Wild Weasel aircraft, flying from Korat RTAFB, Thailand, 1972
F-105G (S/N 63-8320) of the 561st Tactical Fighter Squadron, 388th Tactical Fighter Wing, over Southeast Asia in the summer of 1972. Aircraft scored three MiG kills in Vietnam
A 67th TFS EF-4C over North Vietnam, 1972
The Wild Weasel concept was originally proposed in 1965 as a method of countering the increasing North Vietnamese SAM threat, using volunteer crews. The mission of the Wild Weasels was to eliminate SAM sites in North Vietnam.
In early 1966, standard F-105Ds with no special electronic countermeasures (ECM) equipment accompanied F-100 Wild Weasel I aircraft equipped with basic ECM equipment. In general, the F-100 would identify the SAM site and the F-105Ds would fly the strike.[5]:196-7 The mission gradually evolved with the addition of new weapons and ECM equipment until the F-4 replaced the F-100 and the F-105D was replaced by the more capable and specialized two-place F-105F and G models.[5]:269
F-105F/G Wild Weasel SAM Anti-Radar squadrons assigned to the 388th TFW were:
13th Tactical Fighter Squadron, 15 May 1966 (F-105F)[18]
Activated at Korat, aircraft being deployed from the 41st Air Division in Japan
Inactivated October 1967, aircraft assigned to 44th TFS.
Designation reassigned to 8th TFW, Udorn RTAFB and reequipped with F-4Ds.
Detachment 1, 12th Tactical Fighter Squadron[10]
Formed with F-105Fs transferred from inactivating 333d, 354th and 357th TFS at Takhli RTAB 24 September 1970, aircraft at Korat in TDY status from 18th TFW, Kadena AB, Okinawa
Re-designated: 6010th Wild Weasel Squadron and PCS to 388th TFW: 1 November 1970
Re-designated: 17th Wild Weasel Squadron: 1 December 1971 – 15 November 1974[20]
F-105G November 1970 – December 1974
Detachment 1, 561st Tactical Fighter Squadron[21]
TDY from George Air Force Base California, F-105G, 2 January – 5 September 1973
The tactics employed on the Iron Hand missions were primarily designed to suppress the SA-2 SAM and gun-laying radar defenses of North Vietnam during the ingress, attack, and egress of the main strike force. In the suppression role, AGM-45 Shrike missiles were employed to destroy, or at least harass, the SA-2 and/or fire control radar which guided the SA-2 missiles.
On 23 April 1967 the 44th TFS's primary mission became one of flying escort to the wing's regular strike force to suppress AAA and SAM fire as a Wild Weasel squadron.
The 12th TFS was equipped with the F-105G and was temporarily reassigned to Takhli in June 1967. The detachment returned to its main unit at Korat and the 44th TFS was returned to Korat in September 1970 from the 355th TFW to the 388th TFW when the decision was made to consolidate the units of the Wild Weasel mission. With their return, the 6010th Wild Weasel Squadron was formed. The squadron was redesignated the 17th Wild Weasel Squadron on 1 December 1971.
In February 1972, the 67th TFS returned on temporary duty to Korat from Kadena AB, this time being equipped with the EF-4C aircraft. The EF-4C was the initial Wild Weasel version of the Phantom. It was a modified version of the F-4C, designed in parallel with the F-105G Wild Weasel program. The EF-4Cs suffered from certain deficiencies which limited their combat effectiveness. For example, they were unable to carry the standard ARM. Consequently, the EF-4C was seen only as an interim Wild Weasel aircraft, pending the introduction of a more suitable type. In February 1973, after the end of combat operations in Vietnam, the 67th TFS with its EF-4C Wild Weasels were withdrawn and returned to Kadena.
F-4 Phantom II operationsEdit
McDonnell F-4E-32-MC Phantom of the 34th Tactical Fighter Squadron
469th TFS McDonnell F-4E Phantom 66–301
In mid-1968 it was decided to make the 388th an F-4 wing, and also to equip the 388th with the new F-4E and the F-105s would be transferred to Takhli and all of the F-105s in the fighter-bomber mission would be consolidated there. The Wild Weasels would remain at Korat along with the F-4s in their specialized mission.
On 17 November 1968, an F-4E squadron from Eglin AFB, Florida, replaced the single-seat F-105D Thunderchiefs of the 469th TFS. The new Phantom squadron, the first E-models in Thailand, retained the designation 469th TFS.
On 10 May 1969, the 34th Tactical Fighter Squadron was transferred organizationally to the 347th TFW at Yokota AB, Japan, but it remained attached to the 388th TFW at Korat. It was re-equipped with F-4Es on 5 July.
On 15 October 1969, the F-105-equipped 44th Tactical Fighter Squadron was transferred and reassigned to the 355th TFW at Takhli RTAFB.[16]:209
On 12 June 1972, the 35th Tactical Fighter Squadron flying F-4Ds was deployed from the 3rd TFW, Kunsan Air Base, South Korea, in a "Constant Guard" redeployment to support operations over North Vietnam during Operation Linebacker. They remained until 10 October 1972 when they returned to Korea.
College Eye Task ForceEdit
The College Eye facilities at Korat
An expansion of combat operations from Korat initiated with the arrival of EC-121 Warning Stars of the College Eye Task Force (later designated Det 1, 552d Airborne Early Warning and Control Wing) from Ubon RTAFB and EC-121R Batcats of the 553rd Reconnaissance Wing. The initial College Eye support team personnel arrived at Korat on 20 September 1967. Less than a month later, on 17 October the first seven EC-121D aircraft redeployed from Ubon, followed two days later by the arrival of the Batcat EC-121Rs.
The EC-121Ds provided airborne radar coverage and surveillance in support of aircraft flying combat operations. Combat reconnaissance missions of the 552d resumed on 25 November 1967. These missions normally required the aircraft to be on station for eight hours. Including transit time to and from station, an average flight was typically about 10 hours, and the force ranged between five and seven aircraft at any one time.
A College Eye EC-121D takes off from Korat with a Batcat EC-121R in the foreground
The mission of the 20 EC-121Rs was to detect and interdict the flow of supplies from North Vietnam down the Ho Chi Minh Trail to the People's Army of Vietnam and Viet Cong forces in South Vietnam. Their primary objective was to create an anti-vehicle barrier. If the vehicles could be stopped, then a major quantity of enemy supplies would be halted.
In November 1970, the 553d RW was inactivated. The 554th RS transferred to Nakhon Phanom RTAFB to operate QU-22 Baby Bats, while the 553rd RS remained at Korat with 11 Batcats until December 1971, when it returned to Otis AFB, Massachusetts.
Det. 1 remained at Korat until June 1970, when it left Thailand. It returned in November 1971, now known as Disco, after North Vietnamese MiGs threatened B-52s and other aircraft operating in southern Laos. It remained at Korat, supporting Operation Linebacker, Operation Linebacker II and other USAF operations, until 1 June 1974, when it returned to McClellan AFB, California.
B-66 Destroyer operationsEdit
Headquarters of the 42d Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron
Douglas RB/EB-66B-DL Destroyer of 42d Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron
EB-66s were transferred to Takhli RTAFB in late November 1965 and were used as electronic warfare aircraft, joining strike aircraft during their missions over North Vietnam to jam enemy radar installations. They were not Wild Weasel aircraft, since they did not have the means to attack radar installations directly.[5]:196
In September 1970, the 42nd Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron, which flew EB-66s, transferred to Korat from Takhli. The EB-66C/E flew radar and communications jamming missions to disrupt enemy defenses and early warning capabilities.[16]:209
On 2 April 1972, an EB-66C Bat 21 was shot down over South Vietnam near the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone during the Easter Offensive. Lt Col. Iceal Hambleton was the only crewmember able to eject, which set into motion an 11 1/2-day search and rescue operation.
Airborne command and control missionEdit
Lockheed C/EC-130E-LM Hercules Serial 62-1857 of the 7th ACCS at Korat, 10 May 1974
On 30 April 1972 the 7th Airborne Command and Control Squadron (ACCS) was assigned to the 388th TFW from Udon RTAFB and began flying missions in its EC-130E Hercules aircraft, which were equipped with command and control capsules.[16]:209[22]
The 7th ACCS played an important role in the conduct of air operations. The squadron had a minimum of two aircraft airborne 24 hours a day directing and coordinating the effective employment of tactical air resources throughout Southeast Asia. Its aircraft functioned as a direct extension of ground-based command and control authorities, the primary mission was providing flexibility in the overall control of tactical air resources. In addition, to maintain positive control of air operations, the 7th ACCS provided communications to higher headquarters. The battle staff was divided into four functional areas: command, operations, intelligence, and communications. Normally, it included 12 members working in nine different specialties. Radio call signs for these missions were Moonbeam, Alleycat, Hillsboro and Cricket.
A-7D Corsair IIEdit
A-7Ds of the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing at Korat, 1972
3d Tactical Fighter Squadron A-7D Corsair II 70-0983 and 71-0311 in flight
On 29 September 1972, the 354th Tactical Fighter Wing, based at Myrtle Beach AFB South Carolina, deployed 72 A-7D Corsair II of the 353rd,[23] 354th,[24] 355th[25] and the 356th Tactical Fighter Squadrons to Korat for a 179-day TDY. By mid-October, 1,574 airmen from Myrtle Beach had arrived as part of "Constant Guard IV".[16]:188
In addition to strike missions during Operations Linebacker and Linebacker II, A-7Ds of the 354th assumed the combat search and rescue "Sandy" role from the A-1 Skyraider in November 1972 when the remaining Skyraiders were transferred to the Republic of Vietnam Air Force.[4]:125
In March 1973 A-7D aircraft were drawn from the deployed 354th TFW squadrons and assigned to the 388th TFW as the 3d Tactical Fighter Squadron. Some TDY personnel from the 354th TFW were assigned to the 388th and placed on permanent party status.
The 354th TFW Forward Echelon at Korat also became a composite wing. Along with the Myrtle Beach personnel, elements of the 355th Tactical Fighter Wing from Davis-Monthan AFB Arizona were deployed to support the A-7D aircraft, being replaced by A-7Ds from the 23d Tactical Fighter Wing from England AFB. These airmen rotated on 179-day assignments (the limit for TDY assignments) to Korat from these continental United States bases until early 1974.
In March 1972 the 39th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron moved to Korat from Cam Ranh Air Base. The unit was dissolved on 1 April being temporarily redesignated Detachment 4, 3rd Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Group before being redesignated as the 56th Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Squadron on 8 July and absorbing the HH-43 detachment at Korat.[4]:115
1973 operations in Laos and CambodiaEdit
The Paris Peace Accords were signed on 27 January 1973 by the governments of North Vietnam, South Vietnam, and the United States with the intent to establish peace in Vietnam. The accords effectively ended United States military operations in North and South Vietnam. Laos and Cambodia, however, were not signatories to the Paris agreement and remained in states of war.
The US was helping the Royal Lao Government achieve whatever advantage possible before working out a settlement with the Pathet Lao and their allies. The USAF flew 386 combat sorties over Laos during January and 1,449 in February 1973. On 17 April, the USAF flew its last mission over Laos, attacking a handful of targets requested by the Laotian government.
In Cambodia the USAF carried out a massive bombing campaign to prevent the Khmer Rouge from taking over the country.
Congressional pressure in Washington grew against these bombings, and on 30 June 1973, the United States Congress passed Public law PL 93-50 and 93-52, which cut off all funds for combat in Cambodia and all of Indochina effective 15 August 1973. Air strikes by the USAF peaked just before the deadline, as the Khmer National Armed Forces engaged a force of about 10,000 Khmer Rouge encircling Phnom Penh.
At 11:00 15 August 1973, the Congressionally-mandated cutoff went into effect, bringing combat activities over the skies of Cambodia to an end. A-7 and F-4s from Korat flew strike missions sometimes less than 16 km (10 mi) from Phnom Penh that morning before the cutoff. The final day marked the conclusion of an intense 160-day campaign, during which the USAF expended 240,000 tons of bombs. At Korat, two A-7D pilots from the 354th TFW returned from flying the last USAF combat mission over Cambodia.
Consolidation and inactivationEdit
See also: Operation Eagle Pull, Fall of Saigon, Operation Frequent Wind, and Mayagüez incident
428th Tactical Fighter Squadron General Dynamics F-111A 67-0075 carrying practice bombs taxiing at Korat RTAFB, Thailand, September 1974
AC-130 Spectre gunship of the 16th Special Operations Squadron flying from Korat RTAFB, Thailand, July 1974
Korat RTAFB A-7D F-111 on Alert Ramp during SS Mayaguez Operation, May 1975
With the end of active combat in Indochina on 15 August 1973, the USAF began drawing down its Thailand-based units and closing its bases.
The 388th TFW entered into intensive training program to maintain combat readiness and continued to fly electronic surveillance and intelligence missions. The F-4 and A-7 aircraft practiced bombing and intercept missions in western Thailand. A large exercise was held on the first Monday of every month, involving all USAF units in Thailand. Commando Scrimmage covered skills such as dogfighting, aerial refuelling, airborne command posts and forward air controllers.[4]:135 The A-7D aircraft were pitted against the F-4 aircraft in dissimilar air combat exercises. These missions were flown as a deterrent to North Vietnam as a signal that if the Paris Peace Accords were broken, the United States would use its air power to enforce its provisions.
A drawdown of forces in Thailand was announced in mid-1974. With the closure of Takhli RTAFB the 347th Tactical Fighter Wing and 428th Tactical Fighter Squadron and the 429th Tactical Fighter Squadron each equipped with the F-111 were moved to Korat on 12 July 1974. Later that month, the 16th Special Operations Squadron equipped with AC-130 Spectre gunships was moved to Korat from Ubon RTAFB.[26]
On 15 March 1974, the EB-66s of the 42nd Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron were sent to AMARC and the squadron was inactivated.
The 354th Tactical Fighter Wing ended its rotating deployments to Korat on 23 May 1974 and returned its A-7D squadrons (353rd and 355th TFS) and aircraft to Myrtle Beach Air Force Base.
The EC-130s and personnel of 7th ACCS were transferred to the 374th Tactical Airlift Wing at Clark Air Base, Philippines on 22 May 1974.
The 552nd AEW&C returned to McClellan AFB California in June 1974, ending the College Eye mission.
On 15 November 1974, the F-105F/G's of the 17th WWS were withdrawn and transferred to the 562d TFS/35 TFW at George Air Force Base, California.
The wars in Cambodia and Laos, however continued. With the political changes in the US during 1974, and the resignation of President Nixon, the air power of the United States at its Thailand bases did not respond to the collapse of the Lon Nol government to the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia during April 1975 nor to the takeover of Laos by the Pathet Lao. Ultimately, the North Vietnamese invasion of South Vietnam during March and April 1975 and the collapse of the Republic of Vietnam also was not opposed militarily by the US.
The only missions flown were aircraft of the 388th TFW providing air cover and escort during Operation Eagle Pull, the evacuation of Americans from Phnom Penh, Cambodia and Operation Frequent Wind the evacuation of Americans and at-risk Vietnamese from Saigon, South Vietnam.[4]:139
On 14–15 May 1975, aircraft assigned to Korat provided air cover in what is considered the last battle of the VietnamWwar, the recovery of the SS Mayaguez after it was hijacked by the Khmer Rouge.[4]:154
With the fall of both Cambodia and South Vietnam in April 1975,[27] the political climate between Washington and the government of PM Sanya Dharmasakti had soured. Immdiately after the news broke of the use of Thai bases to support the Mayaguez rescue the Thai Government lodged a formal protest with the US and riots broke out outside the US Embassy in Bangkok.[28] The Thai government wanted the US out of Thailand by the end of the year. The USAF implemented Palace Lightning, to withdraw its aircraft and personnel from Thailand.
On 30 June 1975, the 347th TFW F-111As and the 428th and 429th TFS were inactivated. The F-111s were sent to the 422d Fighter Weapons Squadron at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada. The 347th became an F-4E wing at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia.
In late 1975, there were only three combat squadrons at Korat, consisting of 24 F-4Ds of the 34th TFS, 24 A-7Ds of the 3rd TFS, and six AC-130H "Spectre" aircraft of the 16th Special Operations Squadron. The 34th TFS shut down, and flew their aircraft to Hill AFB, Utah, in December of that year.
The 16th Special Operations Squadron transferred to Hurlburt Field, Florida on 12 December 1975
The 3rd Tactical Fighter Squadron was transferred to Clark AB, Philippines on 15 December
On 23 December 1975, the 388th TFW and its remaining squadron, the 34th TFS, transferred to Hill AFB, Utah.[16]:210
After the departure of the 388th TFW, the USAF retained a small flight of security police at Korat to provide base security and to deter theft of equipment until the final return of the base to the Thai Government.
The USAF officially turned Korat over to the Thai Government on 26 February 1976.
Other major USAF units assignedEdit
Det. 17, 601st Photo Flight (MAC), (HQ - 600th Photo Squadron)
1998th Communications Squadron (Tenant AFCS)
American Forces Thailand Network (Tenant AFRTS)
Detachment 7, 6922 Security Wing
RTAF use after 1975Edit
After the US withdrawal in 1976, the RTAF consolidated the equipment left by the departing USAF units in accordance with government-to-government agreements, and assumed use of the base at Korat. The American withdrawal had quickly revealed to the Thai Government the inadequacy of its air force in the event of a conventional war in Southeast Asia. Accordingly, in the 1980s the government allotted large amounts of money for the purchase of modern aircraft and spare parts.
A Royal Thai Air Force Northrop F-5E Tiger II (USAF s/n 76-1673) taxies on the flight line at Korat
Thirty-eight F-5E and F-5F Tiger II fighter-bombers formed the nucleus of the RTAF's defense and tactical firepower. The F-5Es were accompanied by training teams of American civilian and military technicians, who worked with members of the RTAF.
In addition to the F-5E and F-5F fighter-bombers, OV-10C counter-insurgency aircraft, transports, and helicopters were added to the RTAF inventory. In 1985 the United States Congress authorized the sale of the F-16 fighter to Thailand.
By the late 1980s, Korat, Takhli, and Don Muang RTAFB outside Bangkok, which was shared with civil aviation, were the primary operational holdings of the RTAF. Maintenance of the facilities at other bases abandoned by the United States (Ubon, Udorn) proved too costly and exceeded Thai needs and were turned over to the Department of Civil Aviation for civil use. Nakhon Phanom and U-Tapao were placed under the control of the Royal Thai Navy. Nonetheless, all runways on the closed or transferred airfields were still available for military training and emergency use.
Camp Friendship (United States Army)Edit
Emblem of USARSUPTHAI
Emblem of the 44th Engineer Group (Construction)
Adjacent to Korat RTAFB to the south was United States Army Camp Friendship. It was a separate facility which pre-dated Korat RTAFB.[29]
Camp Friendship was the home of Headquarters, United States Army Support, Thailand (USARSUPTHAI), part of the Army Military Assistance Command Thailand (MACTHAI). The facility was initially set up as a forward operating base for equipment storage of the 25th Infantry Division, which would have deployed to Thailand in the event of invasion. The USAF would be able to airlift the division into Korat where they could pick up their equipment and move into battle.[2]
The host unit was the 44th Engineer Group (Construction), part of the 9th Logistics Command.[29] It was a large facility (larger than Korat RTAFB) complete with support offices, barracks for about 4,000 personnel, enlisted, NCO, and officer clubs, a motor pool, a large hospital, athletic fields, and other facilities. It was assigned APO San Francisco 96233.[30]
Its mission was to build roads and a support (logistics) network in support of US Army and USAF operations in Thailand by executing the troop construction portion of the military construction program, performing engineer reconnaissance, and accomplishing civil action projects as resources permitted.[29][31] The group constructed the Bangkok By-Pass Road, a 95 km asphalt highway between Chachoengsao and Kabin Buri, which was opened in February 1966. For their performance in the construction of this road (now Route 303), the 809th Engineer Battalion (Construction) and the 561st Engineer Company (Construction) were awarded Meritorious Unit Commendations.[30]
As soon as the Bangkok bypass road paving was completed, Company B moved to Sattahip to begin construction of Camp Vayama, a 1,000-man troop cantonment area which would eventually become part of a vast port and logistical complex.[30] Joined by Company C in the later part of May, construction continued. In August, the main portion of Company C was moved to Sakon Nakon where it built a troop cantonment area, a special forces camp, and a POL tank farm at Nakom Phanom (NKP) in support of the air force.[30]
Camp Friendship – Headquarters 1968
Camp Friendship viewed from the air in 1964 with Korat Air Base at the top of the photo, however much of the support base is not yet constructed
General map of Camp Friendship (14°54′44″N 102°04′42″E / 14.91222°N 102.07833°E / 14.91222; 102.07833 (Camp Friendship))
70th Aviation Detachment (Army) Parking Ramp at Korat RTAFB
Basketball court and a mess hall, looking northeast at Benning Ave and Bataan Drive, 1970
Barracks at Camp Friendship, part of a group of five "H-type" open bay design south of Bataan Drive used by the air force in 1973
On 3 January 1967, Company C returned to Phanom Sarakam to begin work on the "inland road", a 122-kilometer, all-weather highway which would connect the Port of Sattahip with the Bangkok bypass road.[30] Upon its completion, the inland road became a vital contribution to the economic development of Thailand and served as an important link in the supply and communication lines between the Gulf of Siam and northeast Thailand.[30]
In 1970, the 44th Engineer Group was inactivated in Thailand as part of the draw down of United States forces in Southeast Asia. Camp Friendship closed as a separate facility in 1971 and much of the facility was turned over to the Royal Thai Army. After its closure, the USAF retained some barracks and personnel support facilities. The 388th Tactical Fighter Wing used those parts of Camp Friendship for overflow of personnel assigned or deployed to it until the USAF turned Korat Air Base over to the RTAF in early 1976.[30]
Today, Camp Friendship is a Royal Thai Army artillery base. Some of the old US facilities are still in use, and some new construction has also been erected.
Major organizations assigned to Camp Friendship were
HHC 9th Logistics
HHC USARSUPTHAI
HQ 809th Engineer Battalion
HQ USARSUPTHAI Liaison
US Embassy Attache Office
USARSUPTHAI
USASTRATCOM SIG Battalion
USASCCCCA
7th Airlift Platoon
7th MAINT Battalion, Direct Support 1965–71
9th Logistical Command HHD Logistics Support 1963–70
9th Logistics Pad 55/56
13th MP Company, Separate 1969–73
21st MED Depot Medical 1967–70
28th Signal Company
31st MED Field Hospital 1962–70
33rd Transportation TC
35th Finance Sec Disb
40th MP Battalion, Military Police Support 1967–70
41st ORD Company, Direct Ammunition Support 3/1966-9/1966
44th Engineer Group, HHC/HHD Construction 1962–70
46th Special Forces (SF)
57th MAINT Company, Direct Support 1963–71
57th Ordinance Company DS
70th Aviation Detachment
93rd Psyops Co
133rd MED Group, HHD Medical Support 1968–70
172nd Transportation Detachment
219th MP Company, Physical Security 1966–71
256th AG Company Personnel 1967–71
260th Transportation Company TC
270th Ordnance Detachment
281st MP Company
291st Transportation Company TC
331st Sup Co (SUP-DEP) *1964–66*
331st Supply Depot
379th Signal Battalion
428th MED Battalion, HHD Medical Support 1966–68
442nd Signal Battalion 1967–71
501st Field Depot
513th MP Det
519th Transportation Battalion
528th Engineer Detachment (Utilities) *change (28 August 2011)
538th Engineer Battalion, Construction 1965–70
558th Supply Company
561st Engineer Company (Construction)
590th Supply & Service (DS)
590th QM Company (DS) 1964–65
593rd EN Company, Construction 6/1963-8/1963
597th MAINT Company, Direct Support 1966–69
697th EN Company, Pipeline Construction Support 1965–69
720th Military Police Battalion
738th Engineer Support Company, Supply Point *1963–65*
809th Engineer Battalion
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Camp Friendship (United States Army).
United States Air Force in Thailand
United States Pacific Air Forces
Seventh Air Force
Thirteenth Air Force
This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency website http://www.afhra.af.mil/.
^ Airport information for VTUN at World Aero Data. Data current as of October 2006.Source: DAFIF.
^ a b c d "History of US Army Support Command Thailand (USARSUPTHAI)".
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q "Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, Historical Brief" (PDF). HQ, United States Air Force, Pacific Air Forces.
^ a b c d e f g h i Tilford, Earl (1980). Search and Rescue in Southeast Asia 1961–1975 (PDF). Office of Air Force History. p. 50. ISBN 9781410222640.
^ a b c d e f g Van Staaveren, Jacob (2002). Gradual Failure: The Air War over North Vietnam 1965–1966 (PDF). Air Force History and Museums Program. p. 50. ISBN 9781508779094.
^ "469 Flying Training Squadron (AETC)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 21 June 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ "80 Fighter Squadron (PACAF)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 20 December 2007. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ "44 Fighter Squadron (PACAF)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 18 October 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ a b "12 Fighter Squadron (PACAF)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 2 January 2008. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ "357 Fighter Squadron (ACC)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 4 December 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ "68 Fighter Squadron". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 9 April 2008. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ "421 Fighter Squadron". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 19 March 2008. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ YGBSM "The Story Of The First U.S. SAM-Hunters in Vietnam" Check |url= value (help). Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ Lavalle, A.J.C. (1985). The tale of two bridge and the battle for the skies over North Vietnam (PDF). Office of Air Force History. p. 31-5. ISBN 9781475060553.
^ a b c d e f g Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984) (1984). Air Force Combat Wings Lineage and Honors Histories 1947–1977 (PDF). Office of Air Force History. p. 209-10. ISBN 0912799129.
^ "34 Fighter Squadron". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 10 December 2007. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ a b "13 Fighter Squadron (PACAF)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 11 October 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ a b c Thompson, Wayne (2000). To Hanoi and Back The United States Air Force and North Vietnam 1966–1973 (PDF). Air Force History and Museums Program. p. 57-8. ISBN 978-1410224712.
^ "17 Weapons Squadron (ACC)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 4 January 2008. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ "7th Airborne Command and Control Squadron". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 8 January 2008. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ "353rd Combat Training Squadron". Eielson Air Force Base. 9 June 2009. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ "354 Fighter Squadron (ACC)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 7 October 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ "355 Fighter Squadron". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 2 August 2017. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ "16 Special Operations Squadron (AFSOC)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. 17 October 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
^ "U.S. to begin pullout of troops from Thailand". Miami News. 5 May 1975. p. 2A.
^ Wetterhahn, Ralph (2002). The Last Battle: The Mayaguez Incident and the end of the Vietnam War. Plume. p. 256. ISBN 0452283337.
^ a b c Vietnam Order of Battle © – Shelby L. Stanton
^ a b c d e f g "44th Engineer Group website".
^ "44th Engineer Group inactivation orders, January, 1970".
^ "Camp Friendship Unit Listing".
Endicott, Judy G. Active Air Force wings as of 1 October 1995; USAF active flying, space, and missile squadrons as of 1 October 1995. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History, 1999. CD-ROM.
Glasser, Jeffrey D. The Secret Vietnam War: The United States Air Force in Thailand, 1961–1975. McFarland & Company, 1998. ISBN 0-7864-0084-6.
Martin, Patrick. Tail Code: The Complete History of USAF Tactical Aircraft Tail Code Markings. Schiffer Military Aviation History, 1994. ISBN 0-88740-513-4.
Logan, Don. The 388th Tactical Fighter Wing: At Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, 1972. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing, 1997. ISBN 0-88740-798-6.
USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers—1908 to present
The Royal Thai Air Force (English Pages)
Royal Thai Air Force – Overview
Official site of 1st Wing, RTAF
Photos Of Camp Friendship – US Army Support Command, Thailand
My 1966–67 photos on base and off base action.
Retaking The Mayagüez – The final battle of the Vietnam War
Official Royal Thai Air Force Website
Hill AFB, Utah. Home of the 388th FW
The Vietnam War Years of Korat Royal Thai Air Base website
Korat Air Base Thailand and Camp Friendship 1965–1970 (Video)
Life on Korat AFB (Video)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Korat_Royal_Thai_Air_Force_Base&oldid=904585866"
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Scoop (website)
Scoop.co.nz is a New Zealand internet news site run by Scoop Media Limited, part of the Scoop Media Cartel.[1]
Scoop logo
Scoop Media Limited
Alastair Thompson
www.scoop.co.nz
489 (New Zealand, 01/2016)
1999; 20 years ago (1999)
Operational modelEdit
The website publishes a large number of submitted news and press releases due to their permissive policy. Their website states: "If it's a press release issued in New Zealand, is legible, legal, sane, not hateful and not defamatory we will most probably publish it."[2]
In addition to being a general news website, Scoop also contains sub-sites with specific foci: Wellington.scoop, which aggregates Wellington-specific news with editorial comment, and also Pacific.scoop which publishes Pacific-related news and is edited by Auckland University of Technology's Pacific Media Centre.
As of March 2012, the website claimed to receive 246,500 visitors and 614,500 page impressions per month.[3] Scoop was ranked 3rd by Nielsen Net Ratings in their News Category.[citation needed]
It was established in 1999 by Andrew McNaughton, Ian Llewellyn and Alastair Thompson.[4]
In 2003, The Guardian wrote about the graphic images from the war in Iraq that were being published on Scoop, and described Scoop as "left wing".[5]
Involvement with the Internet PartyEdit
Alastair Thompson resigned as Scoop's chief executive and editor on 15 January 2014 after it became known that he was to be the general secretary of the Internet Party. He also resigned as an associate member of the parliamentary press gallery, whose rules forbid members from lobbying for a political party,[6][7] and as a steering committee member of the Aotearoa New Zealand Foundation for Public Interest Journalism (formerly the Scoop Foundation project).[8] His resignation as interim general secretary of the Internet Party was then announced soon after, on 24 January.[8][9] By 3 February Thompson had returned to Scoop, though not as Editor, and it was announced that journalist Gordon Campbell, who writes a column on the website, had been appointed editor of Scoop.[10][11] On 5 March 2014 it was announced that Thompson had been reappointed as Editor, and Campbell had become Political Editor.[12][13]
AwardsEdit
Scoop has won several awards for their work as a news organisation, including three NZ Net awards in 2001, and two Computerworld awards (in 2003 and 2005).[4] Scoop was also recognised in the Qantas Media Awards as a finalist for "Best News Site" in 2007.[14][15]
^ "Welcome". Scoop Media Ltd. 2012. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
^ "Submit News to Scoop". Scoop.co.nz. Retrieved 30 January 2014.
^ "Advertising Sites". Scoop Media Cartel. Retrieved 30 January 2014.
^ a b "A Brief History". scoop.co.nz. Retrieved 30 January 2014.
^ Dodson, Sean (21 August 2003). "Brutal reality hits home". London: The Guardian. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
^ Bennett, Adam (15 January 2014). "Editor resigns to work with Dotcom party". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
^ Vance, Andrea (16 January 2014). "Journo quits over link to Dotcom party". Stuff. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
^ a b Keall, Chris (25 January 2014). "Thompson quits as Internet Party general secretary". National Business Review. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
^ "Alastair Thompson resigns from Internet Party role". Scoop. 24 January 2014. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
^ Young, Victoria (3 February 2014). "New editor for Scoop". National Business Review. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
^ "Scoop.co.nz gains new Editor: Gordon Campbell". Scoop.co.nz. 3 February 2014. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
^ "Statement From Scoop Media Limited". Scoop. 5 March 2014. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
^ Drinnan, John (7 March 2014). "Pirate doco kept waiting". The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 6 February 2015.
^ "Scoop Media Network Scoops Qantas Media Web Awards". Scoop News Press Release. 22 May 2007. Retrieved 15 March 2017.
^ "Qantas Media Awards 2007". Qantas Media Awards. 2007. Archived from the original on 21 May 2007. Retrieved 15 March 2017.
Scoop – New Zealand News
Scoop on Twitter
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scoop_(website)&oldid=862828401"
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Nomination statement for Mr. James A. Stevenson , recipient of the Florida Chapter of The Wildlife Society's 2006 Herbert W. Kale, II Award:
Mr. James A. Stevenson earned his Bachelor's degree in zoology from the University of South Florida in 1969. Even while gaining his baccalaureate degree, Mr. Stevenson had already begun his career with the now Department of Environmental Protection (DEP)—serving as Park Ranger at Hillsborough River State Park. After graduation, he began his exemplary rise within the ranks of DEP: Chief Naturalist in 1969; Chief, Bureau of Park Programs in 1982; Chief, Bureau of Historic and Environmental Land Management in 1985; Chief, Bureau of Scientific and Technical Services in 1985; Chief, Resource Management in 1989; Chief, Public Lands Management in 1994; and Florida Springs Coordinator in 1999. Thus, Mr. Stevenson has been the major player in designing the template for the management of natural and cultural resources in Florida's park system, which is the second largest state park system in the United States.
Although Mr. Stevenson 's accomplishments in conserving Florida's land, water, and wildlife resources are too numerous to enumerate, we would be remiss if we did not identify what we believe are really notable contributions. First, and what many of Florida's conservationists probably do n o t fully understand, is that Mr. Stevenson was the first “champion” of summer or lightning season prescribed fire in Florida and the Southeast. He implemented lightning season burning in Florida's state parks in 1982. His illustrated lecture on lightning season fire, which he must have presented hundreds of times throughout the state, was so convincing that one wanted to run out and buy matches before the lecture was finished. Now, lightning season burning is a practiced land management technique. A second and more recent major contribution has been Mr. Stevenson 's leadership in protecting Florida's springs. In a few short years, he has brought the protection of springs to the forefront of conservation needs at both governmental and public levels. And, even though he has retired, he is still continues his DEP role of coordinating working groups for the purpose of protecting the waters flowing into Florida's springs. In 2003, in recognition of his monumental contributions to Florida's natural resources, Governor Bush and the Cabinet dedicated the “ Jim Stevenson Resource Manager of the Year Award , ” and DEP named a spring on the Suwannee River “Stevenson Spring.”
Mr. Stevenson 's contributions in an advisory capacity are also legend. To illustrate, in addition to his DEP responsibilities, he has served on, among others, the Board of Trustees of Tall Timbers Research Station, North Florida Prescribed Fire Council, Florida Land Management Council, Florida Non Game Wildlife Advisory Council, Florida Panther Technical Subcommittee, University of Florida School of Forest Resources and Conservation Advisory Board, and Manatee Habitat Protection Working Group.
The Herbert W. Kale , II Award was created by the Florida Chapter of The Wildlife Society , to recognize individuals for significant contributions to the conservation of Florida's natural resources. Mr. Stevenson is one of those individuals. His accomplishments illustrate what heart, mind, dedication, and diplomacy can achieve in our profession.
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Weston Minissali of Erica Eso on Writing Honest Music, Even if It Is Microtonal
February 22, 2018 by Patrick McGuire
Welcome back to Soundfly’s weekly interview series, Incorrect Music, curated by guitarist, singer, and composer Lora-Faye Åshuvud (of the band Arthur Moon). In this series, we present intimate conversations with artists who are striving to push the boundaries of their process and craft.
Erica Eso composer Weston Minissali loves music that’s performed so wholeheartedly that it sounds “like it’s just short of crumbling, not necessarily because it’s sloppy, but because it’s such a momentary expression you never know what’s going to come next.” The New York-based band’s forthcoming release, 129 Dreamless GMG, is a gesture towards capturing this brand of fickle energy in the recorded medium. Microtonal synthesizer arrangements and frenetic drum performances rub against vocal deliveries that lilt and sway at the edge of restraint. Minissali calls this place “the cusp.”
I saw Erica Eso when my band split a bill with them last year and was floored by drummer Rhonda Lowry’s ability to both subvert and uplift Minissali’s compositions.
Erica Eso is music for the tense breath before release, music with the elastic potential energy of an extended spring. Their forthcoming LP, 129 Dreamless GMG, is out on March 16 via NNA Tapes and you can check them out live on tour in March to see what I mean.
– Lora-Faye Åshuvud
Interview by Patrick McGuire
Where did the title for the album come from?
It’s just a title that resonates with what I’m trying to say musically and lyrically on the album. I also wanted a name that morphed the title of our first album 2019.
The last song on the album, “House That’s Always Burning,” blends avant-garde compositional elements with conventional pop music seamlessly. How do songs like this typically come together, piece by piece?
This song began under some pretty specific circumstances. After I wrote 2019 but before I put a band together and released it, I attended a six-week silent meditation retreat. You’re not exactly supposed to, and I wouldn’t do it again now, but at that time in my life I just had to write music — in my head and on paper. I started to think about my next album and how I wanted it to flow naturally from my previous work. The chorus on “House That’s Always Burning” was actually constructed in harmony with a hook from my first record from the song “One Hundred Years.” You can hear it being sung towards the end of the song.
That was the starting point, and from there it was a matter of writing music that fit the attitude I wanted to capture. For me, composing music is always a dialogue between the general spirit I’m going for and the nuts and bolts of which notes, rhythms, instruments, and dynamics to implement. The latter is so crucial but somehow feels secondary to me.
Is there an intended connection to be made between your manic soundscapes, lyrics, and the increasingly fraught state of America?
“Intended” might not be the word I’d use, but it is certainly a result, or in dialogue with the fraught state of America. More than anything, I’m just trying to write music that feels honest and from a genuine place. And whether or not I’m successful, I’m definitely somehow reflecting the very real kleptocracy of which we find ourselves currently in the throws. But more important to me than reflecting the appearances of our society, I hope the music somehow speaks to our collective longing deep down to be whole and loving.
‘129 Dreamless GMG’ by Erica Eso
Can you talk a bit about your approach to lyricism in your music?
My process for writing lyrics is kind of mysterious to me. I’m not sure how it happens. And I suppose if I really thought about how I composed anything at all, I wouldn’t really be able to put a finger on it either. But the mystery of lyrics is a bit more pronounced because it’s relatively new to me.
I know that I jot down ideas in a small black notebook. They tend to be short phrases. Then usually those words either fit with a pre-existing melodic fragment, or the words themselves suggest a musical phrase, and then I expand from there. I rarely write one entirely without the other. The two elements, word and music, kind of tumble along, pick up other phrases, develop, collide, erode, build, and so forth. A lot of it has to do with having a starting point and then listening for a cue for where to guide things from there. I honestly view melodies and words as one thing.
Two of my closest friends are poets, and I’m mortified whenever I send them lyrics! Seeing them on a page, void of melody, they just lose their meaning.
What instruments and compositional techniques do you use to produce the “microtonal” elements in your music?
I don’t know how much I can say about compositional techniques. I just write what sounds right, and if I don’t know how to get what sounds right, I study and hopefully it brings me closer. As I alluded to before, a lot of my process is trying to maintain clarity of the overall feel and then employing techniques as a means to carve out that feeling.
Instrument-wise, we tune our synthesizers three ways: quarter-tone (24 notes to the octave), eighth-tone (48 notes to an octave), and normal equal temperament. Our bass player, Nathaniel Morgan, plays a fretless, so he can grab in-between notes as well.
“For me, composing music is always a dialogue between the general spirit I’m going for and the nuts and bolts of which notes, rhythms, instruments, and dynamics to implement. The latter is so crucial but somehow feels secondary to me.”
Can you describe Erica Eso’s relationship with technology? Your music seems to simultaneously embrace and shun it in really interesting ways. (By that I mean that the album has a “live” feel, but there are synthesized, ethereal passages that take you out of that space throughout.)
Ooh, that’s an interesting observation. Finding an alignment with technology that feels right is probably on a lot of people’s minds… (I just got a flip phone!)
I first came to the synthesizer as a kind of sonic explorer; I was just endlessly inspired at discovering new sounds. Since starting Erica Eso, my interests have shifted to having a more or less fixed sonic pallet that I’m committed to. Are the synthesizer, microtonality, and pop the perfect equation for my pure musical expression? No. Nor do I believe in such a thing. The synthesizer, for various reasons, just happens to be my instrument, and I’m committed to it.
A big question for me is how much computer to integrate in the compositional process. I’m not sure I want to be composing music on the same thing I write emails and read news on. But I feel somewhat addicted to demoing and figuring out ideas in software programs. It’s a work in progress. I’m still looking for that alignment.
But having a live band was always the intention. I wouldn’t have it any other way. I just love playing in a band and collaborating with other people. It’s just what I’ve always done. A big difference between this record and our last is that our drummer, Rhonda Lowry, plays on every track. She’s been a huge influence on the project all along. Recently someone came up to us after a show and said we were like a pop band with post-punk drumming. I loved that comment, because I may be “the composer” or whatever, but bringing the post-punk feel is all Rhonda. What that audience member picked up on is something really subtle, but a big part of what it means to be a band with collective and personal histories coming together.
The same goes for everyone in our band. I’m just in awe of them and feel so blessed to be working with them. Nathaniel Morgan and I have been making music intimately for eight years. He’s an absolutely incredible and uncompromising improvising alto saxophone player. Whenever one of his friends sees us play, they say, “I had no idea he played bass!” Angelica Bess and Lydia Velichkovski are the two newest members who I’m so excited to be working with. My biggest compositional goal right now is to just get to know them and try to understand what they’re inspired by, and hopefully find a way to bring that to light in Eso.
With so much of your music being written and recorded on synthesizers, are there any added challenges to performing live as Erica Eso? How much translates from your records to your live performances?
Playing microtonal keyboard parts, Lydia and I have had to relearn the keyboard. But Lydia is so talented that it hasn’t seemed to be too much of an issue for her! Since there are 24 or 48 notes to the octave, it takes two hands just to play a simple triad.
At this point we can play the songs and live arrangements well, but the degree to which we really lock in and are listening to one another and acting as one sound never stops. That’s an ambition that just keeps on going.
“The last thing Brooklyn needs is another cool, tight, clever, pretty good, homogenous indie band. We need to take risks and be on the cusp and be dreaming harder than we’ve ever dreamt.”
At Soundfly, we love to use the term “Incorrect Music” to describe the things an artist does that go against people’s assumptions, or even their own instincts, but which yield exciting and unique results. What about your music might you consider to be “incorrect”?
I think what you might be pointing towards with “Incorrect Music” is what I view as a kind of cusp. When the music feels on the very edge of something, a kind of urgency and passion is communicated. We’ve all seen an obviously very talented and practiced musician halfheartedly play their parts. That’s so boring! Much more important to me is seeing, or being, the musician who’s putting their everything into what they’re doing. Playing the compositions, but having it sound like it’s just short of crumbling — not necessarily because it’s sloppy, but because it’s such a momentary expression, you never know what’s going to come next.
Do you have any advice for young artists?
My advice to a younger artist is: don’t underestimate what music can be. There are a lot of people out there that will make you feel like writing music is cool but not important, a pastime, a hobby, a way to feel good, a way to be famous, a way to entertain, a healthy means for self-expression. All of this is completely true, but it can go far beyond all that. It really can. Making music is only a mindless privilege if you treat it that way.
After the election, I just didn’t know what to do. How can music be of service? Our country desperately needs to change its very fabric. And you can’t just change that fabric from policy making; it has to be coming from all angles of society. Music and art touch upon aspects of society that don’t always immediately show their effects, but when you see them, they’re so important. We have to commit ourselves to assisting this change in any way we can. And we’re going to fail and flounder and make mistakes and revise our intentions, but we have to stay connected to this aspect of art. What happened to artists as societies’ shamans?
Looking to advance your skills and open up more opportunities in music? Explore Soundfly’s growing array of Mainstage courses that feature personal support and mentorship from experienced professionals in the field, such as Orchestration for Strings, Unlocking the Emotional Power of Chords, The New Songwriter’s Workshop, and our newest mixing course series, Faders Up I & II: Modern Mix Techniques and Advanced Mix Techniques.
Sign up for a free preview of any course, and get 20% off (that’s $100!) the next session with promo code FLYPAPERSENTME.
Tags: album release, Erica Eso, Incorrect Music, lyric-writing, microtonal, music production, synthesizers
Patrick McGuire
Patrick McGuire is a writer, musician and human man. He lives nowhere in particular, creates music under the name Straight White Teeth, and has a great affinity for dogs and putting his hands in his pockets.
Are You Making a Record No One Will Hear?
The Importance of Theme and Variation in Hip-Hop Beat Making
Emulating Boards of Canada’s Classic Synth Sound Without Breaking Your Bank or Brain
Tredici Bacci’s Simon Hanes on Making Space for Magic to Happen (and the ’70s)
What Working in Surround Sound Did to My Stereo Mixes
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March 28, 2016 March 28, 2016 Chase Olsen
Predicting Alzheimer’s Disease
Over 5 million Americans have Alzheimer’s disease. It is highly likely that you or a loved one knows someone who has been affected. And although Alzheimer’s is quite commonplace among aging individuals, it is not just a symptom of normal aging. It is a progressive, fatal disease. It is one that can potentially be cured or prevented with further research. And while the cure has not yet been found, some BYU FHSS faculty have been gathering data that is promising for the future.
Dr. Jonathan Wisco
Dr. Jonathan Wisco, associate director of the MRI lab here at BYU, has a special interest in studying the effects of Alzheimer’s disease on the brain – particularly the early stages of the brain degeneration. He’s looking for what he calls the “Holy Grail” of Alzheimer’s research: early indicators of Alzheimer’s disease in brain tissue, and he spoke about this research at our recent gerontology conference.
Many outward expressions of brain degeneration are commonly seen at the beginning stages of several different types of dementias. The problem is that it is virtually impossible to tell which way the brain and body will go from there. Will it be to Parkinson’s, Frontotemporal Dementia, or Alzheimer’s? For the past several years, Wisco has been studying the brain to find what might indicate the track a particular individual is on – and thus aid in the future treatment of that person.
Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease include:
Executive system function deficits
Difficulty planning/solving problems
Difficulty with familiar tasks
Confusion of time and place
New problems with speaking or writing
Inability to retrace steps
Changes in mood and personality
There are also 2 different types of Alzheimer’s:
Familial Alzheimer’s is translated genetically, and it often comes up in the fifth or sixth decade of life, with a quick deterioration of the brain.
Sporadic Alzheimer’s is the most common form of the disease, and it typically begins in the eighth decade of life and beyond.
Before coming to BYU, Wisco knew the symptoms of Alzheimers, those that manifested within the brain as well as those that manifested outside it. He collected a lot of data before coming to BYU. But he didn’t know quite what to do with it all.
“At one point while I was at UCLA my work had stalled. I had no idea how I was going to interpret [some data] I had come up with,” said Wisco. “Then when I arrived here at BYU, Dr. Kauwe from Biology invited a bunch of us faculty who were interested in Alzheimer’s to meet together. Dr. Richard Watt from the Chemistry department was in attendance, he had some data that he couldn’t make sense of, and his data was all over the map, as was mine.” Wisco and Watt did some comparisons and were able to make some links between symptoms that could potentially be predictors of Alzheimer’s disease.
Wisco and Watt have worked together for some time now, and have been able to find some potentially groundbreaking evidence of predictors for Alzheimer’s. “What we didn’t expect to find in our research was that the inflammatory response is probably contributing to signal decay. The pathological response to the disease itself is causing more problems in individuals with Alzheimer’s.”
“The results were exciting to see,” said Wisco. “And we’re curious and anxious to know if this is happening in different parts of the brain that we haven’t yet analyzed.”
Wisco’s research is expected to continue, and they are awaiting further results from their lab research. And so far, “The results look promising.”
Do you know someone with Alzheimer’s?
Image March 25, 2016 BYU College of Family, Home, and Social Sciences
Goldman Sachs Panel Will Answer Questions
March 24, 2016 Chase Olsen
Are Girls Meaner than Boys? Research Says No.
It may be said by some that an unflattering stereotypes exists of girls—particularly teenage girls—to be catty, manipulative back-stabbers. But are girls meaner than boys? Dr. Marion K. Underwood, our recent Hinckley Lecturer, and a prolific researcher on the subject, particularly in the context of social media, says no.
According to Underwood’s research, the size of the gender difference in indirect aggression is so small that it is certainly negligible.
What was found, however, was that although girls and boys engage in social aggression equally often, social aggression may take different forms in boys and girls – and have different social consequences.
To test whether or not there really was a difference between boys and girls in social aggression, Underwood and her colleagues conducted a study of kids who nominated each other as best friends as they interacted with a newcomer.
The study showed that boys had a higher level of verbal social exclusion. Boys were more likely to say: “you can’t play with us” or “shut up.” But girls had a dramatically higher tendency to use non-verbal means to exclude others.
“It may be that it is the non-verbal social aggression that may be the sole province of girls,” says Underwood. She adds:
“A lot of research from social psychology shows that girls and women define themselves on the basis of their relationships. and perhaps because we care so much about close relationships and high regard from others, especially when angry, when we want to hurt somebody, we might seek to attack the social status and friendships of others.”
What Parents Can Do:
Dr. Underwood gave a few suggestions for parents to help their children learn to be socially inclusive.
From the beginning be clear that social aggression hurts others and that you won’t tolerate the behavior. “We need to say, ‘That hurts people’s feelings. That’s not okay. Stop doing that.'”
Refrain from modeling social aggression for children.
Interrupt social aggression when you observe it among your child with peers. They should know, at the very least, that you – the parent – don’t approve of it.
Talk with your child about what type of friend they want to be, what kinds of friends they want to have, and convey that everyone deserves friends they can trust.
Encourage your child to intervene with peers to interrupt social aggression — silence conveys approval, so speak up and say anything to help it stop.
One study showed that, during a typical school lunch, after one person made an ugly remark about someone else, 80% of the time nearly everyone else at the table would join in, piling on their rude remarks. However, the other 20% of the time, one person present would immediately “challenge” the negative statement. They didn’t need to necessarily oppose the statement. Changing the subject was often a simple enough strategy.
“If one person spoke up immediately, [the gossip] was over. It was done.”
If this happened, nobody else joined in. It had to be immediate or it didn’t work. It didn’t make a difference who made a statement, as long as it was made. Encouraging children to defend others by challenging negative statements can be an effective means of curbing social aggression.
Hope for the Future
Though kids do engage in negative interactions part of the time, research shows that most of what happens between them is positive and good. “When you…read the popular media,” says Dr. Underwood, “it’s so tempting to think that young people do these behaviors all the time, that they’re constantly being hateful and manipulative. But I believe that nothing could be farther from the truth.”
Perhaps, then, the best way to fix negative social interactions could be to simply replace it with the positive. “Children and adolescents can be wonderfully kind, pro-social, courageous and positive leaders,” says Underwood, “And I think that’s ultimately the hope of bringing down levels of negative behavior among youth.”
How do you encourage YOUR youth to be inclusive?
The full video of Dr. Underwood’s lecture can be seen here.
March 23, 2016 March 23, 2016 Ashley Wade Puriri
FHSS Student Wins 3 Minute Thesis Competition
Congratulations to FHSS graduate students, Bonnie Young-Petersen and Nathan Robbins, who represented our college at the third annual Three Minute Thesis (3MT) competition at BYU!
Robbins and Young-Peterson were the two winners of the FHSS preliminary competition that took place on March 1st. They each received $500 and were given the opportunity to move on and compete in the university 3MT competition on March 10th.
University Competition
At this competition, hosted by BYU’s Graduate Student Society, Robbins and Young-Petersen went up against students from colleges all across campus for prizes of up to $5,000. Young-Petersen, who is in her first year of the Marriage and Family Therapy MS program, presented her research on pornography and young adults. Her research showed that although 85% of young adults reported viewing pornography, only 10% of young adults reported behaviors that could be recognized as addictive. She said in her 3MT, “not all porn use is porn addiction and not all porn users are porn addicts.”
Her impressive presentation earned her first place in a surprising three-way tie with two other students. Looking back, Young-Petersen is grateful for the opportunity she had to participate in the competition. Of her experience, she said,
I was so impressed by the quality – and relevance – of research done by those in all levels of the competition. It made me proud to be part of a university that promotes and supports such innovative and important research. Competing with my peers was an excellent opportunity to gain insight into and respect for other disciplines at BYU and also provided opportunities to connect with those peers in a way I otherwise wouldn’t have experienced.
Watch Bonnie Young-Petersen’s full presentation below.
What is 3 Minute Thesis?
3MT was founded at the University of Queensland in 2008 as a means of celebrating exciting research done by students. Participants were to explain their research “in a language appropriate to a non-specialist audience” by doing a three minute presentation (if it goes over three minutes you are disqualified!). The competition quickly gained popularity. There have now been competitions held in over 170 universities across more than 18 countries worldwide.
Watch the video below from the UQ 2014 3MT winner, Dr. Megan Rossi, to better understand the benefits of participating in the competition. To learn more, visit the 3MT website.
The 3MT competition is held annually at BYU. If you missed it this year, plan to attend (or participate) next year! It is a great opportunity to get a glimpse of all the amazing research being done at BYU. If you just can’t wait until next year, take a look right now at last year’s winners or watch the presentations of the two students who tied for first place this year with Bonnie Young-Petersen – Ashley Nelson and Rachel Messick.
Photo of BYU winners courtesy of BYU Graduate Student Society
Four Tips for Keeping Your Teen Safe on Social Media
To help you keep your kids safe from harm online, we recently shared five expert tips for managing your kids’ social media use. But the threat of harm doesn’t just come from online strangers and predators. In fact, it most often comes from your child’s closest friends. Dr. Marion K. Underwood, who was been conducting research studies in teen texting and social media use for 13 years, and who spoke about the results of that research at our recent Hinckley lecture, partnered with CNN and Anderson Cooper to uncover the Secret World of Teens. What they found may surprise you.
Do You Know What’s Happening Online?
In one survey, 94% of parents underestimated the amount of fighting their children were involved in on social media. And 60% underestimated how lonely, worried, and depressed their kids were. So what might be the reasons that parents seem to be so unaware of what’s going on in their teens’ online lives? The answer isn’t simply apathy. Most parents say that they do indeed attempt to monitor their children’s social media activity. The answers are more complex:
The subtleties of exclusion and social combat are difficult to spot, especially for parents who are not particularly literate in regards to social media.
Kids don’t talk about the kind of conflict they’re experiencing online because they feel parents can’t help.
The most effective way to reduce these kinds of conflict, according to our expert, is to communicate openly, and to be an active participant (with your own account) on social media.
Online Aggression
Malevolent behavior is undoubtedly experienced by teens in the real world. And the online world is no different. 47% percent of teens from the #Being13 survey said that they felt purposely excluded by their friends online. And 36% admitted to purposely excluding others. Teens notice, but do their parents? Several forms of online aggression may be taking place in your child’s social network that you may not even recognize.
Besides negative comments directly aimed at others (something you’re likely to spot if it’s aimed at your own child), there are other forms of aggression that can be detrimental to adolescents’ self-confidence. One prevalent means of online adolescent aggression manifests itself in the repugnant form of exclusion. Kids exclude others by:
Not tagging certain people in group photos.
Saying negative things about someone, without mentioning their name, a practice known as “Subtweeting.”
Making events on social media, without inviting certain friends.
“[Exclusion through social media] is a powerful form of social aggression,” says Dr. Underwood. “It is so subtle that its considered bad form [for teens] to respond. And [those who exclude] can do it with the full expectation that they will not pay one single social consequence.”
Is Social Media Addictive?
Research shows that social media users can indeed show signs of, if not an outright addiction, a heavy dependence on social media.
“I think they’re addicted to the peer connection and affirmation that they’re able to get via social media,” says Underwood. “So it’s not the screens. It’s not the devices. It’s the access that social media gives them to each other.”
Communicate and Participate
Open communication with your children can effectively remedy these kinds of problems. Here are a few suggestions from the #Being13 experts:
1. Talk with our children about their online lives and what they’re doing on social media. We need to get them talking to us from a young age.
“Parent monitoring effectively erased the negative effects of online conflicts of children on social media.”
2. Encourage them not to keep score. Don’t worry if you’re not tagged. Don’t tally up your likes. Don’t exclude other people. Just enjoy being connected with good friends.
3. Help kids remember that it’s possible to have fun in other ways.
4. Use the strength of your relationship with your child. Get them away from social media periodically – not as punishment, and not by ripping it out of their hands, but by simply reminding them that if it’s making them feel bad, they can find lots of alternative ways to interact with their friends and others.
For more specific, research-based tips on interacting with your kids on social media, check out this Y-Magazine article, How to Like Your Teens.
March 17, 2016 March 23, 2016 BYU College of Family, Home, and Social Sciences
Increase Your Understanding: Fulton conference
There is perhaps no more unique an opportunity for us to support research that increases everyone’s collective ability to understand the world around us and to engage with the people around us, and to see what great work our undergraduate students are capable of, than at the annual Fulton Mentored Student Research Conference. This year’s conference is just around the corner, and promises to inform on topics such as social networking as a means of treating HIV/AIDS orphans, and educational inequality in the U.S. and abroad, and many others.
The Mary Lou Fulton Endowed Chair in the College of Family, Home, and Social Sciences is pleased to host the 12th Annual Mentored Student Research Conference on Thursday, April 7, 2016. The conference will be held in the Wilkinson Student Center Ballroom from 9:00 a.m. – 3:00 p.m. and is open to the public. The conference will feature research done in the areas of neuroscience, sociology, social work, psychology, family life, geography, anthropology, history, political science, and economics.
The conference is a unique opportunity for hundreds of graduate and undergraduate students to present their most recent research visually and succinctly. Parents and family members, students across the Y’s campus, and members of the community are invited.
About Mary Lou Fulton
The College of Family, Home, and Social Sciences honors the life and contributions of Mary Lou Fulton by designating a chair in her name. Mary Lou was a wonderful example of a Latter-day Saint woman who, after devoted service raising her family, returned to college to finish her degree. Throughout her life, Mary Lou sought to help those with personal challenges, whether assisting her own students who struggled with reading or rendering quiet service to neighbors and ward members.
During her lifetime, Mary Lou and her husband Ira supported causes and programs that uphold and strengthen the family unit. This goal continues to be a high priority for Ira, as well as helping others remain free of addictive substances or crippling afflictions that limit their possibilities in life.
About the Mary Lou Fulton Endowed Chair
The Mary Lou Fulton Endowed Chair provides meaningful research and educational experiences for students, faculty, and children. Mary Lou’s passion for educating and elevating others is reflected in the many elements of the chair, established by her husband Ira A. Fulton in 2004 to honor and recognize her example. The Chair also funds internship grants, professorships, and young scholar awards.
Giving students a forum to present mentored learning projects is key to future opportunities. The Chair funds an annual showcase of student research and provides travel grants for students to present their scholarly work at major professional and academic conferences around the United States.
March 16, 2016 March 17, 2016 Fran Djoukeng
Beyond A Career: College Degree Helps Motherhood
Educational levels for women in America are the highest they have ever been. Women with infant children are now the most educated than any of their predecessors. In fact, the Pew Center reports that “on average, a mother with more education is more likely to deliver a baby at term and more likely to have a baby with a healthy birth weight.”
Renata Forste, professor of sociology at Brigham Young University, says that a college degree helps a woman in both her career and her parenting. Research shows that kids who have a college-educated mother do better than kids who do not. “I don’t think people think about the fact their college education is critical and will help them be a better parent, a better mother. They only think of it in terms of, well if I need it I can get a better job,” Forste says.
Maternal education matters.
Callie Smith, who graduated from a Utah university and used to play tennis for BYU, welcomed a baby girl to her family late last year. She says the education from her degree in Exercise Sport and a minor in Nutrition helps her physically, emotionally, and mentally. “It’s helped me deal with the stress and no sleep because I am used to it from studying all the time,” Smith says. She says the study skills she gained from a college education and knowing how to research makes a difference. “I solve problems all the time as a mom and I research stuff like different ways to nurse and how to help a baby relieve gas. I learned that baby acne is normal.”
Although breastfeeding practices proved difficult for Smith when her daughter was born in December, she has stuck with it and plans to for awhile.
Forste co-authored a study with fellow professor of sociology Benjamin Gibbs in the “Journal of Pediatrics” titled, “Breastfeeding, Parenting and Cognitive Development” which reports that “there is a positive relationship between breastfeeding for at least 3 months and child rearing skills, but this link is the result of cognitively supportive parenting behaviors and greater levels of education among women who predominately breastfeed.”
The researchers also said that they “found little-to-no relationship between infant feeding practices and the cognitive development of children with less-educated mothers. Instead, reading to a child every day and being sensitive to a child’s development were significant predictors of math and reading readiness outcomes.”
From her background in nutrition, Smith says she is super aware of what she eats and knows that keeping a healthy immune system is important for her baby’s own health. As a new mom, Smith says she talks to Kamber and that it feels natural for her. “I let her know that I love her. She mimics me when I talk to her and I feel that on some level she understands.”
At the end of the day, Smith agrees that one thing motherhood and college have in common is being a challenge. “I had to challenge myself as a college student and that is what I do everyday as a mom.”
Photos courtesy of Callie Smith.
March 14, 2016 June 2, 2016 Ashley Wade Puriri
How to Spark Kids’ Interest in Civil Rights: FHSS Professor Rebecca de Schweinitz
You may not think that your seven-year-old would understand the concept of civil rights, much less care about it, but they can. Not only that, children can and have been agents of civil rights change in our nation’s past. So, who’s to say that they can’t be our change agents of the future? That’s a question that FHSS History professor Rebecca de Schweinitz answered in her book If We Could Change The World: Young People and America’s Long Struggle for Racial Equality, recently mentioned in an article in Time Magazine.
“Everyday people, including children and youth, changed the course of history,” she said, in reference to the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and ’60s. In her book, she offers these tips to help parents spark their kids’ interest in Civil Rights:
Tell Stories
Elementary aged kids love stories, de Schweinitz told Time. Tell them stories about children like them who showed courage during the Civil Rights Movement, or others who’ve made a difference. There are plenty of stories to choose from, including:
Ruby Bridges
Barbara Johns
Child of the Civil Rights Movement
Parents can tell the stories of the brave children who integrated into white classrooms after desegregation. That was a time that put kids “at the center of the nation’s struggle for racial equality,” said de Schweinitz.
Parents can also tell the stories of young activists like Joan Trumpauer Mulholland, who spoke on campus recently. She told the students in attendance that she recognized the harmful effects of segregation when she was just 10-years-old. At this young age, she promised herself that she would do something to help make things better when she got the chance. By the time she was 19-years-old Mulholland had participated in over three dozen sit ins and protests, including one of the most famous and violent sit-ins of the movement at the Jackson Woolworth lunch counter. She also participated in the March on Washington and rode with the Freedom Riders. Countless other children and young people were involved in the movement in one way or another.
According to de Schweinitz, as kids get older, parents can start asking them questions that get them thinking about their role in society. They can ask their children about what they would change in the world today. This could also be a time of reflection. Parents can encourage their kids to think about what they have learned from stories about young people in history who have worked for change. How they can apply those lessons to their lives today?
Have Conversations
Parents and children can start having conversations about the personal cost of fighting for change by the time kids reach high school. They can discuss possible reasons that people are willing to sacrifice for a cause they believe in, particularly why young people might be even more willing to work for change. “One of the truly striking aspects of youth activism in movement history was how much young people were consciously willing to give up,”de Schweinitz says.
The names of key figures like Martin Luther King Jr. and Harriet Tubman likely come to mind first when thinking about the Civil Rights Movement. Though it may take a deeper look, de Schweinitz says it is clear that kids have never just been pawns or followers in the long fight for civil rights. Kids, she said, have always felt their “own determination to fight for racial equality. This was their movement, too.” Parents can help their kids look more closely at the role of children and young people in the movement and how their courage and participation made a big difference.
Have you done any of these things with your kids? How did they react?
Civil Rights Book Photo courtesy of Flickr
Celebrate Your Brain During Brain Awareness Week March 14-20
What do you know about your brain?
This week is Brain Awareness Week, and BYU’s Neuroscience Club wants to help you learn all about your brain, and touch some sheep brains.
Brain FHE
To kick off the week, all BYU Students and families are invited to attend a special Family Home Evening event. Come learn about your nervous system from Dr. Brown and Dr. Kirwan. They will provide presentations on neuro-anatomy, sensation, and perception that people of all ages can understand. Get there early because last time we ran out of seats!
When: Monday, March 14 @ 7pm
Where: SWKT 250
Learn more about this event here.
Impaired Basketball @ WILK Booth
Come to the WILK any day this week for lunch and shoot a basketball while wearing drunk goggles!
When: Monday-Friday: 11am-1pm
Where: WILK Terrace
Touch Sheep Brains!
That’s right. You heard us.
The Neuroscience club is asking for volunteers to help teach K-12 children across the valley about the brain throughout the week. To do so, they’ll be using sheep brains. Join them, and YOU’LL be using sheep brains.
You do NOT need any prior knowledge of the brain to participate – the club will teach you everything you need to know. To volunteer, you can sign up on this google doc.
The First Fifty Years of Relief Society
Since the leadership of Emma Smith as president of the Relief Society in 1842, the philanthropic organization has come a long way. The organization is now led by its sixteenth president, Linda K. Burton, and continues to spread its influence across the four corners of the globe. But what about the first half-century of its existence? What can individuals learn from the first five decades of its growth and impact?
Reflief Society WHM 2016
Women’s History specialist Kate Holbrook is the co-editor of “The First Fifty Years of Relief Society” and will present this book and answer questions at a lecture event sponsored by the Women’s Studies Program at Brigham Young University. Holbrook works for the LDS Church History department and is an author for the Religious Studies Center at BYU.
TIME/DATE/LOCATION
Book Lecture & Reception: The First Fifty Years of Relief Society Years
11 AM, B192 JFSB
The Women’s Studies program at BYU, a joint program in the College of Humanities and the College of Family, Home, and Social Sciences, is an interdisciplinary forum for the study of women’s past and present position in global society. A minor in women’s studies can unlock a variety of doors: to graduate study, or to numerous arenas of work and social-change leadership where specialized knowledge on women is an asset.
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TechAmazon
This Unexpected City Says It Has Everything Amazon Wants for a New Headquarters
Lucinda Shen
Kansas City’s mayor reviewed 1,000 products on Amazon. Basketball star Michael Jordan wrote a personal letter to the e-commerce giant’s CEO Jeff Bezos. Meanwhile, Georgia offered to name in new city after the company.
But as creative as those attempts are to woo Amazon for its second headquarters, it’s far more likely that the big dollars that Amazon has asked for will be a major deciding factor in its location.
That likely what New Jersey Governor Chris Christie had in mind when he submitted the official proposal for placing Amazon’s HQ2 in Newark Monday, getting straight to the point. Responding to Amazon’s specific tax requests as a condition for building its second headquarter in any given city, Christie proposed up to $7 billion in tax incentives.
Amazon has said that the new location would result in 50,000 new jobs and a $5 billion investment. New Jersey estimates HQ2 could bring a $9 billion boost to the state’s economy, which has struggled to come back from the riots in 1967.
Christie said Monday that his state would be willing to provide $5 billion in tax incentives over the course of 10 years once those 50,000 jobs are added. The city of Newark meanwhile is also offering a local property tax break that could save the company another $1 billion, and is also offering to waive $1 billion worth in wage taxes for employees over 20 years.
While New Jersey’s tax incentive plan is likely the largest one put forward yet by any city, the deadline for HQ2 proposal submissions has not yet passed. Amazon is giving cities and states until Oct. 19 to submit a plan.
Philadelphia meanwhile is also offering 10 years of property tax abatement. It’s unclear how much in savings Amazon will gain from the plan. The city’s mayor James Kenney said in September that they hadn’t gotten to the specifics about those tax incentives.
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Documents filtered by: Correspondent="Franklin, Benjamin"
sorted by: date (descending)
To Benjamin Franklin from the Abbé Rochon, [after 27 October 1780]
From the Abbé Rochon
AL: American Philosophical Society
[after October 27, 1780]2
Mr. L’Abbé Rochon est prié instament de demander à Mr. Franklin, si l’Eclipse du Soleil vue totale à Penobscot a été observée à New-York ou à New-Cambrige, dont nous ignorons icy les observations à la Reserve de celle de Penobscot qui seule â été envoyée à l’Academie.
On a besoin de celles de New Cambrige ou de New-York.3
2. On Oct. 9, the newly formed American Academy of Arts and Sciences, in conjunction with Harvard College, launched a scientific expedition to Penobscot Bay to view the total eclipse of the sun predicted for Oct. 27. Headed by mathematics professor Samuel Williams and sailing in a vessel provided by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, the delegation set up an observation station on Long-Island in Penobscot Bay, working under the constraints imposed by the occupying British troops. The weather being fair on Oct. 27, Williams succeeded in gathering detailed data. His observations were eventually published in the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, I (Boston, 1785), pp. 86–102; the Academy most likely sent a version of this paper to the Académie des sciences shortly after it was written. For Williams see Sibley’s Harvard Graduates, XV, 134–46.
3. The American Academy’s first volume of Memoirs also contained several other reports of the eclipse. One was indeed from Cambridge, but the southern-most set of observations came from Providence. We have no evidence that BF ever received any of these while he was in France.
Rochon, abbé Alexis-Marie
October 1780 – December 1785
“To Benjamin Franklin from the Abbé Rochon, [after 27 October 1780],” Founders Online, National Archives, accessed April 11, 2019, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Franklin/01-33-02-0392. [Original source: The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 33, July 1 through November 15, 1780, ed. Barbara B. Oberg. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1997, pp. 469–470.]
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Documents filtered by: Period="Revolutionary War" AND Correspondent="Jenings, Edmund"
From John Adams to Edmund Jenings, 27 February 1780
To Edmund Jenings
Paris Hotel de Valois Rue de Richelieu Feby. 27th. 17801
I received to day, yours of the 22d. That by Mr. Brush I answered as soon as received.2
You cannot oblige me more sir, than by communicating Intelligence from E.
I have been a Witness, these 6 Years, of the annual Reports Spread by England to make it believed in America that the Russians were to interpose, and I have heard a vast deal of it, since my Arrival in Paris, in so much that I have set myself directly to Search out the Truth, and I have as high Authority as any in this Kingdom to assure you, and every other on whom that political Lye has made any Impression whether in Europe or America, that it is false, both with respect to Russia and Denmark.
I did not want this Authority for myself. I was So well persuaded of the Interest of Russia, and Denmark and their disposition, before that I was easy.
But, indeed, it would move me, very little, if Russia, and Denmark too were to declare for G.B.—it would instantly determine Powers more momentous than both, to join Bourbon and America.3
I will thank Russia and Denmark with all my soul, however, if they will bring about a Peace, an honest Peace I mean.
There is an Expedition preparing at Brest, to ballance that of Boyle Walsingham, perhaps, so that I am not in pain about that.
Mr. Carmichael, is Secretary to the American Embassy at Madrid. His Residence I know not, but your Letter cant miscarry.
Can you inform me, how many Troops, Walsingham has, how many ships.4 Can you inform me how many regular Troops there are in Ireland? Who are the real Planners, of the late Correspondences and Associations in Ireland, and the real Leaders—and the ostensible. For in Europe, I take it the ostensible Leader is not the real one.
We have an high Story to day, of the Repeal of Poynings Law, of a Declaration of the Independancy of the Irish Legislature, on any others, and forbidding all Appeals from their House of Lords to the English House of Lords—it comes from England.5
What think you? Is there Spunk enough in the Counties to do any Thing? Or will the Cry of Sedition and Rebellion, and the Disgrace of a few Lord Lieutenants,6 frighten them, into Tranquility. Some of them Seem a little in Earnest and they go on, regularly enough, to be sure more Americans.7 The Committee of Correspondence, which my Friend Sam. Adams invented, refined it first and showed its Use, as much as Swift did the Irony, Seems to have the Same wonderful Efficacy. Heaven grant it success. Its Invention will make an Epocha in the History of the Progress of Society, and of the human Understanding.
I am with much Attachment yours
RC (Adams Papers). LbC in John Thaxter’s hand (Adams Papers).
1. The dateline is in John Thaxter’s hand; the remainder of the recipient’s copy is by JA.
2. Presumably JA is referring to Jenings’ letter of 19 Feb., which he had answered on the 25th (both above). Mr. Brush, who apparently carried the letter of the 19th, remains unidentified.
3. Probably Prussia and Austria.
4. In his reply of 5 March (Adams Papers), and in considerable detail, Jenings answered this and other questions posed by JA in this letter.
5. This report was false and, according to JA’s letter to AA of 28 Feb., had been supplied by Benjamin Franklin (Adams Family Correspondence description begins Adams Family Correspondence, ed. L. H. Butterfield and others, Cambridge, 1963– description ends , 3:291–292). In the wake of Parliament’s grant of a measure of economic independence (see JA to Elbridge Gerry, 23 Feb., note 4, above), there was renewed agitation for legislative independence through the repeal or modification of Poyning’s Law of 1495 and the Irish Declaratory Act of 1719. The first provided that all previous general statutes that had not specifically been applied to Ireland were to be in force and enabled the Privy Council in England to “initiate, supervise, reject, or amend all bills” enacted or considered by the Irish Parliament. The second formally provided for the British Parliament to legislate for Ireland (Henry Campbell Black, A Law Dictionary Containing Definitions of the Terms and Phrases of American and English jurisprudence Ancient and Modern, 2d edn., St. Paul, Minn., 1910; R. Coupland, The American Revolution and the British Empire, London, 1930, p. 58–59). These efforts came to nothing, and at the time that this letter was written the Irish Parliament had not yet considered the issue. Not until 19 April did Henry Grattan, noted Irish statesman and orator, introduce a resolution calling for legislative independence; after a fifteen-hour debate, the measure was postponed and never revived (DNB description begins Leslie Stephen and Sidney Lee, eds., The Dictionary of National Biography, New York and London, 1885–1900; 63 vols. plus supplements. description ends ; Coupland, American Revolution and the British Empire, p. 125–128; W. E. H. Lecky, A History of England in the Eighteenth Century, 8 vols., N.Y., 1878–1890, 4:550–551).
6. A reference to the removal of Henry Herbert, 10th earl of Pembroke, and Francis Osborne, marquis of Carmarthen (later 5th Duke of Leeds), as lords lieutenant of Wiltshire and the East Riding of York, respectively, because of their refusal to oppose the demands of the county associations. Both were restored to office by the Rockingham ministry in 1782 (DNB description begins Leslie Stephen and Sidney Lee, eds., The Dictionary of National Biography, New York and London, 1885–1900; 63 vols. plus supplements. description ends ). Pembroke, and presumably also Carmarthen, received notice of his dismissal in a letter from Lord Hillsborough of 14 Feb., to which Pembroke replied on the same day. For the two letters, which were widely reprinted, see the London Chronicle of 29 Feb. – 2 March.
7. Thus in both the recipient’s copy, where JA interlined “to be sure,” and the Letterbook copy.
Note: The annotations to this document, and any other modern editorial content, are copyright © The Massachusetts Historical Society. All rights reserved.
Jenings, Edmund
“From John Adams to Edmund Jenings, 27 February 1780,” Founders Online, National Archives, accessed April 11, 2019, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/06-08-02-0245. [Original source: The Adams Papers, Papers of John Adams, vol. 8, March 1779 – February 1780, ed. Gregg L. Lint, Robert J. Taylor, Richard Alan Reyerson, Celeste Walker, and Joanna M. Revelas. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989, pp. 369–371.]
From Adams to Jenings [25 February 1780]
From Jenings to Adams [5 March 1780]
All correspondence between Adams and Jenings
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Documents filtered by: Recipient="Adams, John" AND Correspondent="Pickering, Timothy"
To John Adams from Timothy Pickering, 23 October 1797
Trenton Octr. 23. 1797.
Yesterday morning I received letters from Mr. Bulkeley, our new consul, dated at Lisbon the 26th & 29th & 30th of August. Mr. Smith embarked in the same ship with him at Philadelphia, the 20th of July, and they arrived at Lisbon the 20th of August. Mr. Smith would have written, if he had known of the conveyance; but he was in the country at Mr. Bulkeley’s father’s.
Mr. Bulkeley’s information is, that an Express arrived from Paris on the 25th of August, with intelligence that preliminaries of peace between France & Portugal had been signed—“the terms had not publickly transpired, however there appeared to be no doubt but that there is to be a cession of territory (in the Brazils) and payment of twenty five millions of livres, by Portugal.” Some said that Goa was also to be ceded.
He confirms the account before received of Admiral Nelson’s expedition to Tenerife, and his defeat, with the loss of an arm, the death of Captain Bowen & other officers, & between 3 & 4 hundred men, of whom 250 were drowned by the surf in landing.
On Saturday evening (the 21st) I received a letter from Mr. Murray, dated at the Hague the 21st of July. He mentions the former negociation between the French Republic & Portugal, and the manner in which it was broken off; which displays the perfidy of the Directory. I suppose he received the details from the Portuguese minister, the Chevalier D’Aruejo, then (July 21) in Holland. “He was sent to enter into a treaty of peace at Paris—He and M. Delacroix entered upon the subject—agreed to the arrangements—and there was nothing wanting but signatures. Intelligence arrived of Buonaparte’s brilliant successes—of the fall of Mantua—and they told the Chevalier, that if he wished for a settlement of subsisting differences he must sign that paper—giving him an arrangement very different from what had been agreed upon. This he refused to do: and he was then told that he must quit Paris, but might stay in France. He chose to leave the Republic; and came to Holland.” It was after this that the Dutch, on the demand of the French Government, suspended their intercourse with Portugal, commercial & political. Portugal immediately laid an embargo, by which three rich Dutch India men were stopt in the Tagris. Then the Dutch retracted the terms “political intercourse,” and the embargo was removed.
The French Government too, after dictating the leading principle of the Dutch constitution (the unity & indivisibility of the republic) and otherwise interfering in the deliberations of the convention, have attempted to influence its final adoption by the people, by an address from the Minister Noel to the Batavian Convention; which address has been translated into Dutch, to produce its intended effect. The French copy received from Mr. Murray I now inclose: the Dutch translation I shall send to Mr. Van Polanen.—In 18 days (from July 21) the people were to vote for or against the adoption of the constitution.—What is most remarkable is, that this insulting address of Noel’s does not appear to offend the Dutch; “so broken and dejected in the spirit of this once high tempered people.” “Far from offending, this vote gives pleasure—and most to the best people—the orderly & the honest; who are content to be drawn out of the abyss by the hand which overthrew them.”—Twelve high democrats of the Convention have published an address to the people, urging them not to accept the proposed constitution “because it is too federal, too aristocratic.” The moderates have also addressed, and written letters to the Orangists: but these refuse to meddle or vote on one side or the other.
Mr. Murray closes his details with this reflection. “This country is the school where our politicians might study what to avoid. Unhappily for the whole world, a great part of Europe swells the lessons from which we may be taught the certain death, that awaits the liberties & happiness of any people among whom the French obtain a finger’s breadth of political ground.”
On the 21st instant, in the evening I also received Genl. Pinckneys latest letter, which is dated the 26th of July at the Hague. He acknowledges the receipt of my letter which informed him of your having named Judge Dana & General Marshall to join him in making another attempt to negociate with the French Republic. On this he says—“Be assured, sir, I am thoroughly convinced of the propriety of appointing a Commission, and exceedingly pleased to have colleagues who are as eminent for their talents as respectable for their characters. Tho’ I have not the honor at present of knowing them personally, it shall be my study to cultivate their friendship & goodwill, and to promote, in perfect harmony with them, the objects of our particular mission, and the advantage of our common country.”—In a former letter he mentioned his having seen the nomination in a news-paper; and he seized that occasion to express the pleasure and satisfaction it gave him. The sentiment exactly corresponds with the idea I had formed of the unassuming, disinterested & truly patriotic character of General Pinckney.
In a series of letters he has communicated what was passing in Paris respecting the affairs of the United States. Major Mountflorence was his regular & intelligent correspondent. Thro’ his agency the letter to General Pinckney (of the 16th of last January) was translated and printed. A 1000 copies, by Genl. Pinckney’s orders, to be distributed; and which were distributed, and producing good effects. The Consuls at the different ports having urgently called for it, he ordered 500 more copies to be printed. All the members of the legislature were furnished, and officers of government. M. Segur & some others wish the case of gratitude had been touched more lightly. Genl. Pinckney, however, thinks all that is said upon it was necessary. “The friends of Vergennes (says Mountflorence) do not like the facts laid to his charge. M. Marbois would have wished Colo. P. had not so deeply pressed that matter: but taking the whole together, the very great majority of the readers admire the strong manner of arguing and the moderation of the letter; and it is perceivable that some of the worst disposed persons against us have altered their dispositions.” The Consuls in many of the ports of France who wrote for the letter, say “it has had a wonderful effect upon the minds of many persons, both in and out of office, who neither knew the facts, nor were aware of the arguments used.”
Mr. Mountflorence appears to be on very familiar & friendly terms with many members of the legislature, one of whom said he was convinced that a majority were determined to bring about a reconciliation with the United States. Several of the members of each council had explicitly mentioned their approbation of the sentiments you delivered in your speech to Congress at the opening of the late session. The Committee on Pastoret’s motion had not reported: which Genl. Pinckney ascribes to the very interesting situation of their own affairs, on account of the differences between the Directory and the Council of 500.—On every occasion Genl. Pinckney repeats his opinion, that firm conduct alone will ensure to us the most desirable terms. He will consequently be disappointed and mortified with the proceedings of the last session of Congress; so different from what your speech had led him and Mr. Murray to anticipate. Both mention the high satisfaction which it gave them.
You will recollect the news-paper accounts of the ship Juliana of Baltimore, carried into Havre, for want of a rôle d’egquipage. The Commercial tribunal of Havre acquitted her. The captors appealed to the Tribunal of the Department, by which the sentence was reversed—but merely for an informality in the Court—and the cause sent back to be tried anew. The Commercial Tribunal has again (and in stronger terms than before) declared the capture unlawful. The informality consisted in this, that altho’ there were three of the judges of the tribunal present, yet they took assistants (suppléans), which was to be done only when fewer than three of the judges were present.
You have doubtless noticed in the newspapers, intelligence from Washington (or Brownesville, formerly Red Stone, on the Monogehela) in Pennsylvania, under date of October 2d. or 3d. that a person had arrived there in 45 days from the Natchez (or New Orleans) & said the posts were given up by the Spaniards, and that the Commissioners were running the boundary line.—I have no other information on the subject. You will recollect that this was Mr. Ellicott’s expectation, according to the account given in the extract of the letter I had lately the honor to send, you from a gentleman who had come from New Orleans. I have written to his brother, to learn at what time he left New Orleans. The newspaper article above mentioned would carry back the person’s departure from N. Orleans to the 16th of August.
I am most respectfully, sir, / your obt. servant
Timothy Pickering
MHi: Adams Papers.
Pickering, Timothy
“To John Adams from Timothy Pickering, 23 October 1797,” Founders Online, National Archives, accessed April 11, 2019, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/99-02-02-2184. [This is an Early Access document from The Adams Papers. It is not an authoritative final version.]
From Adams to Pickering [20 October 1797]
All correspondence between Adams and Pickering
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Friday Reads: Ocean's Acknowledgments
Poet Ocean Vuong’s just-published novel, ON EARTH WE’RE BRIEFLY GORGEOUS (Penguin Press), is being praised far and wide – as is the audiobook edition, which is read by the author. Currently on tour, Ocean Vuong’s bookstore audiences are standing-room only. He speaks eloquently about the power of language, about the craft and writers he admires. In that spirit, we turn this week to the acknowledgment section of the novel where Ocean Vuong gives “a deep bow to the following artists and musicians whom I leaned on, repeatedly, while writing this book.” The poets and writers he names there, and elsewhere, provide a master class to their readers. Among them…
GIOVANNI’S ROOM
Set in the 1950s Paris of American expatriates, liaisons, and violence, a young man finds himself caught between desire and conventional morality. With a sharp, probing imagination, James Baldwin’s now-classic narrative delves into the mystery of loving and creates a moving, highly controversial story of death and passion that reveals the unspoken complexities of the human heart.
AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF RED: A NOVEL IN VERSE
The award-winning poet reinvents a genre in a stunning work that is both a novel and a poem, both an unconventional re-creation of an ancient Greek myth and a wholly original coming-of-age story set in the present.
WE TELL OURSELVES STORIES IN ORDER TO LIVE/COLLECTED NONFICTION
Joan Didion’s incomparable and distinctive essays and journalism are admired for their acute, incisive observations and their spare, elegant style. Now the seven books of nonfiction that appeared between 1968 and 2003 have been brought together into one thrilling collection: Slouching Towards Bethlehem; The White Album; Salvador; Miami; After Henry; Political Fictions; and Where I Was From.
THE LOVER (Introduction by Maxine Hong Kingston; Translated from the French by Barbara Bray.)
An international bestseller with more than one million copies in print and a winner of France’s Prix Goncourt, The Lover has been acclaimed by critics all over the world since its first publication in 1984. Set in the prewar Indochina of Marguerite Duras’s childhood, this is the haunting tale of a tumultuous affair between an adolescent French girl and her Chinese lover. In spare yet luminous prose, Duras evokes life on the margins of Saigon in the waning days of France’s colonial empire, and its representation in the passionate relationship between two unforgettable outcasts.
THE HEART OF THE BUDDHA’S TEACHING: TRANSFORMING SUFFERING INTO PEACE, JOY, AND LIBERATION
In The Heart of the Buddha’s Teaching, now revised with added material and new insights, Nhat Hanh introduces us to the core teachings of Buddhism and shows us that the Buddha’s teachings are accessible and applicable to our daily lives. With poetry and clarity, Thich Nhat Hanh imparts comforting wisdom about the nature of suffering and its role in creating compassion, love, and joy – all qualities of enlightenment.
MAXINE HONG KINGSTON
THE WOMAN WARRIOR: MEMOIRS OF A GIRLHOOD AMONG GHOSTS
In her award-winning book The Woman Warrior, Maxine Hong Kingston created an entirely new form—an exhilarating blend of autobiography and mythology, of world and self, of hot rage and cool analysis. First published in 1976, it has become a classic in its innovative portrayal of multiple and intersecting identities—immigrant, female, Chinese, American.
In this “marvellous compilation” (The New Yorker), editor Mark Ford reacquaints us with one of the most joyous and innovative poets of the postwar period.
JENNY OFFILL
DEPT. OF SPECULATION
In spare language that shimmers with rage and longing and wit, Jenny Offill has crafted an exquisitely suspenseful love story: Dept. of Speculation can easily be read in a single sitting, but it holds the emotional depth of a much longer novel – a stunning portrait of a marriage and beguiling rumination on the mysteries of intimacy, trust, faith, knowledge, and the condition of universal shipwreck that unites us all.
SHARON OLDS
Following the Pulitzer prize-winning collection Stag’s Leap, Sharon Olds gives us a stunning book of odes. Opening with the powerful and tender “Ode to the Hymen,” Olds addresses and embodies, in this age-old poetic form, many aspects of love and gender and sexual politics in a collection that is centered on the body and its structures and pleasures. Olds treats us to an intimate examination that, like all her work, is universal, by turns searing and charming in its honesty. From the bodily joys and sorrows of childhood to the deaths of those dearest to us, Olds shapes the world in language that is startlingly fresh, profound in its conclusions, and life-giving for the reader.
ON EARTH WE’RE BRIEFLY GORGEOUS: A NOVEL by Ocean Vuong
On Earth We’re Briefly Gorgeous is a letter from a son to a mother who cannot read. Written when the speaker, Little Dog, is in his late twenties, the letter unearths a family’s history that began before he was born—a history whose epicenter is rooted in Vietnam—and serves as a doorway into parts of his life his mother has never known, all of it leading to an unforgettable revelation. At once a witness to the fraught yet undeniable love between a single mother and her son, it is also a brutally honest exploration of race, class, and masculinity.
For more information on these authors’ titles available from Penguin Random House visit: Ocean’s Acknowledgments
There’s a Book for That! is brought to you by Penguin Random House’s Sales department. Please follow our Tumblr by clicking here—and share this link with your accounts: theresabookforthat.tumblr.com. Thank you!
Did you see something on the news or read about something on your commute? Perhaps you noticed something trending on Twitter? Did you think: “There’s a book for that!”? Then please, send it our way at theresabookforthat@penguinrandomhouse.com
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High-Tech Gründerfonds (HTGF) sells its shares in givve to the French Up group
HTGF is the first seed investor of Munich-based Fintech start-up givve to sell its shares to the French, internationally active Up group in an exit worth millions.
The startup, which was founded in 2010, will have much greater development potential in the area of financial services as a result of the sale. As the technological market leader, givve has been able to generate enormous value growth since 2016 and win well-known customers.
givve: More than 250,000 card users in Germany
Fintech givve is already established in the market of employee retention in Germany: More than 6,000 corporate customers use the givve cards. This works like a prepaid card with which employers can reward their employees and also enjoy tax advantages for benefits in kind. There are already more than 250,000 card users in Germany.
The Up group offers loyalty programs, incentive and payment solutions, among other things. The Up group employs more than 3,400 people. The parent company is a cooperative.
givve technology: machine learning and automated payment processing
The integration into the Up group offers givve greater development opportunities. The technology developed by givve itself includes automated payment auction matching processes that save employee capacity in payment processing. In addition, these processes are constantly improving through machine learning.
Until now, givve technology has only been used in the area of employee retention. The Up group offers a wider range of applications, as the company offers a much wider range of services.
Up goup: New strategic investor
The acquisition by the Up group will not change anything for givve’s customers for the time being. And the brand will also remain for the time being.
Patrick Löffler, Co-Founder and CEO of givve: “We could not imagine a better strategic investor than the Up group. They not only understand our business area very well, they are also active in many more business areas than we are. givve will benefit greatly from this large network and the expertise available as a result.”
HTGF: Seed investor recognizes the potential of the technology early on
The HTGF recognized the promising FinTech technology in givve early on and sees an increasingly important and growing market with high development potential in the future in the FinTech and Blockchain area.
Jens Baumgärtner, Investment Manager of the HTGF: “The founding team has always been convincing through the continuous pursuit of long-term and strategic corporate goals. The transaction comes at just the right time and opens up enormous opportunities for the team to grow even faster with its mature technology”.
About givve
The company was founded in 2010 by Patrick Löffler (CEO) and Alexander Klaiber (CTO). givve’s prepaid credit card is the most flexible voucher in the world and can be used at more than 30 million acceptance points around the globe.
As an additional benefit in kind from the employer, the prepaid credit card from givve is a wise way to increase your salary. Companies have the option of providing their employees with tax-free benefits in kind in the amount of 44 euros. With the givve card, which can be designed in the company’s corporate design, employees can use this amount as they wish. Thus givve offers companies an advanced and sustainable tool for employee retention and motivation as well as for increasing employer attractiveness and is employee motivation that pays off.
www.givve.com
About Up group
Up connects people, companies and regions through the development of management, relationship and transaction platforms. Up develops integrated solutions that meet the needs of different partners, customers and users. Up solutions facilitate access to food, culture, leisure, education, home care, social assistance, expense management and incentive and loyalty systems. With 3,465 employees and branches in 19 countries, Up is present in the daily lives of 26.6 million people worldwide. In 2017, total sales amounted to 494 million euros. Up is an independent group whose parent company is a cooperative and participatory company.
www.up.coop
About High-Tech Gründerfonds
High-Tech Gründerfonds (HTGF) is a seed investor that finances high-potential, tech-driven start- ups. With EUR 892,5 million in total investment volume across three funds (EUR 272 million in HTGF I, EUR 304 million in HTGF II and EUR 316,5 million for HTGF III) and an international network of partners, HTGF has already helped forge 500 start-ups since 2005. Driven by their expertise, entrepreneurial spirit and passion, its team of experienced investment managers and start-up experts help guide the development of young companies. HTGF’s focus is on high-tech start-ups in a range of sectors, including software, media, internet, hardware, automation, health care, chemicals and life sciences.
This group also includes a number of success stories, such as Mister Spex, Rigontec, 6Wunderkin- der, Next Kraftwerke and Cumulocity, as well as Juniqe, an online shop for art enthusiasts. To date, external investors have injected over EUR 1.8 billion into the HTGF portfolio via more than 1,300 follow-on financing rounds. HTGF has also successfully sold interests in more than 90 companies.
Investors in this public-private partnership include the Federal Ministry For Economic Affairs and Energy, the KfW Banking Group, and Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft e.V., as well as the companies ALTANA, BASF, BAYER, B.Braun, Boehringer Ingelheim, Robert Bosch, BÜFA, CEWE, Deutsche Post DHL, Dräger, Drillisch AG, EVONIK, EWE AG, Haniel, Hettich, Knauf, Körber, LANXESS, media + more venture Beteiligungs GmbH & Co. KG, PHOENIX CONTACT, Postbank, QIAGEN, RWE Generation SE, SAP, Schufa, Schwarz Gruppe, STIHL, Thüga, Vector Informatik, WACKER and Wilh. Werhahn KG.
High-Tech Gründerfonds
Jens Baumgärtner
Schlegelstraße 2
T: +49 288 82300 138
j.baumgaertner@htgf.de
www.htgf.de
Impressum/Disclaimer Privacy
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Image Credit: Lillian Li
Heat in the street and the friction of our diction
Foothill Technology High School March 2, 2018
In the aftermath of one of the most brutal winters in memory, tossing around the term “global warming” seems like a joke. With the entirety of the Eastern Seaboard glazed or choked in ice and torrential rains in southern California “warming” is more of a blessing than the global catastrophe that it truly is.
The connotations of “global warming” are just a narrow slice of what we face in the years to come living in a continuously evolving climate. We witnessed the classical version of global warming this winter when the Thomas Fire tore through our community. But in actuality, this was due to the more abstract side effects of the issue: an increased amount of rain in the past year meant more fuel that could dry out and be consumed by fire.
The images the phrase “global warming” provokes in the minds of people are that of parched desert surfaces and 80 degree winters in New York but are far from the reality of the situation.
On the other hand, the all-encompassing term “climate change” conveys the severity of our situation in the most scientific way possible. Side effects of the human-produced warming trend occurring now ranges from rising sea levels to drought, fires and increased rain and snowfall. The situation we find ourselves in is far more complex and multifaceted than simply “It’s going to get hotter.”
Therefore, dubbing it climate change is most effective in portraying the magnitude of the situation.
Although studies show that the phrase “global warming” invokes more worrisome thoughts than “climate change”—specifically 52 percent of Americans are worried about the former and only 48% are worried about the latter— the connotations of climate change should scare people far more than “global warming.”
As mentioned previously, the effects of climate change include but are not limited to rising sea levels, increased precipitation, drought, ocean acidification, desertification and so many other phenomena that were previously limited to nightmares.
Furthermore, “global warming” can be and has proven to be confusing to some concerning its existence when the temperature is colder. It is easy to deny warming trends when you can see your breath. President Trump is the most prominent of public figures to make this mistake when recently tweeting, “it could be the COLDEST New Year’s Eve on record […] we could use a little bit of that good old Global Warming.”
In order to approach this global scientific issue from the most informed way possible we must dub it “climate change,” and maybe even go even further and call it “human-precipitated climate change” — because that is truly what it is. Everybody, and most importantly people in highly influential positions, need to understand how dire the condition of our planet is in, in order to develop solutions. We can only begin to achieve this by recognizing the term we use to be “climate change” and not “global warming.”
-Noah Hilles
Featured Image Credit: Lillian Li
climatechange foothilldragonpress foothilltechnology global warming rhetoric Trump
Immigration & a new life
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David Thompson, Canadian explorer and agent of the North West Company, reaches the mouth of the Columbia River and meets with Pacific Fur Company agents at Astoria on July 15, 1811.
On July 15, 1811, Canadian explorer David Thompson (1770-1857) reaches the mouth of the Columbia River after a historic voyage downriver from Kettle Falls. In addition to his scientific work as a geographer, Thompson is the fur agent in charge of the Columbia Department of the North West Company of Canada. He is on a mission to determine whether the Columbia is navigable from its upper reaches to the sea and whether it will provide a viable trade route for the fur company. Thompson also carries a message for members of John Jacob Astor’s Pacific Fur Company, who have recently reached the mouth of the Columbia on the ship Tonquin to establish a trading post called Astoria.
July 15: Astoria
"July 15th. Monday. A very fine day, somewhat cloudy. Staid ‘till 6:25 Am shaving & arranging ourselves, when we set off ... the Fog all along prevents me seeing well" (Thompson, Notebook 27).
Setting off from an uncomfortable campsite just upstream from the present town of Cathlamet, Thompson and his crew of French Canadian and Iroquois paddlers reached the isthmus of Tongue Point on the south shore of the Columbia around noon. After portaging across the narrow spit, they put back into the water, surrounded by harbor seals.
A mile and a half downstream, the seagoing members of John Jacob Astor’s Pacific Fur Company, who had reached the Columbia in March, had been building their new post, called Astoria. At least three journal keepers recorded the surprise arrival of visitors on July 15, 1811. Duncan McDougall, commander of the new fort, matter-of-factly noted: "Mr. Thomson of the N. W. Co. in Canada arrived about 1 p.m. in a Cedar Canoe (made after the manner of a bark Canoe) manned by eight Men" (Jones, 32).
Gabriel Franchere (1786-1863), a young clerk from Montreal who had signed on with Astor’s expedition for novelty and adventure, gave a more dramatic account:
"We saw a large canoe coming round the point, bearing a flag, ... which presently drew up alongside the small quay we had built ... . A relatively well-dressed man who seemed to be in command jumped ashore and approaching us without formality told us that his name was David Thompson, and that he was a partner in the North West Company" (Franchere, 87).
Alexander Ross (1783-1856), a Scottish schoolteacher who had left a job in Canada to serve as a clerk with the Astorians, described the event in his memoir:
"Mr. Thompson, northwest-like, came dashing down the Columbia in a light canoe, manned with eight Iroquois and an interpreter" (Ross, 85).
Mr. Astor’s Company
The three men in charge of the new fort -- Duncan McDougall (178?-1818), David Stuart (1765-1853), and his nephew Robert Stuart -- were all Canadians who had been recruited by Astor; at least one of them had formerly worked for the North West Company. Whether Thompson was already acquainted with any of them is not known, but by all accounts he was graciously received by the Astorians.
In addition to his scientific instruments, Thompson carried a copy of a resolution passed the previous summer by the North West Company directors, who had been negotiating with John Jacob Astor regarding a possible partnership on the Columbia River. Thompson obviously saw a need to formally state the nature of his visit, for he penned a letter on the day of his arrival summarizing his understanding of the relationship between his company and the Astorians.
"Gentlemen:
Permit me to congratulate you on your safe arrival & building in the mouth of the Columbia River. Your situation is such as to enable you with the aid of good Providence to command an extensive commerce & humanize numerous Indians in which I wish you success.
With pleasure I acquaint you that the Wintering Partners have acceded to the offer of Mr. Astor, accepting one third share of the business you are engaged in, their share of Capital not to exceed £10,000 without further permission -- I have only to hope that the respective parties at Montreal may finally settle the arrangements between the two Companies which in my opinion will be to our mutual Interest.
Accept of my best wishes for your health & that of the Young Gentlemen with you" (Bridgewater, 53).
The Astorians now found themselves in a dilemma, uncertain whether their visitor was a partner or a rival. When they had set sail from New York in September 1810, Astor had grown tired of waiting for an answer from the North West partners and had decided to launch his expedition without their support; as far as McDougall and the Stuarts knew, there was no joint agreement. But Thompson had evidence that perhaps a deal had been reached after all. According to McDougall,
"the surveyor told us that no doubt remained with him, but ere now a coalition of the two companies had taken place, regarding which he wrote us on his arrival, and also handed us an extract from a Letter (on the same subject) addressed to Mr. McGillivray of Montreal, by the wintering Partners" (Jones, 34).
This extract was a copy of the resolution passed by the wintering partners at the summer council of 1810 authorizing the deal with Astor, which Thompson had preserved through the many hardships of his cross-continent journey.
Neither Thompson nor the Astorians had any way of knowing for certain what had transpired on the opposite side of the continent over the past 10 months (in actuality, the negotiations had failed). Whatever their private thoughts and discussions on the matter, however, the Astorians chose to follow Thompson’s lead. The day after he arrived, they answered his letter with one of their own.
"We have the pleasure to acknowledge the receipt of your Note of yesterday, communicating the pleasant intelligence of the Wintering Partners of the North West Company having accepted Mr. Astor’s offer, of one third share of the Business we are engaged in, and with you sincerely wish that final arrangements may take place to the mutual satisfaction of both parties, which would inevitably secure to us every advantage that can possibly be drawn from the Business" (Bridgewater, 53).
According to all accounts, the leaders of the two parties spent the next week on the most cordial of terms; the acerbic Alexander Ross complained that McDougall treated Thompson "like a brother" and gave him free access to the fort "as if he had been one of ourselves." Ross thought Thompson a most suspicious character, and in his subsequent book titled a chapter about this incident "A Spy in the Camp," but he also theorized that McDougall was showering the Nor’Wester with a warm welcome to dupe him into revealing his true intentions.
If so, his efforts were less than successful, for Franchere reported that Thompson gave an "unfavorable description of the interior country" in order to discourage any ideas the Americans might have been entertaining about entering his domain. And despite their public display of accord, the Astorians were not being completely truthful either -- they claimed to be preparing to send a small group to meet their overland party, when in fact they were about to launch a trading expedition upstream.
Whatever political intrigue was brewing beneath the surface, one important aspect of Thompson’s visit was clearly evident. According to Franchere,
"This gentleman travelled as a geographer rather than as a fur-trader. During his stay of 7 or 8 days with us he had the opportunity of taking several observations, being in possession of a good sextant, and it seemed to me he kept a regular journal" (Franchere, 87).
Lithograph by T. C. Carpendale, Courtesy Library of Congress
Alexander Ross (1783-1856)
Courtesy Hudson's Bay Company
Gabriel Franchere (1786-1863), 1820
Sources: Barbara Belyea, Columbia Journals (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994); Dorothy Bridgewater, "John Jacob Astor Relative to His Settlement on the Columbia River," Yale University Gazette Vol. 24 (1949), pp. 47-69; Gabriel Franchere, Journal of a Voyage to the Northwest Coast of America ed. by W. Kaye Lamb (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1969); Annals of Astoria: The Headquarters Log of the Pacific Fur Company on the Columbia River, 1811-1813 ed. by Robert F. Jones (New York: Fordham University Press, 1999); Jack Nisbet, The Mapmaker’s Eye (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 2005); Jack Nisbet, Sources of the River (Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1994); Alexander Ross, Adventures of the First Settlers on the Oregon or Columbia River, 1810-1813, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1986); David Thompson, Notebook 27, F443, Archives of Ontario, Toronto; David Thompson, Travels, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto.
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HollywoodGlee
Tag Archives: John Cooper
#Sundance, Sundance Film Festival
2017 Sundance Film Festival: Competition And Next Lineup Announced
December 8, 2016 HollywoodGlee Leave a comment
Park City, UT — Sundance Institute convenes a full slate of provocative and agenda-setting independent films at the 2017 Sundance Film Festival, beginning with today’s announcement of the 66 films selected for U.S. Competition, World Competition and NEXT, as well as a slate of environmentally focused programming under the Festival’s The New Climate program. The Festival hosts screenings in Park City, Salt Lake City and at Sundance Mountain Resort January 19-29.
The Festival celebrates creativity and independence at the summit of the Institute’s year-round public programming, which also includes festivals in London, Hong Kong and Los Angeles. Sundance Institute programs support artists year-round, with more than $2.5 million in grants and 25 global residency Labs across theatre, film, New Frontier and episodic content.
Robert Redford, President and Founder of Sundance Institute, said, “From the passion and chaos of creativity, independent filmmakers make decisions to harness that energy, break new ground and tell their stories. This year’s Festival reflects every step of that journey, and shows how art can engage, provoke and connect people all over the world.”
Keri Putnam, Executive Director of Sundance Institute, said, “It’s more crucial now than ever to have storytellers illuminating the world around us. Artists help us better understand one another and recognize what we have in common. We are proud to champion and amplify original independent work through the Festival and our year-round programs.”
John Cooper, Director of the Sundance Film Festival, said, “The films in this year’s Festival show the human sides of issues, people and places we don’t often see. Independent filmmakers, with their fearless, bold perspectives, are challenging us to witness our world’s whole story. These artists, armed with their films, will lead us into the future.”
For the first time, the Festival is focusing its programming efforts to drive attention and action around a specific theme: climate change and environmental preservation. The New Climate program builds on the Institute’s longstanding commitment to showcasing environmental films and projects, including An Inconvenient Truth, Blackfish, The Cove, Gasland, Chasing Ice, Racing Extinction and Collisions. The program includes Chasing Coral, which follows a team of divers, photographers and scientists documenting the world’s changing coral reefs; Trophy, an in-depth look at the controversial, multi-billion-dollar big-game hunting industry; Water & Power: A California Heist, an investigation of California’s convoluted water system; and Plastic China, an examination of employee life at a Chinese recycling plant.
About The New Climate, Redford said, “My own engagement on climate change began more than 40 years ago, and the urgency I felt then has only grown stronger given its very real and increasingly severe consequences. If we’re going to avoid the worst-case scenario, then we must act boldly and immediately, even in the face of indifference, apathy and opposition.”
For the 2017 Festival, 113 feature-length films were selected, representing 32 countries and 37 first-time filmmakers, including 20 in competition. These films were selected from 13,782 submissions including 4,068 feature-length films and 8,985 short films. Of the feature film submissions, 2,005 were from the U.S. and 2,063 were international. Ninety-eight feature films at the Festival will be world premieres. In 2016, the Festival drew 46,600 attendees, generated $143.3 million in economic activity for the state of Utah and supported 1,400 local jobs.
Recent films that have premiered in the sections announced today include Morris From America, Beasts of the Southern Wild, Swiss Army Man, City of Gold, Fruitvale Station, The Diary of A Teenage Girl, Whiplash, Blackfish, Life, Animated, All These Sleepless Nights, Weiner and First Girl I Loved.
More films, including additional New Climate programming, will be announced soon; watch sundance.org/festival. Other films, including Premieres, Midnight and Kids were recently announced; click here PREMIERES, MIDNIGHT, KIDS, AND MORE
U.S. DRAMATIC COMPETITION
Presenting the world premieres of 16 narrative feature films, the Dramatic Competition offers Festivalgoers a first look at groundbreaking new voices in American independent film.
Band Aid / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Zoe Lister-Jones) — A couple who can’t stop fighting embark on a last-ditch effort to save their marriage: turning their fights into songs and starting a band. Cast: Zoe Lister-Jones, Adam Pally, Fred Armisen, Susie Essman, Hannah Simone, Ravi Patel. World Premiere
Beach Rats / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Eliza Hittman) — An aimless teenager on the outer edges of Brooklyn struggles to escape his bleak home life and navigate questions of self-identity, as he balances his time between his delinquent friends, a potential new girlfriend, and older men he meets online.Cast: Harris Dickinson, Madeline Weinstein, Kate Hodge, Neal Huff. World Premiere
Brigsby Bear / U.S.A. (Director: Dave McCary, Screenwriters: Kevin Costello, Kyle Mooney) — Brigsby Bear Adventures is a children’s TV show produced for an audience of one: James. When the show abruptly ends, James’s life changes forever, and he sets out to finish the story himself. Cast: Kyle Mooney, Claire Danes, Mark Hamill, Greg Kinnear, Matt Walsh, Michaela Watkins. World Premiere
Burning Sands / U.S.A. (Director: Gerard McMurray, Screenwriters: Christine Berg, Gerard McMurray) — Deep into a fraternity’s Hell Week, a favored pledge is torn between honoring a code of silence or standing up against the intensifying violence of underground hazing. Cast: Trevor Jackson, Alfre Woodard, Steve Harris, Tosin Cole, DeRon Horton, Trevante Rhodes. World Premiere
Crown Heights / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Matt Ruskin) — When Colin Warner is wrongfully convicted of murder, his best friend, Carl King, devotes his life to proving Colin’s innocence. Adapted from This American Life, this is the incredible true story of their harrowing quest for justice. Cast: Lakeith Stanfield, Nnamdi Asomugha, Natalie Paul, Bill Camp, Nestor Carbonell, Amari Cheatom. World Premiere
Golden Exits / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Alex Ross Perry) — The arrival of a young foreign girl disrupts the lives and emotional balances of two Brooklyn families. Cast: Emily Browning, Adam Horovitz, Mary-Louise Parker, Lily Rabe, Jason Schwartzman, Chloë Sevigny. World Premiere
The Hero / U.S.A. (Director: Brett Haley, Screenwriters: Brett Haley, Marc Basch) — Lee, a former Western film icon, is living a comfortable existence lending his golden voice to advertisements and smoking weed. After receiving a lifetime achievement award and unexpected news, Lee reexamines his past, while a chance meeting with a sardonic comic has him looking to the future. Cast: Sam Elliott, Laura Prepon, Krysten Ritter, Nick Offerman, Katharine Ross. World Premiere
I Don’t Feel at Home in This World Anymore / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Macon Blair) — When a depressed woman is burglarized, she finds a new sense of purpose by tracking down the thieves, alongside her obnoxious neighbor. But they soon find themselves dangerously out of their depth against a pack of degenerate criminals. Cast: Melanie Lynskey, Elijah Wood, David Yow, Jane Levy, Devon Graye. World Premiere. DAY ONE
Ingrid Goes West / U.S.A. (Director: Matt Spicer, Screenwriters: Matt Spicer, David Branson Smith) — A young woman becomes obsessed with an Instagram lifestyle blogger and moves to Los Angeles to try and befriend her in real life. Cast: Aubrey Plaza, Elizabeth Olsen, O’Shea Jackson Jr., Wyatt Russell, Billy Magnussen. World Premiere
Landline / U.S.A. (Director: Gillian Robespierre, Screenwriters: Elisabeth Holm, Gillian Robespierre) — Two sisters come of age in ’90s New York when they discover their dad’s affair—and it turns out he’s not the only cheater in the family. Everyone still smokes inside, no one has a cell phone and the Jacobs finally connect through lying, cheating and hibachi. Cast: Jenny Slate, John Turturro, Edie Falco, Abby Quinn, Jay Duplass, Finn Wittrock. World Premiere
Novitiate / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Maggie Betts) — In the early 1960s, during the Vatican II era, a young woman training to become a nun struggles with issues of faith, sexuality and the changing church. Cast: Margaret Qualley, Melissa Leo, Julianne Nicholson, Dianna Agron, Morgan Saylor. World Premiere
Patti Cake$ / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Geremy Jasper) — Straight out of Jersey comes Patricia Dombrowski, a.k.a. Killa P, a.k.a. Patti Cake$, an aspiring rapper fighting through a world of strip malls and strip clubs on an unlikely quest for glory. Cast: Danielle Macdonald, Bridget Everett, Siddharth Dhananjay, Mamoudou Athie, Cathy Moriarty. World Premiere
Roxanne Roxanne / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Michael Larnell) — The most feared battle MC in early-’80s NYC was a fierce teenager from the Queensbridge projects with the weight of the world on her shoulders. At age 14, hustling the streets to provide for her family, Roxanne Shanté was well on her way to becoming a hip-hop legend. Cast: Chanté Adams, Mahershala Ali, Nia Long, Elvis Nolasco, Kevin Phillips, Shenell Edmonds. World Premiere
To the Bone / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Marti Noxon) — In a last-ditch effort to battle her severe anorexia, 20-year-old Ellen enters a group recovery home. With the help of an unconventional doctor, Ellen and the other residents go on a sometimes-funny, sometimes-harrowing journey that leads to the ultimate question—is life worth living? Cast: Lily Collins, Keanu Reeves, Carrie Preston, Lili Taylor, Alex Sharp, Liana Liberato. World Premiere
Walking Out / U.S.A. (Directors and screenwriters: Alex Smith, Andrew Smith) — A father and son struggle to connect on any level until a brutal encounter with a predator in the heart of the wilderness leaves them both seriously injured. If they are to survive, the boy must carry his father to safety. Cast: Matt Bomer, Josh Wiggins, Bill Pullman, Alex Neustaedter, Lily Gladstone. World Premiere
The Yellow Birds / U.S.A. (Director: Alexandre Moors, Screenwriters: David Lowery, R.F.I. Porto) — Two young men enlist in the army and are deployed to fight in the Iraq War. After an unthinkable tragedy, the returning soldier struggles to balance his promise of silence with the truth and a mourning mother’s search for peace. Cast: Tye Sheridan, Jack Huston, Alden Ehrenreich, Jason Patric, Toni Collette, Jennifer Aniston. World Premiere
U.S. DOCUMENTARY COMPETITION
Sixteen world-premiere American documentaries that illuminate the ideas, people and events that shape the present day.
Casting JonBenet / U.S.A., Australia (Director: Kitty Green) — The unsolved death of six-year-old American beauty queen JonBenet Ramsey remains the world’s most sensational child murder case. Over 15 months, responses, reflections and performances were elicited from the Ramsey’s Colorado hometown community, creating a bold work of art from the collective memories and mythologies the crime inspired. World Premiere
Chasing Coral / U.S.A. (Director: Jeff Orlowski) — Coral reefs around the world are vanishing at an unprecedented rate. A team of divers, photographers and scientists set out on a thrilling ocean adventure to discover why and to reveal the underwater mystery to the world. World Premiere. THE NEW CLIMATE
City of Ghosts / U.S.A. (Director: Matthew Heineman) — With unprecedented access, this documentary follows the extraordinary journey of “Raqqa is Being Slaughtered Silently”—a group of anonymous citizen journalists who banded together after their homeland was overtaken by ISIS—as they risk their lives to stand up against one of the greatest evils in the world today. World Premiere
Dina / U.S.A. (Directors: Dan Sickles, Antonio Santini) — An eccentric suburban woman and a Walmart door-greeter navigate their evolving relationship in this unconventional love story. World Premiere
Dolores / U.S.A. (Director: Peter Bratt) — Dolores Huerta bucks 1950s gender conventions by co-founding the country’s first farmworkers’ union. Wrestling with raising 11 children, gender bias, union defeat and victory, and nearly dying after a San Francisco Police beating, Dolores emerges with a vision that connects her newfound feminism with racial and class justice. World Premiere
The Force / U.S.A. (Director: Pete Nicks) — This cinema verité look at the long-troubled Oakland Police Department goes deep inside their struggles to confront federal demands for reform, a popular uprising following events in Ferguson and an explosive scandal. World Premiere
ICARUS / U.S.A. (Director: Bryan Fogel) — When Bryan Fogel sets out to uncover the truth about doping in sports, a chance meeting with a Russian scientist transforms his story from a personal experiment into a geopolitical thriller involving dirty urine, unexplained death and Olympic Gold—exposing the biggest scandal in sports history. World Premiere
The New Radical / U.S.A. (Director: Adam Bhala Lough) — Uncompromising millennial radicals from the United States and the United Kingdom attack the system through dangerous technological means, which evolves into a high-stakes game with world authorities in the midst of a dramatically changing political landscape. World Premiere
NOBODY SPEAK: Hulk Hogan, Gawker and Trials of a Free Press / U.S.A. (Director: Brian Knappenberger) — The trial between Hulk Hogan and Gawker Media pitted privacy rights against freedom of the press, and raised important questions about how big money can silence media. This film is an examination of the perils and duties of the free press in an age of inequality. World Premiere
Quest / U.S.A. (Director: Jonathan Olshefski) — For over a decade, this portrait of a North Philadelphia family and the creative sanctuary offered by their home music studio was filmed with vérité intimacy. The family’s 10-year journey is an illumination of race and class in America, and it’s a testament to love, healing and hope. World Premiere
STEP / U.S.A. (Director: Amanda Lipitz) — The senior year of a girls’ high school step team in inner-city Baltimore is documented, as they try to become the first in their families to attend college. The girls strive to make their dancing a success against the backdrop of social unrest in their troubled city. World Premiere
Strong Island / U.S.A., Denmark (Director: Yance Ford) — Examining the violent death of the filmmaker’s brother and the judicial system that allowed his killer to go free, this documentary interrogates murderous fear and racialized perception, and re-imagines the wreckage in catastrophe’s wake, challenging us to change. World Premiere
Trophy / U.S.A. (Director: Shaul Schwarz, Co-Director: Christina Clusiau) — This in-depth look into the powerhouse industries of big-game hunting, breeding and wildlife conservation in the U.S. and Africa unravels the complex consequences of treating animals as commodities. World Premiere. THE NEW CLIMATE
Unrest / U.S.A. (Director: Jennifer Brea) — When Harvard PhD student Jennifer Brea is struck down at 28 by a fever that leaves her bedridden, doctors tell her it’s “all in her head.” Determined to live, she sets out on a virtual journey to document her story—and four other families’ stories—fighting a disease medicine forgot. World Premiere
Water & Power: A California Heist / U.S.A. (Director: Marina Zenovich) — In California’s convoluted water system, notorious water barons find ways to structure a state-engineered system to their own advantage. This examination into their centers of power shows small farmers and everyday citizens facing drought and a new, debilitating groundwater crisis. World Premiere. THE NEW CLIMATE
Whose Streets? / U.S.A. (Director: Sabaah Folayan, Co-Director: Damon Davis) — A nonfiction account of the Ferguson uprising told by the people who lived it, this is an unflinching look at how the killing of 18-year-old Michael Brown inspired a community to fight back—and sparked a global movement. World Premiere. DAY ONE
WORLD CINEMA DRAMATIC COMPETITION
Twelve films from emerging filmmaking talents around the world offer fresh perspectives and inventive styles.
Axolotl Overkill / Germany (Director and screenwriter: Helene Hegemann) — Mifti, age 16, lives in Berlin with a cast of characters including her half-siblings; their rich, self-involved father; and her junkie friend Ophelia. As she mourns her recently deceased mother, she begins to develop an obsession with Alice, an enigmatic, and much older, white-collar criminal. Cast: Jasna Fritzi Bauer, Arly Jover, Mavie Hörbiger, Laura Tonke, Hans Löw, Bernhard Schütz. World Premiere
Berlin Syndrome / Australia (Director: Cate Shortland, Screenwriter: Shaun Grant) — A passionate holiday romance takes an unexpected and sinister turn when an Australian photographer wakes one morning in a Berlin apartment and is unable to leave. Cast: Teresa Palmer, Max Riemelt. World Premiere
Carpinteros (Woodpeckers) / Dominican Republic (Director and screenwriter: José María Cabral) — Julián finds love and a reason for living in the last place imaginable: the Dominican Republic’s Najayo Prison. His romance with fellow prisoner Yanelly must develop through sign language and without the knowledge of dozens of guards. Cast: Jean Jean, Judith Rodriguez Perez, Ramón Emilio Candelario. World Premiere
Don’t Swallow My Heart, Alligator Girl! / Brazil, Netherlands, France, Paraguay (Director and screenwriter: Felipe Bragança) — In this fable about love and memories, Joca is a 13-year-old Brazilian boy in love with an indigenous Paraguayan girl. To conquer her love, he must face the violent region’s war-torn past and the secrets of his elder brother, Fernando, a motorcycle cowboy. Cast: Cauã Reymond, Eduardo Macedo, Adeli Gonzales, Zahy Guajajara, Claudia Assunção, Ney Matogrosso. World Premiere
Family Life / Chile (Directors: Alicia Scherson, Cristián Jiménez, Screenwriter: Alejandro Zambra) — While house-sitting for a distant cousin, a lonely man fabricates the existence of a vindictive ex-wife withholding his daughter, in order to gain the sympathy of the single mother he has just met. Cast: Jorge Becker, Gabriela Arancibia, Blanca Lewin, Cristián Carvajal. World Premiere
Free and Easy / Hong Kong (Director: Jun Geng, Screenwriters: Jun Geng, Yuhua Feng, Bing Liu) — When a traveling soap salesman arrives in a desolate Chinese town, a crime occurs, and sets the strange residents against each other with tragicomic results. Cast: Gang Xu, Zhiyong Zhang, Baohe Xue, Benshan Gu, Xun Zhang. World Premiere
God’s Own Country / United Kingdom (Director and screenwriter: Francis Lee) — Springtime in Yorkshire: isolated young sheep farmer Johnny Saxby numbs his daily frustrations with binge drinking and casual sex, until the arrival of a Romanian migrant worker, employed for the lambing season, ignites an intense relationship that sets Johnny on a new path. Cast: Josh O’Connor, Alec Secareanu, Ian Hart, Gemma Jones. World Premiere
My Happy Family / Germany, Georgia, France (Directors: Nana & Simon, Screenwriter: Nana Ekvtimishvili) — Tbilisi, Georgia, 2016: In a patriarchal society, an ordinary Georgian family lives with three generations under one roof. All are shocked when 52-year-old Manana decides to move out from her parents’ home and live alone. Without her family and her husband, a journey into the unknown begins. Cast: Ia Shugliashvili, Merab Ninidze, Berta Khapava, Tsisia Qumsishvili, Giorgi Tabidze, Dimitri Oragvelidze. World Premiere
The Nile Hilton Incident / Sweden (Director and screenwriter: Tarik Saleh) — In Cairo, weeks before the 2011 revolution, Police Detective Noredin is working in the infamous Kasr el-Nil Police Station when he is handed the case of a murdered singer. He soon realizes that the investigation concerns the power elite, close to the President’s inner circle. Cast: Fares Fares, Mari Malek, Mohamed Yousry, Yasser Ali Maher, Ahmed Selim, Hania Amar. World Premiere
Pop Aye / Singapore, Thailand (Director and screenwriter: Kirsten Tan) — On a chance encounter, a disenchanted architect bumps into his long-lost elephant on the streets of Bangkok. Excited, he takes his elephant on a journey across Thailand in search of the farm where they grew up together. Cast: Thaneth Warakulnukroh, Penpak Sirikul, Bong. World Premiere. DAY ONE
Sueño en otro idioma (I Dream in Another Language) / Mexico, Netherlands (Director: Ernesto Contreras, Screenwriter: Carlos Contreras) — The last two speakers of a millennia-old language haven’t spoken in 50 years, when a young linguist tries to bring them together. Yet hidden in the past, in the heart of the jungle, lies a secret concerning the fate of the Zikril language. Cast: Fernando Álvarez Rebeil, Eligio Meléndez, Manuel Poncelis, Fátima Molina, Juan Pablo de Santiago, Hoze Meléndez. World Premiere
The Wound / South Africa (Director: John Trengove, Screenwriters: John Trengove, Thando Mgqolozana, Malusi Bengu) — Xolani, a lonely factory worker, joins the men of his community in the mountains of the Eastern Cape to initiate a group of teenage boys into manhood. When a defiant initiate from the city discovers his best kept secret, Xolani’s entire existence begins to unravel. Cast: Nakhane Touré, Bongile Mantsai, Niza Jay Ncoyini. World Premiere
WORLD CINEMA DOCUMENTARY COMPETITION
Twelve documentaries by some of the most courageous and extraordinary international filmmakers working today.
The Good Postman / Finland, Bulgaria (Director: Tonislav Hristov) — In a small Bulgarian village troubled by the ongoing refugee crisis, a local postman runs for mayor—and learns that even minor deeds can outweigh good intentions. North American Premiere
In Loco Parentis / Ireland, Spain (Directors: Neasa Ní Chianáin, David Rane) — John and Amanda teach Latin, English and guitar at a fantastical, stately home-turned-school. Nearly 50-year careers are drawing to a close for the pair who have become legends with the mantra: “Reading! ’Rithmetic! Rock ’n’ roll!” But for pupil and teacher alike, leaving is the hardest lesson. North American Premiere
It’s Not Yet Dark / Ireland (Director: Frankie Fenton) — This is the incredible story of Simon Fitzmaurice, a young filmmaker who becomes completely paralyzed from motor neurone disease but goes on to direct an award-winning feature film through the use of his eyes. International Premiere
Joshua: Teenager vs. Superpower / U.S.A. (Director: Joe Piscatella) — When the Chinese Communist Party backtracks on its promise of autonomy to Hong Kong, teenager Joshua Wong decides to save his city. Rallying thousands of kids to skip school and occupy the streets, Joshua becomes an unlikely leader in Hong Kong and one of China’s most notorious dissidents. World Premiere
Last Men in Aleppo / Denmark, Syria (Directors: Feras Fayyad, Steen Johannessen) — After five years of war in Syria, Aleppo’s remaining residents prepare themselves for a siege. Khalid, Subhi and Mahmoud, founding members of The White Helmets, have remained in the city to help their fellow citizens—and experience daily life, death, struggle and triumph in a city under fire. World Premiere
Machines / India, Germany, Finland (Director: Rahul Jain) — This intimate, observant portrayal of the rhythm of life and work in a gigantic textile factory in Gujarat, India, moves through the corridors and bowels of the enormously disorienting structure—taking the viewer on a journey of dehumanizing physical labor and intense hardship. North American Premiere.
Motherland / U.S.A., Philippines (Director: Ramona Diaz) — The planet’s busiest maternity hospital is located in one of its poorest and most populous countries: the Philippines. There, poor women face devastating consequences as their country struggles with reproductive health policy and the politics of conservative Catholic ideologies. World Premiere
Plastic China / China (Director: Jiu-liang Wang) — Yi-Jie, an 11-year-old girl, works alongside her parents in a recycling facility while dreaming of attending school. Kun, the facility’s ambitious foreman, dreams of a better life. Through the eyes and hands of those who handle its refuse, comes an examination of global consumption and culture. International Premiere. THE NEW CLIMATE
RUMBLE: The Indians Who Rocked The World / Canada (Directors: Catherine Bainbridge, Alfonso Maiorana) — This powerful documentary about the role of Native Americans in contemporary music history—featuring some of the greatest music stars of our time—exposes a critical missing chapter, revealing how indigenous musicians helped shape the soundtracks of our lives and, through their contributions, influenced popular culture. World Premiere
Tokyo Idols / United Kingdom, Canada (Director: Kyoko Miyake) — This exploration of Japan’s fascination with girl bands and their music follows an aspiring pop singer and her fans, delving into the cultural obsession with young female sexuality and the growing disconnect between men and women in hypermodern societies. World Premiere
WINNIE / France (Director: Pascale Lamche) — While her husband served a life sentence, paradoxically kept safe and morally uncontaminated, Winnie Mandela rode the raw violence of apartheid, fighting on the front line and underground. This is the untold story of the mysterious forces that combined to take her down, labeling him a saint, her, a sinner. World Premiere
The Workers Cup / United Kingdom (Director: Adam Sobel) — Inside Qatar’s labor camps, African and Asian migrant workers building the facilities of the 2022 World Cup compete in a football tournament of their own. World Premiere. DAY ONE
Pure, bold works distinguished by an innovative, forward-thinking approach to storytelling populate this program. Digital technology paired with unfettered creativity promises that the films in this section will shape a “greater” next wave in American cinema. Presented by Adobe.
Columbus / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Kogonada) — Casey lives with her mother in a little-known Midwestern town haunted by the promise of modernism. Jin, a visitor from the other side of the world, attends to his dying father. Burdened by the future, they find respite in one another and the architecture that surrounds them. Cast: John Cho, Haley Lu Richardson, Parker Posey, Rory Culkin, Michelle Forbes. World Premiere
Dayveon / U.S.A. (Director: Amman Abbasi, Screenwriters: Amman Abbasi, Steven Reneau) — In the wake of his older brother’s death, 13-year-old Dayveon spends the sweltering summer days roaming his rural Arkansas town. When he falls in with a local gang, he becomes drawn to the camaraderie and violence of their world. Cast: Devin Blackmon, Kordell “KD” Johnson, Dontrell Bright, Chasity Moore, Lachion Buckingham, Marquell Manning. World Premiere. DAY ONE
Deidra & Laney Rob a Train / U.S.A. (Director: Sydney Freeland, Screenwriter: Shelby Farrell) — Two teenage sisters start robbing trains to make ends meet after their single mother’s emotional meltdown in an electronics store lands her in jail. Cast: Ashleigh Murray, Rachel Crow, Tim Blake Nelson, David Sullivan, Danielle Nicolet, Sasheer Zamata. World Premiere
A Ghost Story / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: David Lowery) — This is the story of a ghost and the house he haunts. Cast: Casey Affleck, Rooney Mara, Will Oldham, Sonia Acevedo, Rob Zabrecky, Liz Franke. World Premiere
Gook / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Justin Chon) — Eli and Daniel, two Korean American brothers who own a struggling women’s shoe store, have an unlikely friendship with 11-year-old Kamilla. On the first day of the 1992 L.A. riots, the trio must defend their store—and contemplate the meaning of family, their personal dreams and the future. Cast: Justin Chon, Simone Baker, David So, Curtiss Cook Jr., Sang Chon, Ben Munoz. World Premiere
L.A. Times / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Michelle Morgan) — In this classically styled comedy of manners set in Los Angeles, sophisticated thirtysomethings try to determine whether ideal happiness exists in coupledom or if the perfectly suited couple is actually just an urban myth. Cast: Michelle Morgan, Dree Hemingway, Jorma Taccone, Kentucker Audley, Margarita Levieva, Adam Shapiro. World Premiere
Lemon / U.S.A. (Director: Janicza Bravo, Screenwriters: Janicza Bravo, Brett Gelman) — A man watches his life unravel after he is left by his blind girlfriend. Cast: Brett Gelman, Judy Greer, Michael Cera, Nia Long, Shiri Appleby, Fred Melamed. World Premiere
Menashe / U.S.A. (Director: Joshua Z Weinstein, Screenwriters: Joshua Z Weinstein, Alex Lipschultz, Musa Syeed) — Within Brooklyn’s ultra-orthodox Jewish community, a widower battles for custody of his son. A tender drama performed entirely in Yiddish, the film intimately explores the nature of faith and the price of parenthood. Cast: Menashe Lustig. World Premiere
Person to Person / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Dustin Guy Defa) — A record collector hustles for a big score while his heartbroken roommate tries to erase a terrible mistake, a teenager bears witness to her best friend’s new relationship and a rookie reporter, alongside her demanding supervisor, chases the clues of a murder case involving a life-weary clock shop owner. Cast: Abbi Jacobson, Michael Cera, Tavi Gevinson, Philip Baker Hall, Bene Coopersmith, George Sample III. World Premiere
Thoroughbred / U.S.A. (Director and screenwriter: Cory Finley) — Two teenage girls in suburban Connecticut rekindle their unlikely friendship after years of growing apart. In the process, they learn that neither is what she seems to be—and that a murder might solve both of their problems. Cast: Olivia Cooke, Anya Taylor-Joy, Anton Yelchin, Paul Sparks, Francie Swift, Kaili Vernoff. World Premiere
Three films announced today were funded in part through Kickstarter campaigns: Dayveon, Gook and Unrest.
The Sundance Film Festival®
The Sundance Film Festival has introduced global audiences to some of the most groundbreaking films of the past three decades, including Boyhood, Beasts of the Southern Wild, Fruitvale Station, Whiplash, Brooklyn, Twenty Feet from Stardom, Life Itself, The Cove, The End of the Tour, Blackfish, Me and Earl and the Dying Girl, Super Size Me, Dope, Little Miss Sunshine, sex, lies, and videotape, Reservoir Dogs, Hedwig and the Angry Inch, An Inconvenient Truth, Precious and Napoleon Dynamite. The Festival is a program of the non-profit Sundance Institute®. 2017 Festival sponsors to date include: Presenting Sponsors – Acura, SundanceTV, Chase Sapphire®, and Canada Goose; Leadership Sponsors – Adobe, AT&T, DIRECTV, and YouTube; Sustaining Sponsors – American Airlines, Canon U.S.A., Inc., Francis Ford Coppola Winery, GEICO, Google VR,The Hollywood Reporter, IMDb, Jaunt, Kickstarter, Omnicom, Stella Artois® and the University of Utah Health. Sundance Institute recognizes critical support from the Utah Governor’s Office of Economic Development, and the State of Utah as Festival Host State. The support of these organizations helps offset the Festival’s costs and sustain the Institute’s year-round programs for independent artists. Look for the Official Sponsor seal at their venues at the Festival. sundance.org/festival
Founded in 1981 by Robert Redford, Sundance Institute is a nonprofit organization that provides and preserves the space for artists in film, theatre, and new media to create and thrive. The Institute’s signature Labs, granting, and mentorship programs, dedicated to developing new work, take place throughout the year in the U.S. and internationally. The Sundance Film Festival and other public programs connect audiences to artists in igniting new ideas, discovering original voices, and building a community dedicated to independent storytelling. Sundance Institute has supported such projects as Beasts of the Southern Wild, Fruitvale Station, Sin Nombre, The Invisible War, The Square, Dirty Wars, Spring Awakening, A Gentleman’s Guide to Love and Murder and Fun Home.
(Source: http://www.sundance.org)
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Home>Press Release>Minister Finian McGrath appoints Christy Lynch as Chair of the Task Force on Personalised Budgets
Minister Finian McGrath appoints Christy Lynch as Chair of the Task Force on Personalised Budgets
Minister of State for Disabilities, Finian McGrath T.D., today appointed Mr Christy Lynch, Chief Executive Officer, KARE, to head the Task Force on Personalised Budgets.
The Task Force will have two components – a Strategy Group and an Advisory & Consultative Group – which together will form the Task Force. Mr. Lynch will chair the Strategy Group as well as the overall Task Force. Ms. Siobhan Barron, Chief Executive Officer, National Disability Authority, will chair the Advisory & Consultative Group.
The Task Force’s remit will be to make recommendations on a personalised budgets model which will give people with disabilities more control in accessing health-funded personal social services, giving them greater independence and choice in accessing services which best meet their individual needs.
In welcoming Mr. Lynch’s appointment, the Minister said “One of the key aims of the Government is to provide services and supports for people with disabilities which will empower them to live independent lives, provide them with greater independence in accessing the services they choose, and enhance their ability to tailor the supports required to meet their needs and plan their lives. The establishment of a Task Force on Personalised Budgets is a key element in progressing this aim. Personalised budgets will transfer control back to where it rightfully belongs – the individual with a disability – and will give individuals the freedom to source the services and supports which best meet their needs.”
“Christy is highly respected in the disability sector and has played a significant role in the development of disability policy in Ireland. His pioneering work on promoting equal employment opportunities for people with disabilities is recognised both in this country and internationally” said the Minister. “I am also delighted that Siobhan Barron has agreed to Chair the Advisory & Consultative Group, which in my opinion will be pivotal to the work of the Task Force by giving a voice to those with lived experience of disability.”
The process of appointing members to the Strategy Group and an Advisory & Consultative Group will start immediately, and the first meeting of the Task Force will be arranged as soon as practicable.
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He can compress the most words into the smallest ideas better than any man I ever met. — Abraham Lincoln
Stories from English History: I - Alfred J. Church
William, King of England
For one-and-twenty years did the Conqueror reign in England. Not a little good did he do in his new kingdom. First of all, so strong and resolute was he, he made all men, however great and powerful they might be, understand that they must obey the laws. He caused equal justice to be administered between man and man. He forbade all buying and selling of slaves. He brought not a few learned men into the country, caused the clergy to do their duty better, and greatly encouraged the building of splendid churches.
Nevertheless the English people suffered many things at his hands. For, first, he was constrained to reward those who had helped him to win the kingdom, nor could he so reward but by spoiling others of goods and lands. Few indeed were the parishes throughout the whole country in which an Englishman was not dispossessed of his estate that it might be given to some follower of the King.
Then the English people again and again rebelled against him, and, being subdued, were, almost of necessity, severely treated. Lastly, he himself became more stern and more cruel, more selfish, more bent on having his own way and following his own pleasure without care or concern for others. Doubtless it was a good thing for England that it should have been conquered, even, one may say, that it should have been conquered by William of Normandy. Nevertheless it was but little of this good thing that came to the Englishmen of that time.
The trouble began with the very day on which Duke William was crowned, to wit the Christmas of the year in which he came to England. Fearing lest the people of London, who were ill-disposed to him, should attack him, he posted round the Abbey of Westminster, in which he was to be crowned, a great body of Norman soldiers. At the very moment when the Archbishop was putting the crown upon the King's head, asking the English that were in the church whether they were willing to have William, Duke of Normandy for their king, and the people had answered that they were so willing, there was a great cry outside. The soldiers had fallen upon the houses of the citizens, and had begun to plunder and set them on fire. The English that were in the church fled for their lives, and the Normans made haste to get their share of the spoil. So William was left alone in the church with the bishops and clerks. Still he would not have the matter delayed, and so was crowned. But when he swore that he would rule as justly as had any of the kings that had reigned before him, he added these words, "So that the people be true to me."
Many times did the English people rise against their Norman King. The fiercest of all their rebellions was in Northumberland, and this was most cruelly punished. He laid waste the whole land from north to south, from east to west. Every house was burnt with all that was in it; the stores of corn and hay and other food for man and beast were destroyed; the very animals were driven into the flames and burnt. For years to come the fields in many parts lay desolate, and the towns were without inhabitants.
This land of Northumbria he laid waste in his anger; to another region of England, in the south, he did the same for his pleasure. Of all things, that which William loved the best was hunting, and in order that he might enjoy this sport without hindrance, he cleared in the county of Hampshire a great space of land—thirty miles it was from end to end. Before it had been a flourishing region, fair and fertile, with many houses and churches. Now it was laid waste, given over to the beasts that the King loved to hunt. There seemed to be a curse on the place. Here one of the King's sons, Richard by name, was killed, struck by the bough of a tree, as he was hunting a stag; here, as will be told in the next chapter, another son, William, who reigned after him, met his death; here a grandson also perished by the chance blow from the arrow of a companion.
A NORMAN KING HUNTING.
As he grew to be an old man, trouble upon trouble came upon William; nor had there ever been known, either in England or in Normandy, a darker time than the year in which he died. Grievous storms destroyed the harvest, so that many men died of hunger; many towns with their churches were burnt, London among them, with its great cathedral of St. Paul's; many evil deeds were done, and there were many wars. As for William himself, he met his death in a war that he waged with King Philip of France. They were at variance about a certain district on the border of France and Normandy. The French King had taken possession of it, but King William claimed it as his own. He had been lying sick at Rouen, the chief town of the Duchy, and had been angered by a foolish jest of King Philip's. Rising from his bed, he rode forth to take vengeance. He wasted all the land that was in dispute between him and the French King, and when he came to the chief town that was in it, he burnt it, churches as well as houses, to the ground. As he rode among the ruins, his horse put its foot on a piece of burning wood and stumbled. The King was thrown forward on the saddle and so grievously hurt, for he was very heavy, that he had to be carried home. There he lay dying for some weeks, and as he lay, he sorely repented him of his many misdeeds, confessing that he had caused the death of many thousands of innocent people, and had taken away their possessions by force from many. Two of his sons were with him—the eldest, Robert by name, had been banished. When he came to speak of who should have his kingdoms after him, he said, "Robert must have Normandy; it is his of right. As for England, I cannot give away that which is not mine, but my desire is, if it may be, that William, who has ever been faithful to me, may have it." Then said Henry, his youngest son, "And what dost thou give me, my father?" "Five thousand pounds of silver from my hoard," said the King. "But what good shall the silver do me, if I have no place in which to dwell?" The King answered, "Be patient, my son, and let thy elders go before thee." The King then bade William set out at once for England. Henry also left his father that he might make sure of getting his treasure. After this the King made provision for the building again of the churches which he had caused to be destroyed; he commanded that the rest of his treasure should be given to the poor, and for the building of churches and the like uses. Certain rebels whom he had cast into prison he ordered to be released. And so, having done what he could to make his peace with God and man, the Conqueror died.
But it was not to be that he should be buried in peace. As the body was being carried to the grave a fire broke out, and seemed likely to destroy a great part of the town. Most of those that followed the coffin left their place in the procession that they might save their possessions. Nor was this all. When the preacher had spoken of all the great deeds of the dead man, he said, "Let all that are here present pray for his soul; let them beg that God may forgive his trespasses against Him; let them forgive themselves anything in which he may have trespassed against them."
When he had said these words, a certain knight stood forward and said, "On this very ground whereon ye now stand, once stood my father's house. This man, whom ye are burying here to-day, took the land away from him by force and against all right, and built this church upon it. I now claim it for my own, and forbid you to bury the body of this robber within the borders of my lawful inheritance."
Thereupon the bishops inquired of them that stood by whether these things were so. When they heard that the man had spoken the truth, they covenanted with him that he should sell to them so much land as was needed for the grave for sixty shillings, and they promised that in due time they would pay him the full price for the whole. Thus was the Conqueror buried.
Caius and His Grandfather
Coming of Julius Caesar
Coming of Julius Caesar (cont.)
King Caractacus
Boadicea (cont.)
The Story of Vortigern
The Story of King Arthur
How England Became Christian
How England Became Christian (cont.)
King Alfred
King Athelstan at Brunanburgh
The Story of King Canute
Harold the Earl
Harold the King
Harold the King (cont.)
William, Duke of Normandy
The Red King
Thomas Becket, The Chancellor
Thomas Becket, The Archbishop
King Richard's Crusade
King Richard's Crusade (cont.)
The Story of Prince Edward
The Battle of Bannockburn
The Battle of Sluys
The Battle of Crecy
How Calais Was Taken
The Great Battle of Poitiers
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Hours After Giving a Sermon About Taking Action Against Evil, Pastor Shoots Armed Carjacker
by Jenni Fink June 24, 2018, 10:23 am 36.5k Views 9 Votes
Hours after delivering his Father’s Day sermon, Assembly of God Church pastor David George, who is also a volunteer firefighter, subdued an armed carjacker at a Washington state Walmart.
According to The Washington Post, George’s Father’s Day sermon was titled “The Value of MENtoring” and encouraged his congregation to take action against evil.
“Lord,” his final prayer said, “don’t let us be content as men to just let life go by, to see the world around us burn. God, instead, help us to get involved.”
After church let out, George, his wife, daughter, and granddaughter went to the Tumwater Walmart and heard gunshots from the back of the store.
The suspect had already stolen one car earlier in the day and, after firing a few rounds in Walmart, attempted to steal a car in the parking lot.
When the car’s driver refused, he shot him and then attempted to steal a different car, which is when George moved to have a “safe shot” at the man, who died from his gunshot wounds.
“I carry a firearm for the same reason I carry a first aid bag, hoping never having to use them but being prepared nonetheless,” he said in a statement.
The pastor added, “I acted on Sunday to protect my family and others from the gunman and his display of obvious deadly intent.”
He also explained in the statement that he is fully qualified to carry a firearm, including:
Being a concealed weapon carrier and permit holder with “significant training” in using a firearm
Receiving active shooter training as a volunteer firefighter
Being a credentialed Range Safety Officer
While George’s heroic actions have been praised and he has been cleared of any legal wrongdoing, he said in his statement that he largely wanted to remain out of the public’s eye.
Among other reasons, he delayed coming forward out of consideration for the lives of everyone impacted by the event, including those close to the gunman.
“My family, my congregation and I are praying for the gunshot victim’s full recovery and for all those that are suffering as a result of Sunday night’s tragic events, including the shooter’s family,” he said.
Brian Adams, who reportedly aided the shooting victim, and Megan Chadwick, who was at the store, both agreed that George’s actions earned him the label of “hero.”
“I thanked him for saving my life,” witness Robert Berwick said.
According to the Seattle Times, the suspect was identified as Tim O. Day, who has a criminal history of violating a domestic violence protection order, felony assault, and making death threats.
Protesters Heckle Florida Attorney General Outside ‘Anti-Bullying’ Mr. Rogers Movie
Trump Urges Dems to Find Fix on Immigration: ‘Don’t RESIST’
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Demolition, Stop Construction Notices Served for Nine Residential Structures
July 30, 2015 8:52 AM IMEMC & Agencies Hebron, News Report, Refugees/Immigration 0
Israeli forces Wednesday handed Palestinians in Masafer Yatta, an area to the south of Hebron, notices notifying them of their intentions to demolish two residential tents and ordering them to stop the construction work on seven residential structures, according to a local activist.Coordinator of the anti wall and settlement popular committee in southern Hebron, Rateb al-Jabour, informed WAFA that forces stormed two areas in Yatta and handed locals there notices ordering them to stop the construction work on their homes, which shelter them and their families.
The locals who received notices were identified as Ahmad, Jibril, Mahmoud, Jamil, Ali, Yasir, Khalil, and Ismail Abu Ira’am.
Forces further handed Othman Abu Qabita a notice informing him of their intentions to demolish his two residential tents, which shelter him and his family of 11 members.
Jabour condemned the Israeli practices, which he stressed, aim to make it difficult for the original Palestinian owners of the land to live there, thus forcing them out of their land for the benefit of settlements expansion.
OCHA said that, “Thousands of Palestinians throughout the occupied Palestinian territory (oPt) have been forcibly displaced or are at acute risk of forced displacement as a result of multiple factors, including policies and practices related to the ongoing military occupation and recurrent hostilities between Israel and Palestinian armed groups.”
It stressed that, “Forced displacement has a series of immediate and longer-term physical, socio-economic and psycho-social impacts on Palestinian families.”
“It deprives them of their home and land – often their main asset – and frequently results in disruption to livelihoods, a reduced standard of living and limited access to basic services. The impact on children can be particularly devastating.”
It noted that in Area C and East Jerusalem, each year hundreds of Palestinian homes and other structures are demolished due to the lack of Israeli-issued building permits. “The restrictive planning system makes it almost impossible for Palestinians to obtain permits, while providing preferential treatment for Israeli settlements.”
Most Palestinians are forced to build without a permit to meet their needs. In many cases, displacement is due to cumulative pressure created by a combination of factors, including settler violence, movement restrictions (including the Barrier) and restricted access to services and resources, said OCHA.
It said that, “Despite a decline in the number of structures demolished in 2014 compared to 2013 (601 vs. 663), the number of people displaced increased by almost 10 per cent.”
Four houses were demolished on punitive grounds in 2014 for the first time since 2005, added OCHA.
On average 64 structures were demolished in 2015 on a monthly basis in the first three months of 2015, which is higher than its equivalent figures in 2014 and 2013 (51 and 53, respectively, reported OCHA.
See also: Netanyahu Approves Hundreds of New Settlement Units
« Hamas Rejects Fateh’s Demand for Gaza Rule Soldiers Assault And Kidnap Children In Jerusalem, Many Injured »
IMEMC & Agencies
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Gravesham (/ˈɡreɪvʃəm/ GRAYV-shəm) is a local government district with borough status in north-west Kent, England. Its administrative centre[1] and largest town is Gravesend, which was known as Gravesham in ancient times.
Gravesham was formed on 1 April 1974 by the merger of the Municipal Borough of Gravesend with Northfleet Urban District and part of Strood Rural District, under the Local Government Act 1972. It borders the Borough of Dartford and Sevenoaks District to the west, the Borough of Tonbridge and Malling to the south, the Medway unitary authority to the east and the Thurrock unitary authority of Essex to the north, via the River Thames.
Gravesham is twinned with Cambrai in Picardy, France. The present borders of Gravesham parliamentary constituency are almost the same as those of the borough.
Borough of Gravesham
Borough & Non-metropolitan district
Gravesham located within Kent
Member of Parliament (Conservative)
• MP
Adam Holloway
1.0% Chinese or Other
29UG (ONS)
TQ647740
www.gravesham.gov.uk
Kent coat of arms
Robert Heath Hiscock LL.B., F.S.A., Chairman of the Gravesend Historical Society, in the foreword to his book, 'A History of Gravesend' (Phillimore, 1976) wrote:
"The name Gravesham appears only in the Domesday Book, 1086, and was probably the error of a Norman scribe. It was 'Gravesend' in the Domesday Monarchorum c.1100, and 'Gravesende' in the Textus Roffensis c. 1100. It is strange that this "clerical error" should now have been adopted as the name of the new Council".
Housing and architecture
Housing varies from mid rise to low rise, particularly in the villages. The district has 12 buildings listed in the highest category of the national grading system, Grade I, three of which are private residences:
Gadshill Place in Higham
Luddesdown Court in Luddesdown
Nurstead Court in Meopham
Cobham Hall, also in the highest architectural category,[2] is a stately home which was formerly the seat of the Earls of Darnley: since 1965 it has been an independent girls' school. Cobham Park is Grade II*-listed which is listed separately in the gardens and parklands category of classification approved by the Department of Culture, Media and Sport;[3] and includes the remains of a Roman villa.[4][5]
The other Grade I-listed buildings in the borough comprise its ancient parish churches.
List of civil parishes in Kent
^ Reserved, Gravesham Borough Council - All Rights (1 January 2016). "Home". www.gravesham.gov.uk.
^ Cobham Hall Historic England. "Details from listed building database (1000182)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 1 June 2014.
^ "Gravesham Listed Building Guidance Notes".
^ Historic England. "Details from listed building database (1012964)". National Heritage List for England. Retrieved 1 June 2014.
Gravesham Borough Council YouTube channel
About Gravesend website
Coordinates: 51°24′32″N 0°23′56″E / 51.409°N 0.399°E
1999 Gravesham Borough Council election
The 1999 Gravesham Borough Council election took place on 6 May 1999 to elect members of Gravesham Borough Council in Kent, England. The whole council was up for election and the Labour party stayed in overall control of the council.
The 2003 Gravesham Borough Council election took place on 1 May 2003 to elect members of Gravesham Borough Council in Kent, England. The whole council was up for election with boundary changes since the last election in 1999. The Labour party stayed in overall control of the council.
The 2007 Gravesham Borough Council election took place on 3 May 2007 to elect members of Gravesham Borough Council in Kent, England. The whole council was up for election and the Conservative party gained overall control of the council from the Labour party.
The 2011 Gravesham Borough Council election took place on 5 May 2011 to elect members of Gravesham Borough Council in Kent, England. The whole council was up for election and the Labour party gained overall control of the council from the Conservative party.
The 2015 Gravesham Borough Council election took place on 7 May 2015 to elect members of the Gravesham Borough Council in England. It was held on the same day as other local elections. The Conservative Party gained control of the council from the Labour Party.
The 2019 Gravesham Borough Council election took place on 2 May 2019 to elect members of the Gravesham Borough Council in Kent, England. It was held on the same day as other local elections. The Labour Party gained control of the council from the Conservative Party.
Cobham, Kent
Cobham () is a village and civil parish in the Gravesham District of Kent, England. It is located south of Watling Street, the old road from Dover to London, six miles south-east of Gravesend. The hamlet of Sole Street lies within the parish, which covers an area of 1,240 ha and has a population of 1,328. (2001 census), increasing to 1,469 at the 2011 census.The village is in a Conservation Area and as such remains relatively unspoilt. The parish church is 13th century and is dedicated to St Mary Magdalene, and has monumental brasses which are reputedly the finest in England. Thirteen of the brasses belong to the years 1320–1529 and commemorate members of the Brooke and Cobham families. The church in Luddesdown, part of the ecclesiastical parish, is dedicated to St Peter and St Paul. Next to the church in the village is Cobham College, a one-time home for secular priests, and now acting as almshouses.
Cobham does not appear as a separate manor in the Domesday Book, so the village and parish were probably established later than 1086. The Cobham family was established here before the reign of King John (who reigned from 1199). Cobham Parish was originally in the ancient hundred of Shamwell.Cobham Hall was the former 17th-century home of the Earls of Darnley: its gardens were designed by Humphry Repton and the surrounding woods contain the Darnley Mausoleum, a Grade I listed building now undergoing restoration. The Earls of Darnley left in 1957, and since 1962, the Hall has been a public school for girls (Cobham Hall School); it opens to the public on some occasions in the year.
There are two areas of open space in the parish: Cobham Park, which includes extensive woodlands; and Jeskyns, a one-time farm of 360 acres (147 ha), which has been turned into a greenspace area by the Forestry Commission.
Cobham has strong links with Charles Dickens, who used to walk out to the village: he set part of The Pickwick Papers there. Other personalities connected with Cobham include Sir Joseph Williamson, and the insane artist Richard Dadd, who murdered his father near here in 1843. The Hon Ivo Bligh, who became the 8th Earl of Darnley, was the first English cricket captain to attempt to recover The Ashes from Australia in the late 19th century. Comedian Joe Pasquale lives in the area and owns land adjoining the estate of Cobham Hall.
The village was also linked to its namesake HMS Cobham, a Ham-class minesweeper which was an active Royal Navy vessel between 1953 and 1966.
DA postcode area
The DA postcode area, also known as the Dartford postcode area, is a group of eighteen postcode districts in England, which are subdivisions of eleven post towns. These postcode districts cover parts of south-east London and north-west Kent.
The main sorting office in Dartford ceased operating in 2012 and became a Delivery Office. The area served includes most of the London Borough of Bexley and very small parts of the London Borough of Bromley and the Royal Borough of Greenwich, while in Kent it covers almost all of the Borough of Dartford, most of the Gravesham district, the northeastern part of the Sevenoaks district and a very small part of the borough of Tonbridge and Malling.
Grade II* listed buildings in Kent
The county of Kent is divided into 13 districts. The districts of Kent are Ashford, Canterbury, Dartford, Dover, Folkestone and Hythe, Gravesham, Maidstone, Medway, Tonbridge and Malling, Tunbridge Wells, Sevenoaks, Swale and Thanet.
As there are 971 Grade II* listed buildings in the county they have been split into separate lists for each district.
Grade II* listed buildings in Ashford (borough)
Grade II* listed buildings in City of Canterbury
Grade II* listed buildings in Dartford (borough)
Grade II* listed buildings in Dover (district)
Grade II* listed buildings in Folkestone and Hythe
Grade II* listed buildings in Gravesham
Grade II* listed buildings in Maidstone (borough)
Grade II* listed buildings in Medway
Grade II* listed buildings in Sevenoaks (district)
Grade II* listed buildings in Swale
Grade II* listed buildings in Thanet
Grade II* listed buildings in Tonbridge and Malling
Grade II* listed buildings in Tunbridge Wells (borough)
Grade I listed buildings in Kent
The county of Kent is divided into 13 districts. The districts of Kent are Ashford, Canterbury, Dartford, Dover, Gravesham, Maidstone, Medway, Tonbridge and Malling, Tunbridge Wells, Sevenoaks, Shepway, Swale and Thanet.
As there are 435 Grade I listed buildings in the county they have been split into separate lists for each district.
Grade I listed buildings in Ashford (borough)
Grade I listed buildings in City of Canterbury
Grade I listed buildings in Dartford (borough)
Grade I listed buildings in Dover (district)
Grade I listed buildings in Gravesham
Grade I listed buildings in Maidstone
Grade I listed buildings in Medway
Grade I listed buildings in Tonbridge and Malling
Grade I listed buildings in Tunbridge Wells (borough)
Grade I listed buildings in Sevenoaks (district)
Grade I listed buildings in Shepway
Grade I listed buildings in Swale
Grade I listed buildings in Thanet
Gravesend is an ancient town in northwest Kent, England, situated 21 miles (35 km) east-southeast of Charing Cross (central London) on the south bank of the Thames Estuary and opposite Tilbury in Essex. Located in the diocese of Rochester, it is the administrative centre of the Borough of Gravesham.
Its geographical situation has given Gravesend strategic importance throughout the maritime and communications history of South East England. A Thames Gateway commuter town, it retains strong links with the River Thames, not least through the Port of London Authority Pilot Station and has witnessed rejuvenation since the advent of High Speed 1 rail services via Gravesend railway station.
Gravesham (UK Parliament constituency)
Gravesham is a constituency in Kent represented in the House of Commons of the UK Parliament since 2005 by Adam Holloway, a Conservative.
Gravesham Borough Council is the local authority for the Borough of Gravesham in Kent.
Gravesham Borough Council elections
Gravesham Borough Council in Kent, England is elected every four years. Since the last boundary changes in 2003, 44 councillors have been elected from 18 wards.
Meopham
Meopham is a large linear village and civil parish in the Borough of Gravesham and ceremonial county of Kent, in England, and lies to the south of Gravesend. The parish covers 6.5 square miles (17 km2), and comprises two villages and two smaller settlements; it has a population of 6,427 increasing slightly to 6,722 at the 2011 census. Meopham is sometimes described as the longest in England although others such as Brinkworth, Wiltshire make the same claim. Meopham is one of the longest linear settlements in Europe, being 7 miles (11 km) in length.
Meopham railway station
Meopham railway station is on the Chatham Main Line in England, serving the village of Meopham, Kent. It is 25 miles 76 chains (41.8 km) down the line from London Victoria and is situated between Longfield and Sole Street.
The station and all trains that call are operated by Southeastern.
The extant station is a prefabricated building erected in 1971 to British Rail's CLASP design.
Northfleet is a town in the Gravesham Borough of Kent. It borders the Dartford Borough. It is immediately west of Gravesend and on a western border has its own railway station about a hundred metres east of Ebbsfleet International railway station.
Northfleet Technology College
Northfleet Technology College (formerly Northfleet School for Boys) is located in Northfleet, Kent. It is an all-boys school that offers secondary education for students aged 11+.
As part of the Building Schools for the Future programme, a new school building was opened in 2010, with state of the art vocational learning areas.
Statue of General Gordon
A bronze statue of General Charles George Gordon by Hamo Thornycroft stands on a stone plinth in the Victoria Embankment Gardens in London. It has been Grade II listed since 1970. A similar statue stands at Gordon Reserve, near Parliament House in Melbourne, Australia, on its original tall plinth.
A different memorial statue by Edward Onslow Ford, depicting Gordon on a camel, stands at Brompton Barracks, Chatham, with another formerly in Khartoum and now at Gordon's School near Woking. There are further memorial statues to Gordon in Aberdeen; in Gravesham, where the full length stone statue depicts Gordon in his army uniform with a sabre; and there is a Grade II listed monument to Gordon in Southampton.
Towns and villages in the Borough of Gravesham
Culverstone Green
Harvel
Istead Rise
Luddesdown
Meopham Green
Painters Ash
Singlewell or Ifield
Shorne
Sole Street
Springhead
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All studies at ISM are validated with the Spanish Ministry. If pupils wish to enter Spanish universities, at present they take the ‘Selectividad para Extranjeros’ exams and may also apply directly to these universities, if private, with their Advanced Levels. Some universities may want them to do a test. Since 1999, when our first pupils went to universities, ISM pupils have achieved places at universities all over the world, such as the UK, the US, India, Spain and many other countries. For recent lists please see the ‘Exam results 2017’ document from the office or the web page section on universities.
UK: Some examples are Oxford, Cambridge, Imperial College (London), King’s College (London), The University of Surrey, The Royal Holloway College (London University), London Metropolitan University, the University of Bristol, Bath, Kingston University (London),Surrey School of Art and Design, the University of Kent.
Other universities: in the USA and Canada: Savannah College of Art and Design (USA), Chicago, Ohio, the American University of Paris, Montreal amongst a number of other US and Canadian colleges and universities.
Spain: the state Autónoma, Complutense, Carlos III and Politécnica universities; Comillas, ICADE (E2, E4, etc.), Instituto de Empresa (I.E.) , I.C.A.I., CEU, CUNEF, and Villanueva are some examples in Madrid. Some American Universities have a campus in Madrid, such as St. Louis, Schiller and Suffolk. Other Spanish universities include the Universities of Navarra and Alcalá de Henares.
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Virginia Car Accident Occupant Airlifted to a Hospital for Emergency Treatment
WVVA.com reported on December 1, 2013 that a person was flown out of Tazewell County after a car accident the previous Sunday. The accident happened in the afternoon on Route 460 near Pounding Mill, Virginia. Another person was taken to Tazewell Community Hospital. Only one vehicle was involved in the accident.
When a car accident happens, first responders will immediately investigate if anyone was hurt. If there were injuries, an ambulance or medical team will be called to the scene. Most times, victims are taken to a local hospital. Sometimes, however, the injuries may be life threatening. In these cases, a victim may be flown to another hospital via air ambulance (helicopter) for several reasons:
It may be faster to get the person to a hospital by flying them there, than by ambulance.
The local hospitals may not be able to provide the necessary services. For example, they may not have a skilled neurosurgery team.
It may be the wish of the relative of the injured person.
Modern medicine often performs miracles if the medical team can see the patient in time to treat them.
Joe Miller Helps Accident Victims
If you or a loved one has been injured in Norfolk, an experienced legal team can help you to understand the full range of legal options available to you. Attorney Joe Miller at Joe Miller Law, Ltd., has successfully negotiated or tried hundreds of accident cases and is ready to put his years of experience and success to work for you. To learn more, contact us today by calling (888) 694-1671.
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Disability Independence Group Blog
Expanding Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities
Deaf Rights
Factual Articles
Intern and Staff Stories
Notes from Matt
Kiddle’s Ordinance
By: Matthew Dietz
On July 6, 2014, Nancy Alfonso’s worst nightmare occurred while she was having lunch at a restaurant in Doral with her friend Luz Rosenthal. Nancy’s guide dog Kiddle and Luz’s guide dog Chelsea were with the friends, when Kiddle became violently ill and started vomiting inside the restaurant. An emergency veterinarian was about a mile away, and no one would help.
The restaurant called 911, but they did not assist animals. An off-duty police officer was at the restaurant and would not help. He said, “Ah – it’s a dog” and went back to his seat. Forty-five minutes passed before a Good Samaritan drove Kiddle to the vet. Unfortunately, it was too late, and Kiddle died.
NBC Miami http://www.nbcmiami.com/news/local/911-Call-Shows-Paralyzed-System-When-Service-Dog-Needed-Help-267721061.html covered this tragedy, and everyone wanted to know what could be done. The Americans with Disabilities Act protects people, not animals, no matter how much that animal is part of a team leading to independence. As part of the report, Disability Independence Group was called as the “disability expert.” However, instead of saying nothing could be done, Matthew Dietz wrote an ordinance for the City of Doral so a first responder would have a duty to assist and drive a service animal to an emergency veterinarian when the person
with a disability does not have transportation. He called it “Kiddle’s
Ordinance” in memory of Nancy Alfonso’s dog.
Luz Rosenfeld, who advocates for the visually impaired through her
organization, Fundación para Invidentes https://www.facebook.com/FundaInvidente/timeline?ref=page_internal, is active in community life in the City of Doral. She contacted her city commissioners, and immediately Vice Mayor Christi Fraga sponsored the ordinance, and Doral Mayor Luigi Boria proposed it. Councilwoman Bettina Rodriguez Aguilera would like to go further and proposed to add to this ordinance an ADA Police Sensitivity Training Program and a Responsible Vendor Program, so Doral businesses and restaurants will(?) welcome service animals at their establishments.
Although Kiddle’s Ordinance is still in discussion, it looks favorable
that it will pass, and the City of Doral, Florida will be in the forefront of ensuring that its community is welcoming to persons who use service animals.
Tags Doral, Kiddle's Ordinace, Service animals
Welcome Aaron Bates
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Freedom is contingent upon [political] knowledge. Here is a 9 minute debated between Paul and Bernanke. Grab a cup and learn something.
From Zero Hedge:
Ron Paul To Ben Bernanke: "People Lose Trust In The Government Because You Lie To Them About Inflation"
Submitted by Tyler Durden on 02/29/2012 - 11:29Ben Bernanke Ben Bernanke Ron Paul
Anytime Ron Paul sits across from Ben Bernanke you know sparks will fly. Sure enough, they did: starting 3 mins 50 seconds into the clip below, Ron Paul, guns blazing, asks the Chairman if he does his own shopping, if he is aware of what true inflation is, and if he knows that Americans don't trust the government because they are being lied to about inflation. And it only gets better, once Paul starts brandishing a silver coin. The punchline: "The Fed will self-destruct anyway when the money is gone" - amen. And ironically letting the Fed keep on doing what it is doing will achieve that in the fastest possible way. In fact, letting the system cannibalize itself with no further hindrances may be the best option currently available - just go to town.
9 minutes of a normal person confronting Ben Bernanke, the single more powerful
person in the US, maybe the world, in view of his control over the dollar bill
without have to answer to anyone for his decisions as to the supply of money.
at Wednesday, February 29, 2012 No comments:
This college babe is having sex nearly three times a day and wants us all to pay for her sexual excesses.
Reproductive Rights Activist Sandra Fluke
Note: before reading, keep in mind that the current debate is not about contraception. It is about the Federal Government determining religious beliefs, after 240 years of separation of Church and State. (If she was my daughter, I would hire a phys ed teacher so she could learn to function with her legs somewhat close together).
Sandra Fluke is a student at Georgetown Law. She’s also a “reproductive rights activist” who agrees wholeheartedly with the Obama administration’s controversial contraceptive mandate. Her reasoning, though, is likely to enrage some critics.
During a testimony in front of the House Democratic Steering and Policy Committee on Monday (a meeting that was held by House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi), Fluke — who was coincidentally the only witness heard — described the financial constraints that purchasing birth control puts on her peers.
“Forty percent of the female students at Georgetown Law reported to us that they struggled financially as a result of this policy,” Fluke said, referring to the fact that the university doesn’t pay for contraception. “Without insurance coverage, contraception, as you know, can cost a woman over $3,000 during law school.”
She detailed, among other stories, how one woman felt “embarrassed” and “powerless” at the pharmacy counter when she “learned for the first time” that contraceptives weren‘t covered by the university’s health care plan >>>>>>> read the full story and see her video testimony at Glenn Beck's The Blaze.
at Wednesday, February 29, 2012 4 comments:
In 2008, Obama said this: We are going to close GITMO and restore habeas corpus. Who knew that "Habeas Corpus" was the name of the new soccer field at GITMO
Do any of you "we will take whatever Obama dishes out" Democrats, believe that he remains serious about closing GITMO when he approves of spending $750,000 for a new soccer field at that prison?
Couple this nonsense with his continual apology to the very terrorists who are busy killing our soldiers as we speak, and, we have a huge election year issue.
Obviously, he cares more about the health of GITMO prisoners than he does for the health and well-being of our soldiers, threatening to increase their monthly premiums and using this increase revenue bank to coddle the very men our soldiers have captured.
The path to Democrat Party Process is to flee their governing body unless and until that body agrees to align itself with Democrat demands - regardless of voter opinion.
Apparently, Democrats believe it is perfectly acceptable to flee a house of congress, whether state or national, when things do not go their way.
Screw the results of a general election and "screw the results of a general election" as a matter of Democrat Party Policy.
They did it in Wisconsin, refusing to honor the state's electoral processes, fleeing to the nearby state of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Illinois.
Now, the Democrats in Illinois are fleeing that state's capital. No one is saying where these paid whiners are going, but they are not going to do their job, that is for certain. We all know the hell that would be paid if the GOP did anything similar. Hypocrites all.
The only good thing about this is the fact that it is happening during an election year. If Illinois voters do not see this as call to restructure their state's political leadership, there is no hope for that state; they become "California" and are doomed as an economy - as is California (my home state, btw).
Point of post: it is past time to realize just how much an obstructionist party is the Democrat Party under the Obama Regime. This is an election year. Let's all do something about "it." Look, if we can't agree that a general election vote is final and defines the rules for party politics, we are all sooooooo screwed, whether Democrat or Republican.
Conservatives are winning: Olympia Snowe (R-Ma) will not seek re-election as GOP Senator. Here is why this is a good thing.
Maine Sen. Olympia Snowe to retire in blow to GOP — Maine Republican Sen. Olympia Snowe will not seek reelection in 2012, she announced Tuesday. — Sen. Olympia Snowe (R-Maine) on Dec. 17, 2011, after leaving the floor of the Senate. (J. Scott Applewhite - AP) . . . . .
Chart created by FiveThirtyEight at the NY Times. Click
on image to enlarge.
Editor's note: not a "blow" at all. Understand that an important aspect of TEA Party purpose is to "take back the GOP." While Olympia Snowe stood by the GOP in its opposition to the Stimulus and ObamaCare as it is currently structured, she is not aligned with a conservative agenda that demands a return to Constitutional values in determining our legislative future. If a proposed bill, for example, has value to the larger population but defies Constitutional principles, Olympia is just as disposed to ignore the Constitution as are the Democrats.
Personally, I feel no animus toward this Senator. Olympia simply disagrees with the notion that the founding documents need to play an increasing role in the legislative agenda of Congress. That is her choice. But she no longer fits into the scheme of things as defined the by present-day politics of the Right.
Understand that the GOP is a very compromised party, allowing the likes of Arnold Schwarzenegger, Michael Bloomberg, Arlen Specter, Senator Dick Lugar, Olympia Snowe, her Maine senatorial partner, Susan Collins, Collin Powell, and the very unpopular John McCain to continue in the party until they see fit to move on.
The chart, above, shows a steady progression toward conservative values and away from liberal, big government intent within the House of Representative. Of course, those who created the chart are, themselves, big government liberals, but, nevertheless, the conservative trend is real and, even, substantial.
It is my belief that "we" should not fear the offering of choice. While GOP Establishment types (those who work for the status quo) seem to fear the creation of a political agenda that offers a fundamental choice to that of the Democrats, conservatives say, "Bring it on." With the departure of Olympia Snowe, the conservative positioning is strengthened, not diminished. Can a true conservative win election in Maine? Probably not, at least not now, but how on earth will we ever know if we continue to refuse to offer Maine voters a choice? And if Maine voters are so far "gone" that the Constitution is no longer important to them, who really cares?
Snowe is not leaving politics. She is leaving the GOP and may be aligning herself with a group in the "no labels" movement called Americans Elect.
Here is the Senator's announcement:
As I enter a new chapter, I see a vital need for the political center in order for our democracy to flourish and to find solutions that unite rather than divide us. It is time for change in the way we govern, and I believe there are unique opportunities to build support for that change from outside the United States Senate. I intend to help give voice to my fellow citizens who believe, as I do, that we must return to an era of civility in government driven by a common purpose to fulfill the promise that is unique to America.
The highlighted portions of her statement make it clear that Senator Snowe is looking for a political alternative that is neither "Democrat" nor "Republican." The frustrating aspect of her decision is found in the fact that she is not looking to continue Constitutional concerns, per se. As much as we complain about the court system, it is the only thing that prevents the Left from simply walking away from the founding documents and our national historicity, and creating an America that has little to do with its foundational base. In Snowe's statement, above, she speaks of a "time for change in the way we govern" rather than announcing a call to agreement as to the place and purpose of the Constitution.
Political angst has, indeed, increased and no one enjoys that fact. But, this growing antagonism is because Leftist concerns and blatant Marxists have decided to take this country down a different path, do it now, do so whether the people agree or not . . . . . and, it appears, that the people "do not."
The causes of the current fuel crisis (at the pump) is not fuel !!! A rogue presidency is the issue.
It is officially called The Strategic Petroleum Reserve. It was created after the oil embargo of 1973. Currently, there is 695 million barrels of crude (sweet and sour) in storage, the largest reserve in the world. At current usage levels, this equates to 33 days of supply if used solely as our fuel source. Of course, that is not how the storage would be expended.
If we used the supply to augment current purchases in an effort to stabilize prices, the Reserve could last as long as six months.
Problem: such is a temporary fix, of course. Oil purchased into the reserve was priced at under $60 per barrel. Obviously, replacement costs, something that investors will be considering, could be double that price.
Secondly, no one knows the full effect of releasing this fuel into the market place.
To this Okie editor, it seems like we are selling house furniture to pay the mortgage. What happens when we run out of furniture? Unlike 1973, we actually have plenty of fuel supply. The price of oil is determined, in part, on the futures market. Investors have much to do with current pricing as other influences . . . . . . . and they are not all "American." If they think oil will sell at a higher price six months from now, they will make purchases today, setting in stone those prices, as a hedge against higher prices, "tomorrow." Understand that retirement funds are tied to investment strategies. It is how most who have 401K's increase the value of their investment.
A second influence that is driving the price of crude, is the health of the dollar bill. For the most part, all commodities, world wide, are traded with the dollar bill and the United States controls the supply of the dollar bill. If we print "extra" dollars in an effort to stabilize domestic interest rates (which we are doing), that very process diminishes the value of the dollar bill and, as a consequence, the price per barrel has to increase -- in fact, the cost of all dollar-traded commodities increase.
As I see it, me being a layman analyst, this last consideration is that which provides the greatest complication to our current problem.
Investor's are betting on the Obama Administration and its mindless energy "policy." Understand that while the Administration is bragging about how much fuel is being produced - as if they were pro-oil - it fails to point to the fact that oil production on Federal lands is down, and production on private and state owned lands take more than 4 years to "permit." Think about it, the production Obama is bragging about is the result of permitting processes begun under the Bush Administration.
Can anyone say, "Thank God for Bush?"
Point of post: as long as the United States trudges along without a comprehensive energy policy, we will have to deal with the whims of the marketplace. Free market capitalism demands that when investments are poorly structured, they be allowed to fail. The current national economic crisis is not the fault of the free market. Rather, the very opposite is true. Barack Obama and the Democrat leadership have all pronounced their displeasure with free-market capitalism, but, offer no viable alternative to capitalism except government sponsored bailouts, "investments," and the manipulation of the monetary supply.
Startling, isn't it? The current fuel crisis is not the cause of fuel, at all, but the idiocy of a presidency that is rogue, out of control, and bent on taking us away from those principles that made this country great. The following is the problem:
MICHELLE OBAMA: "Barack knows that we are going to have to make sacrifices; we are going to have to change our conversation; we're going to have to change our traditions, our history; we're going to have to move into a different place as a nation." (May of 2008)
Did you know that Santorum was leading Romney until he asked Democrat Union workers to vote against Romney? Serves him righteous.
Did you know that two weeks ago, Santorum was 20 points "up" on Romney? Understand that only losers brag about coming in second.
Update: Romney had better showings in both Arizona and Michigan than he did in 2008.
at Tuesday, February 28, 2012 No comments:
Tuesday Primaries: Romney Wins Big in Arizona and by 4 pts in Michigan. He won the Catholic vote in both states.
Blog owner, ex-pastor, 35 year
carpenter, and determined conservative
LIVE THREAD - excuse typos and errors. I will correct them later - jds.
Michigan: Romney up 42 to 38 over Santorum with 81% of precincts counted
Michigan is a county by county election process - two delegates per county. Delegates are not awarded on the basis of the general and popular vote. Santorum will pick up a surprising number of delegates out of Michigan.
Arizona was called for Romney within one minute of the closings of its voting booths. . . Romney 48% to 25% winner takes all -- with 70% of precincts reporting.
A total of 59 delegate votes will be awarded as a result of the Arizona and Michigan primaries.
With all the talk of Santorum and the Democrat vote in Michigan, just under 10% the primary vote will be "Democrat" and only half that total is voting for Santorum.
53% of Michigan Republicans oppose the auto bailouts.
Michigan as a state, has not voted "Republican" in the presidential election since 1988.
Exit polling: developing.
4.56 pst Just some commentary:
Coverage has not started yet, but, I was thinking, if this alliance between Santorum and the Socialist Democrats does not work, what then? I think, I hope, this business works against the man. I do not believe Democrats voting for Santorum are Reagan Blue Collar voters within the Democrat party - those people "crossed over" about the same time I did, back in the days of Reagan. All modern day Democrats are big government types, all of them. Some of them are Marxist as is the case with the leadership of the national Democrat party and these are the ones I rail against day after day. Democrats voting for Santorum, today, are not who he thinks they are. If his instincts prove to be "bad" in Michigan, what of his national strategy.
Already, Santorum want this election season to be about the revival of conservative/religious social values, the very things that no one has been thinking about over the past three years. While Obama has campaign strategies for the other GOP representatives, most of the strategies are well known and not impactive (comparatively speaking), for that very reason.
But with Santorum, we will be arguing about "new" issues. With "newness" comes heightened voters interest with the greater benefit going to the Democrat, in view of the lack of enthusiasm now being felt. I think this is just the dumbest of campaign strategies. I will support him, regardless, but I will be very angry should we lose the election because of Santorum.
My young adult children often take on tasks that look impossible. As a father, I keep my big mouth shut as to what I think they can do. An, wouldn't you know it, more often than not, they get it done when I was secretly convinced they couldn't. Maybe Santorum will pull it off. If he does, hero status awaits him . . . . . . . . . . and an apology from me.
Exit polling
Michigan - so far a 40/40 split between Romney and Tricky Ricky.
57% of folks in Michigan prefer a man with business experience; 30% prefer government experience.
at Tuesday, February 28, 2012 2 comments:
Quote of the Week: Santorum as he opposes Democrat involvement in Republican primaries - just four weeks ago !!!
"We want the activists of the party, the people who make up the backbone of the Republican Party to have a say in who our nominee is as opposed to a bunch of people who don't even identify themselves as Republicans picking our nominee, I don't like that. I believe that states should only allow Republicans to vote in Republican primaries."
Rick Santorum, Jan 29, 2012.
Source: CNN ticker on Twitter
The most extreme Gallup poll ever - 72% of America believes ObamaCare mandate is unConstitutional.
Obama has spent years trying to dress up the legislative pig we know as ObamaCare. It was hatched in the back rooms of congress over the opposition of the majority of the American people. If fact, it has never polled in the "positive" since its corrupt conception. If there is a direct relationship between the information found in this Gallup survey and election year motivation, Obama is facing a disaster in November. Think about this: most understand the midterms (2010) were a collective first response of the electorate to this legislative fiat. But "we," the people, all know who is to blame, and 2012 is the year we get to tell him, personally, what we think of his legislative agenda and dictatorial methodology - - blog editor.
From Gallup:
Americans Do Not Think Individual Mandate Passes Legal Muster
The Supreme Court next month will hear legal challenges to the healthcare law, which are focused on the law's requirement that all Americans purchase health insurance or pay a fine. Americans overwhelmingly believe the "individual mandate," as it is often called, is unconstitutional, by a margin of 72% to 20%.
Even a majority of Democrats, and a majority of those who think the healthcare law is a good thing, believe that provision is unconstitutional.
Source: http://www.gallup.com/poll/152969/Americans-Divided-Repeal-2010-Healthcare-Law.aspx
TEA Party, allies of Olbermann?
New partners with Rick Santorum include all of Al Gore's Current TV, Keith Olbermann, Markos Maulitsas (founder of the Marxist Daily Kos), the fat Michael Moore and friends, and the socialist functioning UAW.
Wait for the video to load - it is slow.
Santorum defends his strategy, believing, I suppose, that Democrats are actually voting for him, rather than voting against Romney. Limbaugh does not agree with me - but, hey, we are to pride ourselves in not being "mind numbed robots," right? Well, this is me finally disagreeing with the King of the Conservative Movement. Understand this: Santorum is not doing what Limbaugh thinks he is doing. The ex-Senator actually thinks he is developing a cross-over voting base and I believe that such an opinion is of a fool's mindset.
My Blog Ranking: What sounds terrible is really a good thing.
7,559,095 -- Our best ranking on Alex. Yes, I am excited about being the 7.55
millionth most visited blog on the Google internet browser. That translates into 35,000
views per month. Understand that there are 280 million blogs in the American Google.
This puts me in the top 2.7% of all Google blogs. If you roll in Meet Sarah Palin and
the Charts and Graph blogs, my monthly readership rises to 44,000. I come in under
the 2% mark. For an educated Okie and retired carpenter of 35 years, well, I don't
know what to say except "Eeeh haaa!"
You should have this book -- if you are a Constitutionalist Patriot, that is.
You can shop around and find this book for 10 to 12 dollars. Here is what the author, Steven Hayward, has to say about the constitution and our progression away from Constitutional values.
True, the Constitution gets a brief mention now and then. But it is amazing that there’s been virtually no serious question asked of the candidates about their extended views of, for example, the Commerce Clause of Article I, and whether they think Obamacare is compatible with it. It would provide an occasion for each candidate to anchor their limited government views in our charter of limited government, and remind the American people of the fundamental principles of that document. Ron Paul seemingly does the best job overall, referencing a strict view of the enumerated powers of Congress in Article I, Section 8, but he doesn’t really offer a fully developed constitutional philosophy.
This contrasts sharply with previous presidents and successful presidential campaigns, which often signaled important changes in direction in our understanding of the Constitution by making sustained arguments about its meaning. In modern times, Franklin Roosevelt made an extensive argument, on the eve of the 1932 election, about why the Constitution needed to be understood in new ways amidst the crisis of the Great Depression, and then again in his infamous “court packing” crusade in his second term. A few years before FDR, Calvin Coolidge, who was not the “Silent Cal” of historical repute, argued vigorously against the Progressive Era idea that’s come to be known as the “living Constitution.” And the most prominent champion of that idea was Woodrow Wilson, who enjoys the dubious reputation of being the first president to criticize the Constitution openly.
With only a few exceptions (Ronald Reagan was one), for some reason in recent decades presidential candidates have grown increasingly illiterate about the Constitution, supinely surrendering to the view that constitutional interpretation is a matter relegated to the Supreme Court. Presidents and candidates for the office throughout the whole of the 19th century took seriously not merely their duty to the Constitution, as spelled out in their oath of office “to preserve, protect, and defend” it, but their indispensable role as teachers of the American people. Most inaugural addresses of 19th-century presidents devoted half their length to discussing the Constitution and our obligations to uphold it. Today it typically receives a brief and almost ceremonial mention in most inaugural addresses.
Both liberal and conservative candidates do themselves and the American people a disservice in reinforcing the idea of judicial supremacy — the idea that the Constitution is what the Supreme Court says it is, rather than belonging to all three coequal branches of government and, ultimately, to the people. Maybe we shouldn't blame the candidates alone for this strange gap in our modern practices. The media doesn’t reflect much on the Constitution beyond self-interested particulars of the First Amendment. And most of the leading textbooks about the presidency contain little or no discussion of the constitutional context of the office, instead treating the president as just a grander variation of a corporate CEO. This is why my “Politically Incorrect Guide™ to the Presidents” assigns letter grades on modern presidents’ “constitutional quotient” rather than judging them on their whole record, which often depends on circumstances.
Read more: http://dailycaller.com/2012/02/24/why-is-the-constitution-missing-from-the-gop-debates/#ixzz1nhGfl9oJ
at Tuesday, February 28, 2012 1 comment:
Conservative dress can look sexy: Diane Kruger is proof of that .
Diane Kruger at the Oscars. On second thought, if
that is her red bra, maybe the dress is not all that
conservative.
Santorum decides that democrat socialist union workers make for good bed-fellows.
While Rush is defending Santorum's claim that he is only bringing "Reagan Democrats" into the campaign, William Jackson, Cornell Law School professor, dedicated conservative patriot and editor of Le-gal In-sur-rec-tion has this to say about Santorum's strategy:
Rick Santorum is running robocalls in Michigan urging Democrats to vote in the Republican primary for Santorum and against Romney because … wait for it … Romney opposed Obama’s auto industry bailout but supported the Wall Street bailout.
Got it? The great conservative hope is attacking a Republican for not supporting the auto industry bailout, and is encouraging pro-bailout Democrats to help put him over the top in the Republican primary.
Where is all the outrage from conservative supporters of Santorum, who lashed out at Newt for criticizing Bain?
Instead, almost everyone is focused on Romney’s whining about the robocalls, which is ridiculous considering Romney’s underhanded tactics against Newt.
This is not an attempt to attract Reagan Democrats, it’s an attempt to attract Obama-Big Labor Democrats who never will vote for a Republican in the general election. >>>>>Read more here.
TEA Party !! Is this what you want - an alliance between big government Socialist union workers and tricky Ricky Santorum? I don't.
Call me crazy, but this TEA Party patriot does not want a GOP representative who will ally himself with Big Government Democrat/Socialists to defeat one of his GOP opponents.
Understand that the Left wants Santorum as the GOP candidate. With Rick as the GOP offering, Democrats will be able to run a campaign based on their world view of moral issues versus Santorum's. With Santorum in place, the fight will be about Rick as much as it will be about Obama . . . . . . . . . . . if not more so,
In the face of this reality, Santorum has decided to partner with big government union workers in Michigan, inviting them to vote in the Michigan open primary, helping him to defeat Romney.
Santorum stupidly defends this moves, expressing the belief that he is forming an election season alliance that will [also] help him beat Obama. Anyone, absolutely anyone, who believes that Santorum is not crafting his own general election victory in this alliance, is simply not paying any attention to what is going on within Democrat voters.
What has me most upset, is the fact that Michigan TEA party folks are supporting this "small government, principled" phony.
On Principle - Santorum is a Phony.
In the most recent debate, Santorum made it clear that, on occasion, he is fully capable of voting against his principles as he "takes one for the team."
On Big Government - Santorum is a Phony
In our research of this Pennsylvanian Loser, we found that he voted to double the size of the Department of Education, voting to support one of the more godless/secular agencies in our governmental system, voting to keep Big Government at the center of our children's education, voting to ultimately support the godless educational agenda of the Far Left.
On Abortion - Santorum is a Phony
In defending his statements on contraception, Santorum used his several votes in support of Title X as evidence that, should he be elected, he would not oppose contraception, legally. Turns out that his much touted support of Title X translated, also, into support for the continual funding of Planned Parenthood and its 325,000 abortions, annually.
On the Auto Bailouts - Santorum is a Phony
Yesterday, Santorum's Michigan robo-calls sought to inflame the passions of unionized Democrat auto workers, making the point that Romney voted for TARP but not for the auto bailouts. The fact that Santorum voted against the auto bailouts, as well, is apparently not important since he opposed TARP, as well. Idiot.
Understand that all remaining GOP candidates are less than desirable, but far better than the corruption and collectivism of the existing imperialist president. On point, however, I find that Santorum is a more dangerous proponent of political compromise than any of the other candidates. The time to stop this phony baloney, plastic banana, clown is now.
Sarah Palin details a viable energy policy - something that Obama has not done.
With just the stroke of a pen, President Obama could lead us in the direction of real energy security and reduce our oil imports threatened by Iran’s threats to shut down the Strait of Hormuz. Here are just a few commonsense measures we can do right now, and most of them don’t require any new legislation or regulations:
Open Alaska to drilling. Billions and billions of barrels of U.S. crude (and hundreds of trillions of cubic feet of clean natural gas) sit untapped up here in the far north, my friends. We have the TAPS pipeline and infrastructure; we invite the development! Open ANWR. Think of how much safer and secure we would be if we had done this decades ago.
Build the Keystone Pipeline. President Obama doesn’t understand we live in a land woven with untold miles of pipe to carry safe energy supplies to protect and prosper America. Common sense dictates we need another one now to secure our energy future. It is key. It is the Keystone. If we’re worried about instability in the Middle East, it makes no sense to shun safe and reliable oil from Canada. Obviously, China understands this, and we should too.
Drill for natural gas. Natural gas is the future. It’s clean, it’s green, and we’ve got lots of it. Whether we use it to power natural-gas cars or to run natural-gas power plants that charge electric cars – or ideally for both – natural gas can act as a clean “bridge fuel” to a future when more renewable sources are available.
There are many more steps we need in order to establish a true energy plan to secure our future. But these three steps, plus increased resource development in the Lower 48 and reversing President Obama’s nonsensical, knee-jerk, anti-American energy shut down of off-shore developments would create hundreds of thousands of jobs as millions of barrels of oil every single day would flow under American control, and lessen our dependence on the Persian Gulf.
It’s time our country had a real energy plan that includes a genuine all-of-the-above approach that doesn’t ignore conventional resource development. We need the jobs, we need the energy, and we need the security.
- Sarah Palin
Day 23 of the Hostage Crisis (Egypt) - no article.
Also, it is day 23 of rising prices at the pump.
40 Days for Life is underway and is bigger than Occupy is thought to be.
The 40 Days for Life campaign is firmly rooted on a foundation of prayer and fasting. To help maintain focus on the Lord and stay in tune with His guidance, we have prepared a series of daily devotionals — one for each of the 40 days of the spring 2012 campaign.
We fervently believe that prayer and fasting will end abortion, and your prayers are very much needed and appreciated. Please follow the links below to read and meditate upon these brief reflections.
Printable versions are available; please click the link at the bottom of each devotional.
Preparation: February 21
Day 1: February 22
Day 9: March 1
Day 10: March 2
Day 18: March 10
Day 40: April 1
Law professor sees the Ohio campus shootings as an opportunity to be funny.
A law professor (Calvin Johnson) out of the University of Texas, making fun of the 2nd Amendment, posted a comment to the effect that the shooting incident at the Ohio high school in the news, was "another typical exercise in 2d Amendment rights . . "
My first response has to do with the man's use of the word "typical." Funny, a college professor who has no clue as to the meaning and use of the word "typical." Kind of makes you wonder if he knows how to pronounce "corp" as in Marine corpsman. Obama, another collegiate professor, certainly did not know. Maybe academia is not as intelligent as it wants us all to believe.
Don't like the 2nd Amendment? Change it but don't try to legislate around it. It is a part of the US Constitution. The 2nd Amendment is not only the law, it is a part of a larger narrative that is the foundation of all American law or move to England.
By the way, as far as gun use is concerned, inner-city schools do not have these shootings. Every wonder why? Could it be that most of the student bodies are armed?
Besides, I heard that the young shooter at the Ohio school was considering being a law teacher.
Here is the contact information for this clown. Let him know who you feel. I intend to do just that. -- blog editor.
Calvin Johnson CJohnson at law.utexas.edu
Previous message: Utah: State suit to enforce Enabling Act against Federal Government
Next message: Just exercising his 2d Amendment Rights
Another typical exercise of 2d Amendment rights today. http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2012/02/27/us/AP-US-School-Shooting-Ohio.html?hp
Calvin H. Johnson
Andrews & Kurth Centennial Professor of Law
The University of Texas School of Law
727 E. Dean Keeton (26th) St.
Website with links to publications: http://www.utexas.edu/law/faculty/cvs/chj7107_cv.pdf
For an inventory of Shelf Project proposals see http://www.utexas.edu/law/faculty/calvinjohnson/shelf_project_inventory_subject_matter.pdf
For reviews, and chapters of Johnson, Righteous Anger at the Wicked States: The Meaning of the Founders Constitution (Cambridge University Press 2005) see http://www.utexas.edu/law/faculty/calvinjohnson/RighteousAnger/
at Monday, February 27, 2012 No comments:
A Jolt to the Volt : A Commercial That Tells The Truth -
This YouTube post came from Thurber's Thoughts. I had just watched the
this "commercial" on The Five (Fox News) and, before I went looking for
this on the web, I thought to go over to Thurber's Thoughts. She does her
homework.
They are going to build the Keystone pipeline, anyway.
TransCanada Corp. to begin construction of Keystone pipeline
By Andrew Restuccia - 02/27/12 11:59 AM ET
TransCanada Corp. said Monday it plans to begin building a major portion of the Keystone XL oil sands pipeline despite the Obama administration's decision to reject a key permit for the project.
The company told the State Department in a letter Monday that it will begin construction of a section of the pipeline that runs from Cushing, Okla., to refineries on the Gulf Coast. The stand-alone portion of the project, which TransCanada dubbed the Gulf Coast Project, will cost $2.3 billion and will be completed in mid-to-late 2013, according to the company. The project must still receive other regulatory approvals.
Separately, TransCanada said it would reapply "in the near future" for a permit that would allow the Keystone XL pipeline to cross from Alberta, Canada, into the United States.
The Oklahoma-to-Texas portion of the pipeline would carry crude oil pumped from land in the Midwest and surrounding areas to refineries in Texas. It would not carry Canadian oil sands. . . . go to The Hill for the full article
Editor's notes: after all the huffing and puffing by the Obama Administration, TransCanada Corp (pronounced "core" for all you Democrat readers), has determined that Obama is no longer a relevant political figure. They do not need to get approval to build on already approved right-of-way property. The only permit required to complete a pipeline from Canada to the Gulf is one that takes the transcontinental pipeline across the Canadian/American border.
Swing States will be his demise: If Obama loses the election, he has no one to blame but himself.
Swing State Map taken from the USA Today article
reviewed in this post
USA Today:
Swing states poll: Health care law hurts Obama in 2012 — WASHINGTON - The health care overhaul that President Obama intended to be the signature achievement of his first term instead has become a significant problem in his bid for a second one, uniting Republicans in opposition and eroding his standing among independents. . . .
The black colored states are the current crop of "swing states." Obama's signature piece of legislation, one that was crammed down the throats of us all, may be the very thing that brings down his Administration. Time will tell, but, as of today, even his press allies see a serious election-year problem developing.
Some may have forgotten that the TEA Party movement is still hanging around, bigger than ever, with more congressional power and another legislative series of victories just one election away. The TEA party influence elected 86 new and allied congressmen to Washington D.C. but, more than this, TEA party "fanatics" took down more than 700 Democrat leaders, nationwide, in the 2010 elections.
Libs should be afraid, very afraid.
Obama a big loser in today's Rasmussen election match up polling.
It is not going to get better for the Slickmeister after the GOP selects its candidate of choice.
RASMUSSEN POLL: Obama Approval at 45%, Lowest in Month -- Falls Behind Romney, Paul...
Romney 45% Obama 43%...
Paul 43% Obama 41%
Obama 45% Santorum 43%
Obama 49% Gingrich 39%...
at Monday, February 27, 2012 2 comments:
One dead, four wounded: Want to stop senseless high school shootings? Arm the student body. Here is the argument.
Did you know that no high school mass murder scenes are located on inner-city campuses? You can take it from there.
Are radical black leaders hoping for an assassination attempt on Obama?
The Chicago Tribune presented the hate speech of Louis Farrakhan in an assembly of thousands of dissident blacks
Farrakhan, the man who loves Obama
From the Tribune:
In a fiery lecture to thousands of followers of the Nation of Islam on Sunday in Chicago, Minister Louis Farrakhan warned that racial hatred could lead to attempts to assassinate President Barack Obama.
Farrakhan spent much of his oration decrying what he cast as Satan's influence over racist forces in politics and society before asking a pointed rhetorical question: "Do you think they're wicked enough to be plotting our brother's assassination as we speak?"
Farrakhan delivered his speech to an enthusiastic crowd of adherents packed loosely into the United Center for the Nation of Islam's annual observance of Saviours' Day, which celebrates the birth of the faith's founder, W. Fard Muhammad. This year's events marked the 82nd year of the religion's existence in North America. . . . . .
Editor's notes: here is my concern. Since no one I know in the conservative camp is talking about violence against Obama, what if Farrakhan and other black leaders, men who have spoken out in their deeply felt disappointment of Obama, are stoking the fires of violence in the hopes of winning the day for the Violent Black Agenda, one which is detailed and supported by Farrakhan. Listen to this March 19, 2011 tirade as Farrakhan accuses Obama of treason in the killing of Momar Kadafi.
Farrahkan, the man who hates Obama
You heard the man. Anyone think he is a supporter of Obama? Anyone think that this man, Farrahkan, is a man of peace? Anyone think I have lost my mind or that there is not something else going on here? Can anyone tell which Farrakhan we are need to pay attention to?
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JHULR
The Johns Hopkins Undergraduate Law Review
JHULR Online
US v. AT&T: What Does This Verdict Mean in Trump’s America?
by jhulr
December 11, 2018 | Rob Cortes
Edited by: Riya Rana
At the end of the 19th century, the United States was home to some of the wealthiest individuals the world had ever seen. These titans of industry created vast networks of railroad, energy consolidation systems and complex machines. Of these, the richest, John D. Rockefeller was worth $1.2 billion dollars, an astounding $21 Billion dollars in modern currency.1 Although this was an era of great wealth, it was mired with low wages and inhumane working conditions. Half of all work-related deaths occurred in two industries, oil, and railroads, while the total rate of fatalities fell 97% between 1900 and 1979.2 Wages saw a 50% increase in value between 1860 and 1890, however, the gap between the rich and poor widened all the same. To make matters worse, the average income for industrial workers was about $500, while most economists and historians say that workers needed at least $600 to make ends meet.3 Employers took advantage of immigrants, women, and children alike and committed gross-negligence against millions for decades.
Today, new frontiers in technology and energy push the bounds of civilization, eerily like the events of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Corporations unchecked can wreak havoc on the economic, sociological and healthcare aspects of a society. The only difference between then and now is the U.S. government plays a much larger regulatory role than it did then, when its role was more inconsequential. The passing of legislation such as the Sherman Antitrust Act and the election of a more democratic congress, as well as trustbusting presidents, Roosevelt and Taft, led to an increase in regulation, wages, and competition. Over 100 years later, this history lesson rings with urgency. Its purpose in this review is to show the extreme conditions that can occur when government regulation of an industry is scant.
Earlier this year, D.C. District Court Judge Richard Leon ruled on a proposed merger between AT&T and Time Warner. AT&T is a global holdings corporation that has business in tech sales, internet and wireless services, entertainment, television and provides support for businesses worldwide with a global IP Network, businesses that make up about 99% of the world’s economy.4 Time Warner, at the time of the merger was one of the world’s premier entertainment conglomerates. Consisting of HBO, “known for its groundbreaking original series, popular late-night programs, compelling sports shows, award-winning documentaries, as well as Hollywood blockbusters”5, Turner which “boasts more than 175 international networks, including the #1-rated pay-tv network portfolio in Latin America. Turner is home to a growing portfolio of original hits”6 Warner Bros which is a “Warner Bros. is a leader in global entertainment and is the world’s leading producer of film and television programming”7 and Turner Advertising. After examining the offering of these two corporations, it is easy to see how absorption of Time Warner into AT&T could give it a huge leg up over similar companies such as Verizon Wireless and Charter Communications. A union of the two would create one of the largest media companies in our country’s history.
On November 20, 2017, the US Department of Justice’s Antitrust Division filed suit on behalf of the United States of America against AT&T. The Department of justice cited several causes of concern in their testimony. “Time Warner is likely to substantially lessen competition in the video programming and distribution market nationwide by enabling AT&T to use Time Warner’s must-have television content.”8 The prosecution reasons that this would drive the cost of competition up as competitors would have to spend more to retain customers, which means higher prices. This downward spiral potentially can lead to bankruptcy, which eliminates competition, and jobs, which decrease the competitive nature of wages. However, the defense argued that acquisition of Time Warner was merely a response and in fact a necessity for its future success. “Veritable explosion of innovative new video content” and “vertically integrated entities like Netflix, Hulu, and Amazon have achieved remarkable success in creating and providing affordable . . . video content.”9 AT&T argued, throughout its testimony, that the nature of its competition is not only to include conglomerates such as itself but budding companies in the “video programming and distribution industry.”10 By acquiring a network that provides entertainment such as HBO’s Game of Thrones and Turner’s Rick and Morty, AT&T would be able to compete with such companies on a more competitive and level playing.
In the court proceedings, the Department of Justice showed the continued trend of assessing large scale, potentially harmful mergers. Under President Obama, the country saw an increase in antitrust litigation, in favor of the determent of such transactions. The President did have a unique situation after the economic collapse in 2008, in which he had the responsibility to protect American citizens. In 2008, Obama withdrew the ‘2008 Competition and Monopoly: Single-Firm Conduct Under Section 2 of the Sherman Act Report’, explaining that the report “raised too many hurdles to government antitrust enforcement.”11 Between 2009 and 2011, the DOJ filed an increasing number of suits against mergers and acquisitions: “cases filed: 9 (2009), 14 (2010), 18 (2011); cases pending: 14 (2009), 17 (2010), 24 (2011).”12 In the years following President Obama’s increase in regulatory policy until the present, the economy has seen marked growth.
Despite efforts of the Department of Justice and the support of recent history, Justice Richard Leon ruled in favor of the AT&T and Time Warner merger. Judge Leon argued that the prosecution failed to show that “the proposed merger is likely to substantially lessen competition.”13 The defense’s argument centered specifically on HBO. Because HBO was a holding of Time Warner, it was distributed to different cable networks. HBO has huge revenue streams from subscription fees because of its many primetime slots throughout the year. The acquisition may prevent rival companies to stream or broadcast this premium content and reap the rewards. Judge Leon found 2 problems with this argument. First, there is no evidence that AT&T would “foreclose rivals’ access to HBO-based promotions.”14 A key witness during the trial confirmed this, reporting that the “business (HBO) is relying on our affiliates to promote us.”15 Second, the government failed to prove that “HBO promotions are so valuable that withholding or restricting them will drive customers to AT&T.”16 The court found that it actually makes more financial sense for AT&T to not withhold the service from HBO’s former affiliates, a critical blow to the prosecution. Interestingly, following the June 12th verdict, stock prices plummeted 6%, and the overall price has been stagnant since the merger. Shareholders and investors alike were mostly opposed to the merger.
The real impact of the decision by the district court, however, does not come in the form of percentages or dollars for stockholders. History has frowned upon a lack of regulatory power for a government. A stern, even draconian mindset, on the other hand, can lead to an increase in wages, economic growth and the well-being of a populace. Under the current administration, lack of government intervention has been a motif from health care to the environment. Such a decision can be the start of a long line of mergers that are unprosecuted. Failure to prosecute such transactions is an injustice to the American people, as they are the ones who feel the brunt of any economic change. The historical perspective outlined at the beginning of this review gives context to how our country operated; although, at present, such an encore of our history is unlikely. This does not discount the fact that a decrease in regulation and oversight can continue to push marginalized Americans further from the center. Wages and benefits that should be Americans’ inherent rights as citizens will become harder to guarantee. Our government cannot allow this growing wage gap to continue. Given our country’s history, we cannot afford to under-investigate mergers, especially if they are of this large a magnitude.
Robert Cortes is a junior at the Johns Hopkins University, where he is majoring in Public Health Studies and minoring in Financial Economics
1 Peterson-Withorn, Chase. (2017, September 28). From Rockefeller to Ford, See Forbes’ 1918 Ranking of The Richest People in America. Retrieved September 29, 2018, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/chasewithorn/2017/09/19/the-first-forbes-list-see-who-the-richest-americans-were-in-1918/#555b7d524c0d
2 Lebergott, Stanley. (1976) Wages and Working Conditions. Retrieved September 29, 2018, from http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc1/WagesandWorkingConditions.html
3 Digital History. Notes on Labor, 1875 – 1900. Retrieved October 1, 2018, from http://claver.gprep.org/sjochs/labor.htm
4 AT&T Communications. (2018) Company Profile. Retrieved October 1, 2018, from https://about.att.com/pages/company_profile_communications.
5 Warner Media. (June 15, 2018). About Us. Retrieved October 1, 2018, from https://www.warnermediagroup.com/company/about-us
8 United States of America v. AT&T Inc. et al. Civil Case No. 17-2511.
11 Mahoney, Stacey. (Jan 2013). Antitrust Enforcement Under President Obama: Where Have We Been and Where Are We Going? The Antitrust Counselor (Vol.7.1). Retrieved October 1, 2018, from https://www.morganlewis.com/~/media/files/docs/archive/antitrust-enforcement-under-president-obama-where-have-we-been-and-where-are-we-going.ashx
13 US v. AT&T
Photo Credits: Fortune, Andrew Burton—Getty Images
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May 7 facts for kids
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May 7 is the 127th day of the year (128th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. There are 238 days remaining until the end of the year.
Observances
558 – In Constantinople, the dome of the Hagia Sophia collapses. Justinian I immediately orders the dome rebuilt.
973 - Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor takes sole charge of the Holy Roman Empire after the death of his father and co-Emperor Otto I.
1274 – In France, the Second Council of Lyons opens to regulate the election of the Pope.
1429 - Joan of Arc leads a French attack on English bridgeheads on the south side of the Loire River.
1487 - Siege of Malaga during the Spanish Reconquista.
1664 – The Palace of Versailles is inaugurated by Louis XIV of France.
1697 – Stockholm's royal castle (dating back to medieval times) is destroyed in a huge fire (in the 18th century, it is replaced with the current Royal Palace).
1718 - City of New Orleans is founded by Jean-Baptiste le Moyne de Bienville.
1763 – Indian Wars: Pontiac's Rebellion begins – Chief Pontiac begins the "Conspiracy of Pontiac" by attacking British forces at Fort Detroit.
1824 – Ludwig van Beethoven, completely deaf, conducts the debut of his Ninth Symphony in Vienna.
1832 – Greece was recognised independent by the Treaty of London. Otto of Wittelsbach, Prince of Bavaria is chosen King.
1840 – The Great Natchez Tornado strikes Natchez, Mississippi, killing 317 people. It is the second deadliest tornado in United States history.
1847 – In Philadelphia, the American Medical Association (AMA) is founded.
1864 – American Civil War: The Army of the Potomac, under General Ulysses S. Grant, breaks off from the Battle of the Wilderness and moves southwards.
1864 - The world's oldest-surviving clipper ship, City of Adelaide, is launched by William Pile in Sunderland, Northeast England.
1895 – In Saint Petersburg, Russian scientist Alexander Stepanovich Popov demonstrates an invention which became the prototype of radio. In the former Soviet Union this day was celebrated as Day of Radio.
1896 – H. H. Holmes is hanged in Philadelphia.
1915 – World War I: a German U-boat sinks the RMS Lusitania, killing 1,198 people.
1920 – Polish-Bolshevik War: Polish-Ukrainian troops captured Kyiv during the Kiev Offensive.
1937 – Spanish Civil War: The German Condor Legion arrive in Spain with Heinkel He 51 biplanes to assist Franco's forces.
1940 - The Norway Debate begins in the British House of Commons. It eventually results in Winston Churchill replacing Neville Chamberlain as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
1945 – World War II: General Alfred Jodl signs unconditional surrender terms at Reims, France, ending Germany's participation in the war. The document will take effect the next day.
1946 – Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering (later renamed Sony) is founded with about 20 employees.
1947 – Kraft Television Theater debuts, running for the next 11 years.
1948 – The Council of Europe is founded during the Hague Congress.
1952 – The concept for the integrated circuit, the basis for all modern computers, is first published by Geoffrey W.A. Dummer.
1954 – Indochina War: The Battle of Dien Bien Phu ends in a French defeat (the battle began on March 13).
1960 – Cold War: U-2 Crisis – Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev announces that his nation is holding American U-2 pilot Gary Powers.
1964 - Pacific Air Lines flight 773, a Fairchild F-27 airliner crashes near San Ramon, California, killing 44. The pilot and co-pilot had been shot by a suicidal passenger.
1974 – Willy Brandt resigns as Chancellor of Germany.
1986 - Canadian Patrick Morrow becomes the first person to climb to the top of the Seven Summits.
1992 – Michigan ratifies a 203-year-old proposed amendment to the United States Constitution making the 27th Amendment law. This amendment bars the U.S. Congress from giving itself a mid-term pay rise.
1992 – Space Shuttle Endeavour is launched on its maiden voyage.
1994 - The Scream by Edvard Munch is recovered after it was stolen from the National Gallery of Norway in Oslo, in February.
1995 – Jacques Chirac is elected President of France.
1998 – Apple Computer unveils the iMac.
1998 – Mercedes-Benz buys Chrysler for US$40 billion and forms DaimlerChrysler in the largest industrial merger in history.
1999 – Pope John Paul II travels to Romania becoming the first pope that had visited a predominantly Eastern Orthodox country since the Great Schism in 1054.
1999 – Kosovo War: In Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, three Chinese embassy workers are killed and 20 wounded when a North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) aircraft mistakenly bombs the Chinese embassy in Belgrade.
1999 – In Guinea-Bissau, President João Bernardo Vieira is ousted in a military coup.
2000 – Vladimir Putin becomes President of Russia.
2001 - Wanted train robber Ronnie Biggs returns to the UK after spending over 30 years on the run in Brazil.
2002 – A China Southern Airlines MD-82 plunges into the Yellow Sea killing 112 people.
2007 – The tomb of King Herod the Great, who is mentioned in the Bible, is discovered.
2008 – Dmitry Medvedev becomes President of Russia, with Vladimir Putin as Prime Minister.
2010 – Scientists working on the Neanderthal Genome Project announce that modern humans and Neanderthals could have interbred.
2012 – Vladimir Putin becomes President of Russia for a second time, swapping places with Dmitry Medvedev, who becomes Prime Minister.
2012 - Victor Ponta is elected Prime Minister of Romania.
2013 - 27 people are killed and over 30 are injured when a tanker truck explodes outside Mexico City.
2014 - Prime Minister of Thailand Yingluck Shinawatra is removed from office for abuse of power.
2015 - The United Kingdom general election, 2015 is held. The Conservative Party of incumbent Prime Minister David Cameron wins a surprise overall majority, with the Labour Party losing seats across England, Scotland and Wales. The Scottish National Party wins all but three seats in Scotland.
2016 - Sadiq Khan of the Labour Party becomes Mayor of London, after defeating Conservative Zac Goldsmith in the election. He is the first Muslim Mayor of a major Western city.
1328 - Louis II, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1365)
1530 - Louis, Prince de Conde, French general (d. 1569)
1605 – Patriarch Nikon of the Russian Orthodox Church (d. 1681)
1643 - Stephanus Van Cortlandt, American politician (d. 1700)
1704 - Carl Heinrich Graun, German composer and tenor (d. 1759)
1711 – David Hume, Scottish philosopher and historian (d. 1776)
1724 - Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, Austrian general (d. 1797)
1740 - Nikolai Arkharov, Russian general (d. 1814)
1748 – Olympe de Gouges, French playwright and feminist revolutionary (d. 1793)
1763 – Jozef Antoni Poniatowski, Polish prince (d. 1813)
1767 – Princess Frederica Charlotte of Prussia (d. 1820)
1787 - Jacques Viger, 1st Mayor of Chicago (d. 1858)
1812 – Robert Browning, English poet (d. 1889)
1819 – Otto Wilhelm von Struve, German astronomer (d. 1905)
1826 – Varina Davis, First Lady of the Confederate States of America (d. 1906)
1833 – Johannes Brahms, German composer (d. 1897)
1836 - Joseph Gurney Cannon, American politician (d. 1926)
1837 - Karl Mauch, German geographer and explorer (d. 1875)
1840 – Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Russian composer (d. 1893)
1841 - Gustave Le Bon, French psychologist (d. 1931)
1847 – Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, British Prime Minister (d. 1929)
1857 - William A. MacCorkle, 9th Governor of West Virginia (d. 1930)
1861 – Rabindranath Tagore, Indian poet and writer of the Bengali language (d. 1941)
1867 – Wladyslaw Reymont, Polish writer (d. 1925)
1875 - William Hoyt, American athlete (d. 1954)
1882 - Willem Elsschot, Flemish writer (d. 1960)
1891 - Harry McShane, Scottish engineer and activist (d. 1988)
1892 – Josip Broz Tito, President of Yugoslavia (d. 1980)
1892 – Archibald MacLeish, American poet and politician (d. 1982)
1893 - Frank J. Selke, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (d. 1985)
1901 – Gary Cooper, American actor (d. 1961)
1901 - Marcel Poot, Belgian composer (d. 1988)
1905 - Bumble Bee Slim, American musician (d. 1968)
1908 - Max Grundig, German businessman (d. 1989)
1909 – Edwin H. Land, American inventor (d. 1991)
1911 – Ishiro Honda, Japanese movie director (d. 1993)
1913 - Simon Ramo, American physicist
1914 - Arthur Snelling, English diplomat (d. 1996)
1917 - Domenico Bartolucci, Italian cardinal (d. 2013)
1919 - Joe Mitty, British philanthropist (d. 2007)
1919 – Eva Perón, First Lady of Argentina (d. 1952)
1921 - Gaston Rebuffat, French mountaineer (d. 1985)
1923 - Anne Baxter, American writer and actress (d. 1985)
1923 - Bülend Ulusu, 18th Prime Minister of Turkey (d. 2015)
1924 - Albert Band, French-American director and producer (d. 2002)
1925 - Lauri Vaska, Estonian-American chemist and academic
1926 - Val Bisoglio, American actor
1927 – Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, German screenwriter (d. 2013)
1928 - John Ingle, American actor (d. 2012)
1931 – Teresa Brewer, American singer (d. 2007)
1932 - Jordi Bonet, Canadian-Catalan painter, muralist and sculptor (d. 1979)
1932 - Pete Domenici, American politician
1933 - Nexhmije Pagarusha, Kosovar singer and actress
1935 - Avraham Heffner, Israeli television and film director, producer and writer (d. 2014)
1936 – Tony O'Reilly, Irish billionaire
1939 – Sidney Altman, Canadian molecular biologist
1939 – Ruud Lubbers, former Prime Minister of the Netherlands
1939 – Jimmy Ruffin, American singer (d. 2014)
1939 - Ruggero Deodato, Italian director, actor and screenwriter
1939 - Volker Braun, German writer
1940 - Angela Carter, English novelist and journalist (d. 1992)
1943 – Peter Carey, Australian writer
1944 - Richard O'Sullivan, English actor
1945 - Christy Moore, Irish singer-songwriter and guitarist
1945 - Robin Strasser, American actress
1946 - Thelma Houston, American singer-songwriter and actress
1946 – Michael Rosen, English poet and writer
1946 – Bill Kreutzmann, American drummer (The Grateful Dead)
1947 – Gary Herbert, American politician
1950 – Tim Russert, American broadcast journalist (d. 2008)
1951 – Robert Hegyes, American actor (d. 2012)
1956 – Jan Peter Balkenende, former Prime Minister of the Netherlands
1956 - Nicholas Hytner, English director and producer
1958 – Christine Lieberknecht, German politician
1961 - Hans-Peter Bartels, German politician
1961 - Sue Black, Scottish forensic anthropologist
1962 - Tony Campbell, American basketball player and coach
1962 - Dominik Moll, German-French director and screenwriter
1965 – Owen Hart, Canadian professional wrestler (died 1999)
1965 – Norman Whiteside, Northern Irish footballer
1966 - Andrea Tafi, Italian cyclist
1967 – Martin Bryant, Australian criminal
1968 - Lisa Raitt, Canadian politician
1969 – Rick Porras, American movie producer
1969 - Eagle-Eye Cherry, Swedish singer-songwriter
1969 - Katerina Maleeva, Bulgarian tennis player
1972 - Jennifer Yuh Nelson, South Korean-American animator
1973 - Paolo Savoldelli, Italian cyclist
1975 – Arni Gautur Arason, Icelandic footballer
1976 - Calvin Booth, American basketball player
1977 – Lisa Kelly, Irish singer
1978 – Stian Arnesen, Norwegian musician and songwriter
1978 – Shawn Marion, American basketball player
1979 – Katie Douglas, American basketball player
1981 - Maria Radner, German opera singer (d. 2015)
1983 – Julio dos Santos, Paraguayan footballer
1983 – Garry O'Connor, Scottish footballer
1983 - Makano, Panamanian singer and composer
1986 – Matt Helders, English musician
1987 – Stefan Read, Canadian ski jumper
1988 – Natalie Mejia, American dancer and singer
1988 - Eino Puri, Estonian footballer
1988 - Sander Puri, Estonian footballer
1989 – Master Shortie, English singer-songwriter, rapper and producer
1989 - Raina, South Korean singer, dancer, model and rapper
1990 - Yoon Bit-Garam, South Korean footballer
1992 - Alexander Ludwig, Canadian actor
1992 - Tyler Johnson, American basketball player
1999 – Masaki Sato, Japanese singer (Morning Musume)
2000 - Maxwell Perry Cotton, American actor
685 - Mawan I, Umayyah Caliph (b. 623)
973 – Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (born 912)
1539 – Guru Nanak, founder of Sikhism (born 1469)
1539 – Ottaviano Petrucci, Italian printer (born 1466)
1615 - Sanada Yukimura, Japanese samurai (born 1567)
1617 – David Fabricius, German astronomer (born 1564)
1682 – Tsar Feodor III of Russia (born 1661)
1718 - Mary of Modena, wife of James II of England (born 1658)
1793 - Pietro Nardini, Italian violinist and composer (b. 1722)
1805 – William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (born 1737)
1825 – Antonio Salieri, Italian composer (born 1750)
1840 – Caspar David Friedrich, German painter (born 1774)
1868 - Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux, English statesman (born 1778)
1872 - Alexander Loyd, 4th Mayor of Chicago (born 1805)
1873 - Salmon P. Chase, American politician (born 1808)
1902 - Agostino Roscelli, Italian priest (born 1818)
1922 – Max Wagenknecht, German composer (born 1857)
1924 - Alluri Sita Rama Raju, Indian activist (born 1897)
1940 - George Lansbury, English politician (born 1859)
1941 – James George Frazer, Scottish ethnologist and classical philologist (born 1854)
1942 – Felix Weingartner, Yugoslavian conductor (born 1863)
1943 - Fethi Okyar, Turkish diplomat and politician (born 1880)
1951 – Warner Baxter, American actor (born 1889)
1958 - Mihkel Lüdig, Estonian organist, composer and conductor (born 1880)
1986 - Jeffrey Mylett, American actor (born 1949)
1986 - Haldun Taner, Turkish playwright and short story writer (born 1915)
1987 – Colin Blakely, English actor (born 1930)
1989 – Guy Williams, American actor (born 1924)
1991 - Istvan Zsolt, Hungarian football referee (born 1921)
1995 – Ray McKinley, American jazz musician (born 1910)
1998 – Allan McLeod Cormack, South African physicist (born 1924)
2000 – Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., American actor (born 1909)
2001 - Jacques de Borbon Busset, French novelist, essayist and politician (born 1912)
2005 – Otilino Tenorio, Ecuadorean footballer (born 1980)
2010 – Wally Hickel, American politician, 2nd Governor of Alaska (born 1919)
2011 – Seve Ballesteros, Spanish golfer (born 1957)
2011 – Willard Boyle, Canadian physicist (born 1924)
2011 - Gunter Sachs, German businessman, art patron and playboy (born 1932)
2013 - Ray Harryhausen, American animator, director and producer (born 1920)
2013 - Aubrey Woods, English actor and singer (born 1928)
2013 - Ferruccio Mazzola, Italian footballer and manager (born 1948)
2014 - Colin Pillinger, British planetary scientist (born 1943)
2014 - Nazim Al-Haqqani, Turkish-Cypriot spiritual leader (born 1922)
2014 - Neville McNamara, Royal Australian Air Force commander (born 1923)
2014 - Manuel Jiménez de Parga, Spanish politician (born 1929)
2015 - John Dixon, Australian cartoonist (born 1929)
2015 - Maurice Flanagan, British businessman (born 1928)
2015 - Frank DiPascali, American financier and fraudster (born 1956)
Radio Day (Russia, Bulgaria)
May 7 Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.
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“the moon is on my front page help“
Thomas Silverstein, the guy that was the prisoner that was held in solitary confinement for 35 years. He killed a prison guard and 3 inmates. He was 67 when he died in a hospital mid-march.
"Silverstein is believed to have served the longest term in solitary confinement in the federal penitentiary system. "
"Silverstein was rumored to be part of the Aryan Brotherhood prison gang and was targeted by other inmates, according to his former attorney Daniel Manville. "
https://truecrimedaily.com/2019/05/23/a-federal-prisoner-believed-to-have-spent-the-longest-time-in-solitary-confinement-has-died/
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Sinners Sandwich
Eid Htrad Redav Eid !
Rokko said:
Aryan Brotherhood
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RomanesEuntDomus
May contain nuts.
A Owl said:
R.I.P. Niki Lauda
Austrian F1 legend Niki Lauda dies at 70
The three-time world champion is famous for a remarkable recovery from a near-fatal crash.
I only heard about it the other day. Damn, Niki Lauda was a racing legend.
Dude had a massive accident in August 1976, almost burned alive, was pried from the twisted, burning remains of his car, then nearly succumbed to the poisonous fumes he breathed in while he was trapped, going so far as receiving the last rites while in the hospital... and climbed back into his race car mere 6 weeks later, only missing 2 races. In his next race, he was competing despite his wounds still bleeding and his eyesight being reduced.
Over the course of the next few races, he managed to hold on to his dwindling leadership in the Formula 1 rooster, having a 3 point lead on his strongest competitor before the last race of the season, however Lauda stopped his car in the 2nd lap due to safety concerns. He then ended up 2nd rank with only 1 point to the first place.
Even though you might say he "pussed out" in his last race that season, it takes massive balls to go "This is not a risk I want to take" and then just stop your car. And besides, he became champion once more in '77 and '84.
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RIP Leon Redbone (born "Dickran Gobalian" in Cyprus in 1949), the jazz, blues, and ragtime singer who favored the style of music from New York's Tin Pan Alley from the turn of the 20th century, who has died at age 69.
Spoiler: Leon Redbone - Shine On Harvest Moon
Montreal radio host Aaron Rand, back when he did the afternoon drive time show on the defunct CFCF Radio "AM 60" in the mid-to-late 1980s, would play Leon Redbone's "Seduced" as one of his weekday themes. I think it was for Thursday.
Spoiler: Leon Redbone - Seduced
If we're being honest, Leon Redbone's most famous song as singer might actually have been the theme song from Mr. Belvedere.
Spoiler: Leon Redbone - theme from Mr. Belvedere
People may also remember that Leon Redbone was the male voice accompanying Zooey Deschanel during Elf's end credits.
Spoiler: Zooey Deschanel & Leon Redbone - Baby It's Cold Outside
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I'll always remember Leon Redbone for singing the theme song to the Harry and the Hendersons TV show:
RIP Assembler's forums. I remember visiting the site as a kid back in 2004. Time flies
NOTICE - This forum to close in 30 days
Current account status -$2880 ($120 x 24 months) It cannot continue at such a loss. Thank you for being companions for 23 years journey. -ASSEMbler
assemblergames.com
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Glad I couldn't help
Now with edge anime avatar
Kind of late, but Murray Gell-Mann, Nobel-winning physicist who worked on particle physics, died 89 on May 24. He was named the subparticles of protons, neutrons, etc. "quarks" and collaborated and clashed with famous physicist/bon-vivant Richard Feynman.
Murray Gell-Mann, Who Peered at Particles and Saw the Universe, Dies at 89
Murray Gell-Mann in 1953 or 1954. He “dominated theoretical particle physics during the 1950s and ′60s, a period with an abundance of new experimental discoveries,” his colleague David J. Gross, another Nobel laureate in physics, said.
Murray Gell-Mann, who transformed physics with his preternatural ability to find hidden patterns among the tiny particles that make up the universe, earning a Nobel Prize, died on Friday at his home in Santa Fe. He was 89.
Jenna Marshall, a spokeswoman for the Santa Fe Institute, where he held the title of distinguished fellow, announced his death.
Much as atoms can be slotted into the rows and columns of the periodic table of the elements, Dr. Gell-Mann found a way, in 1961, to classify their smaller pieces — subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, and mesons, which were being discovered by the dozen in cosmic rays and particle accelerator blasts. Arranged according to their properties, the particles clustered in groups of eight and 10.
In a moment of whimsy, Dr. Gell-Mann, who hadn’t a mystical bone in his body, named his system the Eightfold Way after the Buddha’s eight-step path to enlightenment. He groaned ever after when people mistakenly inferred that particle physics was somehow related to Eastern philosophy.
Looking deeper, Dr. Gell-Mann realized that the patterns of the Eightfold Way could be further divided into triplets of even smaller components. He decided to call them quarks after a line from James Joyce’s “Finnegans Wake”: “Three quarks for Muster Mark.”
With Dr. Gell-Mann at the forefront, physics took on a Joycean feel. Before long there were up quarks and down quarks, strange quarks and charm quarks, top quarks and bottom quarks, all stuck together with particles called gluons. The funny nomenclature was as much a Gell-Mann inspiration as the mathematics.
“Murray Gell-Mann dominated theoretical particle physics during the 1950s and ′60s, a period with an abundance of new experimental discoveries,” his colleague David J. Gross, another Nobel laureate in physics, said in an interview for this obituary in 2010. “With almost magical intuition Gell-Mann discerned the patterns and symmetries connecting the many new particles that were found.”
Conversant in several languages and fascinated by archaeology, linguistics, natural history and ornithology, Dr. Gell-Mann spotted and named subatomic phenomena as eagerly as if they were exotic birds.
“Our work is a delightful game,” he said at the Nobel banquet in Stockholm, where he received the prize for physics in 1969. “I am frequently astonished that it so often results in correct predictions of experimental results.”
After comparing the simple structure of a mathematical formula to the rules of the sonnet, he surprised his hosts by finishing his speech in Swedish. (He later berated himself for mispronouncing a word.)
With his hyphenated surname and cosmopolitan ways, Dr. Gell-Mann liked to keep people wondering about his pedigree. The physicist Sheldon Glashow once recalled a party at which his colleague cagily spun a tale about the confluence in Scotland of the River Gell and the River Mann.
Dr. Gell-Mann also had a compulsion, upon meeting new people, to provide them with the etymology and proper pronunciation of their names, going on to expound on seemingly any subject under the sun. Some found him charming, others exasperating. No one doubted the immensity of his mind.
He was born on Sept. 15, 1929, in Lower Manhattan to Arthur and Pauline (Reichstein) Gell-Mann, both Eastern European immigrants. At the time, his father operated a language school. (Born Isidore Gellmann in a small town in what was then Galicia, near the Russian border, the elder Mr. Gell-Mann had studied mathematics and philosophy in Vienna. He changed his name to Arthur and apparently added the hyphen sometime after 1911, when he was called to New York by his parents, who had emigrated earlier and were having financial problems.)
During the Depression, the language school failed and the family, which included an older son, Ben, moved to cheaper quarters on 188th Street in the Bronx, near the Bronx Zoo, and later to the Upper West Side of Manhattan.
This was long before the time when an apartment in the neighborhood conferred a prestigious address. In an oral history interview, Dr. Gell-Mann recalled living in hard times. His father, he said, though intellectually curious, struggled to make a living, finding a back-office job on Wall Street, working for a toy importer and, finally, securing a position at a bank “at a very low salary.”
Young Murray was already showing signs of precociousness, multiplying large numbers in his head and correcting his elders on the pronunciation of foreign words. With the encouragement of his mother and help from a piano teacher who gave lessons at a local settlement house, he won a scholarship to Columbia Grammar, a private school on West 93rd Street, where he earned the nickname “the Walking Encyclopedia.”
Graduating as valedictorian at age 14, he went to Yale, also on scholarship. But physics was not his first choice as a major area of study, he said in the oral history. He considered archaeology or a field related to natural history. His father, however, pushed him to choose engineering, saying it would lead to a well-paying job. Murray resisted, and they settled on physics as a compromise — “to please the old man,” Dr. Gell-Mann said — and he soon found that the subject fascinated him.
“My father was absolutely right,” he said.
After Dr. Gell-Mann earned his doctorate at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, in 1951, J. Robert Oppenheimer, who had directed the Manhattan Project, brought him to the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, N.J. From there he went to the University of Chicago and worked under Enrico Fermi.
The two decades after World War II were a golden age in physics, with experimenters discovering one new phenomenon after another for theorists to explain. Some particles bombarding the earth as cosmic rays seemed to defy the known laws of physics: They did not disintegrate nearly as quickly as the equations predicted. Dr. Gell-Mann showed that this behavior could be explained by positing a new physical quality, which he named “strangeness.”
As with energy, there is a law of conservation of strangeness. (It is conserved in strong interactions and electromagnetic interactions but not in weak interactions.) Once this was taken into account, physicists could explain the particle’s surprisingly slow decay.
In 1955 Dr. Gell-Mann married J. Margaret Dow, an archaeology assistant he had met during a visit back to Princeton. Lured by an offer from the California Institute of Technology, the couple moved to Pasadena, where they raised two children, Elizabeth and Nicholas. The renowned physicist Richard Feynman was also at Caltech, and the two men, their egos clashing, collaborated for a while before Dr. Gell-Mann struck out on his own.
As with strangeness, the Eightfold Way and quarks were independently discovered by other theorists, but the breadth of Dr. Gell-Mann’s accomplishments and his flair for nomenclature ensured that his would be the name most remembered.
His instincts weren’t infallible. At first he dismissed quarks as mathematical abstractions — an accounting device with no real correlate in the physical world. There was good reason for his skepticism: Quarks would have to have electrical charges measured in thirds, something that was never observed.
Dr. Gell-Mann at the Santa Fe Institute in 2003. He originally wanted to study archaeology or one of the natural sciences, he said,but chose physics “to please the old man.” He added, “My father was absolutely right.”CreditJane Bernard/Associated Press
After quarks were confirmed indirectly in an experiment at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, in Menlo Park, Calif., Dr. Gell-Mann denied that he had ever doubted their existence. He went on to help explain how the tiny particles are permanently stuck together, keeping their fractional charges hidden from view. A “green” quark, a “red” quark and a “blue” quark (the labels were arbitrary) blended to form a “colorless” proton. It was Dr. Gell-Mann who named the theory quantum chromodynamics.
By this time he was becoming known for his abrasive style, cutting down colleagues with withering remarks or saddling some of them with derisive names. The physicist Abraham Pais became “the evil dwarf.” The renowned experimenter Leon Lederman (who died last October) was “the plumber.” But those who could abide Dr. Gell-Mann’s prickliness found the intellectual pugilism exciting.
“To work with him it helps first of all not to have too fragile an ego,” James Hartle, a former student and collaborator, said in a remembrance in 2014, when Dr. Gell-Mann received the prestigious Helmholtz Medal, established in 1892. (Past recipients included Lord Kelvin and Robert Bunsen.) “But despite the obvious differences in intellect and insight, Murray somehow makes you feel an equal partner when you are working with him.”
Dr. Gell-Mann was an early champion of superstrings, hypothetical particles that, if ever verified, would be even more fundamental than quarks. Later in his career he began thinking in other directions, puzzling over the way simple laws of physics give rise to the beauty and intricacy of the living world. He explored the idea in a popular book, “The Quark and the Jaguar: Adventures in the Simple and the Complex” (1994).
In 1992, a little more than a decade after his wife, Margaret, died of cancer, he married Marcia Southwick, a poet he had met in Aspen, Colo., where he had a summer home. After retiring from Caltech, he moved with her to New Mexico, where he and several colleagues had founded the Santa Fe Institute in 1984. The marriage ended in divorce. He is survived by his two children and by a stepson, Nicholas Southwick Levis.
By the time Dr. Gell-Mann learned he would receive the Helmholtz Medal from the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, he was in a wheelchair accompanied by an attendant. So the academy came to him, bestowing the prize in a ceremony at the Santa Fe Institute.
Afterward, Dr. Gell-Mann’s friend, the novelist Cormac McCarthy, raised a champagne toast. During the ceremony, Dr. Gell-Mann had been described as “one of the great physicists of the latter half of the 20th century.” Mr. McCarthy objected to the qualification. Dr. Gell-Mann, he said, is “undoubtedly one of the great scientists of the 20th century.”
In a talk in 2007, Dr. Gell-Mann compared the last century of physics to pulling back the skins of an onion, finding at every layer that the same mathematics applies — and hinting that an objective reality can conceivably be explained someday by a universal set of laws.
“Somewhere on some other planet orbiting some very distant star, maybe in another galaxy, there could well be entities that are at least as intelligent as we are,” he said. “Suppose they have very different sensory apparatus — they have seven tentacles, and they have 14 funny-looking little compound eyes and a brain shaped like a pretzel.” Nevertheless, Dr. Gell-Mann said, we can be confident that these creatures would discover the same fundamental laws. Some people believe otherwise, he added, “and I think that is utter baloney.”
Correction: May 25, 2019
An earlier version of this obituary overstated a law about the conservation of a quantity in physics called strangeness. It is conserved in strong interactions and electromagnetic interactions but not in weak interactions. It is not the case that, “like energy, strangeness must always be conserved.”
George Johnson, a contributor to The Times, is the author of “Strange Beauty: Murray Gell-Mann and the Revolution in 20th-Century Physics” (1999).
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Spanish soccer player Jose Antonio Reyes has died in a car accident aged 35. Reyes most notably played for Sevilla, Arsenal, Real Madrid and Atletico Madrid.
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Jimmy Durante's Ballsack
tehpope said:
Oh shit. This is a tragedy...
ASSEMbler has a huge archive of very specific knowledge ranging from development environments to one-of-a-kind hardware to an array of simple and advanced system repairs/modifications that you simply cannot find anywhere else. @Null are you capable of archiving something like this?
@Jimmy Durante's Ballsack I know someone did an archive last dec and will work on one again soon. https://www.reddit.com/r/emulation/comments/bum39i/assemblergames_forums_closing/epf8m31/
Smaug's Smokey Hole
dragron: the bruges tea soirée
RIP Roky Erickson, one of my favorite artists and all around legend.
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Smaug's Smokey Hole said:
View attachment 780962View attachment 780972
I was just about to post some 13th Floor Elevators. F.
AnOminous
do you see what happens
Fuck that.
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Drug lord Frank Lucas died of old age at 88.
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50ft Firebreathing Wogglebug for President
Japanese voice actress Fuyumi Shiraishi died back in March.
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RIP Dr. John.
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Commander X
RIP you beautiful son of a bitch
Also remember his appearance on SCTV. SCTV would integrate musical guests into sketches. In this case a very loose but elaborate parody of Chinatown. John Candy's sleazebag actor Johnny Larue stars in Polynesiantown as the owner of a Polynesian restaurant going through a disaster of an opening night, where among other calamities musical guest Dr. John refuses to put on a grass skirt or play Polynesian music despite LaRue's pleas, but he does play "Iko Iko" and "Such A Night", and it ends with the notorious crane shot that NBC complained so much about as being costly that the SCTV crew kept making recurring references to it in sketches.
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Midlife Sperglord
Sperging over console gaming.
RIP Bushwick Bill - pancreatic cancer got him.
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Midlife Sperglord said:
Let it be known that without shooting himself, we wouldn't have one of the most based album covers ever made:
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RIP Gloria Vanderbilt
The left is already turning on Anderson Cooper in comment sections online, saying they're glad his mom died because his ancestors were slaveowners.
In addition, the piece also repeats some demonstrably false claims without any attempt to fact-check them. For example, the piece reports that material regarding Fong-Jones appeared on the web forum Kiwi Farms following the publication of James Damore’s memo calling for more viewpoint diversity at the company, and subsequent reporting by Breitbart News and Vox Popoli.
However, a cursory search of the Kiwi Farms forums reveals that Fong-Jones had been targeted by the site’s users since at least February 2017—five months before Damore’s memo was written, and long before any coverage of Fong-Jones appeared in the alternative media.
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acute flaccid myelitis
Doctors on Alert for Virus Causing Paralysis
PITTSBURGH (Newsradio 1020 KDKA) – An alert has gone out from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for physicians to be looking for symptoms of a rare but serious disease called Acute Flaccid Myelitis or AFM. It most commonly affects children. Symptoms may start with a cough or fever and...
ID 97445993 © Sergey Tinyakov | Dreamstime.com
Specialist: Polio-like AFM Is Scary, But Rare
An expert at UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh says while there's no cure for the polio-like disease known as AFM, there are things parents can do to prevent its spread.
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Movie Reviews20th Century Women – A Generational Coming of Age Story
Keith NoakesJanuary 20, 2017
This is a big one as it is the last big award contender I will probably get the chance to see, lauded for its screenplay and the performances of Annette Bening and Greta Gerwig.
Synopsis: Dorothea Fields, a determined single mother in her mid-50s who is raising her adolescent son, Jamie at a moment brimming with cultural change and rebellion. Dorothea enlists the help of two younger women in Jamie’s upbringing, via Abbie, a free-spirited punk artist living as a boarder in the Fields’ home, and Julie, a savvy and provocative teenage neighbor. (Elevation Pictures)
Starring: Annette Bening, Elle Fanning, and Greta Gerwig.
Writer: Mike Mills
Director: Mike Mills
Running Time: 119mins
Amazon Pre-Order
20th Century Women – Mike Mills“>iTunes Pre-Order
There have been many coming of age films but this one went a little differently as it was multiple characters coming of age, so to speak, a mother named Dorothea (Benning) and her son named Jamie (Lucas Jade Zumann). Dorothea gave birth to Jamie in her 40s, despite everyone telling her she was too old to have a child. Their generational gap catches up to them as they start to drift apart. Needing help and feeling like she is losing him, Dorothea enlists the help of one her free spirited tenants named Abbie (Gerwig) and their neighbor and Jamie’s crush named Julie (Fanning) to help him become a good man.
Dorothea, after having divorced her husband when Jamie was at a young age, is now in her 50s and had difficulty coming to terms with where she was in her life, lonely and mostly alone. She has had some flings but they never lasted long as she hasn’t committed to love, leaving her and Jamie. They were close thanks to Dorothea’s mostly hands-off approach. She was very laid back with him and letting nature guide him through life. She brought in another tenant named William (Billy Crudup), hoping to add another male influence but he and Jamie never connected as he endeared himself more to Julie and Abbie.
In losing Jamie to their generational gap, Dorothea begins to see that her parenting style wasn’t working, leading her to ask for help. He was not thrilled in learning about her plan, believing that he didn’t need help. Not only does Dorothea lost him but she also sees the rest of the world pass her by in the process. In order to get closer to her son, with the help of Abbie and Julie, she tries to understand the current generation by listening to punk bands and going to clubs. This exploration resulted in some great moments and genuine reactions from Dorothea, looking confused and wondering why things were they way they were.
Abbie was probably the best of the three secondary characters. She was a free-spirited, feminist punk rocker and a recent cervical cancer survivor. This caused a great strain between her and her family for whom she doesn’t talk to anymore. This was why she gravitated so much towards Dorothea as she was the mother she never had. She manages to make quite the impression on Jamie by giving him a bunch of book and introducing him to feminism. Jamie becomes interested, believing that being a good man means to understand women.
Jamie had a crush on Julie and she knew that but she kept hanging out with him anyway. She didn’t really have any female friends of her own so they would spend a lot of time together, often whenever she would sneak into his house and they would sleep in the same bed together but never having sex. This hurt him on the inside as he would have to hear about her many exploits.
Ultimately, this film was about the influence of family on one’s development and this worked as the story and characters felt genuine and real. It would make you laugh while also making you cry, with many funny moments at times but was also touching. The music and the visual effects helped to set the mood nicely. The script was smart as the other characters were deep, likable, and fun to watch because of their amazing chemistry.
The acting was the best part of the film with Bening being the standout. Dorothea was an eccentric character and going between that and being a caring mother while losing herself within the world around her while never becoming over the top was not easy to do. She never broke down, accepting that this was how things were and letting her own strength shine through. Gerwig was just as good, balancing comedy and tragedy with her character and excelling at both. She had fun moments with Zumann’s Jamie and also had to deal with the fact that Abbie had cervical cancer and coming to terms with no longer being able to have children of her own and having a relationship with Jamie to maybe compensate for this. Fanning was good but her character was the least interesting of the three women. Zumann was also good as the young and conflicted Jamie, connecting all the women together.
Overall, this was a great, smart coming of age drama with amazing performances by Annette Bening and Greta Gerwig.
If you liked this, please read my other reviews here and don’t forget to follow me on Twitter, follow me on Instagram, and also like me on Facebook. Would you like to write movie reviews for this site? Contact me above or via social media for more information.
The Founder - Greed, Pride, and The American Dream
Split - Not Enough Personality
Pingback: 89th Academy Awards Nominations and Predictions | Keithlovesmovies
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Patrick Gale donates Emmy nomination medal to Falmouth University
Home News Patrick Gale donates Emmy nomination medal to Falmouth University
Patrick Gale, award-winning author, screenwriter, guest lecturer and Honorary Fellow of Falmouth University, is known for his long career in literature. He also won the International Emmy for the two-part drama, Man in the Orange Shirt in 2018. The statuette stayed with the show, but the nomination medal and certificate went home with Patrick, who has now kindly donated both to the Falmouth University archives.
The medal sits alongside the scripts for the series, including the never-made ‘third episode’.
Patrick has donated a large quantity of materials from throughout his career, which are held in a special collection. Patrick has lived in Cornwall for 30 years and made his first donation to the Falmouth University archives in 2009; it now contains materials from all seventeen of his novels, along with his screen and journalism work.
When asked how it felt to receive such a prestigious award, Patrick said: “It was completely amazing, not least because news of the show’s nomination came through well past the point when I was expecting any further excitement or responses. Several of us went to New York for the awards ceremony – both producers and the director – and had pretty much succeeded in convincing ourselves that being nominated was an award in itself, when lo and behold Best Short Drama or Mini-series was the first award announced and we won.”
Patrick donated the medal because he thought it was “important for writing students to be able to see an award. We all fixate on the writing process but – with screen projects at least – this is crucial but only the start of a long, long process.” He also admitted that he had “already managed to scratch it on the journey home – not being terribly good with things” and had “got rather tense” with how many fans were offering to buy it.
Looking back at how Man in an Orange Shirt developed, Patrick said: “It was five years from our first meeting at the BBC where I received the commission to write Episode One to the screening of both episodes at the National Film Theatre. This award nomination came through another two and a half years after that. Alas, I didn’t get to come home with a handsome statuette as the Emmy was for the show, not its writing, and I was not a producer on the show. For my next show I have ensured I have an executive producer credit!”
Fans, writing students and the curious can find a wealth of materials from the show in the archive. Patrick’s collection documents his entire career; from his earliest writing as a teenager, through his days as a jobbing journalist writing book reviews and Hollywood profiles for Marie Claire, through to his commercial success with novels such as Notes from an Exhibition (soon to be adapted for the big screen by Film4, filming this summer).
Sarah Jane, Archivist & Special Collections Officer at Falmouth University, described the collection: “[It] includes draft manuscript notebooks (the first draft of his novels are written long hand, in pen and ink – the books come to us well used and battered, full of crossings out and reworkings, smudges, dog paw prints and apple stickers – a real testament to his creative process). [There are also] editor’s notes, later drafts and research materials.”
Each time Patrick finishes a cycle of writing, publishing and promotion, he donates the next set of materials to the archive.
Sarah added: “The archive is used by Creative Writing, English and Professional Writing courses and illustrates a real-life industry example of the career and creative process of a writer. It is also used, like many of our Collections, by our creative students in other disciplines looking for inspiration for their own work, such as our Making:Archives project run with BA Textile Design.”
The Patrick Gale Collection is in good company, with archive collections from other Cornish writers and creative practitioners such as playwright Nick Darke, designer and pioneer of landscape theatre Bill Mitchell, as well as the archives of Kneehigh Theatre and Wildworks.
To book in a viewing of Patrick’s work in the archive, please email Sarah at archives@fxplus.ac.uk. It is open to all: staff, students and members of the public.
Image: Copyright Markus Bidaux
All I want for Christmas 2015 …
A Space to Write
PENZANCE LITFEST GOES FROM STRENGTH TO STRENGTH
Literature Works announces four new Patrons
Literature Works Patron Patrick Gale Makes Television Drama Writing Debut
Patrick Gale
Writers' Academy
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Capital Pride (Washington, D.C.)
Not to be confused with Capital City Pride (Olympia, Washington).
Marchers hold the Capital Pride banner during the 37th Capital Pride parade on June 9, 2012.
Capital Pride is an annual LGBT pride festival held in early June each year in Washington, D.C. It was founded as Gay Pride Day, a one-day block party and street festival, in 1975. In 1980 the P Street Festival Committee formed to take over planning. It changed its name to Gay and Lesbian Pride Day in 1981. In 1991, the event moved to the week prior to Father's Day. Financial difficulties led a new organization, One In Ten, to take over planning of the festival. Whitman-Walker Clinic (WWC) joined One In Ten as co-sponsor of the event in 1997, at which time the event's name was changed to Capital Pride. Whitman-Walker became the sole sponsor in 2000. But the healthcare organization came under significant financial pressures, and in 2008 turned over producing duties to a new organization, Capital Pride Alliance.
The event drew 2,000 people its first year and grew to 10,000 people covering 3 blocks in 1979. By 1984, it had expanded to a week-long event and by 1987 an estimated 28,000 attendees came to the street festival and parade. Attendance began fluctuating in the late 1980s, but stabilized in the 1990s. The festival was the fourth-largest gay pride event in the United States in 2007.[1] Capital Pride saw record attendance for its 35th anniversary celebration in 2010. An estimated 100,000 people turned out for the parade and another 250,000 for the street festival in 2012.
The festival was first held on Father's Day in 1975.[2] Deacon Maccubbin, owner of the LGBT bookstore Lambda Rising, organized the city's first annual gay pride event. It was a one-day community block party held on 20th Street NW between R and S Streets NW in Washington, D.C. (the same block where Lambda Rising was then located). Two vending trucks, one loaded with beer and another with soft drinks, served the crowd. About 2,000 people attended and visited about a dozen organizational booths and vendors. In a surprising political move indicative of the growing political power of gays and lesbians in the city, several candidates for the D.C. City Council also attended and shook hands for several hours.[2][3][4][5]
In 1981, Gay Pride Day first hosted a parade in addition to the street festival.[6] The growing festival drew more than 10,000 attendees that year.[3] Washington Mayor Marion Barry, elected the previous November, attended his first Gay Pride Day in 1979—and would for the rest of his time in office as mayor.[7]
Deacon Maccubbin (in purple shirt), founder of Capital Pride, riding the Lambda Rising float in the gay pride parade in 2003.
Following the 1979 event, with crowds growing larger than could be accommodated at the original location, Maccubbin turned the planning of the event over to a new non-profit group, The P Street Festival Committee, formed in 1980 to take over the growing event. The committee established a board of directors to oversee planning and administer the festival's finances, and widened planning and participation to include a number of prominent LGBT organizations in the D.C. metro area. Gay Pride Day (as the festival was then known) moved that year to Francis Junior High School at 24th and N Streets NW, next to Rock Creek Park.[2][3] In 1981, a parade route had also been established. The parade began at 16th Street NW and Meridian Hill Park, traveled along Columbia Road NW and then Connecticut Avenue NW, and ended at Dupont Circle.[4][8]
1983 was the year the first woman and person of color was named Grand Marshal of the Gay Pride Day parade. In 1984, festival organizers began bestowing the "Heroes of Pride" award to members of racial and ethnic minorities who made a difference in their communities.[2]
Attendance at Gay Pride Day events reached 11,000 people in 1981,[7] 15,000 in 1982,[4] and 20,000 in 1983.[8] By 1984, the one-day festival had become a week-long series of meetings, speeches, dances, art exhibits, and parties.[9] At its 10th anniversary in 1985, D.C. Gay Pride Day drew an estimated 28,000 attendees to the street festival and parade.[10] But attendance began varying dramatically from year to year in the late 1980s. In 1986, only about 7,000 people watched the parade, and another 1,000 stayed for events at Francis Junior High.[11] A year later, attendance was estimated variously between 7,000 and 10,000 people.[12]
Financial problems and growing concerns about the organization's lack of inclusiveness led the P Street Festival Committee to disband in 1990 in favor of a successor organization, Pride of Washington.[5]
Several changes to the event occurred in 1991. The District of Columbia's African American gay community sponsored the first "Black Lesbian and Gay Pride Day" on May 25, 1991. The event was created not as a competitor to the June gay pride event but rather as a way of enhancing the visibility of the African American gay and lesbian community.[13] 1991 also saw the Gay Pride Day parade and festival move away from its traditional date for the first time. Organizers shifted the event to the week prior to Father's Day to give people a chance to spend the holiday with their families. 1991 was also the year that the street festival expanded to more than 200 booths, and the first year that active-duty and retired American military personnel marched in the parade. The parade made national headlines when U.S. Air Force Captain Greg Greeley, who led the active-duty group, was later questioned by military security officers and told his pending discharge was on hold because of his participation in Gay Pride day. No further action against Greeley was taken, and he eventually received an honorable discharge.[2][14][15]
The festival suffered from financial difficulties in the early 1990s. Rain during the parade and street festival significantly reduced attendance several years in a row. Unfortunately, festival organizers had decided, as a cost-saving move, to not take out weather cancellation insurance. The festival lost significant amounts of money, and came close to bankruptcy.[16][17]
Looking southeast at Freedom Plaza, the site of the Capital Pride street festival from 1995 to 1997.
In 1995, One In Ten, a D.C.-based arts organization which hosted the Reel Affirmations film festival, assumed responsibility for organizing Gay Pride Day events.[16] One In Ten moved the street festival from Francis Junior High to Freedom Plaza near the White House on Pennsylvania Avenue NW.[18] The parade route also changed. Instead of traveling westward from Dupont Circle on P Street NW to finish at Francis Junior High School, the parade now began at the school, moved east along P Street to 14th Street NW, and then traveled south on 14th Street NW to Freedom Plaza.[3][19]
The change in sponsorship and significant organizational and promotional changes led to sharply higher attendance. The parade and festival drew only about 25,000 attendees in 1994,[3] but this soared to more than 100,000 by 1996.[16]
However, the financial and organizational strain of producing the event proved too heavy for the small arts group. In 1997, Whitman-Walker Clinic joined One In Ten as a co-sponsor of the festival, and the event was renamed Capital Pride. The street festival was moved off Freedom Plaza and onto Pennsylvania Avenue NW between 14th and 10th Streets NW.[3] Corporate sponsorships also rose dramatically, reflecting the festival's growing commercial nature. Corporate sponsorships reached $247,000 in 1999, up from $80,000 in 1998.[20] 1997 also saw the city's first Youth Pride Day event. Sponsored by the Youth Pride Alliance, an umbrella group of LGBT organizations supporting the sexual orientation and gender expression needs of young people, the event was held first held in late April (although after 2010 it moved to a date closer to Capital Pride).[21]
Whitman-Walker Clinic became the sole sponsor of Capital Pride in 2000. The festival was moved to Pennsylvania Avenue NW between 4th and 7th Streets NW, and the festival's main stage repositioned so that the United States Capitol building was in the background. As a cost-saving move, in 2002 the parade was moved to early evening on Saturday while the festival continued to occur on Sunday afternoon.[3][22] The same year, the number of parade contingents reached 200 for the first time.[2][23] In 2004, 100,000 people attended Capital Pride events.[24]
But financial problems once more plagued Capital Pride. The event had come to be billed as a fund-raiser for the clinic, although net revenues were also shared with other organizations.[25] In July 2005 (after Capital Pride was over), Whitman-Walker Clinic revealed that it had asked the Human Rights Campaign, a national gay rights advocacy group, for an emergency donation of $30,000. The clinic had also asked D.C. Mayor Anthony A. Williams to waive more than $40,000 in street closing and police overtime fees. Both requests were granted. Unnamed sources quoted by the Washington Blade, a local LGBT newspaper, said Whitman-Walker's financial problems had spilled over into Capital Pride planning. Had the financial help not been forthcoming, the 2005 festival would have been significantly curtailed. Whitman-Walker officials strongly disputed the claims about the organization's finances, but did not deny that the financial requests had been made.[26] Interestingly, WWC estimated the day after the festival ended that net proceeds from Capital Pride were $30,000 in 2005.[25]
A week after the financial problems were revealed, Robert York, the Whitman-Walker staffer who had served as executive director of Capital Pride since 1999, unexpectedly resigned from the Clinic and as Capital Pride organizer. York's departure followed a series of resignations by the clinic's upper- and middle-level managers. York was replaced by clinic staff member David Mallory.[27]
A mother and her son march in the 2013 Capital Pride parade.
Financial difficulties at Whitman-Walker Clinic led to speculation that the healthcare organization would spin off Capital Pride as an independent body or permit another group to take it over. The Washington Blade quoted unnamed Whitman-Walker staffers as saying that Capital Pride consumed a significant amount of the clinic's time, resources, and staff but did not generate large revenues in return. In April 2005, The Center, an LGBT organization attempting to build a gay and lesbian community center in the District of Columbia, approached Whitman-Walker officials and asked if they would turn Capital Pride over to them. Whitman-Walker refused the offer, citing The Center's own financial difficulties and small staff.[26]
The financial distress and staff changes did not appear to change the event's appeal, however. Capital Pride attracted more than 200,000 people in 2006, making it the fourth-largest gay pride event in the United States. The festival included four major dance parties, a youth prom, and a transgender dinner.[1] D.C. Leather Pride held its first events in 2006 as well, which included a Mr. and Ms. Capital Pride Leather competition.[28]
Whitman-Walker expanded organizational oversight of Capital Pride in 2007. Although the healthcare organization remained the sole sponsor of the festival, 11 other local non-profit organizations joined with WWC to form the Capital Pride Planning Committee. This committee contributed staff and organizationl resources to help produce the event.[29] 2007 also saw the city's first Trans Pride. Organized by the D.C. Trans Coalition, an umbrella group of organizations and activists supporting the needs of transgender people, the addition of Trans Pride to Capital Pride was a direct outcome of the expanded organizational planning group.[30] D.C. Latino Pride also held its first events in 2007 as well. Hosted by the Latino LGBT History Project,[31] it featured an exhibit and panel discussion (which has led some to date the founding of D.C. Latino Pride to 2007's expanded events rather than 2006).[28]
But the financial pressures on Whitman-Walker did not abate. With the clinic itself under significant financial pressure,[32] WWC issued a Request for Proposal in the second week of January 2008 asking for one or more groups to replace WWC as the organizer and sponsor of Capital Pride.[33] On January 11, 2008, Whitman-Walker Clinic disclosed, for the first time in years, the financial status of Capital Pride. WWC revealed that the 2007 Capital Pride festival ran a deficit of $32,795 on $167,103 in revenue. The clinic also reported that this included reimbursing itself for $100,000 in "up-front money" to pay for festival-related expenses occurred far in advance of the festival. Twelve other local organizations were also reimbursed $28,000 in up-front money as well.[33]
In March 2008, Whitman-Walker Clinic awarded the production rights to Capital Pride to the Capital Pride Alliance—a group of volunteers and organizations formed by members of the Capital Pride Planning Committee. Capital Pride Alliance won the bid over The Center, Westminster Presbyterian Church, and Jansi LLC (the parent company of the local LGBT newsweekly, Metro Weekly).[34] WWC last helped to produce Capital Pride in 2008.[35]
Capital Pride Alliance was the sole producer of the event beginning in 2009.[36]
The Washington National Cathedral participated in the Capital Pride parade for the first time in 2013. The Very Rev. Gary Hall (center) and Rev. Canon Jan Naylor Cope (right) led the contingent.
The 35th anniversary of Capital Pride occurred in 2010. Organizers and affiliate organizations hosted 60 events over 10 days.[36] According to organizers, a record attendance of more than 250,000 people turned out just for the Pride street festival.[37]
Capital Pride continued to flourish over the next several years. Per policy, city officials and police declined to provide a crowd estimate in 2011, but event organizers said 200,000 to 250,000 people attended both the parade and the street festival.[38] In 2012, the Capital Pride parade extended for more than 1.5 miles (2.4 km), and was expected to draw about 100,000 spectators.[39] Although about 200,000 attendees were expected at the street festival the next day, organizers put actual attendance at about 250,000.[40] More than 300 vendors participated in the street fest,[41] and D.C. Latino Pride expanded to four days of events.[42]
A contingent from the Washington National Cathedral marched in the Capital Pride parade for the first time in 2013. Leading the group of 30 staffers was the Very Reverend Gary Hall, Dean of the cathedral. The Washington Post described the cathedral group's participant as "a stunner for some".[43] The Washington Blade reported attendance at the 2013 parade at 100,000.[44] Changes to the parade included a turn north rather than south on 14th Street NW. The street festival started an hour later (noon), and ended an hour later (9:00 P.M.) to take advantage of the summer sunlight hours.[45] A less positive change was a split among organizers of D.C. Latino Pride. A group of 11 organizations questioned the Latino LGBT History Project's control over and use of the event as a fundraising mechanism. They also claimed that transgender groups were being excluded from the event, and it was focused on national issues at the expense of grassroots organizing and community groups. The Latino GLBT History Project strongly denied both claims. The 11 dissenting groups split from the D.C. Latino Pride effort, and both groups of Latino organizations held competing events and parties in early June 2013.[46]
An official United States armed forces color guard leads the Capital Pride parade in 2014.
On June 7, 2014, a United States Armed Forces color guard led the way and retired the colors in the Capital Pride parade. It was the first time in American history that an officially sanctioned United States Armed Forces color guard marched in a gay pride parade.[47][48][49] Although several gay pride parade organizers nationwide had requested a color guard since the demise of the military's "don't ask, don't tell" policy in 2011, none had ever been approved.[47][48] The eight-person color guard represented each branch of the United States armed forces.[47] The Military District of Washington provided the color guard, which also presents colors for the President of the United States, members of Congress, and at official state functions.[48] The 2014 parade attracted more than 100,000 people,[49] while festival organizers estimated that more than 250,000 people attended events during the entire week-long Capital Pride celebration.[50] The 2015 parade drew roughly 150,000 people.[51]
The main stage at the Capital Pride street festival on Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., on June 14, 2009. The dome of the U.S. Capitol building can be seen in the background.
Capital Pride was originally called Gay Pride Day. It changed its name to Gay and Lesbian Pride Day in 1981, and to Capital Pride in 2000.
The event was initially organized in 1975 by Deacon Maccubbin, owner of Lambda Rising Bookstore, with the help of the bookstore's employees, volunteers, and a part-time executive director, Bob Carpenter. Maccubbin and Lambda Rising hosted the event for the first five years of its existence, until it grew to 10,000 attendees and spread over three blocks. At that point, it became too large for the space available, so Maccubbin began looking for an alternative location. In 1980, a group of community activists incorporated as the P Street Festival Committee and Maccubbin turned the event over to that group. Financial problems and growing concerns about the organization's lack of inclusiveness led the committee to disband in 1990 in favor of a successor organization, Pride of Washington. Further financial problems led Pride of Washington to transfer the event to a local LGBT arts organization, One In Ten, in 1995. In 1997, One In Ten partnered with Whitman-Walker Clinic to co-produce the festival. Whitman-Walker Clinic became the sole sponsor in 2000.
Whitman-Walker turned the event over to a new group, the Capital Pride Alliance, in 2008. Capital Pride Alliance has continued to produce festival. Although the Capital Pride Alliance was formed by 11 organizations, it now has a self-perpetuating board of directors.
Cultural references
In 2005, an exhibit at The Warehouse Gallery, an art gallery and museum in the District of Columbia, documented the history and meaning of Capital Pride for area residents. The exhibit, "Queering Sight—Queer Insight," opened on June 3, 2005, and ran for a month.[52]
In 2006, Capital Pride was featured in the comedy film Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan.[53]
One In Ten sponsored a second exhibit about Capital Pride's history in 2007. The exhibit was installed at The Sumner School, a city-owned museum in a historic former school building in midtown D.C. The exhibit ran from March to June 2007.
The New York Times in May 2014 called Capital Pride one "of the more notable Pride festivals and parades around the country".[54]
1 2 Chandler, Michael Alison. "Street Fest Lets Gays Revel in Freedom." Washington Post. June 11, 2007.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Tucker, Neely. "At 25, Pride Hits Its Stride." Washington Post. June 12, 2000.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Chibbaro, Jr., Lou. "Politics Take Backseat at Pride." Washington Blade. June 10, 2005.
1 2 3 Perl, Peter. "15,000 Parade, Picnic and Politick On Gay Pride Day." Washington Post. June 21, 1982.
1 2 Horwitz, Sari. "Thousands Celebrate Gay Pride in Festive March." Washington Post. June 18, 1990.
↑ Loukaitou-Sideris, Anastasia and Ehrenfeucht, Renia. Sidewalks: Conflict and Negotiation Over Public Space. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2009, p. 75; "DC Pride Events." Rainbow History Project. 2012 Archived June 13, 2014, at the Wayback Machine., accessed 2013-06-07.
1 2 Russell, Brenda A. "Parade and Festival Highlight Gay and Lesbian Pride Events." Washington Post. June 22, 1981.
1 2 Mintz, John. "Gay Festival Of Celebration Draws 20,000." Washington Post. June 20, 1983.
↑ Battiata, Mary. "Gays Celebrate 'I Am What I Am'." Washington Post. June 18, 1984.
↑ Wheeler, Linda. "Thousands Mark Gay Pride Day D.C. Gathering's 10th Year." Washington Post. June 17, 1985.
↑ Some estimates of attendance were even lower. The U.S. Park Police estimated the crowd at one-seventh the number announced by event organizers. See: Arocha, Zita. "Gays Proclaim Pride, Confront Fear." Washington Post. June 23, 1986.
↑ Thomas, Pierre. "Thousands Rejoice at Gay Pride Day." Washington Post. June 19, 1989.
↑ Gaines-Carter, Patrice. "Festival Will Celebrate the Pride of Being Black and Gay." Washington Post. May 24, 1991.
↑ Gaines-Carter, Patrice. "Veterans, Workers to March in D.C. Gay Pride Parade for 1st Time." Washington Post. June 23, 1991.
↑ Air Force officials said they interrogated Greeley because he had access to classified information and they feared someone might use his homosexuality against him.
1 2 3 Bates, Steve and Nguyen, Lan. "Celebrating the Right to Celebrate." Washington Post. June 10, 1996.
↑ Ly, Phuong. "Annual Gay March Celebrates Its 25th Anniversary in 2000." Washington Post. May 18, 2000.
↑ Loose, Cindy. "Goal of Gay March Is Freedom Plaza." Washington Post. June 15, 1995.
↑ "Capital Pride Takes to the Streets." Washington Post. June 9, 2007.
↑ Allam, Hannah. "Taking to the Streets With Capital Pride." Washington Post. June 14, 1999.
↑ Norton, Eleanor Holmes. "Recognizing the 9th Annual Youth Pride Day." Congressional Record. April 22, 2005, p. 7561-7562. Accessed 2012-06-16.
↑ The District of Columbia provides law enforcement officers to help with street closure, crowd management, and general security for Capital Pride, as it does for all events in the city. Capital Pride must reimburse the District for these costs. Moving the parade to Saturday reduced the amount of double-overtime incurred on Sunday, significantly lowering the cost to Capital Pride. See: Chibbaro, Jr., Lou. "Financial Crisis Prompts Pride Takeover Offer." Washington Blade. July 1, 2005.
↑ Wilgoren, Debbi. "Paving a Path Toward Main Street." Washington Post. June 9, 2003.
↑ Vargas, Jose Antonio. "Gays Recall a Silent Great Communicator." Washington Post. June 13, 2004.
1 2 Montgomery, Lori. "For Region's Gay Community, A Day of Pride With a Purpose." Washington Post. June 13, 2005.
1 2 Chibbaro, Jr., Lou. "Financial Crisis Prompts Pride Takeover Offer." Washington Blade. July 1, 2005.
↑ Chibbaro, Jr., Lou. "Capital Pride Director Quits Clinic." Washington Blade. July 8, 2005; Haynes, V. Dion. "Parade Showcases Event's Evolution." Washington Post. June 10, 2007.
1 2 Najafi, Yusef. "Budding Prides." Metro Weekly. June 5, 2008. Accessed 2012-06-16.
↑ Najafi, Yusef. "Pride Retreat Postponed." Metro Weekly. October 18, 2007.
↑ O'Bryan, Will. "A Pride Trans-formation." Metro Weekly. May 31, 2007. Accessed 2012-06-16.
↑ The Latino Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender History Project formed in 2000. Its founder was José Gutierrez, a local activist who began keeping a private archive of Latino LGBT materials in 1993. Gutierrez's archive formed the core of the Latino LGBT History Project. See: Norton, Eleanor Holmes. "6th Annual D.C. Latino Pride." Congressional Record. May 17, 2012, p. E839. Accessed 2012-06-16.
↑ O'Bryan, Will. "Lay-offs, Restructuring at Whitman-Walker." Metro Weekly. January 10, 2008.
1 2 Chibbaro, Jr., Lou. "More Changes Planned for Whitman-Walker." Washington Blade. January 11, 2008.
↑ O'Bryan, Will. "Allied for Pride." Metro Weekly. March 13, 2008. Accessed 2012-06-16.
↑ O'Bryan, Will. "Capital Pride Prep." Metro Weekly. September 11, 2008. Accessed 2012-06-16.
1 2 Najafi, Yusef. "Pride's Bright Future." Metro Weekly. June 8, 2010. Archived August 29, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 2012-06-16.
↑ Chibbaro, Jr., Lou. "Record Turnout for Pride." Washington Blade. June 17, 2010. Accessed 2012-06-16.
↑ Chibbaro, Jr., Lou. "Thousands Brave Heat for Pride Parade, Festival." Washington Blade. June 13, 2011. Accessed 2012-06-15.
↑ Yan, Claire. "Rainbows, Beads Fly High at Capitol Pride 2012." WTOP.com. June 9, 2012. Accessed 2012-06-15.
↑ Riley, John. "There's No Place Like Pride." Metro Weekly. June 14, 2012. Accessed 2012-06-15.
↑ Evans, Marissa. "Capital Pride: 'D.C. is a Great Place for Being Gay'." Washington Post. June 10, 2012.
↑ Ebner, Juliette. "Here Comes the Pride." Washington Blade. May 17, 2012. Accessed 2012-06-16.
↑ Hendrix, Steve and Dazio, Stefanie. "D.C. Gay Pride Parade Includes Contingent From Washington National Cathedral." Washington Post. June 9, 2013. Accessed 2013-06-09.
↑ Lavers, Michael K. "Gray, Councilmembers March in D.C. Pride Parade." Washington Blade. June 8, 2013. Accessed 2013-06-10.
↑ O'Bryan, Will. "Capital Pride Aims to Unleash Some Superheroes — And Some Changes to the Parade and Festival." Metro Weekly. June 6, 2013. Accessed 2013-06-10.
↑ Riley, John. "Latino Pride Split." Metro Weekly. June 6, 2013. Accessed 2013-06-10.
1 2 3 Shalby, Colleen (June 5, 2014). "U.S. Armed Forces Color Guard to March in Gay Pride Parade". PBS Newshour. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
1 2 3 Davis, Aaron C. (June 5, 2014). "U.S. Armed Forces Color Guard to March in Gay Pride Parade in D.C.; Called a First Nationwide". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
1 2 Schulte, Brigid (June 7, 2014). "Capital Pride: The Protest That Has Evolved Into More of a Party". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
↑ Peligri, Justin (June 9, 2014). "Weekend Pride Events Draw Thousands". Washington Blade. Retrieved June 13, 2014.
↑ Lavers, Michael K. (June 14, 2015). "More than 150,000 attend Capital Pride parade". Washington Blade. Retrieved June 14, 2015.
↑ Padget, Jonathan. "Gay Pride Infuses Warehouse Exhibit." Washington Post. June 9, 2005.
↑ Warren, Steve. "Anti-Social Riot." Dallas Voice. October 2, 2006.
↑ Piepenburg, Erik (May 30, 2014). "Celebrating Gay Pride All Over the Map". The New York Times. Retrieved June 2, 2014.
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Europride
Trans March
WorldPride
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List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 1994
Boyz II Men (pictured) earned a Hot 100 number-one single with "I'll Make Love to You", which stayed at the top position for fourteen straight weeks.
This is a list of the American Billboard magazine Hot 100 number-ones of 1994. There were 10 singles that topped the chart this year. The first of these, "Hero" by Mariah Carey, spent one week at the top, concluding a four-week run that had begun in December 1993. The longest running number-one single of 1994 is "I'll Make Love to You" by Boyz II Men, which logged 14 weeks at number-one, tying the song with "I Will Always Love You" by Whitney Houston for the most weeks at number-one on the Billboard Hot 100 until "One Sweet Day" by Mariah Carey and Boyz II Men stayed atop the chart from December 1995 to the first quarter of 1996.
With the rise of "On Bended Knee" to the top of the Hot 100, Boyz II Men became the first act to chart consecutive number-one singles in the United States since The Beatles charted three consecutive number-one singles in 1964.
The yellow background indicates the #1 song on Billboard's 1994 Year-End Chart of Pop Singles.
January 1 "Hero" Mariah Carey [1]
January 8 [2]
January 15 [3]
January 22 "All for Love" Bryan Adams / Rod Stewart / Sting [4]
February 5 [6]
February 12 "The Power of Love" Céline Dion [7]
February 19 [8]
March 5 [10]
March 12 "The Sign" Ace of Base [11]
March 19 [12]
April 2 [14]
April 9 "Bump n' Grind" R. Kelly [15]
April 16 [16]
May 7 "The Sign" Ace of Base [19]
May 14 [20]
May 21 "I Swear" All-4-One [21]
June 4 [23]
June 11 [24]
July 2 [27]
July 16 [29]
August 6 "Stay (I Missed You)" Lisa Loeb & Nine Stories [32]
August 13 [33]
August 27 "I'll Make Love to You" Boyz II Men [35]
September 3 [36]
September 10 [37]
October 1 [40]
October 15 [42]
November 5 [45]
November 12 [46]
December 3 "On Bended Knee" [49]
December 10 [50]
December 17 "Here Comes the Hotstepper" Ini Kamoze [51]
December 31 "On Bended Knee" Boyz II Men [53]
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of January 1, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of January 15, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of February 5, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of February 12, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of March 5, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of March 12, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of April 2, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of April 16, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of May 7, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of May 14, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of June 4, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of June 11, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of July 2, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of July 16, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of August 6, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of August 13, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of September 3, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of September 10, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of October 1, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of October 15, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of November 5, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of November 12, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of December 3, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
↑ "The Hot 100 chart listing for the week of December 10, 1994". Billboard. Nielsen Business Media, Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2008, 12 Edition (ISBN 0-89820-180-2)
Lists of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles
Hot 100 Year-end
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Vol. 11 | Issue 4
Somewhere Over a Waterfall
Limited edition, one-of-a-kind Looptworks Re-Duck fan gear is waiting for you.
Looptworks is a clothing company specializing in upcycled fashion. After working in the apparel industry and seeing the amount of waste created in the name of fashion, Scott Hamlin founded Looptworks in 2009. Their rule was to “use only what already exists” to create upcycled items that conserve valuable natural resources. They have formerly paired up with the Trail Blazers and Alaska Airlines, and many other companies to create fashionable clothing and accessories from their excess materials like jerseys and seat covers. Through their collaboration with the U of O, Looptworks has created limited edition Duck gear made from your favorite team’s uniforms that are both unique and earth-friendly.
LEFT: Grey Looptworks Roll Top Recycle Mighty Oregon Pack TOP: Silver Looptworks Camo Upcycle Hippack
UODuckStore.com
Oregon’s entrepreneurial streak runs deep. You know our biggest brands like Nike and Columbia Sportswear. And we’re also home to established businesses and start-ups covering industries from electric vehicles to food & beverage. For nearly 100 years, The Duck Store has had a front row seat to the enthusiasm, hard work and conviction that drives our local businesses, artists and people. We’re also proud to play a role in their stories. Through our Proudly Oregon initiative we’re sharing those stories and their products with you. Learn more at UODuckStore.com/ProudlyOregon
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@dailyemerald Summer 2019 | ETHOS | A
4 | ETHOS | Summer 2019
CONTENTS Vol. 11 Issue 4 | Summer 2019
8 | A Summer of a Self-Made 9 to 5 10 | Crossing the Greek Line
14 Focus
14 | Eight Years Later 20 | Somewhere Over a Waterfall 23 | From Financial Strife to Success
28 | Venezuelan Coup
30 Arts
30 | Mythos of the Cowboy 32 | California Love
25 | The Ethicality of Raising a Vegan Child
Summer 2019 | ETHOS | A
EDITOR Letter from the
s my last editors note I felt I felt I should write something inspiring or uplifting that speaks to change or moving on. The train of thought went something like change is invigorating and exciting and keeps us on our toes. While that reads true, change is painful and uncomfortable and can make us insecure and unsure. It carries this notation that you are at the end of the road. But it’s not the end, but a beginning, and that in itself is intrinsic. I am sitting on the side of the road, it’s 90 degrees and my bike engine is overheated. Amidst the heat trapped in my leather jacket, Toni Morrison words come to mind. “As you enter positions of trust and power, dream a little before you think.” I walked into this position with a dream and not a lot of experience on my belt. Without knowing the full weight of trust and power I was easily and quickly inspired by our storytellers. From editing stories while reporting in the Nevada desert to working with writers reporting on Southeast Asia I learned that that trust and power lies in all of our hands and not just mine. From complete story rewrites to dropping stories days before deadline or last minute additions, none of these complications made me doubt the things this magazine does. This summer issue looks at stories of student success, fi nancial hardship, the concept of a cowboy and the Occupy Movement in Eugene. At Ethos, the team seeks to inspire and innovate and through the rigorous reporting and late nights this magazine will continue to produce outstanding journalism.
ELLA T MORGAN Editor in Chief
ELLA T MORGAN Editor in Chief EDITORIAL
Managing Editor ZOE CRAIG Copy Editor SYDNEY PADGETT & RYAN NYUGEN Writers Maddie Horn, Sydney Padgett,
Marin Stuart, Alexandra Radifera, Kiki James, Jaime Rehlaender, Dante Peña, Renata Geraldo, Abbie O’Hara, PHOTOGRAPHY
Photo Editor MARIN STUART Asst. Photo Editor MEGHAN JACINTO Photojournalists Payton Bruni, Keven Salazar
Designer Brooke Harman Artists Brenna Fox, Maddy Wignall
Ethos is a nationally recognized, award-winning independent student-run publication. Since its inception as Korean Ducks Magazine in 2005, Ethos has worked hard to share a multicultural spirit with its readership. Ethos recieves support from the ASUO. All content is legal property of Ethos, except when noted. Permission is required to copy, reprint, or use any content in Ethos. All views and opinions expressed are strictly those of the respective author interviewee. Ethos is a publication of the Emerald Media Group.
“diverse, dynamic, and dangerously impressive women� 8 | ETHOS | Summer 2019
A Summer of a
Self-Made 9 to 5
A girl, a passion, and a coffee-table book created when an internship wasn’t an option.
WORDS | MADDIE HORN PHOTOS | PAYTON BRUNI Tenacity, creativity and boss-ass ladies. These are the facets of a coffee-table book written, designed and published by Jessica Leonard- a senior studying Advertising at the University of Oregon SOJC. Changing her major from Business Administration to Journalism: Advertising after her sophomore year of college completely defi ned her self-acceptance, creative path, and summer of 2018. Seeking solace from a professor after not fi nding a summer internship before senior year, Leonard was directed to a creative headspace conscious of everything she was inspired by: doodling in between the lines and incredible women in the creative world. Deb Morrison, an Advertising professor in the SOJC told her to use a personal project like an internship; an outlet to learn everything from Adobe Creative Suite to what propels her passion. So she decided to craft a coffee-table book about the inspiring women she knew in her life, including family members, past teachers, professors, and creative industry leaders. “I turned a problem into a solution by spending a summer doing what I love: Elevating badass women’s stories in a creative way,” she said. “I illustrated a book about eighteen strong women that have a story to tell, and I dedicated it to my little sister.” Wide pages fi lled with illustrations, interviews and inspiration are the foundation for “Project Ladybone: 18 Strong Women with a Badass Backbone.” This title is derived from the common denominator Leonard found in all of the women she looked up to: a backbone that kept them strong, resilient, and fearlessly persistent. Red, purple, and black saturate bold fonts with interview questions like “What’s your creative process?” and “What does success mean to you?” The women respond with eloquent answers encompassing what their ten-year-old-selves would think of them now to what they have planned for the next ten years, and Leonard gracefully portrays them as the diverse, dynamic, and dangerously impressive.
The creative process behind Project Ladybone came from Leonard’s space of little inspirations. Her home in Eugene has walls in the living room, bedroom, and kitchen that are fi lled with her paintings of women she knows, creates, and illustrates through colorful lines and personality-fi lled shapes. So using the wall above her desk in her hometown bedroom, or “summer office”, as an enormous mood board helped her stay motivated and clarify the who-what-when-where of her project. “I would just shut myself in my room and consider that my 9-5 every day. My family knew when my bedroom door was closed, I was on do-not-disturb mode because I was in the creative zone. I failed a lot, but the cool shit I created outweighed that” Leonard recalls. Leonard’s itch for art direction comes naturally, from childhood days saturated in water colors, paint brushes, and doodling pictures. Yet constructing something with professional intention from the ground up inevitably enhanced her confidence in the field. “I got to get inspired every time I talked to these women, and I could see myself doing these types of passion projects for real, within the industry.” In a competitive creative world, college students and industry-beginners can feel overwhelmed and underrepresented in their worth. Curating personal passions and bringing them to life in innovative ways was all the practice for the professional world that Leonard needed going into her senior year of college. Learning how to organize, illustrate, and bring her random ideas to fruition propelled her ability to tell stories and self-reflect in a productive way. “Empowered women empower women, and inspired people inspire people,” says Leonard. She took this sentiment and ran with it, attributing her resilience and patience to the process to “Fuck it, I’m just going to do my own thing.”
“I wanted to focus on women who are doing their own thing, but for a living,” she said “I just started calling up old girlfriends from high school, moms, and teachers who impacted me. This taught me how to show stories.”
Crossing the
Greek Line WORDS | SYDNEY PADGETT PHOTOS | EMERY THANATHITI
The challenges multicultural Greek chapters face at UO and the role they play in creating a community of support LLahela Daniels grew up idolizing the Alpha Kappa Alphas in her life. From notorious Black figures like Mae Jemison to the upperclassmen at her North Carolina high school, Daniels knew that wherever she attended college, she wanted to join the National Panhellenic Council, also known as the Divine Nine. The NPHC is made up of nine historically Black sororities and fraternities across the nation, each with rich histories and traditions. Founded in 1930 on the campus of Howard University in response to an increasingly segregated Greek community and a desire to serve and uplift the Black community, the NPHC has blossomed into an international organization with over 300,000 members. When Daniels arrived at the University of Oregon, she was pleased to see a small, though mighty, NPHC community. This often misunderstood and unsung community has persisted in a Greek system with very little racial diversity for almost 75 years. Today, this progress embodies the resilience and the meaning of multicultural Geek life for the members that fight for its recognition. The two NPHC chapters at UO, Delta Sigma Theta and Alpha Kappa Alpha., have worked to establish necessary com10 | ETHOS | Summer 2019
munities of support on a campus and in a state that have historically marginalized minority populations. Although the office of Fraternity and Sorority Life has demonstrated an increased dedication to the chapters’ growth in the last two years, the NPHC members at UO continue to face challenges in one of the whitest states in the United States. NPHC organizations at UO face a troubling racial landscape as well as a history of racism and racial violence. Only 2.3 percent of the university’s 22,760 students are black or African American, according to the UO Office of Institutional Research. This percentage has increased over the last ten years, rising just above the state’s 1.9 percent black or African American population. While UO is actively working to address the university’s historical mistreatment of people of color, the UO FSL department does not keep statistics of the racial diversity of the Greek community, according to Caitlin Roberts, the director of FSL. According to Roberts, while the university as a whole has shown a steady increase in racial diversity, the same increase is not evident in the Greek community, but she hopes that the growth of multicultural organizations like NPHC
will address this racial exclusion. “I’d love to see our population of students become more diverse, and I think the more we grow the opportunities for these students to be connected, the more inclusive our community will be,” Roberts said. Indeed, Alpha Kappa Alpha. and Delta Sigma Theta are significantly smaller than the other Greek organizations on campus. “There are not very many members, just because of the area we are in,” said Daniels. When she joined last year, there were only six other AKA members on campus. Similarly, Gabby Allen, the president of the Delta Sigma Theta Beta Psi chapter, is now the sole member at UO. Like Daniels, Allen joined Delta Sigma Theta because of the shared set of values she aligned with. “I found that a lot of the women I grew up with were a part of this organization and I looked at them as influential women in my life,” Allen said. “When I came to UO, I saw these other organizations, but I didn’t see anybody that necessarily reflected my beliefs or even looked like me. So it was more about fi nding a group that I could connect with on a personal level.”
When Allen joined her house in 2017, there were 12 members. Now, as the only Delta at UO, Allen also faces the challenge of locating and recruiting members. But what they lack in size, NPHC chapters make up in their impact on the community. According to Marcus Langford, the associate dean in the Office of the Dean of Students at UO, NPHC chapters’ dedication to the community is unparalleled. “There really is a drive to focus on the specific communities they were founded to support and engage,” said Langford, citing his own fraternity, Alpha Phi Alpha Inc., which was the fi rst historical African American fraternity founded as a direct result of exclusion from white fraternities. “As these organizations developed, they then extended their work, time, energy and effort into the African American community.” This dedication is encompassed in Delta Sigma Theta’s political and social action. Last year, Allen joined her sisters in the Red Army — a self-designated name based on Delta’s signature color — at Delta Days in Washington D.C., when members lobby for legislative action for the Black community at UO and in Oregon. While the community service NPHC organizations engage with now extends beyond the black community, this initial commitment and set of values still drives their service, and their values as NPHC and community members. “They are really more focused on giving back to the community. With our NPHC groups, they are out there, doing work in the community, giving their time and actually doing service,” Roberts said. Indeed, the presence and proliferation of NPHC at UO is essential for a community that is not sufficiently represented in Oregon. “It’s important that we have organizations and mechanisms that were created with the interest and success of folks of color and folks from marginalized and underrepresented populations, in mind,” Langford said. That said, it can be difficult for NPHC chapters to feel their voices heard. Functioning within FSL and under the guidance of Roberts — who is white — presented an all-too-familiar trend of
12 | ETHOS | Summer 2019
multicultural representation at UO for Daniels. “I had a white woman my freshman year teach me African American history, so that’s kind of like what it is like to be under FSL,” Daniels said. NPHC organizations face a similar lack of recognition in the Greek community as a whole. According to Daniels, another sorority at UO uses the same hand signal as Alpha Kappa Alpha Inc. These signals (AKA’s is made by placing one hand on top of the other with each thumb out) are unique to each house, intimately incorporated into ritual and sisterhood and serve as universal, nonverbal indicators of unity. “Just because there are so little of us,
“they are out there, doing work in the community, giving their time and actually doing service” it’s not going to hurt to learn about us,” Daniels said. “For me, I don’t really care that they don’t know but at the same time, I am tired of the looks. We put in the effort to do that research on them, so it feels like they should do the same for us.” For Allen, this lack of awareness has had detrimental effects on the ability of greek life as whole to enact change. “I think a lack of knowledge has stopped the networks from connecting, but it’s slowly starting to get there,” Allen said. Indeed, FSL has made significant strides in the last year in better supporting the NPHC organizations on campus, including them in annual retreats and events. Working with the FSL administration directly, Allen is optimistic about the future of NPHC organizations at UO.
“I think that FSL is doing a great job of trying to mend and make those relationships. They’ve been including us in everything and they want to grow our chapters just as much as we do,” Allen said. On an administrative level, Langford notes a noticeable change in the ways in which FSL and the university are working to acknowledge and uplift multicultural Greek life. “We are really thinking in terms of how can we best support and engage these organizations and part of that may be that we have to think about how we historically have supported fraternities and sororities, as it relates to NPHC organizations,” Langford said. “We just have to think about doing that in a different way.” NPHC chapters have been at UO since 1945, confronting a racial landscape that has mistreated people of color for centuries. While their numbers are small, their role in the state of Oregon as a whole is unparalleled. “It is what it is. Oregon is not very diverse,” Langford said. “So having these organizations provides a place and a space for those students to celebrate their identity and be a part of something that was created specifically and particularly for them.” And perhaps more notably is the role the chapters play for their members. “Being an AKA means that I am a part of something that is bigger than me,” Daniels said. “I am here for the same reason our founders were 111 years ago and I love that my sisters are too.”
Eight Years Later: Occupy Eugene’s Influence
September 17, 2019 marks the eight-year anniversary of the inception of Occupy Wall Street, a national movement for political and social change that spurred smaller movements in many cities around the United States, including Eugene, Oregon. WORDS & PHOTOS | MARIN STUART
The Occupy Movement
After the inception of Occupy Eugene on Oct. 15, 2011, homeless and student activists alike crowded together to occupy Washington Jefferson Park in the Whiteaker neighborhood, fighting the muddy and cold conditions the nighttime hours brought. Rampant sicknesses plagued the occupiers, who chose to sleep in the park for many nights to protest the numerous issues the Occupy Movement sought to address, such as corporate money in politics and the lack of affordable housing. Their hard work paid off as many important organizations rose out of Occupy, including tiny house villages that look to help provide more affordable housing. One of these activists was Sabra Marcroft. Marcroft, 52, a Eugene resident and community volunteer, not only joined the Occupy Eugene movement but also became active in many organizations that came out of Occupy. While Marcroft never stayed overnight at the occupied Washington Jefferson Park, she often went in the middle of the night when she couldn’t sleep to be part of the movement’s energy and became increasingly enthralled by Occupy’s message. “[The march] went right in front of my house. Here were all these people, these beautiful people, marching, and I had to join them,” said Marcroft. “I was looking around me, and I was seeing the fi rst of what I was clear was going to become a wave of homeless old people, and I had some big ideas about what to do about the situation. I figured these were some people that might listen.” Occupy Wall Street, or the “Occupy Movement,” officially began in New York on Sept. 17, 2011 and was an influential movement for its time despite the somewhat confl icting interests and aims of its participants. While all were united with the common interest of abolishing inequality, particularly between rich corporations/socio-political authority (or “the 1%”) and America’s middle and lower classes (or “the 99%”), it seems the movement also elicited outrage against other forms of inequality. Some of these included homelessness, corporate greed, student debt and access to education, union/labor rights, health care, unemployment, 16 | ETHOS | Summer 2019
and even extending to the environment and women’s rights. Inspired by similar movements but without a resoundingly clear aim or goal, the Occupy Movement became a sort of umbrella movement for inequality and a symbol for Americans’ frustration with a political and economic system still reeling from a major fi nancial crisis just a few years previously. Initiated by over 1,000 protesters gathered in New York City, within a few weeks Occupy had gained traction in Chicago, Oakland and even smaller cities like Eugene, Oregon. Here, the movement began in mid-October 2011 and moved its way through various locations and city parks, fi nally settling in Washington Jefferson Park. Occupy Eugene itself was fairly peaceful, even with more than 2,000 people in attendance, and, according to Marcroft, proved a force to be reckoned with when it came to occupiers who were eager for change. Joining the movement to encourage collaboration around social issues and to share possible solutions to Eugene’s housing crisis, Marcroft was deeply interested in the movement’s aims and worked to help create something lasting. “My primary focus is building resilience. We need strong community to be able to meet the challenges we already are facing and to face the ones that are in front of us,” said Marcroft. “When conditions are really bad and people pull together, if they have the resources to keep supporting each other so they don’t break down, then those can be the best times in the world.”
Occupy Eugene, while influential, was seemingly just as disorganized as Occupy Wall Street due to the sheer number of topics it tried to cover. Marcroft also mentioned the disorderly nature of the general assemblies of protesters, reflecting on fights that ensued and the lack of effective leadership. While there was less police pushback in Eugene than in many other cities, Marcroft recalled police dropping off troublesome people at the Occupy encampment with the idea of driving out many of the occupiers. Eventually, due to disorganiza-
tion, the movement in Eugene began to splinter into separate groups. “I think the real heart, it’s never died,” said Marcroft. “Things that Occupy Eugene sparked and got started are influencing the way things are done all over the country, and other countries, in terms of being helpful and solving problems around homelessness and poverty.” With pressure from the city to leave the parks and riversides following Occupy, the homeless were left with nowhere to go. Shortly after the Occupy encampment was disassembled, the mayor of EuSummer 2019 | ETHOS | A
gene at the time, Kitty Piercy, brought together a task force to fi nd solutions for the housing crisis. Marcroft, joining this task force, began working on a project incited by Occupy: Opportunity Village.
Square One Villages
Sprawling around a small plot of land in industrial West Eugene, bright colors and hand-painted murals characterize the tiny houses and shared facilities of the village. Protected by a gate house, the land and leading gravel road gives way to small homes large enough for a bed and some personal belongings. Residents are able to visit the community yurt, which houses a television, board games, and coffee in the mornings. While it took a few years to get up and running, Opportunity Village, one of three villages owned by Square One Villages, became a functioning tiny house community for people in need of transitional housing. Made up of 29 units, the village can support over 30 residents and puts no time limit on how long they can stay. Each resident or couple has their own bed space, and bathrooms and living spaces are shared by all residents. Welcoming their fi rst residents to Opportunity Village in May 2014, Square One Villages was founded with the idea of creating eco-friendly, self-managed tiny house communities that provide a housing option for low-income residents of Eugene. In addition to Opportunity Village, Square One Villages is in the process of fully developing two other tiny house villages in Oregon: Emerald Village – which is only a mile from Opportunity Village in Eugene – and Cottage Village, their newest endeavor in Cottage Grove. “This is a stepping stone. The way that the housing market here has gotten to be is 18 | ETHOS | Summer 2019
that rent is so high for so many people that we’re experiencing a major homeless problem,” said Raquel Diaz, Village Coordinator. “Affordable housing is becoming a problem in the whole country.” Each week, residents of Opportunity Village participate in a variety of beautification tasks around the property and man the gatehouse to hand out applications and welcome visitors. Because Opportunity Village is not technically considered a shelter by the city, residents can still qualify for assistance such as the Oregon Health Plan and food stamps. The village also receives a weekly donation from Food for Lane County, which helps fi ll the village pantry with nonperishables that residents can sign for and check out when they’re hungry. Opportunity Village runs mainly on donations and by charging residents a $35 program fee that is paid each June. Despite help from other organizations in the community, Diaz says Opportunity Village would benefit from additional support in order to improve the residents’ stay but also further assist them in transitioning to a more permanent housing situation. “I think if there was more funding for resources -- things like behavioral health -- and just having more staff, that would be really beneficial for the villagers and helping them work towards their goals and whatever help they might be needing,” said Diaz. Similar to Opportunity Village, Emerald Village is a more permanent housing situation for those with minimal income. Consisting of 22 tiny homes commissioned by a variety of local architects as well as lush lawns and a community building that is currently under construction, Emerald Village allows residents to be part of a housing cooperative and pay minimal rent fees. Residents of Emerald Village pay anywhere between $250-
$350 per month as a carrying charge and a $50 membership fee every 30 months, said Diaz. Villagers join different committees – titled Membership, Admin, Outreach, and House and Grounds – to assist with the various duties around the community. In addition to Square One Villages’ tiny houses, many other organizations in the Eugene area that came out or grew because of Occupy are still in operation today, including Nightingale Hosted Shelters, which also provides transitional lodgings for the unhoused; Occupy Medical, a free medical clinic geared towards those without health insurance; and Burrito Brigade, a group that hand-delivers free vegan meals to the homeless. With the plethora of organizations that Occupy roused, it’s clear the movement provoked and continues to encourage necessary measures to combat the issues brought forth by the lack of affordable housing. According to City of Eugene data, there were 1,905 homeless individuals in 2012, one year following Occupy, and only 1,451 homeless individuals in 2016, four years following Occupy. While there are other factors that may have had a hand in this dramatic drop, perhaps the most apparent is the emergence of shelters and organizations full of volunteers looking to help out. While homelessness in Eugene is far from being eradicated, it is clear that a movement like Occupy was what the city needed to begin seeking solutions. Eight years following Occupy, the movement demonstrated that the ideas and pressures of a large body of people – even on a local scale – are influential in creating positive change. Despite these victories – which should be celebrated – there’s still a long way to go when it comes to providing more affordable housing.
“We’re going to need a mass movement. We’re going to need every pair of human hands that we can get over the next 50 years,” said Marcroft. “Help each other as we can, learn as we go along.”
Volunteer Information and Opportunities: https://www.squareonevillages.org/ https://nightingaleshelters.org/ http://occupy-medical.org/ https://burritobrigade.org/ Summer 2019 | ETHOS | A
WORDS | ALEXANDRA RADIFERA PORTRAIT | KEVEN SALAZAR
There are a handful of people that can be named right in the community of the University of Oregon that are recognized for incorporating their passions into their future, Brendan Delaney is one of them. Teaching himself fl ips and parkour tricks at the young age of 14, Delaney has loved high action and extreme sports for as long as he can remember. His home in San José, California, gave him all the outdoor space he could imagine as a beginner who relentlessly pushed himself. He didn’t always have the black spandex leggings and long sleeve shirt, topped with shorts and a red Vyncher shirt, that you would see him jumping off of cliffs in now. Instead, he wore whatever clothes he could move best in, and whichever surface was highest at the moment. As expected, his parents were always kept on their toes looking out for Delaney, but maybe more than the average parent. Delaney lost most of his hearing at a young age and has to be extremely cautious with his head so that he doesn’t lose his hearing completely. He was advised to stray from contact sports, involving tackling, diving, and any other way his head could be hit; to 20 | ETHOS | Summer 2019
live cautiously. But extreme caution is far from Delaney’s world. Despite the risk of losing his hearing forever, Delaney went against advice from doctors to stay away from radical sports. Delaney has a natural passion for exploration, and nothing was going to stop him, not even a potential major head injury. His roof, skate parks, and benches became too familiar - he had mastered them and seeked a greater challenge. And while his friends and family were also well aware of the risks, they were also extremely aware of the happiness that was brought to Delaney by exploring, experimenting, mastering, and sharing what he had done. So as opposed to stopping him, they made sure to support him and make sure he was on the right and safe path to success. Before he ended up as a student of Journalism and Communications at the University of Oregon, he was a business major at a community college in his hometown San Jose, California for one year. He learned this was not the place for him, and moved to Eugene as an undeclared student at Lane Community College for his second year of school, and then eventually applied to the University of Oregon to fi nish his college career.
Spring Summer 2018 2019 | ETHOS | ETHOS | 21 | A
large influence towards Delaney’s immediate interest in journalism is his small company Vyncher. In 2016, Delaney and his friends realized they shared a natural passion for fi lmmaking, for storytelling, and that they had the capabilities to tell their own stories, “so naturally we fi lmed everything we did,” said Delaney. The man behind the camera Jacob Phillips, scout of the locations Andrew Levitt, adventurous soul David Clark and dare-devil Brendan Delaney became a dream team of storytellers and content creators and, thus, Vyncher was born. A large influence towards Delaney’s immediate interest in journalism this small company - an adventure driven media group made up of Delaney and his high school best friends. “I know that in some way shape or form I want to tell stories forever. And in order to tell stories you have to make them, which I think is the perfect situation to be in,” said Delaney. “I love making memories and I believe life is a collection of experiences, so I want to make the most. So as long as I am making memories with the people I love and sharing them, I will be happy.” Their company originally came together when Brendan started teaching himself parkour, an activity where one aims to get from point A to point B with complex steps, around their hometown, San José, California. Vyncher was exciting for the boys and they saw grand potential for it, but to be whole-heartedly invested in the company, the boys had to keep one factor in mind: Brendan’s hearing loss. Delaney took his fi rst big dive off of a 40 foot cliff during his high school senior trip to Kauai, Hawaii, which landed him in the hospital. This was a reality check for Delaney, as it made him realize truly how much he loved the thrill and adventure of high-risk activities. At the same time, he and his friends decided they weren’t going to stop doing what they loved but they had to proceed with extra caution.
With the help and support of his family and friends, Brendan found a way to continue his passions in a safer manner. Brendan and his friends continued to explore and ins-and-outs of San José, and eventually with the help of summer jobs and Vyncher, a lot of the world. “I have always been a believer that the best parts of life are making experiences with people who are important to you,” says Brendan. “Having these experiences are amazing just by itself but then to be able to share them with people makes it even cooler.” x It is all of these passions in his life coming together - adventure, storytelling, media - that led Delaney to his pursuit of journalism, but more so it is the strategic way he had to go about his passions that brought him to this point in his life. Katie Mack is an advertising major and Delaney’s girlfriend of a little over a year. She says Brendan will not quit cliff diving, and that reflects on this personality as well. “He will never stop pushing the limits,” she says. “On everything he does he’s a risk taker and that won’t go away when cliff jumping does.” Delaney’s drive for adventure is a constant in his life. “I think a large part of my adventurous drive that has transferred to my ‘career’ or field of interest is my love to tell stories. I’ve always loved telling stories and sharing them with others,” he says, “whether that be to just simply tell the story or rather to inspire others.” He is a prime example of allowing your drive and passions to influence your future without hesitation. While risking your life may not be the most conventional way to get to a successful career, Delaney’s story shows that taking a quite literal leap of faith can land you in your perfect pool of water.
“So it was the perfect combination and it has been so cool to translate my adventurous personality and storytelling into advertising and tell other people’s stories.”
From Financial Strife to Success The relentless cycle of student financial insecurity WORDS | KIKI JAMES ART | MADDY WIGNALL
Imagine this: Wake up at 6 a.m., long before the sun is up during winter in Oregon. Hop out of bed and get dressed. Quickly brush your teeth and grab food on your way out of the door. Arrive at the gym to lift weights until about 7:45 a.m. Rush home to take a quick shower before heading to class for the day. After sitting through three courses, grab a quick snack before heading to the track for practice. Run and spring for about two hours before heading home. Take another shower, eat dinner, and then fi nish up all school work. Before you know it, the time is now 10:30 p.m. and it’s time for bed, to have the same routine tomorrow. That is a look into the life of a collegiate studentathlete. But when struggling with fi nancial insecurity, fi nding a job with such a bustling schedule can be very difficult. Financial insecurity is a relentless cycle, as many students in college are all too familiar with. University of Oregon junior Anjola Oladapo found herself struggling to keep up with fi nances this year, with a new tuition increase of $8,910 in the 2016-17 school year, to $9,765 for this past academic year. Although the tuition increase alone was less than $1,000 in three years, that number is substantial to Oladapo and other students who are struggling to keep themselves afloat fi nancially. How does one tackle gaining security and saving money with the constant
stress, work, and extracurriculars that surrounds college? Prior to transferring to the University of Oregon to study accounting, Oladapo was on the track and field team at Lane Community College her freshman year during the 2016-2017 school year. During that time, she was always busy balancing school and training, and due to a lack of availability, she was not able to get a job. Although she was on a fi nancial scholarship, it was difficult to keep up with extra costs and most importantly- rent. This ultimately forced Oladapo to move back home after her fi rst year. “Paying rent and me not working because I was doing a sport was hard for my parents to be able to do all the things they’re paying for and paying for my rent and cost of living,” she said. After living at home and saving up for a year while attending Portland Community College, Oladapo had the opportunity to attend the University of Oregon to fi nish her degree. Most weeks, Oladapo is unable to eat out, as much of her money goes to paying rent and school supplies. The little money left over is used for groceries, though Oladapo generally cannot afford to go shopping more than once a week, with the lack of time and money.
“She juggles jobs between Portland and Eugene. She’s always applying for jobs knowing that our parents are not able to help that much fi nancially. I ask her what she’s doing on the weekends, and she always has shifts, so she often sacrifices her weekends in order to put herself through classes and pay for rent,” Oladapo’s younger brother, Kitan Oladapo, said. However, she recently found a new job to help relieve the burden, but quickly turned to campus resources to aid in other ways. “The Sustainability Center on campus has free toilet paper for students and that was something fundamental that I needed,” Oladapo said about utilizing campus resources. The Student Sustainability Center is one of the many on-campus resources that are available to University of Oregon students that aid with those struggling financially in various ways. Along with giving away free toilet paper, the Student Sustainability Center also aids with food insecurity by providing free produce drops. Every second and fourth Tuesday of every month for a few hours right outside the EMU, the Student Sustainability Center organizes a food pantry in coordination with Food for Lane County. Another resource for those struggling with food insecurity is the Student Food Pantry, located
at 1329 E 19th Ave. This establishment is focused on feeding college students living in the Eugene-Springfield area who grapple with having enough money to buy groceries.
With volunteers help, free coffee and water, as well as music playing, the pantry provides an inclusive and
Doug Hale, who runs the Student Food Pantry, is the Chaplin for the Episcopal Campus Ministry and has been in charge of the Student Food Pantry for a little over six years. The pantry is located on the ministry’s property. The garage is where the produce and canned food are stored. Money is donated to allow for purchase of food items, but most of the food is provided by Food for Lane County. During fall term of 2012, the pantry opened, and more students started to slowly fi le in each Wednesday and Thursday. By winter, there had been a substantial increase in student attendance, from 40-90 students per week to around 100-150. Hale believes this increase was “based on accessibility,” as well as spreading the word. As of fall 2018, there was around 200 students and community members who came to the pantry weekly, as Northwest Christian students were welcomed with open arms.
Oladapo has visited the pantry a few times since being in Eugene, as it is a free, fast, and easy way to get produce with her lack of time and money on a weekly basis. Hale says the biggest takeaway from working with the pantry was about just a year after the pantry opened, with an anonymous email. The email thanked Hale and focused on the fact that the pantry was not just about food, but about supporting people. “We support people and food is the mechanism,” Hale said.
welcoming environment. “We try to make this as friendly as possible,” Hale said. Keeping the anonymity is an important part of the pantry, as Hale mentioned that there is often a “stigma” tied to the pantry. Some may view using the pantry as a sign of weakness or need, but this is a great resource that provides some food security.
While working with a group of campaign students in the School of Journalism and Communication on campus, the group was trying to come up with a slogan for the pantry. But this proved to be more difficult than anticipated. Finally, the group came up with the pantry’s current slogan, “Fueling success while fighting hunger.” The pantry is not just about feeding students, but also about providing a source of support. As Oladapo fi nishes out her junior year, her main focus this summer is to work and save up money in hopes that she will have more fi nancial freedom in the near future.
The Ethicality of Raising A Child Vegan WORDS | JAIME REHLAENDER Two years ago when I showed up to the fi rst day of my Writing 123 class and learned that the topic for the entirety of the class was animal rights and factory farming, I swore to myself that I would not let that class forced me to give up my meat-consuming ways. One term, one bad break-up, and two health documentaries later, I had become a vegetarian. The following year, I moved in with one vegetarian and one vegan and realized that the majority of my friends were either starting to sustain plant-based diets or had for a while. Up until this point, I had thought of vegetarianism as a habit I would maintain for as long as it benefitted and convenience me — that is, until I saw a really wellcooked chicken — but suddenly, I began to see it as the cultural shift and enduring lifestyle pattern that it was becoming. Although vegetarianism was, to me, the ethical choice in a variety of circumstances, there was one question that seemed to convolute the moral boundaries: is it ethical to raise children vegan/vegetarianism? Although this question was rooted in vegetarianism, it was the larger theoretical implications of it that kept me stumped. That is if vegetarianism is at its core a practice founded in personal belief (whether it’s of moral, health or environmental causes), then where do we draw the line when imposing personal practices and cultural beliefs onto our children? Why does, often times, the ingestion of food seem to be where this line falls, and not, per say, the act of sitting them down in church every Sunday? Yet I’ll back up here, and start with the defence.
Most people who preach the unethicality of raising vegan/vegetarianism point to health ramifications: children will not get enough protein, fatty acids, essential vitamins and nutrients. They will wither away without animal meat; their milkdeprived bones will splinter at the slightest tumble. In fact, The Royal Academy of Medicine of Belgium even published a legal opinion this month asserting that
In fact, Hannah Grace Albers serves as one example of the physical benefits of a vegan lifestyle. Now 23, Hannah was diagnosed with liver cancer at 17 and told that she had 6 months to live. To minimize the toxins fi ltered through her liver, she went vegan overnight. This diet, in combination with other Gerson therapy methods, eventually ridded Hannah of her cancer without undergoing any chemotherapy. In terms of raising a child vegan/vegetarian, Hannah says that “parents should raise their children however they feel is healthiest. I won’t necessarily raise my children strictly vegan but there are obvious critical health and environmental benefits to a vegan lifestyle.” Yet these health facts serve the classic vegan/vegetarian advocacy argument, which I’ve dealt out on a number of occasions, and which I’m not really concerned with here. What I want to evaluate is how the issue of raising children vegan/ vegetarian becomes tricky because vegetarianism, at this point in time, is a personal choice that contradicts dominant culture. When we make this choice for our children without their consent (because it cannot be given), we are removing them from dominant culture. Suddenly they’re the one kid who can’t enjoy chicken nugget day at school: a dietary outcast, a freak of food habits. In this way, the ethical evaluation of vegetarianism is actually largely un-based in the food factors of it all, but rather in the social dynamics that regulate and preserve dominant ideology. For example, although consuming meat comes with all sorts of health and moral concerns, medical professionals have his-
“The ethical evaluation of vegetarianism is actually largely un-based in the food factors of it all, but rather in the social dynamics that regulate and preserve dominant ideology” raising a child vegan was so negligent that it should be considered a criminal offense. Of course, this argument has been debunked a handful of times: it is perfectly healthy to raise a child on a well-balanced vegan or vegetarian diet, and in many ways much healthier, as long term meat and dairy consumption have been proven to lead to hardened arteries, stokes, cancer, heart attacks, and a multitude of other bodily ills.
torically not advocated for the imprisonment of parents who raise their children on meat. Yet if you search the internet about raising children vegetarian, there are a multitude of articles that decry parents unfit for practicing a plant-based diet. In order to understand this choice from a parental perspective, I talked to Dan Schneiderhan, a parent to two sons and a vegan of seven years. Dan says that if he were to raise his sons again he wouldn’t necessarily raise them vegan, because there shouldn’t be strict requirements surrounding personal eating habits, but he does advocate for choosing a personal diet based on health. “People should just eat what makes them feel good and healthy” he says. So if vegan parents seem to prioritize their children’s health, why is there so much backlack to raising a child vegan/vegetarian? Because I am staying on the theoretical side of things, I’ll only give a short nod to the capitalist incentives of maintaining this ideology. The fact that the meat and dairy industry have all sorts of ties to the government, which further affi liates in intricate, questionable ways to the success of big pharma, is defi nitely something that warrants discussion, yet the point is that certain interests are protected when meat and dairy consumption remain normalized in dominant culture.
As such, there are a lot of societal barometers that are exposed in this question of raising a child vegan/vegetarian. Firstly, we see how changes in dominant culture are resisted on a structural and legislative level, so much so that parents are being attacked at a legal level by erroneous ‘medical reports.’ What are these ‘medical professionals’ really trying to protect with these fi ndings? Secondly, we see how much fear resides in the concept of the ‘social outcast’: we want our kids to be able to eat with all of the other kids, we don’t want any factor that sets them apart and inhibits their assimilation into the big scary social world. Yet what does this fear of the social deviant mean for people who are outcasted under other distinctions: disability, race, economic class, etc.? Yet the big and serious reveal is what both of these concepts imply when combined, which is that dominant ideology regulates individual behavior through the presumption of “ethicality”: it defi nes what is good and bad, and makes judgement calls based on one’s alignment with this binary. It is bad to raise your child on plant protein, it is good to sign them up for bible study. So what’s the point of all of this? I started by talking about eating vegetables, where the hell are we now? Well, from this platform we can begin to question all evaluations of “ethicality”,
who defi nes good and bad, how this binarical understanding informs our worldview. I have a professor who says that whenever we are given two choices that we must look for a third, and here we have once again ended up at a crossroads. Yet perhaps instead of saying “yes, raising a child vegan/vegetarian is ethical” or “no, it’s not” we can throw out this regressive method of evaluation, take it a step further, and question: should we be letting societal constructions of good/bad, right/ wrong, regulate personal choices, such as diet, at all?
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The Venezualan Coup WORDS | ABBIE O’HARA
n 2017 a Venezuelan opposition party was formed in order to maintain the authority of the National Assembly. The designated figurehead of the opposition, Juan Guaidó, a formerly unknown right-wing politician from Venezuela’s Popular Will Party, has declared himself president amidst internal confl ict over the most recent presidential election by way of an informal power-sharing agreement among the opposition’s political parties. Article 232 of the Venezuelan Constitution grants the National Assembly power to declare a president’s “abandonment” of his position. However, Maduro has done no such thing and only the Supreme Court has the authority to disqualify sitting presidents.1 Although, one must recognize that this very Supreme Court was carefully constructed by the Maduro presidency. This complex situation merits a more in depth look at Venezuelan history in order to better understand its current political climate. The United States has a long history of systemic involvement in Latin American politics that parallels current U.S. actions and rhetoric in present day Venezuela. In 2002, during the Presidency of Hugo Chavez, the Confederación de Tra-
bajadores de Venezuela, or the National Federation of Trade Unions, opposed the Chavez presidency after his appointment to prominent positions in the Venezuelan National Oil Company. However, this uprising was prominently backed by American interests in Venezuelan oil. De-
“His deep ties to the Dirty Wars also serves as evidence of his willingness to promoto unjust violence...” spite President George W. Bush’s denial of U.S.involvement, The New York Times published a story exposing CIA prior knowledge of the coup, a coup that American media
brazenly supported, just as they are currently in support ofGuaido.2 Furthermore, publications such as The Guardian added that several U.S. senior officials in office during the attempted Chavez coup served as policy makers under the Regan administration during the Dirty Wars of the 70s and 80s when thousands of innocent civilians were murdered, tortured, and kidnapped. One such appointee, Elliot Abrams, a current senior advisor in international policy under the Trump administration, is infamously linked to misinforming the U.S. government in order to prompt violence during the Iran Contra Affairs motivated by his business connections with Dick Cheney. His deep ties to the Dirty Wars also serves as evidence of his willingness to promote unjust violence and military backed coups for economic gain. Likewise, Trump’s open communications with Venezuelan opposition officers was reported by the New York Times in September of 2018, continuing the trend of U.S. involvement in Latin American politics to today.3 Despite the long history of systematic targeting of Venezuela by the U.S., American media uniformly characterizes Venezuela’s suffering as the sole fault of Maduro. It is confusing and
disheartening to see a lack of recognition of U.S. past involvement in Venezuelan politics. The narrative of Maduro as a corrupt dictator is one that must be questioned and further examined as carefully constructed by the American government, even by prominent “liberal” Democrats. It is clear, though, that the threat of violence does not only come from the U.S., but from the Maduro administration itself. No sane communist or socialist would applaud the current state of Venezuela as it is clear a humanitarian crisis is occurring. Due to increasing inflation rates, sharp increases in immigration rates, and a drop in national income, many Venezuelans do not have access to basic necessities such as medicine, food, or toiletries.4 Despite the rapid increase in poverty, Maduro has denied the crisis and claims humanitarian aid serves as a U.S. orchestrated show undermining his presidency. On April 30th Maduro partially opened Venezuela’s border with Colombia after having closed off all of Venezuela’s borders from relief campaigns. Russian allies of Venezuela have accused the U.S. of attempting to arm Venezuelan’s opposition party. The roots of these claim of U.S. involvement and sabotaging of Venezuelan socialism may stem from the rigorous and pointed economic sanctions the Trump administration has imposed on the country. Unrelenting hostility of internal and external adversaries has led to international sanctions and threats of military action. This, coupled with failing oil prices and failure to diversify an economy dependent on petroleum, has greatly contributed to the Venezuelan crisis. The American government has fi nancial stakes invested in Venezuelan oil. John Bolton of Fox news has even stated on air that America would profit from investment in Venezuelan oil. Around the year 2014 the United State began imposing intense sanctions on Venezuelan oil companies and international oil prices plummeted while Venezuela’s oil output also declined significantly. Oil prices in Venezuela, a major foundation of the country’s economy, still have yet to recover to that of their pre-2014
prices. In 2017 the Trump administration imposed new sanctions which prohibited the purchase of bonds issued by the government or PDVSA and forbade the nation’s US-based company CITGO from repatriating profits.5 Due to the malicious intent to cause harm to the Venezuelan economy, many Chavistas saw these sanctions as an act of war. Anyone who points to government incompetence or the natural pitfalls of socialism as the root of the Venezuelan crisis is clearly overlooking a long U.S. history of economic interference. And, in case you were excluding democrats from involvement in this economic warfare, even an executive order under the Obama administration in 2015 directly targeted the Venezuelan economy. Framing this crisis in a global context is important. Chavista activists have been receiving support from China and Russia, sharply contrasting efforts by U.S. officials such as Marco Rubio to rule these activists organizations as terrorists. U.S. intelligence agencies launch as series of cyber attacks to Venezuelan electrical companies in an effort to leave innocent Venezuelans without power and, if accomplished, would serve as justification for U.S. interference in a ‘failing socialist economy’ as has been numerously stated by Trump. However, China offered to help restore Venezuela’s electricity before it evolved into a national crisis.6 All of this is to say that what is happening in Venezuela is revealing because it shows us that the United States and its North Atlantic treaty organization allies failed in isolating Venezuela and are up against the legacy and living infrastructure of the Socialist Bolivarian Republic. Throughout the Dirty Wars of the 70s and 80s, and even previous to those events, we are able to see the U.S. as a dominating figure controlling Latin American politics. This long relationship is now being confronted and fought against with the support of global allies such as Russia and China whose interests are even more complex.
TO RIDE: E M I T
TH Y EM O B YTH W OS OF THE CO WORDS | DANTE PEÑA ART | BRENNA FOX
he English word cowboy derives from the Spanish word “vaquero” which in turn derives from the Spanish word for cow or “vaca.” This derivative timeline of the etymology of the word cowboy is not merely a coincidence. The original cowboys were not in fact wild western white buccaneers as depicted in American classic fi lms, but instead were native Mexicans forced to work on ranches when Spain invaded Mexico in the 16th century. In an article for The Atlantic, Leah Williams notes that “by the 19th century one in three cowboys were Mexican.” Therefore, it is quite curious why the fi rst image that comes to mind for many people when regarding cowboys 30 | ETHOS | Summer 2019
is white American fi lm stars such as John Wayne or Clint Eastwood. The iconography of the cowboy is as ingrained in associations with America as apple pie is. In the past the cowboy has meant many things: a loner, a rancher, a man of few words. Perhaps the cowboy still means all of those things. However, in the past few years the style of the cowboy has been littered all across media. In music, fi lm, television, and art the cowboy has resurged from its dormancy and reclaimed its throne as an American staple of culture. What is more important about this resurgence of the cowboy is who is driving it. It is African-
American musical artists such as Solange and Lil Nas X, queer country singer Orville Peck, and even Japanese-American singer-songwriter Mitski who named her most recent album “Be the Cowboy,” who are furthering this imagery back into the forefront of the general public’s minds. This reconnaissance of the cowboy is a reclamation of power. Everyone thought they knew what a cowboy is (re: tall, white, strong, and male), but these artists have shown a completely different side to the wild west character. The cowboy is no longer just for the John Waynes of the world. It is for everyone. To understand why Lil Nas X’s and Solange’s reappropriation of the cowboy is so intrinsically important, in particular, one fi rst needs to know and consider the history of black cowboys. It is reported that nearly one in four cowboys in America from the 17th to the 19th century were black. This is not widely known of course. When we think of representations of the cowboy on fi lm we are littered with images of a rootin-tootin heavy duty horseback riders with a wicked smirk and anti-hero character arc. When we did see people of color on screen in western fi lms from the 1940s, 50s, and even beyond we saw them as villains. Native Americans were shown as savages and Mexicans were shown as treacherous bandits. However, African-Americans were almost never in any western fi lms. A great majority of cowboys in the south, and Texas, especially were in fact African slaves. It is a lesser known fact that while Texas ranchers fought in the civil war they left their slaves to take care of the ranches and fulfi ll cowboy duties which is noted by Katie Nodjimbadem in an article for the Smithsonian. African slaves were the backbone of ranches in the south, yet they are overshadowed and overlooked for glossy depictions of the self assured white cowboy. Additionally to tending to ranches, African-Americans also became some of the fi rst popular rodeo cowboy stars as seen through the likes of Bill Pickett. It is confounding yet not surprising that although black people played a major proponent in the role and culture of the cowboy in history, they are instead surpassed in popularity by their white counterparts. Even though Solange and Lil Nas X may just be using cowboy imagery as purpose of posturing it is incredibly pertinent to note that their posturing is not simply a rehash of the white cowboy, but instead a defiant defi nitively black one. One of Merriam-Webster’s defi nitions of a cowboy is “one having qualities (such as recklessness, aggressiveness, or independence) popularly associated with cowboys.” This defi nition of course takes into account what the popular depiction of a cowboy is i.e. male, white, and entitled to whatever he damn well pleases. One of the basic understandings of the cowboy is that he is free. This is of course not accurate as many historical cowboys were African slaves or Native Mexicans forced into work by the Spanish. However, this idea of a freewheeling, gun-slinging hero persists. Perhaps it is this depiction of the cowboy as the defi nitive white man that furthers this narrative. Cowboys are more than just straight white men. One genre of music that has always drawn from the heteronormative ideals of the cowboy is of course country music. From the days of Hank Williams Jr. to artists on the current country charts the cowboy and the cowboy hat in particular have always been a mainstay. It is not a mystery that is extremely hard to be openly queer in this music scene. However, over the past year an alternative country artist named Orville Peck has emerged as a signifier of all things gay AND cowboy. Of course the gay cowboy has been shown famously in media in the 2005 Ang Lee fi lm, Brokeback Mountain. However, other than that the association in mainstream media between queer life and the cow-
boy has been limited. Perhaps one recalls the cowboy character from the unabashedly queer band from the 1970s, the Village People. Despite this the cowboy has a sordid history with queer life. There are gay cowboy bars all across America. The cowboy as a gay sex icon has persisted through the likes of artist like Tom of Finland. Yet, while many gay men have subverted what it means to be a cowboy, mainstream media has rarely paid attention to these depictions. Orville Peck is a glowing example of what it means to be both openly gay and a cowboy in the modern sphere. Peck always wears a flamboyant fringed mask as well as queer actualizations of the cowboy costume on stage. In fact no one actually knows who he truly is. He also openly writes about his relationships with men, stories about drag queens, and is unashamed of his idenitity as a gay man in a heteronormative space such as country music. It is also important to note that Peck’s music recalls classic country music such as Loretta Lynn and Johnny Cash. Peck is a masterful pastiche of the cowboy. He is both within and without. By taking control of what it means to be a cowboy, Peck has circumvented the power from the straight white male cowboy right into his undeniably queer gaze. As mentioned earlier Mitski, a spectacular indie rock musician named her most recent record from 2018, “Be the Cowboy.” As a Japanese-American woman Mitski stated that she always felt she has little to no voice or space cultivated for her in society. The cowboy in turn represents exactly what Mitski wishes she could have, the power and freedom to do what she pleases. The cowboy represents macho power so purposefully tied to white male power by popular media that it frankly sickening. In a baffl ing, yet not shocking display of male privilege, fellow indie rocker Mac Demarco recently this year announced and released his latest record “Here Comes the Cowboy.” Demarco claimed he had not heard of Mitski’s record and that his record has nothing to do with hers. I fi nd it hard to believe Demarco had not heard of Mitski’s record from 2018 when it was on countless lists as one of the best albums of the year and even topped NPR’s year end album round up. Additionally I fi nd the wording of Mitski and Demarco’s respective albums interesting. Mitski’s album empowers those who are disenfranchised to seek power and space by a society that has denied them such. Demarco’s album title announces his deft arrival. Here he comes! It’s the privileged white man. Ultimately Mitski and Demarco both laughed this supposed coincidence off. However I do not fi nd it funny. Mitski’s defi nition of the cowboy reveals the power of its imagery. Demarco reveals its privilege. The cowboy has evolved from its John Wayne heydays. The cowboy now belongs to everyone. The cowboy is no longer a lone ranger. The cowboy is you.
California Love
The pride, love and fear of a UO Chicano student translated into art WORDS | RENATA GERALDO PHOTOS | MARIN STUART
“Today’s the day.” That was Sergio Sanchez’s fi rst thought when he woke up on February 15, 2019. It was a rainy, gloomy start of a day that would change Sanchez’s future. Starting at 5 p.m., he would have his fi rst gallery opening in the EMU, called “Sergio Sanchez: Santanero y Mexicano.” He’d been preparing for this day for months now. He flew his mother in from Santa Ana, California, and bought fresh new clothes for the opening. But Sanchez had his whole day in front of him. He went to class and worked, and later ironed his clothes in the bathroom behind the Multicultural Center in the EMU. What he wore, he said, communicated his identity as a Chicano: 501 jeans from Levi’s, white and blue Nike Cortez shoes, a white ProClub shirt, a straw hat and a sarape (a loose sweater) across the shoulder with Aztec symbols. The art on the wall of the gallery expressed his identity: his pride of being Chicano, the love he feels for his family and friends, the struggle of being a student of color in a white campus and the fear of failing his dreams. His artistic style, which Sanchez calls the “Sergio style,” is busy art. On a single piece of paper, he expresses his identity through lettering, with sentences or words often written in Spanish, drawings of eyes, Aztec symbols and love letters written to his girlfriend or mother. Though he was scared that no one would show up, his art gallery quickly fi lled up with people. From faculty to coworkers, his mom and his girlfriend, about 100 people, coming and going, fi lled up the room. It poured outside, but inside the gallery, Sanchez was surrounded by the warmth of people and traditional Mexican food. There were conchas, (Mexican sweet bread with sugar or chocolate sprinkled to the format of a seashell on top), flan (a sweet similar to custard), juice and hot beverages. Though UO Catering does not often offer these traditional Mexican dishes, Sanchez says that they did it just for his opening. This was the moment that everything changed for Sanchez: when he saw how much he had evolved as an artist and that he had a future in art. Surrounded by friends, co-workers, faculty, girlfriend and mom, Sanchez stood up on a wooden stool to give a speech and thank everyone 34 | ETHOS | Summer 2019
who was there. He’s not one to show emotions outside his close circle of friends and family, says his girlfriend Vanessa Carrillo, but as he went up to give the speech, his emotions overwhelmed him and his eyes were watery. Sanchez’s art is shaped by his roots coming from Santa Ana, California. According to data from the city website, Hispanics are 78.2% of the population there, followed by 10.4% of Asians and 9.2% of Whites. It’s an area shaped by Chicano culture: lowriders, graffiti and pride. But while he was part of the culture in Santa Ana, Sanchez now stands out in Eugene, where 9.4% of Hispanics or Latinos contrast with 84% of Whites, according to the U.S. Census Bureau. For Sanchez, being a Chicano means being Mexican American. In other words, he has the culture of a Mexican, but inserted in an American socio-political landscape. He’s often dressed in oversized jeans and shirts (sometimes button-ups) and he wears his hair back. Many people see him as a cholo, a Mexican gangster, but in reality, Sanchez says he looks like a normal Chicano. Carrillo says that the way he presents himself and his art is what attracts — and deflects — people. He’s often misinterpreted, she says, and this goes the same for his art. But Carrillo says that this misinterpretation is also what moves him forward. “I think a lot of people misunderstand or misinterpret him,” she says. “People see him and automatically think he’s probably from California, a Chicano, all this stuff, and I think that that’s helped him really make connections with faculty members or students. I think with the most successful people you’ll fi nd that they’ll have the same thing that helps them is the same thing that puts them back sometimes.” In most of Sanchez’s pieces there is an element of brown pride, or pride of being Hispanic. In an older drawing, he wrote, “Orgullosamente Mexicano” (Proudly Mexican). In a more recent piece, he wrote, “Brown Love.” But along with his Chicano pride, he says, he tries to ignore the bad parts of his roots in Santa Ana, like gang violence. He dealt with gangs growing up, though he was never involved in their
activities. Sanchez sees himself as a traditional Chicano, but the gangs around him never liked that he would behave and dress differently from them, as if Sanchez were a threat to their rules. He would keep his style, which, he says, is much influenced by lowriders and traditional Chicano clothing, such as Nike Cortez shoes, 501 Levi’s pants and ProClub shirts. But by doing so, he says he was scared that he would be attacked at any moment. Sanchez says what kept him away from getting in trouble and towards college was art and sports. His art career started earlier. In elementary school, he began imitating his brother’s graffiti art. But art became an obsession for him when he developed his “Sergio style,” which is the same one that was exhibited in the EMU earlier this year. He says he started developing his style when shifting from graffiti to a Chicano-style drawing and lettering related to lowriders and Mexican culture. One of his dreams when he was younger and before the gallery, he says, was to airbrush one of his pieces onto his lowrider. In middle school, however, his art was seen by school officials as slacking off. He was also told that if he got to high school, he should take art classes to learn how to do what they considered to be the “correct,” traditional art. He says he got his Sharpies taken away from him and got suspended for carrying them around in his backpack. But Sanchez carried on, he says, because he would use his art to fl irt with girls. He began doing track and field in high school and heard of the UO as a freshman when a fellow senior student compared him to Steve Prefontaine (“Pre”), UO’s famous track athlete. He was accepted to the UO, but his problems were not over. When he came to Eugene, he didn’t have to deal with gangs anymore. Now,
the threat was bigots. In a warm, dry Wednesday in May at 6:30 p.m., Sanchez and his team played their last intramural soccer game. They were there to have fun, says team captain Hanzel López, because they wouldn’t make it to the playoffs. Called the UO B3ans due to most of the team members being Latinx, it would be the last time in the year that they would wear their white shirts with UO B3ans written in green across chest. They were playing against a fraternity, says López, and the game was peaceful until the latter half of the game. López says that the other team started calling them names and being more aggressive than normal for a soccer game. He remembers being mocked because of his height and being asked if the UO B3ans had drank too much cerveza (“beer,” in Spanish). Tensions started to build up. López said that people from the other team were asking the UO B3ans to hit fi rst so they could call the police. His teammates were, above anything else, confused. They were already losing 3-0, he says, so there was no point in being provoked. López says the referees for the game were not doing anything to stop the tensions. The UO B3ans goalkeeper asked to end the game before the time limit. Instead of fighting, each team went in different directions, López says. His team was still confused as to when and why the tensions started, but the verbal racial aggressions, he says, were common. “I could easily knock that foo out,” Sanchez said about one of the students from the adversary team. “Either he goes down or I go down.” What kept Sanchez from hitting someone, he says, was the fact that, in a white campus, he and his teammates would be the ones to get in trouble, regardless of who would win the fight. Summer 2019 | ETHOS | A
“It took a lot out of me to be, like, you know what? This guy’s not important. This is a soccer game,” he says. “I’m not ‘bout to ruin my education, the education of those people that are playing with me, the other brown people around me because of this piece of shit.” In one of his most recent pieces, Sanchez drew jail bars with a blue pen. It does not take most of the painting compared to a rose and letterings that say “Californiano” and “Florita del alma.” But the drawing of the cage is present in a much smaller scale in the background of the upper left corner.
Carrillo says that his baggy clothes and cool exterior can sometimes be threatening to ignorant people, but Sanchez is sensible inside. In the same painting, Sanchez drew two eyes – one by itself and another in a woman. He also wrote, “It’s in the eyes, chico.” The eyes are one of his favorite things to draw, he says, because “the eyes are the door of a person’s emotions.” He says he is very emotional and “feels more than the average person,” but Sanchez doesn’t let his feelings transpire. For better or for worse, if he let his emotions get the best of him, he might get in trouble.
“He reacts on his emotions a lot,” said Carrilo, “and that might get him in trouble sometimes, but that’s not always bad.” Sanchez’s art depicts a lot of women, either through lettering or drawings. The eyes that he draws are often feminine. When he draws women, they often have long hair and a hat, and in one of his recent drawings, there is a bare-breast woman. He says he feels a lot of connection with women due to being raised by his mother while his father was out working. Because of this connection with his mother, Silvia, he flew her to Eugene to see his gallery. He says he wasn’t sure she would be able to come. She’d just gotten back from Mexico and had missed a few days’ work. But she came nonetheless to spend one of the most important days of Sanchez’s life with him. Yet in one occasion, Sanchez let his feelings get the best of him. He was listening to 2Pac without headphones next to Fenton Hall one day while he was walking out of class, when a female student passed by him and made a comment about his music. “2Pac tends to curse a lot in his music and she said, ‘Oh my God, that music, why is he cursing so much, like, turn it off,’” said Sanchez. “That’s when I said, ‘fuck you, bitch.’ I shouldn’t have said that, but, at the same time, why do people feel so uncomfortable and automatically disrespect or say
something? I’m just passing by.” That was his fi rst reaction. Looking back, he says he shouldn’t have said “bitch,” but she caught him off guard. The stakes were higher for Sanchez after his gallery, especially for him as a student of color who says people expect him to fail. He says he knows that there are people who would give everything to be in his shoes, so he can’t afford doing things that can threaten his position at the UO. Sanchez says he expects everything from himself: to be happy, successful, to have a career, a family back in California. But his anxiety and impatience are some of his biggest challenges. “At the end of the day, I come from this place where we’re quick to react,” he says, snapping his fi ngers. “I have
so much to give and so much more to lose, and they don’t. For all I know, they got money. For all I know, they don’t care about school. For all I know, if they get kicked out, they’ll go to another one. If I get kicked out, where am I going to go? Back home, back to the same shit I was in. I don’t want that for me.” In one of his most recent pieces, he wrote at the top of the page, “Don’t Put Me Down Cause I’m Brown.” He knows he has much to lose, but also much to gain if he keeps his emotions under control. But coming from an environment of constant vigilance, he could snap at any moment. “It makes my art mean to much more,” he says. He cracked his neck both ways while talking about his experiences dealing with racism at the UO, and said that it’s what he does when he gets tense. But when he started therapy at the UO, he said he learned how to better deal with his anxiety and stress. “I would start tripping, overreacting, it could be the smallest things,” he says. “But then after these therapy things, I’m able to process what I’m feeling.” He says he would be more impulsive, wouldn’t know how to handle or understand his anxiety or frustrations. “It’s easier for me to process things and understand how to communicate that,” he said. Sanchez wants to work with youth, he says, so he can give them better opportunities. He also wants to give back to his family and his community in Santa Ana. The gallery, he said, was when he realized that he could dream big and see how he could succeed not only in art, but in whatever he chose to do, such as working with youth to help them thrive as well. “How am I supposed to give to these kids if I’m going to react like that?” He said. “How am I supposed to help them if I can’t even help myself?” Through his art, Sanchez says he’ll be able to attract kids to talk to him because “art attracts everybody.” And his gallery was the fi rst step towards his success - having a family, giving back to the community, doing art, being proud of his identity and helping youth to have more options and ultimately succeed.
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Ethos Magazine Summer 2019
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Michael Turpen
Michael C. Turpen graduated from the University of Tulsa earning a Bachelor of Science degree in History and a Juris Doctor degree. In 1982, Mike was elected Attorney General for the state of Oklahoma. He served as Muskogee County District Attorney from 1977 to 1982. Since 1987, Mike has been a partner in the law firm of Riggs, Abney, Neal, Turpen, Orbison & Lewis in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.
Mike has received numerous awards, honors and appointments. In 2012, Mike received the Louise Bennett Distinguished Service Award. In 2010, Mike was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame, the state’s highest honor. Mike argued before the United States Supreme Court in 1985.
While no longer serving in public office, Mike remains politically active. He appears weekly on Oklahoma City NBC affiliate KFOR’s award-winning public affairs show, “Flashpoint with Turpen & Humphreys.” He appeared twice on ABC’s “Politically Incorrect” with Bill Maher and was featured on PBS’s national documentary, “Vote for Me: Politics in America.” He had a long-running monthly column, “Turpen Time,” for the OPEA monthly newspaper and was a featured columnist for Microsoft’s internet magazine, Slate.
Elevate 2019: Legal Services and the Future
Jeff Bell and Mike Turpen talk about their thoughts on the future of legal services and what they're working on with LegalShield to help close the justice gap.
Oklahoma Summit on A2J: Is it Time for Civil Gideon?
Michael Turpen discusses the ideals behind the civil Gideon movement.
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culture life movies pop culture
“The Force Awakens” and Getting Trapped By Nostalgia
In conversations with friends about the new Star Wars movie, I’ve noticed two trends. The first is that most of the people I’ve talked to report enjoying the movie quite a bit (and that makes sense, seeing as how the film is scoring very well on the critic aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes). The second trend is that virtually no one has criticized The Force Awakens for being too much like the original Star Wars trilogy. Indeed, the opposite seems to be true: Most people who have told me how much they like Episode VII have mentioned its similarity, both in feel and in plot, to George Lucas’s first three Star Wars films as a reason why they like it so much.
For the record, I enjoyed The Force Awakens quite a bit, and J.J. Abrams’ homage to the golden moments of the original films was, I thought, well done. But many of my conversations about it have confirmed to me what I suspected when Episode VII was announced: We’re trapped in a cultural moment of nostalgia, and we can’t get out of it.
Of course, the nostalgia-entrapment begins with the existence of movies like The Force Awakens. As I’ve said before, as much as I love Star Wars, the fact that a 40 year old franchise is still dominating the box office, news cycle, and cultural attention is not something to be excited about. There comes a point when tradition becomes stagnation, and at least in American mainstream film culture, it seems like that line was crossed some time ago. Case in point: Included in my screening of Star Wars were trailers for a Harry Potter spinoff, another Captain America film, an inexplicable sequel to Independence Day, and yet *another* X-Men movie. In other words, had an audience member in my theater just awoken from a 12 year coma, they would have seen virtually nothing that they hadn’t seen before.
Nostalgia, if unchecked, runs opposed to creativity, freshness, and imagination. Even worse, the dominance of nostalgia in American pop culture has a powerful influence in marketing, making it less likely every year that new storytellers with visions of new worlds, new characters and new adventures will get the financing they need to materialize their talents. That is a particularly disheartening fact when you consider that the storytellers whose work has spawned a generation’s worth of reboots and sequels were themselves at one point the “unknowns:” George Lucas couldn’t find a studio to finance Star Wars until an executive at 2oth Century Fox took a risk on a hunch; Steven Spielberg finished “Jaws” with much of Universal’s leadership wanting to dump both movie and director; and for much of the filming of “The Godfather,” executives of Paramount openly campaigned to fire writer/director Francis Ford Coppola. If formula and nostalgia had been such powerful cultural forces back then, there’s a good chance there’d be no Star Wars to make sequels for at all.
The trap of nostalgia is deceitful. It exaggerates the happiness of the past, then preys on our natural fear that the future will not be like that. But this illusion is easily dismantled, as anyone who has discovered the joys of a new story can attest.
There’s a freedom and a pleasure in letting stories end, in closing the book or rolling the final credits on our beloved tales. The need to resurrect our favorite characters and places through the sequel or the reboot isn’t a need based in the deepest imaginative joys. It is good that stories end rather than live on indefinitely so that we treasure them as we ought and lose ourselves in a finite universe rather than blur the lines in our mind between the truth in our stories and the truth in our lives. If we cannot allow myths to have definite beginnings and endings, it could be that we are idolatrously looking to them not for truth or grace but for a perpetual youthfulness.
Of course, there are dangers on the other side too. An insatiable craving for the new can be a sign of the weightless of our own souls. A disregard for tradition can indicate a ruthless self-centeredness. And, as C.S. Lewis reminded us, novelty is not a virtue and oldness is not a vice.
But we should be careful to distinguish between a healthy regard for those that come before us, and a nostalgia that (unwittingly) devalues tradition by ignoring how and why it exists. In the grand scheme of things, how many Star Wars films get made is probably not of paramount importance. But being trapped by nostalgia has its price. An irrational love of the past can signal a crippling fear of the future. Christians are called to lay aside the weight of fear and follow the gospel onward. If we’re not even willing to learn what life is like without a new Star Wars or Harry Potter, how can we do that?
Tagsculture • Hollywood • nostalgia • Star Wars
1 comment on ““The Force Awakens” and Getting Trapped By Nostalgia”
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Justia › US Law › Case Law › Federal Courts › Courts of Appeals › First Circuit › 1987 › Francisco Cheveras Pacheco, et al., Plaintiffs, Appellees, v. Juan M. Rivera Gonzalez, et al., Defen...
Francisco Cheveras Pacheco, et al., Plaintiffs, Appellees, v. Juan M. Rivera Gonzalez, et al., Defendants, Appellants, 809 F.2d 125 (1st Cir. 1987)
US Court of Appeals for the First Circuit - 809 F.2d 125 (1st Cir. 1987)
Submitted Oct. 10, 1986. Decided Jan. 13, 1987
Pedro Juan Perez Nieves, Hector Rivera-Cruz, Secretary of Justice, Com. of Puerto Rico, Rafael Ortiz-Carrion, Sol. Gen., Com. of Puerto Rico, San Juan, P.R., and Saldana, Rey, Moran & Alvarado, (Santurce, P.R., on brief, for defendants, appellants.
Before COFFIN, BOWNES and BREYER, Circuit Judges.
COFFIN, Circuit Judge.
Plaintiff, contending he had been discharged from government employment, brought the present section 1983 action seeking damages and reinstatement. Essentially, he claims 1) that the discharge was done without prior notice or hearing in violation of his right to procedural due process and 2) that he was discharged because of his affiliation with the political party defeated in Puerto Rico's 1984 elections in violation of his first amendment rights. Defendants moved for summary judgment on the damages claim on the theory that they had not violated clearly established law and that hence they were entitled to qualified immunity. Defendants' motion was denied without opinion, and they have now appealed. See Mitchell v. Forsyth, 472 U.S. 511, 105 S. Ct. 2806, 86 L. Ed. 2d 411 (1985) (allowing immediate appeal from an order denying qualified immunity claims). Defendants claim they did not discharge plaintiff at all. Rather, they say, plaintiff was a "transitory" employee, that is, one appointed for a fixed term, and they simply refused to give plaintiff a new appointment once his fixed term had expired.
1. Procedural due process. With respect to plaintiff's procedural due process claim, defendants' position is that it was not clearly established law at the time of plaintiff's job termination that an employee with a contractually fixed term of employment had a property interest in employment beyond the specified term and hence had a constitutional right to notice or a hearing. In general, defendants are correct. Board of Regents v. Roth, 408 U.S. 564, 92 S. Ct. 2701, 33 L. Ed. 2d 548 (1972) (professor with one year term of appointment has no property interest in renewal of his appointment and no right to notice or hearing concerning the reasons for nonrenewal). Property interests may be created, however, not only by explicit contractual provisions but also by an implied contract or officially sanctioned rules of the work place. Perry v. Sindermann, 408 U.S. 593, 601-02, 92 S. Ct. 2694, 2699-2700, 33 L. Ed. 2d 570 (1972).
Plaintiff alleges in his complaint and affidavit that, although he was classified as a transitory government employee, he always understood his position to be permanent in nature. He had been employed in a transitory capacity for nearly six years before his discharge without notice or hearing. What plaintiff does not allege, however, is a basis for his "understanding" that his position was, in effect, permanent and thus not governed by Puerto Rico law providing that a transitory employee "may be removed from service at anytime during the term of his appointment." 3 L.P.R.A. Sec. 1336(9) (Supp.1985). See Perry v. Sindermann, 408 U.S. at 602 n. 7, 92 S. Ct. at 2700 n. 7, ("If it is the law of Texas that a teacher in the respondent's position has no contractual or other claim to job tenure, the respondent's claim would be defeated.") He does not describe any promises or representations made that might give rise to a property interest in employment beyond the expiration date of his appointment. Thus, plaintiff has so far alleged only "a mere subjective 'expectancy' " that his job would continue indefinitely. See Perry v. Sindermann, 408 U.S. at 603, 92 S. Ct. at 2700. Without more, he has no property interest in his employment.
Defendants view plaintiff's failure to plead the basis of his claim to a permanent position as proof that there is no genuine issue of material fact that his employment was for anything other than a fixed term. Thus, defendants argue, they are entitled to summary judgment. This argument, focusing on whether facts are disputed, is not a proper subject of our review as part of an interlocutory appeal on the issue of qualified immunity. Bonitz v. Fair, 804 F.2d 164, 166-67, 175-76 (1st Cir. 1986). We specifically indicated in Bonitz that we do not " 'consider the correctness of the plaintiff's facts, nor even determine whether the plaintiff's allegations actually state a claim,' " but limit our inquiry to " 'whether the legal norms allegedly violated by the defendant were clearly established at the time of the challenged actions.' " Id. at 166 (quoting Mitchell v. Forsyth, 105 S. Ct. at 2816 & n. 9). It therefore is beyond our jurisdiction to consider the state of the factual record in order to determine whether defendants are entitled to summary judgment on the merits.
The qualified immunity question in this case is whether it was clearly established in 1985 that a transitory employee with only a subjective expectation of permanent employment was entitled to the protections of due process. Under Perry v. Sindermann, such an employee has no procedural due process rights, and thus it was not clearly established in 1985 that plaintiff was entitled to the protections of due process. Therefore, on the basis of the allegations before us, defendants are entitled to qualified immunity.
2. First amendment claim. Defendants' first amendment argument is not that they are entitled to qualified immunity because political affiliation was an "appropriate" requirement for plaintiff's particular position, thus justifying their failure to reappoint him. See Branti v. Finkel, 445 U.S. 507, 100 S. Ct. 1287, 63 L. Ed. 2d 574 (1980); Elrod v. Burns, 427 U.S. 347, 96 S. Ct. 2673, 49 L. Ed. 2d 547 (1976). Indeed, there is no indication of the nature of plaintiff's job duties. Rather, defendants' argument is that, in contrast to the career or permanent positions at issue in Elrod and Branti, it was not clearly established at the time of plaintiff's termination that a "transitory" employee whose term had expired was protected from a politically based non-renewal.
We disagree. Despite defendants' attempts to distinguish the termination of plaintiff's job from the "discharges" covered by Elrod and Branti, we find ample evidence in Supreme Court cases that there is no practical difference between these two categories for first amendment purposes. In Perry v. Sindermann, 408 U.S. at 593, 92 S. Ct. at 2695, the Court held that the nonrenewal of a college professor's contract would violate the first amendment if it were based on his protected free speech--even if the professor lacked a property interest in continued employment.
For at least a quarter-century, this Court has made clear that even though a person has no " 'right' " to a valuable governmental benefit and even though the government may deny him the benefit for any number of reasons, there are some reasons upon which the government may not rely.
Id. at 597, 92 S. Ct. at 2697. Moreover, in Elrod, the Court considered whether "conditioning the retention of public employment on the employee's support of the in-party" would survive constitutional challenge. 427 U.S. at 363, 96 S. Ct. at 2685 (emphasis added). And in Branti, the Court observed that, "[a]fter Elrod, it is clear that the lack of a reasonable expectation of continued employment is not sufficient to justify a dismissal based solely on an employee's private political beliefs." 445 U.S. at 512 n. 6, 100 S. Ct. at 1291.
We think these cases make it clear that Elrod and Branti apply generally to an employee's right to retain his public employment, and they do not distinguish between employees discharged from a permanent position and those who fail to receive a new appointment. Accord McBee v. Jim Hogg County, Tex., 730 F.2d 1009, 1015 (5th Cir. 1984) (en banc). This distinction is particularly invalid in the case of an employee like the plaintiff here who has long been employed in a supposedly transitory position.1 Any other result would seriously undermine Elrod and Branti because local governments could pass laws providing that the jobs of nonpolicymaking employees extend only from election to election, and that the new officeholder is entitled to make all new appointments. See, e.g., McBee, 730 F.2d at 1009 n. 2. (Texas law provides that "deputy sheriffs are the creatures of the sheriff, serving at his pleasure and departing with him at the end of his term."); Tanner v. McCall, 625 F.2d 1183 (5th Cir. 1980) (Florida law provides that appointment as deputy sheriff ends when power of appointing sheriff ends); Mele v. Fahy, 579 F. Supp. 1576 (D.N.J. 1984) (statute provides that municipal department heads "shall serve during the term of office of the mayor appointing him"); Bavoso v. Harding, 507 F. Supp. 313 (S.D.N.Y. 1980) (city counsel reappointed every year by city council). We think it was made clear in Elrod and Branti that technical niceties are not to be relied upon to avoid application of the principles stated in those cases. See Branti, 445 U.S. at 512 n. 6, 100 S. Ct. at 1291 n. 6; Elrod, 427 U.S. at 359-60 n. 13, 96 S. Ct. at 2683 n. 13.2
A case relied upon by defendants, Messer v. Curci, 610 F. Supp. 179 (E.D. Ky. 1985), is not to the contrary. In that case, plaintiffs were two seasonal maintenance workers who had been employed for eight years and three years, respectively, from the period of mid-March through mid-November. They alleged that they were not rehired in March 1984 because they had failed to work in the 1983 election campaign of Governor Martha Layne Collins. Messer is distinguishable, however, because the relevant Kentucky statute limited plaintiffs' employment to eleven months in duration, causing plaintiffs to file new applications for employment each year. As a result, the court concluded that the case should be treated as a failure to hire. Those circumstances are significantly different from this case, where plaintiff remained an employee until the allegedly unconstitutional act dismissing him. See Elrod, 427 U.S. at 374, 96 S. Ct. at 2690 (Stewart, J., concurring) ("This case does not require us to consider the ... constitutional validity of a system that confines the hiring of some governmental employees to those of a particular political party....") (emphasis added).
In rejecting defendants' claim of qualified immunity on the first amendment issue, we again emphasize that defendants may well be entitled to summary judgment on other grounds. Even though plaintiff was on sick leave when defendants took office, defendants extended his appointment from January 31, 1985, to March 31, 1985, and during that period conducted an evaluation of the need for the approximately 700 transitory positions in the Department of Labor and Human Resources. It was only after this evaluation that plaintiff's position was terminated. Thus, it is possible that plaintiff will be unable to meet his burden of showing that the dismissal would not have occurred but for his political affiliation. See Jimenez Fuentes v. Gaztambide, 807 F.2d 236 (1st Cir. 1986). In addition, we have no evidence before us concerning the nature of plaintiff's job, and thus do not consider whether that position is one for which political affiliation is an appropriate requirement. Id.
Our holding on the first amendment issue, therefore, is a narrow one. We conclude only that defendants are not entitled to summary judgment on the basis of qualified immunity because it was clearly established at the time of plaintiff's termination that even a "transitory" employee like plaintiff who had been employed for nearly six years enjoyed the protections described in Elrod and Branti.
For the foregoing reasons, the judgment of the district court is affirmed so far as it denied summary judgment on the ground of qualified immunity on the first amendment claim. The judgment of the district court on the due process claim is reversed, and the case is remanded with instructions to enter summary judgment on that issue for defendants on the basis of qualified immunity.
We find no significance in the line defendants attempt to draw between a transitory employee appointed to a pre-existing or permanent position and an employee who was appointed to a position that was specifically created for a fixed period. It may be that such a distinction would make a difference when the "fixed period" had not continuously been extended, and the employee had been appointed only once for a brief period of time in a position whose duties naturally terminated at the end of that period
In Garretto v. Cooperman, 510 F. Supp. 816, 818 n. 1 (S.D.N.Y. 1981), aff'd, 794 F.2d 676 (2d Cir. 1984) the court described as an open question whether Elrod and Branti "apply to a case of failure to reappoint." In support of this observation, it cited footnote six in Branti, which we cited in part above, and Bavoso v. Harding, 507 F. Supp. 313 (S.D.N.Y. 1980), which applied Elrod-Branti principles to a failure to reappoint case. Presumably, the court construed the Branti footnote to indicate that failure to reappoint does not fall within the case's holding. We read that language differently and, for the reasons described above, disagree with the Garretto court's conclusion
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Justia › US Law › Case Law › Federal Courts › Courts of Appeals › Fifth Circuit › 1988 › Port Drum Company, Plaintiff-appellant, v. Walter Umphrey and Kurt B. Chacon, Defendants-appellees
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Port Drum Company, Plaintiff-appellant, v. Walter Umphrey and Kurt B. Chacon, Defendants-appellees, 852 F.2d 148 (5th Cir. 1988)
US Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit - 852 F.2d 148 (5th Cir. 1988)
Summary Calendar.
United States Court of Appeals,Fifth Circuit.
Aug. 16, 1988.
Marian S. Rosen, Houston, Tex., for plaintiff-appellant.
Russell Serafin, Robert Davee, Mills, Shirley, Eckel & Bassett, Galveston, Tex., for defendants-appellees.
Appeal from the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas.
Before POLITZ, KING and SMITH, Circuit Judges.
JERRY E. SMITH, Circuit Judge:
Port Drum Co. ("Port Drum") filed this suit seeking damages and declaratory relief against Walter Umphrey and Kurt Chacon, two attorneys who had maintained a wrongful death suit in federal court. Although Port Drum was never a party to that action, it asserts that federal law grants it a private cause of action to enforce Fed. R. Civ. P. 11.1 Under Port Drum's unique and imaginative theory, injured third parties derive from Rule 11 a private cause of action to enforce an attorney's professional duties. For reasons stated for the most part in the district court's opinion dismissing Port Drum's suit, we reject this novel legal argument.
The instant case arises from a previous lawsuit wherein Umphrey and Chacon, attorneys, represented the estate of Jimmy Sterling Smith. The decedent had been an employee of Port Drum whose job responsibilities included the cleaning of chemical residue from used drums. Umphrey and Chacon filed a lawsuit on behalf of the estate and against the chemical manufacturers, alleging that the exposure to their chemical residues caused Smith's death. Port Drum was never made a party to the wrongful death suit, nor did it ever intervene in that action. In the instant suit, Port Drum alleges that certain businesses, named defendants in the estate's lawsuit, have notified Port Drum that they will no longer do business with Port Drum because they were sued in the first lawsuit. Port Drum alleges that Umphrey and Chacon repeatedly violated Fed. R. Civ. P. 11, and focuses on an amended complaint that added 52 defendants who had never done business with Port Drum.
Port Drum asserted jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 2201 (the Declaratory Judgment Act), 28 U.S.C. § 1331 (establishing federal question jurisdiction), and Fed. R. Civ. P. 11. The district court held that none of these provisions supplies subject matter jurisdiction for federal courts to entertain private causes of action to enforce Rule 11. 119 F.R.D. 26 (E.D. Tex. 1988). We agree with the court's lucid opinion, which rejects section 2201 and Rule 11 as bases for subject matter jurisdiction and holds that the construction of Rule 11 does not present a "federal question" for purposes of conferring jurisdiction under section 1331. Id. at 27-28.
Section 1331 confers federal jurisdiction in actions "arising under the Constitution, laws, or treaties of the United States." It is true that a federal rule of civil procedure "has the force of a federal statute." Sibbach v. Wilson & Co., 312 U.S. 1, 13, 61 S. Ct. 422, 426, 85 L. Ed. 479 (1941). The question before us, however, is not whether the rules can be enforced, as can a statute, but whether the existence of such a rule (here, specifically, Rule 11) makes a case one arising under federal law. We hold that the rule is not a "law" in that sense but is instead a regulator of a party's proceedings once that party is in federal court pursuant to another, independent jurisdictional grant. The rules, then, only implement the exercise of jurisdiction otherwise conferred by Congress and do not provide an independent basis for parties without any other jurisdictional grant to get into federal court in the first place. See Mississippi Publishing Corp. v. Murphree, 326 U.S. 438, 444-46, 66 S. Ct. 242, 245-46, 90 L. Ed. 185 (1946).
A contrary analysis would be circular and would defeat the concept of federal jurisdiction as limited. By definition, any party to a federal court proceeding is subject to the federal rules and entitled to the benefits of the same. If the rules constituted independent grants of jurisdiction, a party with no other basis of jurisdiction could bootstrap itself into federal court, and survive a jurisdictional motion to dismiss, merely by alleging a desire to enjoy the benefits of one of the rules or to have that rule construed.
But Congress has stated unequivocally that the rules are not to be used for such a purpose. The Enabling Act, 28 U.S.C. § 2072, provides that the rules of civil procedure "shall not abridge, enlarge or modify any substantive rights...." Similarly, Fed. R. Civ. P. 82 states that " [t]hese rules shall not be construed to extend or limit the jurisdiction of the United States district courts...." Accord, United States v. Sherwood, 312 U.S. 584, 589-90, 61 S. Ct. 767, 771, 85 L. Ed. 1058 (1941). See Matter of Adams, 734 F.2d 1094 (5th Cir. 1984); 7-Pt.2 J. Moore, J. Lucas & K. Sinclair, Moore's Federal Practice p 82.02 (2d ed. 1973); 2 Moore's Federal Practice p 1.02 (2d ed. 1983). Thus, under section 2072 and Rule 82, we may not invoke Rule 11 to "enlarge ... any substantive right" or "extend ... jurisdiction" to this case, where such jurisdiction is otherwise wanting.
If Rule 11 did expand substantive rights, it would be invalid under the Enabling Act. "The test must be whether a rule really regulates procedure,--the judicial process for enforcing rights and duties recognized by substantive law and for justly administering remedy and redress for disregard or infraction of them." Sibbach v. Wilson & Co., 312 U.S. at 14, 61 S. Ct. at 426. In Matter of Adams, we used the Sibbach test in construing a bankruptcy rule that effectively imposes default upon a debtor who fails to meet technical filing requirements. We held that the rule created no substantive rights. As default is the equivalent of the harshest sanction Rule 11 authorizes, we conclude that not even such sanctions convert Rule 11 from a "rule [that] really regulates procedure" into one that instead creates new substantive rights. See Adams, 734 F.2d at 1101-02.
Looking specifically at Rule 11, we find nothing that sets it apart from the other federal rules in any respect that would be deemed to confer new substantive rights. Thus, it is no more a "law" under which a cause of action may arise than are its companion rules. Rule 11 is designed to regulate proceedings among parties already before the court in a particular case.2 And even as to such parties, the rule's primary purpose is to discourage groundless proceedings rather than to compensate wronged parties by means of affirmative relief. In expressing the unanimous view of this circuit, we have noted that " 'the imposition of sanctions pursuant to Rule 11 is meant to deter attorneys from violating the rule.' " Thomas v. Capital Sec. Services, Inc., 836 F.2d 866, 877 (5th Cir. 1988) (en banc) (quoting Donaldson v. Clark, 819 F.2d 1551, 1556 (11th Cir. 1987) (en banc)) (emphasis in this court's original). Thus, "the least severe sanction adequate to serve the purpose," rather than a sanction necessarily designed to compensate the wronged party fully, "should be imposed." 836 F.2d at 878.
In this regard, Thomas suggests that the "least severe sanction" may often fall short of monetary compensation:... What is 'appropriate' may be a warm friendly discussion on the record, a hard-nosed reprimand in open court, compulsory legal education, monetary sanctions, or other measures appropriate to the circumstances.
Id. Port Drum, however, seeks only monetary reward. It would be incongruous with Thomas and with the scheme of Rule 11 for the district court to entertain an independent lawsuit in which the only relief being considered is cash compensation. Nor would it really make sense for the court, assuming jurisdiction were present, to impose an alternative, lessor sanction (such as a reprimand) when no such relief is even requested (or, presumably, desired) by plaintiff Port Drum.
Moreover, to grant relief to Port Drum in this separate suit would defy the plain wording of Rule 11. If monetary relief is granted, the rule contemplates that it be awarded to another party (or parties) to the same suit: The sanction "may include an order to pay to the other party or parties3 the amount of the reasonable expenses incurred...." (Emphasis added.) Moreover, Rule 11 provides that a court may invoke the rule only "upon motion or upon its own initiative" (emphasis added)--a further indication, if one were needed, that the rule is to be utilized during the pendency of the initial suit in which the asserted violation occurred. Here, by way of contrast, Port Drum invokes the rule not by motion but by original complaint.
The Declaratory Judgment Act, 28 U.S.C. §§ 2201-02, is similarly unavailing to Port Drum. In Skelly Oil Co. v. Phillips Petroleum Co., 339 U.S. 667, 70 S. Ct. 876, 94 L. Ed. 1194 (1950), the Supreme Court held that the Act only enlarged the range of remedies available in the federal courts and does not extend or expand jurisdiction. As the trial court noted here, 119 F.R.D. at 27, "the Court must necessarily have an independent basis for asserting jurisdiction over the subject matter of a case" (citing Commercial Metals Co. v. Balfour, Guthrie & Co., 577 F.2d 264 (5th Cir. 1978)). Port Drum has no such independent basis here. The district court's judgment is AFFIRMED.
Fed. R. Civ. P. 11 provides:
Every pleading, motion, and other paper of a party represented by an attorney shall be signed by at least one attorney of record in the attorney's individual name, whose address shall be stated. A party who is not represented by an attorney shall sign the party's pleading, motion, or other paper and state the party's address. Except when otherwise specifically provided by rule or statute, pleadings need not be verified or accompanied by affidavit. The rule in equity that the averments of an answer under oath must be overcome by the testimony of two witnesses or of one witness sustained by corroborating circumstances is abolished. The signature of an attorney or party constitutes a certificate by the signer that the signer has read the pleading, motion, or other paper; that to the best of the signer's knowledge, information, and belief formed after reasonable inquiry it is well grounded in fact and is warranted by existing law or a good faith argument for the extension, modification, or reversal of existing law, and that it is not interposed for any improper purpose, such as to harass or to cause unnecessary delay or needless increase in the cost of litigation. If a pleading, motion, or other paper is not signed, it shall be stricken unless it is signed promptly after the omission is called to the attention of the pleader or movant. If a pleading, motion, or other paper is signed in violation of this rule, the court, upon motion or upon its own initiative, shall impose upon the person who signed it, a represented party, or both, an appropriate sanction, which may include an order to pay to the other party or parties the amount of the reasonable expenses incurred because of the filing of the pleading, motion, or other paper, including a reasonable attorney's fee.
In some instances, such as an appeal from a civil contempt order, non-parties and former parties may utilize the rules to challenge on-going proceedings. See United States Catholic Conference v. Abortion Rights Mobilization, Inc., --- U.S. ----, 108 S. Ct. 2268, 101 L. Ed. 2d 69 (1988). In such limited circumstances, non-parties actually may have greater rights than parties precisely because non-parties cannot seek to challenge the proceedings once the original suit is at an end. See 9 Moore's Federal Practice p 11.13 (2d ed. 1970). Here, by contrast, Port Drum seeks affirmative relief, on the basis of a rule, in a separate proceeding after the prior proceeding has been terminated
We do not hold that Rule 11 could never be invoked by a technical non-party. It is conceivable, for example, that, during the pendency of the original action, a party in the posture of the petitioners in United States Catholic Conference v. Abortion Rights Mobilization, Inc., could assert, by motion, that one of the parties is violating Rule 11, to its detriment as a non-party witness. We need not decide such a hypothetical here, as Port Drum is seeking Rule 11 relief in a separate suit and did not participate in the prior litigation as an involuntary witness
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Justia › US Law › Case Law › Federal Courts › Courts of Appeals › Sixth Circuit › 1989 › United States of America, Plaintiff-appellee, v. Connie Lee Boling, A/k/a Heller Boling (88-3130); T...
United States of America, Plaintiff-appellee, v. Connie Lee Boling, A/k/a Heller Boling (88-3130); Thomas A.lauback (88-3216), Defendants-appellants, 884 F.2d 924 (6th Cir. 1989)
Argued Nov. 15, 1988. Decided Sept. 7, 1989
John M. DiPuccio (argued), Office of the U.S. Atty., Cincinnati, Ohio, Patty Merkamp Stemler, Appellate Section, Crim. Div., U.S. Dept. of Justice, Washington, D.C., for plaintiff-appellee.
Daniel A. Brown (argued), Porter, Wright, Morris & Arthur, William J. Abraham (argued), Columbus, Ohio, for defendants-appellants.
Before ENGEL, Chief Judge, WELLFORD, Circuit Judge, and THOMAS, Senior District Judge.*
SUPPLEMENTAL OPINION
In its original per curiam opinion, 869 F.2d 965 (6th Cir. 1989), this panel found "that the jury could have found the essential elements of mail and wire fraud beyond a reasonable doubt on all counts against both Lauback and Boling." However, "because Boling's attorney was burdened by an active conflict of interest," the panel reversed "her [Boling's] conviction on the conspiracy count" and remanded for a new trial.
The opinion noted that "it takes at least two persons to commit a conspiracy. See United States v. Sandy, 605 F.2d 210, 215 (6th Cir. 1979), cert. denied 444 U.S. 984 [, 100 S. Ct. 490, 62 L. Ed. 2d 412] (1979)," that "Lauback and Boling are the only indicted co-conspirators in the case," and that the evidence did not prove that "any person other than defendant Lauback and defendant Boling, was a member of the conspiracy charged in [the conspiracy count]."
The panel then held
Under these circumstances we must also reverse Lauback's conspiracy conviction and remand for a new trial, even though this may well be a "windfall for him." Should either Lauback or Boling be found not guilty of conspiracy, we hold that the conviction of the other may not be upheld (citations).
Challenging this ruling, the government petitions for "Rehearing with Suggestion for a Re-Hearing En Banc."
The government urges that "none of the Authority Cited by the Panel Requires the Reversal of Lauback's Conspiracy Conviction." In addition to United States v. Sandy, supra, this panel cited United States v. Lester, 363 F.2d 68, 72 (6th Cir. 1966), cert. denied, 385 U.S. 1002, 87 S. Ct. 705, 17 L. Ed. 2d 542 (1967); and United States v. Hopkins, 716 F.2d 739 (10th Cir. 1982), "holding that acquittal of co-defendant required acquittal of defendant when only defendant and co-defendant were indicted for conspiracy and there was no evidence implicating anyone else as a coconspirator."1
Sandy declared
[the defendants] place reliance upon a number of decisions which in effect hold that where all other alleged co-conspirators are acquitted of a conspiracy, the conviction of one person on that charge cannot be upheld, since it takes at least two to commit the offense. E.g., United States v. Williams, 503 F.2d 50, 54 (6th Cir. 1974). See also United States v. Lester, 363 F.2d 68, 72 (6th Cir. 1966), cert. denied, 385 U.S. 1002, 87 S. Ct. 705, 17 L. Ed. 2d 542 (1967).
605 F.2d at 215.
In United States v. Williams, 503 F.2d 50, 54 (6th Cir. 1974), a Sixth Circuit panel held
Since we have found that the convictions of Johnson and Williams, Jr. cannot stand, the conviction of Williams, Sr. must also fall. Where all other alleged coconspirators are acquitted, the conviction of one person for conspiracy will not be upheld (citations).2
Directly questioning the Williams ruling, the Sandy court then declares "there is indeed much authority to the contrary commencing with Dunn v. United States, 284 U.S. 390, 52 S. Ct. 189, 76 L. Ed. 356 (1932) (Holmes, J.), and proceeding through Hamling v. United States, [418 U.S. 87, 99, 94 S. Ct. 2887, 2898, 41 L. Ed. 2d 590 (1974) ]." 605 F.2d at 215 (footnote omitted).
In Dunn v. United States, 284 U.S. 390, 52 S. Ct. 189, 76 L. Ed. 356 (1932), there was an inconsistency between defendant's conviction on the first count and his acquittal on counts two and three. Nevertheless, Dunn held that "consistency in the verdict is not necessary." Id. at 393, 52 S. Ct. at 190.3 It would disavow Dunn if this panel had justified its reversal of "Lauback's conviction and remand for a new trial" on the assumption that the two defendants should be retried jointly on the conspiracy count so that, if one defendant is convicted and the other defendant is acquitted, the trial court, on the ground of inconsistency, would be required to acquit the guilty defendant.
The unspoken premise underlying this court's reversal of Lauback's conspiracy conviction was twofold:
(1) The controlling circuit principle is that " [w]here all other alleged coconspirators are acquitted, the conviction of one person for conspiracy will not be upheld," United States v. Williams, supra, 503 F.2d at 54;
(2) The circumstances of this case compelled the panel to apply the Williams principle, even though this forced the panel to reverse Lauback's conspiracy count conviction and remand it for a joint trial with the conspiracy count against Boling.
The government brings to this panel's attention United States v. Sachs, 801 F.2d 839, 845 (6th Cir. 1986), and its recognition that "if coconspirators are tried separately, the acquittal of all other coconspirators does not mandate acquittal as to the remaining coconspirator." In Sachs, another panel of this Court considered whether dismissal of conspiracy charges against one defendant "mandates the dismissal of conspiracy charges" against the convicted defendant. The Sachs court declared
It is clear that the crime of conspiracy cannot be committed by an individual acting alone since, by definition, conspiracy is a group offense. United States v. Fox, 130 F.2d 56, 57 (3d Cir.), cert. denied, 317 U.S. 666, 63 S. Ct. 74, 87 L. Ed. 535 (1942). Further, if coconspirators are tried together, an acquittal on conspiracy charges as to all but one coconspirator mandates acquittal on conspiracy charges as to the remaining defendant. See United States v. Espinosa-Cerpa, 630 F.2d 328, 331 (5th Cir. 1980). This is known as the "traditional rule," id. or the "rule of consistency." United States v. Sangmeister, 685 F.2d 1124, 1126 (9th Cir. 1982).
Id. But, the Sachs court then held
However, if coconspirators are tried separately, the acquittal of all other coconspirators does not mandate acquittal as to the remaining conspirator. United States v. Roark, 753 F.2d 991 (11th Cir. 1985). This result is necessary because different juries may hear different evidence; " [t]hat the evidence was insufficient to support a guilty verdict in the one case does not mean that conviction on different evidence in another case was improper." Id. at 996. In other words, it is not necessarily inconsistent for two juries to reach differing results.
Now a part of Sixth Circuit precedent, Sachs requires reconsideration of this panel's reversal of Lauback's conspiracy conviction. See also Standefer v. United States, 447 U.S. 10, 100 S. Ct. 1999, 64 L. Ed. 2d 689 (1980) (despite prior acquittal in separate trial of alleged actual perpetrator of offense, an aider and abettor may be convicted in subsequent trial).
Defendant Boling can be retried alone on the conspiracy count. In such separate trial of Boling, Sachs mandates that if Boling is acquitted such acquittal "does not mandate acquittal as to the remaining conspirator." As to Lauback, the remaining conspirator, this panel has determined that the evidence viewed "in a light most favorable to the government" warranted the jury's finding Lauback guilty "on all counts." Hence, Boling's conspiracy count reversal and new trial remand does not force a reversal of Lauback's conspiracy count conviction and a remand for a new trial. Contrary to the panel's earlier conclusion, the "circumstances" do not require a result, which the panel noted, "may well be a windfall for him."
On reconsideration of the panel's reversal of Lauback's conspiracy count conviction, this panel concludes it erred in not applying and following Sachs. Id. at 845. The reversal of Lauback's conspiracy count conviction is vacated and the conspiracy count conviction is reinstated. In all other respects, the court's opinion is AFFIRMED.
The Honorable William K. Thomas, Senior Judge, United States District Court for the Northern District of Ohio, sitting by designation
The government correctly observes that United States v. Hopkins, 744 F.2d 716 (10th Cir. 1984), heard en banc, notes that the panel opinion was withdrawn. A number of the counts were remanded for a retrial, but the en banc court ordered that on remand the conspiracy count, lacking sufficient evidence to support its judgment, should be dismissed. Thus, the panel ruling in United States v. Hopkins provides no support for our per curiam ruling
United States v. Lester, 363 F.2d 68 (6th Cir. 1966), cert. denied, 385 U.S. 1002, 87 S. Ct. 705, 17 L. Ed. 2d 542 (1967), is not cited as supporting authority by the Williams court. Indeed, there is no language in Lester that deals with the principle quoted above from Williams. However, noting the acquittal of the police officers and the conviction of the two appellants (all charged with conspiracy to violate 18 U.S.C. § 242 by depriving George W. Ratterman of his civil rights), the Lester court does state, as pointed out by the government, that " [i]nconsistency of verdicts as to various defendants in a particular case has always been an exclusive prerogative of the jury," 363 F.2d at 74 (citing United States v. Dotterweich, 320 U.S. 277, 279, 64 S. Ct. 134, [136,] 88 L. Ed. 48 (1943); and other cases)."
United States v. Powell, 469 U.S. 57, 69, 105 S. Ct. 471, 479, 83 L. Ed. 2d 461 (1984) accepts the Dunn rule as standing "without exception in this Court for 53 years" and expressed the thought that it should "remain that way."
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Justia › US Law › Case Law › Federal Courts › Courts of Appeals › Tenth Circuit › 1990 › United States of America, Plaintiff-appellee, v. George Perry Pollack, Defendant-appellant
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United States of America, Plaintiff-appellee, v. George Perry Pollack, Defendant-appellant, 895 F.2d 686 (10th Cir. 1990)
U.S. Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit - 895 F.2d 686 (10th Cir. 1990)
Presiliano A. Torrez, Asst. U.S. Atty. (William L. Lutz, U.S. Atty., and Tara C. Neda, Asst. U.S. Atty., with him on the brief), Albuquerque, N.M., for plaintiff-appellee.
James B. Foy (Charles A. Harwood with him on the briefs), Silver City, N.M., for defendant-appellant.
Before ANDERSON and BARRETT, Circuit Judges, and THEIS* , District Judge.
BARRETT, Senior Circuit Judge.
George Perry Pollack (Pollack) appeals his conviction following a jury trial of possession with the intent to distribute marijuana in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 841(a) (1).
Prior to trial, Pollack moved to suppress the marijuana which was seized from the automobile he was driving and which was the basis of the indictment returned against him. At the suppression hearing, Border Patrol Agents Carroll and Sanchez testified on behalf of the United States. Stephen Stevers, an investigator, testified on behalf of Pollack, and Pollack testified on his own behalf.
Agent Carroll testified that: at approximately 3:00 a.m. on May 6, 1989, a red Datsun pickup was driven to the Truth or Consequences, New Mexico, Border Patrol checkpoint on northbound Interstate I-25; both occupants of the pickup identified themselves as United States citizens; as they started to leave the checkpoint, the driver of the pickup inquired as to the nearest gas station north; Agent Carroll related that the nearest gas station north was approximately seventy miles and that the nearest gas was back at Truth or Consequences.
Agent Sanchez testified that: he was working with Agent Carroll at about 3:00 a.m. on May 6, 1989, when a red 1979 Datsun pickup came to the checkpoint; upon being asked where the nearest gas would be, Agent Carroll directed the driver of the pickup back to Truth or Consequences; approximately 45 minutes later, the agents had two simultaneous sensor "hits" on Sensor 1185, old Highway 85; Highway 85 circumvents the Border Patrol checkpoint on the freeway; Highway 85 parallels the freeway and has access back onto the freeway approximately two miles north of the checkpoint; Highway 85 is a well-documented alien smuggling route and "we've" apprehended many alien smuggling loads on that route; the two simultaneous hits indicated that there were two vehicles traveling one behind the other; he and Officer Carroll drove to Interchange 83 (Highway 85 access to I-25) to intercept the vehicles; the first vehicle to pass was the 1979 red Datsun pickup which had previously passed through the checkpoint on I-25; immediately behind the pickup was a 1972 Buick with Colorado plates; the 1972 Buick was significant to him as a Border Patrol agent because it is a very large vehicle into which a large number of people can fit; the Colorado plates were significant because Colorado is a common destination for loads of illegal aliens; and the actions of the pickup, coming through the checkpoint, finding a reason (the nearest gasoline) to go back to Truth or Consequences, and coming back north from Truth or Consequences through the smuggling route circumventing the checkpoint was a classic alien-smuggling pattern.
Agent Sanchez also testified that: Pollack was driving the Buick; when asked about his citizenship, Pollack produced a Colorado driver's license; Pollack's hands were shaking when he produced the driver's license; the Buick appeared to be heavily loaded and riding lower in the rear end; Pollack refused to open the trunk when requested to do so and told Agent Sanchez that they needed a search warrant to look into the trunk; he was relatively sure that there was a load in the trunk of the Buick; they drove approximately two miles back to the checkpoint to open the trunk because it was "not real safe" to open the trunk on the off-ramp where Pollack had been stopped; once back at the checkpoint the three suspects, including Pollack, were advised of their rights; when he opened the trunk he immediately detected the odor of marijuana.
On cross-examination, Agent Sanchez testified that: he had been a Border Patrol agent for a little over ten years and had been continuously stationed at the Truth or Consequences checkpoint; a lot of legitimate traffic travels on Highway 85; at that time of the day (3:00-3:45 a.m.), it is very unlikely to have a vehicle on Highway 85 but it is not unprecedented; the Border Patrol does not stop every vehicle; at that hour a very, very small percentage of traffic that is stopped on Highway 85 is legitimate traffic; he did not keep official statistics on stops and arrests; it was not decided to intercept the two vehicles prior to actually seeing them; the purpose of the lead car coming through the checkpoint is to determine if the checkpoint is open and to scout ways around the checkpoint; the vast majority of people that he stops who are American citizens are not the least bit nervous; Pollack related that the car belonged to someone else; it is common for a smuggler not to use his own vehicle; a check on the vehicle indicated that it was not stolen; the rear bumper of the car appeared to be noticeably lower than the front bumper; he did not hear any unusual sounds coming from the trunk; he did not smell any unusual odors coming from the trunk; when asked, Pollack said he had clothes in the trunk; he did not attempt to secure a search warrant.
Stephen Stevers, an investigator for Pollack, identified photographs of the Buick and testified that: the rear end of the Buick dropped only 3/8 " when fifty pounds of sand were loaded in the trunk; he could not detect that the car was lower when loaded with the sand; but for taking a measurement he would not have been able to determine that the car was 3/8 " lower after it was loaded with the sand; and he could not detect a difference in the appearance of the vehicle when, in addition to the sand in the trunk, counsel for Pollack (weighing approximately 130 pounds) also sat on the trunk.
Pollack testified that: his first contact with the Border Patrol agents on the day in question was between 3:00 a.m. and 4:00 a.m.; upon request, he gave Agent Sanchez his Colorado driver's license; neither Agent Sanchez nor Agent Carroll inquired about his citizenship; after Agent Sanchez asked for his driver's license, he (Agent Sanchez) asked Pollack to open the trunk of the car; he told Agent Sanchez he would open the trunk if they had a search warrant; Agent Sanchez got very angry and said that the car was going nowhere and that "I'm going to open the trunk one way or another;" he did not see the red truck in front of him before they were stopped; Agent Carroll asked him to get out of the car after which Agent Carroll frisked him down and asked him a lot of questions; he told Agent Carroll he was going to Colorado Springs and that he had clothes in the trunk of the car; he did not consent to the search of the trunk; he could not leave; he told Agent Carroll that he did not "know" the red pickup and that he thought it was the Border Patrol; when they got back to the checkpoint, Agent Sanchez got all hot and told him to park his car in a specific location; after he parked the Buick, he handed the keys to Agent Sanchez; once inside the Border Patrol office, they were read their "rights"; he understood his rights; when Agent Sanchez started to open the trunk, he (Agent Sanchez) stated that they did not need a search warrant, and that they had probable cause because Pollack was sneaking around.
Pollack also testified that: after Agent Sanchez opened the trunk, he opened a blue nylon bag (full of marijuana); after Agent Sanchez opened the nylon bag, he stated "now you're under arrest;" neither of the agents commented that the car looked like it was heavily loaded; he owned the blue nylon bag and the 27 pounds of marijuana inside it; there was no odor of marijuana when Agent Sanchez opened the trunk; the suitcase and marijuana probably weighed about 44 pounds.
Within its oral findings and conclusions, the district found: Highway 85 is a well-documented alien smuggling route; the two sensor hits reflected two vehicles were passing one right after the other; Agents Carroll and Sanchez decided to investigate the sensor hits based on Sanchez' ten years of experience and the fact that the two sensor hits occurred at 3:00 a.m. in an area famous for drug smuggling; Agent Sanchez observed that the vehicle appeared to be riding low in the rear; after Pollack refused permission to look in the trunk and insisted upon a warrant, Agent Sanchez believed that the car and pickup were involved in alien smuggling; when they returned to the checkpoint, Agent Sanchez detected an odor of marijuana; the actions of the agents were in keeping with a Terry stop because the circumstances of the hour, the two sensor hits, the red pickup in company with the Buick, gave them reasonable cause to believe that a crime had been committed; that the court's own view of Defendant's Exhibit A (photograph of the Buick) is that the car appears to sit low in the back. Thereafter, the court entered an order denying Pollack's motion to suppress.
On appeal, Pollack contends: (1) the stop was not based on reasonable suspicion; (2) the search was executed without probable cause; and (3) he was unlawfully detained after the initial stop.
Pollack contends that the stop was not based upon reasonable suspicion. Pollack argues that although the government justifies the stop by contending that the red Datsun pickup was the scout vehicle, the record is not clear as to what happened to the two occupants of the red Datsun. Pollack maintains that there was no evidence linking the two vehicles or their occupants directly to each other and no conspiracy charges were filed against Pollack or the occupants of the Datsun pickup.
Pollack further argues that Truth or Consequences was not the functional equivalent of the border, that probable cause was necessary to stop the Pollack vehicle, and that the observations of the officers did not give rise to probable cause to suspect that the vehicle which Pollack was driving contained illegal aliens. Pollack reasons that inasmuch as he was a blonde-haired, Anglo male and there was nothing to tie the two vehicles together, other than the fact that they were using the same public highway at the same time, the circumstances upon which the agents attempt to justify the stop do not meet the standards of United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873, 95 S. Ct. 2574, 45 L. Ed. 2d 607 (1975). Pollack also cites United States v. Melendez-Gonzales, 727 F.2d 407 (5th Cir. 1984) for the proposition that a stop must be justified by the facts known to the agents at the time that a person's freedom is restricted.1
In response, the government reasons that specific articulable facts reasonably warranted Pollack's stop. The government cites to United States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411, 417, 101 S. Ct. 690, 694, 66 L. Ed. 2d 621 (1981) for the proposition that "Any investigatory stop must be justified by some objective manifestation that the person stopped is, or is about to be, engaged in criminal activity." In reviewing the conditions under which police officers may stop a person, the Cortez Court opined:
Courts have used a variety of terms to capture the elusive concept of what cause is sufficient to authorize police to stop a person. Terms like "articulable reasons" and "founded suspicion" are not self-defining; they fall short of providing clear guidance dispositive of the myriad factual situations that arise. But the essence of all that has been written is that the totality of the circumstances--the whole picture--must be taken into account. Based upon that whole picture the detaining officers must have a particularized and objective basis for suspecting the particular person stopped of criminal activity. See, e.g., Brown v. Texas, supra, [443 U.S. 47] at 51 [99 S. Ct. 2637 at 2640, 61 L. Ed. 2d 357 (1979) ] United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, supra [422 U.S.] at 884 [95 S. Ct. at 2581]. (footnotes omitted)
449 U.S. at pp. 417-18, 101 S. Ct. at 694-95.
In United States v. Sokolow, --- U.S. ----, 109 S. Ct. 1581, 104 L. Ed. 2d 1 (1989), the Court opined:
The concept of reasonable suspicion, like probable cause, is not 'readily, or even usefully, reduced to a neat set of legal rules.' In evaluating the validity of a stop such as this, we must consider the 'totality of the circumstances--the whole picture.' United States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411, 417 [101 S. Ct. 690, 695, 66 L. Ed. 2d 621] (1981). As we said in Cortez:The process does not deal with hard certainties. Long before the law of probabilities was articulated as such, practical people formulated certain common sense conclusions about human behavior; jurors as fact-finders are permitted to do the same--and so are law enforcement officers. Id. at 418 [101 S. Ct. at 695].
109 S. Ct. at 1585.
Within Cortez, the Court also reiterated the standards set forth in United States v. Brignoni-Ponce:
We have recently held that stops by the Border Patrol may be justified under circumstances less than those constituting probable cause for arrest or search. United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S., at 880 [95 S. Ct. at 2579]. Thus, the test is not whether Officers Gray and Evans had probable cause to conclude that the vehicle they stopped would contain "Chevron" and a group of illegal aliens. Rather the question is whether, based upon the whole picture, they, as experienced Border Patrol officers, could reasonably surmise that the particular vehicle they stopped was engaged in criminal activity. On this record, they could so conclude (footnotes omitted).
449 U.S. at 421-22, 101 S. Ct. at 697.
In United States v. Leyba, 627 F.2d 1059, 1062-63 (10th Cir.), cert. denied, 449 U.S. 987, 101 S. Ct. 406, 66 L. Ed. 2d 250 (1980), we quoted United States v. Brignoni-Ponce prior to detailing the factors which Border Patrol agents may consider prior to stopping a particular vehicle and questioning its occupants:
In the immigration field, agents on roving patrol, as here, may properly consider the following factors in determining whether there exist 'specific articulable facts, together with rational inferences from those facts, that reasonably warrant suspicion that the vehicles contain aliens who may be illegally in the country,' United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, supra, 422 U.S. at p. 884, 95 S. Ct. at p. 2582, thus justifying the stop of a particular vehicle and the limited questioning of its occupants: (1) the physical characteristics of the area in which the vehicle is stopped; (2) patterns of traffic on the road; (3) proximity to the border; (4) previous experience with alien trafficking in the area; (5) information about recent border crossings; (6) attempts to evade detection; (7) appearance of the vehicle; (8) appearance and behavior of the driver and passengers; and (9) other relevant information. Id. at pp. 884-885, 95 S. Ct. at pp. 2581-82; United States v. Sperow, 551 F.2d 808 (10th Cir. 1977), cert. denied, 431 U.S. 930, 97 S. Ct. 2634, 53 L. Ed. 2d 245 (1971).
Mindful that police officers must have a particularized and objective basis for suspecting the person stopped of criminal activity, based on "the whole picture," United States v. Cortez, supra, and mindful that experienced Border Patrol agents may stop a vehicle that they reasonably surmise to be engaged in a criminal activity, United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, supra, coupled with the factors that Border Patrol agents may consider as set forth in Leyba, supra, we hold that the stop of Pollack was based upon reasonable suspicion.
The undisputed facts establish that Pollack was stopped between 3:00 and 3:45 a.m. on a well-documented alien smuggling route; Pollack was driving a large vehicle capable of hauling a large number of people; Pollack was intercepted after road sensors indicated two vehicles traveling one behind the other on a highway circumventing the Border Patrol checkpoint on Interstate I-25; the red Datsun pickup traveling directly in front of Pollack had originally gone through the checkpoint, found a reason to return to Truth or Consequences, and thereafter had come back north through the smuggling route, followed by Pollack, circumventing the checkpoint in a classic alien smuggling pattern; traffic was very unlikely on Highway 85 between 3:00-3:45 a.m.; and, at that hour, a very, very small percentage of the traffic stopped on Highway 85 was legitimate traffic.
These factors, when considered in the aggregate, gave rise to a reasonable suspicion justifying stopping Pollack. These same factors, in our view, gave rise to probable cause to arrest Pollack after he was stopped and questioned.
In Adams v. Williams, 407 U.S. 143, 148-49, 92 S. Ct. 1921, 1924-25, 32 L. Ed. 2d 612 (1972), the Court opined:
Probable cause to arrest depends 'upon whether, at the moment the arrest was made ... the facts and circumstances within [the arresting officers'] knowledge and of which they had reasonably trustworthy information were sufficient to warrant a prudent man in believing that the [suspect] had committed or was committing an offense.' Beck v. Ohio, 379 U.S. 89, 91 [85 S. Ct. 223, 225, 13 L. Ed. 2d 142] (1964).
Probable cause does not require the same type of specific evidence of each element of the offense as would be needed to support a conviction. See Draper v. United States, 358 U.S. 307, 311-12 [79 S. Ct. 329, 331-32, 3 L. Ed. 2d 327] (1959). Rather, the court will evaluate generally the circumstances at the time of the arrest to decide if the officer had probable cause for his action:
'In dealing with probable cause, however, as the very name implies, we deal with probabilities. These are not technical; they are the factual and practical considerations of everyday life on which reasonable and prudent men, not legal technicians, act.' Brinegar v. United States, 338 U.S. 160, 175 [69 S. Ct. 1302, 1310, 93 L. Ed. 1879] (1949).
Applying these standards to the instant case, we hold that Agent Sanchez had probable cause to arrest Pollack based on the "facts and circumstances within [the arresting officers'] knowledge."
Agent Sanchez testified that after he stopped the Buick, he questioned Pollack; Pollack's hands were shaking; the car appeared to be heavily loaded; in his opinion the back bumper was lower than the front bumper; and that he was relatively sure that there was a load in the trunk of the Buick. We hold that these facts and circumstances, when considered in the aggregate, gave these experienced Customs agents particularized, trustworthy information sufficient to warrant their belief that Pollack was committing a crime. We hold that the officers had probable cause to arrest Pollack and to search the trunk of the Buick.
Pollack contends that the search was executed without probable cause.
Pollack maintains that Agent Sanchez opened the trunk of the car without consent or probable cause2 and that the facts relied upon by the government did not constitute probable cause to search the car under Almeida Sanchez v. United States, 413 U.S. 266, 269, 93 S. Ct. 2535, 2537, 37 L. Ed. 2d 596 (1973) ("Automobile or no automobile, there must be probable cause for the search."). Pollack acknowledges that although the smell of marijuana by an officer establishes probable cause to search a vehicle under United States v. Merryman, 630 F.2d 780 (10th Cir. 1980), the agents did not have probable cause here inasmuch as marijuana was detected only after the trunk was open.
The government responds that because there was probable cause to search the car after Pollack was stopped and arrested, the move of the car to and subsequent search at the checkpoint were proper. The government reasons that probable cause is a flexible common sense standard under Texas v. Brown, 460 U.S. 730, 103 S. Ct. 1535, 75 L. Ed. 2d 502 (1983), and that probable cause exists when the facts and circumstances known to the officer would lead a prudent person to believe an offense had been committed. Henry v. United States, 361 U.S. 98, 102, 80 S. Ct. 168, 171, 4 L. Ed. 2d 134 (1959). We agree.
Inasmuch as Agent Sanchez had probable cause to arrest Pollack, the search of his car incident to that arrest was lawful. Adams v. Williams, supra; Carroll v. United States, 267 U.S. 132, 45 S. Ct. 280, 69 L. Ed. 543 (1925).
Pollack contends that he was unlawfully detained after he was stopped. After Pollack was stopped and questioned by Agent Sanchez, he was further questioned by Agent Carroll for approximately fifteen minutes. Thereafter, Pollack was required to drive the Buick back to the checkpoint. Once at the checkpoint, Pollack was taken inside, advised of his rights and thereafter taken outside where Agent Sanchez opened the trunk of the Buick and discovered the marijuana. After Agent Sanchez discovered the marijuana, he advised Pollack that he was under arrest. Pollack testified that fifteen to twenty minutes lapsed between the time that they arrived at the checkpoint and the time that Agent Sanchez searched the car.
Pollack reasons that even if it is determined that the stop was justified, the agents nevertheless exceeded the limits of a lawful investigative detention by detaining him without his consent. Pollack relies on Hayes v. Florida, 470 U.S. 811, 105 S. Ct. 1643, 84 L. Ed. 2d 705 (1985), United States v. Recalde, 761 F.2d 1448 (10th Cir. 1985), United States v. Gonzales, 763 F.2d 1127 (10th Cir. 1985), and United States v. Lopez, 777 F.2d 543 (10th Cir. 1985). These cases, however, are clearly distinguishable. Most significant is our holding that the agents had probable cause to arrest Pollack after he was stopped and questioned.
Whereas Pollack's initial stop was based on a reasonable suspicion and his subsequent arrest and the search of the trunk of his car were based on probable cause, probable cause was not present in Hayes v. Florida (in the absence of probable cause to arrest or consent to journey to the police station, investigative detention violated Hayes' Fourth Amendment rights); United States v. Recalde (officers, lacking probable cause, improperly transported Recalde without his consent in the hope of developing probable cause); or United States v. Gonzales (state patrolmen who was unable to articulate particular facts establishing probable cause could not require Gonzales to accompany him to the police station). In United States v. Lopez, we upheld the detention of Lopez and his vehicle at a New Mexico State Police roadblock. We there held that the officers "had reasonable and articulable suspicion that the car might be stolen" thereby justifying the brief investigatory detention. 777 F.2d at p. 547.
Here, the initial stop of Pollack was predicated on Agent Sanchez' reasonable suspicion that a crime was being committed. Following Pollacks's arrest, the delay in conducting the search of the trunk occurred by reason of the return to the checkpoint based on Agent Sanchez's concern for safety:
Q. [Mr. Gorence for the United States] And why did you request that both the Datsun pickup and the '72 Buick go all the way back to the checkpoint rather than ascertaining right then and there out in the middle of nowhere what was in the trunk? Why did you want to go all the way back?
A. [Agent Sanchez] We didn't open the trunk at the very beginning right when we stopped Mr. Pollack--well, for safety reasons. He was on the on-ramp, he did stop on the on-ramp. If there were people in it, they have a tendency to bust on us. As soon as you open the trunk, everybody flies out and everybody runs.
And it's quite uncontrolled environment right there, whereas at the checkpoint there's lights, it's more of a controlled setting.
Also I didn't stop on the way back to the checkpoint because then we had three suspects plus what was in the trunk, whatever it was in the trunk, and there was only two of us, we had no backup, there was only two of us working that shift. For safety reason, we went back to the checkpoint.
(R., Vol. II at p. 18).
Giving due consideration to the time of the stop, the fact that the stop occurred in an area famous for illegal alien and drug smuggling, and Agent Sanchez' concern for safety, we hold that the delay following his arrest was not unlawful. We recognize that a search incident to a valid arrest must be conducted substantially contemporaneous with the arrest and generally confined to the immediate vicinity of the arrest. Preston v. United States, 376 U.S. 364, 84 S. Ct. 881, 11 L. Ed. 2d 777 (1964). A search which is remote in time or place following a valid arrest cannot be justified, absent exigent circumstances. United States v. Chadwick, 433 U.S. 1, 97 S. Ct. 2476, 53 L. Ed. 2d 538 (1977). In Malone v. Crouse, 380 F.2d 741 (10th Cir.), cert. denied, 390 U.S. 968, 88 S. Ct. 1082, 19 L. Ed. 2d 1174 (1968), we held that a search of the defendant's suitcase at the police station about an hour after his valid arrest at another place constituted a search contemporaneous with the arrest.
Assuming, arguendo, that Pollack was not arrested until after Agent Sanchez opened the trunk of the Buick and discovered the marijuana, we nevertheless hold that the actions of the agents did not exceed the limits of a lawful investigative detention. Every arrest and every seizure having the essential elements of a formal arrest is unreasonable unless supported by probable cause. Michigan v. Summers, 452 U.S. 692, 700, 101 S. Ct. 2587, 2593, 69 L. Ed. 2d 340 (1981). In assessing whether a detention is too long to be justified as an investigative stop, it is "appropriate to examine whether the police diligently pursued a means of investigation that was likely to confirm or dispel their suspicions quickly, during which time it was necessary to detain the defendant." United States v. Sharpe, 470 U.S. 675, 676, 105 S. Ct. 1568, 1570, 84 L. Ed. 2d 605 (1985). The Supreme Court there observed:
A court making this assessment should take care to consider whether the police are acting in a swiftly developing situation, and in such cases the court should not indulge in unrealistic second guessing.... A creative judge engaged in post hoc evaluation of police conduct can almost always imagine some alternative means by which the objectives of the police might have been accomplished.
470 U.S. at 686-87, 105 S. Ct. at 1575-76.
After Pollack was stopped, Agent Sanchez left Agent Carroll with Pollack and pursued after the Datsun pickup. After intercepting the pickup, Agent Sanchez, the occupants of the pickup and Pollock drove back to the checkpoint located approximately two miles south of where Pollack had been stopped. In so doing, Agents Sanchez and Carroll were acting in accordance with United States v. Sharpe, supra (diligently pursuing a means of investigation that was likely to confirm or dispel their suspicions quickly).
The Honorable Frank G. Theis, United States District Judge for the District of Kansas, sitting by designation
The factual setting in United States v. Melendez-Gonzales parallels our case, with certain exceptions including: neither of the vehicles observed in Melendez-Gonzales were engaged in any activities similar to those of the red Datsun pickup; the officers were stopping every vehicle that crossed over the sensors; the two sensor hits were two minutes apart; and the two vehicles were observed twenty to twenty-five minutes later coming into town together. In Melendez-Gonzales, the court held, after delineating the objective factors which Border Patrol agents may consider in determining whether to stop a vehicle, that the agents lacked probable cause to stop and search the defendant's vehicle
Pollack notes that the district court, in finding that the agents had probable cause to search the trunk, erroneously found that Agent Sanchez detected the odor of marijuana prior to opening the trunk of the car. This finding was in error. Agent Sanchez testified that he did not smell any unusual odors coming from the trunk (R., Vol. II at p. 45) but that when he opened the trunk, the "whole trunk smelled like marijuana." Id. at 48
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Justia › US Law › Case Law › Federal Courts › Courts of Appeals › Sixth Circuit › 1991 › Ubrey Vernell Haynes, Plaintiff-appellant, v. Michigan Department of Corrections, et al., Defendants...
Ubrey Vernell Haynes, Plaintiff-appellant, v. Michigan Department of Corrections, et al., Defendants-appellees, 945 F.2d 404 (6th Cir. 1991)
Before BOYCE F. MARTIN, Jr. and NATHANIEL R. JONES, Circuit Judges, and BAILEY BROWN, Senior Circuit Judge.
Aubrey Haynes appeals the judgment of the district court that dismisses his civil rights action filed pursuant to 42 U.S.C. § 1983. This case has been referred to a panel of the court pursuant to Rule 9(a), Rules of the Sixth Circuit. Upon examination, this panel unanimously agrees that oral argument is not needed. Fed. R. App. P. 34(a).
Haynes is a Michigan prisoner confined at the State Prison for Southern Michigan (SPSM). On August 8, 1988, a fellow prisoner at SPSM, Saunders-El, stabbed Haynes while the two men were locked in an exercise yard together. As a result of the incident, Haynes filed the present civil rights action against the Director of the Michigan Department of Corrections and various SPSM prison officials alleging that the defendants in their official and individual capacities had violated his eighth amendment right to personal safety. Haynes requested five million dollars in punitive damages as relief.
The defendant prison officials acknowledged by their answer that the stabbing incident did occur, but denied that they were deliberately indifferent to Haynes' safety needs. Haynes' action was referred to a magistrate who recommended dismissal of Haynes' complaint. The district court rejected this initial recommendation but ultimately dismissed Haynes' complaint on the defendants' motion for summary judgment "because the record simply does not support ... [Haynes'] claims."
Upon review, we conclude that the district court properly dismissed Haynes' suit pursuant to Rule 56(c) of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. A moving party is entitled to summary judgment under Rule 56 when the moving party shows that there is an absence of evidence to support the nonmoving party's case. Celotex Corp. v. Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 325 (1986). Only disputes over facts that might affect the outcome of the suit under governing law will properly preclude entry of summary judgment. Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 248 (1986).
In this instance, there are no genuine issues of material fact related to the governing law. Claims by prisoners alleging a violation of their eighth amendment right to personal safety are governed by the standard of deliberate indifference. Roland v. Johnson, 856 F.2d 764, 769 (6th Cir. 1988); Stewart v. Love, 696 F.2d 43, 44 (6th Cir. 1982). A defendant acts with deliberate indifference when "he causes unnecessary and wanton infliction of pain on the decedent by deliberately disregarding a serious threat to the decedent's safety after actually becoming aware of that threat." Walker v. Norris, 917 F.2d 1449, 1454 (6th Cir. 1990).
The district court record contains no evidence of deliberate indifference to Haynes' personal safety needs. When the evidence is examined in a light most favorable to Haynes, all that is established is that certain of the defendants were aware that Haynes considered Saunders-El to be a threat to his safety. The conscious awareness of a serious threat to Haynes' safety does not establish deliberate indifference to that threat.
The undisputed testimony of the parties reveals that prison officials went to extraordinary measures to ensure the safety of Haynes and of all the prisoners who chose to go to the exercise yard that day. Every prisoner who requested exercise that day was handcuffed in his cell, escorted to the base of the cell block by corrections officers and individually screened with a hand-held metal detector before being locked in the exercise yard with a corrections officer. Haynes does not dispute that these protective measures were taken on the date of the incident, only that they were negligently performed. Mere negligence by prison officials is not sufficient to give rise to a cognizable eighth amendment claim. Stewart v. Love, 696 F.2d at 44.
Accordingly, the judgment of the district court is affirmed. Rule 9(b) (3), Rules of the Sixth Circuit.
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Justia › US Law › Case Law › Federal Courts › Courts of Appeals › Third Circuit › 1992 › Walter Lomax, Sr., Administrator of the Estate of Walterlomax, Jr., Appellant, v. Nationwide Mutual...
Walter Lomax, Sr., Administrator of the Estate of Walterlomax, Jr., Appellant, v. Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, 964 F.2d 1343 (3d Cir. 1992)
Argued April 9, 1991. Decided May 18, 1992
Eliot Alazraki (argued), Gary S. Nitsche, Wilmington, Del., for appellant.
Mason E. Turner, Jr. (argued), Prickett, Jones, Elliott, Kristol & Schnee, Wilmington, Del., for appellee.
Before: GREENBERG, SCIRICA, and ROSENN, Circuit Judges.
ROSENN, Circuit Judge.
This diversity suit raises a question of first impression under the laws of Delaware relating to the right of a motorist to recover from his uninsured motorist (UM) carrier, notwithstanding a prior receipt of benefits from another source. Appellant Walter Lomax, Sr. instituted an action as administrator of his decedent son's estate in the United States District Court for the District of Delaware against Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company (Nationwide) seeking recovery of UM benefits. Lomax filed a motion for partial summary judgment claiming the right to recover for medical bills sustained as a result of the decedent's injuries and previously paid by a source unconnected to Nationwide. The district court held that Delaware law would not permit Lomax to receive a second recovery unless payment was predicated upon separate consideration given by the decedent. 776 F. Supp. 870 (D. Del. 1991). The court found that the question of consideration created a genuine issue of material fact and therefore rejected plaintiff's motion for summary judgment. We reverse.
On November 27, 1980, Walter Lomax, Jr., sustained injuries in an automobile accident while driving a friend's motor vehicle that ultimately led to his death. The friend, Kenneth Murrey, had purchased a Delaware automobile insurance policy from Nationwide which was in effect on the date of the accident and which covered Lomax, Jr., as a permissive user. The Murrey policy provided bodily injury liability coverage in the amount of $100,000 per person/$300,000 per accident and UM coverage of $10,000 per person/$20,000 per accident. All medical bills incurred on behalf of Lomax, Jr. were paid by The Prudential Insurance Company of America (Prudential) through a medical health insurance plan provided by his employer.
On September 15, 1982, the plaintiff filed suit against Nationwide in a Pennsylvania state court seeking to reform the UM portion of the policy for Nationwide's failure to offer higher limits of UM coverage as mandated by 18 Del.C. § 3902(a).1 Nationwide removed the case to the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. The court dismissed the suit and denied a motion by Murrey to intervene, holding that the estate lacked standing to reform the policy because it was not a party to the insurance contract. Lomax v. Nationwide Ins. Co., C.A. No. 83-1621 (E.D. Pa. Jan. 30, 1985), aff'd mem., 779 F.2d 43 (3rd Cir. 1985).
Murrey thereupon filed suit against Nationwide in the United States District Court for the District of Delaware on June 23, 1986, seeking reformation of the UM portion of the policy. Murrey v. Nationwide Ins. Co., 674 F. Supp. 154 (D. Del. 1987). Subsequently, Nationwide made an offer of judgment to permit Murrey to retroactively increase the limits of his UM coverage from $10,000 per person/$20,000 per accident to $100,000 per person/$300,000 per accident. Following Murrey's acceptance of Nationwide's offer of judgment, Lomax made a demand on Nationwide for arbitration to obtain payment of the reformed policy limits. Nationwide refused to arbitrate.
On June 1, 1988, Lomax filed suit against Nationwide seeking an order compelling arbitration and damages for Nationwide's refusal to arbitrate. Lomax filed a motion for partial summary judgment on the grounds that Nationwide is obligated to provide UM benefits to Lomax based on the reformed Murrey policy and that recovery is not barred by collateral estoppel, res judicata, the applicable statute of limitations, exclusionary language in the Murrey policy or operation of 12 Del.C. § 2102. Lomax further asserted that a non-policy holder may secure benefits of contract reformation and that Delaware's collateral source rule, which denies a tortfeasor any right to offset monies received by the injured plaintiff from sources unconnected with the tortfeasor, applies to UM claims. Application of the collateral source rule would permit Lomax to recover and retain payment of the decedent's medical bills. The district court acted affirmatively on Lomax's motion for partial summary judgment on six of the seven claims, but denied the motion on the ground that whether the collateral source rule allows recovery of the decedent's medical bills raises a genuine issue of material fact. Thereafter, on a stipulation of the parties, the court entered an order dismissing the action. This appeal followed and we have jurisdiction pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1291.
We have plenary review of the district court's interpretation and application of legal precepts. United States v. Adams, 759 F.2d 1099, 1106 (3rd Cir.), cert. denied, 474 U.S. 906, 106 S. Ct. 275, 88 L. Ed. 2d 236 (1985). A federal court sitting in a diversity action must apply the substantive law of the state in which it sits. Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64, 58 S. Ct. 817, 82 L. Ed. 1188 (1938). It is undisputed that Delaware law applies in this case. If there is no ruling by the state's highest court, then the federal court must predict how the state's highest court would resolve the issue. Rabatin v. Columbus Lines, Inc., 790 F.2d 22, 24 (3rd Cir. 1986). In doing so, "we must consider relevant state precedents, analogous decisions, considered dicta, scholarly works, and any other reliable data tending convincingly to show how the highest court in the state would decide the issue at hand." McGowan v. Univ. of Scranton, 759 F.2d 287, 291 (3rd Cir. 1985) (quotation omitted).
The benchmark decision recognizing the adoption of the collateral source rule in Delaware is Yarrington v. Thornburg, 58 Del. 152, 205 A.2d 1 (Del.1964). Although the Yarrington court did not apply the rule because the source of the disputed payments was the tortfeasor's own insurance carrier, the court stated:
The collateral source doctrine is predicated upon the theory that a tortfeasor has no interest in, and therefore no right to benefit from, monies received by the injured person from sources unconnected with the defendant. The doctrine, however, does permit the tortfeasor to obtain the advantage of payments made by himself or from a fund created by him; in such an instance the payments come, not from a collateral source, but from the defendant himself.
205 A.2d at 2.
In State Farm Mutual Automobile Insurance Company v. Nalbone, 569 A.2d 71 (Del.1989), the Delaware Supreme Court held that the collateral source rule applies in the no-fault insurance context only to the extent that the plaintiff has paid consideration or sustained some detriment for the payments from the collateral source; collateral payments received gratis bar a double recovery. Id. at 75. Citing Nalbone, the district court here found that "the Delaware Supreme Court has already considered and decided the question of how they would deal with the recovery of duplicate expenses in a first-party contractual context." The court thus held that Lomax may recover from both Nationwide and Prudential only if the decedent paid consideration to Prudential.
The district court's reliance on Nalbone is misplaced. The Nalbone court made clear that its decision was limited to no-fault insurance,
The collateral source rule, with its emphasis on turning a blind eye to the prospect of double recovery so as not to confer a benefit on a wrongdoer, discourages analysis of the critical inquiry in the area of no-fault insurance: what is the actual loss for which compensation should be quickly expected without regard to fault?
569 A.2d at 75.
Moreover, the district court here erroneously utilized a no-fault type of analysis to resolve the present UM question. First, although both no-fault insurance and UM insurance provide first-party benefits to an injured insured, the two types of coverage serve different purposes. No-fault benefits are designed to assure prompt payment to an injured person for medical expenses and basic economic losses arising from automobile accidents, irrespective of fault. UM coverage, on the other hand, is designed to compensate innocent persons injured by an automobile who are unable to obtain recompense from unknown or impecunious negligent tortfeasors for general damages, such as pain and suffering, as well as economic losses. See State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co. v. Abramowicz, 386 A.2d 670, 672 (Del.1978); 3 Damages in Tort Actions § 17.24, at 17-111-12 (1991). UM coverage is intended to place the insured in the same position he or she would have been in if the tortfeasor had carried the same liability coverage which the insured carried, up to the maximum amount permitted by statute. See Brown v. Comegys, 500 A.2d 611, 613 (Del.Super.Ct.1985); 18 Del.C. § 3902 (providing that insured who has UM coverage may recover all damages he or she would have been "legally entitled to recover" from the negligent motorist). Stated more simply, UM coverage is intended to assure that the insured will not be left with a worthless cause of action against an uninsured motorist tortfeasor.
The second important difference between the two types of insurance is that UM benefits are based on fault. To receive these benefits, the insured must show that the other party involved in the accident was negligent and that the other vehicle was uninsured. 5 Damages in Tort Actions § 47.51 at 47-171 (1991). The Nalbone court acknowledged that the collateral source rule, a fault-based doctrine, is at odds with a no-fault system of insurance. The court stated that use of the collateral source rule to permit receipt of no-fault insurance payments to compensate for wage losses that did not actually occur "sanctions a windfall for insureds by introducing a fault-based doctrine into a no-fault system of insurance." 569 A.2d at 76 (emphasis added).2
The third significant difference between no-fault insurance and UM insurance is that UM coverage is not compulsory. Unlike no-fault coverage, which is mandatory under 21 Del.C. § 2118, UM coverage is available at the option of the insured. See 18 Del.C. § 3902(a) (1). The Delaware Supreme Court found this aspect of UM insurance important in a case in which it held that the collateral source rule is applicable when an injured person receives both UM benefits and workmen's compensation insurance. In Adams v. Delmarva Power & Light Co., 575 A.2d 1103 (Del.1990), the court held that the collateral source rule prevents a workmen's compensation carrier from obtaining a lien or set-off of UM benefits that are paid pursuant to a UM provision contained in the employee's personal automobile insurance policy. The Adams court distinguished an earlier case in which it held that an employer may offset UM recovery with workmen's compensation benefits paid by the employer's insurer when the employer has purchased the UM coverage for the employee. Harris v. New Castle County, 513 A.2d 1307, 1309 (Del.1986). In Adams, the UM proceeds came from insurance purchased by the employee himself. The court reasoned that the public policy underlying section 3902 permits a person to contract to establish a fund for supplemental coverage to protect against losses caused by uninsured motorists and found that Adams had done so.
Nationwide argues that this case is distinguishable from Adams. Adams's UM policy expressly precluded the coverage from accruing to the benefit of a workmen's compensation insurance carrier, 575 A.2d at 1107, whereas the policy in this case does not prohibit any set-off. However, the rationale of Adams extends to this case and public policy supports such an extension.3
The Adams court relied upon the Nalbone holding that the public policy of Delaware allows a risk-averse insured to contract for additional recovery. 575 A.2d at 1107-08 (citing Nalbone, 569 A.2d at 75). The court emphasized that UM insurance is supplemental in nature. Id. at 1107. The insured directly contributes to the fund providing the collateral benefits in the form of insurance premiums for UM coverage.4 Application of the collateral source rule to the receipt of UM benefits will encourage the purchase of insurance for protection against accidents. If an insurer is allowed to reduce the judgment against it by the amount of collateral benefits paid, insureds will suffer a net loss because they will derive no benefit from the UM insurance for which they paid premiums. The insurer, on the other hand, will realize an unwarranted windfall advantage, benefitting from the receipt of premiums and being relieved of the obligation to pay UM benefits. Application of the collateral source rule to UM actions also serves the public policy of favoring the innocent party over the tortfeasor.5
Delaware courts consistently have struck down restrictions on UM coverage. See e.g., Frank v. Horizon Assur. Co., 553 A.2d 1199, 1205 (Del.1989) (invalidating other motor vehicle exclusion barring UM coverage for claim involving owned vehicle not listed as covered vehicle); State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co. v. Abramowicz, 386 A.2d 670 (Del.1978) (declaring void policy provision requiring physical contact to trigger UM coverage in "hit-and-run" situation); Jeanes v. Nationwide Ins. Co., 532 A.2d 595 (Del.Ch.1987) (invalidating exclusion barring UM coverage for motor vehicles used for fee). The Frank court held that once UM coverage is purchased, the insured is entitled to the full amount of protection under the statute and any attempts by insurers to reduce the coverage by exclusion clauses are repugnant to the public policy of protecting persons injured in automobile accidents. 553 A.2d at 1205. Thus, Delaware case law supports the conclusion that the Delaware Supreme Court would apply the collateral source rule in this case to provide the fullest UM recovery possible.III.
The Delaware Supreme Court has established that UM insurance is supplemental coverage and that a risk-averse insured may contract for additional recovery by purchasing UM insurance. We thus predict that the Delaware Supreme Court would apply the collateral source rule to the UM context. This conclusion is supported by Delaware case law, the law of other jurisdictions and public policy. In this case, Murrey purchased UM insurance in behalf of himself and those permissively using his automobile, thus allowing a second recovery. The decedent was a permissive user covered by the terms of the UM policy and is therefore entitled to the collateral source benefits.
Accordingly, the order of the district court will be reversed and this case remanded with directions to enter summary judgment in favor of the appellant Lomax.
Del.C. § 3902(a) provides in pertinent part:
No policy insuring against liability arising out of the ownership, maintenance or use of any motor vehicle shall be delivered ... in this State unless coverage is provided ... for the protection of persons insured thereunder who are legally entitled to recover damages from owners or operators of uninsured or hit-and-run vehicles for bodily injury, sickness, disease, including death, or personal property damage resulting from the ownership, maintenance or use of such uninsured or hit-and-run motor vehicle.
Some states prevent strict application of the collateral source rule to UM claims by statute. See 3 No-Fault and Uninsured Motorist Automobile Insurance § 31.70, at 31-35-36 (1989). Delaware has not done so. If the Delaware General Assembly desires to give a UM carrier a right to set off payments made by a collateral source, it can do so expressly by amending the statute. Compare Delaware's no-fault statute, 21 Del.C. § 2118(g) (stating that insured may not recover from insurer or tortfeasor to the extent that payments are received from a collateral source)
This conclusion is consistent with the majority of jurisdictions which apply the collateral source rule to UM actions. See 3 Damages in Tort Actions § 17.24, at 17-172-73 (1990) (footnotes omitted); see e.g., Wills v. State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co., 364 N.W.2d 504 (Minn.Ct.App.1985) (holding workmen's compensation benefits cannot be set off from UM payments because UM statute is not a no-fault act); Hawthorne v. Southeastern Fidelity Ins. Co., 387 So. 2d 26 (La.Ct.App.1980) (holding that trial court properly applied collateral source rule to suit by insured against his UM carrier because insured was "legally entitled to recover" damages; evidence of payment of leave benefits was irrelevant and properly excluded); Beaird v. Brown, 58 Ill.App.3d 18, 15 Ill.Dec. 583, 373 N.E.2d 1055 (1978) (holding UM payments should not be offset because " [t]o allow the defendant to reduce his liability because the plaintiffs exercised a contract right of recovery against their insurer, a right for which the plaintiffs paid consideration in the form of premiums, would be an unjust enrichment of the defendant")
In this case, Murrey, not the decedent, contributed to the UM fund. However, the district court correctly found that Murrey paid premiums to provide UM coverage for Lomax, Jr. and other permissive users of Murrey's automobile
Although application of the collateral source rule may result in a windfall to the insured, public policy favors this result because the insured is the innocent party. A double recovery by the insured usually may be prevented by the operation of the insurer's exercise of its subrogation rights. See California's Collateral Source Rule and Plaintiff's Receipt of Uninsured Motorist Benefits, 37 Hastings L.J. 667, 686-87 (1986)
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Justia › US Law › Case Law › Iowa Case Law › Iowa Supreme Court Decisions › 1982 › Milholin v. Vorhies
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Milholin v. Vorhies
320 N.W.2d 552 (1982)
Donald R. MILHOLIN, d/b/a Milholin Real Estate, Appellee, v. Gerald VORHIES, Appellant.
No. 67005.
Supreme Court of Iowa.
*553 Edwin F. Kelly and Barry D. Farmer of Kelly & Morrissey, Fairfield, for appellant.
Ronald K. Watkins and James W. McGrath of McGrath & McGrath, Keosauqua, for appellee.
Considered en banc.
McCORMICK, Justice.
We must here decide the validity and effect of a rule of the Iowa Real Estate Commission requiring all real estate listing agreements to be in a writing containing all essential terms. The trial court awarded plaintiff Donald R. Milholin judgment for a $3360 real estate commission pursuant to an alleged oral listing agreement with defendant Gerald Vorhies. In doing so, the court rejected the applicability of the commission rule on the ground of absence of commission authority to alter the common law. We hold that the rule is valid and precluded enforcement of the alleged oral listing. Therefore we reverse the trial court.
The rule requiring listing agreements to be written is 700 I.A.C. § 1.23, which became effective July 1, 1975:
All listing agreements shall be in writing, properly identifying the property and containing all the terms and conditions under which the property is to be sold, including the price, the commission to be paid, the signatures of all parties concerned and a definite expiration date.
Plaintiff contended and the trial court agreed that the validity of this rule is limited to its use as a basis for licensee discipline. This conclusion was based on the premise that the commission lacked authority to adopt a rule abrogating the efficacy of oral listings. Although the trial court noted that a manual published by the commission contained a statement inconsistent with the rule, no showing was made that plaintiff relied on the misstatement.
This court has previously recognized the enforceability at common law of oral brokerage agreements. See, e.g., McHugh v. Johnson, 268 N.W.2d 225, 227 (Iowa 1978). The court has also recognized, however, that a rule within the authority of an agency to adopt has the force of statute. Davenport Community School District v. Iowa Civil Rights Commission, 277 N.W.2d 907, 909 (Iowa 1979). Because it is clear that the common law can be changed by statute, Iowa Civil Liberties Union v. Critelli, 244 N.W.2d 564, 568 (Iowa 1976), the crucial issue here is not whether the rule would supplant the common law but whether it was within the statutory authority of the agency.
Principles governing our review of that question are discussed in Hiserote Homes, Inc. v. Riedemann, 277 N.W.2d 911, *554 913 (Iowa 1979), and Davenport Community School District, 277 N.W.2d at 909-10. The rule is presumed to be valid, and the burden is on the person challenging it to demonstrate that a "rational agency" could not conclude the rule was within its delegated authority.
Applying that standard here, we find plaintiff did not carry his burden. Code chapter 117 is a regulatory law and not merely a licensing act for raising revenue. Pound v. Brown, 258 Iowa 994, 998, 140 N.W.2d 183, 186 (1966). It establishes the real estate commission and vests it with far-reaching authority to license, regulate and discipline brokers and salespersons. For example, licenses are to be suspended or revoked for practices "harmful or detrimental to the public." § 117.29(3). The commission is charged with investigative and disciplinary responsibilities relating to various kinds of specified misconduct including being unworthy or incompetent to act as a real estate broker or salesperson "in such manner as to safeguard the interests of the public." § 117.34(8). The commission is also granted express authority "to promulgate rules to carry out and administer the provisions of [chapter 117] consistent therewith." § 117.9.
The overriding purpose of the statute and its delegation of authority to the commission is to protect the public. Cf. Red Carpet-Barry & Associates, Inc. v. Apex Associates, Inc., 130 Ariz. 302, 635 P.2d 1224, 1226 (1981) ("The purpose of the statutes is to regulate the conduct of real estate activities so the public may be protected.").
The rule requiring listings to be written is analogous to a statute of frauds. See Restatement (Second) of Contracts, Statutory Note at 285, § 110(5), and Comment b to § 126 (1979). In discussing a rule containing almost identical language, the Vermont Supreme Court said:
Ostensibly, the purpose of this rule is for the protection of the public to establish fair dealings between parties, standardize the procedure and practices in the real estate business and to prevent fraud. Its purpose is similar to that of the statute of frauds, which, ... "is to prevent a party from being compelled, by oral and perhaps false testimony to be held responsible for a contract he claims he never made."
Green Mountain Realty, Inc. v. Fish, 133 Vt. 296, 299, 336 A.2d 187, 189 (1975). The real estate commission could reasonably believe that its rule provides similar protection to the public. See Gaudio, The Iowa Law of Real Estate Brokerage, 30 Drake L.Rev. 437, 461 (1980-81). The legislature has vested the commission with broad authority to determine what practices are harmful or detrimental and what constitutes unworthiness. See Miller v. Iowa State Real Estate Commission, 274 N.W.2d 288 (Iowa 1979). The rule thus implements the commission's statutory duty to safeguard the public and provides guidance for brokers.
The Kansas Supreme Court voided a similar rule in Marcotte Realty & Auction, Inc. v. Schumacher, 225 Kan. 193, 589 P.2d 570 (1979). The court characterized the Kansas statute as merely a licensing act, however, and did not apply a rational agency standard. We take a broader view of the commission's responsibility under the Iowa statute and apply the rational agency standard in testing the validity of the rule. The commission is charged with regulating broker conduct to protect the public, and the rule is a rational way for it to do so. We conclude that the rule is within the commission's authority.
The rule's effect is not to invalidate oral listing agreements but to make them unenforceable upon proper objection. See Red Carpet-Barry & Associates, Inc., 635 P.2d at 1226; Green Mountain, 336 A.2d at 189-90. In view of defendant's affirmative defense relying on the rule, we hold that the trial court erred in enforcing the alleged oral listing agreement. No alternative basis for recovery has been urged, and therefore we do not consider whether any such basis exists. See, generally, Restatement (Second) of Agency § 468 at 399, Comment on Subsection (2) (1958); Restatement (Second) of Contracts § 375 at 220, Illustration 3 to *555 Comment a (1979); Annot., 41 A.L.R.2d 905 (1955).
All Justices concur except UHLENHOPP, McGIVERIN, LeGRAND and LARSON, JJ., who dissent.
UHLENHOPP, Justice (dissenting).
I think the commission's rule is invalid because it is beyond the scope of the legislatively delegated rule-making power.
The commission is an agency of the executive branch. In promulgating the rule the commission relied on section 117.9 of the Code:
The commission is empowered to promulgate rules to carry out and administer the provisions of this chapter consistent therewith. Said commission may carry on a program of education of real estate practices and matters relating thereto.
Under this section a rule must "carry out and administer the provisions of this chapter consistent therewith." I do not find that the chapter deals with listings. It deals primarily with licensing and "de-licensing" of realtors. I will review, as succinctly as possible, the sections of chapter 117.
Section 117.1 prohibits a person without a license from acting as a realtor. Section 117.2 deals with licenses in groups of individuals acting as realtors. Section 117.3 defines a real estate broker, and section 117.4 defines real estate. Section 117.5 defines a salesperson and an apprentice salesperson. Section 117.6 delineates acts which constitute dealing in real estate; it does not mention requirements for listing contracts. Section 117.7 states exceptions to the licensing requirementsuch as sales by attorneys. Section 117.8 establishes the state real estate commission and specifies its makeup. Section 117.9 is the quoted rule-making provision. Section 117.11 authorizes the commission to employ a director. Section 117.12 sets the compensation of the commissioners. Section 117.13 deals with a commission seal and records. Section 117.14 provides that commission fees and expenses shall be paid into and from the state's general fund. Section 117.15 states the requirements for obtaining a license, including examinations; it does not deal with contracts between realtors and listers. Section 117.16 provides for application forms to obtain licenses. Section 117.18 authorizes commission rules connected with applications for licenses. Section 117.19 entitles unsuccessful applicants for licenses to hearings. Section 117.20 covers examinations taken by applicants; it does not pertain to listings of property by owners. Sections 117.21, .22, and .23 deal with nonresident licensees, their places of business, and actions against them. Sections 117.24 and .25 deal with custody and display of licenses, and section 117.26 deals with pocket cards of licensees. Section 117.27 has to do with commission fees for examinations and licenses. Sections 117.28 and .29 deal with expiration, revocation, and suspension of licenses. Section 117.30 makes a license a prerequisite to an action by a realtor seeking compensation for services; it does not require a listing to be in any particular form and does not deal with the subject of listing. Sections 117.31 and .32 deal with realtors' places of business and with changes of location of those places. Section 117.33 deals with changes of employment by salespersons and apprentices. Section 117.34 has to do with commission investigation of realtors' wrongful acts, such as misrepresentation or failure to account for moneys in their possession, and gives the commission power to suspend or revoke licenses. Sections 117.35, .36,.37, .38, .39, .40, and .41 deal with hearings on charges against licensees; attendance fees and mileage of witnesses; right to witnesses; disobedience of subpoenas; depositions; and findings of fact. Section 117.42 requires the commission to maintain a list of licensees. Section 117.43 makes disobedience of any of the foregoing provisions a misdemeanor. Section 117.44 authorizes actions to enforce those provisions. Section 117.45 prohibits a realtor from using two or more written or oral contracts for the sale of a parcel of realty in order to obtain a *556 larger loan; the section does not deal with the listing agreement. Section 117.46 deals with realtors' trust accounts. Sections 117.50,.51, and .52 deal with commission meetings, public members, and confidential information. Finally, section 117.53 contains a licensee grandfather clause.
The subject of the form or contents of contracts between realtors and listers does not come within the scope of the chapter. We are already inundated by a proliferation of agency rules. I do not think we should enlarge agencies' rule-making powers additionally by construing statutes beyond what appears to be legislative intent in those statutes. If listing contracts ought to be in writing, the General Assembly can so provide as it has done with certain other contracts in the statute of frauds; or it can, with the inclusion of standards or safeguards, authorize the commission to deal by rule with the subject of the form or content of listing contracts. In my judgment the General Assembly has done neither of these things in chapter 117, and a rational agency could not conclude that the rule in question is within its statutory authority. Hiserote Homes, Inc. v. Riedemann, 277 N.W.2d 911, 913 (Iowa 1979).
I believe that the rule in question does not come within the scope of the commission's authority. I would therefore uphold the judgment of the district court.
LeGRAND, McGIVERIN and LARSON, JJ., join in this dissent.
McGIVERIN, Justice (dissenting).
I respectfully dissent from the result reached by the majority. I do so on two grounds.
I. First, I join the dissent of Justice Uhlenhopp for the reasons stated therein.
II. Second, even if the Iowa Real Estate Commission rule in question is held valid for the reasons stated in the majority opinion, I additionally dissent from the result for the following reasons.
Some sellers of realty refuse to, or do not, sign a listing contract with a broker yet promise to pay a reasonable commission to the broker if he is the procuring cause of a sale of the premises. That is what happened here. The trial court in this court-tried law action found that defendant seller orally listed his building with plaintiff and that plaintiff broker obtained "a ready, willing, and able buyer who substantially met [defendant seller's] terms."
After the sale defendant refused to pay a commission, and plaintiff commenced this action for the alleged orally-agreed rate of commission. He was met by defendant's contention that a rule of the Iowa Real Estate Commission, 700 I.A.C. § 1.23, which states in part, "[a]ll listing agreements shall be in writing ....," was in substance a statute of frauds and that upon proper objection the rule precluded evidence of the alleged oral listing agreement.
I agree the charge of the real estate commission is to protect the public. However, I do not believe the commission's intent could be to preclude a broker from a commission when he had done the work of procuring a buyer in reliance on the oral agreement, which the seller then disowned. As the court in Frash v. Eisenhower, 376 N.E.2d 1201, 1204 (Ind.App.1978), said in regard to its version of 700 I.A.C. § 1.23, "a seller of real estate cannot use the statute to effect a fraud on the realtor."
The interpretation utilized and result reached by the majority would not treat brokers equally with other classes of litigants appearing in court seeking a fee for services rendered. Brokers would be singled-out for one-sided treatment and a special statute of frauds when they performed the services but the seller, for one reason or another, failed to sign a written listing agreement.
The result reached by the majority (reversal of the judgment for the broker and the end of his claim) is incompatible with the result reached in Wunschel Law Firm, P.C., v. Clabaugh, 291 N.W.2d 331, 337 (Iowa 1980), involving an attorney. I recognize there is authority to the contrary at Annot., 41 A.L.R.2d 905, 906-10 (1955), which is cited by the majority.
*557 There is another view, however, which allows the real estate broker an action based on quantum meruit notwithstanding denial of a cause of action based upon oral Contract. See Flammia v. Mite Corp., 401 F. Supp. 1121, 1130-33 (E.D.N.Y.1975) (quantum meruit claim for finder's fee upon acquisition of corporation not barred by New York statute of fraud requiring brokerage commission and finder's fee contracts to be in writing or evidenced by written note or memorandum; series of memoranda indicate plaintiff entitled to relief), aff'd 553 F.2d 93 (2d Cir. 1977); cf. Groves Bros. & Co. v. Schell, 379 S.W.2d 857, 859-60 (Mo.App.1964) (action in quantum meruit allowed to recover value of services rendered by plaintiff after oral authorization to obtain lessee for defendant's real property); Center Investments, Inc. v. Penhallurick, 22 Wash. App. 846, 847-51, 592 P.2d 685, 686-88 (1979) (award of real estate sales commission upheld where defendant and plaintiff had no written commission agreement and option between plaintiff and co-defendant had been terminated before plaintiff procured buyer).
In Wunschel, an attorney brought an action for fees based on a contingent fee contract. We held "that a contingent fee contract for the defense of an unliquidated tort damage claim which is based upon a percentage of the difference between the prayer of the petition and the amount awarded is void." 291 N.W.2d at 337. We reversed a trial court judgment for plaintiff attorney. Id. However, we went on to say:
The contract is not invalid because of illegality of the services but merely because on policy grounds we cannot approve the way in which the fee was to be calculated. In this situation, plaintiff performed valuable services for defendant for which it is entitled to be compensated. Therefore our decision is without prejudice to plaintiff's right to obtain a reasonable fee from defendant on a quantum meruit basis.
Id.
I believe the same is true here by analogy. The trial court found that plaintiff broker performed valuable services. The services were not illegal. The petition in Wunschel, as here, was based on an express contract and not quantum meruit. Therefore, to follow our own precedent in Wunschel, our decision should be without prejudice to plaintiff's right to attempt to obtain a reasonable commission fee from defendant on a quantum meruit basis. Plaintiff broker should be treated in court on the same basis as the plaintiff attorney was in Wunschel.
Assuming the case should be reversed for the reasons stated by the majority, I would do so without prejudice to plaintiff's right to amend his petition to seek recovery for his services on a quantum meruit basis.
LeGRAND, J., joins this dissent.
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Justia › US Law › Case Law › New York Case Law › New York Court of Appeals Decisions › 1995 › People v. Washington
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People v. Washington
86 N.Y.2d 853 (1995)
657 N.E.2d 497
633 N.Y.S.2d 476
The People of the State of New York, Respondent, v. Robert Washington, Appellant.
Court of Appeals of the State of New York.
Argued September 19, 1995.
Decided October 19, 1995.
Richard A. Mastrocola, New York City, and Philip L. Weinstein for appellant.
Robert T. Johnson, District Attorney of Bronx County, Bronx (Stuart P. Levy, Joseph N. Ferdenzi and Billie Manning of counsel), for respondent.
Chief Judge KAYE and Judges SIMONS, TITONE, BELLACOSA, SMITH, LEVINE and CIPARICK concur.
*854MEMORANDUM.
The order of the Appellate Division should be affirmed.
This appeal presents a question left open in People v Singleton (72 N.Y.2d 845, 847): whether service by the prevailing party is necessary under CPL 460.10 in order to commence the time period for the other party to take an appeal. We conclude that it is.
Here, a Grand Jury indicted defendant for the crimes of criminal possession of a weapon in the third degree (Penal Law § 265.02 [4]) and criminal possession of a weapon in the fourth degree (Penal Law § 265.01 [1]). The trial court granted defendant's motion to dismiss on the ground that the evidence before the Grand Jury was legally insufficient since no evidence was presented concerning defendant's possession or lack of possession of a license. The Appellate Division reversed, concluding that evidence concerning a license was unnecessary.
The sole issue before us is the timeliness of the People's appeal to the Appellate Division. The People filed their appeal on March 1, 1993, more than 30 days after the trial court's order of January 21, 1993. CPL 460.10 (1) (a) states that "[a] party seeking to appeal from * * * an order of a criminal court, not included in a judgment, must * * * within thirty days after service upon such party of a copy of an order not included in a judgment, file with the clerk of the criminal court * * * in which such order was entered a written notice of appeal". We construe this provision to require prevailing party service in order to commence the time for filing a notice of appeal. (See, People v Wooley, 40 N.Y.2d 699; Dobess Realty Corp. v City of New York, 79 AD2d 348, 352, appeal dismissed 53 N.Y.2d 1054.) Here no evidence was presented as to the date on which the defendant, the prevailing party in the trial court, served the order on the People and, in fact, no evidence was presented that there was such service.
*855Since there was no indication of service, the People's notice of appeal was timely.
Order affirmed in a memorandum.
of New York Court of Appeals opinions.
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The next Russian attack on U.S. elections could be more serious than Facebook memes
Vladimir Putin and friend earlier this month in Helsinki: His next election hack may be electric.
Image: Mikhail Svetlov/Getty Images
By Chris Taylor 2018-07-25 20:25:01 UTC
This is not a drill. Nor, alas, is it the fever dream of a Cold War hack novelist, as much as it sounds like one. In 2017, Russian hackers gained control of the U.S. power grid to the point where they could cause blackouts. And the U.S. government doesn’t know if they’re still able to do it.
Worse yet, there’s reason to believe this is part of an attack on the 2018 election — one that could make Russia’s pivotal 2016 shenanigans (its fake news machine, DNC email hacking, voter registration hacking and Facebook meme-making) look like child’s play.
We learned about a Russian attack on American infrastructure when the FBI and the Department of Homeland Security released a report in March, but we didn't know how bad it was until a DHS briefing on Monday. Hundreds of utility companies had fallen victim to the hackers; there may be many more out there that have been hacked and don’t know it. Energetic Bear managed to get into the control rooms of power stations, even into supposedly secure “air-gapped” networks, via vendors.
SEE ALSO: Yeah, this is bad: Russian hackers infiltrate U.S. power grid
“They got to the point where they could have thrown switches” and blacked out portions of the U.S., one DHS analyst told the Wall Street Journal.
Not bad for what the FBI report described as a scouting mission. The hackers, part of a Russian group called Energetic Bear (seriously) were simply figuring out how U.S. power plants work, and how they report data.
Could Energetic Bear still do that? Have the Russians found their way around minimal belated cybersecurity fixes? The DHS admitted it doesn’t know, and the point of the briefing was to sound the alarm as loud as possible.
There's a lot of that going on at the lower levels of the U.S. government right now — even as the man at the apex of the federal pyramid continues to downplay, deny, or dispute evidence of Russian hacking.
So what does this have to do with the 2018 election? To begin to answer that, you have to think like Vladimir Putin — and like any good detective, you have to look at his modus operandi.
Is Putin some mustache-twirling B-movie villain who wants to throw a switch and plunge the U.S. into darkness? Of course not. He's a Cold War guy, a KGB agent versed in subterfuge and sowing just the right amount of chaos. He annexed Crimea under cover of a dodgy referendum overseen by Russian troops and invaded Ukraine with "little green men" in unmarked uniforms. Russian critics in the UK have infamously fallen victim to a series of subtle poisonings.
And then there was his extraordinary involvement in the 2016 election, as detailed in the latest Robert Mueller indictments. Two years later, we're just starting to find out how he helped to swing an extremely close election.
SEE ALSO: A timeline of everything we know about how Russia used Facebook, Google, and Twitter to help Trump win
Putin doesn't exactly have plausible deniability for these actions, but what you might call implausible deniability. His goal is to be able to smirk and shrug and say "it wasn't me" — even if you don't believe him, even if he's standing next to a pliant American president whom he helped elect.
The last thing Putin wants to do is turn his Cold War hot, to rouse the sleeping giant of America with an attack of Pearl Harbor proportions. So why on Earth would he aim to gain control of the U.S. electric grid?
One possible motive is that it could help him to subtly manipulate the U.S. electoral process again, to keep a compliant party in power and help fend off further investigation of Trump's long-standing Russian connections.
In 2015, Russia pulled off what is generally regarded as the world’s first successful cyberattack on a power grid, in Ukraine. Some 230,000 people were left without power for up to six hours: not the largest attack imaginable, but plenty disruptive. Interestingly, the attack used the same malware that Russian IP addresses had previously used to hack Ukraine's elections, as election experts warned a Senate committee last year.
Hard to not have it cross your mind that they could selectively hack the electrical grid in bluer areas on election day, which would have sounded like a 3rd rate sci-fi plot 3 years ago - but it's something Russia has already done to interfere with stability of other countries pic.twitter.com/lDGuEeCZTq
— 𝟷𝟿𝟾𝟺⚘ɪꜱ ɴᴏᴛ ꜰɪᴄᴛɪᴏɴ (@dutchiegirlie) July 24, 2018
Think like Putin for a minute. You want to avoid Democrats gaining control of either chamber of Congress, because that will give them the power to subpoena crucial documents such as Trump's tax returns and other potential evidence of monetary relationships between his properties and Russian oligarchs over the years. The GOP in Congress is your ally in this effort because it is doing its level best not to investigate Trump.
Elections in both chambers are currently balanced on a knife edge. Democrats need to gain two seats in the Senate and 24 seats in the House. The Senate math doesn't look good for Dems this year. As for the House, years of Republican gerrymandering means that even an 8 percent lead nationwide, which Democrats currently hold in the average of generic ballot polls, may not be enough.
If you're Putin, a "blue wave" that gains the Dems 23 seats still counts as a win.
How do you create conditions that could blunt the edge of the blue wave but still gives you deniability? Well, one effective way would be to cause small, low-level power cuts in specific towns and cities — blue ones that lie within Republican-held districts.
A couple of rules generally hold true in American elections in the 21st century. One, the more populous a district is — the more people are squeezed into the same space — the more likely they are to vote Democratic, even if they're in a red state. Two, higher turnout also helps Democratic candidates (which is why so many Republicans try so hard to throw people off voter rolls and implement unnecessary Voter ID laws).
So it really doesn't take a PhD in electoral math to figure out a list of districts where you'd want to lower turnout. What then?
You could do your best to hack electoral offices and campaign officials with "spearphishing" attacks, as Russia is already doing. You could try to remotely target voting machines themselves, which isn't the easiest thing considering that most are offline. Or you could cause the one thing that makes all voting machines vulnerable: a lack of electricity to operate them.
In a viral Twitter thread on this topic, I used the example of Dana Rohrabacher, the most pro-Russia GOP member of Congress. (Rep. Kevin McCarthy once told fellow Republicans in private conversation that Putin pays two people in U.S. politics, Rohrabacher and Trump; he now says that was a joke.) A Republican in a California district that voted for Hillary Clinton, Rohrabacher is in the front line of potential victims of the blue wave. The largest city in his district is Huntington Beach, home to some 115,000 registered voters, a majority of whom are Democratic or Independent.
Let's say Energetic Bear has gained access to the control rooms at Southern California Edison, and are able to cut the power provided to Huntington Beach substations on election day, November 6, 2018. The hackers wouldn't even need to take it down the whole day, nor even the 6 hours they managed in Ukraine, to swing the result. Just a few hours during the evening, after work, which is when most people vote, would do the trick.
Without power for the eSlate voting system used in Rohrabacher's district, polling stations would be forced to use provisional ballots. They may not have a large enough supply to meet the need. Long lines could discourage other voters, who'd rather rush home to deal with all that perishable food defrosting in the freezer. And you may have removed just enough non-GOP voters from the equation to ensure Rohrabacher's reelection. No conspiracy necessary; he doesn't even have to know that it happened.
Now imagine this story replicated in key districts across the country.
Power outages in a handful of key towns on election day for an hour or two would make local headlines and worry election security experts, but to most of us it wouldn't even look like an attack. Just as we had no clue in 2016 that a number of Facebook groups, ads, and memes ostensibly promoting Bernie Sanders and Black Lives Matter were part of a subtle Russian disinformation campaign intended to hurt candidate Clinton.
We seem to be finding these things out two years too late to stop them.
SEE ALSO: See the huge congressional data dump of Russian Facebook ads
Manipulating public opinion via Facebook is so 2016. Is power grid hacking Putin's plan for November 2018? We have no idea. He doesn't exactly tip his hand in this kind of situation, or ever. But the mere fact that it's now a plausible scenario — he has the means, the motive and the opportunity — should have Congress rushing to shore up both our power grid and our election system in the few months we have left.
To avoid this vulnerability, there needs to be massive and sustained effort on the federal level. Just as Virginia ditched all touchscreen voting systems when it became clear that they were hackable, we should be helping local districts move to paper ballots or vote-by-mail systems. In cases where it's too late to switch from electronic voting, we should be making sure all polling places have backup generators. That may be expensive in aggregate, but protecting democracy is probably worth the money per polling place.
But as far as GOP leaders in Congress are concerned, there's no threat here. Just last week, Republicans in the House rejected a Democratic bid to disperse $380 million in state election security grants.
After all, when you're the party Putin prefers and you're struggling in the polls with a profoundly unpopular president, it doesn't pay to change the status quo too much.
WATCH: 4 hacks that totally embarrassed the US government
Topics: 2018-midterm-elections, big-tech-companies, election, electricity, Midterms, Politics, Tech
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MASHPEE WAMPANOAG TRIBE EDUCATION DEPARTMENT RECEIVES $19,100 GRANT FOR “WE ARE THE SEVENTH GENERATION”
The Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe recently received a $19,100 grant from the First Nations Development Institute of Longmont, Colorado. This award will support the efforts of the tribe’s project: We are the Seventh Generation.
The project is designed to help youth retain and perpetuate the cultural integrity of Wampanoag community values, through participation in seasonally-dictated activities and ceremonial gatherings. It leverages knowledge and skills of culture-keepers and elders, by fostering connections with youth, as they strengthen identity, assume responsibility, and develop pride.
“We very much appreciate the opportunity the First Nations Development Institute’s Native Youth and Culture Fund has provided.” said Roxanne Mills Brown, Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe Education Department Director.
“The grant supports a dedicated focus on an age group often overlooked for specific inclusion in cultural activities.” she added.
Thirty Wampanoag youth, ages 10 – 14, will engage in this 12 month STEAM-based cultural project. The acronym represents the concepts of Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics intertwined in different approaches and activities for teaching and learning. STEAM activities foster children’s curiosity, creativity, and learning as they try things and explore the world around them. Youth will be identified from the tribal community of Mashpee, and 5 surrounding communities, with whom we have a significant number of tribal families residing.
Brian Weeden, at age 26 is currently the youngest Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe Councilman, stated, “This is a great opportunity for us to carry on our traditional teachings to the next generation while preserving our culture for all Wampanoag people.”
From the time of European colonists and missionaries in the early 1600’s, Wampanoag families were prohibited from practicing traditional ways and coerced into acceptance of Christianity (Salisbury, 1992). Wampanoag people no longer had the freedom to speak their language or attend to what was important to them, resulting in the disruption of their worldview. Today our people continue to struggle, as inter-generational trauma has infused itself, and become a part of our very existence. Unremarkably, many of our traditions and inter-tribal relationships have sustained themselves within a generation whose age is approaching that of Social Security eligibility; leaving behind generations of younger tribal members who have little to no concept of traditional ways. These culture-keepers continue to take ceremony, and maintain the culture, for the Seventh Generation, those yet unborn; so they too may live with dignity, character, and pride; in being Mashpee – Mashpee Wampanoag.
“This is an amazing opportunity for our Tribal students, I applaud Roxanne and her team for spearheading this project.” said Cedric Cromwell, Chairman of the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe. “To foster interest and develop valuable skills in science, tech, arts and mathematics, all while balancing cultural components provides the essential tools for our youth to thrive and prosper in life for generations to come.” Cromwell added.
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Marah Lee, DO, FACP, AAHIVS
Dr. Lee graduated from Kirksville College of Osteopathic Medicine in 1989, completed her internship and residency at St. Vincent’s Hospital and Medical Center in New York City in 1992, and served as chief resident until June 1993. Prior to medical school, she was a Licensed Practical Nurse for 12 years.
Leaving NYC, she practiced Internal Medicine in Port Charlotte, FL until 1994, then moved to Fort Lauderdale and assumed the position of solo practitioner at Stratogen, Inc, an HIV practice. In 1995, she became the HIV specialist at LifeWay, Inc. and in 1998 purchased that practice, and continues to own LifeWay, Inc.
She has served as principal investigator for over 90 research protocols in all phases for HIV medications.
She is certified as an HIV specialist by the American Academy of HIV Medicine since 2002. In addition she is an expert witness for the Florida Board of Osteopathic Medicine.
Since 2007, she has served as an Assistant Clinical Professor for NOVA Southeastern University – College of Osteopathic Medicine, teaching 1st and 2nd year Osteopathic Students. Additionally, she is a preceptor for Nurse Practitioner students at FAU.
Dr. Lee is the Chairman for Infection Control Committee at Broward Health-Imperial Point Hospital since 2005. And recently named the VIP (Very Important Physician) at IMP.
She is the Medical Director and sponsor for all past SMART RIDES, and is looking forward to the SMART RIDE 15 in November 2018. She also is a member of the TSR Adventures Board which governs the SMART RIDE.
Scott A. Hall, MD, AAHIVS
Dr. Scott Hall attended the University of Cincinnati where he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Chemical Engineering, graduating Magna Cum Laude. He went on to study medicine at Ohio State University where he earned his Doctor of Medicine degree in 1996. He then completed his residency at Thomas Jefferson University Hospital in Philadelphia, PA in 1999, and became board certified in Internal Medicine.
Dr. Hall moved to Ft. Lauderdale, FL in 1999 and has since been working in the South Florida community, becoming an HIV Specialist with the American Academy of HIV Medicine in 2001. We welcome Dr. Hall's vast knowledge and experience of over 17 years in the fields of Internal Medicine and HIV/AIDS.
Serge Gardere, DO, AOBNMM, AAHIVS
Dr. Serge Gardere was born in Los Angeles, California and raised in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. He attended Nova Southeastern University where he earned a bachelor of Science degree in Biology. Dr Gardere graduated at the top 5% of his class. He went on to study medicine at Nova Southeastern University College of Osteopathic Medicine where he earned his Doctor of Osteopathy degree in 2010. He went on to residency at North Shore/Long Island Jewish Hospital in Long Island, NY where he studied general medicine and osteopathic manipulative medicine. He then moved back to Fort Lauderdale and continued his studies at Larkin Hospital, Miami, FL in Neuromuscular Medicine. In 2016, Dr. Gardere became board certified in Neuromusculoskeletal Medicine as well as an HIV Specialist with the American Academy of HIV Medicine.
Dr. Gardere is a specialist in Neuromuscular Medicine, which incorporates osteopathic manipulative medicine including high velocity low amplitude treatment, myofascial release, counterstrain, muscle energy, balanced ligamentous tension, osteopathy in the cranial field, Stills technique, and facilitated positional release. He includes in his practice joint injections, nerve blocks, epidural steroid injections, botox for migraine, and trigger points. Dr Gardere treats all facets of somatic dysfunction, back pain, neck pain, neuropathy, and joint pain. As a true osteopath, Dr Gardere believes that mind, body, spirit work together in harmony to achieve homeostasis.
"When all of the fulcrums are synchronized there will be peace and harmony." - W.G. Sutherland, DO
Cora Romero, Office Manager and Patient Care Coordinator
Cora is the Office Manager and Patient Care Coordinator always knew that she was put on this earth to be a mother. She is blessed to have 3 amazing daughters and 2 wonderful granddaughters. But that is not where it stops. She considers every one of our patients to be a part of her extended family. There is nothing she wouldn’t do to get them the right care and attention they need. Cora can ruffle feathers to get the job done, our patients and their needs come first. Cora has been honored to have the privilege to work for Dr. Lee for over 14 years, a journey filled with love, tears and hope.
Kim Kopacz, CPC – Practice Manager
Kim has been working in the field of HIV/AIDS for 25 years, and has been with LifeWay and Dr. Lee from inception in 1996. She has worked in all aspects of the front office including Receptionist, Reimbursement Specialist, Office Manager, and presently Practice Manager and Certified Professional Coder.
Bianca Oceann, M.A.
Tasha Jamass-Chochrek, M.A.
Michelle Butler, Medical Receptionist
Diana Cardoso, Medical Receptionist
Copyright © 2018 LifeWay, Inc
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LongAndWastedYear
listening to bob dylan – one week at a time
Bootleg Series 9: The Witmark Demos
A trip to Florida suspended blogging for most of this past week, but I continued to listen to Bob Dylan all the way through. Specifically, to the Bootleg Series v9: The Witmark Demos. This is a two-CD set that compiles 47 songs recorded by Dylan as demos for copyright reasons from 1962 to 1964. I previously wrote about many of the pieces on this set during the early weeks of this blog, but this was the first time I had listened to it all the way through as a distinct two and a half hour album. Also, if you ordered this through Amazon you got a bonus disc of Dylan’s 1963 concert at Brandeis University. I don’t think I wrote about this back in January.
As with other recent examples of the Bootleg Series, this release has me feeling nostalgic. The Brandeis show has only seven songs and is more an interesting curiosity at this point than a major release. It is interesting that Dylan does only one of his “big” songs (“Masters of War”) across his two sets. I like that they have left in the stage announcements about the intermission, and that the announcer calls him “Bobby Dylan”. He does three “Talkin’” songs during his performance, which is about three too many for me. He also apparently drops his guitar once. Happy to have this but it is not essential.
The Witmark Demos are a different matter entirely. I’ve long had a lot of this material on the Zimmerman: Ten of Swords bootleg, and about four of these songs have been released on earlier editions of the Bootleg Series. The sound is cleaned up here, and this is far better than the earlier versions that I have (that said, a few songs, like “I’ll Keep It With Mine” seem to have been beyond audio repair). It’s mostly a very good set, with Dylan playing guitar and piano and demo’ing these songs. On a few (“Blowin’ in the Wind”) he clearly has a cold and struggles not to cough. I’m not sure that many or even any of these are superior to the album versions, but they’re generally interesting in themselves.
When I listened to this the first couple of times through I thought it was just fascinating to listen in on a very young Dylan recording. They’ve left in a lot of banter – he calls some songs “a drag” and forgets the lyrics to others (offering to write them down later). You can hear a door slam at one point. It seems all pretty casual – just getting down to work.
Last night, driving home from the airport, though, I was struck with the realization that if Bob Dylan had never written anything after 1964 – if he’d never gone electric, and done all of the things that I’ve spent the year writing about – he would still be a pretty monumental figure in American music. Certainly not as monumental, but right up there. Rock and Roll Hall of Famer, if not such a prominent early inductee.
I think that this occurred to me while listening to “Guess I’m Feeling Fine”, a very minor Dylan song that I really enjoy. He sings it in a kind of John Hartford style that I can appreciate. If he’d never written anything past that would he have eventually put that on an album? And would he be touring and still singing that today on the nostalgia scene? Quite likely. My parents, who winter in Sarasota, told me about seeing Paul Anka a year or two ago and how great they thought his show was. Anka was huge from 1958 to about 1963 (suffered during the British Invasion) and though he’s had many, many comebacks, never really “came back” in a truly important way. But he sells out the performing arts centre in Sarasota doing crooner revivalism. This is the career that might have awaited Dylan – playing to aging folkies in retirement communities across the sunbelt.
If Dylan had never written anything after 1964, he still could have filled out at least one more remarkable album. Throw all of this onto one album and try to tell me it wouldn’t be considered an all-time classic:
Let Me Die in My Footsteps
Oxford Town
Guess I’m Doing Fine
Mama You Been On My Mind
Paths of Victory
Seven Curses
Walkin’ Down the Line
A couple of these are songs that Dylan used, including “Tomorrow is a Long Time”, which he went back to for Greatest Hits v2. “Paths of Victory” seems to me an overlooked civil rights anthem. It’s a very simplistic song (but so is “Blowin’ in the Wind”) and it could have been bigger than it was. “Farewell” has gotten a lot of recent attention due to the Coen Brothers and Llewyn Davis. “Let Me Die in My Footsteps” was recorded by dozens of artists. This could have been Dylan’s fifth – and last – album and he’d still be a star. Instead most of these songs are relatively forgotten (though “Mama You Been On My Mind” got a lot of work during Rolling Thunder as a duet with Joan Baez).
Given the occasionally huge gaps between Dylan recordings now, it is amazing to note how much great material he was able to generate and then disregard as a young man. Bootleg Series v9 covers just about a year and a half and 47 songs. That’s not even noting that “Blowin’ in the Wind”, “The Times They Are a-Changin’”, “A Hard Rain’s a-Gonna Fall”, “Girl From the North Country”, and “Mr. Tambourine Man” are also on here. Even if he had stopped, he’d still be one of the greatest of all time.
Changin’ Times
Brazil Series
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Keith Olbermann, BYU’s Honor Code, and other Friday Foibles
I used to like Keith Olberman. I mean I don’t hate the man or anything, I don’t know him personally, but I don’t care much for him any more. When he was on ESPN he was enjoyable to watch, quick witted, funny, and knowledgeable. Now he just seems angry.
Maybe he’s dealing with regrets about leaving ESPN and the sports gig. Regrets sometimes make us angry. Maybe he’s still mad at losing his deal with MSNBC . Although it could be argued his “release” happened partly due to his anger, so maybe that wasn’t the tipping point. Maybe he’s just frustrated with his growing irrelevance in exile on Current TV, his newest home for political assassination attempts and overall mean spirited dart throwing platform. I don’t know what caused it, but I don’t care for it and it appears a majority of Americans don’t care for it either regardless of their personal world views or ideologies.
The latest example of the angry man syndrome KO exhibits came in a “read between the lines” tweet about S.E. Cupp, conservative columnist for the New York Daily News and radio commentator on Glenn Beck’s syndicated network Mercury Inc. Ms. Cupp expressed her opinion about Planned Parenthood on the Joy Behar show recently and apparently Mr. Olbermann didn’t like her opinion and proceeded to make his feelings known through his twitter feed.
That got the attention of a few more tweeps.
Realizing what he just implied (only he knows if it was intentional or not) he starts to back peddle.
I am actually quite impressed with how fast Keith can run backwards!
I couldn’t help myself and jumped into the tweetness of the moment
No reply from Keith. I guess I just don’t have enough followers…kinda like Keith.
The Brandon Davies saga at BYU may have simmered down a bit now that March Madness is over and Jimmer Fredette is eying the NBA, but that doesn’t mean it isn’t hot topic any more. A sports blog called DeadSpin posted a blog authored by Luke O’Brien and Darron Smith making a case for racism in the BYU Honor Code system and the way its enforced.
The two proceeded to use statistics with little to no citation, quotes from former black athletes (and it should be noted every athlete they interviewed was a disgruntled player who had run into problems with the Honor Code and had an obvious axe to grind), and lots of he said – she said, rumor, and innuendo. They didn’t have a single quote from a black athlete who enjoyed his/her experience at BYU even though many of them have since come forward to speak out against the article and its implications. Ronny Brown, Brian Kehl, Brian Logan, Justin Robinson and Brandon Bradley, all tell a very different tale when you ask them about their experience at BYU.
Instead the authors focused on Thomas Stancil, Ray Hudson and Tico Pringle all players who despite their talents could never break into the starting lineup and ultimately got into trouble with the Honor Code resulting in their dismissal from BYU.
The bottom line here is the article was severely one sided, with apparently little or no attempts to bring any balance to the story. That under any circumstance is at the least poor journalism and at worst a hatchet job.
Some light may be shed on that theory by considering who wrote the article. I had a hard time finding out who Luke O’Brien is but I found a website that said he was an award winning journalist, but didn’t mention what awards or from what sources. It said he has had articles published by the Atlantic, Fortune, Details, Rolling Stone, Fast Company, The New York Times, The Washington Post Magazine, Boston Magazine and Slate and that he’s a graduate of Harvard and Columbia. Seems if all that was true he’d know better than to publish such a one sided story seriously lacking in adequate attribution and citation.
Darron Smith is a former BYU Professor of Sociology who was dismissed from the school after writing a book critical of the LDS faith for its handling of black members and its priesthood throughout its history. Smith is a Mormon himself, but is very vocal about his belief that the LDS Church should do more to right the wrongs of racism in the early days of the church. His dismissal from BYU however, could lead one to believe this is a bit of payback. I’m not saying that is the case because no one knows his motivation but him.
In a recent radio interview, Smith said he held no animosity toward BYU or the church but felt there were inequities and racism being exhibited in the way the BYU Honor Code is enforced particularly when it comes to black athletes, who according to the numbers cited in the article, represent a disproportionate percentage of students dismissed for Honor Code violations. He also seemed to balk a bit when asked why he didn’t include any positive experiences by athletes like those mentioned here.
I don’t doubt Smith’s sincerity or passion about the subject of race at BYU and if there is racism involved it needs to be exposed and rooted out. I don’t believe it is institutionalized or widespread, and those coming out in opposition to this article agree. Deadspin doesn’t have all the details of each case either, just the comments of some former players who got kicked out or left BYU who happen to be black.
There are two sides to every story. This could have been an informative and thought provoking article had it been balanced, but as written, its nothing more than a fire starter.
This is just too good to pass up. Conservatives certainly have their flaws and imperfections but when placed side by side with Liberals and Progressives the principles of conservatism shine brightly.
Case in Point: Financial Guru Neil Cavuto goes head to head with Democrat Congresswoman Eddie Bernice Johnson. Its almost mean to let this woman speak on national television with no handlers there to protect her. Texas must be so proud.
CLICK HERE TO WATCH THE FUN.
Posted in Faith, Politics, Sports
Tagged with Brigham Young University Honor Code, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Current TV, DeadSpin, Eddie Bernice Johnson, ESPN, Glenn Beck, Jimmer Fredette, Joy Behar, Keith Olbermann, keitholbermann, MSNBC, Planned Parenthood
« Open Letter to Congress
S.E. Cupp responds to Keith Olbermann »
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The art installation plays Toto's Africa on constant loop in the desert.
Toto’s Africa to play ‘for eternity’ in desert
16th Jan 2019 3:30 PM
It's the classic song that just keeps giving, undergoing an unexpected renaissance to become of the most streamed songs of the digital age.
Now, Toto's Africa is set live on forever thanks to an art installation in the Namib desert.
Namibian-German artist Max Siedentopf is behind the solar panelled installation, which pays homage to the 1982 soft rock classic.
The work consists of six speakers attached to an MP3 player set up in the southern African coastal desert, which stretches some 2000km.
REVIEW: Rock band Toto revives hits for Aussie crowd
Six speakers surround the device, projecting the music outwards. The exact location of the installation has not been disclosed by the artist.
"The song is put on loop and the installation runs on solar batteries to keep Toto going for all eternity," Siedentopf said.
Siedentopf wanted to pay homage to what he describes as "probably the most popular songs of the last four decades."
Toto are riding on a fresh wave of popularity after 40 years in the business.
Although he hopes the song will continue to play for all time, he is realistic about the installation's durability.
He told the BBC: "Most parts of the installation were chosen to be as durable as possible, but I'm sure the harsh environment of the desert will devour the installation eventually".
africa music toto
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Rob Gronkowski Announces Retirement From NFL
Rob Gronkowski has announced that he will be retiring from football.
The famous Patriots Tight End took to social media to share a photo of himself, with a touching caption detailing the news and his feeelings. Read it below:
It all started at 20 years old on stage at the NFL draft when my dream came true, and now here I am about to turn 30 in a few months with a decision I feel is the biggest of my life so far. I will be retiring from the game of football today. I am so grateful for the opportunity that Mr. Kraft and Coach Belichick gave to me when drafting my silliness in 2010. My life experiences over the last 9 years have been amazing both on and off the field. The people I have meet, the relationships I have built, the championships I have been apart of, I just want to thank the whole New England Patriots organization for every opportunity I have been giving and learning the great values of life that I can apply to mine. Thank you to all of Pats Nation around the world for the incredible support since I have been apart of this 1st class organization. Thank you for everyone accepting who I am and the dedication I have put into my work to be the best player I could be. But now its time to move forward and move forward with a big smile knowing that the New England Patriots Organization, Pats Nation, and all my fans will be truly a big part of my heart for rest of my life. It was truly an incredible honor to play for such a great established organization and able to come in to continue and contribute to keep building success. To all my current and past teammates, thank you for making each team every year special to be apart of. I will truly miss you guys. Cheers to all who have been part of this journey, cheers to the past for the incredible memories, and a HUGE cheers to the uncertain of whats next.
A post shared by Rob Gronkowski (@gronk) on Mar 24, 2019 at 2:53pm PDT
RELATED: Robert Kraft Releases First Statement Following Charges, "I Know I Have Hurt and Disappointed My Family"
According to CBS Boston, "in nine seasons, all with the Patriots, Gronkowski caught 521 passes for 7,861 yards and 79 touchdowns (plus one more score that went down as a rushing touchdown)."
Everyone loves Gronk, so the possibilities post-NFL are limitless!
Gronk
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DR. SUSAN GERBI WINS THE 2017 GEORGE W. BEADLE AWARD
MCB congratulates Dr. Susan Gerbi on her 2017 George W. Beadle Award. Each year, the Genetics Society of America honors one investigator for “outstanding contributions to the community of genetics research” such as “creating and disseminating an invaluable technique or tool, assisting the community with the adoption of a model system, working to provide a voice for the community in public or political forums, and/or maintaining active leadership roles.” This distinguished honor was presented to Dr. Gerbi during the 58th Annual Drosophila Research Conference in California.
Dr. Gerbi is the George D. Eggleston Professor of Biochemistry and Professor of Biology at Brown University. In part with NSF support, she has made many notable scientific contributions in all of the areas described above. For example, together with Dr. Joseph Gall, Dr. Gerbi created in situ hybridization, an invaluable technique to locate genes on chromosomes. Additionally, she developed a novel Replication Initiation Point Mapping (RIP) technique that enabled researchers to pinpoint the start site for DNA replication in eukaryotes. Dr. Gerbi and her group also solved the first sequence of eukaryotic 28S ribosomal RNA (28S rRNA). By comparing it to its bacterial homologue (23S rRNA), Dr. Gerbi and her team identified both regions of variability (expansion segments), which aid researchers during phylogenetic analysis, and key regions of conservation (core secondary structure and domain specific conserved sequences) that are held constant among organisms to maintain rRNA function. Further, Dr. Gerbi was the first to identify an in vivo role for U3 small nucleolar RNA, which promotes ribosomal RNA folding and processing, and she was the first to develop a fluorescence-based method to track localization of small RNAs in vivo, which allowed for the identification of specific sequences that target the RNAs to the sites of ribosome assembly in the nucleolus.
Dr. Gerbi and her research team also developed Sciara coprophilia as a model organism, mapping the fly’s genome using a new, handheld DNA sequencing technology called the Oxford Nanopore MinION. (The MinION made a recent appearance in space when it was used by NASA Astronaut Kate Rubins to sequence DNA on the International Space Station.) With the genome, transcriptome, and methodology for genome editing now available, Dr. Gerbi is actively promoting the use of Sciara as a model organism to mine its unique biological features, including a monopolar spindle in meiosis, non-disjunction, chromosome imprinting, and elimination. Studies on Sciara offer new insights into the mechanisms of locus-specific DNA re-replication, which may serve as a paradigm for gene amplification in cancer. This work was partially funded by the Genetic Mechanisms cluster of the Division of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences, Award #MCB-1607411.
Dr. Gerbi has also served the scientific community in numerous leadership positions and science advocacy roles. For example, Dr. Gerbi was Founding Chair of the Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, and Biochemistry at Brown University, serving in that role for 10 years. Just a few of the many broader impacts of her work that have focused on training the next generation of scientists include 33 years of service as principal investigator (PI) or co-PI on Brown University’s National Institutes of Health (NIH) predoctoral training grant. Dr. Gerbi has also served as President of the American Society for Cell Biology (ASCB), fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), chair of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) Consensus Conference on Graduate Education, founding member and Chair of the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) Graduate Research Education and Training (GREAT) group, and a member of the National Academy of Sciences Committee’s Study on the National Needs for Biomedical Research Personnel. She was also a member of the National Academy of Sciences committee on Bridges to Independence, which led to NIH’s Pathway to Independence K99 award that provides research funding opportunities to postdoctoral researchers who are transitioning to faculty positions.
For these and other efforts, Dr. Gerbi has contributed greatly to the genetics community through her dedication to scientific research, leadership, and advocacy. Please join us in congratulating Dr. Susan Gerbi!
Posted in Blog, Broader Impacts and tagged 2017 George W. Beadle Award, 58th Annual Drosophila Research Conference, awards, Broader Impacts, Brown University, Dr. Susan Gerbi, Genetic Mechanisms, The Genetics Society of America on July 7, 2017 by nsfmcb. Leave a comment
Farewell to Dr. Chloe Poston
MCB gives a warm send off to Dr. Chloe Poston, former MCB Blog Manager and AAAS Science and Technology Policy Fellow in the Division of Molecular and Cellular Biosciences.
In 2014, MCB had a goal to improve transparency and communication with our scientific community. Dr. Chloe Poston was one of the individuals who worked hard to establish a blog where we could share updated information and MCB-funded research with the public. A year later, the MCB Blog is a great success and that is in part because of Dr. Poston’s great efforts.
Dr. Poston earned her doctoral degree in Chemistry at Brown University where her research interests focused on global proteomic analysis. Prior to her placement as a AAAS Science and Technology Policy Fellow in MCB, Dr. Poston was a post-doctoral scientist at Eli Lilly and Company. As a AAAS Fellow, Dr. Poston created/managed the MCB blog, assisted with panels, created summary documents and outlined recommendations to inform the Strategic Planning Committee on Graduate Education at NSF, and served as the Executive Secretary for the Federal Coordination in STEM Education Interagency committee’s Working Group on Broadening Participation of Underrepresented Groups.
Dr. Poston has accepted a position as a Policy and Communications Manager at the Genetics Society of America. Her duties include advocating for basic biological research through the use of model organisms, working with the public policy committee to draft policy responses, and managing the GSA Blog and other social media platforms.
MCB staff wishes Dr. Poston great success in her new role and future career endeavors.
Posted in Blog, Getting to Know MCB and tagged AAAS Science and Technology Policy Fellow, Brown University, Chloe Poston, Eli Lilly and Company, Genetics Society of America, MCB, MCB Blog on September 18, 2015 by nsfmcb. Leave a comment
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3 rules for working remote, from Pleo's Jessie Scheepers
MEST MESTAfrica MEST Cape Town MEST South Africa Community Conversations MEST community
Lundie Strom, Wednesday April 3rd 2019
Last week on Tuesday, March 26, MEST Cape Town welcomed members of the community to join us for coffee and the first Community Conversation of 2019. We were excited to have Jessie Scheepers, Head of People at Pleo, in town from Copenhagen to lead an interactive discussion titled “Keeping Talent in South Africa: How to work internationally, from here.”
Jessie is a South African who has lived and worked across Europe, the Middle East, and Africa for several hyper-growth tech companies. Most recently, Jessie has been working with fintech company Pleo, building it from 50 to 170 people this year alone. She is passionate about finding and nurturing some of the world's top talent.
The Community Conversation began with some surprising statistics: 56% of startups globally outsource their work [source], and 30% of Silicon Valley jobs are done remotely [source]. It's clear that many companies around the world have begun to expand recruitment beyond their local talent pool.
With employees spanning nine different countries, Pleo is one of the startups adopting a remote-first mindset. “The way we work today is quite outdated," Jessie began, "And we need to be more progressive... You want to work with the best people in the world, but the reality is that the best people in the world might not be in your city. There are markets with a lot of opportunity and growth, that just might not have the right people.”
Keep reading for three of Jessie's key tips surrounding remote-work mindsets and how to make working remotely work for you!
1.Be honest with yourself. Is remote work right for you, or are you even right for it?
Working remotely looks pretty idyllic from the outside looking in, as it usually appears to involve a laptop and some palm trees. There's no doubt that the pros for remote work include flexible location (working from home, the beach, coffee shops, you name it), fewer interruptions, less time spent in traffic, more sleep, lunch with friends, the list goes on.
The perks sound ideal on paper, but it's also important to consider the drawbacks of the work-from-home lifestyle. Jessie pointed out that these can include underworking and overworking (do you have trouble staying focused, or often lose track of time?), FOMO of the office, no quick on-site communication, and the frustration that comes with communicating across different timezones. If you're someone who enjoys water cooler catch-ups, a long-distance relationship with your company might be a deal breaker.
2. Are you qualified? Employers are looking for people they can trust to get the job done without oversight.
Jessie says that unless your former employers or schools include one of the big players (hi Google, how's it going Ivy Leagues), "Chances are, people won’t know the name of your past company or university. So you have to bring across the significance of your work experience and achievements in another way to impress employers.”
There are some things you simply can't change, like your passport, people's biases, and the fact that some positions just aren't conducive to remote work. Jessie told us that you can oftentimes tweak some of these seemingly 'negative' things to work in your favour during the hiring process, however. Are you bringing knowledge from an emerging market to an established one? Do you help fill one of those controversial minority quotas (women of colour software engineers, we're looking at you)? Use these to your advantage!
Invariant factors aside, Jessie says there are also several things you can be proactive about to help make yourself the most attractive candidate for those limited remote positions.
"Skill yourself up, via academics or learning by doing. Get involved in the community or ecosystem to become relevant in the industry. And work on building your own personal brand… Become an expert in one domain, so that people trust your expertise and trust you to work remotely.”
3. Do you and the employer want the same things? Remote work shouldn't come at the expense of feeling like a 'real' employee at the company.
Working remotely is typically not the same as freelancing, and you should never feel like disposable, outsourced labour. Be sure to ask how the companies you are considering take steps to ensure you still feel like part of the team, even when you're not present in person. For example, Pleo makes a point of having remote workers train at their HQ in Copenhagen for at least three months, to ensure they feel aligned with the company values and their on-site coworkers before relocating elsewhere.
Jessie also told us that compromising in some areas in order to achieve a remote-work lifestyle is okay, depending on what your priorities are. "You may need to take a step back before you take a step forward," she says. "What I mean by that is, you may need to make a sacrifice. If lifestyle, location or flexible work is most important to you, then that might come at a cost to your career ambition… When looking at hyper-growth companies, it’s okay to start in a role that isn’t necessarily at the top. You can prove your worth, and grow internally. If a company has shown that it is on an upward trajectory, you’ll likely end up in a higher position just based on necessity - but you don’t need to start there!”
To sum it up, when considering whether to adopt the WFH lifestyle, first ask yourself if working remotely will also work for you. Once you've done that, Jessie concluded, then it's simply about finding the right fit and landing the job. "Demand for remote work is high, and the markets are adjusting slowly but surely. So just be the best, and get the job. Easy, right?"
To access the Community Conversation audio and presentation slides, click here.
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Off-Grid Solar Solutions Provider SolarHome Raises $1 Million Equity Funding from Trirec
SolarHome secured its first debt funding from online platform lender Kiva in October 2017
Soumik Dutta
Finance and M&A, Solar
Singapore-based startup SolarHome, a Pay-As-You-Go (PAYG) solar solutions provider for off-grid households in Myanmar, has secured another $1 million equity from its existing investor Trirec.
In 2018, Trirec was joined by Insitor Impact Asia, Bee Next, and a group of Singapore-based family offices when it invested $4.2 million in SolarHome in a convertible note offering, including the Japanese cross-border crowdfunding platform Crowd Credit. In December last year, Solar Home again raised an additional $10 million debt financing from investors including Sweden-based cross border crowdfunding platform Trine. This current funding is a follow-on financing that’s a part of Solar Home’s Series A.
SolarHome, which was launched in 2017, has been seeded by fintech venture builder FORUM and has core operations in Myanmar with 20 branches in four regions. The company says it has installed over 30,000 solar home systems in the country, adding that it aims to reach up to 100,000 home installations by the end of 2019.
Mercom previously reported when SolarHome secured its first debt funding from online platform lender Kiva in October 2017, shortly after having closed an oversubscribed pre-Series A equity funding round of $625,000 led by impact venture capital firm Uberis Capital.
According to the World Bank, the global PAYG solar industry attracted over $773 million in funding over the last five years. The estimated impact of these investments has been far-reaching, with approximately $5.2 billion in economic savings to households as they switch from conventional fuels to off-grid solar devices.
In January 2018, Mercom reported that the off-grid solar solutions had benefited approximately 360 million people across the globe, according to a report by the World Bank Group’s Lighting Global Program, Dalberg Advisors, and the Global Off-Grid Lighting Association (GOGLA).
Off-grid solar has a bright future in poor and underdeveloped parts of the world, and the funding towards these emerging markets has also witnessed a significant increase over the years. According to Mercom’s Solar Funding and M&A Reports, the global off-grid solar market saw deals worth $97 million in the year 2015. Approximately $147 million were raised in 2016, and in the year 2017, the sector witnessed exponential growth, raising a whopping $243 million.
Soumik is a staff reporter at Mercom India. Prior to joining Mercom, Soumik was a correspondent for UNI, New Delhi covering the Northeast region for seven years. He has also worked as an Asia Correspondent for Washington DC-based Hundred Reporters. He has contributed as a freelancer to several national and international digital publications with a focus on data-based investigative stories on environmental corruption, hydro power projects, energy transition and the circular economy. Soumik is an Economics graduate from Scottish Church College, Calcutta University.
EquityFundingGOGLAOff-gridPAYGSolarWorld Bank
India Likely to Have 300 GW of Solar and 140 GW of Wind Capacity by 2030: CEA
Renewable Project Developer Greenko Receives $329 Million in Equity
IIT Hyderabad-Incubated Electric Vehicle Startup PURE EV Raises Funding
RK Singh Asks Andhra Pradesh CM to Exercise Restraint in Solar & Wind PPA Renegotiations
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OM MfÅA
Åbo Akademi firar ett fullt sekel
Finansialisering och förändring
En resa genom Mongoliet
Teknologi för kontinuerlig övervakning av miljön
Parvez Alam shows an echinoderm – an organism he describes as a primitive eye.
Biopunk
Parvez Alam is a docent in natural materials at Åbo Akademi University. He plays a central role in fifteen different advanced bioinspired projects. He is a biohacker. He is married and the father of two children. He is the founder of the world’s largest charity organisation within combat sports. He is an ex-professional skateboarder. He is an ex-punk rocker. He is a practising Muslim. He recently turned forty.
Text & Photo: Marcus Prest
The whale cranium has disappeared. This is weird. The cachalot whale cranium – which Parvez Alam’s colleague Derek Ohland a few years ago sawed off an animal that had strayed into shallow waters, beached and died – is the size of a small car. Alam and his colleague, Professor Anusuya Chinsamy-Turan have tried to find the cranium in the basement of the zoological museum all morning.
On the floor in Professor Chinsamy-Turan’s office at the university campus in Cape Town, South Africa, there is now instead the cranium of a giraffe. This feels like something of an anticlimax. Parvez Alam had wanted to show me the whale cranium. He would also have wanted to study it further, since it is not the hardness of the whale’s cranium – the bone of a cachalot’s cranium is softer than that of a human cranium – but something in the structure of the bone that enables the whale to dive down to 3,000 metres. Parvez Alam is interested in exploring how its construction and pressure distribution are connected.
But now it is the giraffe cranium that Parvez Alam and Chinsamy-Turan are talking about. Parvez Alam cannot take the cranium with him back home to Turku, Finland, since it is, first of all, too unwieldy to transport, and secondly, it would take too long to acquire all of the permissions needed. Although it’s a matter of skeleton parts and not living material, the bureaucracy required to move a cranium from one continent to another is massive. What Alam can, however, use, is data from a scan of the giraffe cranium.
“What kind of scan, a CT scan?” Chinsamy-Turan asks.
“Yes, CT is good. I can go down to 10 microns with my own gear,” Alam answers.
“Is that meaningful? Shouldn’t you try and keep it on a scale where you can see the larger patterns?”
”When I go down low enough, I can see various layers and whether the layers have different structures.”
“But you must at least stay on a scale where you can see how the tissues interact.”
The hypothesis about giraffes (which is relevant for dinosaur researcher Chinsamy-Turan’s work) is that long-necked dinosaurs and giraffes have directly related fight tactics which in turn relate to sexual selection. And that the aggressive behaviour displayed in the fight between two male giraffes could correspond to the way in which male dinosaurs fought each other. For Alam, the interesting features are the construction of the cranium and the composition of the skeleton – that is, the structure of the bone. The bone of the giraffe’s cranium does not consist of solid material; the inside of it looks rather like fused sugar.
“Look at these channels that go through the skull; these have not been studied before.”
Alam shows me a part of the cranium.
“And check this out: the same zipper-like binding between different skeleton parts as those that I’ve showed you on the piece of whale cranium I have in Turku.”
Left: Parvez Alam, Anusuya Chinsamy-Turan and part of a giraffe cranium. Middle: Parvez Alam points at a zipper-like joint in the giraffe cranium. Right: Parvez Alam, Derek Ohland and the wet, still stinking, cranium of a cachalot whale. Photo: Private.
From a material technological perspective it is interesting that the giraffe skull is light, while it also seems to exhibit great durability; male giraffes use their skulls like sledgehammers in their fights.
“This kind of meringue-like structure, which is not solid, has proven to be good at dispersing the energy from impacts, but it’s not so good at withstanding static strain and continuous wear.”
PARVEZ ALAM is a bioscientist specialising in biomimetics and natural materials science. He is a docent at Åbo Akademi University. During his visit to Cape Town he collaborates with Professor Chinsamy-Turan since she is a leading expert on pre-historical organisms, specialising in dinosaurs and their bone structures.
In Cape Town and South Africa Alam also does biosampling: he goes out into nature looking for organisms and biomaterials with interesting characteristics. In his office and the lab in Turku Alam analyses what the materials consist of and based on data from the analyses he makes digital models of the materials’ hierarchical structures at molecular level and above. Some materials display characteristics and opportunities which make them of interest for synthetic production – not for making exact copies of the material, but for imitating its characteristics.
One of the basic objectives of Parvez Alam’s research is an attempt to identify green, sustainable processes for the manufacture of high-performance materials. The three main areas in his research are materials science, biomedicine and process technology.
HAVING talked to Professor Chinsamy-Turan we go for a walk. We walk through the university campus at the foot of Table Mountain. Large, grey trees line the footpath – Parvez Alam feels their trunks; he doesn’t know what kind of trees they are, and neither do I.
Parvez Alam recently turned forty. He is friendly but also somewhat watchful and he walks in a self-confident, energetic style with a low centre of gravity; in addition to biosciences, combat sports are his great passion. Before he got into research and combat sports, punk music and skateboarding dominated his life. He played in a number of punk bands in his previous home country, England. As a skateboarder he had sponsor contracts and was ranked among the top 10 in Britain in the vert ramp and concrete parks.
“Why did you become a scientist and how did you come to specialise in bioscience and biomimetics?”
“Oh, you go straight for the difficult questions. Let me answer why I work within biomimetics and bioscience: it’s one of my great loves, my passion and my great interest.”
“But if we look at science instead, as well as being characterised by fundamental research, which is based on curiosity and the wish to understand, science has its roots in industry. When I’ve worked on the industrial side, it’s been in order to earn money for my family. So: the need to earn money is part of the answer to the question of why I have chosen to work within science. I’ve worked directly in the industrial sector, but most of what I did before that at universities, including Åbo Akademi, was connected to industry in one way or another.”
“But as things got difficult with getting funding for the paper-converting projects that I was involved in at Åbo Akademi, I went back to my passion, to what I had started studying when I first came to university twenty years ago – that is, the biosciences. I suppose that for your own sake you must do what makes you happy, if you can.”
“Being a scientist is meaningful; it’s an ideal. So in 2012 I applied for a grant from the foundation Ella och George Ehrnrooths stiftelse in order to study the molecular characteristics of cobwebs. I got 9,000 euros – I took the money and since I was entering something that I loved to do, I went wild. Since then I have pushed on. I’ve never had as many students as I have now and I’ve never published as much, either.”
Since 2013 Alam has had 18 articles published in scientific journals and 12 more are waiting to be accepted.
“Where I’ve got to now, within biosciences, is a place where I can bring together my former experiences and the knowledge I’ve gathered over the years. Paper converting and materials technology have, for example, taught me a lot about fluid mechanics – which is very useful for me just now.”
“Within biomimetics and bioscience I learn something new every day. I also learn to appreciate the world. And my mode of working gives me quite a few close-to-death experiences. Particularly when encountering snakes, venomous octopuses and other marine animals that you come across in the course of gathering materials.”
“What does your family think of that?”
“Of course they’re not always all that enthusiastic about that side of things. But my wife understands this aspect of my character. I seem to have a problematic relationship to adrenalin. I broke my neck and was temporarily paralysed when I was skateboarding, but that doesn’t seem to have slowed me down. I think I get a kind of natural high when things are a bit dangerous.”
WHAT IS called called the Second Scientific Revolution (and regarded as having taken place between Nicolaus Copernicus’ publication of De revolutionibus in 1543 and Isaac Newton’s publication of Principia in 1687) was, according to the historian of science Richard Holmes, characterised by a common ideal of an intensive, even reckless, personal engagement for the sake of making scientific discoveries. During my two years of sporadic contact with Parvez Alam I have often come to think of Holmes’ descriptions and stories of these strenuous journeys into previously unknown territories. In his hunt for insects, plants and other organisms Alam goes on long expeditions for many months in the Indonesian jungle, travels over vast areas of East Africa and seems unconcerned with his own comfort and often also apparently unconcerned about his own safety. He says that it looks and sounds more dangerous than it actually is.
He also expresses something that on the surface sounds like fatalism (“when you meet your destiny, there’s nothing to be done”), but when talking with him in more detail, I realise that his attitude is about taking well-judged risks, analysing which problems he is likely to encounter and how he can overcome them, and deciding whether the endeavour is worth the risk. If the answer is yes and things go wrong despite all preparations and planned actions – then they go wrong.
During the expeditions it is not only animals, particularly poisonous ones, which might cause surprises – Alam has also fallen victim to jungle diseases and parasites in the few years that he has been active as a field bioscientist. However, humans have proven to be the most dangerous creatures. Alam and his various groups have on several occasions been the target of aggression; sometimes he has even been involved in fights. At times it is Parvez Alam’s ethnicity that triggers aggression. On other occasions, it is pure opportunism on the part of the attackers.
“There are two things that I believe we as humans can’t control to any great extent. One is that we are born. The other is when we will die. Of course there are meaningless ways of dying; carelessness, thoughtlessness and so on. People who look down at their mobile phones while walking or driving take far greater risks than I do. But if you’ve done everything you’re supposed to correctly and you still meet your destiny, they you’ll just have to accept it.”
HIS PASSION FOR combat sports has also brought him into interesting situations – within the organisation Fighting for Lives Parvez has come into contact with two gentlemen who are involved in the gangs in the Cape Flats area of Cape Town. He has tried to organise an interview with them for me. These two men are former gang members who have been impressed by Fighting for Lives, an NGO of which Parvez Alam is the driving force. Like this organisation, they work with teaching children and young people outside the gangs to defend themselves against criminality. Parvez, for his part, is fascinated by the knife-fighting techniques used by the gangs on Cape Flats.
He has asked me to put on a thick jacket, so I’m wearing a leather coat despite the night being warm. This is because the two gentlemen, who remain nameless, in all friendliness stabbed him twice last time he met them – partly because they were demonstrating knife training and partly as an initiation rite. They persist in training with sharp blades, which more or less inevitably means that at least one of the parties will bleed. Parvez demonstrates techniques for me; he shows how the stabs are delivered at close range using the body as the centre of gravity, their intimate proximity resembling the right and left hooks and uppercuts of boxing.
“They’re good guys; they’ll stand by you until the end – but they’re also a bit moody and easily excited, so don’t ask them too much about tactics and techniques. Try sticking to social issues, questions about the history of the area, things like that,” Parvez advises me.
“They always carry knives, and if you ask them about technique, they’ll want to give you a demonstration of how they do it.”
Thus the leather jacket. We are heading to a place in Cape Flats which functions as a demilitarised zone between rival gangs. I’m thinking of techniques we learnt in passing in the army for blocking and taking the knife off an attacker. They don’t seem useful. I’m also thinking of my time running the 400 metres. That feels much more relevant. These and other thoughts run through my head as we walk. But then the two gentlemen withdraw from the interview – they send a text message to let us know. They say that they are doing so partly because they don’t want to be photographed and partly because there is unrest in the area at the moment; a person was killed last night in one of a series of xenophobic murders and attacks that have spread like a plague through South Africa during the past month. The atmosphere in the area is tense and it might be dangerous for somebody who is conspicuously white to be there.
Parvez tries to coax them into a new meeting, but that, too, comes to nothing. There is no point in going, without a clear plan, to Cape Flats in the dark, just to have a look.
SOMEHOW the association Fighting for Lives, which started when Parvez Alam and a small group of combat sport fans in Turku arranged events to collect funds for street children, has grown into the world’s largest organisation in combat sports for street children. The organisation gathers resources for clinics, has built a school for street children in Kenya, takes children on excursions, provides them with food and clean water and teaches them combat sports. Combat sports give the children a feeling of physical integrity that they have never experienced, having slept, perhaps, under a bridge for the last five years; and the sport provides them with an opportunity to defend themselves against adults who often try to abuse them sexually. At the moment the organisation is active in Indonesia, Sierra Leone, Kenya, Ghana and Malaysia. The film star Cecep Arif Rahman, who features in Raid 2 and plays a role in the new Star Wars film participates in the activities of Fighting for Lives.
Parvez began his charity work in the field of combat sports by teaching groups in his own children’s primary school. First he taught them what he knew; that is, various types of East Asian knife-based fighting methods. Then he realised that this was perhaps not the best thing to teach to primary school children, so he turned instead to the Brazilian combat sport capoeira, which contains quite a lot of acrobatic dance elements and is thus fun for children. Since then, Parvez has learnt to combine a number of various combat styles. He and his Fighting for Lives troupe often teach street children self-preservation tactics under the name of Raw Combat.
PARVEZ ALAM’S parents originally came from Bangladesh. They moved to England in the 1960s. Parvez was born in 1975 in Dorchester, Dorset. He tells me about his childhood while we walk along the dark streets. He does not want me to write much about it. He wants me to avoid the adjectives that spontaneously come to me when I try to succinctly describe his childhood in a sentence that is not too revealing, but sufficiently suggestive. Parvez Alam’s childhood was, to a large extent, characterised by the fact that he was the only one in the neighbourhood with an Asian ethnic background. He learnt to fight. He got deeply involved with the underworld – which became his home for a few years. His situation did not look good.
One way of freeing himself from that situation was skateboarding. He trained a lot. He also got help from friends who were Muslims. Their Muslim faith helped them to control themselves and maintain their dignity in difficult circumstances. At the age of 19, Parvez had a contract as a professional skateboarder representing Great Britain. He was at a warm-up event for a competition in Northampton: as the participants were doing their trial runs on the ramp, one misread the situation and left his board in the way of Parvez who at that moment was in the air above the ramp. Parvez crashed into the board, and fell five or six metres, landing on his neck, prolapsing two cervical discs and exploding one. He was paralysed from the neck down.
The surgeons who operated on him happened to be among the best neurosurgeons in Europe. Parvez would have been permanently paralysed had they not tried a method which was experimental at that point and involved taking material from his hip bone and connecting it with his vertebrae by operating through a cut in his throat. After lying for two weeks in hospital he could not take it any more. Rising from his bed, he walked out of the ward and into the city without letting the staff know. He didn’t know how to take the support collar off.
Skateboarding was his only plan before the accident; after the accident he continued skateboarding but also took up studying again. He was admitted to a college where he read biosciences – and received the highest grades in all the exams. Due to very weighty family reasons he missed his last examination and was expelled before graduating. He changed to another college and entered onto a course in building and materials technology. His old college phoned up when they realised they had expelled one of their top students. They wanted to offer him the opportunity to return. Parvez told them to go to hell. He completed his studies and started working.
“While finishing my doctoral thesis I suddenly realised how lucky I had been in having that team of surgeons operate on me. Otherwise I would be paralysed now. And I also realised how badly I’d behaved by just walking out without thanking those who had saved me. I dedicated my thesis to the surgeon who had led my operation team. I travelled to the hospital and gave him the thesis personally. We had a good long conversation.”
BIOSAMPLING. In the morning we drive out toward the Cape Point National Park but avoid the official entrances. We find a place right by the sea. Out on the point we see penguins gathered on the beach. This time Parvez is not looking for anything in particular. He just wants to see what he might find. We take off our shoes. In front of us the Atlantic is breaking against the cliffs in foamy waves. Parvez immediately identifies a number of organisms on the cliffs.
At the moment Parvez Alam is leading or participating in 15 different projects within the natural sciences. All 15 projects are in various phases of development. Some of them are at an advanced stage while others have just commenced or are waiting for the time, money and right circumstances to combine in order to be activated again.
One of the ideas he is working on is related to coastal environments and is inspired by corals and sponges. Corals are animals with soft bodies and organs that produce a skeleton of biominerals as a protective shield against its surroundings. Sponges are similar to corals, but they create spicules of glass which form a defence against predators, as well as the pressure of living underwater, and this enables them to anchor onto the sea bottom. The spicules provide the organism with a structural stability and the ability to fasten onto stones.
“I have a third article within this project which has been published in the journal Composites Part A.”
One of the reasons why Parvez is interested in these organisms is that a problem with green engineering is that it becomes less green when it is applied on an industrial scale. Achieving the specific characteristics of the material to be produced requires the use of energy and chemicals. What Parvez has explored is the production of natural fibres and natural fibre composites – and how materials can be fastened to the composite matrix. Corals and sponges strengthen and stiffen their bodies by using silica, calcium carbonate and proteins. Silica and calcium carbonate exist everywhere; they are among nature’s most common building blocks. No harmful effects are associated with either of these materials.
“Somehow corals and sponges manage to create these materials at room temperature and in sea temperatures. My question is why we shouldn’t be able to copy this process,” Parvez shouts over the noise of the waves.
Preliminary data from experiments conducted by Parvez’s natural fibre/composite group show the following: By using a specific amino-acid for making a model of the crystallisation and a model of how calcium carbonate grows on natural fibres, they achieve a one hundred per cent improvement of the durability of the composite in question. And this is, literally, only the beginning. This is one of the numerous projects that Parvez has applied for funding for over many years – with no great success. His basic assumption is that nature has organised things in the most appropriate way, and what we need to do is find ways of decoding its processes. And these processes are totally green, in the concept’s fundamental sense: they do not require any extra added energy and the chemicals they use are harmless minerals.
Parvez’s group in the natural fibre project has achieved good results. They have managed to grow glass on natural fibres by using unicellular organisms – without adding any extra energy. They have simply let the organism do its job. Nobody else on the planet has so far succeeded in doing this. The basic problem with other methods for transferring glass onto natural fibres is that glass melts at 1,500 degrees Celsius. The fibres will have decomposed long before that temperature is reached. But Parvez’s group has overcome this problem.
The three basic characteristics achieved by growing natural glass onto natural fibres are increased strength, stiffness, and topographical features which enable it to fasten onto other materials. The process Parvez’s group has developed is biologically degradable from its raw materials to the final product. The material created can be used in various types of green high-performing composite materials, purposes for which conventional fibre glass and carbon fibre – two materials which are not environmentally friendly, particularly not fibre glass – are currently used.
Another of Parvez’s fifteen project areas which are connected to coastal and marine organisms is bioadhesives. Bioadhesives are of interest in wound healing, but also within materials science in order to attach different materials to each other. To illustrate this he tries to pull a limpet off a cliff. To no avail. He tries again, very carefully, with another limpet before it has time to react to his presence. No success this time, either. He pulls with all his strength – to no effect. He tries to pry it loose with a sharp stone. The limpet stays put.
“As you can see, bioadhesives are potent. On top of that, these geezers cling to the surface when they sense somebody is near them. It’s called Stefan Adhesion; a combination of clinging ability and slime. And this slime is simply made up of polysaccharides – in other words, nothing disgusting.”
He tries to pry the limpet loose again.
“I’m not giving up until I get one of these loose.”
He doesn’t manage to loosen any of them. Eventually he finds a floating limpet in a puddle. Triumphantly he picks it up. We move on along the cliffs and find a small pool, a place where sea water has gathered between the boulders. Small fish are swimming in the clear water. Various types of algae are growing on the stones and along the bottom. Parvez lays down on one of the boulders and tries to see underneath it. He exclaims happily:
“Come over here and take a look at this guy!”
When I lie down flat on my stomach, support myself against a cliff wall on the opposite side and lower my head towards the water I can see a bright lilac coloured sea urchin.
“Don’t touch it,” Parvez shouts.
He runs to get a few sticks to use for lifting out the urchin. On the second try he manages to get it out of the pool. He lays it down on the cliff in front of us and bends down on his knees to study it.
“That was an amazing piece of luck, wasn’t it? But you must be careful – some of these are venomous.”
He touches it with his bare hand, but quickly pulls back.
“There you go – I just touched it lightly, but that was enough. Some of these have, as I say, quite a potent neurotoxin in them.”
He continues studying the urchin, happy as larry, although his left hand is slowly numbing.
“I don’t know what to do with this one. I didn’t come here to get this chap specifically, so I don’t feel like taking it out, because then it’ll die. I’ll look at it for a while and then put it back where it was, minding its own business.”
BACK AT the university Parvez takes out his laptop, which he calls The Beast. It is powerful enough for running advanced molecular simulations. He is going to show me what the molecular structure of cobwebs looks like. Cobweb research was the first area in which he was given a grant.
Cobweb research can be used, among other things, to make wound-healing material, to make composites for biomedical use based on the molecular structure of cobwebs, and for other types of composites for use in almost any area.
The third article that Alam’s group published on cobwebs was submitted directly after a research group in Panama had published an article in Nature Scientific Reports which demonstrated that cobwebs actually move towards insects flying in, and take hold of them.
The group showed that an electric charge in the insect’s body triggers the web, which is pulled towards the insect when it is close enough.
“We weren’t even aware that these people in Panama existed or that they worked on something similar. Our study differs from theirs in that our work shows how this functions at the molecular level. The molecules in the web organise themselves so that the cobweb stiffens and becomes immensely strong because of the electric charge carried by the approaching insect. This is why the web is not damaged when the insect hits it. When looking at a cobweb in slow motion it looks like it’s a living organism.”
Parvez’s group carried out its study using Molecular Dynamic Simulation (MDS), which is based on the principles for how the atoms in individual molecules behave when exposed to various types of influence, primarily electrostatic forces.
The simulation showed that when the cobweb molecules are exposed to an electric charge, they stretch themselves out because of the electric chain reaction.
“Our hypothesis concerning the durability of cobwebs pertains to this stretching effect. We checked out beta sheets, that is, organised secondary structures that cause crystals to form in biopolymers. We checked the polyalanine segments that form the beta sheets. We checked the hydrogen connections which are electrostatic secondary forces – in cobwebs large numbers of these emerge.”
There are seven different types of cobweb. The flagelliform type is a gluey web which forms the radial web. It has a high yield stress and is very glutinous. Parvez’s group identified the amino-acids that render this web type gluey and, based on that data, they constructed a biological adhesive for wound healing by introducing the material with bacteriological nanocrystals.
“By controlling the amino-acids we can adjust the characteristics of the composite adhesive.”
In cooperation with a colleague at the University of Turku Parvez is working on a project which aims at connecting two different types of cobweb in order to combine the stiff qualities with the adhesive qualities – this would be a material that does not exist in nature. This kind of bioscience is called synthetic biology. Here, too, the purpose would be to construct improved biomaterial for the healing of wounds.
Currently Parvez himself is trying to understand the SCD elements in cobwebs. SCD stands for semi-crystalline domains. Since the 1970s five scientific studies have been published, all of which are based on the hypothesis that the SCDs are crucial for the durability of cobwebs.
“The various kinds of cobwebs are classified into three different durability types: hard, soft and medium-hard.”
“As far as I know nobody has ever seriously studied how these SCDs are formed in cobwebs. I have a few hypotheses that I’m exploring. The first one is that SCD is formed in the connection between the crystals. The crystals influence the amorphous materials so that they turn into crystals and vice versa.”
“My second theory is that if the crystals shear over each other, SCD is formed.”
“It’s this third phase of a cobweb that gives it its huge capacity to absorb energy.”
WHEN PARVEZ Alam travels, he always takes with him his powerful laptop, and when going to third-world countries he also brings along another laptop so that students can use both his computers.
“What they don’t have a lot of in the third world is good computers.”
According to him travelling to different places in the world, and above all outside of the Western world, gives perspectives that are necessary for a scientist. In other cultures one encounters different ways of thinking, and very different conditions for both everyday life and research. Different points of departure create alternative approaches to problems.
“I believe that one way of opening your eyes in your job as a scientist is to travel, to not just stay in Finland and attend a conference every now and then. I believe you develop your creativity by working in different cultures.”
“It’s not about any spiritual journey, although it might include that, and for me it has included that aspect, too. It’s about there being such an enormous amount of uncommitted and unused talent waiting to be discovered. What I meant when I said that you encounter different ways of thinking, is that scientists in the third world are often very free in their thinking and not committed to certain structures in the way we are. Of course, they have all kinds of problems, both in their organisations and in the lack of material and equipment, but they often have an open curiosity, thanks to which they might find very interesting and unexpected solutions within basic research, in discovering new areas, applications and in improvising when it comes to equipment and processes. They often find that science is fun.”
“Has your Muslim faith ever created an obstacle for you as a scientist?”
“Islam has never been a problem for me as a scientist. However, what is a big problem is industrially-oriented thinking; the subordination of science to money, which in detail regulates what we should do research on.”
“There are a number of prejudices and perceptions concerning what religiosity must entail. Such as, for instance, that you cannot believe in evolution if you’re religious or Muslim. Evolution is an area where everybody thinks they’re experts. And there is a fundamental view of the role of evolution in the history of science. When people have read something by Charles Darwin they think they’ve reached point zero. They know nothing of what was going on much earlier. As if people hadn’t been able to think and make observations before that. And nobody seems to know philosophers such as Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) who described human development phase by phase and hypothesised that humans originated from apes, or Al Jahiz (776–868) who actually sketched natural selection in a way similar to Darwin’s theory a thousand years before Darwin.”
“But speaking at a more general level, the lack of a philosophical background among natural scientists results in there being many researchers who are simply not able to think outside of the box, since they aren’t aware that they are in that box. To put it another way, they haven’t realised that their thinking, within science, is culturally limited to the society they live in and to their social circles. They are unable to see that there are questions and methods that they can’t even consider, since the framework for their thinking is too narrowly defined and, furthermore, they haven’t noticed that there is a framework in the first place.”
WE FINISH OFF the day by going into the countryside outside of Cape Town to see if we can find any venomous spiders. On the slopes scorched by forest fires Parvez pokes cobwebs and turns over decayed tree trunks. He finds no spiders. Nor any snakes. But he does find the skeleton of a wildcat. The skeleton fascinates him; he thinks we have been extremely lucky in finding it. He takes the cranium home with him.
Parvez Alam testing a cobweb, hoping to find an interesting spider.
Parvez Alam
1975 Born in Dorchester, Dorset, England.
1994 De Montfort University (biomedicine). Misses his last exam and does not complete his degree.
1996 Reaches the final in the English skateboarding championships in Northampton. Breaks his neck and is totally paralysed.
Recovers entirely after expert surgery.
1996 Bachelor’s Honours programme at the University of Bath (materials science).
1998 Works within product development at the building material company BPB Gypsum in East Leake Nottingham.
2004 Completes his doctoral degree in building engineering at the University of Bath.
2004 Having met his future wife Catharina in England, he moves with her to Finland. On his first day in Turku he is employed
within paper converting at Åbo Akademi University.
2012 Applies for and receives a grant from the foundation Ella och Georg Ehrnrooths stiftelse. Returns to biosciences.
Presentations of some of the research projects
News Bulletin Spring 2016
The coral reefs of the Baltic Sea
Small pharmaceuticals, great effects
New security threats challenge slow state bureaucracy
What damage is caused by long-term use of antidepressants?
Åbo Akademi University 100 years
Why is ice slippery?
© 2015 Kommunikationsenheten vid Åbo Akademi.
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An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
Author: Writer 35
INQUIRY INTO THE NATURE AND CAUSES
WEALTH OF NATIONS.
(Part 3: Book 5)
BOOK V.
OF THE REVENUE OF THE SOVEREIGN OR COMMONWEALTH.
CHAP. I.
Of the Expenses of the Sovereign or Commonwealth 289
Part I. Of the Expense of Defence ib.
Part II. Of the Expense of Justice 297
Part III. Of the Expense of Public Works and Public Institutions 302
Art. I. Of the Public Works and Institutions for facilitating the Commerce of Society.—1st, For facilitating the general Commerce of the Society.—2d, For facilitating particular Branches of Commerce 303
Art. II. Of the Expense of the Institutions for the Education of Youth 318
Art. III. Of the Expense of the Institutions for the Instruction of People of all Ages 330
Part IV. Of the Expense of supporting the Dignity of the Sovereign 342
Conclusion of the Chapter ib.
CHAP. II.
Of the Sources of the general or Public Revenue of the Society 343
Part I. Of the Funds or Sources of Revenue which may particularly belong to the Sovereign or Commonwealth ib.
Part II. Of Taxes 347
Art. I. Taxes upon rent; Taxes upon the Rent of Land 348
Taxes which are proportioned, not to the Rent, but to the Produce of Land 352
Taxes upon the Rent of Houses 354
Art. II. Taxes upon Profit, or upon the Revenue arising from Stock 357
Taxes upon the Profit of particular Employments 359
Appendix to Articles I. and II.—Taxes upon the Capital Value of Lands, Houses, and Stock 362
Art. III. Taxes upon the Wages of Labour 365
Art. IV. Taxes which, it is intended, should fall indifferently upon every different Species of Revenue 366
Capitation Taxes 367
Taxes upon consumable Commodities 368
CHAP. III.
Of Public Debts 385
[Pg 1]
THE NATURE AND CAUSES
[Pg 289]
OF THE EXPENSES OF THE SOVEREIGN OR COMMONWEALTH.
PART I.
Of the Expense of Defence.
The first duty of the sovereign, that of protecting the society from the violence and invasion of other independent societies, can be performed only by means of a military force. But the expense both of preparing this military force in time of peace, and of employing it in time of war, is very different in the different states of society, in the different periods of improvement.
Among nations of hunters, the lowest and rudest state of society, such as we find it among the native tribes of North America, every man is a warrior, as well as a hunter. When he goes to war, either to defend his society, or to revenge the injuries which have been done to it by other societies, he maintains himself by his own labour, in the same manner as when he lives at home. His society (for in this state of things there is properly neither sovereign nor commonwealth) is at no sort of expense, either to prepare him for the field, or to maintain him while he is in it.
Among nations of shepherds, a more advanced state of society, such as we find it among the Tartar and Arabs, every man is, in the same manner a warrior. Such nations have commonly no fixed habitation, but live either in tents, or in a sort of covered wagons, which are easily transported from place to place. The whole tribe, or nation, changes its situation according to the different seasons of the year, as well as according to other accidents. When its herds and flocks have consumed the forage of one part of the country, it removes to another, and from that to a third. In the dry season, it comes down to the banks of the rivers; in the wet season, it retires to the upper country. When such a nation goes to war, the warriors will not trust their herds and flocks to the feeble defence of their old men, their women and children; and their old men, their women and children, will not be left behind without defence, and without subsistence. The whole nation, besides, being accustomed to a wandering life, even in time of peace, easily takes the field in time of war. Whether it marches as an army, or moves about as a company of herdsmen, the way of life is nearly the same, though the object proposed by it be very different. They all go to war together, therefore, and every one does as well as he can. Among the Tartars, even the women have been frequently known to engage in battle. If they conquer, whatever belongs to the hostile tribe is the recompence of the victory; but if they are vanquished, all is lost; and not only their herds and flocks, but their women and children, become the booty of the conqueror. Even the greater part of those who survive the action are obliged to submit to him for the sake of immediate subsistence. The rest are commonly dissipated and dispersed in the desert.
The ordinary life, the ordinary exercise of a Tartar or Arab, prepare him sufficiently for war. Running, wrestling, cudgel-playing, throwing the javelin, drawing the bow, &c. are the common pastimes of those who live in the open air, and are all of them the images of war. When a Tartar or Arab actually goes to war, he is maintained by his own herds and flocks, which he carries with him, in the same manner as in peace. His chief or sovereign (for those nations have all[Pg 290] chiefs or sovereigns) is at no sort of expense in preparing him for the field; and when he is in it, the chance of plunder is the only pay which he either expects or requires.
An army of hunters can seldom exceed two or three hundred men. The precarious subsistence which the chace affords, could seldom allow a greater number to keep together for any considerable time. An army of shepherds, on the contrary, may sometimes amount to two or three hundred thousand. As long as nothing stops their progress, as long as they can go on from one district, of which they have consumed the forage, to another, which is yet entire; there seems to be scarce any limit to the number who can march on together. A nation of hunters can never be formidable to the civilized nations in their neighbourhood; a nation of shepherds may. Nothing can be more contemptible than an Indian war in North America; nothing, on the contrary, can be more dreadful than a Tartar invasion has frequently been in Asia. The judgement of Thucydides, that both Europe and Asia could not resist the Scythians united, has been verified by the experience of all ages. The inhabitants of the extensive, but defenceles plains of Scythia or Tartary, have been frequently united under the dominion of the chief of some conquering horde or clan; and the havock and devastation of Asia have always signalized their union. The inhabitants of the inhospitable deserts of Arabia, the other great nation of shepherds, have never been united but once, under Mahomet and his immediate successors. Their union, which was more the effect of religious enthusiasm than of conquest, was signalized in the same manner. If the hunting nations of America should ever become shepherds, their neighbourhood would be much more dangerous to the European colonies than it is at present.
In a yet more advanced state of society, among those nations of husbandmen who have little foreign commerce, and no other manufactures but those coarse and household ones, which almost every private family prepares for its own use, every man, in the same manner, either is a warrior, or easily becomes such. Those who live by agriculture generally pass the whole day in the open air, exposed to all the inclemencies of the seasons. The hardiness of their ordinary life prepares them for the fatigues of war, to some of which their necessary occupations bear a great analogy. The necessary occupation of a ditcher prepares him to work in the trenches, and to fortify a camp, as well as to inclose a field. The ordinary pastimes of such husbandmen are the same as those of shepherds, and are in the same manner the images of war. But as husbandmen have less leisure than shepherds, they are not so frequently employed in those pastimes. They are soldiers, but soldiers not quite so much masters of their exercise. Such as they are, however, it seldom costs the sovereign or commonwealth any expense to prepare them for the field.
Agriculture, even in its rudest and lowest state, supposes a settlement, some sort of fixed habitation, which cannot be abandoned without great loss. When a nation of mere husbandmen, therefore, goes to war, the whole people cannot take the field together. The old men, the women and children, at least, must remain at home, to take care of the habitation. All the men of the military age, however, may take the field, and in small nations of this kind, have frequently done so. In every nation, the men of the military age are supposed to amount to about a fourth or a fifth part of the whole body of the people. If the campaign, too, should begin after seed-time, and end before harvest, both the husbandman and his principal labourers can be spared from the farm without much loss. He trusts that the work which must be done in the mean time, can be well enough executed by the old men, the women, and the children. He is not unwilling, therefore, to serve without pay during a short campaign; and it frequently costs the sovereign or commonwealth as little to maintain him in the field as to prepare him for it. The citizens of all the different states of ancient Greece seem to have served in this manner till after the second Persian war; and the people of Peloponnesus till after the Peloponnesian war. The Peloponnesians, Thucydides observes, generally left the field in the summer, and returned home to reap the harvest. The Roman people, under their kings, and during the first ages of the republic, served in the same manner. It was not till the siege of Veii, that they who staid at home began to contribute something towards maintaining those who went to war. In the European monarchies, which were founded upon the ruins of the Roman empire, both before, and for some time after, the establishment of what is properly called the feudal law, the great lords, with all their immediate dependents, used to serve the crown at their own expense. In the field, in the same manner as at home, they maintained themselves by their own revenue, and not by any stipend or pay which they received from the king upon that particular occasion.
In a more advanced state of society, two different causes contribute to render it altogether impossible that they who take the field should maintain themselves at their own expense. Those two causes are, the progress of manufactures, and the improvement in the art of war.
Though a husbandman should be employed in an expedition, provided it begins after seed-time, and ends before harvest, the interruption of his business will not always occasion any[Pg 291] considerable diminution of his revenue. Without the intervention of his labour, Nature does herself the greater part of the work which remains to be done. But the moment that an artificer, a smith, a carpenter, or a weaver, for example, quits his workhouse, the sole source of his revenue is completely dried up. Nature does nothing for him; he does all for himself. When he takes the field, therefore, in defence of the public, as he has no revenue to maintain himself, he must necessarily be maintained by the public. But in a country, of which a great part of the inhabitants are artificers and manufacturers, a great part the people who go to war must be drawn from those classes, and must, therefore, be maintained by the public as long as they are employed in its service.
When the art of war, too, has gradually grown up to be a very intricate and complicated science; when the event of war ceases to be determined, as in the first ages of society, by a single irregular skirmish or battle; but when the contest is generally spun out through several different campaigns, each of which lasts during the greater part of the year; it becomes universally necessary that the public should maintain those who serve the public in war, at least while they are employed in that service. Whatever, in time of peace, might be the ordinary occupation of those who go to war, so very tedious and expensive a service would otherwise be by far too heavy a burden upon them. After the second Persian war, accordingly, the armies of Athens seem to have been generally composed of mercenary troops, consisting, indeed, partly of citizens, but partly, too, of foreigners; and all of them equally hired and paid at the expense of the state. From the time of the siege of Veii, the armies of Rome received pay for their service during the time which they remained in the field. Under the feudal governments, the military service, both of the great lords, and of their immediate dependents, was, after a certain period, universally exchanged for a payment in money, which was employed to maintain those who served in their stead.
The number of those who can go to war, in proportion to the whole number of the people, is necessarily much smaller in a civilized than in a rude state of society. In a civilized society, as the soldiers are maintained altogether by the labour of those who are not soldiers, the number of the former can never exceed what the latter can maintain, over and above maintaining, in a manner suitable to their respective stations, both themselves and the other officers of government and law, whom they are obliged to maintain. In the little agrarian states of ancient Greece, a fourth or a fifth part of the whole body of the people considered themselves as soldiers, and would sometimes, it is said, take the field. Among the civilized nations of modern Europe, it is commonly computed, that not more than the one hundredth part of the inhabitants of any country can be employed as soldiers, without ruin to the country which pays the expense of their service.
The expense of preparing the army for the field seems not to have become considerable in any nation, till long after that of maintaining it in the field had devolved entirely upon the sovereign or commonwealth. In all the different republics of ancient Greece, to learn his military exercises, was a necessary part of education imposed by the state upon every free citizen. In every city there seems to have been a public field, in which, under the protection of the public magistrate, the young people were taught their different exercises by different masters. In this very simple institution consisted the whole expense which any Grecian state seems ever to have been at, in preparing its citizens for war. In ancient Rome, the exercises of the Campus Martius answered the same purpose with those of the Gymnasium in ancient Greece. Under the feudal governments, the many public ordinances, that the citizens of every district should practise archery, as well as several other military exercises, were intended for promoting the same purpose, but do not seem to have promoted it so well. Either from want of interest in the officers entrusted with the execution of those ordinances, or from some other cause, they appear to have been universally neglected; and in the progress of all those governments, military exercises seem to have gone gradually into disuse among the great body of the people.
In the republic of ancient Greece and Rome, during the whole period of their existence, and under the feudal governments, for a considerable time after their first establishment, the trade of a soldier was not a separate, distinct trade, which constituted the sole or principal occupation of a particular class of citizens; every subject of the state, whatever might be the ordinary trade or occupation by which he gained his livelihood, considered himself, upon all ordinary occasions, as fit likewise to exercise the trade of a soldier, and, upon many extraordinary occasions, as bound to exercise it.
The art of war, however, as it is certainly the noblest of all arts, so, in the progress of improvement, it necessarily becomes one of most complicated among them. The state of the mechanical, as well as some other arts, with which it is necessarily connected, determines the degree of perfection to which it is capable of being carried at any particular time. But in order to carry it to this degree of perfection, it is necessary that it should become the sole or principal occupation of a particular class of citizens; and the division[Pg 292] of labour is as necessary for the improvement of this, as of every other art. Into other arts, the division of labour is naturally introduced by the prudence of individuals, who find that they promote their private interest better by confining themselves to a particular trade, than by exercising a great number. But it is the wisdom of the state only, which can render the trade of a soldier a particular trade, separate and distinct from all others. A private citizen, who, in time of profound peace, and without any particular encouragement from the public, should spend the greater part of his time in military exercises, might, no doubt, both improve himself very much in them, and amuse himself very well; but he certainly would not promote his own interest. It is the wisdom of the state only, which can render it for his interest to give up the greater part of his time to this peculiar occupation; and states have not always had this wisdom, even when their circumstances had become such, that the preservation of their existence required that they should have it.
A shepherd has a great deal of leisure; a husbandman, in the rude state of husbandry, has some; an artificer or manufacturer has none at all. The first may, without any loss, employ a great deal of his time in martial exercises; the second may employ some part of it; but the last cannot employ a single hour in them without some loss, and his attention to his own interest naturally leads him to neglect them altogether. Those improvements in husbandry, too, which the progress of arts and manufacturers necessarily introduces, leave the husbandman as little leisure as the artificer. Military exercises come to be as much neglected by the inhabitants of the country as by those of the town, and the great body of the people becomes altogether unwarlike. That wealth, at the same time, which always follows the improvements of agriculture and manufactures, and which, in reality, is no more than the accumulated produce of those improvements, provokes the invasion of all their neighbours. An industrious, and, upon that account, a wealthy nation, is of all nations the most likely to be attacked; and unless the states takes some new measure for the public defence, the natural habits of the people render them altogether incapable of defending themselves.
In these circumstances, there seem to be but two methods by which the state can make any tolerable provision for the public defence.
If may either, first, by means of a very rigorous police, and in spite of the whole bent of the interest, genius, and inclinations of the people, enforce the practice of military exercises, and oblige either all the citizens of the military age, or a certain number of them, to join in some measure the trade of a soldier to whatever other trade or profession they may happen to carry on.
Or, secondly, by maintaining and employing a certain number of citizens in the constant practice of military exercises, it may render the trade of a soldier a particular trade, separate and distinct from all others.
If the state has recourse to the first of those two expedients, its military force is said to consist in a militia; if to the second, it is said to consist in a standing army. The practice of military exercises is the sole or principal occupation of the soldiers of a standing army, and the maintenance or pay which the state affords them is the principal and ordinary fund of their subsistence. The practice of military exercises is only the occasional occupation of the soldiers of a militia, and they derive the principal and ordinary fund of their subsistence from some other occupation. In a militia, the character of the labourer, artificer, or tradesman, predominates over that of the soldier; in a standing army, that of the soldier predominates over every other character; and in this distinction seems to consist the essential difference between those two different species of military force.
Militias have been of several different kinds. In some countries, the citizens destined for defending the state seem to have been exercised only, without being, if I may say so, regimented; that is, without being divided into separate and distinct bodies of troops, each of which performed its exercises under its own proper and permanent officers. In the republics of ancient Greece and Rome, each citizen, as long as he remained at home, seems to have practiced his exercises, either separately and independently, or with such of his equals as he liked best; and not to have been attached to any particular body of troops, till he was actually called upon to take the field. In other countries, the militia has not only been exercised, but regimented. In England, in Switzerland, and, I believe, in every other country of modern Europe, where any imperfect military force of this kind has been established, every militiaman is, even in time of peace, attached to a particular body of troops, which performs its exercises under its own proper and permanent officers.
Before the invention of fire-arms, that army was superior in which the soldiers had, each individually, the greatest skill and dexterity in the use of their arms. Strength and agility of body were of the highest consequence, and commonly determined the fate of battles. But this skill and dexterity in the use of their arms could be acquired only, in the same manner as fencing is at present, by practising, not in great bodies, but each man separately, in a particular school, under a particular master, or with his own particular equals and companions. Since the invention of [Pg 293]fire-arms, strength and agility of body, or even extraordinary dexterity and skill in the use of arms, though they are far from being of no consequence, are, however, of less consequence. The nature of the weapon, though it by no means puts the awkward upon a level with the skilful, puts him more nearly so than he ever was before. All the dexterity and skill, it is supposed, which are necessary for using it, can be well enough acquired by practising in great bodies.
Regularity, order, and prompt obedience to command, are qualities which, in modern armies, are of more importance towards determining the fate of battles, than the dexterity and skill of the soldiers in the use of their arms. But the noise of fire-arms, the smoke, and the invisible death to which every man feels himself every moment exposed, as soon as he comes within cannon-shot, and frequently a long time before the battle can be well said to be engaged, must render it very difficult to maintain any considerable degree of this regularity, order, and prompt obedience, even in the beginning of a modern battle. In an ancient battle, there was no noise but what arose from the human voice; there was no smoke, there was no invisible cause of wounds or death. Every man, till some mortal weapon actually did approach him, saw clearly that no such weapon was near him. In these circumstances, and among troops who had some confidence in their own skill and dexterity in the use of their arms, it must have been a good deal less difficult to preserve some degree of regularity and order, not only in the beginning, but through the whole progress of an ancient battle, and till one of the two armies was fairly defeated. But the habits of regularity, order, and prompt obedience to command, can be acquired only by troops which are exercised in great bodies.
A militia, however, in whatever manner it may be either disciplined or exercised, must always be much inferior to a well disciplined and well exercised standing army.
The soldiers who are exercised only once a-week, or once a-month, can never be so expert in the use of their arms, as those who are exercised every day, or every other day; and though this circumstance may not be of so much consequence in modern, as it was in ancient times, yet the acknowledged superiority of the Prussian troops, owing, it is said, very much to their superior expertness in their exercise, may satisfy us that it is, even at this day, of very considerable consequence.
The soldiers, who are bound to obey their officer only once a-week, or once a-month, and who are at all other times at liberty to manage their own affairs their own way, without being, in any respect, accountable to him, can never be under the same awe in his presence, can never have the same disposition to ready obedience, with those whose whole life and conduct are every day directed by him, and who every day even rise and go to bed, or at least retire to their quarters, according to his orders. In what is called discipline, or in the habit of ready obedience, a militia must always be still more inferior to a standing army, than it may sometimes be in what is called the manual exercise, or in the management and use of its arms. But, in modern war, the habit of ready and instant obedience is of much greater consequence than a considerable superiority in the management of arms.
Those militias which, like the Tartar or Arab militia, go to war under the same chieftains whom they are accustomed to obey in peace, are by far the best. In respect for their officers, in the habit of ready obedience, they approach nearest to standing armies. The Highland militia, when it served under its own chieftains, had some advantage of the same kind. As the Highlanders, however, were not wandering, but stationary shepherds, as they had all a fixed habitation, and were not, in peaceable times, accustomed to follow their chieftain from place to place; so, in time of war, they were less willing to follow him to any considerable distance, or to continue for any long time in the field. When they had acquired any booty, they were eager to return home, and his authority was seldom sufficient to detain them. In point of obedience, they were always much inferior to what is reported of the Tartars and Arabs. As the Highlanders, too, from their stationary life, spend less of their time in the open air, they were always less accustomed to military exercises, and were less expert in the use of their arms than the Tartars and Arabs are said to be.
A militia of any kind, it must be observed, however, which has served for several successive campaigns in the field, becomes in every respect a standing army. The soldiers are every day exercised in the use of their arms, and, being constantly under the command of their officers, are habituated to the same prompt obedience which takes place in standing armies. What they were before they took the field, is of little importance. They necessarily become in every respect a standing army, after they have passed a few campaigns in it. Should the war in America drag out through another campaign, the American militia may become, in every respect, a match for that standing army, of which the valour appeared, in the last war at least, not inferior to that of the hardiest veterans of France and Spain.
This distinction being well understood, the history of all ages, it will be found, bears testimony to the irresistible superiority which a well regulated standing army has over a militia.[Pg 294]
One of the first standing armies, of which we have any distinct account in any well authenticated history, is that of Philip of Macedon. His frequent wars with the Thracians, Illyrians, Thessalians, and some of the Greek cities in the neighbourhood of Macedon, gradually formed his troops, which in the beginning were probably militia, to the exact discipline of a standing army. When he was at peace, which he was very seldom, and never for any long time together, he was careful not to disband that army. It vanquished and subdued, after a long and violent struggle, indeed, the gallant and well exercised militias of the principal republics of ancient Greece; and afterwards, with very little struggle, the effeminate and ill exercised militia of the great Persian empire. The fall of the Greek republics, and of the Persian empire was the effect of the irresistible superiority which a standing army has over every other sort of militia. It is the first great revolution in the affairs of mankind of which history has preserved any distinct and circumstantial account.
The fall of Carthage, and the consequent elevation of Rome, is the second. All the varieties in the fortune of those two famous republics may very well be accounted for from the same cause.
From the end of the first to the beginning of the second Carthaginian war, the armies of Carthage were continually in the field, and employed under three great generals, who succeeded one another in the command; Amilcar, his son-in-law Asdrubal, and his son Annibal: first in chastising their own rebellious slaves, afterwards in subduing the revolted nations of Africa; and lastly, in conquering the great kingdom of Spain. The army which Annibal led from Spain into Italy must necessarily, in those different wars, have been gradually formed to the exact discipline of standing army. The Romans, in the meantime, though they had not been altogether at peace, yet they had not, during this period, been engaged in any war of very great consequence; and their military discipline, it is generally said, was a good deal relaxed. The Roman armies which Annibal encountered at Trebi, Thrasymenus, and Cannæ, were militia opposed to a standing army. This circumstance, it is probable, contributed more than any other to determine the fate of those battles.
The standing army which Annibal left behind him in Spain had the like superiority over the militia which the Romans sent to oppose it; and, in a few years, under the command of his brother, the younger Asdrubal, expelled them almost entirely from that country.
Annibal was ill supplied from home. The Roman militia, being continually in the field, became, in the progress of the war, a well disciplined and well exercised standing army; and the superiority of Annibal grew every day less and less. Asdrubal judged it necessary to lead the whole, or almost the whole, of the standing army which he commanded in Spain, to the assistance of his brother in Italy. In this march, he is said to have been misled by his guides; and in a country which he did not know, was surprised and attacked, by another standing army, in every respect equal or superior to his own, and was entirely defeated.
When Asdrubal had left Spain, the great Scipio found nothing to oppose him but a militia inferior to his own. He conquered and subdued that militia, and, in the course of the war, his own militia necessarily became a well disciplined and well exercised standing army. That standing army was afterwards carried to Africa, where it found nothing but a militia to oppose it. In order to defend Carthage, it became necessary to recal the standing army of Annibal. The disheartened and frequently defeated African militia joined it, and, at the battle of Zama, composed the greater part of the troops of Annibal. The event of that day determined the fate of the two rival republics.
From the end of the second Carthaginian war till the fall of the Roman republic, the armies of Rome were in every respect standing armies. The standing army of Macedon made some resistance to their arms. In the height of their grandeur, it cost them two great wars, and three great battles, to subdue that little kingdom, of which the conquest would probably have been still more difficult, had it not been for the cowardice of its last king. The militias of all the civilized nations of the ancient word, of Greece, of Syria, and of Egypt, made but a feeble resistance to the standing armies of Rome. The militias of some barbarous nations defended themselves much better. The Scythian or Tartar militia, which Mithridates drew from the countries north of the Euxine and Caspian seas, were the most formidable enemies whom the Romans had to encounter after the second Carthaginian war. The Parthian and German militias, too, were always respectable, and upon several occasions, gained very considerable advantages over the Roman armies. In general, however, and when the Roman armies were well commanded, they appear to have been very much superior; and if the Romans did not pursue the final conquest either of Parthia or Germany, it was probably because they judged that it was not worth while to add those two barbarous countries to an empire which was already too large. The ancient Parthians appear to have been a nation of Scythian or Tartar extraction, and to have always retained a good deal of the manners of their ancestors. The ancient Germans were, like the Scythians or Tartars, a[Pg 295] nation of wandering shepherds, who went to war under the same chiefs whom they were accustomed to follow in peace. Their militia was exactly of the same kind with that of the Scythians or Tartars, from whom, too, they were probably descended.
Many different causes contributed to relax the discipline of the Roman armies. Its extreme severity was, perhaps, one of those causes. In the days of their grandeur, when no enemy appeared capable of opposing them, their heavy armour was laid aside as unnecessarily burdensome, their laborious exercises were neglected, as unnecessarily toilsome. Under the Roman emperors, besides, the standing armies of Rome, those particularly which guarded the German and Pannonian frontiers, became dangerous to their masters, against whom they used frequently to set up their own generals. In order to render them less formidable, according to some authors, Dioclesian, according to others, Constantine, first withdrew them from the frontier, where they had always before been encamped in great bodies, generally of two or three legions each, and dispersed them in small bodies through the different provincial towns, from whence they were scarce ever removed, but when it became necessary to repel an invasion. Small bodies of soldiers, quartered in trading and manufacturing towns, and seldom removed from those quarters, became themselves tradesmen, artificers, and manufacturers. The civil came to predominate over the military character; and the standing armies of Rome gradually degenerated into a corrupt, neglected, and undisciplined militia, incapable of resisting the attack of the German and Scythian militias, which soon afterwards invaded the western empire. It was only by hiring the militia of some of those nations to oppose to that of others, that the emperors were for some time able to defend themselves. The fall of the western empire is the third great revolution in the affairs of mankind, of which ancient history has preserved any distinct or circumstantial account. It was brought about by the irresistible superiority which the militia of a barbarous has over that of a civilized nation; which the militia of a nation of shepherds has over that of a nation of husbandmen, artificers, and manufacturers. The victories which have been gained by militias have generally been, not over standing armies, but over other militias, in exercise and discipline inferior to themselves. Such were the victories which the Greek militia gained over that of the Persian empire; and such, too, were those which, in later times, the Swiss militia gained over that of the Austrians and Burgundians.
The military force of the German and Scythian nations, who established themselves upon the ruins of the western empire, continued for some time to be of the same kind in their new settlements, as it had been in their original country. It was a militia of shepherds and husbandmen, which, in time of war, took the field under the command of the same chieftains whom it was accustomed to obey in peace. It was, therefore, tolerably well exercised, and tolerably well disciplined. As arts and industry advanced, however, the authority of the chieftains gradually decayed, and the great body of the people had less time to spare for military exercises. Both the discipline and the exercise of the feudal militia, therefore, went gradually to ruin, and standing armies were gradually introduced to supply the place of it. When the expedient of a standing army, besides, had once been adopted by one civilized nation, it became necessary that all its neighbors should follow the example. They soon found that their safety depended upon their doing so, and that their own militia was altogether incapable of resisting the attack of such an army.
The soldiers of a standing army, though they may never have seen an enemy, yet have frequently appeared to possess all the courage of veteran troops, and, the very moment that they took the field, to have been fit to face the hardiest and most experienced veterans. In 1756, when the Russian army marched into Poland, the valour of the Russian soldiers did not appear inferior to that of the Prussians, at that time supposed to be the hardiest and most experienced veterans in Europe. The Russian empire, however, had enjoyed a profound peace for near twenty years before, and could at that time have very few soldiers who had ever seen an enemy. When the Spanish war broke out in 1739, England had enjoyed a profound peace for about eight-and-twenty years. The valour of her soldiers, however, far from being corrupted by that long peace, was never more distinguished than in the attempt upon Carthagena, the first unfortunate exploit of that unfortunate war. In a long peace, the generals, perhaps, may sometimes forget their skill; but where a well regulated standing army has been kept up, the soldiers seem never to forget their valour.
When a civilized nation depends for its defence upon a militia, it is at all times exposed to be conquered by any barbarous nation which happens to be in its neighbourhood. The frequent conquests of all the civilized countries in Asia by the Tartars, sufficiently demonstrates the natural superiority which the militia of a barbarous has over that of a civilized nation. A well regulated standing army is superior to every militia. Such an army, as it can best be maintained by an opulent and civilized nation, so it can alone defend such a nation against the invasion of a poor and barbarous neighbour. It is only by means of a standing army, therefore, that the civilization of any[Pg 296] country can be perpetuated, or even preserved, for any considerable time.
As it is only by means of a well regulated standing army, that a civilized country can be defended, so it is only by means of it that a barbarous country can be suddenly and tolerably civilised. A standing army establishes, with an irresistible force, the law of the sovereign through the remotest provinces of the empire, and maintains some degree of regular government in countries which could not otherwise admit of any. Whoever examines with attention, the improvements which Peter the Great introduced into the Russian empire, will find that they almost all resolve themselves into the establishment of a well regulated standing army. It is the instrument which executes and maintains all his other regulations. That degree of order and internal peace, which that empire has ever since enjoyed, is altogether owing to the influence of that army.
Men of republican principles have been jealous of a standing army, as dangerous to liberty. It certainly is so, wherever the interest of the general, and that of the principal officers, are not necessarily connected with the support of the constitution of the state. The standing army of Cæsar destroyed the Roman republic. The standing army of Cromwell turned the long parliament out of doors. But where the sovereign is himself the general, and the principal nobility and gentry of the country the chief officers of the army; where the military force is placed under the command of those who have the greatest interest in the support of the civil authority, because they have themselves the greatest share of that authority, a standing army can never be dangerous to liberty. On the contrary, it may, in some cases, be favourable to liberty. The security which it gives to the sovereign renders unnecessary that troublesome jealousy, which, in some modern republics, seems to watch over the minutest actions, and to be at all times ready to disturb the peace of every citizen. Where the security of the magistrate, though supported by the principal people of the country, is endangered by every popular discontent; where a small tumult is capable of bringing about in a few hours a great revolution, the whole authority of government must be employed to suppress and punish every murmur and complaint against it. To a sovereign, on the contrary, who feels himself supported, not only by the natural aristocracy of the country, but by a well regulated standing army, the rudest, the most groundless, and the must licentious remonstrances, can give little disturbance. He can safely pardon or neglect them, and his consciousness of his own superiority naturally disposes him to do so. That degree of liberty which approaches to licentiousness, can be tolerated only in countries where the sovereign is secured by a well regulated standing army. It is in such countries only, that the public safety does not require that the sovereign should be trusted with any discretionary power, for suppressing even the impertinent wantonness of this licentious liberty.
The first duty of the sovereign, therefore, that of defending the society from the violence and injustice of other independent societies, grows gradually more and more expensive, as the society advances in civilization. The military force of the society, which originally cost the sovereign no expense, either in time of peace, or in time of war, must, in the progress of improvement, first be maintained by him in time of war, and afterwards even in time of peace.
The great change introduced into the art of war by the invention of fire-arms, has enhanced still further both the expense of exercising and disciplining any particular number of soldiers in time of peace, and that of employing them in time of war. Both their arms and their ammunition are become more expensive. A musket is a more expensive machine than a javelin or a bow and arrows; a cannon or a mortar, than a balista or a catapulta. The powder which is spent in a modern review is lost irrecoverably, and occasions a very considerable expense. The javelins and arrows which were thrown or shot in an ancient one, could easily be picked up again, and were, besides, of very little value. The cannon and the mortar are not only much dearer, but much heavier machines than the balista or catapulta; and require a greater expense, not only to prepare them for the field, but to carry them to it. As the superiority of the modern artillery, too, over that of the ancients, is very grant; it has become much more difficult, and consequently much more expensive, to fortify a town, so as to resist, even for a few weeks, the attack of that superior artillery. In modern times, many different causes contribute to render the defence of the society more expensive. The unavoidable effects of the natural progress of improvement have, in this respect, been a good deal enhanced by a great revolution in the the art of war, to which a mere accident, the invention of gunpowder, seems to have given occasion.
In modern war, the great expense of fire-arms gives an evident advantage to the nation which can best afford that expense; and consequently, to an opulent and civilized, over a poor and barbarous nation. In ancient times, the opulent and civilized found it difficult to defend themselves against the poor and barbarous nations. In modern times, the poor and barbarous find it difficult to defend themselves against the opulent and[Pg 297] civilized. The invention of fire-arms, an invention which at first sight appears to be so pernicious, is certainly favourable, both to the permanency and to the extension of civilisation.
PART II.
Of the Expense of Justice.
The second duty of the sovereign, that of protecting, as far as possible, every member of the society from the injustice or oppression of every other member of it, or the duty of establishing an exact administration of justice, requires two very different degrees of expense in the different periods of society.
Among nations of hunters, as there is scarce any property, or at least none that exceeds the value of two or three days labour; so there is seldom any established magistrate, or any regular administration of justice. Men who have no property, can injure one another only in their persons or reputations. But when one man kills, wounds, beats, or defames another, though he to whom the injury is done suffers, he who does it receives no benefit. It is otherwise with the injuries to property. The benefit of the person who does the injury is often equal to the loss of him who suffers it. Envy, malice, or resentment, are the only passions which can prompt one man to injure another in his person or reputation. But the greater part of men are not very frequently under the influence of those passions; and the very worst men are so only occasionally. As their gratification, too, how agreeable soever it may be to certain characters, is not attended with any real or permanent advantage, it is, in the greater part of men, commonly restrained by prudential considerations. Men may live together in society with some tolerable degree of security, though there is no civil magistrate to protect them from the injustice of those passions. But avarice and ambition in the rich, in the poor the hatred of labour and the love of present ease and enjoyment, are the passions which prompt to invade property; passions much more steady in their operation, and much more universal in their influence. Wherever there is a great property, there is great inequality. For one very rich man, there must be at least five hundred poor, and the affluence of the few supposes the indigence of the many. The affluence of the rich excites the indignation of the poor, who are often both driven by want, and prompted by envy to invade his possessions. It is only under the shelter of the civil magistrate, that the owner of that valuable property, which is acquired by the labour of many years, or perhaps of many successive generations, can sleep a single night in security. He is at all times surrounded by unknown enemies, whom, though he never provoked, he can never appease, and from whose injustice he can be protected only by the powerful arm of the civil magistrate, continually held up to chastise it. The requisition of valuable and extensive property, therefore, necessarily requires the establishment of civil government. Where there is no property, or at least none that exceeds the value of two or three days labour, civil government is not so necessary.
Civil government supposes a certain subordination. But as the necessity of civil government gradually grows up with the acquisition of valuable property, so the principal causes, which naturally introduce subordination, gradually grow up with the growth of that valuable property.
The causes or circumstances which naturally introduce subordination, or which naturally and antecedent to any civil institution, give some men some superiority over the greater part of their brethren, seem to be four in number.
The first of those causes or circumstances, is the superiority of personal qualifications, of strength, beauty, and agility of body; of wisdom and virtue of prudence, justice, fortitude, and moderation of mind. The qualifications of the body, unless supported by those of the mind, can give little authority in any period of society. He is a very strong man, who, by mere strength of body, can force two weak ones to obey him. The qualifications of the mind can alone give very great authority. They are however, invisible qualities; always disputable, and generally disputed. No society, whether barbarous or civilized, has ever found it convenient to settle the rules of precedency of rank and subordination, according to those invisible qualities; but according to something that is more plain and palpable.
The second of those causes or circumstances is the superiority of age. An old man, provided his age is not so far advanced as to give suspicion of dotage, is everywhere more respected than a young man of equal rank, fortune, and abilities. Among nations of hunters, such as the native tribes of North America, age is the sole foundation of rank and precedency. Among them, father is the appellation of a superior; brother, of an equal; and son, of an inferior. In the most opulent and civilized nations, age regulates rank among those who are in every other respect equal; and among whom, therefore, there is nothing else to regulate it. Among brothers and among sisters, the eldest always takes place; and in the succession of the paternal estate, every thing which cannot be divided, but must go entire to one person, such as a title of honour, is in most cases given to the eldest. Age is a plain and palpable quality, which admits of no dispute.[Pg 298]
The third of those causes or circumstances, is the superiority of fortune. The authority of riches, however, though great in every age of society, is, perhaps, greatest in the rudest ages of society, which admits of any considerable inequality of fortune. A Tartar chief, the increase of whose flocks and herds is sufficient to maintain a thousand men, cannot well employ that increase in any other way than in maintaining a thousand men. The rude state of his society does not afford him any manufactured produce; any trinkets or baubles of any kind, for which he can exchange that part of his rude produce which is over and above his own consumption. The thousand men whom he thus maintains, depending entirely upon him for their subsistence, must both obey his orders in war, and submit to his jurisdiction in peace. He is necessarily both their general and their judge, and his chieftainship is the necessary effect of the superiority of his fortune. In an opulent and civilized society, a man may possess a much greater fortune, and yet not be able to command a dozen of people. Though the produce of his estate may be sufficient to maintain, and may, perhaps, actually maintain, more than a thousand people, yet, as those people pay for every thing which they get from him, as he gives scarce any thing to any body but in exchange for an equivalent, there is scarce any body who considers himself as entirely dependent upon him, and his authority extends only over a few menial servants. The authority of fortune, however, is very great, even in an opulent and civilized society. That it is much greater than that either of age or of personal qualities, has been the constant complaint of every period of society which admitted of any considerable inequality of fortune. The first period of society, that of hunters, admits of no such inequality. Universal poverty establishes their universal equality; and the superiority, either of age or of personal qualities, are the feeble, but the sole foundations of authority and subordination. There is, therefore, little or no authority or subordination in this period of society. The second period of society, that of shepherds, admits of very great inequalities of fortune, and there is no period in which the superiority of fortune gives so great authority to those who possess it. There is no period, accordingly, in which authority and subordination are more perfectly established. The authority of an Arabian scherif is very great; that of a Tartar khan altogether despotical.
The fourth of those causes or circumstances, is the superiority of birth. Superiority of birth supposes an ancient superiority of fortune in the family of the person who claims it. All families are equally ancient; and the ancestors of the prince, though they may be better known, cannot well be more numerous than those of the beggar. Antiquity of family means everywhere the antiquity either of wealth, or of that greatness which is commonly either founded upon wealth, or accompanied with it. Upstart greatness is everywhere less respected than ancient greatness. The hatred of usurpers, the love of the family of an ancient monarch, are in a great measure founded open the contempt which men naturally have for the former, and upon their veneration for the latter. As a military officer submits, without reluctance, to the authority of a superior by whom he has always been commanded, but cannot bear that his inferior should be set over his head; so men easily submit to a family to whom they and their ancestors have always submitted; but are fired with indignation when another family, in whom they had never acknowledged any such superiority, assumes a dominion over them.
The distinction of birth, being subsequent to the inequality of fortune, can have no place in nations of hunters, among whom all men, being equal in fortune, must likewise be very nearly equal in birth. The son of a wise and brave man may, indeed, even among them, be somewhat more respected than a man of equal merit, who has the misfortune to be the son of a fool or a coward. The difference, however, will not be very great; and there never was, I believe, a great family in the world, whose illustration was entirely derived from the inheritance of wisdom and virtue.
The distinction of birth not only may, but always does, take place among nations of shepherds. Such nations are always strangers to every sort of luxury, and great wealth can scarce ever be dissipated among them by improvident profusion. There are no nations, accordingly, who abound more in families revered and honoured on account of their descent from a long race of great and illustrious ancestors; because there are no nations among whom wealth is likely to continue longer in the same families.
Birth and fortune are evidently the two circumstances which principally set one man above another. They are the two great sources of personal distinction, and are, therefore, the principal causes which naturally establish authority and subordination among men. Among nations of shepherds, both those causes operate with their full force. The great shepherd or herdsman, respected on account of his great wealth, and of the great number of those who depend upon him for subsistence, and revered on account of the nobleness of his birth, and of the immemorial antiquity of his illustrious family, has a natural authority over all the inferior shepherds or herdsmen of his horde or clan. He can command the united force of a greater number of people than any of them. His military power is greater than that of any of them. In time of[Pg 299] war, they are all of them naturally disposed to muster themselves under his banner, rather than under that of any other person; and his birth and fortune thus naturally procure to him some sort of executive power. By commanding, too, the united force of a greater number of people than any of them, he is best able to compel any one of them, who may have injured another, to compensate the wrong. He is the person, therefore, to whom all those who are too weak to defend themselves naturally look up for protection. It is to him that they naturally complain of the injuries which they imagine have been done to them; and his interposition, in such cases, is more easily submitted to, even by the person complained of, than that of any other person would be. His birth and fortune thus naturally procure him some sort of judicial authority.
It is in the age of shepherds, in the second period of society, that the inequality of fortune first begins to take place, and introduces among men a degree of authority and subordination, which could not possibly exist before. It thereby introduces some degree of that civil government which is indispensably necessary for its own preservation; and it seems to do this naturally, and even independent of the consideration of that necessity. The consideration of that necessity comes, no doubt, afterwards, to contribute very much to maintain and secure that authority and subordination. The rich, in particular, are necessarily interested to support that order of things, which can alone secure them in the possession of their own advantages. Men of inferior wealth combine to defend those of superior wealth in the possession of their property, in order that men of superior wealth may combine to defend them in the possession of theirs. All the inferior shepherds and herdsmen feel, that the security of their own herds and flocks depends upon the security of those of the great shepherd or herdsman; that the maintenance of their lesser authority depends upon that of his greater authority; and that upon their subordination to him depends his power of keeping their inferiors in subordination to them. They constitute a sort of little nobility, who feel themselves interested to defend the property, and to support the authority, of their own little sovereign, in order that he may be able to defend their property, and to support their authority. Civil government, so far as it is instituted for the security of property, is, in reality, instituted for the defence of the rich against the poor, or of those who have some property against those who have none at all.
The judicial authority of such a sovereign, however, far from being a cause of expense, was, for a long time, a source of revenue to him. The persons who applied to him for justice were always willing to pay for it, and a present never failed to accompany a petition. After the authority of the sovereign, too, was thoroughly established, the person found guilty, over and above the satisfaction which he was obliged to make to the party, was likewise forced to pay an amercement to the sovereign. He had given trouble, he had disturbed, he had broke the peace of his lord the king, and for those offences an amercement was thought due. In the Tartar governments of Asia, in the governments of Europe which were founded by the German and Scythian nations who overturned the Roman empire, the administration of justice was a considerable source of revenue, both to the sovereign, and to all the lesser chiefs or lords who exercised under him any particular jurisdiction, either over some particular tribe or clan, or over some particular territory or district. Originally, both the sovereign and the inferior chiefs used in exercise this jurisdiction in their own persons. Afterwards, they universally found it convenient to delegate it to some substitute, bailiff, or judge. This substitute, however, was still obliged to account to his principal or constituent for the profits of the jurisdiction. Whoever reads the instructions[47] which were given to the judges of the circuit in the time of Henry II. will see clearly that those judges were a sort of itinerant factors, sent round the country for the purpose of levying certain branches of the king's revenue. In those days, the administration of justice not only afforded a certain revenue to the sovereign, but, to procure this revenue, seems to have been one of the principal advantages which he proposed to obtain by the administration of justice.
This scheme of making the administration of justice subservient to the purposes of revenue, could scarce fail to be productive of several very gross abuses. The person who applied for justice with a large present in his hand, was likely to get something more than justice; while he who applied for it with a small one was likely to get something less. Justice, too, might frequently be delayed, in order that this present might be repeated. The amercement, besides, of the person complained of, might frequently suggest a very strong reason for finding him in the wrong, even when he had not really been so. That such abuses were far from being uncommon, the ancient history of every country in Europe bears witness.
When the sovereign or chief exercises his judicial authority in his own person, how much soever he might abuse it, it must have been scarce possible to get any redress; because there could seldom be any body powerful enough to call him to account. When he exercised it by a bailiff, indeed, redress might sometimes be had. If it was for his own be[Pg 300]nefit only, that the bailiff had been guilty of an act of injustice, the sovereign himself might not always be unwilling to punish him, or to oblige him to repair the wrong. But if it was for the benefit of his sovereign; if it was in order to make court to the person who appointed him, and who might prefer him, that he had committed any act of oppression; redress would, upon most occasions be as impossible as if the sovereign had committed it himself. In all barbarous governments, accordingly, in all those ancient governments of Europe in particular, which were founded upon the ruins of the Roman empire, the administration of justice appears for a long time to have been extremely corrupt; far from being quite equal and impartial, even under the best monarchs, and altogether profligate under the worst.
Among nations of shepherds, where the sovereign or chief is only the greatest shepherd or herdsman of the horde or clan, he is maintained in the same manner as any of his vassals or subjects, by the increase of his own herds or flocks. Among those nations of husbandmen, who are but just come out of the shepherd state, and who are not much advanced beyond that state, such as the Greek tribes appear to have been about the time of the Trojan war, and our German and Scythian ancestors, when they first settled upon the ruins of the western empire; the sovereign or chief is, in the same manner, only the greatest landlord of the country, and is maintained in the same manner as any other landlord, by a revenue derived from his own private estate, or from what, in modern Europe, was called the demesne of the crown. His subjects, upon ordinary occasions, contribute nothing to his support, except when, in order to protect them from the oppression of some of their fellow-subjects, they stand in need of his authority. The presents which they make him upon such occasions constitute the whole ordinary revenue, the whole of the emoluments which, except, perhaps, upon some very extraordinary emergencies, he derives from his dominion over them. When Agamemnon, in Homer, offers to Achilles, for his friendship, the sovereignty of seven Greek cities, the sole advantage which he mentions as likely to be derived from it was, that the people would honour him with presents. As long as such presents, as long as the emoluments of justice, or what may be called the fees of court, constituted, in this manner, the whole ordinary revenue which the sovereign derived from his sovereignty, it could not well be expected, it could not even decently be proposed, that he should give them up altogether. It might, and it frequently was proposed, that he should regulate and ascertain then. But after they had been so regulated and ascertained, how to hinder a person who was all-powerful from extending them beyond those regulations, was still very difficult, not to say impossible. During the continuance of this state of things, therefore, the corruption of justice, naturally resulting from the arbitrary and uncertain nature of those presents, scarce admitted of any effectual remedy.
But when, from different causes, chiefly from the continually increasing expense of defending the nation against the invasion of other nations, the private estate of the sovereign had become altogether insufficient for defraying the expense of the sovereignty; and when it had become necessary that the people should, for their own security, contribute towards this expense by taxes of different kinds; it seems to have been very commonly stipulated, that no present for the administration of justice should, under any pretence, be accepted either by the sovereign, or by his bailiffs and substitutes, the judges. Those presents, it seems to have been supposed, could more easily be abolished altogether, than effectually regulated and ascertained. Fixed salaries were appointed to the judges, which were supposed to compensate to them the loss of whatever might have been their share of the ancient emoluments of justice; as the taxes more than compensated to the sovereign the loss of his. Justice was then said to be administered gratis.
Justice, however, never was in reality administered gratis in any country. Lawyers and attorneys, at least, must always be paid by the parties; and if they were not, they would perform their duty still worse than they actually perform it. The fees annually paid to lawyers and attorneys, amount, in every court, to a much greater sum than the salaries of the judges. The circumstance of those salaries being paid by the crown, can nowhere much diminish the necessary expense of a law-suit. But it was not so much to diminish the expense, as to prevent the corruption of justice, that the judges were prohibited from receiving any present or fee from the parties.
The office of judge is in itself so very honourable, that men are willing to accept of it, though accompanied with very small emoluments. The inferior office of justice of peace, though attended with a good deal of trouble, and in most cases with no emoluments at all, is an object of ambition to the greater part of our country gentlemen. The salaries of all the different judges, high and low, together with the whole expense of the administration and execution of justice, even where it is not managed with very good economy, makes, in any civilized country, but a very inconsiderable part of the whole expense of government.
The whole expense of justice, too, might easily be defrayed by the fees of court; and, without exposing the administration of justice to any real hazard of corruption, the public[Pg 301] revenue might thus be entirely discharged from a certain, though perhaps but a small incumbrance. It is difficult to regulate the fees of court effectually, where a person so powerful as the sovereign is to share in them, and to derive any considerable part of his revenue from them. It is very easy, where the judge is the principal person who can reap any benefit from them. The law can very easily oblige the judge to respect the regulation, though it might not always be able to make the sovereign respect it. Where the fees of court are precisely regulated and ascertained; where they are paid all at once, at a certain period of every process, into the hands of a cashier or receiver, to be by him distributed in certain known proportions among the different judges after the process is decided, and not till it is decided; there seems to be no more danger of corruption than where such fees are prohibited altogether. Those fees, without occasioning any considerable increase in the expense of a law-suit, might be rendered fully sufficient for defraying the whole expense of justice. But not being paid to the judges till the process was determined, they might be some incitement to the diligence of the court in examining and deciding it. In courts which consisted of a considerable number of judges, by proportioning the share of each judge to the number of hours and days which he had employed in examining the process, either in the court, or in a committee, by order of the court, those fees might give some encouragement to the diligence of each particular judge. Public services are never better performed, than when their reward comes only in consequence of their being performed, and is proportioned to the diligence employed in performing them. In the different parliaments of France, the fees of court (called epices and vacations) constitute the far greater part of the emoluments of the judges. After all deductions are made, the neat salary paid by the crown to a counsellor or judge in the parliament of Thoulouse, in rank and dignity the second parliament of the kingdom, amounts only to 150 livres, about L.6. 11s. sterling a-year. About seven years ago, that sum was in the same place the ordinary yearly wages of a common footman. The distribution of these epices, too, is according to the diligence of the judges. A diligent judge gains a comfortable, though moderate revenue, by his office; an idle one gets little more than his salary. Those parliaments are, perhaps, in many respects, not very convenient courts of justice, but they have never been accused; they seem never even to have been suspected of corruption.
The fees of court seem originally to have been the principal support of the different courts of justice in England. Each court endeavoured to draw to itself as much business as it could, and was, upon that account, willing to take cognizance of many suits which were not originally intended to fall under its jurisdiction. The court of king's bench, instituted for the trial of criminal causes only, took cognizance of civil suits; the plaintiff pretending that the defendant, in not doing him justice, had been guilty of some trespass or misdemeanour. The court of exchequer, instituted for the levying of the king's revenue, and for enforcing the payment of such debts only as were due to the king, took cognizance of all other contract debts; the plaintiff alleging that he could not pay the king, because the defendant would not pay him. In consequence of such fictions, it came, in many cases, to depend altogether upon the parties, before what court they would choose to have their cause tried, and each court endeavoured, by superior dispatch and impartiality, to draw to itself as many causes as it could. The present admirable constitution of the courts of justice in England was, perhaps, originally, in a great measure, formed by this emulation, which anciently took place between their respective judges; each judge endeavouring to give, in his own court, the speediest and most effectual remedy which the law would admit, for every sort of injustice. Originally, the courts of law gave damages only for breach of contract. The court of chancery, as a court of conscience, first took upon it to enforce the specific performance of agreements. When the breach of contract consisted in the non-payment of money, the damage sustained could be compensated in no other way than by ordering payment, which was equivalent to a specific performance of the agreement. In such cases, therefore, the remedy of the courts of law was sufficient. It was not so in others. When the tenant sued his lord for having unjustly outed him of his lease, the damages which he recovered were by no means equivalent to the possession of the land. Such causes, therefore, for some time, went all to the court of chancery, to the no small loss of the courts of law. It was to draw back such causes to themselves, that the courts of law are said to have invented the artificial and fictitious writ of ejectment, the most effectual remedy for an unjust outer or dispossession of land.
A stamp-duty upon the law proceedings by each particular court, to be levied by that court, and applied towards the maintenance of the judges, and other officers belonging to it, might in the same manner, afford a revenue sufficient for defraying the expense of the administration of justice, without bringing any burden upon the general revenue of the society. The judges, indeed, might in this case, be under the temptation of multiplying unnecessarily the proceedings upon[Pg 302] every cause, in order to increase, as much as possible, the produce of such a stamp-duty. It has been the custom in modern Europe to regulate, upon most occasions, the payment of the attorneys and clerks of court according to the number of pages which they had occasion to write; the court, however, requiring that each page should contain so many lines, and each line so many words. In order to increase their payment, the attorneys and clerks have contrived to multiply words beyond all necessity, to the corruption of the law language of, I believe, every court of justice in Europe. A like temptation might, perhaps, occasion a like corruption in the form of law proceedings.
But whether the administration of justice be so contrived as to defray its own expense, or whether the judges be maintained by fixed salaries paid to them from some other fund, it does not seem necessary that the person or persons entrusted with the executive power should be charged with the management of that fund, or with the payment of those salaries. That fund might arise from the rent of landed estates, the management of each estate being entrusted to the particular court which was to be maintained by it. That fund might arise even from the interest of a sum of money, the lending out of which might, in the same manner, be entrusted to the court which was to be maintained by it. A part, though indeed but a small part of the salary of the judges of the court of session in Scotland, arises from the interest of a sum of money. The necessary instability of such a fund seems, however, to render it an improper one for the maintenance of an institution which ought to last for ever.
The separation of the judicial from the executive power, seems originally to have arisen from the increasing business of the society, in consequence of its increasing improvement. The administration of justice became so laborious and so complicated a duty, as to require the undivided attention of the person to whom it was entrusted. The person entrusted with the executive power, not having leisure to attend to the decision of private causes himself, a deputy was appointed to decide them in his stead. In the progress of the Roman greatness, the consul was too much occupied with the political affairs of the state, to attend to the administration of justice. A prætor, therefore, was appointed to administer it in his stead. In the progress of the European monarchies, which were founded upon the ruins of the Roman empire, the sovereigns and the great lords came universally to consider the administration of justice as an office both too laborious and too ignoble for them to execute in their own persons. They universally, therefore, discharged themselves of it, by appointing a deputy, bailiff, or judge.
When the judicial is united to the executive power, it is scarce possible that justice should not frequently be sacrificed to what is vulgarly called politics. The persons entrusted with the great interests of the state may even without any corrupt views, sometimes imagine it necessary to sacrifice to those interests the rights of a private man. But upon the impartial administration of justice depends the liberty of every individual, the sense which he has of his own security. In order to make every individual feel himself perfectly secure in the possession of every right which belongs to him, it is not only necessary that the judicial should be separated from the executive power, but that it should be rendered as much as possible independent of that power. The judge should not be liable to be removed from his office according to the caprice of that power. The regular payment of his salary should not depend upon the good will, or even upon the good economy of that power.
PART III.
Of the Expense of public Works and public Institutions.
The third and last duty of the sovereign or commonwealth, is that of erecting and maintaining those public institutions and those public works, which though they may be in the highest degree advantageous to a great society, are, however, of such a nature, that the profit could never repay the expense to any individual, or small number of individuals; and which it, therefore, cannot be expected that any individual, or small number of individuals, should erect or maintain. The performance of this duty requires, too, very different degrees of expense in the different periods of society.
After the public institutions and public works necessary for the defence of the society, and for the administration of justice, both of which have already been mentioned, the other works and institutions of this kind are chiefly for facilitating the commerce of the society, and those for promoting the instruction of the people. The institutions for instruction are of two kinds: those for the education of the youth, and those for the instruction of people of all ages. The consideration of the manner in which the expense of those different sorts of public works and institutions may be most properly defrayed will divide this third part of the present chapter into three different articles.
ART. I.—Of the public Works and Institutions for facilitating the Commerce of the Society.
And, first, of those which are necessary for facilitating Commerce in general.
That the erections and maintenance of the public works which facilitate the commerce of any country, such as good roads, bridges, navigable canals, harbours, &c. must require very different degrees of expense in the different periods of society, is evident without any proof. The expense of making and maintaining the public roads of any country must evidently increase with the annual produce of the land and labour of that country, or with the quantity and weight of the goods which it becomes necessary to fetch and carry upon those roads. The strength of a bridge must be suited to the number and weight of the carriages which are likely to pass over it. The depth and the supply of water for a navigable canal must be proportional to the number and tonnage of the lighters which are likely to carry goods upon it; the extent of a harbour, to the number of the shipping which are likely to take shelter in it.
It does not seem necessary that the expense of those public works should be defrayed from that public revenue, as it is commonly called, of which the collection and application are in most countries, assigned to the executive power. The greater part of such public works may easily be so managed, as to afford a particular revenue, sufficient for defraying their own expense, without bringing any burden upon the general revenue of the society.
A highway, a bridge, a navigable canal, for example, may, in most cases, be both made and maintained by a small toll upon the carriages which make use of them; a harbour, by a moderate port-duty upon the tonnage of the shipping which load or unload in it. The coinage, another institution for facilitating commerce, in many countries, not only defrays its own expense, but affords a small revenue or a seignorage to the sovereign. The post-office, another institution for the same purpose, over and above defraying its own expense, affords, in almost all countries, a very considerable revenue to the sovereign.
When the carriages which pass over a highway or a bridge, and the lighters which sail upon a navigable canal, pay toll in proportion to their weight or their tonnage, they pay for the maintenance of these public works exactly in proportion to the wear and tear which they occasion of them. It seems scarce possible to invent a more equitable way of maintaining such works. This tax or toll, too, though it is advanced by the carrier, is finally paid by the consumer, to whom it must always be charged in the price of the goods. As the expense of carriage, however, is very much reduced by means of such public works, the goods, notwithstanding the toll, come cheaper to the consumer than they could otherwise have done, their price not being so much raised by the toll, as it is lowered by the cheapness of the carriage. The person who finally pays this tax, therefore, gains by the application more than he loses by the payment of it. His payment is exactly in proportion to his gain. It is, in reality, no more than a part of that gain which he is obliged to give up, in order to get the rest. It seems impossible to imagine a more equitable method of raising a tax.
When the toll upon carriages of luxury, upon coaches, post-chaises, &c. is made somewhat higher in proportion to their weight, than upon carriages of necessary use, such as carts, waggons, &c. the indolence and vanity of the rich is made to contribute, in a very easy manner, to the relief of the poor, by rendering cheaper the transportation of heavy goods to all the different parts of the country.
When high-roads, bridges, canals, &c. are in this manner made and supported by the commerce which is carried on by means of them, they can be made only where that commerce requires them, and, consequently, where it is proper to make them, Their expense, too, their grandeur and magnificence, must be suited to what that commerce can afford to pay. They must be made, consequently, as it is proper to make them. A magnificent high-road cannot be made through a desert country, where there is little or no commerce, or merely because it happens to lead to the country villa of the intendant of the province, or to that of some great lord, to whom the intendant finds it convenient to make his court. A great bridge cannot be thrown over a river at a place where nobody passes, or merely to embellish the view from the windows of a neighbouring palace; things which sometimes happen in countries, where works of this kind are carried on by any other revenue than that which they themselves are capable of affording.
In several different parts of Europe, the toll or lock-duty upon a canal is the property of private persons, whose private interest obliges them to keep up the canal. If it is not kept in tolerable order, the navigation necessarily ceases altogether, and, along with it, the whole profit which they can make by the tolls. If those tolls were put under the the management of commissioners, who had themselves no interest in them, they might be less attentive to the maintenance of the works which produced them. The canal of Languedoc cost the king of France and the province upwards of thirteen millions of livres, which (at twenty-eight livres the mark of sil[Pg 304]ver, the value of French money in the end of the last century) amounted to upwards of nine hundred thousand pounds sterling. When that great work was finished, the most likely method, it was found, of keeping it in constant repair, was to make a present of the tolls to Riquet, the engineer who planned and conducted the work. Those tolls constitute, at present, a very large estate to the different branches of the family of that gentleman, who have, therefore, a great interest to keep the work in constant repair. But had those tolls been put under the management of commissioners, who had no such interest, they might perhaps, have been dissipated in ornamental and unnecessary expenses, while the most essential parts of the works were allowed to go to ruin.
The tolls for the maintenance of a high-road cannot, with any safety, be made the property of private persons. A high-road, though entirely neglected, does not become altogether impassable, though a canal does. The proprietors of the tolls upon a high-road, therefore, might neglect altogether the repair of the road, and yet continue to levy very nearly the same tolls. It is proper, therefore, that the tolls for the maintenance of such a work should be put under the management of commissioners or trustees.
In Great Britain, the abuses which the very trustees have committed in the management of those tolls, have, in many cases, been very justly complained of. At many turnpikes, it has been said, the money levied is more than double of what is necessary for executing, in the completest manner, the work, which is often executed in a very slovenly manner, and sometimes not executed at all. The system of repairing the high-roads by tolls of this kind, it must be observed, is not of very long standing. We should not wonder, therefore, if it has not yet been brought that degree of perfection of which it seems capable. If mean and improper persons are frequently appointed trustees; and if proper courts of inspection and account have not yet been established for controlling their conduct, and for reducing the tolls to what is barely sufficient for executing the work to be done by them; the recency of the institution both accounts and apologizes for those defects, of which, by the wisdom of parliament, the greater part may, in due time, be gradually remedied.
The money levied at the different turnpikes in Great Britain, is supposed to exceed so much what is necessary for repairing the roads, that the savings which, with proper economy, might be made from it, have been considered, even by some ministers, as a very great resource, which might, at some time or another, be applied to the exigencies of the state. Government, it has been said, by taking the management of the turnpikes into its own hands, and by employing the soldiers, who would work for a very small addition to their pay, could keep the roads in good order, at a much less expense than it can be done by trustees, who have no other workmen to employ, but such as derive their whole subsistence from their wages. A great revenue, half a million, perhaps[48], it has been pretended, might in this manner be gained, without laying any new burden upon the people; and the turnpike roads might be made to contribute to the general expense of the state, in the same manner as the post-office does at present.
That a considerable revenue might be gained in this manner, I have no doubt, though probably not near so much as the projectors of this plan have supposed. The plan itself, however, seems liable to several very important objections.
First, If the tolls which are levied at the turnpikes should ever be considered as one of the resources for supplying the exigencies of the state, they would certainly be augmented as those exigencies were supposed to require. According to the policy of Great Britain, therefore, they would probably be augmented very fast. The facility with which a great revenue could be drawn from them, would probably encourage administration to recur very frequently to this resource. Though it may, perhaps, be more than doubtful, whether half a million could by any economy be saved out of the present tolls, it can scarcely be doubted, but that a million might be saved out of them, if they were doubled; and perhaps two millions, if they were tripled[49]. This great revenue, too, might be levied without the appointment of a single new officer to collect and receive it. But the turnpike tolls, being continually augmented in this manner, instead of facilitating the inland commerce of the country, as at present, would soon become a very great incumbrance upon it. The expense of transporting all heavy goods from one part of the country to another, would soon be so much increased, the market for all such goods, consequently, would soon be so much narrowed, that their production would be in a great measure discouraged, and the most important branches of the domestic industry of the country annihilated altogether.
Secondly, A tax upon carriages, in proportion to their weight, though a very equal tax when applied to the sole purpose of repairing the roads, is a very unequal one when[Pg 305] applied to any other purpose, or to supply the common exigencies of the state. When it is applied to the sole purpose above mentioned, each carriage is supposed to pay exactly for the wear and tear which that carriage occasions of the roads. But when it is applied to any other purpose, each carriage is supposed to pay for more than that wear and tear, and contributes to the supply of some other exigency of the state. But as the turnpike toll raises the price of goods in proportion to their weight and not to their value, it is chiefly paid by the consumers of coarse and bulky, not by those of precious and light commodities. Whatever exigency of the state, therefore, this tax might be intended to supply, that exigency would be chiefly supplied at the expense of the poor, not of the rich; at the expense of those who are least able to supply it, not of those who are most able.
Thirdly, If government should at any time neglect the reparation of the high-roads, it would be still more difficult, than it is at present, to compel the proper application of any part of the turnpike tolls. A large revenue might thus be levied upon the people, without any part of it being applied to the only purpose to which a revenue levied in this manner ought ever to be applied. If the meanness and poverty of the trustees of turnpike roads render it sometimes difficult, at present, to oblige them to repair their wrong; their wealth and greatness would render it ten times more so in the case which is here supposed.
In France, the funds destined for the reparation of the high-roads are under the immediate direction of the executive power. Those funds consist, partly in a certain number of days labour, which the country people are in most parts of Europe obliged to give to the reparation of the highways; and partly in such a portion of the general revenue of the state as the king chooses to spare from his other expenses.
By the ancient law of France, as well as by that of most other parts of Europe, the labour of the country people was under the direction of a local or provincial magistracy, which had no immediate dependency upon the king's council. But, by the present practice, both the labour of the country people, and whatever other fund the king may choose to assign for the reparation of the high-roads in any particular province or generality, are entirely under the management of the intendant; an officer who is appointed and removed by the king's council who receives his orders from it, and is in constant correspondence with it. In the progress of despotism, the authority of the executive power gradually absorbs that of every other power in the state, and assumes to itself the management of every branch of revenue which is destined for any public purpose. In France, however, the great post-roads, the roads which make the communication between the principal towns of the kingdom, are in general kept in good order; and, in some provinces, are even a good deal superior to the greater part of the turnpike roads of England. But what we call the cross roads, that is, the far greater part of the roads in the country, are entirely neglected, and are in many places absolutely impassable for any heavy carriage. In some places it is even dangerous to travel on horseback, and mules are the only conveyance which can safely be trusted. The proud minister of an ostentatious court, may frequently take pleasure in executing a work of splendour and magnificence, such as a great highway, which is frequently seen by the principal nobility, whose applauses not only flatter his vanity, but even contribute to support his interest at court. But to execute a great number of little works, in which nothing that can be done can make any great appearance, or excite the smallest degree of admiration in any traveller, and which, in short, have nothing to recommend them but their extreme utility, is a business which appears, in every respect, too mean and paltry to merit the attention of so great a magistrate. Under such an administration, therefore, such works are almost always entirely neglected.
In China, and in several other governments of Asia, the executive power charges itself both with the reparation of the high-roads, and with the maintenance of the navigable canals. In the instructions which are given to the governor of each province, those objects, it is said, are constantly recommended to him, and the judgment which the court forms of his conduct is very much regulated by the attention which he appears to have paid to this part of his instructions. This branch of public police, accordingly, is said to be very much attended to in all those countries, but particularly in China, where the high-roads, and still more the navigable canals, it is pretended, exceed very much every thing of the same kind which is known in Europe. The accounts of those works, however, which have been transmitted to Europe, have generally been drawn up by weak and wondering travellers; frequently by stupid and lying missionaries. If they had been examined by more intelligent eyes, and if the accounts of them had been reported by more faithful witnesses, they would not, perhaps, appear to be so wonderful. The account which Bernier gives of some works of this kind in Indostan, falls very short of what had been reported of them by other travellers, more disposed to the marvellous than he was. It may too, perhaps, be in those countries, as it is in France, where the great roads, the great communications, which are likely to be the[Pg 306] subjects of conversation at the court and in the capital, are attended to, and all the rest neglected. In China, besides, in Indostan, and in several other governments of Asia, the revenue of the sovereign arises almost altogether from a land tax or land rent, which rises or falls with the rise and fall of the annual produce of the land. The great interest of the sovereign, therefore, his revenue, is in such countries necessarily and immediately connected with the cultivation of the land, with the greatness of its produce, and with the value of its produce. But in order to render that produce both as great and as valuable as possible, it is necessary to procure to it as extensive a market as possible, and consequently to establish the freest, the easiest, and the least expensive communication between all the different parts of the country; which can be done only by means of the best roads and the best navigable canals. But the revenue of the sovereign does not, in any part of Europe, arise chiefly from a land tax or land rent. In all the great kingdoms of Europe, perhaps, the greater part of it may ultimately depend upon the produce of the land: but that dependency is neither so immediate nor so evident. In Europe, therefore, the sovereign does not feel himself so directly called upon to promote the increase, both in quantity and value of the produce of the land, or, by maintaining good roads and canals, to provide the most extensive market for that produce. Though it should be true, therefore, what I apprehend is not a little doubtful, that in some parts of Asia this department of the public police is very properly managed by the executive power, there is not the least probability that, during the present state of things, it could be tolerably managed by that power in any part of Europe.
Even those public works, which are of such a nature that they cannot afford any revenue for maintaining themselves, but of which the conveniency is nearly confined to some particular place or district, are always better maintained by a local or provincial revenue, under the management of a local and provincial administration, than by the general revenue of the state, of which the executive power must always have the management. Were the streets of London to be lighted and paved at the expense of the treasury, is there any probability that they would be so well lighted and paved as they are at present, or even at so small an expense? The expense, besides, instead of being raised by a local tax upon the inhabitants of each particular street, parish, or district in London, would, in this case, be defrayed out of the general revenue of the state, and would consequently be raised by a tax upon all the inhabitants of the kingdom, of whom the greater part derive no sort of benefit from the lighting and paving of the streets of London.
The abuses which sometimes creep into the local and provincial administration of a local and provincial revenue, how enormous soever they may appear, are in reality, however, almost always very trifling in comparison of those which commonly take place in the administration and expenditure of the revenue of a great empire. They are, besides, much more easily corrected. Under the local or provincial administration of the justices of the peace in Great Britain, the six days labour which the country people are obliged to give to the reparation of the highways, is not always, perhaps, very judiciously applied, but it is scarce ever exacted with any circumstance of cruelty or oppression. In France, under the administration of the intendants, the application is not always more judicious, and the exaction is frequently the most cruel and oppressive. Such corvees, as they are called, make one of the principal instruments of tyranny by which these officers chastise any parish or communeaute, which has had the misfortune to fall under their displeasure.
Of the public Works and Institutions which are necessary for facilitating particular Branches of Commerce.
The object of the public works and institutions above mentioned, is to facilitate commerce in general. But in order to facilitate some particular branches of it, particular institutions are necessary, which again require a particular and extraordinary expense.
Some particular branches of commerce which are carried on with barbarous and uncivilized nations, require extraordinary protection. An ordinary store or counting-house could give little security to the goods of the merchants who trade to the western coast of Africa. To defend them from the barbarous natives, it is necessary that the place where they are deposited should be in same measure fortified. The disorders in the government of Indostan have been supposed to render a like precaution necessary, even among that mild and gentle people; and it was under pretence of securing their persons and property from violence, that both the English and French East India companies were allowed to erect the first forts which they possessed in that country. Among other nations, whose vigorous government will suffer no strangers to possess any fortified place within their territory, it may be necessary to maintain some ambassador, minister, or consul, who may both decide, according to their own customs, the differences arising among his own countrymen; and, in their disputes with the natives, may[Pg 307] by means of his public character, interfere with more authority and afford them a more powerful protection than they could expect from any private man. The interests of commerce have frequently made it necessary to maintain ministers in foreign countries, where the purposes either of war or alliance would not have required any. The commerce of the Turkey company first occasioned the establishment of an ordinary ambassador at Constantinople. The first English embassies to Russia arose altogether from commercial interests. The constant interference with those interests, necessarily occasioned between the subjects of the different states of Europe, has probably introduced the custom of keeping, in all neighbouring countries, ambassadors or ministers constantly resident, even in the time of peace. This custom, unknown to ancient times, seems not to be older than the end of the fifteenth, or beginning of the sixteenth century; that is, than the time when commerce first began to extend itself to the greater part of the nations of Europe, and when they first began to attend to its interests.
It seems not unreasonable, that the extraordinary expense which the protection of any particular branch of commerce may occasion, should be defrayed by a moderate tax upon that particular branch; by a moderate fine, for example, to be paid by the traders when they first enter into it; or, what is more equal, by a particular duty of so much per cent. upon the goods which they either import into, or export out of, the particular countries with which it is carried on. The protection of trade, in general, from pirates and freebooters, is said to have given occasion to the first institution of the duties of customs. But, if it was thought reasonable to lay a general tax upon trade, in order to defray the expense of protecting trade in general, it should seem equally reasonable to lay a particular tax upon a particular branch of trade, in order to defray the extraordinary expense of protecting that branch.
The protection of trade, in general, has always been considered as essential to the defence of the commonwealth, and, upon that account, a necessary part of the duty of the executive power. The collection and application of the general duties of customs, therefore, have always been left to that power. But the protection of any particular branch of trade is a part of the general protection of trade; a part, therefore, of the duty of that power; and if nations always acted consistently, the particular duties levied for the purposes of such particular protection, should always have been left equally to its disposal. But in this respect, as well as in many others, nations have not always acted consistently; and in the greater part of the commercial states of Europe, particular companies of merchants have had the address to persuade the legislature to entrust to them the performance of this part of the duty of the sovereign, together with all the powers which are necessarily connected with it.
These companies, though they may, perhaps, have been useful for the first introduction of some branches of commerce, by making, at their own expense, an experiment which the state might not think it prudent to make, have in the long-run proved, universally, either burdensome or useless, and have either mismanaged or confined the trade.
When those companies do not trade upon a joint stock, but are obliged to admit any person, properly qualified, upon paying a certain fine, and agreeing to submit to the regulations of the company, each member trading upon his own stock, and at his own risk, they are called regulated companies. When they trade upon a joint stock, each member sharing in the common profit or loss, in proportion to his share in this stock, they are called joint-stock companies. Such companies, whether regulated or joint-stock, sometimes have, and sometimes have not, exclusive privileges.
Regulated companies resemble, in every respect, the corporation of trades, so common in the cities and towns of all the different countries of Europe; and are a sort of enlarged monopolies of the same kind. As no inhabitant of a town can exercise an incorporated trade, without first obtaining his freedom in the incorporation, so, in most cases, no subject of the state can lawfully carry on any branch of foreign trade, for which a regulated company is established, without first becoming a member of that company. The monopoly is more or less strict, according as the terms of admission are more or less difficult, and according as the directors of the company have more or less authority, or have it more or less in their power to manage in such a manner as to confine the greater part of the trade to themselves and their particular friends. In the most ancient regulated companies, the privileges of apprenticeship were the same as in other corporations, and entitled the person who had served his time to a member of the company, to become himself a member, either without paying any fine, or upon paying a much smaller one than what was exacted of other people. The usual corporation spirit, wherever the law does not restrain it, prevails in all regulated companies. When they have been allowed to act according to their natural genius, they have always, in order to confine the competition to as small a number of persons as possible, endeavoured to subject the trade to many burdensome regulations. When the law has restrained them from doing this, they have become altogether useless and insignificant.
The regulated companies for foreign commerce which at present subsist in Great Bri[Pg 308]tain, are the ancient merchant-adventurers company, now commonly called the Hamburgh company, the Russia company, the Eastland company, the Turkey company, and the African company.
The terms of admission into the Hamburgh company are now said to be quite easy; and the directors either have it not in their power to subject the trade to any troublesome restraint or regulations, or, at least, have not of late exercised that power. It has not always been so. About the middle of the last century, the fine for admission was fifty, and at one time one hundred pounds, and the conduct of the company was said to be extremely oppressive. In 1643, in 1645, and in 1661, the clothiers and free traders of the west of England complained of them to parliament, as of monopolists, who confined the trade, and oppressed the manufactures of the country. Though those complaints produced no act of parliament, they had probably intimidated the company so far, as to oblige them to reform their conduct. Since that time, at least, there have been no complaints against them. By the 10th and 11th of William III. c. 6, the fine for admission into the Russia company was reduced to five pounds; and by the 25th of Charles II. c. 7, that for admission into the Eastland company to forty shillings; while, at the same time, Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, all the countries on the north side of the Baltic, were exempted from their exclusive charter. The conduct of those companies had probably given occasion to those two acts of parliament. Before that time, Sir Josiah Child had represented both these and the Hamburgh company as extremely oppressive, and imputed to their bad management the low state of the trade, which we at that time carried on to the countries comprehended within their respective charters. But though such companies may not, in the present times, be very oppressive, they are certainly altogether useless. To be merely useless, indeed, is perhaps, the highest eulogy which can ever justly be bestowed upon a regulated company; and all the three companies above mentioned seem, in their present state, to deserve this eulogy.
The fine for admission into the Turkey company was formerly twenty-five pounds for all persons under twenty-six years of age, and fifty pounds for all persons above that age. Nobody but mere merchants could be admitted; a restriction which excluded all shop-keepers and retailers. By a bye-law, no British manufactures could be exported to Turkey but in the general ships of the company; and as those ships sailed always from the port of London, this restriction confined the trade to that expensive port, and the traders in those who lived in London and in its neighbourhood. By another bye-law, no person living within twenty miles of London, and not free of the city could be admitted a member; another restriction which, joined to the foregoing, necessarily excluded all but the freemen of London. As the time for the loading and sailing of those general ships depended altogether upon the directors, they could easily fill them with their own goods, and those of their particular friends, to the exclusion of others, who, they might pretend, had made their proposals too late. In this state of things, therefore, this company was, in every respect, a strict and oppressive monopoly. Those abuses gave occasion to the act of the 26th of George II. c. 18, reducing the fine for admission to twenty pounds for all persons, without any distinction of ages, or any restriction, either to mere merchants, or to the freemen of London; and granting to all such persons the liberty of exporting, from all the ports of Great Britain, to any port in Turkey, all British goods, of which the exportation was not prohibited, upon paying both the general duties of customs, and the particular duties assessed for defraying the necessary expenses of the company; and submitting, at the same time, to the lawful authority of the British ambassador and consuls resident in Turkey, and to the bye-laws of the company duly enacted. To prevent any oppression by those bye-laws, it was by the same act ordained, that if any seven members of the company conceived themselves aggrieved by any bye-law which should be enacted after the passing of this act, they might appeal to the board of trade and plantations (to the authority of which a committee of the privy council has now succeeded), provided such appeal was brought within twelve months after the bye-law was enacted; and that, if any seven members conceived themselves aggrieved by any bye-law which had been enacted before the passing of this act, they might bring a like appeal, provided it was within twelve months after the day on which this act was to take place. The experience of one year, however, may not always be sufficient to discover to all the members of a great company the pernicious tendency of a particular bye-law; and if several of them should afterwards discover it, neither the board of trade, nor the committee of council, can afford them any redress. The object, besides, of the greater part of the bye-laws of all regulated companies, as well as of all other corporations, is not so much to oppress those who are already members, as to discourage others from becoming so; which may be done, not only by a high fine, but by many other contrivances. The constant view of such companies is always to raise the rate of their own profit as high as they can; to keep the market, both for the goods which they export, and for those which they import, as much understocked as they can; which can be done only by restraining the competition, or by discouraging new[Pg 309] adventurers from entering into the trade. A fine, even of twenty pounds, besides, though it may not, perhaps, be sufficient to discourage any man from entering into the Turkey trade, with an intention to continue in it, may be enough to discourage a speculative merchant from hazarding a single adventure in it. In all trades, the regular established traders, even though not incorporated, naturally combine to raise profits, which are noway so likely to be kept, at all times, down to their proper level, as by the occasional competition of speculative adventurers. The Turkey trade, though in some measure laid open by this act of parliament, is still considered by many people as very far from being altogether free. The Turkey company contribute to maintain an ambassador and two or three consuls, who, like other public ministers, ought to be maintained altogether by the state, and the trade laid open to all his majesty's subjects. The different taxes levied by the company, for this and other corporation purposes, might afford a revenue much more than sufficient to enable a state to maintain such ministers.
Regulated companies, it was observed by Sir Josiah Child, though they had frequently supported public ministers, had never maintained any forts or garrisons in the countries to which they traded; whereas joint-stock companies frequently had. And, in reality, the former seem to be much more unfit for this sort of service than the latter. First, the directors of a regulated company have no particular interest in the prosperity of the general trade of the company, for the sake of which such forts and garrisons are maintained. The decay of that general trade may even frequently contribute to the advantage of their own private trade; as, by diminishing the number of their competitors, it may enable them both to buy cheaper, and to sell dearer. The directors of a joint-stock company, on the contrary, having only their share in the profits which are made upon the common stock committed to their management, have no private trade of their own, of which the interest can be separated from that of the general trade of the company. Their private interest is connected with the prosperity of the general trade of the company, and with the maintenance of the forts and garrisons which are necessary for its defence. They are more likely, therefore, to have that continual and careful attention which that maintenance necessarily requires. Secondly, The directors of a joint-stock company have always the management of a large capital, the joint stock of the company, a part of which they may frequently employ, with propriety, in building, repairing, and maintaining such necessary forts and garrisons. But the directors of a regulated company, having the management of no common capital, have no other fund to employ in this way, but the casual revenue arising from the admission fines, and from the corporation duties imposed upon the trade of the company. Though they had the same interest, therefore, to attend to the maintenance of such forts and garrisons, they can seldom have the same ability to render that attention effectual. The maintenance of a public minister, requiring scarce any attention, and but a moderate and limited expense, is a business much more suitable both to the temper and abilities of a regulated company.
Long after the time of Sir Josiah Child, however, in 1750, a regulated company was established, the present company of merchants trading to Africa; which was expressly charged at first with the maintenance of all the British forts and garrisons that lie between Cape Blanc and the Cape of Good Hope, and afterwards with that of those only which lie between Cape Rouge and the Cape of Good Hope. The act which establishes this company (the 23d of George II. c. 31), seems to have had two distinct objects in view; first, to restrain effectually the oppressive and monopolizing spirit which is natural to the directors of a regulated company; and, secondly, to force them, as much as possible, to give an attention, which is not natural to them, towards the maintenance of forts and garrisons.
For the first of these purposes, the fine for admission is limited to forty shillings. The company is prohibited from trading in their corporate capacity, or upon a joint stock; from borrowing money upon common seal, or from laying any restraints upon the trade, which may be carried on freely from all places, and by all persons being British subjects, and paying the fine. The government is in a committee of nine persons, who meet at London, but who are chosen annually by the freemen of the company at London, Bristol, and Liverpool; three from each place. No committee-man can be continued in office for more than three years together. Any committee-man might be removed by the board of trade and plantations, now by a committee of council, after being heard in his own defence. The committee are forbid to export negroes from Africa, or to import any African goods into Great Britain. But as they are charged with the maintenance of forts and garrisons, they may, for that purpose export from Great Britain to Africa goods and stores of different kinds. Out of the moneys which they shall receive from the company, they are allowed a sum, not exceeding eight hundred pounds, for the salaries of their clerks and agents at London, Bristol, and Liverpool, the house-rent of their offices at London, and all other expenses of management, commission, and agency, in England. What remains of this sum, after defraying these different expenses, they may divide among themselves, as compensation for their trouble, in what manner they think pro[Pg 310]per. By this constitution, it might have been expected, that the spirit of monopoly would have been effectually restrained, and the first of these purposes sufficiently answered. It would seem, however, that it had not. Though by the 4th of George III. c. 20, the fort of Senegal, with all its dependencies, had been invested in the company of merchants trading to Africa, yet, in the year following (by the 5th of George III. c. 44), not only Senegal and its dependencies, but the whole coast, from the port of Sallee, in South Barbary, to Cape Rouge, was exempted from the jurisdiction of that company, was vested in the crown, and the trade to it declared free to all his majesty's subjects. The company had been suspected of restraining the trade and of establishing some sort of improper monopoly. It is not, however, very easy to conceive how, under the regulations of the 23d George II. they could do so. In the printed debates of the house of commons, not always the most authentic records of truth, I observe, however, that they have been accused of this. The members of the committee of nine being all merchants, and the governors and factors in their different forts and settlements being all dependent upon them, it is not unlikely that the latter might have given peculiar attention to the consignments and commissions of the former, which would establish a real monopoly.
For the second of these purposes, the maintenance of the forts and garrisons, an annual sum has been allotted to them by parliament, generally about L.13,000. For the proper application of this sum, the committee is obliged to account annually to the cursitor baron of exchequer; which account is afterwards to be laid before parliament. But parliament, which gives so little attention to the application of millions, is not likely to give much to that of L.13,000 a-year; and the cursitor baron of exchequer, from his profession and education, is not likely to be profoundly skilled in the proper expense of forts and garrisons. The captains of his majesty's navy, indeed, or any other commissioned officers, appointed by the board of admiralty, may inquire into the condition of the forts and garrisons, and report their observations to that board. But that board seems to have no direct jurisdiction over the committee, nor any authority to correct those whose conduct it may thus inquire into; and the captains of his majesty's navy, besides, are not supposed to be always deeply learned in the science of fortification. Removal from an office, which can be enjoyed only for the term of three years, and of which the lawful emoluments, even during that term, are so very small, seems to be the utmost punishment to which any committee-man is liable, for any fault, except direct malversation, or embezzlement, either of the public money, or of that of the company; and the fear of the punishment can never be a motive of sufficient weight to force a continual and careful attention to a business to which he has no other interest to attend. The committee are accused of having sent out bricks and stones from England for the reparation of Cape Coast Castle, on the coast of Guinea; a business for which parliament had several times granted an extraordinary sum of money. These bricks and stones, too, which had thus been sent upon so long a voyage, were said to have been of so bad a quality, that it was necessary to rebuild, from the foundation, the walls which had been repaired with them. The forts and garrisons which lie north of Cape Rouge, are not only maintained at the expense of the state, but are under the immediate government of the executive power; and why those which lie south of that cape, and which, too, are, in part at least, maintained at the expense of the state, should be under a different government, it seems not very easy even to imagine a good reason. The protection of the Mediterranean trade was the original purpose or pretence of the garrisons of Gibraltar and Minorca; and the maintenance and government of those garrisons have always been, very properly, committed, not to the Turkey company, but to the executive power. In the extent of its dominion consists, in a great measure, the pride and dignity of that power; and it is not very likely to fail in attention to what is necessary for the defence of that dominion. The garrisons at Gibraltar and Minorca, accordingly, have never been neglected. Though Minorca has been twice taken, and is now probably lost for ever, that disaster has never been imputed to any neglect in the executive power. I would not, however, be understood to insinuate, that either of those expensive garrisons was ever, even in the smallest degree, necessary for the purpose for which they were originally dismembered from the Spanish monarchy. That dismemberment, perhaps, never served any other real purpose than to alienate from England her natural ally the king of Spain, and to unite the two principal branches of the house of Bourbon in a much stricter and more permanent alliance than the ties of blood could ever have united them.
Joint-stock companies, established either by royal charter, or by act of parliament, are different in several respects, not only from regulated companies, but from private copartneries.
First, In a private copartnery, no partner without the consent of the company, can transfer his share to another person, or introduce a new member into the company. Each member, however, may, upon proper warning, withdraw from the copartnery, and demand payment from them of his share of the common stock. In a joint-stock company, on the contrary, no member can demand pay[Pg 311]ment of his share from the company; but each member can, without their consent, transfer his share to another person, and thereby introduce a new member. The value of a share in a joint stock is always the price which it will bring in the market; and this may be either greater or less in any proportion, than the sum which its owner stands credited for in the stock of the company.
Secondly, In a private copartnery, each partner is bound for the debts contracted by the company, to the whole extent of his fortune. In a joint-stock company, on the contrary, each partner is bound only to the extent of his share.
The trade of a joint-stock company is always managed by a court of directors. This court, indeed, is frequently subject, in many respects, to the control of a general court of proprietors. But the greater part of these proprietors seldom pretend to understand any thing of the business of the company; and when the spirit of faction happens not to prevail among them, give themselves no trouble about it, but receive contentedly such half-yearly or yearly dividend as the directors think proper to make to them. This total exemption from trouble and from risk, beyond a limited sum, encourages many people to become adventurers in joint-stock companies, who would, upon no account, hazard their fortunes in any private copartnery. Such companies, therefore, commonly draw to themselves much greater stocks, than any private copartnery can boast of. The trading stock of the South Sea company at one time amounted to upwards of thirty-three millions eight hundred thousand pounds. The divided capital of the Bank of England amounts, at present, to ten millions seven hundred and eighty thousand pounds. The directors of such companies, however, being the managers rather of other people's money than of their own, it cannot well be expected that they should watch over it with the same anxious vigilance with which the partners in a private copartnery frequently watch over their own. Like the stewards of a rich man, they are apt to consider attention to small matters as not for their master's honour, and very easily give themselves a dispensation from having it. Negligence and profusion, therefore, must always prevail, more or less, in the management of the affairs of such a company. It is upon this account, that joint-stock companies for foreign trade have seldom been able to maintain the competition against private adventurers. They have, accordingly, very seldom succeeded without an exclusive privilege; and frequently have not succeeded with one. Without an exclusive privilege, they have commonly mismanaged the trade. With an exclusive privilege, they have both mismanaged and confined it.
The Royal African company, the predecessors of the present African company, had an exclusive privilege by charter; but as that charter had not been confirmed by act of parliament, the trade, in consequence of the declaration of rights, was, soon after the Revolution, laid open to all his majesty's subjects. The Hudson's Bay company are, as to their legal rights, in the same situation as the Royal African company. Their exclusive charter has not been confirmed by act of parliament. The South Sea company, as long as they continued to be a trading company, had an exclusive privilege confirmed by act of parliament; as have likewise the present united company of merchants trading to the East Indies.
The Royal African company soon found that they could not maintain the competition against private adventurers, whom, notwithstanding the declaration of rights, they continued for some time to call interlopers, and to persecute as such. In 1698, however, the private adventurers were subjected to a duty of ten per cent. upon almost all the different branches of their trade, to be employed by the company in the maintenance of their forts and garrisons. But, notwithstanding this heavy tax, the company were still unable to maintain the competition. Their stock and credit gradually declined. In 1712, their debts had become so great, that a particular act of parliament was thought necessary, both for their security and for that of their creditors. It was enacted, that the resolution of two-thirds of these creditors in number and value should bind the rest, both with regard to the time which should be allowed to the company for the payment of their debts, and with regard to any other agreement which it might be thought proper to make with them concerning those debts. In 1730, their affairs were in so great disorder, that they were altogether incapable of maintaining their forts and garrisons, the sole purpose and pretext of their institution. From that year till their final dissolution, the parliament judged it necessary to allow the annual sum of ten thousand pounds for that purpose. In 1732, after having been for many years losers by the trade of carrying negroes to the West Indies, they at last resolved to give it up altogether; to sell to the private traders to America the negroes which they purchased upon the coast; and to employ their servants in a trade to the inland parts of Africa for gold dust, elephants teeth, dyeing drugs, &c. But their success in this more confined trade was not greater than in their former extensive one. Their affairs continued to go gradually to decline, till at last, being in every respect a bankrupt company, they were dissolved by act of parliament, and their forts and garrisons vested in the present regulated company of merchants trading to Africa. Before the erection of the Royal African company, there had been[Pg 312] three other joint-stock companies successively established, one after another, for the African trade. They were all equally unsuccessful. They all, however, had exclusive charters, which, though not confirmed by act of parliament, were in those days supposed to convey a real exclusive privilege.
The Hudson's Bay company, before their misfortunes in the late war, had been much more fortunate than the Royal African company. Their necessary expense is much smaller. The whole number of people whom they maintain in their different settlements and habitations, which they have honoured with the name of forts, is said not to exceed a hundred and twenty persons. This number, however, is sufficient to prepare beforehand the cargo of furs and other goods necessary for loading their ships, which, on account of the ice, can seldom remain above six or eight weeks in those seas. This advantage of having a cargo ready prepared, could not, for several years, be acquired by private adventurers; and without it there seems to be no possibility of trading to Hudson's Bay. The moderate capital of the company, which, it is said, does not exceed one hundred and ten thousand pounds, may, besides, be sufficient to enable them to engross the whole, or almost the whole trade and surplus produce, of the miserable though extensive country comprehended within their charter. No private adventurers, accordingly, have ever attempted to trade to that country in competition with them. This company, therefore, have always enjoyed an exclusive trade, in fact, though they may have no right to it in law. Over and above all this, the moderate capital of this company is said to be divided among a very small number of proprietors. But a joint-stock company, consisting of a small number of proprietors, with a moderate capital, approaches very nearly to the nature of a private copartnery, and may be capable of nearly the same degree of vigilance and attention. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, if, in consequence of these different advantages, the Hudson's Bay company had, before the late war, been able to carry on their trade with a considerable degree of success. It does not seem probable, however, that their profits ever approached to what the late Mr Dobbs imagined them. A much more sober and judicious writer, Mr Anderson, author of the Historical and Chronological Deduction of Commerce, very justly observes, that upon examining the accounts which Mr Dobbs himself has given for several years together, of their exports and imports, and upon making proper allowances for their extraordinary risk and expense, it does not appear that their profits deserve to be envied, or that they can much, if at all, exceed the ordinary profits of trade.
The South Sea company never had any forts or garrisons to maintain, and therefore were entirely exempted from one great expense, to which other joint-stock companies for foreign trade are subject; but they had an immense capital divided among an immense number of proprietors. It was naturally to be expected, therefore, that folly, negligence, and profusion, should prevail in the whole management of their affairs. The knavery and extravagance of their stock-jobbing projects are sufficiently known, and the explication of them would be foreign to the present subject. Their mercantile projects were not much better conducted. The first trade which they engaged in, was that of supplying the Spanish West Indies with negroes, of which (in consequence of what was called the Assiento Contract granted them by the treaty of Utrecht) they had the exclusive privilege. But as it was not expected that much profit could be made by this trade, both the Portuguese and French companies, who had enjoyed it upon the same terms before them, having been ruined by it, they were allowed, as compensation, to send annually a ship of a certain burden, to trade directly to the Spanish West Indies. Of the ten voyages which this annual ship was allowed to make, they are said to have gained considerably by one, that of the Royal Caroline, in 1731; and to have been losers, more or less, by almost all the rest. Their ill success was imputed, by their factors and agents, to the extortion and oppression of the Spanish government; but was, perhaps, principally owing to the profusion and depredations of those very factors and agents; some of whom are said to have acquired great fortunes, even in one year. In 1734, the company petitioned the king, that they might be allowed to dispose of the trade and tonnage of their annual ship, on account of the little profit which they made by it, and to accept of such equivalent as they could obtain from the king of Spain.
In 1724, this company had undertaken the whale fishery. Of this, indeed, they had no monopoly; but as long as they carried it on, no other British subjects appear to have engaged in it. Of the eight voyages which their ships made to Greenland, they were gainers by one, and losers by all the rest. After their eighth and last voyage, when they had sold their ships, stores, and utensils, they found that their whole loss upon this branch, capital and interest included, amounted to upwards of two hundred and thirty-seven thousand pounds.
In 1722, this company petitioned the parliament to be allowed to divide their immense capital of more than thirty-three millions eight hundred thousand pounds, the whole of which been lent to government, into two equal parts; the one half, or upwards of sixteen millions nine hundred thousand pounds, to be put upon the same footing with other government annuities, and not to be subject to the debts contracted, or losses incurred, by the[Pg 313] directors of the company, in the prosecution of their mercantile projects; the other half to remain as before, a trading stock, and to be subject to those debts and losses. The petition was too reasonable not to be granted. In 1733, they again petitioned the parliament, that three-fourths of their trading stock might be turned into annuity stock, and only one-fourth remain as trading stock, or exposed to the hazards arising from the bad management of their directors. Both their annuity and trading stocks had, by this time, been reduced more than two millions each, by several different payments from government; so that this fourth amounted only to L.3,662,784 : 8 : 6. In 1748, all the demands of the company upon the king of Spain, in consequence of the assiento contract, were, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, given up for what was supposed an equivalent. An end was put to their trade with the Spanish West Indies; the remainder of their trading stock was turned into an annuity stock; and the company ceased, in every respect, to be a trading company.
It ought to be observed, that in the trade which the South Sea company carried on by means of their annual ship, the only trade by which it ever was expected that they could make any considerable profit, they were not without competitors, either in the foreign or in the home market. At Carthagena, Porto Bello, and La Vera Cruz, they had to encounter the competition of the Spanish merchants, who brought from Cadiz to those markets European goods, of the same kind with the outward cargo of their ship; and in England they had to encounter that of the English merchants, who imported from Cadiz goods of the Spanish West Indies, of the same kind with the inward cargo. The goods, both of the Spanish and English merchants, indeed, were, perhaps, subject to higher duties. But the loss occasioned by the negligence, profusion, and malversation of the servants of the company, had probably been a tax much heavier than all those duties. That a joint-stock company should be able to carry on successfully any branch of foreign trade, when private adventurers can come into any sort of open and fair competition with them, seems contrary to all experience.
The old English East India company was established in 1600, by a charter from Queen Elizabeth. In the first twelve voyages which they fitted out for India, they appear to have traded as a regulated company, with separate stocks, though only in the general ships of the company. In 1612, they united into a joint stock. Their charter was exclusive, and, though not confirmed by act of parliament, was in those days supposed to convey a real exclusive privilege. For many years, therefore, they were not much disturbed by interlopers. Their capital, which never exceeded seven hundred and fourty-four thousand pounds, and of which fifty pounds was a share, was not so exorbitant, nor their dealings so extensive, as to afford either a pretext for gross negligence and profusion, or a cover to gross malversation. Notwithstanding some extraordinary losses, occasioned partly by the malice of the Dutch East India company, and partly by other accidents, they carried on for many years a successful trade. But in process of time, when the principles of liberty were better understood, it became every day more and more doubtful, how far a royal charter, not confirmed by act of parliament, could convey an exclusive privilege. Upon this question the decisions of the courts of justice were not uniform, but varied with the authority of government, and the humours of the times. Interlopers multiplied upon them; and towards the end of the reign of Charles II., through the whole of that of James II., and during a part of that of William III., reduced them to great distress. In 1698, a proposal was made to parliament, of advancing two millions to government, at eight per cent. provided the subscribers were erected into a new East India company, with exclusive privileges. The old East India company offered seven hundred thousand pounds, nearly the amount of their capital, at four per cent. upon the same conditions. But such was at that time the state of public credit, that it was more convenient for government to borrow two millions at eight per cent. than seven hundred thousand pounds at four. The proposal of the new subscribers was accepted, and a new East India company established in consequence. The old East India company, however, had a right to continue their trade till 1701. They had, at the same time, in the name of their treasurer, subscribed very artfully three hundred and fifteen thousand pounds into the stock of the new. By a negligence in the expression of the act of parliament, which vested the East India trade in the subscribers to this loan of two millions, it did not appear evident that they were all obliged to unite into a joint stock. A few private traders, whose subscriptions amounted only to seven thousand two hundred pounds, insisted upon the privilege of trading separately upon their own stocks, and at their own risks. The old East India company had a right to a separate trade upon their own stock till 1701; and they had likewise, both before and after that period, a right, like that of other private traders, to a separate trade upon the three hundred and fifteen thousand pounds, which they had subscribed into the stock of the new company. The competition of the two companies with the private traders, and with one another, is said to have well nigh ruined both. Upon a subsequent occasion, in 1730, when a proposal was made to parliament for putting the trade under the management of a regulated company, and thereby[Pg 314] laying it in some measure open, the East India company, in opposition to this proposal, represented, in very strong terms, what had been, at this time, the miserable effects, as they thought them, of this competition. In India, they said, it raised the price of goods so high, that they were not worth the buying; and in England, by overstocking the market, it sunk their price so low, that no profit could be made by them. That by a more plentiful supply, to the great advantage and conveniency of the public, it must have reduced very much the price of India goods in the English market, cannot well be doubted; but that it should have raised very much their price in the Indian market, seems not very probable, as all the extraordinary demand which that competition could occasion must have been but as a drop of water in the immense ocean of Indian commerce. The increase of demand, besides, though in the beginning it may sometimes raise the price of goods, never fails to lower it in the long-run. It encourages production, and thereby increases the competition of the producers, who, in order to undersell one another, have recourse to new divisions of labour and new improvements of art, which might never otherwise have been thought of. The miserable effects of which the company complained, were the cheapness of consumption, and the encouragement given to production; precisely the two effects which it is the great business of political economy to promote. The competition, however, of which they gave this doleful account, had not been allowed to be of long continuance. In 1702, the two companies were, in some measure, united by an indenture tripartite, to which the queen was the third party; and in 1708, they were by act of parliament, perfectly consolidated into one company, by their present name of the United Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies. Into this act it was thought worth while to insert a clause, allowing the separate traders to continue their trade till Michaelmas 1711; but at the same time empowering the directors, upon three years notice, to redeem their little capital of seven thousand two hundred pounds, and thereby to convert the whole stock of the company into a joint stock. By the same act, the capital of the company, in consequence of a new loan to government, was augmented from two millions to three millions two hundred thousand pounds. In 1743, the company advanced another million to government. But this million being raised, not by a call upon the proprietors, but by selling annuities and contracting bond-debts, it did not augment the stock upon which the proprietors could claim a dividend. It augmented, however, their trading stock, it being equally liable with the other three millions two hundred thousand pounds, to the losses sustained, and debts contracted by the company in prosecution of their mercantile projects. From 1708, or at least from 1711, this company, being delivered from all competitors, and fully established in the monopoly of the English commerce to the East Indies, carried on a successful trade, and from their profits, made annually a moderate dividend to their proprietors. During the French war, which began in 1741, the ambition of Mr. Dupleix, the French governor of Pondicherry, involved them in the wars of the Carnatic, and in the politics of the Indian princes. After many signal successes, and equally signal losses, they at last lost Madras, at that time their principal settlement in India. It was restored to them by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle; and, about this time the spirit of war and conquest seems to have taken possession of their servants in India, and never since to have left them. During the French war, which began in 1755, their arms partook of the general good fortune of those of Great Britain. They defended Madras, took Pondicherry, recovered Calcutta, and acquired the revenues of a rich and extensive territory, amounting, it was then said, to upwards of three millions a-year. They remained for several years in quiet possession of this revenue; but in 1767, administration laid claim to their territorial acquisitions, and the revenue arising from them, as of right belonging to the crown; and the company, in compensation for this claim, agreed to pay to government four hundred thousand pounds a-year. They had, before this, gradually augmented their dividend from about six to ten per cent.; that is, upon their capital of three millions two hundred thousand pounds, they had increased it by a hundred and twenty-eight thousand pounds, or had raised it from one hundred and ninety-two thousand to three hundred and twenty thousand pounds a-year. They were attempting about this time to raise it still further, to twelve and a-half per cent., which would have made their annual payments to their proprietors equal to what they had agreed to pay annually to government, or to four hundred thousand pounds a-year. But during the two years in which their agreement with government was to take place, they were restrained from any further increase of dividend by two successive acts of parliament, of which the object was to enable them to make a speedier progress in the payment of their debts, which were at this time estimated at upwards of six or seven millions sterling. In 1769, they renewed their agreement with government for five years more, and stipulated, that during the course of that period, they should be allowed gradually to increase their dividend to twelve and a-half per cent; never increasing it, however, more than one per cent. in one year. This increase of dividend, therefore, when it had risen to its utmost height, could augment their annual[Pg 315] payments, to their proprietors and government together, but by six hundred and eight thousand pounds, beyond what they had been before their late territorial acquisitions. What the gross revenue of those territorial acquisitions was supposed to amount to, has already been mentioned; and by an account brought by the Cruttenden East Indiaman in 1769, the neat revenue, clear of all deductions and military charges, was stated at two millions forty-eight thousand seven hundred and forty-seven pounds. They were said, at the same time, to possess another revenue, arising partly from lands, but chiefly from the customs established at their different settlements, amounting to four hundred and thirty-nine thousand pounds. The profits of their trade, too, according to the evidence of their chairman before the house of commons, amounted, at this time, to at least four hundred thousand pounds a-year; according to that of their accountant, to at least five hundred thousand; according to the lowest account, at least equal to the highest dividend that was to be paid to their proprietors. So great a revenue might certainly have afforded augmentation of six hundred and eight thousand pounds in their annual payments; and, at the same time, have left a large sinking fund, sufficient for the speedy reduction of their debt. In 1773, however, their debts, instead of being reduced, were augmented by an arrear to the treasury in the payment of the four hundred thousand pounds; by another to the custom-house for duties unpaid; by a large debt to the bank, for money borrowed; and by a fourth, for bills drawn upon them from India, and wantonly accepted, to the amount of upwards of twelve hundred thousand pounds. The distress which these accumulated claims brought upon them, obliged them not only to reduce all at once their dividend to six per cent. but to throw themselves upon the mercy of government, and to supplicate, first, a release from the further payment of the stipulated four hundred thousand pounds a-year; and, secondly, a loan of fourteen hundred thousand, to save them from immediate bankruptcy. The great increase of their fortune had, it seems, only served to furnish their servants with a pretext for greater profusion, and a cover for greater malversation, than in proportion even to that increase of fortune. The conduct of their servants in India, and the general state of their affairs both in India and in Europe, became the subject of a parliamentary inquiry: in consequence of which, several very important alterations were made in the constitution of their government, both at home and abroad. In India, their principal settlements of Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, which had before been altogether independent of one another, were subjected to a governor-general, assisted by a council of four assessors, parliament assuming to itself the first nomination of this governor and council, who were to reside at Calcutta; that city having now become, what Madras was before, the most important of the English settlements in India. The court of the Mayor of Calcutta, originally instituted for the trial of mercantile causes, which arose in the city and neighbourhood, had gradually extended its jurisdiction with the extension of the empire. It was now reduced and confined to the original purpose of its institution. Instead of it, a new supreme court of judicature was established, consisting of a chief justice and three judges, to be appointed by the crown. In Europe, the qualification necessary to entitle a proprietor to vote at their general courts was raised, from five hundred pounds, the original price of a share in the stock of the company, to a thousand pounds. In order to vote upon this qualification, too, it was declared necessary, that he should have possessed it, if acquired by his own purchase, and not by inheritance, for at least one year, instead of six months, the term requisite before. The court of twenty-four directors had before been chosen annually; but it was now enacted, that each director should, for the future, be chosen for four years; six of them, however, to go out of office by rotation every year, and not be capable of being re-chosen at the election of the six new directors for the ensuing year. In consequence of these alterations, the courts, both of the proprietors and directors, it was expected, would be likely to act with more dignity and steadiness than they had usually done before. But it seems impossible, by any alterations, to render those courts, in any respect, fit to govern, or even to share in the government of a great empire; because the greater part of their members must always have too little interest in the prosperity of that empire, to give any serious attention to what may promote it. Frequently a man of great, sometimes even a man of small fortune, is willing to purchase a thousand pounds share in India stock, merely for the influence which he expects to acquire by a vote in the court of proprietors. It gives him a share, though not in the plunder, yet in the appointment of the plunderers of India; the court of directors, though they make that appointment, being necessarily more or less under the influence of the proprietors, who not only elect those directors, but sometimes over-rule the appointments of their servants in India. Provided he can enjoy this influence for a few years, and thereby provide for a certain number of his friends, he frequently cares little about the dividend, or even about the value of the stock upon which his vote in founded. About the prosperity of the great empire, in the government of which that vote gives him a share, he seldom cares at all. No other sovereigns ever were, or, from the nature of things, ever could be, so perfectly indifferent about the happiness[Pg 316] or misery of their subjects, the improvement or waste of their dominions, the glory or disgrace of their administration, as, from irresistible moral causes, the greater part of the proprietors of such a mercantile company are, and necessarily must be. This indifference, too, was more likely to be increased than diminished by some of the new regulations which were made in consequence of the parliamentary inquiry. By a resolution of the house of commons, for example, it was declared, that when the L.1,400,000 lent to the company by government, should be paid, and their bond-debts be reduced to L.1,500,000, they might then, and not till then, divide eight per cent. upon their capital; and that whatever remained of their revenues and neat profits at home should be divided into four parts; three of them to be paid into the exchequer for the use of the public, and the fourth to be reserved as a fund, either for the further reduction of their bond-debts, or for the discharge of other contingent exigencies which the company might labour under. But if the company were bad stewards and bad sovereigns, when the whole of their neat revenue and profits belonged to themselves, and were at their own disposal, they were surely not likely to be better when three-fourths of them were to belong to other people, and the other fourth, though to be laid out for the benefit of the company, yet to be so under the inspection and with the approbation of other people.
It might be more agreeable to the company, that their own servants and dependants should have either the pleasure of wasting, or the profit of embezzling, whatever surplus might remain, after paying the proposed dividend of eight per cent. than that it should come into the hands of a set of people with whom those resolutions could scarce fail to set them in some measure at variance. The interest of those servants and dependants might so far predominate in the court of proprietors, as sometimes to dispose it to support the authors of depredations which had been committed in direct violation of its own authority. With the majority of proprietors, the support even of the authority of their own court might sometimes be a matter of less consequence than the support of those who had set that authority at defiance.
The regulations of 1773, accordingly, did not put an end to the disorder of the company's government in India. Notwithstanding that, during a momentary fit of good conduct, they had at one time collected into the treasury of Calcutta more than L.3,000,000 sterling; notwithstanding that they had afterwards extended either their dominion or their depredations over a vast accession of some of the richest and most fertile countries in India, all was wasted and destroyed. They found themselves altogether unprepared to stop or resist the incursion of Hyder Ali; and in consequence of those disorders, the company is now (1784) in greater distress than ever; and, in order to prevent immediate bankruptcy, is once more reduced to supplicate the assistance of government. Different plans have been proposed by the different parties in parliament for the better management of its affairs; and all those plans seem to agree in supposing, what was indeed always abundantly evident, that it is altogether unfit to govern its territorial possessions. Even the company itself seems to be convinced of its own incapacity so far, and seems, upon that account willing to give them up to government.
With the right of possessing forts and garrisons in distant and barbarous countries, is necessarily connected the right of making peace and war in those countries. The joint-stock companies, which have had the one right, have constantly exercised the other, and have frequently had it expressly conferred upon them. How unjustly, how capriciously, how cruelly, they have commonly exercised it, is too well known from recent experience.
When a company of merchants undertake, at their own risk and expense, to establish a new trade with some remote and barbarous nation, it may not be unreasonable to incorporate them into a joint-stock company, and to grant them, in case of their success, a monopoly of the trade for a certain number of years. It is the easiest and most natural way in which the state can recompense them for hazarding a dangerous and expensive experiment, of which the public is afterwards to reap the benefit. A temporary monopoly of this kind may be vindicated, upon the same principles upon which a like monopoly of a new machine is granted to its inventor, and that of a new book to its author. But upon the expiration of the term, the monopoly ought certainly to determine; the forts and garrisons, if it was found necessary to establish any, to be taken into the hands of government, their value to be paid to the company, and the trade to be laid open to all the subjects of the state. By a perpetual monopoly, all the other subjects of the state are taxed very absurdly in two different ways: first, by the high price of goods, which, in the case of a free trade, they could buy much cheaper; and, secondly, by their total exclusion from a branch of business which it might be both convenient and profitable for many of them to carry on. It is for the most worthless of all purposes, too, that they are taxed in this manner. It is merely to enable the company to support the negligence, profusion, and malversation of their own servants, whose disorderly conduct seldom allows the dividend of the company to exceed the ordinary rate of profit in trades which are altogether free, and very frequently makes it[Pg 317] fall even a good deal short of that rate. Without a monopoly, however, a joint-stock company, it would appear from experience, cannot long carry on any branch of foreign trade. To buy in one market, in order to sell with profit in another, when there are many competitors in both; to watch over, not only the occasional variations in the demand, but the much greater and more frequent variations in the competition, or in the supply which that demand is likely to get from other people; and to suit with dexterity and judgment both the quantity and quality of each assortment of goods to all these circumstances, is a species of warfare, of which the operations are continually changing, and which can scarce ever be conducted successfully, without such an unremitting exertion of vigilance and attention as cannot long be expected from the directors of a joint-stock company. The East India company, upon the redemption of their funds, and the expiration of their exclusive privilege, have a right, by act of parliament, to continue a corporation with a joint stock, and to trade in their corporate capacity to the East Indies, in common with the rest of their fellow subjects. But in this situation, the superior vigilance and attention of a private adventurer would, in all probability, soon make them weary of the trade.
An eminent French author, of great knowledge in matters of political economy, the Abbé Morellet, gives a list of fifty-five joint-stock companies for foreign trade, which have been established in different parts of Europe since the year 1600, and which, according to him, have all failed from mismanagement, notwithstanding they had exclusive privileges. He has been misinformed with regard to the history of two or three of them, which were not joint-stock companies and have not failed. But, in compensation, there have been several joint-stock companies which have failed, and which he has omitted.
The only trades which it seems possible for a joint-stock company to carry on successfully, without an exclusive privilege, are those, of which all the operations are capable of bring reduced to what is called a routine, or to such a uniformity of method as admits of little or no variation. Of this kind is, first, the banking trade; secondly, the trade of insurance from fire and from sea risk, and capture in time of war; thirdly, the trade of making and maintaining a navigable cut or canal; and, fourthly, the similar trade of bringing water for the supply of a great city.
Though the principles of the banking trade may appear somewhat abstruse, the practice is capable of being reduced to strict rules. To depart upon any occasion from those rules, in consequence of some flattering speculation of extraordinary gain, is almost always extremely dangerous and frequently fatal to the banking company which attempts it. But the constitution of joint-stock companies renders them in general, more tenacious of established rules than any private copartnery. Such companies, therefore, seem extremely well fitted for this trade. The principal banking companies in Europe, accordingly, are joint-stock companies, many of which manage their trade very successfully without any exclusive privilege. The bank of England has no other exclusive privilege, except that no other banking company in England shall consist of more than six persons. The two banks of Edinburgh are joint-stock companies, without any exclusive privilege.
The value of the risk, either from fire, or from loss by sea, or by capture, though it cannot, perhaps, be calculated very exactly, admits, however, of such a gross estimation, as renders it, in some degree, reducible to strict rule and method. The trade of insurance, therefore, may be carried on successfully by a joint-stock company, without any exclusive privilege. Neither the London Assurance, nor the Royal Exchange Assurance companies, have any such privilege.
When a navigable cut or canal has been once made, the management of it becomes quite simple and easy, and it is reducible to strict rule and method. Even the making of it is so, as it may be contracted for with undertakers, at so much a mile, and so much a lock. The same thing may be said of a canal, an aqueduct, or a great pipe for bringing water to supply a great city. Such undertakings, therefore, may be, and accordingly frequently are, very successfully managed by joint-stock companies, without any exclusive privilege.
To establish a joint-stock company, however, for any undertaking, merely because such a company might be capable of managing it successfully; or, to exempt a particular set of dealers from some of the general laws which take place with regard to all their neighbours, merely because they might be capable of thriving, if they had such an exemption, would certainly not be reasonable. To render such an establishment perfectly reasonable, with the circumstance of being reducible to strict rule and method, two other circumstances ought to concur. First, it ought to appear with the clearest evidence, that the undertaking is of greater and more general utility than the greater part of common trades; and, secondly, that it requires a greater capital than can easily be collected into a private copartnery. If a moderate capital were sufficient, the great utility of the undertaking would not be a sufficient reason for establishing a joint-stock company; because, in this case, the demand for what it was to produce, would readily and easily be supplied by private adventurers. In the four[Pg 318] trades above mentioned, both those circumstances concur.
The great and general utility of the banking trade, when prudently managed, has been fully explained in the second book of this Inquiry. But a public bank, which is to support public credit, and, upon particular emergencies, to advance to government the whole produce of a tax, to the amount, perhaps, of several millions, a year or two before it comes in, requires a greater capital than can easily be collected into any private copartnery.
The trade of insurance gives great security to the fortunes of private people, and, by dividing among a great many that loss which would ruin an individual, makes it fall light and easy upon the whole society. In order to give this security, however, it is necessary that the insurers should have a very large capital. Before the establishment of the two joint-stock companies for insurance in London, a list, it is said, was laid before the attorney-general, of one hundred and fifty private insurers, who had failed in the course of a few years.
That navigable cuts and canals, and the works which are sometimes necessary for supplying a great city with water, are of great and general utility, while, at the same time, they frequently require a greater expense than suits the fortunes of private people, is sufficiently obvious.
Except the four trades above mentioned, I have not been able to recollect any other, in which all the three circumstances requisite for rendering reasonable the establishment of a joint-stock company concur. The English copper company of London, the lead-smelting company, the glass-grinding company, have not even the pretext of any great or singular utility in the object which they pursue; nor does the pursuit of that object seem to require any expense unsuitable to the fortunes of many private men. Whether the trade which those companies carry on, is reducible to such strict rule and method as to render it fit for the management of a joint-stock company, or whether they have any reason to boast of their extraordinary profits, I do not pretend to know. The mine-adventurers company has been long ago bankrupt. A share in the stock of the British Linen company of Edinburgh sells, at present, very much below par, though less so than it did some years ago. The joint-stock companies, which are established for the public-spirited purpose of promoting some particular manufacture, over and above managing their own affairs ill, to the diminution of the general stock of the society, can, in other respects, scarce ever fail to do more harm than good. Notwithstanding the most upright intentions, the unavoidable partiality of their directors to particular branches of the manufacture, of which the undertakers mislead and impose upon them, is a real discouragement to the rest, and necessarily breaks, more or less, that natural proportion which would otherwise establish itself between judicious industry and profit, and which, to the general industry of the country, is of all encouragements the greatest and the most effectual.
ART. II.—Of the Expense of the Institution for the Education of Youth.
The institutions for the education of the youth may, in the same manner, furnish a revenue sufficient for defraying their own expense. The fee or honorary, which the scholar pays to the master, naturally constitutes a revenue of this kind.
Even where the reward of the master does not arise altogether from this natural revenue, it still is not necessary that it should be derived from that general revenue of the society, of which the collection and application are, in most countries, assigned to the executive power. Through the greater part of Europe, accordingly, the endowment of schools and colleges makes either no charge upon that general revenue, or but a very small one. It everywhere arises chiefly from some local or provincial revenue, from the rent of some landed estate, or from the interest of some sum of money, allotted and put under the management of trustees for this particular purpose, sometimes by the sovereign himself, and sometimes by some private donor.
Have those public endowments contributed in general, to promote the end of their institution? Have they contributed to encourage the diligence, and to improve the abilities, of the teachers? Have they directed the course of education towards objects more useful, both to the individual and to the public, than those to which it would naturally have gone of its own accord? It should not seem very difficult to give at least a probable answer to each of those questions.
In every profession, the exertion of the greater part of those who exercise it, is always in proportion to the necessity they are under of making that exertion. This necessity is greatest with those to whom the emoluments of their profession are the only source from which they expect their fortune, or even their ordinary revenue and subsistence. In order to acquire this fortune, or even to get this subsistence, they must, in the course of a year, execute a certain quantity of work of a known value; and, where the competition is free, the rivalship of competitors, who are all endeavouring to justle one another out of employment, obliges every man to endeavour to execute his work with a certain degree of exactness. The greatness of the ob[Pg 319]jects which are to be acquired by success in some particular professions may, no doubt, sometimes animate the exertion of a few men of extraordinary spirit and ambition. Great objects, however, are evidently not necessary, in order to occasion the greatest exertions. Rivalship and emulation render excellency, even in mean professions, an object of ambition, and frequently occasion the very greatest exertions. Great objects, on the contrary, alone and unsupported by the necessity of application, have seldom been sufficient to occasion any considerable exertion. In England, success in the profession of the law leads to some very great objects of ambition; and yet how few men, born to easy fortunes, have ever in this country been eminent in that profession?
The endowments of schools and colleges have necessarily diminished, more or less, the necessity of application in the teachers. Their subsistence, so far as it arises from their salaries, is evidently derived from a fund, altogether independent of their success and reputation in their particular professions.
In some universities, the salary makes but a part, and frequently but a small part, of the emoluments of the teacher, of which the greater part arises from the honoraries or fees of his pupils. The necessity of application, though always more or less diminished, is not, in this case, entirely taken away. Reputation in his profession is still of some importance to him, and he still has some dependency upon the affection, gratitude, and favourable report of those who have attended upon his instructions; and these favourable sentiments he is likely to gain in no way so well as by deserving them, that is, by the abilities and diligence with which he discharges every part of his duty.
In other universities, the teacher is prohibited from receiving any honorary or fee from his pupils, and his salary constitutes the whole of the revenue which he derives from his office. His interest is, in this case, set as directly in opposition to his duty as it is possible to set it. It is the interest of every man to live as much at his ease as he can; and if his emoluments are to be precisely the same, whether he does or does not perform some very laborious duty, it is certainly his interest, at least as interest is vulgarly understood, either to neglect it altogether, or, if he is subject to some authority which will not suffer him to do this, to perform it in as careless and slovenly a manner as that authority will permit. If he is naturally active and a lover of labour, it is his interest to employ that activity in any way from which he can derive some advantage, rather than in the performance of his duty, from which he can derive none.
If the authority to which he is subject resides in the body corporate, the college, or university, of which he himself is a member, and in which the greater part of the other members are, like himself, persons who either are, or ought to be teachers, they are likely to make a common cause, to be all very indulgent to one another, and every man to consent that his neighbour may neglect his duty, provided he himself is allowed to neglect his own. In the university of Oxford, the greater part of the public professors have, for these many years, given up altogether even the pretence of teaching.
If the authority to which he is subject resides, not so much in the body corporate, of which he is a member, as in some other extraneous persons, in the bishop of the diocese, for example, in the governor of the province, or, perhaps, in some minister of state, it is not, indeed, in this case, very likely that he will be suffered to neglect his duty altogether. All that such superiors, however, can force him to do, is to attend upon his pupils a certain number of hours, that is, to give a certain number of lectures in the week, or in the year. What those lectures shall be, must still depend upon the diligence of the teacher; and that diligence is likely to be proportioned to the motives which he has for exerting it. An extraneous jurisdiction of this kind, besides, is liable to be exercised both ignorantly and capriciously. In its nature, it is arbitrary and discretionary; and the persons who exercise it, neither attending upon the lectures of the teacher themselves, nor perhaps understanding the sciences which it is his business to teach, are seldom capable of exercising it with judgment. From the insolence of office, too, they are frequently indifferent how they exercise it, and are very apt to censure or deprive him of his office wantonly and without any just cause. The person subject to such jurisdiction is necessarily degraded by it, and, instead of being one of the most respectable, is rendered one of the meanest and most contemptible persons in the society. It is by powerful protection only, that he can effectually guard himself against the bad usage to which he is at all times exposed; and this protection he is most likely to gain, not by ability or diligence in his profession, but by obsequiousness to the will of his superiors, and by being ready, at all times, to sacrifice to that will the rights, the interest, and the honour of the body corporate, of which he is a member. Whoever has attended for any considerable time to the administration of a French university, must have had occasion to remark the effects which naturally result from an arbitrary and extraneous jurisdiction of this kind.
Whatever forces a certain number of students to any college or university, independent of the merit or reputation of the teachers, tends more or less to diminish the necessity of that merit or reputation.[Pg 320]
The privileges of graduates in arts, in law, physic, and divinity, when they can be obtained only by residing a certain number of years in certain universities, necessarily force a certain number of students to such universities, independent of the merit or reputation of the teachers. The privileges of graduates are a sort of statutes of apprenticeship, which have contributed to the improvement of education, just as the other statutes of apprenticeship have to that of arts and manufactures.
The charitable foundations of scholarships, exhibitions, bursaries, &c. necessarily attach a certain number of students to certain colleges, independent altogether of the merit of those particular colleges. Were the students upon such charitable foundations left free to choose what college they liked best, such liberty might perhaps contribute to excite some emulation among different colleges. A regulation, on the contrary, which prohibited even the independent members of every particular college from leaving it, and going to any other, without leave first asked and obtained of that which they meant to abandon, would tend very much to extinguish that emulation.
If in each college, the tutor or teacher, who was to instruct each student in all arts and sciences, should not be voluntarily chosen by the student, but appointed by the head of the college; and if, in case of neglect, inability, or bad usage, the student should not be allowed to change him for another, without leave first asked and obtained; such a regulation would not only tend very much to extinguish all emulation among the different tutors of the same college, but to diminish very much, in all of them, the necessity of diligence and of attention to their respective pupils. Such teachers, though very well paid by their students, might be as much disposed to neglect them, as those who are not paid by them at all or who have no other recompense but their salary.
If the teacher happens to be a man of sense, it must be an unpleasant thing to him to be conscious, while he is lecturing to his students, that he is either speaking or reading nonsense, or what is very little better than nonsense. It must, too, be unpleasant to him to observe, that the greater part of his students desert his lectures; or perhaps, attend upon them with plain enough marks of neglect, contempt, and derision. If he is obliged, therefore, to give a certain number of lectures, these motives alone, without any other interest, might dispose him to take some pains to give tolerably good ones. Several different expedients, however, may be fallen upon, which will effectually blunt the edge of all those incitements to diligence. The teacher, instead of explaining to his pupils himself the science in which he proposes to instruct them, may read some book upon it; and if this book is written in a foreign and dead language, by interpreting it to them into their own, or, what would give him still less trouble, by making them interpret it to him, and by now and then making an occasional remark upon it, he may flatter himself that he is giving a lecture. The slightest degree of knowledge and application will enable him to do this, without exposing himself to contempt or derision, by saying any thing that is really foolish, absurd, or ridiculous. The discipline of the college, at the same time, may enable him to force all his pupils to the most regular attendance upon his sham lecture, and to maintain the most decent and respectful behaviour during the whole time of the performance.
The discipline of colleges and universities is in general contrived, not for the benefit of the students, but for the interest, or, more properly speaking, for the ease of the masters. Its object is, in all cases, to maintain the authority of the master, and, whether he neglects or performs his duty, to oblige the students in all cases to behave to him as if he performed it with the greatest diligence and ability. It seems to presume perfect wisdom and virtue in the one order, and the greatest weakness and folly in the other. Where the masters, however, really perform their duty, there are no examples, I believe, that the greater part of the students ever neglect theirs. No discipline is ever requisite to force attendance upon lectures which are really worth the attending, as is well known wherever any such lectures are given. Force and restraint may, no doubt, be in some degree requisite, in order to oblige children, or very young boys, to attend to those parts of education, which it is thought necessary for them to acquire during that early period of life; but after twelve or thirteen years of age, provided the master does his duty, force or restraint can scarce ever be necessary to carry on any part of education. Such is the generosity of the greater part of young men, that so far from being disposed to neglect or despise the instructions of their master, provided he shews some serious intention of being of use to them, they are generally inclined to pardon a great deal of incorrectness in the performance of his duty, and sometimes even to conceal from the public a good deal of gross negligence.
Those parts of education, it is to be observed, for the teaching of which there are no public institutions, are generally the best taught. When a young man goes to a fencing or a dancing school, he does not, indeed, always learn to fence or to dance very well; but he seldom fails of learning to fence or to dance. The good effects of the riding school are not commonly so evident. The expense of a riding school is so great, that in most places it is a public institution. The three[Pg 321] most essential parts of literary education, to read, write, and account, it still continues to be more common to acquire in private than in public schools; and it very seldom happens, that anybody fails of acquiring them to the degree in which it is necessary to acquire them.
In England, the public schools are much less corrupted than the universities. In the schools, the youth are taught, or at least may be taught, Greek and Latin; that is, every thing which the masters pretend to teach, or which it is expected they should teach. In the universities, the youth neither are taught, nor always can find any proper means of being taught the sciences, which it is the business of those incorporated bodies to teach. The reward of the schoolmaster, in most cases, depends principally, in some cases almost entirely, upon the fees or honoraries of his scholars. Schools have no exclusive privileges. In order to obtain the honours of graduation, it is not necessary that a person should bring a certificate of his having studied a certain number of years at a public school. If, upon examination, he appears to understand what is taught there, no questions are asked about the place where he learnt it.
The parts of education which are commonly taught in universities, it may perhaps be said, are not very well taught. But had it not been for those institutions, they would not have been commonly taught at all; and both the individual and the public would have suffered a good deal from the want of those important parts of education.
The present universities of Europe were originally, the greater part of them, ecclesiastical corporations, instituted for the education of churchmen. They were founded by the authority of the pope; and were so entirely under his immediate protection, that their members, whether masters or students, had all of them what was then called the benefit of clergy, that is, were exempted from the civil jurisdiction of the countries in which their respective universities were situated, and were amenable only to the ecclesiastical tribunals. What was taught in the greater part of those universities was suitable to the end of their institution, either theology, or something that was merely preparatory to theology.
When Christianity was first established by law, a corrupted Latin had become the common language of all the western parts of Europe. The service of the church, accordingly, and the translation of the Bible which were read in churches, were both in that corrupted Latin; that is, in the common language of the country. After the irruption of the barbarous nations who overturned the Roman empire, Latin gradually ceased to be the language of any part of Europe. But the reverence of the people naturally preserves the established forms and ceremonies of religion long after the circumstances which first introduced and rendered them reasonable, are no more. Though Latin, therefore, was no longer understood anywhere by the great body of the people, the whole service of the church still continued to be performed in that language. Two different languages were thus established in Europe, in the same manner as in ancient Egypt: a language of the priests, and a language of the people; a sacred and a profane, a learned and an unlearned language. But it was necessary that the priests should understand something of that sacred and learned language in which they were to officiate; and the study of the Latin language therefore made, from the beginning, an essential part of university education.
It was not so with that either of the Greek or of the Hebrew language. The infallible decrees of the church had pronounced the Latin translation of the Bible, commonly called the Latin Vulgate, to have been equally dictated by divine inspiration, and therefore of equal authority with the Greek and Hebrew originals. The knowledge of those two languages, therefore, not being indispensably requisite to a churchman, the study of them did not for a long time make a necessary part of the common course of university education. There are some Spanish universities, I am assured, in which the study of the Greek language has never yet made any part of that course. The first reformers found the Greek text of the New Testament, and even the Hebrew text of the Old, more favourable to their opinions than the vulgate translation, which, as might naturally be supposed, had been gradually accommodated to support the doctrines of the Catholic Church. They set themselves, therefore, to expose the many errors of that translation, which the Roman catholic clergy were thus put under the necessity of defending or explaining. But this could not well be done without some knowledge of the original languages, of which the study was therefore gradually introduced into the greater part of universities; both of those which embraced, and of those which rejected, the doctrines of the reformation. The Greek language was connected with every part of that classical learning, which, though at first principally cultivated by catholics and Italians, happened to come into fashion much about the same time that the doctrines of the reformation were set on foot. In the greater part of universities, therefore, that language was taught previous to the study of philosophy, and as soon as the student had made some progress in the Latin. The Hebrew language having no connection with classical learning, and, except the Holy Scriptures, being the language of not a single book in any esteem[Pg 322] the study of it did not commonly commence till after that of philosophy, and when the student had entered upon the study of theology.
Originally, the first rudiments, both of the Greek and Latin languages, were taught in universities; and in some universities they still continue to be so. In others, it is expected that the student should have previously acquired, at least, the rudiments of one or both of those languages, of which the study continues to make everywhere a very considerable part of university education.
The ancient Greek philosophy was divided into three great branches; physics, or natural philosophy; ethics, or moral philosophy; and logic. This general division seems perfectly agreeable to the nature of things.
The great phenomenon of nature, the revolutions of the heavenly bodies, eclipses, comets; thunder and lightning, and other extraordinary meteors; the generation, the life, growth, and dissolution of plants and animals; are objects which, as they necessarily excite the wonder, so they naturally call forth the curiosity of mankind to inquire into their causes. Superstition first attempted to satisfy this curiosity, by referring all those wonderful appearances to the immediate agency of the gods. Philosophy afterwards endeavoured to account for them from more familiar causes, or from such as mankind were better acquainted with, than the agency of the gods. As those great phenomena are the first objects of human curiosity, so the science which pretends to explain them must naturally have been the first branch of philosophy that was cultivated. The first philosophers, accordingly, of whom history has preserved any account, appears to have been natural philosophers.
In every age and country of the world, men must have attended to the characters, designs, and actions of one another; and many reputable rules and maxims for the conduct of human life must have been laid down and approved of by common consent. As soon as writing came into fashion, wise men, or those who fancied themselves such, would naturally endeavour to increase the number of those established and respected maxims, and to express their own sense of what was either proper or improper conduct, sometimes in the more artificial form of apologues, like what are called the fables of Æsop; and sometimes in the more simple one of apophthegms or wise sayings, like the proverbs of Solomon, the verses of Theognis and Phocyllides, and some part of the works of Hesiod. They might continue in this manner, for a long time, merely to multiply the number of those maxims of prudence and morality, without even attempting to arrange them in any very distinct or methodical order, much less to connect them together by one or more general principles, from which they were all deducible, like effects from their natural causes. The beauty of a systematical arrangement of different observations, connected by a few common principles, was first seen in the rude essays of those ancient times towards a system of natural philosophy. Something of the same kind was afterwards attempted in morals. The maxims of common life were arranged in some methodical order, and connected together by a few common principles, in the same manner as they had attempted to arrange and connect the phenomena of nature. The science which pretends to investigate and explain those connecting principles, is what is properly called Moral Philosophy.
Different authors gave different systems, both of natural and moral philosophy. But the arguments by which they supported those different systems, far from being always demonstrations, were frequently at best but very slender probabilities, and sometimes mere sophisms, which had no other foundation but the inaccuracy and ambiguity of common language. Speculative systems, have, in all ages of the world, been adopted for reasons too frivolous to have determined the judgment of any man of common sense, in a matter of the smallest pecuniary interest. Gross sophistry has scarce ever had any influence upon the opinions of mankind, except in matters of philosophy and speculation; and in these it has frequently had the greatest. The patrons of each system of natural and moral philosophy, naturally endeavoured to expose the weakness of the arguments adduced to support the systems which were opposite to their own. In examining those arguments, they were necessarily led to consider the difference between a probable and a demonstrative argument, between a fallacious and a conclusive one; and logic, or the science of the general principles of good and bad reasoning, necessarily arose out of the observations which a scrutiny of this kind gave occasion to; though, in its origin, posterior both to physics and to ethics, it was commonly taught, not indeed in all, but in the greater part of the ancient schools of philosophy, previously to either of those sciences. The student, it seems to have been thought, ought to understand well the difference between good and bad reasoning, before he was led to reason upon subjects of so great importance.
This ancient division of philosophy into three parts was, in the greater part of the universities of Europe, changed for another into five.
In the ancient philosophy, whatever was taught concerning the nature either of the human mind or of the Deity, made a part of the system of physics. Those beings, in whatever their essence might be supposed to[Pg 323] consist, were parts of the great system of the universe, and parts, too, productive of the most important effects. Whatever human reason could either conclude or conjecture concerning them, made, as it were, two chapters, though no doubt two very important ones, of the science which pretended to give an account of the origin and revolutions of the great system of the universe. But in the universities of Europe, where philosophy was taught only as subservient to theology, it was natural to dwell longer upon these two chapters than upon any other of the science. They were gradually more and more extended, and were divided into many inferior chapters; till at last the doctrine of spirits, of which so little can be known, came to take up as much room in the system of philosophy as the doctrine of bodies, of which so much can be known. The doctrines concerning those two subjects were considered as making two distinct sciences. What are called metaphysics, or pneumatics, were set in opposition to physics, and were cultivated not only as the more sublime, but, for the purposes of a particular profession, as the more useful science of the two. The proper subject of experiment and observation, a subject in which a careful attention is capable of making so many useful discoveries, was almost entirely neglected. The subject in which, after a very few simple and almost obvious truths, the most careful attention can discover nothing but obscurity and uncertainty, and can consequently produce nothing but subtleties and sophisms, was greatly cultivated.
When these two sciences had thus been set in opposition to one another, the comparison between them naturally gave birth to a third, to what was called ontology, or the science which treated of the qualities and attributes which were common to both the subjects of the other two sciences. But if subtleties and sophisms composed the greater part of the metaphysics or pneumatics of the schools, they composed the whole of this cobweb science of ontology, which was likewise sometimes called metaphysics.
Wherein consisted the happiness and perfection of a man, considered not only as an individual, but as the member of a family, of a state, and of the great society of mankind, was the object which the ancient moral philosophy proposed to investigate. In that philosophy, the duties of human life were treated of as subservient to the happiness and perfection of human life. But when moral, as well as natural philosophy, came to be taught only as subservient to theology, the duties of human life were treated of as chiefly subservient to the happiness of a life to come. In the ancient philosophy, the perfection of virtue was represented as necessarily productive, to the person who possessed it, of the most perfect happiness in this life. In the modern philosophy, it was frequently represented as generally, or rather as almost always, inconsistent with any degree of happiness in this life; and heaven was to be earned only by penance and mortification, by the austerities and abasement of a monk, not by the liberal, generous, and spirited conduct of a man. Casuistry, and an ascetic morality, made up, in most cases, the greater part of the moral philosophy of the schools. By far the most important of all the different branches of philosophy became in this manner by far the most corrupted.
Such, therefore, was the common course of philosophical education in the greater part of the universities in Europe. Logic was taught first; ontology came in the second place; pneumatology, comprehending the doctrine concerning the nature of the human soul and of the Deity, in the third; in the fourth followed a debased system of moral philosophy, which was considered as immediately connected with the doctrines of pneumatology, with the immortality of the human soul, and with the rewards and punishments which, from the justice of the Deity, were to be expected in a life to come: a short and superficial system of physics usually concluded the course.
The alterations which the universities of Europe thus introduced into the ancient course of philosophy were all meant for the education of ecclesiastics, and to render it a more proper introduction to the study of theology. But the additional quantity of subtlety and sophistry, the casuistry and ascetic morality which those alterations introduced into it, certainly did not render it more for the education of gentlemen or men of the world, or more likely either to improve the understanding or to mend the heart.
This course of philosophy is what still continues to be taught in the greater part of the universities of Europe, with more or less diligence, according as the constitution of each particular university happens to render diligence more or less necessary to the teachers. In some of the richest and best endowed universities, the tutors content themselves with teaching a few unconnected shreds and parcels of this corrupted course; and even these they commonly teach very negligently and superficially.
The improvements which, in modern times, have been made in several different branches of philosophy, have not, the greater part of them, been made in universities, though some, no doubt, have. The greater part of universities have not even been very forward to adopt those improvements after they were made; and several of those learned societies have chosen to remain, for a long time, the sanctuaries in which exploded systems and obsolete prejudices found shelter and protection, after they had been hunted out of every other[Pg 324] corner of the world. In general, the richest and best endowed universities have been slowest in adopting those improvements, and the most averse to permit any considerable change in the established plan of education. Those improvements were more easily introduced into some of the poorer universities, in which the teachers, depending upon their reputation for the greater part of their subsistence, were obliged to pay more attention to the current opinions of the world.
But though the public schools and universities of Europe were originally intended only for the education of a particular profession, that of churchmen; and though they were not always very diligent in instructing their pupils, even in the sciences which were supposed necessary for that profession; yet they gradually drew to themselves the education of almost all other people, particularly of almost all gentlemen and men of fortune. No better method, it seems, could be fallen upon, of spending, with any advantage, the long interval between infancy and that period of life at which men begin to apply in good earnest to the real business of the world, the business which is to employ them during the remainder of their days. The greater part of what is taught in schools and universities, however, does not seem to be the most proper preparation for that business.
In England, it becomes every day more and more the custom to send young people to travel in foreign countries immediately upon their leaving school, and without sending them to any university. Our young people, it is said, generally return home much improved by their travels. A young man, who goes abroad at seventeen or eighteen, and returns home at one-and-twenty, returns three or four years older than he was when he went abroad; and at that age it is very difficult not to improve a good deal in three or four years. In the course of his travels, he generally acquires some knowledge of one or two foreign languages; a knowledge, however, which is seldom sufficient to enable him either to speak or write them with propriety. In other respects, he commonly returns home more conceited, more unprincipled, more dissipated, and more incapable of any serious application, either to study or to business, than he could well have become in so short a time had he lived at home. By travelling so very young, by spending in the must frivolous dissipation the most precious years of his life, at a distance from the inspection and controul of his parents and relations, every useful habit, which the earlier parts of his education might have had some tendency to form in him, instead of being riveted and confirmed, is almost necessarily either weakened or effaced. Nothing but the discredit into which the universities are allowing themselves to fall, could ever have brought into repute so very absurd a practice as that of travelling at this early period of life. By sending his son abroad, a father delivers himself, at least for some time, from so disagreeable an object as that of a son unemployed, neglected, and going to ruin before his eyes.
Such have been the effects of some of the modern institutions for education.
Different plans and different institutions for education seem to have taken place in other ages and nations.
In the republics of ancient Greece, every free citizen was instructed, under the direction of the public magistrate, in gymnastic exercises and in music. By gymnastic exercises, it was intended to harden his body, to sharpen his courage, and to prepare him for the fatigues and dangers of war; and as the Greek militia was, by all accounts, one of the best that ever was in the world, this part of their public education must have answered completely the purpose for which it was intended. By the other part, music, it was proposed, at least by the philosophers and historians, who have given us an account of those institutions, to humanize the mind, to soften the temper, and to dispose it for performing all the social and moral duties of public and private life.
In ancient Rome, the exercises of the Campus Martius answered the same purpose as those of the Gymnasium in ancient Greece, and they seem to have answered it equally well. But among the Romans there was nothing which corresponded to the musical education of the Greeks. The morals of the Romans, however, both in private and public life, seem to have been, not only equal, but, upon the whole, a good deal superior to those of the Greeks. That they were superior in private life, we have the express testimony of Polybius, and of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, two authors well acquainted with both nations; and the whole tenor of the Greek and Roman history bears witness to the superiority of the public morals of the Romans. The good temper and moderation of contending factions seem to be the most essential circumstances in the public morals of a free people. But the factions of the Greeks were almost always violent and sanguinary; whereas, till the time of the Gracchi, no blood had ever been shed in any Roman faction; and from the time of the Gracchi, the Roman republic may be considered as in reality dissolved. Notwithstanding, therefore, the very respectable authority of Plato, Aristotle, and Polybius, and notwithstanding the very ingenious reasons by which Mr. Montesquieu endeavours to support that authority, it seems probable that the musical education of the Greeks had no great effect in mending their morals, since, without any such education, those of the Romans were, upon the whole, superior. The respect of those ancient sages[Pg 325] for the institutions of their ancestors had probably disposed them to find much political wisdom in what was, perhaps, merely an ancient custom, continued, without interruption, from the earliest period of those societies, to the times in which they had arrived at a considerable degree of refinement. Music and dancing are the great amusements of almost all barbarous nations, and the great accomplishments which are supposed to fit any man for entertaining his society. It is so at this day among the negroes on the coast of Africa. It was so among the ancient Celtes, among the ancient Scandinavians, and, as we may learn from Homer, among the ancient Greeks, in the times preceding the Trojan war. When the Greek tribes had formed themselves into little republics, it was natural that the study of those accomplishments should for a long time make a part of the public and common education of the people.
The masters who instructed the young people, either in music or in military exercises, do not seem to have been paid, or even appointed by the state, either in Rome or even at Athens, the Greek republic of whose laws and customs we are the best informed. The state required that every free citizen should fit himself for defending it in war, and should upon that account, learn his military exercises. But it left him to learn them of such masters as he could find; and it seems to have advanced nothing for this purpose, but a public field or place of exercise, in which he should practise and perform them.
In the early ages, both of the Greek and Roman republics, the other parts of education seem to have consisted in learning to read, write, and account, according to the arithmetic of the times. These accomplishments the richer citizens seem frequently to have acquired at home, by the assistance of some domestic pedagogue, who was, generally, either a slave or a freedman; and the poorer citizens in the schools of such masters as made a trade of teaching for hire. Such parts of education, however, were abandoned altogether to the care of the parents or guardians of each individual. It does not appear that the state ever assumed any inspection or direction of them. By a law of Solon, indeed, the children were acquitted from maintaining those parents who had neglected to instruct them in some profitable trade or business.
In the progress of refinement, when philosophy and rhetoric came into fashion, the better sort of people used to send their children to the schools of philosophers and rhetoricians, in order to be instructed in these fashionable sciences. But those schools were not supported by the public. They were, for a long time, barely tolerated by it. The demand for philosophy and rhetoric was, for a long time, so small, that the first professed teachers of either could not find constant employment in any one city, but were obliged to travel about from place to place. In this manner lived Zeno of Elea, Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, and many others. As the demand increased, the schools, both of philosophy and rhetoric, became stationary, first in Athens, and afterwards in several other cities. The state, however, seems never to have encouraged them further, than by assigning to some of them a particular place to teach in, which was sometimes done, too, by private donors. The state seems to have assigned the Academy to Plato, the Lyceum to Aristotle, and the Portico to Zeno of Citta, the founder of the Stoics. But Epicurus bequeathed his gardens to his own school. Till about the time of Marcus Antoninus, however, no teacher appears to have had any salary from the public, or to have had any other emoluments, but what arose from the honoraries or fees of his scholars. The bounty which that philosophical emperor, as we learn from Lucian, bestowed upon one of the teachers of philosophy, probably lasted no longer than his own life. There was nothing equivalent to the privileges of graduation; and to have attended any of those schools was not necessary, in order to be permitted to practise any particular trade or profession. If the opinion of their own utility could not draw scholars to them, the law neither forced anybody to go to them, nor rewarded anybody for having gone to them. The teachers had no jurisdiction over their pupils, nor any other authority besides that natural authority which superior virtue and abilities never fail to procure from young people towards those who are entrusted with any part of their education.
At Rome, the study of the civil law made a part of the education, not of the greater part of the citizens, but of some particular families. The young people, however, who wished to acquire knowledge in the law, had no public school to go to, and had no other method of studying it, than by frequenting the company of such of their relations and friends as were supposed to understand it. It is, perhaps, worth while to remark, that though the laws of the twelve tables were many of them copied from those of some ancient Greek republics, yet law never seems to have grown up to be a science in any republic of ancient Greece. In Rome it became a science very early, and gave a considerable degree of illustration to those citizens who had the reputation of understanding it. In the republics of ancient Greece, particularly in Athens, the ordinary courts of justice consisted of numerous, and therefore disorderly, bodies of people, who frequently decided almost at random, or as clamour, faction, and party-spirit, happened to determine. The ignominy of an unjust decision, when it was to be divided among five hundred, a thousand, or fifteen hundred people (for[Pg 326] some of their courts were so very numerous), could not fall very heavy upon any individual. At Rome, on the contrary, the principal courts of justice consisted either of a single judge, or of a small number of judges, whose characters, especially as they deliberated always in public, could not fail to be very much affected by any rash or unjust decision. In doubtful cases such courts, from their anxiety to avoid blame, would naturally endeavour to shelter themselves under the example or precedent of the judges who had sat before them, either in the same or in some other court. This attention to practice and precedent, necessarily formed the Roman law into that regular and orderly system in which it has been delivered down to us; and the like attention has had the like effects upon the laws of every other country where such attention has taken place. The superiority of character in the Romans over that of the Greeks, so much remarked by Polybius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, was probably more owing to the better constitution of their courts of justice, than to any of the circumstances to which those authors ascribe it. The Romans are said to have been particularly distinguished for their superior respect to an oath. But the people who were accustomed to make oath only before some diligent and well informed court of justice, would naturally be much more attentive to what they swore, than they who were accustomed to do the same thing before mobbish and disorderly assemblies.
The abilities, both civil and military, of the Greeks and Romans, will readily be allowed to have been at least equal to those of any modern nation. Our prejudice is perhaps rather to overrate them. But except in what related to military exercises, the state seems to have been at no pains to form those great abilities; for I cannot be induced to believe that the musical education of the Greeks could be of much consequence in forming them. Masters, however, had been found, it seems, for instructing the better sort of people among those nations, in every art and science in which the circumstances of their society rendered it necessary or convenient for them to be instructed. The demand for such instruction produced, what it always produces, the talent for giving it; and the emulation which an unrestrained competition never fails to excite, appears to have brought that talent to a very high degree of perfection. In the attention which the ancient philosophers excited, in the empire which they acquired over the opinions and principles of their auditors, in the faculty which they possessed of giving a certain tone and character to the conduct and conversation of those auditors, they appear to have been much superior to any modern teachers. In modern times, the diligence of public teachers is more or less corrupted by the circumstances which render them more or less independent of their success and reputation in their particular professions. Their salaries, too, put the private teacher, who would pretend to come into competition with them, in the same state with a merchant who attempts to trade without a bounty, in competition with those who trade with a considerable one. If he sells his goods at nearly the same price, he cannot have the same profit; and poverty and beggary at least, if not bankruptcy and ruin, will infallibly be his lot. If he attempts to sell them much dearer, he is likely to have so few customers, that his circumstances will not be much mended. The privileges of graduation, besides, are in many countries necessary, or at least extremely convenient, to most men of learned professions, that is, to the far greater part of those who have occasion for a learned education. But those privileges can be obtained only by attending the lectures of the public teachers. The most careful attendance upon the ablest instructions of any private teacher cannot always give any title to demand them. It is from these different causes that the private teacher of any of the sciences, which are commonly taught in universities, is, in modern times, generally considered as in the very lowest order of men of letters. A man of real abilities can scarce find out a more humiliating or a more unprofitable employment to turn them to. The endowments of schools and colleges have in this manner not only corrupted the diligence of public teachers, but have rendered it almost impossible to have any good private ones.
Were there no public institutions for education, no system, no science, would be taught, for which there was not some demand, or which the circumstances of the times did not render it either necessary or convenient, or at least fashionable to learn. A private teacher could never find his account in teaching either an exploded and antiquated system of a science acknowledged to be useful, or a science universally believed to be a mere useless and pedantic heap of sophistry and nonsense. Such systems, such sciences, can subsist nowhere but in those incorporated societies for education, whose prosperity and revenue are in a great measure independent of their industry. Were there no public institutions for education, a gentleman, after going through, with application and abilities, the most complete course of education which the circumstances of the times were supposed to afford, could not come into the world completely ignorant of every thing which is the common subject of conversation among gentlemen and men of the world.
There are no public institutions for the education of women, and there is accordingly nothing useless, absurd, or fantastical, in the[Pg 327] common course of their education. They are taught what their parents or guardians judge it necessary or useful for them to learn, and they are taught nothing else. Every part of their education tends evidently to some useful purpose; either to improve the natural attractions of their person, or to form their mind to reserve, to modesty, to chastity, and to economy; to render them both likely to become the mistresses of a family, and to behave properly when they have become such. In every part of her life, a woman feels some conveniency or advantage from every part of her education. It seldom happens that a man, in any part of his life, derives any conveniency or advantage from some of the most laborious and troublesome parts of his education.
Ought the public, therefore, to give no attention, it may be asked, to the education of the people? Or, if it ought to give any, what are the different parts of education which it ought to attend to in the different orders of the people? and in what manner ought it to attend to them?
In some cases, the state of society necessarily places the greater part of individuals in such situations as naturally form in them, without any attention of government, almost all the abilities and virtues which that state requires, or perhaps can admit of. In other cases, the state of the society does not place the greater part of individuals in such situations; and some attention of government is necessary, in order to prevent the almost entire corruption and degeneracy of the great body of the people.
In the progress of the division of labour, the employment of the far greater part of those who live by labour, that is, of the great body of the people, comes to be confined to a few very simple operations; frequently to one or two. But the understandings of the greater part of men are necessarily formed by their ordinary employments. The man whose whole life is spent in performing a few simple operations, of which the effects, too, are perhaps always the same, or very nearly the same, has no occasion to exert his understanding, or to exercise his invention, in finding out expedients for removing difficulties which never occur. He naturally loses, therefore, the habit of such exertion, and generally becomes as stupid and ignorant as it is possible for a human creature to become. The torpor of his mind renders him not only incapable of relishing or bearing a part in any rational conversation, but of conceiving any generous, noble, or tender sentiment, and consequently of forming any just judgment concerning many even of the ordinary duties of private life. Of the great and extensive interests of his country he is altogether incapable of judging; and unless very particular pains have been taken to render him otherwise, he is equally incapable of defending his country in war. The uniformity of his stationary life naturally corrupts the courage of his mind, and makes him regard, with abhorrence, the irregular, uncertain, and adventurous life of a soldier. It corrupts even the activity of his body, and renders him incapable of exerting his strength with vigour and perseverance in any other employment, than that to which he has been bred. His dexterity at his own particular trade seems, in this manner, to be acquired at the expense of his intellectual, social, and martial virtues. But in every improved and civilized society, this is the state into which the labouring poor, that is, the great body of the people, must necessarily fall, unless government takes some pains to prevent it.
It is otherwise in the barbarous societies, as they are commonly called, of hunters, of shepherds, and even of husbandmen in that rude state of husbandry which precedes the improvement of manufactures, and the extension of foreign commerce. In such societies, the varied occupations of every man oblige every man to exert his capacity, and to invent expedients for removing difficulties which are continually occurring. Invention is kept alive, and the mind is not suffered to fall into that drowsy stupidity, which, in a civilized society, seems to benumb the understanding of almost all the inferior ranks of people. In those barbarous societies, as they are called, every man, it has already been observed, is a warrior. Every man, too, is in some measure a statesman, and can form a tolerable judgment concerning the interest of the society, and the conduct of those who govern it. How far their chiefs are good judges in peace, or good leaders in war, is obvious to the observation of almost every single man among them. In such a society, indeed, no man can well acquire that improved and refined understanding which a few men sometimes possess in a more civilized state. Though in a rude society there is a good deal of variety in the occupations of every individual, there is not a great deal in those of the whole society. Every man does, or is capable of doing, almost every thing which any other man does, or is capable of doing. Every man has a considerable degree of knowledge, ingenuity, and invention; but scarce any man has a great degree. The degree, however, which is commonly possessed, is generally sufficient for conducting the whole simple business of the society. In a civilized state, on the contrary, though there is little variety in the occupations of the greater part of individuals, there is an almost infinite variety in those of the whole society. These varied occupations present an almost infinite variety of objects to the contemplation of those few, who, being attached to no particular occupation themselves, have leisure[Pg 328] and inclination to examine the occupations of other people. The contemplation of so great a variety of objects necessarily exercises their minds in endless comparisons end combinations, and renders their understandings, in an extraordinary degree, both acute and comprehensive. Unless those few, however, happen to be placed in some very particular situations, their great abilities, though honourable to themselves, may contribute very little to the good government or happiness of their society. Notwithstanding the great abilities of those few, all the nobler parts of the human character may be, in a great measure, obliterated end extinguished in the great body of the people.
The education of the common people requires, perhaps, in a civilized and commercial society, the attention of the public, more than that of people of some rank and fortune. People of some rank and fortune are generally eighteen or nineteen years of age, before they enter upon that particular business, profession, or trade, by which they propose to distinguish themselves in the world. They have, before that, full time to acquire, or at least to fit themselves for afterwards acquiring, every accomplishment which can recommend them to the public esteem, or render them worthy of it. Their parents or guardians are generally sufficiently anxious that they should be so accomplished, and are, in most cases, willing enough to lay out the expense which is necessary for that purpose. If they are not always properly educated, it is seldom from the want of expense laid out upon their education, but from the improper application of that expense. It is seldom from the want of masters, but from the negligence and incapacity of the masters who are to be had, and from the difficulty, or rather from the impossibility, which there is, in the present state of things, of finding any better. The employments, too, in which people of some rank or fortune spend the greater part of their lives, are not, like those of the common people, simple and uniform. They are almost all of them extremely complicated, and such as exercise the head more than the hands. The understandings of those who are engaged in such employments, can seldom grow torpid for want of exercise. The employments of people of some rank and fortune, besides, are seldom such as harass them from morning to night. They generally have a good deal of leisure, during which they may perfect themselves in every branch, either of useful or ornamental knowledge, of which they may have laid the foundation, or for which they may have acquired some taste in the earlier part of life.
It is otherwise with the common people. They have little time to spare for education. Their parents can scarce afford to maintain them, even in infancy. As soon as they are able to work, they must apply to some trade, by which they can earn their subsistence. That trade, too, is generally so simple and uniform, as to give little exercise to the understanding; while, at the same time, their labour is both so constant and so severe, that it leaves them little leisure and less inclination to apply to, or even to think of any thing else.
But though the common people cannot, in any civilized society, be so well instructed as people of some rank and fortune; the most essential parts of education, however, to read, write, and account, can be acquired at so early a period of life, that the greater part, even of those who are to be bred to the lowest occupations, have time to acquire them before they can be employed in those occupations. For a very small expense, the public can facilitate, can encourage, and can even impose upon almost the whole body of the people, the necessity of acquiring those most essential parts of education.
The public can facilitate this acquisition, by establishing in every parish or district a little school, where children may be taught for a reward so moderate, that even a common labourer may afford it; the master being partly, but not wholly, paid by the public; because, if he was wholly, or even principally, paid by it, he would soon learn to neglect his business. In Scotland, the establishment of such parish schools has taught almost the whole common people to read, and a very great proportion of them to write and account. In England, the establishment of charity schools has had an effect of the same kind, though not so universally, because the establishment is not so universal. If, in those little schools, the books by which the children are taught to read, were a little more instructive than they commonly are; and if, instead of a little smattering in Latin, which the children of the common people are sometimes taught there, and which can scarce ever be of any use to them, they were instructed in the elementary parts of geometry and mechanics; the literary education of this rank of people would, perhaps, be as complete as can be. There is scarce a common trade, which does not afford some opportunities of applying to it the principles of geometry and mechanics, and which would not, therefore, gradually exercise and improve the common people in those principles, the necessary introduction to the most sublime, as well as to the most useful sciences.
The public can encourage the acquisition of those most essential parts of education, by giving small premiums, and little badges of distinction, to the children of the common people who excel in them.
The public can impose upon almost the whole body of the people the necessity of acquiring the most essential parts of education, by obliging every man to undergo an exami[Pg 329]nation or probation in them, before he can obtain the freedom in any corporation, or be allowed to set up any trade, either in a village or town corporate.
It was in this manner, by facilitating the acquisition of their military and gymnastic exercises, by encouraging it, and even by imposing upon the whole body of the people the necessity of learning those exercises, that the Greek and Roman republics maintained the martial spirit of their respective citizens. They facilitated the acquisition of those exercises, by appointing a certain place for learning and practising them, and by granting to certain masters the privilege of teaching in that place. Those masters do not appear to have had either salaries or exclusive privileges of any kind. Their reward consisted altogether in what they got from their scholars; and a citizen, who had learnt his exercises in the public gymnasia, had no sort of legal advantage over one who had learnt them privately, provided the latter had learned them equally well. Those republics encouraged the acquisition of those exercises, by bestowing little premiums and badges of distinction upon those who excelled in them. To have gained a prize in the Olympic, Isthmian, or Nemæan games, gave illustration, not only to the person who gained it, but to his whole family and kindred. The obligation which every citizen was under, to serve a certain number of years, if called upon, in the armies of the republic, sufficient imposed the necessity of learning those exercises, without which he could not be fit for that service.
That in the progress of improvement, the practice of military exercises, unless government takes proper pains to support it, goes gradually to decay, and, together with it, the martial spirit of the great body of the people, the example of modern Europe sufficiently demonstrates. But the security of every society must always depend, more or less, upon the martial spirit of the great body of the people. In the present times, indeed, that martial spirit alone, and unsupported by a well-disciplined standing army, would not, perhaps, be sufficient for the defence and security of any society. But where every citizen had the spirit of a soldier, a smaller standing army would surely be requisite. That spirit, besides, would necessarily diminish very much the dangers to liberty, whether real or imaginary, which are commonly apprehended from a standing army. As it would very much facilitate the operations of that army against a foreign invader; so it would obstruct them as much, if unfortunately they should ever be directed against the constitution of the state.
The ancient institutions of Greece and Rome seem to have been much more effectual for maintaining the martial spirit of the great body of the people, than the establishment of what are called the militias of modern times. They were much more simple. When they were once established, they executed themselves, and it required little or no attention from government to maintain them in the most perfect vigour. Whereas to maintain, even in tolerable execution, the complex regulations of any modern militia, requires the continual and painful attention of government, without which they are constantly falling into total neglect and disuse. The influence, besides, of the ancient institutions, was much more universal. By means of them, the whole body of the people was completely instructed in the use of arms; whereas it is but a very small part of them who can ever be so instructed by the regulations of any modern militia, except, perhaps, that of Switzerland. But a coward, a man incapable either of defending or of revenging himself, evidently wants one of the most essential parts of the character of a man. He is as much mutilated and deformed in his mind as another is in his body, who is either deprived of some of its most essential members, or has lost the use of them. He is evidently the more wretched and miserable of the two; because happiness and misery, which reside altogether in the mind, must necessarily depend more upon the healthful or unhealthful, the mutilated or entire state of the mind, than upon that of the body. Even though the martial spirit of the people were of no use towards the defence of the society, yet, to prevent that sort of mental mutilation, deformity, and wretchedness, which cowardice necessarily involves in it, from spreading themselves through the great body of the people, would still deserve the most serious attention of government; in the same manner as it would deserve its most serious attention to prevent a leprosy, or any other loathsome and offensive disease, though neither mortal nor dangerous, from spreading itself among them; though, perhaps, no other public good might result from such attention, besides the prevention of so great a public evil.
The same thing may be said of the gross ignorance and stupidity which, in a civilized society, seem so frequently to benumb the understandings of all the inferior ranks of people. A man without the proper use of the intellectual faculties of a man, is, if possible, more contemptible than even a coward, and seems to be mutilated and deformed in a still more essential part of the character of human nature. Though the state was to derive no advantage from the instruction of the inferior ranks of people, it would still deserve its attention that they should not be altogether uninstructed. The state, however, derives no inconsiderable advantage from their instruction. The more they are instructed, the less liable they are to the delusions of enthusiasm and superstition, which, among ignorant nations frequently occasion the most dreadful[Pg 330] disorders. An instructed and intelligent people, besides, are always more decent and orderly than an ignorant and stupid one. They feel themselves, each individually, more respectable, and more likely to obtain the respect of their lawful superiors, and they are, therefore, more disposed to respect those superiors. They are more disposed to examine, and more capable of seeing through, the interested complaints of faction and sedition; and they are, upon that account, less apt to be misled into any wanton or unnecessary opposition to the measures of government. In free countries, where the safety of government depends very much upon the favourable judgment which the people may form of its conduct, it must surely be of the highest importance, that they should not be disposed to judge rashly or capriciously concerning it.
ART. III.—Of the Expense of the Institutions for the Instruction of People of all Ages.
The institutions for the instruction of people of all ages, are chiefly those for religious instruction. This is a species of instruction, which the object is not so much to render the people good citizens in this world, as to prepare them for another and a better world in the life to come. The teachers of the doctrine which contains this instruction, in the same manner as other teachers, may either depend altogether for their subsistence upon the voluntary contributions of their hearers; or they may derive it from some other fund, to which the law of their country may entitle them; such as a landed estate, a tythe or land tax, an established salary or stipend. Their exertion, their zeal and industry, are likely to be much greater in the former situation than in the latter. In this respect, the teachers of a new religion have always had a considerable advantage in attacking these ancient and established systems, of which the clergy, reposing themselves upon their benefices, had neglected to keep up the fervour of faith and devotion in the great body of the people; and having given themselves up to indolence, were become altogether incapable of making any vigorous exertion in defence even of their own establishment. The clergy of an established and well endowed religion frequently become men of learning and elegance, who possess all the virtues of gentlemen, or which can recommend them to the esteem of gentlemen; but they are apt gradually to lose the qualities, both good and bad, which gave them authority and influence with the inferior ranks of people, and which had perhaps been the original causes of the success and establishment of their religion. Such a clergy, when attacked by a set of popular and bold, though perhaps stupid and ignorant enthusiasts, feel themselves as perfectly defenceless as the indolent, effeminate, and full fed nations of the southern parts of Asia, when they were invaded by the active, hardy, and hungry Tartars of the north. Such a clergy, upon such an emergency, have commonly no other resource than to call upon the civil magistrate to persecute, destroy, or drive out their adversaries, as disturbers of the public peace. It was thus that the Roman catholic clergy called upon the civil magistrate to persecute the protestants, and the church of England to persecute the dissenters; and that in general every religious sect, when it has once enjoyed, for a century or two, the security of a legal establishment, has found itself incapable of making any vigorous defence against any new sect which chose to attack its doctrine or discipline. Upon such occasions, the advantage, in point of learning and good writing, may sometimes be on the side of the established church. But the arts of popularity, all the arts of gaining proselytes, are constantly on the side of its adversaries. In England, those arts have been long neglected by the well endowed clergy of the established church, and are at present chiefly cultivated by the dissenters and by the methodists. The independent provisions, however, which in many places have been made for dissenting teachers, by means of voluntary subscriptions, of trust rights, and other evasions of the law, seem very much to have abated the zeal and activity of those teachers. They have many of them become very learned, ingenious, and respectable men; but they have in general ceased to be very popular preachers. The methodists, without half the learning of the dissenters, are much more in vogue.
In the church of Rome the industry and zeal of the inferior clergy are kept more alive by the powerful motive of self-interest, than perhaps in any established protestant church. The parochial clergy derive many of them, a very considerable part of their subsistence from the voluntary oblations of the people; a source of revenue, which confession gives them many opportunities of improving. The mendicant orders derive their whole subsistence from such oblations. It is with them as with the hussars and light infantry of some armies; no plunder, no pay. The parochial clergy are like those teachers whose reward depends partly upon their salary, and partly upon the fees or honoraries which they get from their pupils; and these must always depend, more or less, upon their industry and reputation. The mendicant orders are like those teachers whose subsistence depends altogether upon their industry. They are obliged, therefore, to use every art which can animate the devotion of the common people. The establishment of the two great mendicant orders of St. Dominic and St. Francis, it is[Pg 331] observed by Machiavel, revived, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the languishing faith and devotion of the catholic church. In Roman catholic countries, the spirit of devotion is supported altogether by the monks, and by the poorer parochial clergy. The great dignitaries of the church, with all the accomplishments of gentlemen and men of the world, and sometimes with those of men of learning, are careful to maintain the necessary discipline over their inferiors, but seldom give themselves any trouble about the instruction of the people.
"Most of the arts and professions in a state," says by far the most illustrious philosopher and historian of the present age, "are of such a nature, that, while they promote the interests of the society, they are also useful or agreeable to some individuals; and, in that case, the constant rule of the magistrate, except, perhaps, on the first introduction of any art, is, to leave the profession to itself, and trust its encouragement to the individuals who reap the benefit of it. The artisans, finding their profits to rise by the favour of their customers, increase, as much as possible, their skill and industry; and as matters are not disturbed by any injudicious tampering, the commodity is always sure to be at all times nearly proportioned to the demand."
"But there are also some callings which, though useful and even necessary in a state, bring no advantage or pleasure to any individual; and the supreme power is obliged to alter its conduct with regard to the retainers of those professions. It must give them public encouragement in order to their subsistence; and it must provide against that negligence to which they will naturally be subject, either by annexing particular honours to profession, by establishing a long subordination of ranks, and a strict dependence, or by some other expedient. The persons employed in the finances, fleets, and magistracy, are instances of this order of men.
"It may naturally be thought, at first sight, that the ecclesiastics belong to the first class, and that their encouragement, as well as that of lawyers and physicians, may safely be entrusted to the liberality of individuals, who are attached to their doctrines, and who find benefit or consolation from their spiritual ministry and assistance. Their industry and vigilance will, no doubt, be whetted by such an additional motive; and their skill in the profession, as well as their address in governing the minds of the people, must receive daily increase, from their increasing practice, study, and attention.
"But if we consider the matter more closely, we shall find that this interested diligence of the clergy is what every wise legislator will study to prevent; because, in every religion except the true, it is highly pernicious, and it has even a natural tendency to pervert the truth, by infusing into it a strong mixture of superstition, folly, and delusion. Each ghostly practitioner, in order to render himself more precious and sacred in the eyes of his retainers, will inspire them with the most violent abhorrence of all other sects, and continually endeavour, by some novelty, to excite the languid devotion of his audience. No regard will be paid to truth, morals, or decency, in the doctrines inculcated. Every tenet will be adopted that best suits the disorderly affections of the human frame. Customers will be drawn in each conventicle by new industry and address, in practising on the passions and credulity of the populace. And, in the end, the civil magistrate will find that he has dearly paid for his intended frugality, in saving a fixed establishment for the priests; and that, in reality, the most decent and advantageous composition, which he can make with the spiritual guides, is to bribe their indolence, by assigning stated salaries to their profession, and rendering it superfluous for them to be farther active, than merely to prevent their flock from straying in quest of new pastors. And in this manner ecclesiastical establishments, though commonly they arose at first from religious views, prove in the end advantageous to the political interests of society."
But whatever may have been the good or bad effects of the independent provision of the clergy, it has, perhaps, been very seldom bestowed upon them from any view to those effects. Times of violent religious controversy have generally been times of equally violent political faction. Upon such occasions, each political party has either found it, or imagined it, for his interest, to league itself with some one or other of the contending religious sects. But this could be done only by adopting, or, at least, by favouring the tenets of that particular sect. The sect which had the good fortune to be leagued with the conquering party necessarily shared in the victory of its ally, by whose favour and protection it was soon enabled, in some degree, to silence and subdue all its adversaries. Those adversaries had generally leagued themselves with the enemies of the conquering party, and were, therefore the enemies of that party. The clergy of this particular sect having thus become complete masters of the field, and their influence and authority with the great body of the people being in its highest vigour, they were powerful enough to overawe the chiefs and leaders of their own party, and to oblige the civil magistrate to respect their opinions and inclinations. Their first demand was generally that he should silence and subdue all their adversaries; and their second, that he should bestow an independent provision on themselves. As they had generally contributed a good[Pg 332] deal to the victory, it seemed not unreasonable that they should have some share in the spoil. They were weary, besides, of humouring the people, and of depending upon their caprice for a subsistence. In making this demand, therefore, they consulted their own ease and comfort, without troubling themselves about the effect which it might have, in future times, upon the influence and authority of their order. The civil magistrate, who could comply with their demand only by giving them something which he would have chosen much rather to take, or to keep to himself, was seldom very forward to grant it. Necessity, however, always forced him to submit at last, though frequently not till after many delays, evasions, and affected excuses.
But if politics had never called in the aid of religion, had the conquering party never adopted the tenets of one sect more than those of another, when it had gained the victory, it would probably have dealt equally and impartially with all the different sects, and have allowed every man to choose his own priest, and his own religion, as he thought proper. There would, and, in this case, no doubt, have been, a great multitude of religious sects. Almost every different congregation might probably have had a little sect by itself, or have entertained some peculiar tenets of its own. Each teacher, would, no doubt, have felt himself under the necessity of making the utmost exertion, and of using every art, both to preserve and to increase the number of his disciples. But as every other teacher would have felt himself under the same necessity, the success of no one teacher, or sect of teachers, could have been very great. The interested and active zeal of religious teachers can be dangerous and troublesome only where there is either but one sect tolerated in the society, or where the whole of a large society is divided into two or three great sects; the teachers of each acting by concert, and under a regular discipline and subordination. But that zeal must be altogether innocent, where the society is divided into two or three hundred, or, perhaps, into as many thousand small sects, of which no one could be considerable enough to disturb the public tranquillity. The teachers of each sect, seeing themselves surrounded on all sides with more adversaries than friends, would be obliged to learn that candour and moderation which are so seldom to be found among the teachers of those great sects, whose tenets, being supported by the civil magistrate, are held in veneration by almost all the inhabitants of extensive kingdoms and empires, and who, therefore, see nothing round them but followers, disciples, and humble admirers. The teachers of each little sect, finding themselves almost alone, would be obliged to respect those of almost every other sect; and the concessions which they would mutually find in both convenient and agreeable to make one to another, might in time, probably reduce the doctrine of the greater part of them to that pure and rational religion, free from every mixture of absurdity, imposture, or fanaticism, such as wise men have, in all ages of the world, wished to see established; but such as positive law has, perhaps, never yet established, and probably never will establish in any country; because, with regard to religion, positive law always has been, and probably always will be, more or less influenced by popular superstition and enthusiasm. This plan of ecclesiastical government, or, more properly, of no ecclesiastical government, was what the sect called Independents (a sect, no doubt, of very wild enthusiasts), proposed to establish in England towards the end of the civil war. If it had been established, though of a very unphilosophical origin, it would probably, by this time, have been productive of the most philosophical good temper and moderation with regard to every sort of religious principle. It has been established in Pennsylvania, where, though the quakers happen to be the most numerous, the law, in reality, favours no one sect more than another; and it is there said to have been productive of this philosophical good temper and moderation.
But though this equality of treatment should not be productive of this good temper and moderation in all, or even in the greater part of the religious sects of a particular country; yet, provided those sects were sufficiently numerous, and each of them consequently too small to disturb the public tranquillity, the excessive zeal of each for its particular tenets could not well be productive of any very hurtful effects, but, on the contrary, of several good ones; and if the government was perfectly decided, both to let them all alone, and to oblige them all to let alone one another, there is little danger that they would not of their own accord, subdivide themselves fast enough, so as soon to become sufficiently numerous.
In every civilized society, in every society where the distinction of ranks has once been completely established, there have been always two different schemes or systems of morality current at the same time; of which the one may be called the strict or austere; the other the liberal, or, if you will, the loose system. The former is generally admired and revered by the common people; the latter is commonly more esteemed and adopted by what are called the people of fashion. The degree of disapprobation with which we ought to mark the vices of levity, the vices which are apt to arise from great prosperity, and from the excess of gaiety and good humour, seems to constitute the principal dis[Pg 333]tinction between those two opposite schemes or systems. In the liberal or loose system, luxury, wanton, and even disorderly mirth, the pursuit of pleasure to some degree of intemperance, the breach of chastity, at least in one of the two sexes, &c. provided they are not accompanied with gross indecency, and do not lead to falsehood and injustice, are generally treated with a good deal of indulgence, and are easily either excused or pardoned altogether. In the austere system, on the contrary, those excesses are regarded with the utmost abhorrence and detestation. The vices of levity are always ruinous to the common people, and a single week's thoughtlessness and dissipation is often sufficient to undo a poor workman for ever, and to drive him, through despair, upon committing the most enormous crimes. The wiser and better sort of the common people, therefore, have always the utmost abhorrence and detestation of such excesses, which their experience tells them are so immediately fatal to people of their condition. The disorder and extravagance of several years, on the contrary, will not always ruin a man of fashion; and people of that rank are very apt to consider the power of indulging in some degree of excess, as one of the advantages of their fortune; and the liberty of doing so without censure or reproach, as one of the privileges which belong to their station. In people of their own station, therefore, they regard such excesses with but a small degree of disapprobation, and censure them either very slightly or not at all.
Almost all religious sects have begun among the common people, from whom they have generally drawn their earliest, as well as their most numerous proselytes. The austere system of morality has, accordingly, been adopted by those sects almost constantly, or with very few exceptions; for there have been some. It was the system by which they could best recommend themselves to that order of people, to whom they first proposed their plan of reformation upon what had been before established. Many of them, perhaps the greater part of them, have even endeavoured to gain credit by refining upon this austere system, and by carrying it to some degree of folly and extravagance; and this excessive rigour has frequently recommended them, more than any thing else, to the respect and veneration of the common people.
A man of rank and fortune is, by his station, the distinguished member of a great society, who attend to every part of his conduct, and who thereby oblige him to attend to every part of it himself. His authority and consideration depend very much upon the respect which this society bears to him. He dares not do any thing which would disgrace or discredit him in it; and he is obliged to a very strict observation of that species of morals, whether liberal or austere, which the general consent of this society prescribes to persons of his rank and fortune. A man of low condition, on the contrary, is far from being a distinguished member of any great society. While he remains in a country village, his conduct may be attended to, and he may be obliged to attend to it himself. In this situation, and in this situation only, he may have what is called a character to lose. But as soon as he comes into a great city, he is sunk in obscurity and darkness. His conduct is observed and attended to by nobody; and he is, therefore, very likely to neglect it himself, and to abandon himself to every sort of low profligacy and vice. He never emerges so effectually from this obscurity, his conduct never excites so much the attention of any respectable society, as by his becoming the member of a small religious sect. He from that moment acquires a degree of consideration which he never had before. All his brother sectaries are, for the credit of the sect, interested to observe his conduct; and, if he gives occasion to any scandal, if he deviates very much from those austere morals which they almost always require of one another, to punish him by what is always a very severe punishment, even where no evil effects attend it, expulsion or excommunication from the sect. In little religious sects, accordingly, the morals of the common people have been almost always remarkably regular and orderly; generally much more so than in the established church. The morals of those little sects, indeed, have frequently been rather disagreeably rigorous and unsocial.
There are two very easy and effectual remedies, however, by whose joint operation the state might, without violence, correct whatever was unsocial or disagreeably rigorous in the morals of all the little sects into which the country was divided.
The first of those remedies is the study of science and philosophy, which the state might render almost universal among all people of middling or more than middling rank and fortune; not by giving salaries to teachers in order to make them negligent and idle, but by instituting some sort of probation, even in the higher and more difficult sciences, to be undergone by every person before he was permitted to exercise any liberal profession, or before he could be received as a candidate for any honourable office, of trust or profit. If the state imposed upon this order of men the necessity of learning, it would have no occasion to give itself any trouble about providing them with proper teachers. They would soon find better teachers for themselves, than any whom the state could provide for them. Science is the great antidote to the poison of enthusiasm and superstition; and where all the superior ranks of people were secured from it, the inferior ranks could not be much exposed to it.[Pg 334]
The second of those remedies is the frequency and gaiety of public diversions. The state, by encouraging, that is, by giving entire liberty to all those who, from their own interest, would attempt, without scandal or indecency, to amuse and divert the people by painting, poetry, music, dancing; by all sorts of dramatic representations and exhibitions; would easily dissipate, in the greater part of them, that melancholy and gloomy humour which is almost always the nurse of popular superstition and enthusiasm. Public diversions have always been the objects of dread and hatred to all the fanatical promoters of those popular frenzies. The gaiety and good humour which those diversions inspire, were altogether inconsistent with that temper of mind which was fittest for their purpose, or which they could best work upon. Dramatic representations, besides, frequently exposing their artifices to public ridicule, and sometimes even to public execration, were, upon that account, more than all other diversions, the objects of their peculiar abhorrence.
In a country where the law favoured the teachers of no one religion more than those of another, it would not be necessary that any of them should have any particular or immediate dependency upon the sovereign or executive power; or that he should have any thing to do either in appointing or in dismissing them from their offices. In such a situation, he would have no occasion to give himself any concern about them, further than to keep the peace among them, in the same manner as among the rest of his subjects, that is, to hinder them from persecuting, abusing, or oppressing one another. But it is quite otherwise in countries where there is an established or governing religion. The sovereign can in this case never be secure, unless he has the means of influencing in a considerable degree the greater part of the teachers of that religion.
The clergy of every established church constitute a great incorporation. They can act in concert, and pursue their interest upon one plan, and with one spirit as much as if they were under the direction of one man; and they are frequently, too, under such direction. Their interest as an incorporated body is never the same with that of the sovereign, and is sometimes directly opposite to it. Their great interest is to maintain their authority with the people, and this authority depends upon the supposed certainty and importance of the whole doctrine which they inculcate, and upon the supposed necessity of adopting every part of it with the most implicit faith, in order to avoid eternal misery. Should the sovereign have the imprudence to appear either to deride, or doubt himself of the most trifling part of their doctrine, or from humanity, attempt to protect those who did either the one or the other, the punctilious honour of a clergy, who have no sort of dependency upon him, is immediately provoked to proscribe him as a profane person, and to employ all the terrors of religion, in order to oblige the people to transfer their allegiance to some more orthodox and obedient prince. Should he oppose any of their pretensions or usurpations, the danger is equally great. The princes who have dared in this manner to rebel against the church, over and above this crime of rebellion, have generally been charged, too, with the additional crime of heresy, notwithstanding their solemn protestations of their faith, and humble submission to every tenet which she thought proper to prescribe to them. But the authority of religion is superior to every other authority. The fears which it suggests conquer all other fears. When the authorized teachers of religion propagate through the great body of the people, doctrines subversive of the authority of the sovereign, it is by violence only, or by the force of a standing army, that he can maintain his authority. Even a standing army cannot in this case give him any lasting security; because if the soldiers are not foreigners, which can seldom be the case, but drawn from the great body of the people, which must almost always be the case, they are likely to be soon corrupted by those very doctrines. The revolutions which the turbulence of the Greek clergy was continually occasioning at Constantinople, as long as the eastern empire subsisted; the convulsions which, during the course of several centuries, the turbulence of the Roman clergy was continually occasioning in every part of Europe, sufficiently demonstrate how precarious and insecure must always be the situation of the sovereign, who has no proper means of influencing the clergy of the established and governing religion of his country.
Articles of faith, as well as all other spiritual matters, it is evident enough, are not within the proper department of a temporal sovereign, who, though he may be very well qualified for protecting, is seldom supposed to be so for instructing the people. With regard to such matters, therefore, his authority can seldom be sufficient to counterbalance the united authority of the clergy of the established church. The public tranquillity, however, and his own security, may frequently depend upon the doctrines which they may think proper to propagate concerning such matters. As he can seldom directly oppose their decision, therefore, with proper weight and authority, it is necessary that he should be able to influence it; and he can influence it only by the fears and expectations which he may excite in the greater part of the individuals of the order. Those fears and ex[Pg 335]pectations may consist in the fear of deprivation or other punishment, and in the expectation of further preferment.
In all Christian churches, the benefices of the clergy are a sort of freeholds, which they enjoy, not during pleasure, but during life or good behaviour. If they held them by a more precarious tenure, and were liable to be turned out upon every slight disobligation either of the sovereign or of his ministers, it would perhaps be impossible for them to maintain their authority with the people, who would then consider them as mercenary dependents upon the court, in the sincerity of whose instructions they could no longer have any confidence. But should the sovereign attempt irregularly, and by violence, to deprive any number of clergymen of their freeholds, on account, perhaps, of their having propagated, with more than ordinary zeal, some factious or seditious doctrine, he would only render, by such persecution, both them and their doctrine ten times more popular, and therefore ten times more troublesome and dangerous, than they had been before. Fear is in almost all cases a wretched instrument of government, and ought in particular never to be employed against any order of men who have the smallest pretensions to independency. To attempt to terrify them, serves only to irritate their bad humour, and to confirm them in an opposition, which more gentle usage, perhaps, might easily induce them either to soften, or to lay aside altogether. The violence which the French government usually employed in order to oblige all their parliaments, or sovereign courts of justice, to enregister any unpopular edict, very seldom succeeded. The means commonly employed, however, the imprisonment of all the refractory members, one would think, were forcible enough. The princes of the house of Stuart sometimes employed the like means in order to influence some of the members of the parliament of England, and they generally found them equally intractable. The parliament of England is now managed in another manner; and a very small experiment, which the duke of Choiseul made, about twelve years ago, upon the parliament of Paris, demonstrated sufficiently that all the parliaments of France might have been managed still more easily in the same manner. That experiment was not pursued. For though management and persuasion are always the easiest and safest instruments of government as force and violence are the worst and the most dangerous; yet such, it seems, is the natural insolence of man, that he almost always disdains to use the good instrument, except when he cannot or dare not use the bad one. The French government could and durst use force, and therefore disdained to use management and persuasion. But there is no order of men, it appears I believe, from the experience of all ages, upon whom it is so dangerous or rather so perfectly ruinous, to employ force and violence, as upon the respected clergy of an established church. The rights, the privileges, the personal liberty of every individual ecclesiastic, who is upon good terms with his own order, are, even in the most despotic governments, more respected than those of any other person of nearly equal rank and fortune. It is so in every gradation of despotism, from that of the gentle and mild government of Paris, to that of the violent and furious government of Constantinople. But though this order of men can scarce ever be forced, they may be managed as easily as any other; and the security of the sovereign, as well as the public tranquillity, seems to depend very much upon the means which he has of managing them; and those means seem to consist altogether in the preferment which he has to bestow upon them.
In the ancient constitution of the Christian church, the bishop of each diocese was elected by the joint votes of the clergy and of the people of the episcopal city. The people did not long retain their right of election; and while they did retain it, they almost always acted under the influence of the clergy, who, in such spiritual matters, appeared to be their natural guides. The clergy, however, soon grew weary of the trouble of managing them, and found it easier to elect their own bishops themselves. The abbot, in the same manner, was elected by the monks of the monastery, at least in the greater part of abbacies. All the inferior ecclesiastical benefices comprehended within the diocese were collated by the bishop, who bestowed them upon such ecclesiastics as he thought proper. All church preferments were in this manner in the disposal of the church. The sovereign, though he might have some indirect influence in those elections, and though it was sometimes usual to ask both his consent to elect, and his approbation of the election, yet had no direct or sufficient means of managing the clergy. The ambition of every clergyman naturally led him to pay court, not so much to his sovereign as to his own order, from which only he could expect preferment.
Through the greater part of Europe, the pope gradually drew to himself, first the collation of almost all bishoprics and abbacies, or of what were called consistorial benefices, and afterwards, by various machinations and pretences, of the greater part of inferior benefices comprehended within each diocese, little more being left to the bishop than what was barely necessary to give him a decent authority with his own clergy. By this arrangement the condition of the sovereign was still worse than it bad been before. The clergy of all the different countries of Europe were thus formed into a sort of spiritual army, dispersed in different quarters, indeed, but of[Pg 336] which all the movements and operations could now be directed by one head, and conducted upon one uniform plan. The clergy of each particular country might be considered as a particular detachment of that army, of which the operations could easily be supported and seconded by all the other detachments quartered in the different countries round about. Each detachment was not only independent of the sovereign of the country in which it was quartered, and by which it was maintained, but dependent upon a foreign sovereign, who could at any time turn its arms against the sovereign of that particular country, and support them by the arms of all the other detachments.
Those arms were the most formidable that can well be imagined. In the ancient state of Europe, before the establishment of arts and manufactures, the wealth of the clergy gave them the same sort of influence over the common people which that of the great barons gave them over their respective vassals, tenants, and retainers. In the great landed estates, which the mistaken piety both of princes and private persons had bestowed upon the church, jurisdictions were established, of the same kind with those of the great barons, and for the same reason. In those great landed estates, the clergy, or their bailiffs, could easily keep the peace, without the support or assistance either of the king or of any other person; and neither the king nor any other person could keep the peace there without the support and assistance of the clergy. The jurisdictions of the clergy, therefore, in their particular baronies or manors, were equally independent, and equally exclusive of the authority of the king's courts, as those of the great temporal lords. The tenants of the clergy were, like those of the great barons, almost all tenants at will, entirely dependent upon their immediate lords, and, therefore, liable to be called out at pleasure, in order to fight in any quarrel in which the clergy might think proper to engage them. Over and above the rents of those estates, the clergy possessed in the tithes a very large portion of the rents of all the other estates in every kingdom of Europe. The revenues arising from both those species of rents were, the greater part of them, paid in kind, in corn, wine, cattle, poultry, &c. The quantity exceeded greatly what the clergy could themselves consume; and there were neither arts nor manufactures, for the produce of which they could exchange the surplus. The clergy could derive advantage from this immense surplus in no other way than by employing it, as the great barons employed the like surplus of their revenues, in the most profuse hospitality, and in the most extensive charity. Both the hospitality and the charity of the ancient clergy, accordingly, are said to have been very great. They not only maintained almost the whole poor of every kingdom, but many knights and gentlemen had frequently no other means of subsistence than by travelling about from monastery to monastery, under pretence of devotion, but in reality to enjoy the hospitality of the clergy. The retainers of some particular prelates were often as numerous as those of the greatest lay-lords; and the retainers of all the clergy taken together were, perhaps, more numerous than those of all the lay-lords. There was always much more union among the clergy than among the lay-lords. The former were under a regular discipline and subordination to the papal authority. The latter were under no regular discipline or subordination, but almost always equally jealous of one another, and of the king. Though the tenants and retainers of the clergy, therefore, had both together been less numerous than those of the great lay-lords, and their tenants were probably much less numerous, yet their union would have rendered them more formidable. The hospitality and charity of the clergy, too, not only gave them the command of a great temporal force, but increased very much the weight of their spiritual weapons. Those virtues procured them the highest respect and veneration among all the inferior ranks of people, of whom many were constantly, and almost all occasionally, fed by them. Every thing belonging or related to so popular an order, its possessions, its privileges, its doctrines, necessarily appeared sacred in the eyes of the common people; and every violation of them, whether real or pretended, the highest act of sacrilegious wickedness and profaneness. In this state of things, if the sovereign frequently found it difficult to resist the confederacy of a few of the great nobility, we cannot wonder that he should find it still more so to resist the united force of the clergy of his own dominions, supported by that of the clergy of all the neighbouring dominions. In such circumstances, the wonder is, not that he was sometimes obliged to yield, but that he ever was able to resist.
The privileges of the clergy in those ancient times (which to us, who live in the present times, appear the most absurd), their total exemption from the secular jurisdiction, for example, or what in England was called the benefit of clergy, were the natural, or rather the necessary, consequences of this state of things. How dangerous must it have been for the sovereign to attempt to punish a clergyman for any crime whatever, if his order were disposed to protect him, and to represent either the proof as insufficient for convicting so holy a man, or the punishment as too severe to be inflicted upon one whose person had been rendered sacred by religion? The sovereign could, in such circumstances, do no better than leave him to be tried by the ecclesiastical courts, who, for the honour of their own order, were interested to restrain, as much as[Pg 337] possible, every member of it from committing enormous crimes, or even from giving occasion to such gross scandal as might disgust the minds of the people.
In the state in which things were, through the greater part of Europe, during the tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, and for some time both before and after that period, the constitution of the church of Rome may be considered as the must formidable combination that ever was formed against the authority and security of civil government, as well as against the liberty, reason, and happiness of mankind, which can flourish only where civil government is able to protect them. In that constitution, the grossest delusions of superstition were supported in such a manner by the private interests of so great a number of people, as put them out of all danger from any assault of human reason; because, though human reason might, perhaps, have been able to unveil, even to the eyes of the common people, some of the delusions of superstition, it could never have dissolved the ties of private interest. Had this constitution been attacked by no other enemies but the feeble efforts of human reason, it must have endured for ever. But that immense and well-built fabric, which all the wisdom and virtue of man could never have shaken, much less have overturned, was, by the natural course of things, first weakened, and afterwards in part destroyed; and is now likely, in the course of a few centuries more, perhaps, to crumble into ruins altogether.
The gradual improvements of arts, manufactures, and commerce, the same causes which destroyed the power of the grant barons, destroyed, in the same manner, through the greater part of Europe, the whole temporal power of the clergy. In the produce of arts, manufactures, and commerce, the clergy, like the great barons, found something for which they could exchange their rude produce, and thereby discovered the means of spending their whole revenues upon their own persons, without giving any considerable share of them to other people. Their charity became gradually less extensive, their hospitality less liberal, or less profuse. Their retainers became consequently less numerous, and, by degrees, dwindled away altogether. The clergy, too, like the great barons, wished to get a better rent from their landed estates, in order to spend it, in the same manner, upon the gratification of their own private vanity and folly. But this increase of rent could be got only by granting leases to their tenants, who thereby became, in a great measure, independent of them. The ties of interest, which bound the inferior ranks of people to the clergy, were in this manner gradually broken and dissolved. They were even broken and dissolved sooner than those which bound the same ranks of people to the great barons; because the benefices of the church being, the greater part of them, much smaller than the estates of the great barons, the possessor of each benefice was much sooner able to spend the whole of its revenue upon his own person. During the greater part of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the power of the great barons was, through the greater part of Europe, in full vigour. But the temporal power of the clergy, the absolute command which they had once had over the great body of the people was very much decayed. The power of the church was, by that time, very nearly reduced, through the greater part of Europe, to what arose from their spiritual authority; and even that spiritual authority was much weakened, when it ceased to be supported by the charity and hospitality of the clergy. The inferior ranks of people no longer looked upon that order as they had done before; as the comforters of their distress, and the relievers of their indigence. On the contrary, they were provoked and disgusted by the vanity, luxury, and expense of the richer clergy, who appeared to spend upon their own pleasures what had always before been regarded as the patrimony of the poor.
In this situation of things, the sovereigns in the different states of Europe endeavoured to recover the influence which they had once had in the disposal of the great benefices of the church; by procuring to the deans and chapters of each diocese the restoration of their ancient right of electing the bishop; and to the monks of each abbacy that of electing the abbot. The reestablishing this ancient order was the object of several statutes enacted in England during the course of the fourteenth century, particularly of what is called the statute of provisors; and of the pragmatic sanction, established in France in the fifteenth century. In order to render the election valid, it was necessary that the sovereign should both consent to it before hand, and afterwards approve of the person elected; and though the election was still supposed to be free, he had, however all the indirect means which his situation necessarily afforded him, of influencing the clergy in his own dominions. Other regulations, of a similar tendency, were established in other parts of Europe. But the power of the pope, in the collation of the great benefices of the church, seems, before the reformation, to have been nowhere so effectually and so universally restrained as in France and England. The concordat afterwards, in the sixteenth century, gave to the kings of France the absolute right of presenting to all the great, or what are called the consistorial, benefices of the Gallican church.
Since the establishment of the pragmatic sanction and of the concordat, the clergy of France have, in general shewn less respect to the decrees of the papal court, than the[Pg 338] clergy of any other catholic country. In all the disputes which their sovereign has had with the pope, they have almost constantly taken part with the former. This independency of the clergy of France upon the court of Rome seems to be principally founded upon the pragmatic sanction and the concordat. In the earlier periods of the monarchy, the clergy of France appear to have been as much devoted to the pope as those of any other country. When Robert, the second prince of the Capetian race, was most unjustly excommunicated by the court of Rome, his own servants, it is said, threw the victuals which came from his table to the dogs, and refused to taste any thing themselves which had been polluted by the contact of a person in his situation. They were taught to do so, it may very safely be presumed, by the clergy of his own dominions.
The claim of collating to the great benefices of the church, a claim in defence of which the court of Rome had frequently shaken, and sometimes overturned, the thrones of some of the greatest sovereigns in Christendom, was in this manner either restrained or modified, or given up altogether, in many different parts of Europe, even before the time of the reformation. As the clergy had now less influence over the people, so the state had more influence over the clergy. The clergy, therefore, had both less power, and less inclination, to disturb the state.
The authority of the church of Rome was in this state of declension, when the disputes which gave birth to the reformation began in Germany, and soon spread themselves through every part of Europe. The new doctrines were everywhere received with a high degree of popular favour. They were propagated with all that enthusiastic zeal which commonly animates the spirit of party, when it attacks established authority. The teachers of those doctrines, though perhaps, in other respects, not more learned than many of the divines who defended the established church, seem in general to have been better acquainted with ecclesiastical history, and with the origin and progress of that system of opinions upon which the authority of the church was established; and they had thereby the advantage in almost every dispute. The austerity of their manners gave them authority with the common people, who contrasted the strict regularity of their conduct with the disorderly lives of the greater part of their own clergy. They possessed, too, in a much higher degree than their adversaries, all the arts of popularity and of gaining proselytes; arts which the lofty and dignified sons of the church had long neglected, as being to them in a great measure useless. The reason of the new doctrines recommended them to some, their novelty to many; the hatred and contempt of the established clergy to a still greater number: but the zealous, passionate, and fanatical, though frequently coarse and rustic eloquence, with which they were almost everywhere inculcated, recommended them to by far the greatest number.
The success of the new doctrines was almost everywhere so great, that the princes, who at that time happened to be on bad terms with the court of Rome, were, by means of them, easily enabled, in their own dominions, to overturn the church, which having lost the respect and veneration of the inferior ranks of people, could make scarce any resistance. The court of Rome had disobliged some of the smaller princes in the northern parts of Germany, whom it had probably considered as too insignificant to be worth the managing. They universally, therefore, established the reformation in their own dominions. The tyranny of Christiern II., and of Troll archbishop of Upsal, enabled Gustavus Vasa to expel them both from Sweden. The pope favoured the tyrant and the archbishop, and Gustavus Vasa found no difficulty in establishing the reformation in Sweden. Christiern II. was afterwards deposed from the throne of Denmark, where his conduct had rendered him as odious as in Sweden. The pope, however, was still disposed to favour him; and Frederic of Holstein, who had mounted the throne in his stead, revenged himself, by following the example of Gustavus Vasa. The magistrates of Berne and Zurich, who had no particular quarrel with the pope, established with great ease the reformation in their respective cantons, where just before some of the clergy had, by an imposture somewhat grosser than ordinary, rendered the whole order both odious and contemptible.
In this critical situation of its affairs the papal court was at sufficient pains to cultivate the friendship of the powerful sovereigns of France and Spain, of whom the latter was at that time emperor of Germany. With their assistance, it was enabled, though not without great difficulty, and much bloodshed, either to suppress altogether, or obstruct very much, the progress of the reformation in their dominions. It was well enough inclined, too, to be complaisant to the king of England. But from the circumstances of the times, it could not be so without giving offense to a still greater sovereign, Charles V., king of Spain and emperor of Germany. Henry VIII., accordingly, though he did not embrace himself the greater part of the doctrines of the reformation was yet enabled, by their general prevalence, to suppress all the monasteries, and to abolish the authority of the church of Rome in his dominions. That he should go so far, though he went no further, gave some satisfaction to the patrons of the reformation, who, having got possession of the government in the reign of his son and successor, com[Pg 339]pleted, without any difficulty, the work which Henry VIII. had begun.
In some countries, as in Scotland, where the government was weak, unpopular, and not very firmly established, the reformation was strong enough to overturn, not only the church, but the state likewise, for attempting to support the church.
Among the followers of the reformation, dispersed in all the different countries of Europe, there was no general tribunal, which, like that of the court of Rome, or an œcumenical council, could settle all disputes among them, and, with irresistible authority, prescribe to all of them the precise limits of orthodoxy. When the followers of the reformation in one country, therefore, happened to differ from their brethren in another, as they had no common judge to appeal to, the dispute could never be decided; and many such disputes arose among them. Those concerning the government of the church, and the right of conferring ecclesiastical benefices, were perhaps the most interesting to the peace and welfare of civil society. They gave birth, accordingly, to the two principal parties or sects among the followers of the reformation, the Lutheran and Calvinistic sects, the only sects among them, of which the doctrine and discipline have ever yet been established by law in any part of Europe.
The followers of Luther, together with what is called the church of England, preserved more or less of the episcopal government, established subordination among the clergy, gave the sovereign the disposal of all the bishoprics, and other consistorial benefices within his dominions, and thereby rendered him the real head of the church; and without depriving the bishop of the right of collating to the smaller benefices within his diocese, they, even to those benefices, not only admitted, but favoured the right of presentation, both in the sovereign and in all other lay patrons. This system of church government was, from the beginning, favourable to peace and good order, and to submission to the civil sovereign. It has never, accordingly, been the occasion of any tumult or civil commotion in any country in which it has once been established. The church of England, in particular, has always valued herself, with great reason, upon the unexceptionable loyalty of her principles. Under such a government, the clergy naturally endeavour to recommend themselves to the sovereign, to the court, and to the nobility and gentry of the country, by whose influence they chiefly expect to obtain preferment. They pay court to those patrons, sometimes, no doubt, by the vilest flattery and assentation; but frequently, too, by cultivating all those arts which best deserve, and which are therefore most likely to gain them, the esteem of people of rank and fortune; by their knowledge in all the different branches of useful and ornamental learning, by the decent liberality of their manners, by the social good humour of their conversation, and by their avowed contempt of those absurd and hypocritical austerities which fanatics inculcate and pretend to practise, in order to draw upon themselves the veneration, and upon the greater part of men of rank and fortune, who avow that they do not practise them, the abhorrence of the common people. Such a clergy, however, while they pay their court in this manner to the higher ranks of life, are very apt to neglect altogether the means of maintaining their influence and authority with the lower. They are listened to, esteemed, and respected by their superiors; but before their inferiors they are frequently incapable of defending, effectually, and to the conviction of such hearers, their own sober and moderate doctrines, against the most ignorant enthusiast who chooses to attack them.
The followers of Zuinglius, or more properly those of Calvin, on the contrary, bestowed upon the people of each parish, whenever the church became vacant, the right of electing their own pastor; and established, at the same time, the most perfect equality among the clergy. The former part of this institution, as long as it remained in vigour, seems to have been productive of nothing but disorder and confusion, and to have tended equally to corrupt the morals both of the clergy and of the people. The latter part seems never to have had any effects but what were perfectly agreeable.
As long as the people of each parish preserved the right of electing their own pastors, they acted almost always under the influence of the clergy, and generally of the most factious and fanatical of the order. The clergy, in order to preserve their influence in those popular elections, became, or affected to become, many of them, fanatics themselves, encouraged fanaticism among the people, and gave the preference almost always to the most fanatical candidate. So small a matter as the appointment of a parish priest, occasioned almost always a violent contest, not only in one parish, but in all the neighbouring parishes who seldom failed to take part in the quarrel. When the parish happened to be situated in a great city, it divided all the inhabitants into two parties; and when that city happened, either to constitute itself a little republic, or to be the head and capital of a little republic, as in the case with many of the considerable cities in Switzerland and Holland, every paltry dispute of this kind, over and above exasperating the animosity of all their other factions, threatened to leave behind it, both a new schism in the church, and a new faction in the state. In those small republics, therefore, the magistrate very[Pg 340] soon found it necessary, for the sake of preserving the public peace, to assume to himself the right of presenting to all vacant benefices. In Scotland, the most extensive country in which this presbyterian form of church government has ever been established, the rights of patronage were in effect abolished by the act which established presbytery in the beginning of the reign of William III. That act, at least, put in the power of certain classes of people in each parish to purchase, for a very small price, the right of electing their own pastor. The constitution which this act established, was allowed to subsist for about two-and-twenty years, but was abolished by the 10th of queen Anne, ch. 12, on account of the confusions and disorders which this more popular mode of election had almost everywhere occasioned. In so extensive a country as Scotland, however, a tumult in a remote parish was not so likely to give disturbance to government as in a smaller state. The 10th of queen Anne restored the rights of patronage. But though, in Scotland, the law gives the benefice, without any exception to the person presented by the patron; yet the church requires sometimes (for she has not in this respect been very uniform in her decisions) a certain concurrence of the people, before she will confer upon the presentee what is called the cure of souls, or the ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the parish. She sometimes, at least, from an affected concern for the peace of the parish, delays the settlement till this concurrence can be procured. The private tampering of some of the neighbouring clergy, sometimes to procure, but more frequently to prevent this concurrence, and the popular arts which they cultivate, in order to enable them upon such occasions to tamper more effectually, are perhaps the causes which principally keep up whatever remains of the old fanatical spirit, either in the clergy or in the people of Scotland.
The equality which the presbyterian form of church government establishes among the clergy, consists, first, in the equality of authority or ecclesiastical jurisdiction; and, secondly, in the equality of benefice. In all presbyterian churches, the equality of authority is perfect; that of benefice is not so. The difference, however, between one benefice and another, is seldom so considerable, as commonly to tempt the possessor even of the small one to pay court to his patron, by the vile arts of flattery and assentation, in order to get a better. In all the presbyterian churches, where the rights of patronage are thoroughly established, it is by nobler and better arts, that the established clergy in general endeavour to gain the favour of their superiors; by their learning, by the irreproachable regularity of their life, and by the faithful and diligent discharge of their duty. Their patrons even frequently complain of the independency of their spirit, which they are apt to construe into ingratitude for past favours, but which, at worst, perhaps, is seldom any more than that indifference which naturally arises from the consciousness that no further favours of the kind are ever to be expected. There is scarce, perhaps, to be found anywhere in Europe, a more learned, decent, independent, and respectable set of men, than the greater part of the presbyterian clergy of Holland, Geneva, Switzerland, and Scotland.
Where the church benefices are all nearly equal, none of them can be very great; and this mediocrity of benefice, though it may be, no doubt, carried too far, has, however, some very agreeable effects. Nothing but exemplary morals can give dignity to a man of small fortune. The vices of levity and vanity necessarily render him ridiculous, and are, besides, almost as ruinous to him as they are to the common people. In his own conduct, therefore, he is obliged to follow that system of morals which the common people respect the most. He gains their esteem and affection, by that plan of life which his own interest and situation would lead him to follow. The common people look upon him with that kindness with which we naturally regard one who approaches somewhat to our own condition, but who, we think, ought to be in a higher. Their kindness naturally provokes his kindness. He becomes careful to instruct them, and attentive to assist and relieve them. He does not even despise the prejudices of people who are disposed to be so favourable to him, and never treats them with those contemptuous and arrogant airs, which we so often meet with in the proud dignitaries of opulent and well endowed churches. The presbyterian clergy, accordingly, have more influence over the minds of the common people, than perhaps the clergy of any other established church. It is, accordingly, in presbyterian countries only, that we ever find the common people converted, without persecution completely, and almost to a man, to the established church.
In countries where church benefices are, the greater part of them, very moderate, a chair in a university is generally a better establishment than a church benefice. The universities have, in this case, the picking and chusing of their members from all the churchmen of the country, who, in every country, constitute by far the most numerous class of men of letters. Where church benefices, on the contrary, are many of them very considerable, the church naturally draws from the universities the greater part of their eminent men of letters; who generally find some patron, who does himself honour by procuring them church preferment. In the former situation, we are likely to find the[Pg 341] universities filled with the most eminent men of letters that are to be found in the country. In the latter, we are likely to find few eminent men among them, and those few among the youngest members of the society, who are likely, too, to be drained away from it, before they can have acquired experience and knowledge enough to be of much use to it. It is observed by Mr. de Voltaire, that father Porée, a jesuit of no great eminence in the republic of letters, was the only professor they had ever had in France, whose works were worth the reading. In a country which has produced so many eminent men of letters, it must appear somewhat singular, that scarce one of them should have been a professor in a university. The famous Cassendi was, in the beginning of his life, a professor in the university of Aix. Upon the first dawning of his genius, it was represented to him, that by going into the church he could easily find a much more quiet and comfortable subsistence, as well as a better situation for pursuing his studies; and he immediately followed the advice. The observation of Mr. de Voltaire may be applied, I believe, not only to France, but to all other Roman Catholic countries. We very rarely find in any of them an eminent man of letters, who is a professor in a university, except, perhaps, in the professions of law and physic; professions from which the church is not so likely to draw them. After the church of Rome, that of England is by far the richest and best endowed church in Christendom. In England, accordingly, the church is continually draining the universities of all their best and ablest members; and an old college tutor who is known and distinguished in Europe as an eminent man of letters, is as rarely to be found there as in any Roman catholic country. In Geneva, on the contrary, in the protestant cantons of Switzerland, in the protestant countries of Germany, in Holland, in Scotland, in Sweden, and Denmark, the most eminent men of letters whom those countries have produced, have, not all indeed, but the far greater part of them, been professors in universities. In those countries, the universities are continually draining the church of all its most eminent men of letters.
It may, perhaps, be worth while to remark, that, if we except the poets, a few orators, and a few historians, the far greater part of the other eminent men of letters, both of Greece and Rome, appear to have been either public or private teachers; generally either of philosophy or of rhetoric. This remark will be found to hold true, from the days of Lysias and Isocrates, of Plato and Aristotle, down to those of Plutarch and Epictetus, Suetonius, and Quintilian. To impose upon any man the necessity of teaching, year after year, in any particular branch of science seems in reality to be the most effectual method for rendering him completely master of it himself. By being obliged to go every year over the same ground, if he is good for any thing, he necessarily becomes, in a few years, well acquainted with every part of it: and if, upon any particular point, he should form too hasty an opinion one year, when he comes, in the course of his lectures to reconsider the same subject the year thereafter, he is very likely to correct it. As to be a teacher of science is certainly the natural employment of a mere man of letters; so is it likewise, perhaps, the education which is most likely to render him a man of solid learning and knowledge. The mediocrity of church benefices naturally tends to draw the greater part of men of letters in the country where it takes place, to the employment in which they can be the most useful to the public, and at the same time to give them the best education, perhaps, they are capable of receiving. It tends to render their learning both as solid as possible, and as useful as possible.
The revenue of every established church, such parts of it excepted as may arise from particular lands or manors, is a branch, it ought to be observed, of the general revenue of the state, which is thus diverted to a purpose very different from the defence of the state. The tithe, for example, is a real land-tax, which puts it out of the power of the proprietors of land to contribute so largely towards the defence of the state as they otherwise might be able to do. The rent of land, however, is, according to some, the sole fund; and, according to others, the principal fund, from which, in all great monarchies, the exigencies of the state must be ultimately supplied. The more of this fund that is given to the church, the less, it is evident, can be spared to the state. It may be laid down as a certain maxim, that all other things being supposed equal, the richer the church, the poorer must necessarily be, either the sovereign on the one hand, or the people on the other; and, in all cases, the less able must the state be to defend itself. In several protestant countries, particularly in all the protestant cantons of Switzerland, the revenue which anciently belonged to the Roman catholic church, the tithes and church lands, has been found a fund sufficient, not only to afford competent salaries to the established clergy, but to defray, with little or no addition, all the other expenses of the state. The magistrates of the powerful canton of Berne, in particular, have accumulated, out of the savings from this fund, a very large sum, supposed to amount to several millions; part of which is deposited in a public treasure, and part is placed at interest in what are called the public funds of the different indebted nations of Europe; chiefly in those of France[Pg 342] and Great Britain. What may be the amount of the whole expense which the church, either of Berne, or of any other protestant canton, costs the state, I do not pretend to know. By a very exact account it appears, that, in 1755, the whole revenue of the clergy of the church of Scotland, including their glebe or church lands, and the rent of their manses or dwelling-houses, estimated according to a reasonable valuation, amounted only to L.68,514, 1s. 51⁄12d. This very moderate revenue affords a decent subsistence to nine hundred and forty-four ministers. The whole expense of the church, including what is occasionally laid out for the building and reparation of churches, and of the manses of ministers, cannot well be supposed to exceed eighty or eighty-five thousand pounds a-year. The most opulent church in Christendom does not maintain better the uniformity of faith, the fervour of devotion, the spirit of order, regularity, and austere morals, in the great body of the people, than this very poorly endowed church of Scotland. All the good effects, both civil and religious, which an established church can be supposed to produce, are produced by it as completely as by any other. The greater part of the protestant churches of Switzerland, which, in general, are not better endowed than the church of Scotland, produce those effects in a still higher degree. In the greater part of the protestant cantons, there is not a single person to be found, who does not profess himself to be of the established church. If he professes himself to be of any other, indeed, the law obliges him to leave the canton. But so severe, or, rather, indeed, so oppressive a law, could never have been executed in such free countries, had not the diligence of the clergy beforehand converted to the established church the whole body of the people, with the exception of, perhaps, a few individuals only. In some parts of Switzerland, accordingly, where, from the accidental union of a protestant and Roman catholic country, the conversion has not been so complete, both religions are not only tolerated, but established by law.
The proper performance of every service seems to require, that its pay or recompence should be, as exactly as possible, proportioned to the nature of the service. If any service is very much underpaid, it is very apt to suffer by the meanness and incapacity of the greater part of those who are employed in it. If it is very much overpaid, it is apt to suffer, perhaps still more, by their negligence and idleness. A man of a large revenue, whatever may be his profession, thinks he ought to live like other men of large revenues; and to spend a great part of his time in festivity, in vanity, and in dissipation. But in a clergyman, this train of life not only consumes the time which ought to be employed in the duties of his function, but in the eyes of the common people, destroys almost entirely that sanctity of character, which can alone enable him to perform these duties with proper weight and authority.
PART IV.
Of the Expense of supporting the Dignity of the Sovereign.
Over and above the expenses necessary for enabling the sovereign to perform his several duties, a certain expense is requisite for the support of his dignity. This expense varies, both with the different periods of improvement, and with the different forms of government.
In an opulent and improved society, where all the different orders of people are growing every day more expensive in their houses, in their furniture, in their tables, in their dress, and in their equipage; it cannot well be expected that the sovereign should alone hold out against the fashion. He naturally, therefore, or rather necessarily, becomes more expensive in all those different articles too. His dignity even seems to require that he should become so.
As, in point of dignity, a monarch is more raised above his subjects than the chief magistrate of any republic is ever supposed to be above his fellow-citizens; so a greater expense is necessary for supporting that higher dignity. We naturally expect more splendour in the court of a king, than in the mansion-house of a doge or burgo-master.
The expense of defending the society, and that of supporting the dignity of the chief magistrate, are both laid out for the general benefit of the whole society. It is reasonable, therefore, that they should be defrayed by the general contribution of the whole society; all the different members contributing, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities.
The expense of the administration of justice, too, may no doubt be considered as laid out for the benefit of the whole society. There is no impropriety, therefore, in its being defrayed by the general contribution of the whole society. The persons, however, who give occasion to this expense, are those who, by their injustice in one way or another, make it necessary to seek redress or protection from the courts of justice. The persons, again, most immediately benefited by this expense, are those whom the courts of justice either restore to their rights, or maintain in their[Pg 343] rights. The expense of the administration of justice, therefore, may very properly be defrayed by the particular contribution of one or other, or both, of those two different sets of persons, according as different occasions may require, that is, by the fees of court. It cannot be necessary to have recourse to the general contribution of the whole society, except for the conviction of those criminals who have not themselves any estate or fund sufficient for paying those fees.
Those local or provincial expenses, of which the benefit is local or provincial (what is laid out, for example, upon the police of a particular town or district), ought to be defrayed by a local or provincial revenue, and ought to be no burden upon the general revenue of the society. It is unjust that the whole society should contribute towards an expense, of which the benefit is confined to a part of the society.
The expense of maintaining good roads and communications is, no doubt, beneficial to the whole society, and may, therefore, without any injustice, be defrayed by the general contributions of the whole society. This expense, however, is most immediately and directly beneficial to those who travel or carry goods from one place to another, and to those who consume such goods. The turnpike tolls in England, and the duties called peages in other countries, lay it altogether upon those two different sets of people, and thereby discharge the general revenue of the society from a very considerable burden.
The expense of the institutions for education and religious instruction, is likewise, no doubt, beneficial to the whole society, and may, therefore, without injustice, be defrayed by the general contribution of the whole society. This expense, however, might, perhaps, with equal propriety, and even with some advantage, be defrayed altogether by those who receive the immediate benefit of such education and instruction, or by the voluntary contribution of those who think they have occasion for either the one or the other.
When the institutions, or public works, which are beneficial to the whole society, either cannot be maintained altogether, or are not maintained altogether, by the contribution of such particular members of the society as are most immediately benefited by them; the deficiency must, in most cases, be made up by the general contribution of the whole society. The general revenue of the society, over and above defraying the expense of defending the society, and of supporting the dignity of the chief magistrate, must make up for the deficiency of many particular branches of revenue. The sources of this general or public revenue, I shall endeavour to explain in the following chapter.
OF THE SOURCES OF THE GENERAL OR PUBLIC REVENUE OF THE SOCIETY.
The revenue which must defray, not only the expense of defending the society and of supporting the dignity of the chief magistrate, but all the other necessary expenses of government, for which the constitution of the state has not provided any particular revenue may be drawn, either, first, from some fund which peculiarly belongs to the sovereign or commonwealth, and which is independent of the revenue of the people; or, secondly, from the revenue of the people.
Of the Funds, or Sources, of Revenue, which may peculiarly belong to the Sovereign or Commonwealth.
The funds, or sources, of revenue, which may peculiarly belong to the sovereign or commonwealth, must consist, either in stock, or in land.
The sovereign, like any other owner of stock, may derive a revenue from it, either by employing it himself, or by lending it. His revenue is, in the one case, profit, in the other interest.
The revenue of a Tartar or Arabian chief consists in profit. It arises principally from the milk and increase of his own herds and flocks, of which he himself superintends the management, and is the principal shepherd or herdsman of his own horde or tribe. It is, however, in this earliest and rudest state of civil government only, that profit has ever made the principal part of the public revenue of a monarchical state.
Small republics have sometimes derived a considerable revenue from the profit of mercantile projects. The republic of Hamburgh is said to do so from the profits of a public wine-cellar and apothecary's shop.[50] That state cannot be very great, of which the sovereign has leisure to carry on the trade of a wine-merchant or an apothecary. The profit of a public bank has been a source of revenue to more con[Pg 344]siderable states. It has been so, not only to Hamburgh, but to Venice and Amsterdam. A revenue of this kind has even by some people been thought not below the attention of so great an empire as that of Great Britain. Reckoning the ordinary dividend of the bank of England at five and a-half per cent., and its capital at ten millions seven hundred and eighty thousand pounds, the net annual profit, after paying the expense of management, must amount, it is said, to five hundred and ninety-two thousand nine hundred pounds. Government, it is pretended, could borrow this capital at three per cent. interest, and, by taking the management of the bank into its own hands, might make a clear profit of two hundred and sixty-nine thousand five hundred pounds a-year. The orderly, vigilant, and parsimonious administration of such aristocracies as those of Venice and Amsterdam, is extremely proper, it appears from experience, for the management of a mercantile project of this kind. But whether such a government as that of England, which, whatever may be its virtues, has never been famous for good economy; which, in time of peace, has generally conducted itself with the slothful and negligent profusion that is, perhaps, natural to monarchies; and, in time of war, has constantly acted with all the thoughtless extravagance that democracies are apt to fall into, could be safely trusted with the management of such a project, must at least be good deal more doubtful.
The post-office is properly a mercantile project. The government advances the expense of establishing the different offices, and of buying or hiring the necessary horses or carriages, and is repaid, with a large profit, by the duties upon what is carried. It is, perhaps, the only mercantile project which has been successfully managed by, I believe, every sort of government. The capital to be advanced is not very considerable. There is no mystery in the business. The returns are not only certain, but immediate.
Princes, however, have frequently engaged in many other mercantile projects, and have been willing, like private persons, to mend their fortunes, by becoming adventurers in the common branches of trade. They have scarce ever succeeded. The profusion with which the affairs of princes are always managed, renders it almost impossible that they should. The agents of a prince regard the wealth of their master as inexhaustible; are careless at what price they buy, are careless at what price they sell, are careless at what expense they transport his goods from one place to another. Those agents frequently live with the profusion of princes; and sometimes, too, in spite of that profusion, and by a proper method of making up their accounts, acquire the fortunes of princes. It was thus, as we are told by Machiavel, that the agents of Lorenzo of Medicis, not a prince of mean abilities, carried on his trade. The republic of Florence was several times obliged to pay the debt into which their extravagance had involved him. He found it convenient, accordingly to give up the business of merchant, the business to which his family had originally owed their fortune, and, in the latter part of his life, to employ both what remained of that fortune, and the revenue of the state, of which he had the disposal, in projects and expenses more suitable to his station.
No two characters seem more inconsistent than those of trader and sovereign. If the trading spirit of the English East India company renders them very bad sovereigns, the spirit of sovereignty seems to have rendered them equally bad traders. While they were traders only, they managed their trade successfully, and were able to pay from their profits a moderate dividend to the proprietors of their stock. Since they became sovereigns, with a revenue which, it is said, was originally more than three millions sterling, they have been obliged to beg the ordinary assistance of government, in order to avoid immediate bankruptcy. In their former situation, their servants in India considered themselves as the clerks of merchants; in their present situation, those servants consider themselves as the ministers of sovereigns.
A state may sometimes derive some part of its public revenue from the interest of money, as well as from the profits of stock. If it has amassed a treasure, it may lend a part of that treasure, either to foreign states, or to its own subjects.
The canton of Berne derives a considerable revenue by lending a part of its treasure to foreign states, that is, by placing it in the public funds of the different indebted nations of Europe, chiefly in those of France and England. The security of this revenue must depend, first, upon the security of the funds in which it is placed, or upon the good faith of the government which has the management of them; and, secondly, upon the certainty or probability of the continuance of peace with the debtor nation. In the case of a war, the very first act of hostility on the part of the debtor nation might be the forfeiture of the funds of its creditor. This policy of lending money to foreign states is, so far as I know peculiar to the canton of Berne.
The city of Hamburgh[51] has established a sort of public pawn-shop, which lends money to the subjects of the state, upon pledges, at six per cent. interest. This pawn-shop, or lombard, as it is called, affords a revenue, it is pretended, to the state, of a hundred and[Pg 345] fifty thousand crowns, which, at four and sixpence the crown, amounts to L.33,750 sterling.
The government of Pennsylvania, without amassing any treasure, invented a method of lending, not money, indeed, but what is equivalent to money, to its subjects. By advancing to private people, at interest, and upon land security to double the value, paper bills of credit, to be redeemed fifteen years after their date; and, in the mean time, made transferable from hand to hand, like banknotes, and declared by act of assembly to be a legal tender in all payments from one inhabitant of the province to another, it raised a moderate revenue, which went a considerable way towards defraying an annual expense of about L.4500, the whole ordinary expense of that frugal and orderly government. The success of an expedient of this kind must have depended upon three different circumstances: first, upon the demand for some other instrument of commerce, besides gold and silver money, or upon the demand for such a quantity of consumable stock as could not be had without sending abroad the greater part of their gold and silver money, in order to purchase it; secondly, upon the good credit of the government which made use of this expedient; and, thirdly, upon the moderation with which it was used, the whole value of the paper bills of credit never exceeding that of the gold and silver money which would have been necessary for carrying on their circulation, had there been no paper bills of credit. The same expedient was, upon different occasions, adopted by several other American colonies; but, from want of this moderation, it produced, in the greater part of them, much more disorder than conveniency.
The unstable and perishable nature of stock and credit, however, renders them unfit to be trusted to as the principal funds of that sure, steady, and permanent revenue, which can alone give security and dignity to government. The government of no great nation, that was advanced beyond the shepherd state, seems ever to have derived the greater part of its public revenue from such sources.
Land is a fund of more stable and permanent nature; and the rent of public lands, accordingly, has been the principal source of the public revenue of many a great nation that was much advanced beyond the shepherd state. From the produce or rent of the public lands, the ancient republics of Greece and Italy derived for a long time the greater part of that revenue which defrayed the necessary expenses of the commonwealth. The rent of the crown lands constituted for a long time the greater part of the revenue of the ancient sovereigns of Europe.
War, and the preparation for war, are the two circumstances which, in modern times, occasion the greater part of the necessary expense of all great states. But in the ancient republics of Greece and Italy, every citizen was a soldier, and both served, and prepared himself for service, at his own expense. Neither of those two circumstances, therefore, could occasion any very considerable expense to the state. The rent of a very moderate landed estate might be fully sufficient for defraying all the other necessary expenses of government.
In the ancient monarchies of Europe, the manners and customs of the times sufficiently prepared the great body of the people for war; and when they took the field, they were, by the condition of their feudal tenures, to be maintained either at their own expense, or at that of their immediate lords, without bringing any new charge upon the sovereign. The other expenses of government were, the greater part of them, very moderate. The administration of justice, it has been shewn, instead of being a cause of expense was a source of revenue. The labour of the country people, for three days before, and for three days after, harvest, was thought a fund sufficient for making and maintaining all the bridges, highways, and other public works, which the commerce of the country was supposed to require. In those days the principal expense of the sovereign seems to have consisted in the maintenance of his own family and household. The officers of his household, accordingly, were then the great officers of state. The lord treasurer received his rents. The lord steward and lord chamberlain looked after the expense of his family. The care of his stables was committed to the lord constable and the lord marshal. His houses were all built in the form of castles, and seem to have been the principal fortresses which he possessed. The keepers of those houses or castles might be considered as a sort of military governors. They seem to have been the only military officers whom it was necessary to maintain in time of peace. In these circumstances, the rent of a great landed estate might, upon ordinary occasions, very well defray all the necessary expenses of government.
In the present state of the greater part of the civilized monarchies of Europe, the rent of all the lands in the country, managed as they probably would be, if they all belonged to one proprietor, would scarce, perhaps, amount to the ordinary revenue which they levy upon the people even in peaceable times. The ordinary revenue of Great Britain, for example, including not only what is necessary for defraying the current expense of the year, but for paying the interest of the public debts, and for sinking a part of the capital of those debts, amounts to upwards of ten millions a-year. But the land tax, at four shillings in the pound, falls short of two millions a-year. This land tax, as it is called,[Pg 346] however, is supposed to be one-fifth, not only of the rent of all the land, but of that of all the houses, and of the interest of all the capital stock of Great Britain, that part of it only excepted which is either lent to the public, or employed as farming stock in the cultivation of land. A very considerable part of the produce of this tax arises from the rent of houses and the interest of capital stock. The land tax of the city of London, for example, at four shillings in the pound, amounts to L.123,399 : 6 : 7; that of the city of Westminster to L.63,092 : 1 : 5; that of the palaces of Whitehall and St. James's to L.30,754 : 6 : 3. A certain proportion of the land tax is, in the same manner, assessed upon all the other cities and towns corporate in the kingdom; and arises almost altogether, either from the rent of houses, or from what is supposed to be the interest of trading and capital stock. According to the estimation, therefore, by which Great Britain is rated to the land tax, the whole mass of revenue arising from the rent of all the lands, from that of all the houses, and from the interest of all the capital stock, that part of it only excepted which is either lent to the public, or employed in the cultivation of land, does not exceed ten millions sterling a-year, the ordinary revenue which government levies upon the people even in peaceable times. The estimation by which Great Britain is rated to the land tax is, no doubt, taking the whole kingdom at an average, very much below the real value; though in several particular counties and districts it is said to be nearly equal to that value. The rent of the lands alone, exclusive of that of houses and of the interest of stock, has by many people been estimated at twenty millions; an estimation made in a great measure at random, and which, I apprehend, is as likely to be above as below the truth. But if the lands of Great Britain, in the present state of their cultivation, do not afford a rent of more than twenty millions a-year, they could not well afford the half, most probably not the fourth part of that rent, if they all belonged to a single proprietor, and were put under the negligent, expensive, and oppressive management of his factors and agents. The crown lands of Great Britain do not at present afford the fourth part of the rent which could probably be drawn from them if they were the property of private persons. If the crown lands were more extensive, it is probable, they would be still worse managed.
The revenue which the great body of the people derives from land is, in proportion, not to the rent, but to the produce of the land. The whole annual produce of the land of every country, if we except what is reserved for seed, is either annually consumed by the great body of the people, or exchanged for something else that is consumed by them. Whatever keeps down the produce of the land below what it would otherwise rise to, keeps down the revenue of the great body of the people, still more than it does that of the proprietors of land. The rent of land, that portion of the produce which belongs to the proprietors, is scarce anywhere in Great Britain supposed to be more than a third part of the whole produce. If the land which, in one state of cultivation, affords a revenue of ten millions sterling a-year, would in another afford a rent of twenty millions; the rent being, in both cases, supposed a third part of the produce, the revenue of the proprietors would be less than it otherwise might be, by ten millions a-year only; but the revenue of the great body of the people would be less than it otherwise might be, by thirty millions a-year, deducting only what would be necessary for seed. The population of the country would be less by the number of people which thirty millions a-year, deducting always the seed, could maintain, according to the particular mode of living, and expense which might take place in the different ranks of men, among whom the remainder was distributed.
Though there is not at present in Europe, any civilized state of any kind which derives the greater part of its public revenue from the rent of lands which are the property of the state; yet, in all the great monarchies of Europe, there are still many large tracts of land which belong to the crown. They are generally forest, and sometimes forests where, after travelling several miles, you will scarce find a single tree; a mere waste and loss of country, in respect both of produce and population. In every great monarchy of Europe, the sale of the crown lands would produce a very large sum of money, which, if applied to the payment of the public debts, would deliver from mortgage a much greater revenue than any which those lands have ever afforded to the crown. In countries where lands, improved and cultivated very highly, and yielding, at the time of sale, as great a rent as can easily be got from them, commonly sell at thirty years purchase; the unimproved, uncultivated, and low-rented crown lands, might well be expected to sell at forty, fifty, or sixty years purchase. The crown might immediately enjoy the revenue which this great price would redeem from mortgage. In the course of a few years, it would probably enjoy another revenue. When the crown lands had become private property, they would, in the course of a few years, become well improved and well cultivated. The increase of their produce would increase the population of the country, by augmenting the revenue and consumption of the people. But the revenue which the crown derives[Pg 347] from the duties of custom and excise, would necessarily increase with the revenue and consumption of the people.
The revenue which, in any civilized monarchy, the crown derives from the crown lands, though it appears to cost nothing to individuals, in reality costs more to the society than perhaps any other equal revenue which the crown enjoys. It would, in all cases, be for the interest of the society, to replace this revenue to the crown by some other equal revenue, and to divide the lands among the people, which could not well be done better, perhaps, than by exposing them to public sale.
Lands, for the purposes of pleasure and magnificence, parks, gardens, public walks, &c. possessions which are everywhere considered as causes of expense, not as sources of revenue, seem to be the only lands which, in a great and civilized monarchy, ought to belong to the crown.
Public stock and public lands, therefore, the two sources of revenue which may peculiarly belong to the sovereign or commonwealth, being both improper and insufficient funds for defraying the necessary expense of any great and civilized state; it remains that this expense must, the greater part of it, be defrayed by taxes of one kind or another; the people contributing a part of their own private revenue, in order to make up a public revenue to the sovereign or commonwealth.
Of Taxes.
The private revenue of individuals, it has been shown in the first book of this Inquiry, arises, ultimately from the three different sources; rent, profit, and wages. Every tax must finally be paid from some one or other of those three different sources of revenue, or from all of them indifferently. I shall endeavour to give the best account I can, first, of those taxes which, it is intended should fall upon rent; secondly, of those which, it is intended should fall upon profit; thirdly, of those which, it is intended should fall upon wages; and fourthly, of those which, it is intended should fall indifferently upon all those three different sources of private revenue. The particular consideration of each of these four different sources of taxes will divide the second part of the present chapter into four articles, three of which will require several other subdivisions. Many of these taxes, it will appear from the following review, are not finally paid from the fund, or source of revenue, upon which it is intended they should fall.
Before I enter upon the examination of particular taxes, it is necessary to premise the four following maxims with regard to taxes in general.
1. The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government, as nearly as possible, in proportion to their respective abilities; that is, in proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy under the protection of the state. The expense of government to the individuals of a great nation, is like the expense of management to the joint tenants of a great estate, who are all obliged to contribute in proportion to their respective interests in the estate. In the observation or neglect of this maxim, consists what is called the equality or inequality of taxation. Every tax, it must be observed once for all, which falls finally upon one only of the three sorts of revenue above mentioned, is necessarily unequal, in so far as it does not affect the other two. In the following examination of different taxes, I shall seldom take much farther notice of this sort of inequality; but shall, in most cases, confine my observations to that inequality which is occasioned by a particular tax falling unequally upon that particular sort of private revenue which is affected by it.
2. The tax which each individual is bound to pay, ought to be certain and not arbitrary. The time of payment, the manner of payment, the quantity to be paid, ought all to be clear and plain to the contributor, and to every other person. Where it is otherwise, every person subject to the tax is put more or less in the power of the tax-getherer, who can either aggravate the tax upon any obnoxious contributor, or extort, by the terror of such aggravation, some present or perquisite to himself. The uncertainty of taxation encourages the insolence, and favours the corruption, of an order of men who are naturally unpopular, even where they are neither insolent nor corrupt. The certainty of what each individual ought to pay is, in taxation, a matter of so great importance, that a very considerable degree of inequality, it appears, I believe, from the experience of all nations, is not near so great an evil as a very small degree of uncertainty.
3. Every tax ought to be levied at the time, or in the manner, in which it is most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay it. A tax upon the rent of land or of houses, payable at the same term at which such rents are usually paid, is levied at the time when it is most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay; or when he is most likely to have wherewithal to pay. Taxes upon such consumable goods as are articles of luxury, are all finally paid by the consumer, and generally in a manner that is very convenient for him. He pays them by little and little, as he has occasion to buy the goods. As he is at liberty too, either to buy or not to buy, as he pleases, it must be his own fault if he ever suffers any considerable inconveniency from such taxes.[Pg 348]
4. Every tax ought to be so contrived, as both to take out and to keep out of the pockets of the people as little as possible, over and above what it brings into the public treasury of the state. A tax may either take out or keep out of the pockets of the people a great deal more than it brings into the public treasury, in the four following ways. First, the levying of it may require a great number of officers, whose salaries may eat up the greater part of the produce of the tax, and whose perquisites may impose another additional tax upon the people. Secondly, it may obstruct the industry of the people, and discourage them from applying to certain branches of business which might give maintenance and employment to great multitudes. While it obliges the people to pay, it may thus diminish, or perhaps destroy, some of the funds which might enable them more easily to do so. Thirdly, by the forfeitures and other penalties which those unfortunate individuals incur, who attempt unsuccessfully to evade the tax, it may frequently ruin them, and thereby put an end to the benefit which the community might have received from the employment of their capitals. An injudicious tax offers a great temptation to smuggling. But the penalties of smuggling must arise in proportion to the temptation. The law, contrary to all the ordinary principles of justice, first creates the temptation, and then punishes those who yield to it; and it commonly enhances the punishment, too, in proportion to the very circumstance which ought certainly to alleviate it, the temptation to commit the crime.[52] Fourthly, by subjecting the people to the frequent visits and the odious examination of the tax-gatherers, it may expose them to much unnecessary trouble, vexation, and oppression; and though vexation is not, strictly speaking, expense, it is certainly equivalent to the expense at which every man would be willing to redeem himself from it. It is in some one or other of these four different ways, that taxes are frequently so much more burdensome to the people than they are beneficial to the sovereign.
The evident justice and utility of the foregoing maxims have recommended them, more or less, to the attention of all nations. All nations have endeavoured, to the best of their judgment, to render their taxes as equal as they could contrive; as certain, as convenient to the contributor, both the time and the mode of payment, and in proportion to the revenue which they brought to the prince, as little burdensome to the people. The following short review of some of the principal taxes which have taken place in different ages and countries, will show, that the endeavours of all nations have not in this respect been equally successful.
ART. I.—Taxes upon Rent—Taxes upon the Rent of Land.
A tax upon the rent of land may either be imposed according to a certain canon, every district being valued at a certain rent, which valuation is not afterwards to be altered; or it may be imposed in such a manner, as to vary with every variation in the real rent of the land, and to rise or fall with the improvement or declaration of its cultivation.
A land tax which, like that of Great Britain, is assessed upon each district according to a certain invariable canon, though it should be equal at the time of its first establishment, necessarily becomes unequal in process of time, according to the unequal degrees of improvement or neglect in the cultivation of the different parts of the country. In England, the valuation, according to which the different counties and parishes were assessed to the land tax by the 4th of William and Mary, was very unequal even at its first establishment. This tax, therefore, so far offends against the first of the four maxims above mentioned. It is perfectly agreeable to the other three. It is perfectly certain. The time of payment for the tax, being the same as that for the rent, is as convenient as it can be to the contributor. Though the landlord is, in all cases, the real contributor, the tax is commonly advanced by the tenant, to whom the landlord is obliged to allow it in the payment of the rent. This tax is levied by a much smaller number of officers than any other which affords nearly the same revenue. As the tax upon each district does not rise with the rise of the rent, the sovereign does not share in the profits of the landlord's improvements. Those improvements sometimes contribute, indeed, to the discharge of the other landlords of the district. But the aggravation of the tax, which this may sometimes occasion upon a particular estate, is always so very small, that it never can discourage those improvements, nor keep down the produce of the land below what it would otherwise rise to. As it has no tendency to diminish the quantity, it can have none to raise the price of that produce. It does not obstruct the industry of the people; it subjects the landlord to no other inconveniency besides the unavoidable one of paying the tax.
The advantage, however, which the landlord has derived from the invariable constancy of the valuation, by which all the lands of Great Britain are rated to the land-tax, has been principally owing to some circumstances altogether extraneous to the nature of the tax.[Pg 349]
It has been owing in part, to the great prosperity of almost every part of the country, the rents of almost all the estates of Great Britain having, since the time when this valuation was first established, been continually rising, and scarce any of them having fallen. The landlords, therefore, have almost all gained the difference between the tax which they would have paid, according to the present rent of their estates, and that which they actually pay according to the ancient valuation. Had the state of the country been different, had rents been gradually falling in consequence of the declension of cultivation, the landlords would almost all have lost this difference. In the state of things which has happened to take place since the revolution, the constancy of the valuation has been advantageous to the landlord and hurtful to the sovereign. In a different state of things it might have been advantageous to the sovereign and hurtful to the landlord.
As the tax is made payable in money, so the valuation of the land is expressed in money. Since the establishment of this valuation, the value of silver has been pretty uniform, and there has been no alteration in the standard of the coin, either as to weight or fineness. Had silver risen considerably in its value, as it seems to have done in the course of the two centuries which preceded the discovery of the mines of America, the constancy of the valuation might have proved very oppressive to the landlord. Had silver fallen considerably in its value, as it certainly did for about a century at least after the discovery of those mines, the same constancy of valuation would have reduced very much this branch of the revenue of the sovereign. Had any considerable alteration been made in the standard of the money, either by sinking the same quantity of silver to a lower denomination, or by raising it to a higher; had an ounce of silver, for example, instead of being coined into five shillings and two pence, been coined either into pieces which bore so low a denomination as two shillings and seven pence, or into pieces which bore so high a one as ten shillings and four pence, it would, in the one case, have hurt the revenue of the proprietor, in the other that of the sovereign.
In circumstances, therefore, somewhat different from those which have actually taken place, this constancy of valuation might have been a very great inconveniency, either to the contributors or to the commonwealth. In the course of ages, such circumstances, however, must at some time or other happen. But though empires, like all the other works of men, have all hitherto proved mortal, yet every empire aims at immortality. Every constitution, therefore, which it is meant should be as permanent as the empire itself, ought to be convenient, not in certain circumstances only, but in all circumstances; or ought to be suited, not to those circumstances which are transitory, occasional, or accidental, but to those which are necessary, and therefore always the same.
A tax upon the rent of land, which varies with every variation of the rent, or which rises and falls according to the improvement or neglect of cultivation, is recommended by that sect of men of letters in France, who call themselves the economists, as the most equitable of all taxes. All taxes, they pretend, fall ultimately upon the rent of land, and ought, therefore, to be imposed equally upon the fund which must finally pay them. That all taxes ought to fall as equally as possible upon the fund which must finally pay them, is certainly true. But without entering into the disagreeable discussion of the metaphysical arguments by which they support their very ingenious theory, it will sufficiently appear, from the following review, what are the taxes which fall finally upon the rent of the land, and what are those which fall finally upon some other fund.
In the Venetian territory, all the arable lands which are given in lease to farmers are taxed at a tenth of the rent.[53] The leases are recorded in a public register, which is kept by the officers of revenue in each province or district. When the proprietor cultivates his own lands, they are valued according to an equitable estimation, and he is allowed a deduction of one-fifth of the tax; so that for such land he pays only eight instead of ten per cent. of the supposed rent.
A land-tax of this kind is certainly more equal than the land-tax of England. It might not, perhaps, be altogether so certain, and the assessment of the tax might frequently occasion a good deal more trouble to the landlord. It might, too, be a good deal more expensive in the levying.
Such a system of administration, however, might, perhaps, be contrived, as would in a great measure both prevent this uncertainty, and moderate this expense.
The landlord and tenant, for example, might jointly be obliged to record their lease in a public register. Proper penalties might be enacted against concealing or misrepresenting any of the conditions; and if part of those penalties were to be paid to either of the two parties who informed against and convicted the other of such concealment or misrepresentation, it would effectually deter them from combining together in order to defraud the public revenue. All the conditions of the lease might be sufficiently known from such a record.
Some landlords, instead of raising the rent, take a fine for the renewal of the lease. This practice is, in most cases, the expedient of a spendthrift, who, for a sum of ready money[Pg 350] sells a future revenue of much greater value. It is, in most cases, therefore, hurtful to the landlord; it is frequently hurtful to the tenant; and it is always hurtful to the community. It frequently takes from the tenant so great a part of his capital, and thereby diminishes so much his ability to cultivate the land, that he finds it more difficult to pay a small rent than it would otherwise have been to pay a great one. Whatever diminishes his ability to cultivate, necessarily keeps down, below what it would otherwise have been, the most important part of the revenue of the community. By rendering the tax upon such fines a good deal heavier than upon the ordinary rent, this hurtful practice might be discouraged, to the no small advantage of all the different parties concerned, of the landlord, of the tenant, of the sovereign, and of the whole community.
Some leases prescribe to the tenant a certain mode of cultivation, and a certain succession of crops, during the whole continuance of the lease. This condition, which is generally the effect of the landlord's conceit of his own superior knowledge (a conceit in most cases very ill-founded), ought always to be considered as an additional rent, as a rent in service, instead of a rent in money. In order to discourage the practice, which is generally a foolish one, this species of rent might be valued rather high, and consequently taxed somewhat higher than common money-rents.
Some landlords, instead of a rent in money, require a rent in kind, in corn, cattle, poultry, wine, oil, &c.; others, again, require a rent in service. Such rents are always more hurtful to the tenant than beneficial to the landlord. They either take more, or keep more out of the pocket of the former, than they put into that of the latter. In every country where they take place, the tenants are poor and beggarly, pretty much according to the degree in which they take place. By valuing, in the same manner, such rents rather high, and consequently taxing them somewhat higher than common money-rents, a practice which is hurtful to the whole community, might, perhaps, be sufficiently discouraged.
When the landlord chose to occupy himself a part of his own lands, the rent might be valued according to an equitable arbitration of the farmers and landlords in the neighbourhood, and a moderate abatement of the tax might be granted to him, in the same manner as in the Venetian territory, provided the rent of the lands which he occupied did not exceed a certain sum. It is of importance that the landlord should be encouraged to cultivate a part of his own land. His capital is generally greater than that of the tenant, and, with less skill, he can frequently raise a greater produce. The landlord can afford to try experiments, and in generally disposed to do so. His unsuccessful experiments occasion only a moderate loss to himself. His successful ones contribute to the improvement and better cultivation of the whole country. It might be of importance, however, that the abatement of the tax should encourage him to cultivate to a certain extent only. If the landlords should, the greater part of them, be tempted to farm the whole of their own lands, the country (instead of sober and industrious tenants, who are bound by their own interest to cultivate as well as their capital and skill will allow them) would be filled with idle and profligate bailiffs, whose abusive management would soon degrade the cultivation, and reduce the annual produce of the land, to the diminution, not only of the revenue of their masters, but of the most important part of that of the whole society.
Such a system of administration might, perhaps, free a tax of this kind from any degree of uncertainty, which could occasion either oppression or inconveniency to the contributor; and might, at the same time, serve to introduce into the common management of land such a plan of policy as might contribute a good deal to the general improvement and good cultivation of the country.
The expense of levying a land-tax, which varied with every variation of the rent, would, no doubt, be somewhat greater than that of levying one which was always rated according to a fixed valuation. Some additional expense would necessarily be incurred, both by the different register-offices which it would be proper to establish in the different districts of the country, and by the different valuations which might occasionally be made of the lands which the proprietor chose to occupy himself. The expense of all this, however, might be very moderate, and much below what is incurred in the levying of many other taxes, which afford a very inconsiderable revenue in comparison of what might easily be drawn from a tax of this kind.
The discouragement which a variable land-tax of this kind might give to the improvement of land, seems to be the most important objection which can be made to it. The landlord would certainly be less disposed to improve, when the sovereign, who contributed nothing to the expense, was to share in the profit of the improvement. Even this objection might, perhaps, be obviated, by allowing the landlord, before he began his improvement, to ascertain, in conjunction with the officers of revenue, the actual value of his lands, according to the equitable arbitration of a certain number of landlords and farmers in the neighbourhood, equally chosen by both parties: and by rating him, according to this valuation, for such a number of years as might be fully sufficient for his complete indemnification. To draw the attention of the sovereign towards the improvement of the land,[Pg 351] from a regard to the increase of his own revenue, is one of the principal advantages proposed by this species of land-tax. The term, therefore, allowed, for the indemnification of the landlord, ought not to be a great deal longer than what was necessary for that purpose, lest the remoteness of the interest should discourage too much this attention. It had better, however, be somewhat too long, than in any respect too short. No incitement to the attention of the sovereign can ever counterbalance the smallest discouragement to that of the landlord. The attention of the sovereign can be, at best, but a very general and vague consideration of what is likely to contribute to the better cultivation of the greater part of his dominions. The attention of the landlord is a particular and minute consideration of what is likely to be the most advantageous application of every inch of ground upon his estate. The principal attention of the sovereign ought to be, to encourage, by every means in his power, the attention both of the landlord and of the farmer, by allowing both to pursue their own interest in their own way, and according to their own judgment; by giving to both the most perfect security that they shall enjoy the full recompence of their own industry; and by procuring to both the most extensive market for every part of their produce, in consequence of establishing the easiest and safest communications, both by land and by water, through every part of his own dominions, as well as the most unbounded freedom of exportation to the dominions of all other princes.
If, by such a system of administration, a tax of this kind could be so managed as to give, not only no discouragement, but, on the contrary, some encouragement to the improvement of land, it does not appear likely to occasion any other inconveniency to the landlord, except always the unavoidable one of being obliged to pay the tax.
In all the variations of the state of the society, in the improvement and in the declension of agriculture; in all the variations in the value of silver, and in all those in the standard of the coin, a tax of this kind would, of its own accord, and without any attention of government, readily suit itself to the actual situation of things, and would be equally just and equitable in all those different changes. It would, therefore, be much more proper to be established as a perpetual and unalterable regulation, or as what is called a fundamental law of the commonwealth, than any tax which was always to be levied according to a certain valuation.
Some states, instead of the simple and obvious expedient of a register of leases, have had recourse to the laborious and expensive one of an actual survey and valuation of all the lands in the country. They have suspected, probably, that the lessor and lessee, in order to defraud the public revenue, might combine to conceal the real terms of the lease. Doomsday-book seems to have been the result of a very accurate survey of this kind.
In the ancient dominions of the king of Prussia, the land-tax is assessed according to an actual survey and valuation, which is reviewed and altered from time to time.[54] According to that valuation, the lay proprietors pay from twenty to twenty-five per cent. of their revenue; ecclesiastics from forty to forty-five per cent. The survey and valuation of Silesia was made by order of the present king, it is said, with great accuracy. According to that valuation, the lands belonging to the bishop of Breslaw are taxed at twenty-five per cent. of their rent. The other revenues of the ecclesiastics of both religions at fifty per cent. The commanderies of the Teutonic order, and of that of Malta, at forty per cent. Lands held by a noble tenure, at thirty-eight and one-third per cent. Lands held by a base tenure, at thirty-five and one-third per cent.
The survey and valuation of Bohemia is said to have been the work of more than a hundred years. It was not perfected till after the peace of 1748, by the orders of the present empress queen.[55] The survey of the duchy of Milan, which was begun in the time of Charles VI., was not perfected till after 1760. It is esteemed one of the most accurate that has ever been made. The survey of Savoy and Piedmont was executed under the orders of the late king of Sardinia.[56]
In the dominions of the king of Prussia, the revenue of the church is taxed much higher than that of lay proprietors. The revenue of the church is, the greater part of it, a burden upon the rent of land. It seldom happens that any part of it is applied towards the improvement of land; or is so employed as to contribute, in any respect, towards increasing the revenue of the great body of the people. His Prussian majesty had probably, upon that account, thought it reasonable that it should contribute a good deal more towards relieving the exigencies of the state. In some countries, the lands of the church are exempted from all taxes. In others, they are taxed more lightly than other lands. In the duchy of Milan, the lands which the church possessed before 1575, are rated to the tax at a third only of their value.
In Silesia, lands held by a noble tenure are taxed three per cent. higher than those held by a base tenure. The honours and privileges of different kinds annexed to the former, his Prussian majesty had probably imagined, would sufficiently compensate to the proprietor a small aggravation of the tax;[Pg 352] while, at the same time, the humiliating inferiority of the latter would be in some measure alleviated, by being taxed somewhat more lightly. In other countries, the system of taxation, instead of alleviating, aggravates this inequality. In the dominions of the king of Sardinia, and in those provinces of France which are subject to what is called the real or predial taille, the tax falls altogether upon the lands held by a base tenure. Those held by a noble one are exempted.
A land tax assessed according to a general survey and valuation, how equal soever it may be at first, must, in the course of a very moderate period of time, become unequal. To prevent its becoming so would require the continual and painful attention of government to all the variations in the state and produce of every different farm in the country. The governments of Prussia, of Bohemia, of Sardinia, and of the duchy of Milan, actually exert an attention of this kind; an attention so unsuitable to the nature of government, that it is not likely to be of long continuance, and which, if it is continued, will probably, in the long-run, occasion much more trouble and vexation then it can possibly bring relief to the contributors.
In 1666, the generality of Montauban was assessed to the real or predial taille, according, it is said, to a very exact survey and valuation.[57] By 1727, this assessment had become altogether unequal. In order to remedy this inconveniency, government has found no better expedient, than to impose upon the whole generality an additional tax of a hundred and twenty thousand livres. This additional tax is rated upon all the different districts subject to the taille according to the old assessment. But it is levied only upon those which, in the actual state of things, are by that assessment under-taxed; and it is applied to the relief of those which, by the same assessment, are over-taxed. Two districts, for example, one of which ought, in the actual state of things, to be taxed at nine hundred, the other at eleven hundred livres, are, by the old assessment, both taxed at a thousand livres. Both these districts are, by the additional tax, rated at eleven hundred livres each. But this additional tax is levied only upon the district under-charged, and it is applied altogether to the relief of that overcharged, which consequently pays only nine hundred livres. The government neither gains nor loses by the additional tax, which is applied altogether to remedy the inequalities arising from the old assessment. The application is pretty much regulated according to the discretion of the intendant of the generality, and must, therefore, be in a great measure arbitrary.
Taxes which are proportioned, not to the Rent, but to the Produce of Land.
Taxes upon the produce of land are, in reality, taxes upon the rent; and though they may be originally advanced by the farmer, are finally paid by the landlord. When a certain portion of the produce is to be paid away for a tax, the farmer computes as well as he can, what the value of this portion is, one year with another, likely to amount to, and he makes a proportionable abatement in the rent which he agrees to pay to the landlord. There is no farmer who does not compute before hand what the church tythe, which is a land tax of this kind, is, one year with another, likely to amount to.
The tythe, and every other land tax of this kind, under the appearance of perfect equality, are very unequal taxes; a certain portion of the produce being in different situations, equivalent to a very different portion of the rent. In some very rich lands, the produce is so great, that the one half of it is fully sufficient to replace to the farmer his capital employed in cultivation, together with the ordinary profits of farming stock in the neighbourhood. The other half, or, what comes to the same thing, the value of the other half, he could afford to pay as rent to the landlord, if there was no tythe. But if a tenth of the produce is taken from him in the way of tythe, he must require an abatement of the fifth part of his rent, otherwise he cannot get back his capital with the ordinary profit. In this case, the rent of the landlord, instead of amounting to a half, or five-tenths of the whole produce, will amount only to four-tenths of it. In poorer lands, on the contrary, the produce is sometimes so small, and the expense of cultivation so great, that it requires four-fifths of the whole produce, to replace to the farmer his capital with the ordinary profit. In this case, though there was no tythe, the rent of the landlord could amount to no more than one-fifth or two-tenths of the whole produce. But if the farmer pays one-tenth of the produce in the way of tythe, he must require an equal abatement of the rent of the landlord, which will thus be reduced to one-tenth only of the whole produce. Upon the rent of rich lands the tythe may sometimes be a tax of no more than one-fifth part, or four shillings in the pound; whereas upon that of poorer lands, it may sometimes be a tax of one half, or of ten shillings in the pound.
The tythe, as it is frequently a very unequal tax upon the rent, so it is always a great discouragement, both to the improvements of the landlord, and to the cultivation of the farmer. The one cannot venture to make the most important, which are generally the most[Pg 353] expensive improvements; nor the other to raise the most valuable, which are generally, too, the most expensive crops; when the church, which lays out no part of the expense, is to share so very largely in the profit. The cultivation of madder was, for a long time, confined by the tythe to the United Provinces, which, being presbyterian countries, and upon that account exempted from this destructive tax, enjoyed a sort of monopoly of that useful dyeing drug against the rest of Europe. The late attempts to introduce the culture of this plant into England, have been made only in consequence of the statute, which enacted that five shillings an acre should be received in lieu of all manner of tythe upon madder.
As through the greater part of Europe, the church, so in many different countries of Asia, the state, is principally supported by a land tax, proportioned not to the rent, but to the produce of the land. In China, the principal revenue of the sovereign consists in a tenth part of the produce of all the lands of the empire. This tenth part, however, is estimated so very moderately, that, in many provinces, it is said not to exceed a thirtieth part of the ordinary produce. The land tax or land rent which used to be paid to the Mahometan government of Bengal, before that country fell into the hands of the English East India company, is said to have amounted to about a fifth part of the produce. The land tax of ancient Egypt is said likewise to have amounted to a fifth part.
In Asia, this sort of land tax is said to interest the sovereign in the improvement and cultivation of land. The sovereigns of China, those of Bengal while under the Mahometan government, and those of ancient Egypt, are said, accordingly, to have been extremely attentive to the making and maintaining of good roads and navigable canals, in order to increase, as much as possible, both the quantity and value of every part of the produce of the land, by procuring to every part of it the most extensive market which their own dominions could afford. The tythe of the church is divided into such small portions that no one of its proprietors can have any interest of this kind. The parson of a parish could never find his account in making a road or canal to a distant part of the country, in order to extend the market for the produce of his own particular parish. Such taxes, when destined for the maintenance of the state, have some advantages, which may serve in some measure to balance their inconveniency. When destined for the maintenance of the church, they are attended with nothing but inconveniency.
Taxes upon the produce of land may be levied, either in kind, or, according to a certain valuation in money.
The person of a parish, or a gentleman of small fortune who lives upon his estate, may sometimes, perhaps find some advantage in receiving, the one his tythe, and the other his rent, in kind. The quantity to be collected, and the district within which it is to be collected, are so small, that they both can oversee, with their own eyes, the collection and disposal of every part of what is due to them. A gentleman of great fortune, who lived in the capital, would be in danger of suffering much by the neglect, and more by the fraud, of his factors and agents, if the rents of an estate in a distant province were to be paid to him in this manner. The loss of the sovereign, from the abuse and depredation of his tax-gatherers, would necessarily be much greater. The servants of the most careless private person are, perhaps, more under the eye of their master than those of the most careful prince; and a public revenue, which was paid in kind, would suffer so much from the mismanagement of the collectors, that a very small part of what was levied upon the people would ever arrive at the treasury of the prince. Some part of the public revenue of China, however, is said to be paid in this manner. The mandarins and other tax-gatherers will, no doubt, find their advantage in continuing the practice of a payment, which is so much more liable to abuse than any payment in money.
A tax upon the produce of land, which is levied in money, may be levied, either according to a valuation, which varies with all the variations of the market price; or according to a fixed valuation, a bushel of wheat, for example, being always valued at one and the same money price, whatever may be the state of the market. The produce of a tax levied in the former way will vary only according to the variations in the real produce of the land, according to the improvement or neglect of cultivation. The produce of a tax levied in the latter way will vary, not only according to the variations in the produce of the land, but according both to those in the value of the precious metals, and those in the quantity of those metals, which is at different times contained in coin of the same denomination. The produce of the former will always bear the same proportion to the value of the real produce of the land. The produce of the latter may, at different times, bear very different proportions to that value.
When, instead either of a certain portion of the produce of land, or of the price of a certain portion, a certain sum of money is to be paid in full compensation for all tax or tythe; the tax becomes, in this case, exactly of the same nature with the land tax of England. It neither rises nor falls with the rent of the land. It neither encourages nor discourages improvement. The tythe in the greater part of those parishes which pay what is called a modus, in lieu of all other tythe[Pg 354], is a tax of this kind. During the Mahometan government of Bengal, instead of the payment in kind of the fifth part of the produce, a modus, and, it is said, a very moderate one, was established in the greater part of the districts or zemindaries of the country. Some of the servants of the East India company, under pretence of restoring the public revenue to its proper value, have, in some provinces, exchanged this modus for a payment in kind. Under their management, this change is likely both to discourage cultivation, and to give new opportunities for abuse in the collection of the public revenue, which has fallen very much below what it was said to have been when it first fell under the management of the company. The servants of the company may, perhaps, have profited by the change, but at the expense, it is probable, both of their masters and of the country.
Taxes upon the Rent of Houses.
The rent of a house may be distinguished into two parts, of which the one may very properly be called the building-rent; the other is commonly called the ground-rent.
The building-rent is the interest or profit of the capital expended in building the house. In order to put the trade of a builder upon a level with other trades, it is necessary that this rent should be sufficient, first, to pay him the same interest which he would have got for his capital, if he had lent it upon good security; and, secondly, to keep the house in constant repair, or, what comes to the same thing, to replace, within a certain term of years, the capital which had been employed in building it. The building-rent, or the ordinary profit of building, is, therefore, everywhere regulated by the ordinary interest of money. Where the market rate of interest is four per cent. the rent of a house, which, over and above paying the ground-rent, affords six or six and a-half per cent. upon the whole expense of building, may, perhaps, afford a sufficient profit to the builder. Where the market rate of interest is five per cent. it may perhaps require seven or seven and a-half per cent. If, in proportion to the interest of money, the trade of the builders affords at any time much greater profit than this, it will soon draw so much capital from other trades as will reduce the profit to its proper level. If it affords at any time much less than this, other trades will soon draw so much capital from it as will again raise that profit.
Whatever part of the whole rent of a house is over and above what is sufficient for affording this reasonable profit, naturally goes to the ground-rent; and, where the owner of the ground and the owner of the building are two different persons, is, in most cases, completely paid to the former. This surplus rent is the price which the inhabitant of the house pays for some real or supposed advantage of the situation. In country houses, at a distance from any great town, where there is plenty of ground to chuse upon, the ground-rent is scarce any thing, or no more than what the ground which the house stands upon would pay, if employed in agriculture. In country villas, in the neighbourhood of some great town, it is sometimes a good deal higher; and the peculiar conveniency or beauty of situation is there frequently very well paid for. Ground-rents are generally highest in the capital, and in those particular parts of it where there happens to be the greatest demand for houses, whatever be the reason of that demand, whether for trade and business, for pleasure and society, or for mere vanity and fashion.
A tax upon house-rent, payable by the tenant, and proportioned to the whole rent of each house, could not, for any considerable time at least, affect the building-rent. If the builder did not get his reasonable profit, he would be obliged to quit the trade; which, by raising the demand for building, would, in a short time, bring back his profit to its proper level with that of other trades. Neither would such a tax fall altogether upon the ground-rent; but it would divide itself in such a manner, as to fall partly upon the inhabitant of the house, and partly upon the owner of the ground.
Let us suppose, for example, that a particular person judges that he can afford for house-rent an expense of sixty pounds a-year; and let us suppose, too, that a tax of four shillings in the pound, or of one-fifth, payable by the inhabitant, is laid upon house-rent. A house of sixty pounds rent will, in that case, cost him seventy-two pounds a-year, which is twelve pounds more than he thinks he can afford. He will, therefore, content himself with a worse house, or a house of fifty pounds rent, which, with the additional ten pounds that he must pay for the tax, will make up the sum of sixty pounds a-year, the expense which he judges he can afford, and, in order to pay the tax, he will give up a part of the additional conveniency which he might have had from a house of ten pounds a-year more rent. He will give up, I say, a part of this additional conveniency; for he will seldom be obliged to give up the whole, but will, in consequence of the tax, get a better house for fifty pounds a-year, than he could have got if there had been no tax. For as a tax of this kind, by taking away this particular competitor, must diminish the competition for houses of sixty pounds rent, so it must likewise diminish it for those of fifty pounds rent, and in the same manner for those of all other rents, except the lowest[Pg 355] rent, for which it would for some time increase the competition. But the rents of every class of houses for which the competition was diminished, would necessarily be more or less reduced. As no part of this reduction, however, could for any considerable time at least, affect the building-rent, the whole of it must, in the long-run, necessarily fall upon the ground-rent. The final payment of this tax, therefore, would fall partly upon the inhabitant of the house, who, in order to pay his share, would be obliged to give up part of his conveniency; and partly upon the owner of the ground, who, in order to pay his share, would be obliged to give up a part of his revenue. In what proportion this final payment would be divided between them, it is not, perhaps, very easy to ascertain. The division would probably be very different in different circumstances, and a tax of this kind might, according to those different circumstances, affect very unequally, both the inhabitant of the house and the owner of the ground.
The inequality with which a tax of this kind might fall upon the owners of different ground-rents, would arise altogether from the accidental inequality of this division. But the inequality with which it might fall upon the inhabitants of different houses, would arise, not only from this, but from another cause. The proportion of the expense of house-rent to the whole expense of living, is different in the different degrees of fortune. It is, perhaps, highest in the highest degree, and it diminishes gradually through the inferior degrees, so as in general to be lowest in the lowest degree. The necessaries of life occasion the great expense of the poor. They find it difficult to get food, and the greater part of their little revenue is spent in getting it. The luxuries and vanities of life occasion the principal expense of the rich; and a magnificent house embellishes and sets off to the best advantage all the other luxuries and vanities which they possess. A tax upon house-rents, therefore, would in general fall heaviest upon the rich; and in this sort of inequality there would not, perhaps, be any thing very unreasonable. It is not very unreasonable that the rich should contribute to the public expense, not only in proportion to their revenue, but something more than in that proportion.
The rent of houses, though it in some respects resembles the rent of land, is in one respect essentially different from it. The rent of land is paid for the use of a productive subject. The land which pays it produces it. The rent of houses is paid for the use of an unproductive subject. Neither the house, nor the ground which it stands upon, produce any thing. The person who pays the rent, therefore, must draw it from some other source of revenue, distinct from and independent of this subject. A tax upon the rent of houses, so far as it falls upon the inhabitants, must be drawn from the same source as the rent itself, and must be paid from their revenue, whether derived from the wages of labour, the profits of stock, or the rent of land. So far as it falls upon the inhabitants, it is one of those taxes which fall, not upon one only, but indifferently upon all the three different sources of revenue; and is, in every respect, of the same nature as a tax upon any any other sort of consumable commodities. In general, there is not perhaps, any one article of expense or consumption by which the liberality or narrowness of a man's whole expense can be better judged of than by his house-rent. A proportional tax upon this particular article of expense might, perhaps, produce a more considerable revenue than any which has hitherto been drawn from it in any part of Europe. If the tax, indeed, was very high, the greater part of people would endeavour to evade it as much as they could, by contenting themselves with smaller houses, and by turning the greater part of their expense into some other channel.
The rent of houses might easily be ascertained with sufficient accuracy, by a policy of the same kind with that which would be necessary for ascertaining the ordinary rent of land. Houses not inhabited ought to pay no tax. A tax upon them would fall altogether upon the proprietor, who would thus be taxed for a subject which afforded him neither conveniency nor revenue. Houses inhabited by the proprietor ought to be rated, not according to the expense which they might have cost in building, but according to the rent which an equitable arbitration might judge them likely to bring if leased to a tenant. If rated according to the expense which they might have cost in building, a tax of three or four shillings in the pound, joined with other taxes, would ruin almost all the rich and great families of this, and, I believe, of every other civilized country. Whoever will examine with attention the different town and country houses of some of the richest and greatest families in this country, will find that, at the rate of only six and a-half, or seven per cent. upon the original expense of building, their house-rent is nearly equal to the whole neat rent of their estates. It is the accumulated expense of several successive generations, laid out upon objects of great beauty and magnificence, indeed, but, in proportion to what they cost, of very small exchangeable value.[58]
Ground-rents are a still more proper subject of taxation than the rent of houses. A tax upon ground-rents would not raise the rent of houses; it would fall altogether upon the owner of the ground-rent, who acts always as a monopolist, and exacts the greatest rent which can be got for the use of his ground.[Pg 356] More or less can be got for it, according as the competitors happen to be richer or poorer, or can afford to gratify their fancy for a particular spot of ground at a greater or smaller expense. In every country, the greatest number of rich competitors is in the capital, and it is there accordingly that the highest ground-rents are always to be found. As the wealth of those competitors would in no respect be increased by a tax upon ground-rents, they would not probably be disposed to pay more for the use of the ground. Whether the tax was to be advanced by the inhabitant or by the owner of the ground, would be of little importance. The more the inhabitant was obliged to pay for the tax, the less he would incline to pay for the ground; so that the final payment of the tax would fall altogether upon the owner of the ground-rent. The ground-rents of uninhabited houses ought to pay no tax.
Both ground-rents, and the ordinary rent of land, are a species of revenue which the owner, in many cases, enjoys without any care or attention of his own. Though a part of this revenue should be taken from him in order to defray the expenses of the state, no discouragement will thereby be given to any sort of industry. The annual produce of the land and labour of the society, the real wealth and revenue of the great body of the people, might be the same after such a tax as before. Ground-rents, and the ordinary rent of land, are therefore, perhaps, the species of revenue which can best bear to have a peculiar tax imposed upon them.
Ground-rents seem, in this respect, a more proper subject of peculiar taxation, than even the ordinary rent of land. The ordinary rent of land is, in many cases, owing partly, at least, to the attention and good management of the landlord. A very heavy tax might discourage, too much, this attention and good management. Ground-rents, so far as they exceed the ordinary rent of land, are altogether owing to the good government of the sovereign, which, by protecting the industry either of the whole people or of the inhabitants of some particular place, enables them to pay so much more than its real value for the ground which they build their houses upon; or to make to its owner so much more than compensation for the loss which he might sustain by this use of it. Nothing can be more reasonable, than that a fund, which owes its existence to the good government of the state, should be taxed peculiarly, or should contribute something more than the greater part of other funds, towards the support of that government.
Though, in many different countries of Europe, taxes have been imposed upon the rent of houses, I do not know of any in which ground-rents have been considered as a separate subject of taxation. The contrivers of taxes have, probably, found some difficulty in ascertaining what part of the rent ought to be considered as ground-rent, and what part ought to be considered as building-rent. It should not, however, seem very difficult to distinguish those two parts of the rent from one another.
In Great Britain the rent of houses is supposed to be taxed in the same proportion as the rent of land, by what is called the annual land tax. The valuation, according to which each different parish and district is assessed to this tax, is always the same. It was originally extremely unequal, and it still continues to be so. Through the greater part of the kingdom this tax falls still more lightly upon the rent of houses than upon that of land. In some few districts only, which were originally rated high, and in which the rents of houses have fallen considerably, the land tax of three or four shillings in the pound is said to amount to an equal proportion of the real rent of houses. Untenanted houses, though by law subject to the tax, are, in most districts, exempted from it by the favour of assessors; and this exemption sometimes occasions some little variation in the rate of particular houses, though that of the district is always the same. Improvements of rent, by new buildings, repairs, &c. go to the discharge of the district, which occasions still further variations in the rate of particular houses.
In the province of Holland,[59] every house is taxed at two and a-half per cent. of its value, without any regard, either to the rent which it actually pays, or to the circumstance of its being tenanted or untenanted. There seems to be a hardship in obliging the proprietor to pay a tax for an untenanted house, from which he can derive no revenue, especially so very heavy a tax. In Holland, where the market rate of interest does not exceed three per cent., two and a-half per cent. upon the whole value of the house must, in most cases, amount to more than a third of the building-rent, perhaps of the whole rent. The valuation, indeed, according to which the houses are rated, though very unequal, in said to be always below the real value. When a house is rebuilt, improved, or enlarged, there is a new valuation, and the tax is rated accordingly.
The contrivers of the several taxes which in England have, at different times, been imposed upon houses, seem to have imagined that there was some great difficulty in ascertaining, with tolerable exactness, what was the real rent of every house. They have regulated their taxes, therefore, according to some more obvious circumstance, such as they had probably imagined would, in most cases, bear some proportion to the rent.
The first tax of this kind was hearth-money;[Pg 357] or a tax of two shillings upon every hearth. In order to ascertain how many hearths were in the house, it was necessary that the tax-gatherer should enter every room in it. This odious visit rendered the tax odious. Soon after the Revolution, therefore, it was abolished as a badge of slavery.
The next tax of this kind was a tax of two shillings upon every dwelling-house inhabited. A house with ten windows to pay four shillings more. A house with twenty windows and upwards to pay eight shillings. This tax was afterwards so far altered, that houses with twenty windows, and with less than thirty, were ordered to pay ten shillings, and those with thirty windows and upwards to pay twenty shillings. The number of windows can, in most cases, be counted from the outside, and, in all cases, without entering every room in the house. The visit of the tax-gatherer, therefore, was less offensive in this tax than in the hearth-money.
This tax was afterwards repealed, and in the room of it was established the window-tax, which has undergone two several alterations and augmentations. The window tax, as it stands at present (January 1775), over and above the duty of three shillings upon every house in England, and of one shilling upon every house in Scotland, lays a duty upon every window, which in England augments gradually from twopence, the lowest rate upon houses with not more than seven windows, to two shillings, the highest rate upon houses with twenty-five windows and upwards.
The principal objection to all such taxes is their inequality; an inequality of the worst kind, as they must frequently fall much heavier upon the poor than upon the rich. A house of ten pounds rent in a country town, may sometimes have more windows than a house of five hundred pounds rent in London; and though the inhabitant of the former in likely to be a much poorer man than that of the latter, yet, so far as his contribution is regulated by the window tax, he must contribute more to the support of the state. Such taxes are, therefore, directly contrary to the first of the four maxims above mentioned. They do not seem to offend much against any of the other three.
The natural tendency of the window tax, and of all other taxes upon houses, is to lower rents. The more a man pays for the tax, the less, it is evident, he can afford to pay for the rent. Since the imposition of the window tax, however, the rents of houses have, upon the whole, risen more or less, in almost every town and village of Great Britain, with which I am acquainted. Such has been, almost everywhere, the increase of the demand for houses, that it has raised the rents more than the window tax could sink them; one of the many proofs of the great prosperity of the country, and of the increasing revenue of its inhabitants. Had it not been for the tax, rents would probably have risen still higher.
ART. II.—Taxes upon Profit, or upon the Revenue arising from Stock.
The revenue or profit arising from stock naturally divides itself into two parts; that which pays the interest, and which belongs to the owner of the stock; and that surplus part which is over and above what is necessary for paying the interest.
This latter part of profit is evidently a subject not taxable directly. It is the compensation, and, in most cases, it is no more than a very moderate compensation for the risk and trouble of employing the stock. The employer must have this compensation, otherwise he cannot, consistently with his own interest, continue the employment. If he was taxed directly, therefore, in proportion to the whole profit, he would be obliged either to raise the rate of his profit, or to charge the tax upon the interest of money; that is, to pay less interest. If he raised the rate of his profit in proportion to the tax, the whole tax, though it might be advanced by him, would be finally paid by one or other of two different sets of people, according to the different ways in which he might employ the stock of which he had the management. If he employed it as a farming stock, in the cultivation of land, he could raise the rate of his profit only by retaining a greater portion, or, what comes to the same thing, the price of a greater portion, of the produce of the land; and as this could be done only by a reduction of rent, the final payment of the tax would fall upon the landlord. If he employed it as a mercantile or manufacturing stock, he could raise the rate of his profit only by raising the price of his goods; in which case, the final payment of the tax would fall altogether upon the consumers of those goods. If he did not raise the rate of his profit, he would be obliged to charge the whole tax upon that part of it which was allotted for the interest of money. He could afford less interest for whatever stock he borrowed, and the whole weight of the tax would, in this case, fall ultimately upon the interest of money. So far as he could not relieve himself from the tax in the one way, he would be obliged to relieve himself in the other.
The interest of money seems, at first sight, a subject equally capable of being taxed directly as the rent of land. Like the rent of land, it is a neat produce, which remains, after completely compensating the whole risk and trouble of employing the stock. As a tax upon the rent of land cannot raise rents, because the neat produce which remains, after replacing the stock of the farmer, together with his reasonable profit, cannot be greater[Pg 358] after the tax than before it, so, for the same reason, a tax upon the interest of money could not raise the rate of interest; the quantity of stock or money in the country, like the quantity of land, being supposed to remain the same after the tax as before it. The ordinary rate of profit, it has been shewn, in the first book, is everywhere regulated by the quantity of stock to be employed, in proportion to the quantity of the employment, or of the business which must be done by it. But the quantity of the employment, or of the business to be done by stock, could neither be increased nor diminished by any tax upon the interest of money. If the quantity of the stock to be employed, therefore, was neither increased nor diminished by it, the ordinary rate of profit would necessarily remain the same. But the portion of this profit, necessary for compensating the risk and trouble of the employer, would likewise remain the same; that risk and trouble being in no respect altered. The residue, therefore, that portion which belongs to the owner of the stock, and which pays the interest of money, would necessarily remain the same too. At first sight, therefore, the interest of money seems to be a subject as fit to be taxed directly as the rent of land.
There are, however, two different circumstances, which render the interest of money a much less proper subject of direct taxation than the rent of land.
First, the quantity and value of the land which any man possesses, can never be a secret, and can always be ascertained with great exactness. But the whole amount of the capital stock which he possesses is almost always a secret, and can scarce ever be ascertained with tolerable exactness. It is liable, besides, to almost continual variations. A year seldom passes away, frequently not a month, sometimes scarce a single day, in which it does not rise or fall more or less. An inquisition into every man's private circumstances, and an inquisition which, in order to accommodate the tax to them, watched over all the fluctuations of his fortune, would be a source of such continual and endless vexation as no person could support.
Secondly, land is a subject which cannot be removed; whereas stock easily may. The proprietor of land is necessarily a citizen of the particular country in which his estate lies. The proprietor of stock is properly a citizen of the world, and is not necessarily attached to any particular country. He would be apt to abandon the country in which he was exposed to a vexatious inquisition, in order to be assessed to a burdensome tax; and would remove his stock to some other country, where he could either carry on his business, or enjoy his fortune more at his ease. By removing his stock, he would put an end to all the industry which it had maintained in the country which he left. Stock cultivates land; stock employs labour. A tax which tended to drive away stock from any particular country, would so far tend to dry up every source of revenue, both to the sovereign and to the society. Not only the profits of stock, but the rent of land, and the wages of labour, would necessarily be more or less diminished by its removal.
The nations, accordingly, who have attempted to tax the revenue arising from stock, instead of any severe inquisition of this kind, have been obliged to content themselves with some very loose, and, therefore, more or less arbitrary estimation. The extreme inequality and uncertainty of a tax assessed in this manner, can be compensated only by its extreme moderation; in consequence of which, every man finds himself rated so very much below his real revenue, that he gives himself little disturbance though his neighbour should be rated somewhat lower.
By what is called the land tax in England, it was intended that the stock should be taxed in the same proportion as land. When the tax upon land was at four shillings in the pound, or at one-fifth of the supposed rent, it was intended that stock should be taxed at one-fifth of the supposed interest. When the present annual land tax was first imposed, the legal rate of interest was six per cent. Every hundred pounds stock, accordingly, was supposed to be taxed at twenty-four shillings, the fifth part of six pounds. Since the legal rate of interest has been reduced to five per cent. every hundred pounds stock is supposed to be taxed at twenty shillings only. The sum to be raised, by what is called the land tax, was divided between the country and the principal towns. The greater part of it was laid upon the country; and of what was laid upon the towns, the greater part was assessed upon the houses. What remained to be assessed upon the stock or trade of the towns (for the stock upon the land was not meant to be taxed) was very much below the real value of that stock or trade. Whatever inequalities, therefore, there might be in the original assessment, gave little disturbance. Every parish and district still continues to be rated for its land, its houses, and its stock, according to the original assessment; and the almost universal prosperity of the country, which, in most places, has raised very much the value of all these, has rendered those inequalities of still less importance now. The rate, too, upon each district, continuing always the same, the uncertainty of this tax, so far as it might be assessed upon the stock of any individual, has been very much diminished, as well as rendered of much less consequence. If the greater part of the lands of England are not rated to the land tax at half their actual value, the greater part of the stock of England is, perhaps, scarce rated at[Pg 359] the fiftieth part of its actual value. In some towns, the whole land tax is assessed upon houses; as in Westminster, where stock and trade are free. It is otherwise in London.
In all countries, a severe inquisition into the circumstances of private persons has been carefully avoided.
At Hamburg,[60] every inhabitant is obliged to pay to the state one fourth per cent. of all that he possesses; and as the wealth of the people of Hamburg consists principally in stock, this tax may be considered as a tax upon stock. Every man assesses himself, and, in the presence of the magistrate, puts annually into the public coffer a certain sum of money, which he declares upon oath, to be one fourth per cent. of all that he possesses, but without declaring what it amounts to, or being liable to any examination upon that subject. This tax is generally supposed to be paid with great fidelity. In a small republic, where the people have entire confidence in their magistrates, are convinced of the necessity of the tax for the support of the state, and believe that it will be faithfully applied to that purpose, such conscientious and voluntary payment may sometimes be expected. It is not peculiar to the people of Hamburg.
The canton of Underwald, in Switzerland, is frequently ravaged by storms and inundations, and it is thereby exposed to extraordinary expenses. Upon such occasions the people assemble, and every one is said to declare with the greatest frankness what he is worth, in order to be taxed accordingly. At Zurich, the law orders, that in cases of necessity, every one should be taxed in proportion to his revenue; the amount of which he is obliged to declare upon oath. They have no suspicion, it is said, that any of their fellow-citizens will deceive them. At Basil, the principal revenue of the state arises from a small custom upon goods exported. All the citizens make oath, that they will pay every three months all the taxes imposed by law. All merchants, and even all inn-keepers, are trusted with keeping themselves the account of the goods which they sell, either within or without the territory. At the end of every three months, they send this account to the treasurer, with the amount of the tax computed at the bottom of it. It is not suspected that the revenue suffers by this confidence.[61]
To oblige every citizen to declare publicly upon oath, the amount of his fortune, must not, it seems, in those Swiss cantons, be reckoned a hardship. At Hamburg it would be reckoned the greatest. Merchants engaged in the hazardous projects of trade, all tremble at the thoughts of being obliged, at all times, to expose the real state of their circumstances. The ruin of their credit, and the miscarriage of their projects, they foresee, would too often be the consequence. A sober and parsimonious people, who are strangers to all such projects, do not feel that they have occasion for any such concealment.
In Holland, soon after the exaltation of the late prince of Orange to the stadtholdership, a tax of two per cent. or the fiftieth penny, as it was called, was imposed upon the whole substance of every citizen. Every citizen assessed himself, and paid his tax, in the same manner as at Hamburg, and it was in general supposed to have been paid with great fidelity. The people had at that time the greatest affection for their new government, which they had just established by a general insurrection. The tax was to be paid but once, in order to relieve the state in a particular exigency. It was, indeed, too heavy to be permanent. In a country where the market rate of interest seldom exceeds three per cent., a tax of two per cent. amounts to thirteen shillings and four pence in the pound, upon the highest neat revenue which is commonly drawn from stock. It is a tax which very few people could pay, without encroaching more or less upon their capitals. In a particular exigency, the people may, from great public zeal, make a great effort, and give up even a part of their capital, in order to relieve the state. But it is impossible that they should continue to do so for any considerable time; and if they did, the tax would soon ruin them so completely, as to render them altogether incapable of supporting the state.
The tax upon stock, imposed by the land tax bill in England, though it is proportioned to the capital, is not intended to diminish or take away any part of that capital. It is meant only to be a tax upon the interest of money, proportioned to that upon the rent of land; so that when the latter is at four shillings in the pound, the former may be at four shillings in the pound too. The tax at Hamburg, and the still more moderate taxes of Underwald and Zurich, are meant, in the same manner, to be taxes, not upon the capital, but upon the interest or neat revenue of stock. That of Holland was meant to be a tax upon the capital.
Taxes upon the Profit of particular Employments.
In some countries, extraordinary taxes are imposed upon the profits of stock; sometimes when employed in particular branches of trade, and sometimes when employed in agriculture.
Of the former kind, are in England, the[Pg 360] tax upon hawkers and pedlars, that upon hackney-coaches and chairs, and that which the keepers of ale-houses pay for a licence to retail ale and spiritous liquors. During the late war, another tax of the same kind was proposed upon shops. The war having been undertaken, it was said, in defence of the trade of the country, the merchants, who were to profit by it, ought to contribute towards the support of it.
A tax, however, upon the profits of stock employed in any particular branch of trade, can never fall finally upon the dealers (who must in all ordinary cases have their reasonable profit, and, where the competition is free, can seldom have more than that profit), but always upon the consumers, who must be obliged to pay in the price of the goods the tax which the dealer advances; and generally with some overcharge.
A tax of this kind, when it is proportioned to the trade of the dealer, is finally paid by the consumer, and occasions no oppression to the dealer. When it is not so proportioned, but is the same upon all dealers, though in this case, too, it is finally paid by the consumer, yet it favours the great, and occasions some oppression to the small dealer. The tax of five shillings a-week upon every hackney coach, and that of ten shillings a-year upon every hackney chair, so far as it is advanced by the different keepers of such coaches and chairs, is exactly enough proportioned to the extent of their respective dealings. It neither favours the great, nor oppresses the smaller dealer. The tax of twenty shillings a-year for a licence to sell ale; of forty shillings for a licence to sell spiritous liquors; and of forty shillings more for a licence to sell wine, being the same upon all retailers, must necessarily give some advantage to the great, and occasion some oppression to the small dealers. The former must find it more easy to get back the tax in the price of their goods than the latter. The moderation of the tax, however, renders this inequality of less importance; and it may to many people appear not improper to give some discouragement to the multiplication of little ale-houses. The tax upon shops, it was intended, should be the same upon all shops. It could not well have been otherwise. It would have been impossible to proportion, with tolerable exactness, the tax upon a shop to the extent of the trade carried on in it, without such an inquisition as would have been altogether insupportable in a free country. If the tax had been considerable, it would have oppressed the small, and forced almost the whole retail trade into the hands of the great dealers. The competition of the former being taken away, the latter would have enjoyed a monopoly of the trade; and, like all other monopolists, would soon have combined to raise their profits much beyond what was necessary for the payment of the tax. The final payment, instead of falling upon the shop-keeper, would have fallen upon the consumer, with a considerable overcharge to the profit of the shop-keeper. For these reasons, the project of a tax upon shops was laid aside, and in the room of it was substituted the subsidy, 1759.
What in France is called the personal taille, is perhaps, the most important tax upon the profits of stock employed in agriculture, that is levied in any part of Europe.
In the disorderly state of Europe, during the prevalence of the feudal government, the sovereign was obliged to content himself with taxing those who were too weak to refuse to pay taxes. The great lords, though willing to assist him upon particular emergencies, refused to subject themselves to any constant tax, and he was not strong enough to force them. The occupiers of land all over Europe were, the greater part of them, originally bond-men. Through the greater part of Europe, they were gradually emancipated. Some of them acquired the property of landed estates, which they held by some base or ignoble tenure, sometimes under the king, and sometimes under some other great lord, like the ancient copy-holders of England. Others, without acquiring the property, obtained leases for terms of years, of the lands which they occupied under their lord, and thus became less dependent upon him. The great lords seem to have beheld the degree of prosperity and independency, which this inferior order of men had thus come to enjoy, with a malignant and contemptuous indignation, and willingly consented that the sovereign should tax them. In some countries, this tax was confined to the lands which were held in property by an ignoble tenure; and, in this case, the taille was said to be real. The land tax established by the late king of Sardinia, and the taille in the provinces of Languedoc, Provence, Dauphine, and Brittany; in the generality of Montauban, and in the elections of Agen and Condom, as well as in some other districts of France; are taxes upon lands held in property by an ignoble tenure. In other countries, the tax was laid upon the supposed profits of all those who held, in farm or lease, lands belonging to other people, whatever might be the tenure by which the proprietor held them; and in this case, the taille was said to be personal. In the greater part of those provinces of France, which are called the countries of elections, the taille is of this kind. The real taille, as it is imposed only upon a part of the lands of the country, is necessarily an unequal, but it is not always an arbitrary tax, though it is so upon some occasions. The personal taille, as it is intended to be propor[Pg 361]tioned to the profits of a certain class of people, which can only be guessed at, is necessarily both arbitrary and unequal.
In France, the personal taille at present (1775) annually imposed upon the twenty generalities, called the countries of elections, amounts to 40,107,239 livres, 16 sous.[62] The proportion in which this sum is assessed upon those different provinces, varies from year to year, according to the reports which are made to the king's council concerning the goodness or badness of the crops, as well as other circumstances, which may either increase or diminish their respective abilities to pay. Each generality is divided into a certain number of elections; and the proportion in which the sum imposed upon the whole generality is divided among those different elections, varies likewise from year to year, according to the reports made to the council concerning their respective abilities. It seems impossible, that the council, with the best intentions, can ever proportion, with tolerable exactness, either of these two assessments to the real abilities of the province or district upon which they are respectively laid. Ignorance and misinformation must always, more or less, mislead the most upright council. The proportion which each parish ought to support of what is assessed upon the whole election, and that which each individual ought to support of what is assessed upon his particular parish, are both in the same manner varied from year to year, according as circumstances are supposed to require. These circumstances are judged of, in the one case, by the officers of the election, in the other, by those of the parish; and both the one and the other are, more or less, under the direction and influence of the intendant. Not only ignorance and misinformation, but friendship, party animosity, and private resentment, are said frequently to mislead such assessors. No man subject to such a tax, it is evident, can ever be certain, before he is assessed, of what he is to pay. He cannot even be certain after he is assessed. If any person has been taxed who ought to have been exempted, or if any person has been taxed beyond his proportion, though both must pay in the mean time, yet if they complain, and make good their complaints, the whole parish is reimposed next year, in order to reimburse them. If any of the contributors become bankrupt or insolvent, the collector is obliged to advance his tax; and the whole parish is reimposed next year, in order to reimburse the collector. If the collector himself should become bankrupt, the parish which elects him must answer for his conduct to the receiver-general of the election. But, as it might be troublesome for the receiver to prosecute the whole parish, he takes at his choice five or six of the richest contributors, and obliges them to make good what had been lost by the insolvency of the collector. The parish is afterwards reimposed, in order to reimburse those five or six. Such reimpositions are always over and above the taille of the particular year in which they are laid on.
When a tax is imposed upon the profits of stock in a particular branch of trade, the traders are all careful to bring no more goods to market than what they can sell at a price sufficient to reimburse them from advancing the tax. Some of them withdraw a part of their stocks from the trade, and the market is more sparingly supplied than before. The price of the goods rises, and the final payment of the tax falls upon the consumer. But when a tax is imposed upon the profits of stock employed in agriculture, it is not the interest of the farmers to withdraw any part of their stock from that employment. Each farmer occupies a certain quantity of land, for which he pays rent. For the proper cultivation of this land, a certain quantity of stock is necessary; and by withdrawing any part of this necessary quantity, the farmer is not likely to be more able to pay either the rent or the tax. In order to pay the tax, it can never be his interest to diminish the quantity of his produce, nor consequently to supply the market more sparingly than before. The tax, therefore, will never enable him to raise the price of his produce, so as to reimburse himself, by throwing the final payment upon the consumer. The farmer, however, must have his reasonable profit as well as every other dealer, otherwise he must give up the trade. After the imposition of a tax of this kind, he can get this reasonable profit only by paying less rent to the landlord. The more he is obliged to pay in the way of tax, the less he can afford to pay in the way of rent. A tax of this kind, imposed during the currency of a lease, may, no doubt, distress or ruin the farmer. Upon the renewal of the lease, it must always fall upon the landlord.
In the countries where the personal taille takes place, the farmer is commonly assessed in proportion to the stock which he appears to employ in cultivation. He is, upon this account, frequently afraid to have a good team of horses or oxen, but endeavours to cultivate with the meanest and most wretched instruments of husbandry that he can. Such is his distrust in the justice of his assessors, that he counterfeits poverty, and wishes to appear scarce able to pay any thing, for fear of being obliged to pay too much. By this miserable policy, he does not, perhaps, always consult his own interest in the most effectual manner; and he probably loses more by the diminution of his produce, than he saves by that of his tax. Though, in consequence of this wretched cultivation, the market is, no doubt, somewhat worse supplied; yet, the small rise of price which this may occasion, as it is not likely even to indemnify the farmer for the di[Pg 362]minution of his produce, it is still less likely to enable him to pay more rent to the landlord. The public, the farmer, the landlord, all suffer more or less by this degraded cultivation. That the personal taille tends, in many different ways, to discourage cultivation, and consequently to dry up the principal source of the wealth of every great country, I have already had occasion to observe in the third book of this Inquiry.
What are called poll-taxes in the southern provinces of North America, and the West India islands, annual taxes of so much a-head upon every negro, are properly taxes upon the profits of a certain species of stock employed in agriculture. As the planters, are the greater part of them, both farmers and landlords, the final payment of the tax falls upon them in their quality of landlords, without any retribution.
Taxes of so much a head upon the bondmen employed in cultivation, seem anciently to have been common all over Europe. There subsists at present a tax of this kind in the empire of Russia. It is probably upon this account that poll-taxes of all kinds have often been represented as badges of slavery. Every tax, however, is to the person who pays it, a badge, not of slavery, but of liberty. It denotes that he is subject to government, indeed; but that, as he has some property, he cannot himself be the property of a master. A poll-tax upon slaves is altogether different from a poll-tax upon freemen. The latter is paid by the persons upon whom it is imposed; the former, by a different set of persons. The latter is either altogether arbitrary, or altogether unequal, and, in most cases, is both the one and the other; the former, though in some respects unequal, different slaves being of different values, is in no respect arbitrary. Every master, who knows the number of his own slaves, knows exactly what he has to pay. Those different taxes, however, being called by the same name, have been considered as of the same nature.
The taxes which in Holland are imposed upon men and maid servants, are taxes, not upon stock, but upon expense; and so far resemble the taxes upon consumable commodities. The tax of a guinea a-head for every man-servant, which has lately been imposed in Great Britain, is of the same kind. It falls heaviest upon the middling rank. A man of two hundred a-year may keep a single man-servant. A man of ten thousand a-year will not keep fifty. It does not affect the poor.
Taxes upon the profits of stock, in particular employments, can never affect the interest of money. Nobody will lend his money for less interest to those who exercise the taxed, than to those who exercise the untaxed employments. Taxes upon the revenue arising from stock in all employments, where the government attempts to levy them with any degree of exactness, will, in many cases, fall upon the interest of money. The vingtieme, or twentieth penny, in France, is a tax of the same kind with what is called the land tax in England, and is assessed, in the same manner, upon the revenue arising upon land, houses, and stock. So far as it affects stock, it is assessed, though not with great rigour, yet with much more exactness than that part of the land tax in England which is imposed upon the same fund. It, in many cases, falls altogether upon the interest of money. Money is frequently sunk in France, upon what are called contracts for the constitution of a rent; that is, perpetual annuities, redeemable at any time by the debtor, upon payment of the sum originally advanced, but of which this redemption is not exigible by the creditor except in particular cases. The vingtieme seems not to have raised the rate of those annuities, though it is exactly levied upon them all.
APPENDIX TO ARTICLES I. AND II.—Taxes upon the Capital Value of Lands, Houses, and Stock.
While property remains in the possession of the same person, whatever permanent taxes may have been imposed upon it, they have never been intended to diminish or take away any part of its capital value, but only some part of the revenue arising from it. But when property changes hands, when it is transmitted either from the dead to the living, or from the living to the living, such taxes have frequently been imposed upon it as necessarily take away some part of its capital value.
The transference of all sorts of property from the dead to the living, and that of immoveable property of land and houses from the living to the living, are transactions which are in their nature either public and notorious, or such as cannot be long concealed. Such transactions, therefore, may be taxed directly. The transference of stock or moveable property, from the living to the living, by the lending of money, is frequently a secret transaction, and may always be made so. It cannot easily, therefore, be taxed directly. It has been taxed indirectly in two different ways; first, by requiring that the deed, containing the obligation to repay, should be written upon paper or parchment which had paid a certain stamp duty, otherwise not to be valid; secondly, by requiring, under the like penalty of invalidity, that it should be recorded either in a public or secret register, and by imposing certain duties upon such registration. Stamp duties, and duties of registration, have frequently been imposed likewise upon the deeds transferring[Pg 363] property of all kinds from the dead to the living, and upon those transferring immoveable property from the living to the living; transactions which might easily have been taxed directly.
The vicesima hereditatum, or the twentieth penny of inheritances, imposed by Augustus upon the ancient Romans, was a tax upon the transference of property from the dead to the living. Dion Cassius,[63] the author who writes concerning it the least indistinctly, says, that it was imposed upon all successions, legacies and donations, in case of death, except upon those to the nearest relations, and to the poor.
Of the same kind is the Dutch tax upon successions.[64] Collateral successions are taxed according to the degree of relation, from five to thirty per cent. upon the whole value of the succession. Testamentary donations, or legacies to collaterals, are subject to the like duties. Those from husband to wife, or from wife to husband, to the fiftieth penny. The luctuosa hereditas, the mournful succession of ascendants to descendants, to the twentieth penny only. Direct successions, or those of descendants to ascendants, pay no tax. The death of a father, to such of his children as live in the same house with him, is seldom attended with any increase, and frequently with a considerable diminution of revenue; by the loss of his industry, of his office, or of some life-rent estate, of which he may have been in possession. That tax would be cruel and oppressive, which aggravated their loss, by taking from them any part of his succession. It may, however, sometimes be otherwise with those children, who, in the language of the Roman law, are said to be emancipated; in that of the Scotch law, to be foris-familiated; that is, who have received their portion, have got families of their own, and are supported by funds separate and independent of those of their father. Whatever part of his succession might come to such children, would be a real addition to their fortune, and might, therefore, perhaps, without more inconveniency than what attends all duties of this kind, be liable to some tax.
The casualties of the feudal law were taxes upon the transference of land, both from the dead to the living, and from the living to the living. In ancient times, they constituted, in every part of Europe, one of the principal branches of the revenue of the crown.
The heir of every immediate vassal of the crown paid a certain duty, generally a year's rent, upon receiving the investiture of the estate. If the heir was a minor, the whole rents of the estate, during the continuance of the minority, devolved to the superior, without any other charge besides the maintenance of the minor, and the payment of the widow's dower, when there happened to be a dowage upon the land. When the minor came to be of age, another tax, called relief, was still due to the superior, which generally amounted likewise to a year's rent. A long minority, which, in the present times, so frequently disburdens a great estate of all its incumbrances, and restores the family to their ancient splendour, could in those times have no such effect. The waste, and not the disincumbrance of the estate, was the common effect of a long minority.
By a feudal law, the vassal could not alienate without the consent of his superior, who generally extorted a fine or composition on granting it. This fine, which was at first arbitrary, came, in many countries, to be regulated at a certain portion of the price of the land. In some countries, where the greater part of the other feudal customs have gone into disuse, this tax upon the alienation of land still continues to make a very considerable branch of the revenue of the sovereign. In the canton of Berne it is so high as a sixth part of the price of all noble fiefs, and a tenth part of that of all ignoble ones.[65] In the canton of Lucern, the tax upon the sale of land is not universal, and takes place only in certain districts. But if any person sells his land in order to remove out of the territory, he pays ten per cent. upon the whole price of the sale.[66] Taxes of the same kind, upon the sale either of all lands, or of lands held by certain tenures, take place in many other countries, and make a more or less considerable branch of the revenue of the sovereign.
Such transactions may be taxed indirectly, by means either of stamp duties, or of duties upon registration; and those duties either may, or may not, be proportioned to the value of the subject which is transferred.
In Great Britain, the stamp duties are higher or lower, not so much according to the value of the property transferred (an eighteen-penny or half-crown stamp being sufficient upon a bond for the largest sum of money), as according to the nature of the deed. The highest do not exceed six pounds upon every sheet of paper, or skin of parchment; and these high duties fall chiefly upon grants from the crown, and upon certain law proceedings, without any regard to the value of the subject. There are, in Great Britain, no duties on the registration of deeds or writings, except the fees of the officers who keep the register; and these are seldom more than a reasonable recompense for their labour. The crown derives no revenue from them.[Pg 364]
In Holland[67] there are both stamp duties and duties upon registration; which in some cases are, and in some are not, proportioned to the value of the property transferred. All testaments must be written upon stamped paper, of which the price is proportioned to the property disposed of; so that there are stamps which cost from three pence or three stivers a-sheet, to three hundred florins, equal to about twenty-seven pounds ten shillings of our money. If the stamp is of an inferior price to what the testator ought to have made use of, his succession is confiscated. This is over and above all their other taxes on succession. Except bills of exchange, and some other mercantile bills, all other deeds, bonds, and contracts, are subject to a stamp duty. This duty, however, does not rise in proportion to the value of the subject. All sales of land and of houses, and all mortgages upon either, must be registered, and, upon registration, pay a duty to the state of two and a-half per cent. upon the amount of the price or of the mortgage. This duty is extended to the sale of all ships and vessels of more than two tons burden, whether decked or undecked. These, it seems, are considered as a sort of houses upon the water. The sale of moveables, when it is ordered by a court of justice, is subject to the like duty of two and a-half per cent.
In France, there are both stamp duties and duties upon registration. The former are considered as a branch of the aids of excise, and, in the provinces where those duties take place, are levied by the excise officers. The latter are considered as a branch of the domain of the crown, and are levied by a different set of officers.
Those modes of taxation by stamp duties and by duties upon registration, are of very modern invention. In the course of little more than a century, however, stamp duties have, in Europe, become almost universal, and duties upon registration extremely common. There is no art which one government sooner learns of another, than that of draining money from the pockets of the people.
Taxes upon the transference of property from the dead to the living, fall finally, as well as immediately, upon the persons to whom the property is transferred. Taxes upon the sale of land fall altogether upon the seller. The seller is almost always under the necessity of selling, and must, therefore, take such a price as he can get. The buyer is scarce ever under the necessity of buying, and will, therefore, only give such a price as he likes. He considers what the land will cost him, in tax and price together. The more he is obliged to pay in the way of tax, the less he will be disposed to give in the way of price. Such taxes, therefore, fall almost always upon a necessitous person, and must, therefore, be frequently very cruel and oppressive. Taxes upon the sale of new-built houses, where the building is sold without the ground, fall generally upon the buyer, because the builder must generally have his profit; otherwise he must give up the trade. If he advances the tax, therefore, the buyer must generally repay it to him. Taxes upon the sale of old houses, for the same reason as those upon the sale of land, fall generally upon the seller; whom, in most cases, either conveniency or necessity obliges to sell. The number of new-built houses that are annually brought to market, is more or less regulated by the demand. Unless the demand is such as to afford the builder his profit, after paying all expenses, he will build no more houses. The number of old houses which happen at any time to come to market, is regulated by accidents, of which the greater part have no relation to the demand. Two or three great bankruptcies in a mercantile town, will bring many houses to sale, which must be sold for what can be got for them. Taxes upon the sale of ground-rents fall altogether upon the seller, for the same reason as those upon the sale of lands. Stamp duties, and duties upon the registration of bonds and contracts for borrowed money, fall altogether upon the borrower, and, in fact, are always paid by him. Duties of the same kind upon law proceedings fall upon the suitors. They reduce to both the capital value of the subject in dispute. The more it costs to acquire any property, the less must be the neat value of it when acquired.
All taxes upon the transference of property of every kind, so far as they diminish the capital value of that property, tend to diminish the funds destined for the maintenance of productive labour. They are all more or less unthrifty taxes that increase the revenue of the sovereign, which seldom maintains any but unproductive labourers, at the expense of the capital of the people, which maintains none but productive.
Such taxes, even when they are proportioned to the value of the property transferred, are still unequal; the frequency of transference not being always equal in property of equal value. When they are not proportioned to this value, which is the case with the greater part of the stamp duties and duties of registration, they are still more so. They are in no respect arbitrary, but are, or may be, in all cases, perfectly clear and certain. Though they sometimes fall upon the person who is not very able to pay, the time of payment is, in most cases, sufficiently convenient for him. When the payment becomes due, he must, in most cases, have the money to pay. They are levied at very little expense, and in general subject the contribu[Pg 365]tors to no other inconveniency, besides always the unavoidable one of paying the tax.
In France, the stamp duties are not much complained of. Those of registration, which they call the Controle, are. They give occasion, it is pretended, to much extortion in the officers of the farmers-general who collect the tax, which is in a great measure arbitrary and uncertain. In the greater part of the libels which have been written against the present system of finances in France, the abuses of the controle make a principal article. Uncertainty, however, does not seem to be necessarily inherent in the nature of such taxes. If the popular complaints are well founded, the abuse must arise, not so much from the nature of the tax as from the want of precision and distinctness in the words of the edicts or laws which impose it.
The registration of mortgages, and in general of all rights upon immoveable property, as it gives great security both to creditors and purchasers, is extremely advantageous to the public. That of the greater part of deeds of other kinds, is frequently inconvenient and even dangerous to individuals, without any advantage to the public. All registers which, it is acknowledged, ought to be kept secret, ought certainly never to exist. The credit of individuals ought certainly never to depend upon so very slender a security, as the probity and religion of the inferior officers of revenue. But where the fees of registration have been made a source of revenue to the sovereign, register-offices have commonly been multiplied without end, both for the deeds which ought to be registered, and for those which ought not. In France there are several different sorts of secret registers. This abuse, though not perhaps a necessary, it must be acknowledged, is a very natural effect of such taxes.
Such stamp duties as those in England upon cards and dice, upon newspapers and periodical pamphlets, &c. are properly taxes upon consumption; the final payment falls upon the persons who use or consume such commodities. Such stamp duties as those upon licences to retail ale, wine, and spiritous liquors, though intended, perhaps, to fall upon the profits of the retailers, are likewise finally paid by the consumers of those liquors. Such taxes, though called by the same name, and levied by the same officers, and in the same manner with the stamp duties above mentioned upon the transference of property, are, however, of a quite different nature, and fall upon quite different funds.
ART. III.—Taxes upon the Wages of Labour.
The wages of the inferior classes of workmen, I have endeavoured to show in the first book are everywhere necessarily regulated by two different circumstances; the demand for labour, and the ordinary or average price of provisions. The demand for labour, according as it happens to be either increasing, stationary or declining; or to require an increasing, stationary, or declining population; regulates the subsistence of the labourer, and determines in what degree it shall be either liberal, moderate, or scanty. The ordinary average price of provisions determines the quantity of money which must be paid to the workman, in order to enable him, one year with another, to purchase this liberal, moderate, or scanty subsistence. While the demand for the labour and the price of provisions, therefore, remain the same, a direct tax upon the wages of labour can have no other effect, than to raise them somewhat higher than the tax. Let us suppose, for example, that, in particular place, the demand for labour and the price of provisions were such as to render ten shillings a-week the ordinary wages of labour; and that a tax of one-fifth, or four shillings in the pound, was imposed upon wages. If the demand for labour and the price of provisions remained the same, it would still be necessary that the labourer should, in that place, earn such a subsistence as could be bought only for ten shillings a-week; or that, after paying the tax, he should have ten shillings a-week free wages. But, in order to leave him such free wages, after paying such a tax, the price of labour must, in that place, soon rise, not to twelve shillings a-week only, but to twelve and sixpence; that is, in order to enable him to pay a tax of one-fifth, his wages must necessarily soon rise, not one-fifth part only, but one-fourth. Whatever was the proportion of the tax, the wages of labour must, in all cases rise, not only in that proportion, but in a higher proportion. If the tax for example, was one-tenth, the wages of labour must necessarily soon rise, not one-tenth part only, but one-eighth.
A direct tax upon the wages of labour, therefore, though the labourer might, perhaps, pay it out of his hand, could not properly be said to be even advanced by him; at least if the demand for labour and the average price of provisions remained the same after the tax as before it. In all such cases, not only the tax, but something more than the tax, would in reality be advanced by the person who immediately employed him. The final payment would, in different cases, fall upon different persons. The rise which such a tax might occasion in the wages of manufacturing labour would be advanced by the master manufacturer, who would both be entitled and obliged to charge it, with a profit, upon the price of his goods. The final payment of this rise of wages, therefore, together with the additional profit of the master manufacturer, would fall upon the consumer. The rise which[Pg 366] such a tax might occasion in the wages of country labour would be advanced by the farmer, who, in order to maintain the name number of labourers as before, would he obliged to employ a greater capital. In order to get back this greater capital, together with the ordinary profits of stock, it would be necessary that he should retain a larger portion, or, what comes to the same thing, the price of a larger portion, of the produce of the land, and, consequently, that he should pay less rent to the landlord. The final payment of this rise of wages, therefore, would, in this case, fall upon the landlord, together with the additional profit of the farmer who had advanced it. In all cases, a direct tax upon the wages of labour must, in the long-run, occasion both a greater reduction in the rent of land, and a greater rise in the price of manufactured goods than would have followed from the proper assessment of a sum equal to the produce of the tax, partly upon the rent of land, and partly upon consumable commodities.
If direct taxes upon the wages of labour have not always occasioned a proportionable rise in those wages, it is because they have generally occasioned a considerable fall in the demand of labour. The declension of industry, the decrease of employment for the poor, the diminution of the annual produce of the land and labour of the country, have generally been the effects of such taxes. In consequence of them, however, the price of labor must always be higher than it otherwise would have been in the actual state of the demand; and this enhancement of price, together with the profit of those who advance it, must always be finally paid by the landlords and consumers.
A tax upon the wages of country labour does not raise the price of the rude produce of land in proportion to the tax; for the same reason that a tax upon the farmer's profit does not raise that price in that proportion.
Absurd and destructive as such taxes are, however, they take place in many countries. In France, that part of the taille which is charged upon the industry of workmen and day-labourers in country villages, is properly a tax of this kind. Their wages are computed according to the common rate of the district in which they reside; and, that they may be as little liable as possible to any overcharge, their yearly gains are estimated at no more than two hundred working days in the year.[68] The tax of each individual is varied from year to year, according to different circumstances, of which the collector or the commissary, whom the intendant appoints to assist him, are the judges. In Bohemia, in consequence of the alteration in the system of finances which was begun in 1748, a very heavy tax is imposed upon the industry of artificers. They are divided into four classes. The highest class pay a hundred florins a-year, which, at two-and-twenty pence half penny a-florin, amounts to L.9 : 7 : 6. The second class are taxed at seventy; the third at fifty; and the fourth, comprehending artificers in villages, and the lowest class of those in towns, at twenty-five florins.[69]
The recompence of ingenious artists, and of men of liberal professions, I have endeavoured to show in the first book, necessarily keeps a certain proportion to the emoluments of inferior trades. A tax upon this recompence, therefore, could have no other effect than to raise it somewhat higher than in proportion to the tax. If it did not rise in this manner, the ingenious arts and the liberal professions, being no longer upon a level with other trades, would be so much deserted, that they would soon return to that level.
The emoluments of offices are not, like those of trades and professions, regulated by the free competition of the market, and do not, therefore, always bear a just proportion to what the nature of the employment requires. They are, perhaps, in most countries, higher than it requires; the persons who have the administration of government being generally disposed to regard both themselves and their immediate dependents, rather more than enough. The emoluments offices, therefore, can, in most cases, very well bear to be taxed. The persons, besides, who enjoy public offices, especially the more lucrative, are, in all countries, the objects of general envy; and a tax upon their emoluments, even though it should be somewhat higher than upon any other sort of revenue, is always a very popular tax. In England, for example, when, by the land-tax, every other sort of revenue was supposed to be assessed at four shillings in the pound, it was very popular to lay a real tax of five shillings and sixpence in the pound upon the salaries of offices which exceeded a hundred pounds a-year; the pensions of the younger branches of the royal family, the pay of the officers of the army and navy, and a few others less obnoxious to envy, excepted. There are in England no other direct taxes upon the wages of labour.
ART. IV.—Taxes which it is intended should fall indifferently upon every different Species of Revenue.
The taxes which it is intended should fall indifferently upon every different species of revenue, are capitation taxes, and taxes upon consumable commodities. These must be paid indifferently, from whatever revenue the con[Pg 367]tributors may possess; from the rent of their land, from the profits of their stock, or from the wages of their labour.
Capitation Taxes.
Capitation taxes, if it is attempted to proportion them to the fortune or revenue of each contributor, become altogether arbitrary. The state of a man's fortune varies from day to day; and, without an inquisition, more intolerable than any tax, and renewed at least once every year, can only be guessed at. His assessment, therefore, must, in most cases, depend upon the good or bad humour of his assessors, and must, therefore, be altogether arbitrary and uncertain.
Capitation taxes, if they are proportioned, not to the supposed fortune, but to the rank of each contributor, become altogether unequal; the degrees of fortune being frequently unequal in the same degree of rank.
Such taxes, therefore, if it is attempted to render them equal, become altogether arbitrary and uncertain; and if it is attempted to render them certain and not arbitrary, become altogether unequal. Let the tax be light or heavy, uncertainty is always a great grievance. In a light tax, a considerable degree of inequality may be supported; in a heavy one, it is altogether intolerable.
In the different poll-taxes which took place in England during the reign of William III. the contributors were, the greater part of them, assessed according to the degree of their rank; as dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, barons, esquires, gentlemen, the eldest and youngest sons of peers, &c. All shop-keepers and tradesmen worth more than three hundred pounds, that is, the better sort of them, were subject to the same assessment, how great soever might be the difference in their fortunes. Their rank was more considered than their fortune. Several of those who, in the first poll-tax, were rated according to their supposed fortune, were afterwards rated according to their rank. Serjeants, attorneys, and proctors at law, who, in the first poll-tax, were assessed at three shillings in the pound of their supposed income, were afterwards assessed as gentlemen. In the assessment of a tax which was not very heavy, a considerable degree of inequality had been found less insupportable than any degree of uncertainty.
In the capitation which has been levied in France, without any interruption, since the beginning of the present century, the highest orders of people are rated according to their rank, by an invariable tariff; the lower orders of people, according to what is supposed to be their fortune, by an assessment which varies from year to year. The officers of the king's court, the judges, and other officers in the superior courts of justice, the officers of the troops, &c. are assessed in the first manner. The inferior ranks of people in the provinces are assessed in the second. In France, the great easily submit to a considerable degree of inequality in a tax which, so far as it affects them, is not a very heavy one; but could not brook the arbitrary assessment of an intendant.
The inferior ranks of people must, in that country, suffer patiently the usage which their superiors think proper to give them.
In England, the different poll-taxes never produced the sum which had been expected from them, or which it was supposed they might have produced, had they been exactly levied. In France, the capitation always produces the sum expected from it. The mild government of England, when it assessed the different ranks of people to the poll-tax, contented itself with what that assessment happened to produce, and required no compensation for the loss which the state might sustain, either by those who could not pay, or by those who would not pay (for there were many such), and who, by the indulgent execution of the law, were not forced to pay. The more severe government of France assesses upon each generality a certain sum, which the intendant must find as he can. If any province complains of being assessed too high, it may, in the assessment of next year, obtain an abatement proportioned to the overcharge of the year before; but it must pay in the mean time. The intendant, in order to be sure of finding the sum assessed upon his generality, was empowered to assess it in a larger sum, that the failure or inability of some of the contributors might be compensated by the overcharge of the rest; and till 1765, the fixation of this surplus assessment was left altogether to his discretion. In that year, indeed, the council assumed this power to itself. In the capitation of the provinces, it is observed by the perfectly well informed author of the Memoirs upon the Impositions in France, the proportion which falls upon the nobility, and upon those whose privileges exempt them from the taille, is the least considerable. The largest falls upon those subject to the taille, who are assessed to the capitation at so much a-pound of what they pay to that other tax.
Capitation taxes, so far as they are levied upon the lower ranks of people, are direct taxes upon the wages of labour, and are attended with all the inconveniencies of such taxes.
Capitation taxes are levied at little expense; and, where they are rigorously exacted, afford a very sure revenue to the state. It is upon this account that, in countries where the ease, comfort, and security of the inferior ranks of people are little attended to, capitation taxes are very common. It is in general, however, but a small part of the public reve[Pg 368]nue, which, in a great empire, has ever been drawn from such taxes; and the greatest sum which they have ever afforded, might always have been found in some other way much more convenient to the people.
Taxes upon Consumable Commodities.
The impossibility of taxing the people, in proportion to their revenue, by any capitation, seems to have given occasion to the invention of taxes upon consumable commodities. The state not knowing how to tax, directly and proportionably, the revenue of its subjects, endeavours to tax it indirectly by taxing their expense, which, it is supposed, will, in most cases, be nearly in proportion to their revenue. Their expense is taxed, by taxing the consumable commodities upon which it is laid out.
Consumable commodities are either necessaries or luxuries.
By necessaries I understand, not only the commodities which are indispensibly necessary for the support of life, but whatever the custom of the country renders it indecent for creditable people, even of the lowest order, to be without. A linen shirt, for example, is, strictly speaking, not a necessary of life. The Greeks and Romans lived, I suppose, very comfortably, though they had no linen. But in the present times, through the greater part of Europe, a creditable day-labourer would be ashamed to appear in public without a linen shirt, the want of which would be supposed to denote that disgraceful degree of poverty, which, it is presumed, nobody can well fall into without extreme bad conduct. Custom, in the same manner, has rendered leather shoes a necessary of life in England. The poorest creditable person, of either sex, would be ashamed to appear in public without them. In Scotland, custom has rendered them a necessary of life to the lowest order of men; but not to the same order of women, who may, without any discredit, walk about barefooted. In France, they are necessaries neither to men nor to women; the lowest rank of both sexes appearing there publicly, without any discredit, sometimes in wooden shoes, and sometimes barefooted. Under necessaries, therefore, I comprehend, not only those things which nature, but those things which the established rules of decency have rendered necessary to the lowest rank of people. All other things I call luxuries, without meaning, by this appellation, to throw the smallest degree of reproach upon the temperate use of them. Beer and ale, for example, in Great Britain, and wine, even in the wine countries, I call luxuries. A man of any rank may, without any reproach, abstain totally from tasting such liquors. Nature does not render them necessary for the support of life; and custom nowhere renders it indecent to live without them.
As the wages of labour are everywhere regulated, partly by the demand for it, and partly by the average price of the necessary articles of subsistence; whatever raises this average price must necessarily raise those wages; so that the labourer may still be able to purchase that quantity of those necessary articles which the state of the demand for labour, whether increasing, stationary, or declining, requires that he should have.[70] A tax upon those articles necessarily raises their price somewhat higher than the amount of the tax, because the dealer, who advances the tax, must generally get it back, with a profit. Such a tax must, therefore, occasion a rise in the wages of labour, proportionable to this rise of price.
It is thus that a tax upon the necessaries of life operates exactly in the same manner as a direct tax upon the wages of labour. The labourer, though he may pay it out of his hand, cannot, for any considerable time at least, be properly said even to advance it. It must always, in the long-run, be advanced to him by his immediate employer, in the advanced state of wages. His employer, if he is a manufacturer, will charge upon the price of his goods the rise of wages, together with a profit, so that the final payment of the tax, together with this overcharge, will fall upon the consumer. If his employer is a farmer, the final payment, together with a like overcharge, will fall upon the rent of the landlord.
It is otherwise with taxes upon what I call luxuries, even upon those of the poor. The rise in the price of the taxed commodities, will not necessarily occasion any rise in the wages of labour. A tax upon tobacco, for example, though a luxury of the poor, as well as of the rich, will not raise wages. Though it is taxed in England at three times, and in France at fifteen times its original price, those high duties seem to have no effect upon the wages of labour. The same thing may be said of the taxes upon tea and sugar, which, in England and Holland, have become luxuries of the lowest ranks of people; and of those upon chocolate, which, in Spain, is said to have become so.
The different taxes which, in Great Britain, have, in the course of the present century, been imposed upon spiritous liquors, are not supposed to have had any effect upon the wages of labour. The rise in the price of porter, occasioned by an additional tax of three shillings upon the barrel of strong beer, has not raised the wages of common labour in London. These were about eighteen pence or twenty pence a-day before the tax, and they are not more now.
The high price of such commodities does[Pg 369] not necessarily diminish the ability of the inferior ranks of people to bring up families. Upon the sober and industrious poor, taxes upon such commodities act as sumptuary laws, and dispose them either to moderate, or to refrain altogether from the use of superfluities which they can no longer easily afford. Their ability to bring up families, in consequence of this forced frugality, instead of being diminished, is frequently, perhaps, increased by the tax. It is the sober and industrious poor who generally bring up the most numerous families, and who principally supply the demand for useful labour. All the poor, indeed, are not sober and industrious; and the dissolute and disorderly might continue to indulge themselves in the use of such commodities, after this rise of price, in the same manner as before, without regarding the distress which this indulgence might bring upon their families. Such disorderly persons, however, seldom rear up numerous families, their children generally perishing from neglect, mismanagement, and the scantiness or unwholesomeness of their food. If, by the strength of their constitution, they survive the hardships to which the bad conduct of their parents exposes them, yet the example of that bad conduct commonly corrupts their morals; so that, instead of being useful to society by their industry, they become public nuisances by their vices and disorders. Though the advanced price of the luxuries of the poor, therefore, might increase somewhat the distress of such disorderly families, and thereby diminish somewhat their ability to bring up children, it would not probably diminish much the useful population of the country.
Any rise in the average price of necessaries, unless it be compensated by a proportionable rise in the wages of labour, must necessarily diminish, more or less, the ability of the poor to bring up numerous families, and, consequently, to supply the demand for useful labour; whatever may be the state of that demand, whether increasing, stationary, or declining; or such as requires an increasing, stationary, or declining population.
Taxes upon luxuries have no tendency to raise the price of any other commodities, except that of the commodities taxed. Taxes upon necessaries, by raising the wages of labour, necessarily tend to raise the price of all manufactures, and consequently to diminish the extent of their sale and consumption. Taxes upon luxuries are finally paid by the consumers of the commodities taxed, without any retribution. They fall indifferently upon every species of revenue, the wages of labour, the profits of stock, and the rent of land. Taxes upon necessaries, so far as they affect the labouring poor, are finally paid, partly by landlords, in the diminished rent of their lands, and partly by rich consumers, whether landlords or others, in the advanced price of manufactured goods; and always with a considerable overcharge. The advanced price of such manufactures as are real necessaries of life, and are destined for the consumption of the poor, of coarse woollens, for example, must be compensated to the poor by a farther advancement of their wages. The middling and superior ranks of people, if they understood their own interest, ought always to oppose all taxes upon the necessaries of life, as well as all taxes upon the wages of labour. The final payment of both the one and the other falls altogether upon themselves, and always with a considerable overcharge. They fall heaviest upon the landlords, who always pay in a double capacity; in that of landlords, by the reduction, of their rent; and in that of rich consumers, by the increase of their expense. The observation of Sir Matthew Decker, that certain taxes are, in the price of certain goods, sometimes repeated and accumulated four or five times, is perfectly just with regard to taxes upon the necessaries of life. In the price of leather, for example, you must pay not only for the tax upon the leather of your own shoes, but for a part of that upon those of the shoemaker and the tanner. You must pay, too, for the tax upon the salt, upon the soap, and upon the candles which those workmen consume while employed in your service; and for the tax upon the leather, which the salt-maker, the soap-maker, and the candle-maker consume, while employed in their service.
In Great Britain, the principal taxes upon the necessaries of life, are those upon the four commodities just now mentioned, salt, leather, soap, and candles.
Salt is a very ancient and a very universal subject of taxation. It was taxed among the Romans, and it is so at present in, I believe, every part of Europe. The quantity annually consumed by any individual is so small, and may be purchased so gradually, that nobody, it seems to have been thought, could feel very sensibly even a pretty heavy tax upon it. It is in England taxed at three shillings and fourpence a bushel; about three times the original price of the commodity. In some other countries, the tax is still higher. Leather is a real necessary of life. The use of linen renders soap such. In countries where the winter nights are long, candles are a necessary instrument of trade. Leather and soap are in Great Britain taxed at three halfpence a-pound; candles at a penny; taxes which, upon the original price of leather, may amount to about eight or ten per cent.; upon that of soap, to about twenty or five-and-twenty per cent.; and upon that of candles to about fourteen or fifteen per cent.; taxes which, though lighter than that upon salt, are still very heavy. As all those four commodities are real necessaries of life, such heavy taxes upon them must increase some[Pg 370] what the expense of the sober and industrious poor, and must consequently raise more or less the wages of their labour.
In a country where the winters are so cold as in Great Britain, fuel is, during that season, in the strictest sense of the word, a necessary of life, not only for the purpose of dressing victuals, but for the comfortable subsistence of many different sorts of workmen who work within doors; and coals are the cheapest of all fuel. The price of fuel has so important an influence upon that of labour, that all over Great Britain, manufactures have confined themselves principally to the coal countries; other parts of the country, on account of the high price of this necessary article, not being able to work so cheap. In some manufactures, besides, coal is a necessary instrument of trade; as in those of glass, iron, and all other metals. If a bounty could in any case be reasonable, it might perhaps be so upon the transportation of coals from those parts of the country in which they abound, to those in which they are wanted. But the legislature, instead of a bounty, has imposed a tax of three shillings and threepence a-ton upon coals carried coastways; which, upon most sorts of coal, is more than sixty per cent. of the original price at the coal pit. Coals carried, either by land or by inland navigation, pay no duty. Where they are naturally cheap, they are consumed duty free; where they are naturally dear, they are loaded with a heavy duty.
Such taxes, though they raise the price of subsistence, and consequently the wages of labour, yet they afford a considerable revenue to government, which it might not be easy to find in any other way. There may, therefore, be good reasons for continuing them. The bounty upon the exportation of corn, so far as it tends, in the actual state of tillage, to raise the price of that necessary article, produces all the like bad effects; and instead of affording any revenue, frequently occasions a very great expense to government. The high duties upon the importation of foreign corn, which, in years of moderate plenty, amount to a prohibition; and the absolute prohibition of the importation, either of live cattle, or of salt provisions, which takes place in the ordinary state of the law, and which, on account of the scarcity, is at present suspended for a limited time with regard to Ireland and the British plantations, have all had the bad effects of taxes upon the necessaries of life, and produce no revenue to government. Nothing seems necessary for the repeal of such regulations, but to convince the public of the futility of that system in consequence of which they have been established.
Taxes upon the necessaries of life are much higher in many other countries than in Great Britain. Duties upon flour and meal when ground at the mill, and upon bread when baked at the oven, take place in many countries. In Holland the money-price of the bread consumed in towns is supposed to be doubled by means of such taxes. In lieu of a part of them, the people who live in the country, pay every year so much a-head, according to the sort of bread they are supposed to consume. Those who consume wheaten bread pay three guilders fifteen stivers; about six shillings and ninepence halfpenny. These, and some other taxes of the same kind, by raising the price of labour, are said to have ruined the greater part of the manufactures of Holland[71]. Similar taxes, though not quite so heavy, take place in the Milanese, in the states of Genoa, in the duchy of Modena, in the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, and the Ecclesiastical state. A French author[72] of some note, has proposed to reform the finances of his country, by substituting in the room of the greater part of other taxes, this most ruinous of all taxes. There is nothing so absurd, says Cicero, which has not sometimes been asserted by some philosophers.
Taxes upon butcher's meat are still more common than those upon bread. It may indeed be doubted, whether butcher's meat is any where a necessary of life. Grain and other vegetables, with the help of milk, cheese, and butter, or oil, where butter is not to be had, it is known from experience, can, without any butcher's meat, afford the most plentiful, the most wholesome, the most nourishing, and the most invigorating diet. Decency nowhere requires that any man should eat butcher's meat, as it in most places requires that he should wear a linen shirt or a pair of leather shoes.
Consumable commodities, whether necessaries or luxuries, may be taxed in two different ways. The consumer may either pay an annual sum on account of his using or consuming goods of a certain kind; or the goods may be taxed while they remain in the hands of the dealer, and before they are delivered to the consumer. The consumable goods which last a considerable time before they are consumed altogether, are most properly taxed in the one way; those of which the consumption is either immediate or more speedy, in the other. The coach-tax and plate-tax are examples of the former method of imposing; the greater part of the other duties of excise and customs, of the latter.
A coach may, with good management, last ten or twelve years. It might be taxed, once for all, before it comes out of the hands of the coach-maker. But it is certainly more convenient for the buyer to pay four pounds a-year for the privilege of keeping a coach, than to pay all at once forty or forty-eight pounds additional price to the coach-maker;[Pg 371] or a sum equivalent to what the tax is likely to cost him during the time he uses the same coach. A service of plate in the same manner, may last more than a century. It is certainly easier for the consumer to pay five shillings a-year for every hundred ounces of plate, near one per cent. of the value, than to redeem this long annuity at five-and-twenty of thirty years purchase, which would enhance the price at least five-and-twenty or thirty per cent. The different taxes which affect houses, are certainly more conveniently paid by moderate annual payments, than by a heavy tax of equal value upon the first building or sale of the house.
It was the well-known proposal of Sir Matthew Decker, that all commodities, even those of which the consumption is either immediate or speedy, should be taxed in this manner; the dealer advancing nothing, but the consumer paying a certain annual sum for the licence to consume certain goods. The object of his scheme was to promote all the different branches of foreign trade, particularly the carrying trade, by taking away all duties upon importation and exportation, and thereby enabling the merchant to employ his whole capital and credit in the purchase of goods and the freight of ships, no part of either being diverted towards the advancing of taxes. The project, however, of taxing, in this manner, goods of immediate or speedy consumption, seems liable to the four following very important objections. First, the tax would be more unequal, or not so well proportioned to the expense and consumption of the different contributors, as in the way in which it is commonly imposed. The taxes upon ale, wine, and spiritous liquors, which are advanced by the dealers, are finally paid by the different consumers, exactly in proportion to their respective consumption. But if the tax were to be paid by purchasing a licence to drink those liquors, the sober would, in proportion to his consumption, be taxed much more heavily than the drunken consumer. A family which exercised great hospitality, would be taxed much more lightly than one who entertained fewer guests. Secondly, this mode of taxation, by paying for an annual, half-yearly, or quarterly licence to consume certain goods, would diminish very much one of the principal conveniences of taxes upon goods of speedy consumption; the piece-meal payment. In the price of threepence halfpenny, which is at present paid for a pot of porter, the different taxes upon malt, hops, and beer, together with the extraordinary profit which the brewer charges for having advanced them, may perhaps amount to about three halfpence. If a workman can conveniently spare those three halfpence, he buys a pot of porter. If he cannot, he contents himself with a pint; and, as a penny saved is a penny got, he thus gains a farthing by his temperance. He pays the tax piece-meal, as he can afford to pay it, and when he can afford to pay it, and every act of payment is perfectly voluntary, and what he can avoid if he chuses to do so. Thirdly, such taxes would operate less as sumptuary laws. When the licence was once purchased, whether the purchaser drunk much or drunk little, his tax would he the same. Fourthly, if a workman were to pay all at once, by yearly, half-yearly, or quarterly payments, a tax equal to what he at present pays, with little or no inconveniency, upon all the different pots and pints of porter which he drinks in any such period of time, the sum might frequently distress him very much. This mode of taxation, therefore, it seems evident, could never, without the most grievous oppression, produce a revenue nearly equal to what is derived from the present mode without any oppression. In several countries, however, commodities of an immediate or very speedy consumption are taxed in this manner. In Holland, people pay so much a-head for a licence to drink tea. I have already mentioned a tax upon bread, which, so far as it is consumed in farm houses and country villages, is there levied in the same manner.
The duties of excise are imposed chiefly upon goods of home produce, destined for home consumption. They are imposed only upon a few sorts of goods of the most general use. There can never be any doubt, either concerning the goods which are subject to those duties, or concerning the particular duty which each species of goods is subject to. They fall almost altogether upon what I call luxuries, excepting always the four duties above mentioned, upon salt, soap, leather, candles, and perhaps that upon green glass.
The duties of customs are much more ancient than those of excise. They seem to have been called customs, as denoting customary payments, which had been in use for time immemorial. They appear to have been originally considered as taxes upon the profits of merchants. During the barbarous times of feudal anarchy, merchants, like all the other inhabitants of burghs, were considered as little better than emancipated bondmen, whose persons were despised, and whose gains were envied. The great nobility, who had consented that the king should tallage the profits of their own tenants, were not unwilling that he should tallage likewise those of an order of men whom it was much less their interest to protect. In those ignorant times, it was not understood, that the profits of merchants are a subject not taxable directly; or that the final payment of all such taxes must fall, with a considerable overcharge, upon the consumers.
The gains of alien merchants were looked upon more unfavourably than those of English merchants. It was natural, therefore, that those of the former should be taxed more[Pg 372] heavily than those of the latter. This distinction between the duties upon aliens and those upon English merchants, which was begun from ignorance, has been continued from the spirit of monopoly, or in order to give our own merchants an advantage, both in the home and in the foreign market.
With this distinction, the ancient duties of customs were imposed equally upon all sorts of goods, necessaries as well as luxuries, goods exported as well as goods imported. Why should the dealers in one sort of goods, it seems to have been thought, be more favoured than those in another? or why should the merchant exporter be more favoured than the merchant importer?
The ancient customs were divided into three branches. The first, and, perhaps, the most ancient of all those duties, was that upon wool and leather. It seems to have been chiefly or altogether an exportation duty. When the woollen manufacture came to be established in England, lest the king should lose any part of his customs upon wool by the exportation of woollen cloths, a like duty was imposed upon them. The other two branches were, first, a duty upon wine, which being imposed at so much a-ton, was called a tonnage; and, secondly, a duty upon all other goods, which being imposed at so much a-pound of their supposed value, was called a poundage. In the forty-seventh year of Edward III., a duty of sixpence in the pound was imposed upon all goods exported and imported, except wools, wool-felts, leather, and wines which were subject to particular duties. In the fourteenth of Richard II., this duty was raised to one shilling in the pound; but, three years afterwards, it was again reduced to sixpence. It was raised to eightpence in the second year of Henry IV.; and, in the fourth of the same prince, to one shilling. From this time to the ninth year of William III., this duty continued at one shilling in the pound. The duties of tonnage and poundage were generally granted to the king by one and the same act of parliament, and were called the subsidy of tonnage and poundage. The subsidy of poundage having continued for so long a time at one shilling in the pound, or at five per cent., a subsidy came, in the language of the customs, to denote a general duty of this kind of five per cent. This subsidy, which is now called the old subsidy, still continues to be levied, according to the book of rates established by the twelfth of Charles II. The method of ascertaining, by a book of rates, the value of goods subject to this duty, is said to be older than the time of James I. The new subsidy, imposed by the ninth and tenth of William III., was an additional five per cent. upon the greater part of goods. The one-third and the two-third subsidy made up between them another five per cent. of which they were proportionable parts. The subsidy of 1747 made a fourth five per cent. upon the greater part of goods; and that of 1759, a fifth upon some particular sorts of goods. Besides those five subsidies, a great variety of other duties have occasionally been imposed upon particular sorts of goods in order sometimes to relieve the exigencies of the state, and sometimes to regulate the trade of the country, according to the principles of the mercantile system.
That system has come gradually more and more into fashion. The old subsidy was imposed indifferently upon exportation, as well as importation. The four subsequent subsidies, as well as the other duties which have since been occasionally imposed upon particular sorts of goods, have, with a few exceptions, been laid altogether upon importation. The greater part of the ancient duties which had been imposed upon the exportation of the goods of home produce and manufacture, have either been lightened or taken away altogether. In most cases, they have been taken away. Bounties have even been given upon the exportation of some of them. Drawbacks, too, sometimes of the whole, and, in most cases, or a part of the duties which are paid upon the importation of foreign goods, have been granted upon their exportation. Only half the duties imposed by the old subsidy upon importation, are drawn back upon exportation; but the whole of those imposed by the latter subsidies and other imports are, upon the greater parts of the goods, drawn back in the same manner. This growing favour of exportation, and discouragement of importation, have suffered only a few exceptions, which chiefly concern the materials of some manufactures. These our merchants and manufacturers are willing should come as cheap as possible to themselves, and as dear as possible to their rivals and competitors in other countries. Foreign materials are, upon this account, sometimes allowed to be imported duty-free; Spanish wool, for example, flax, and raw linen yarn. The exportation of the materials of home produce, and of those which are the particular produce of our colonies, has sometimes been prohibited, and sometimes subjected to higher duties. The exportation of English wool has been prohibited. That of beaver skins, of beaver wool, and of gum-senega, has been subjected to higher duties; Great Britain, by the conquests of Canada and Senegal, having got almost the monopoly of those commodities.
That the mercantile system has not been very favourable to the revenue of the great body of the people, to the annual produce of the land and labour of the country, I have endeavoured to show in the fourth book of this Inquiry. It seems not to have been more[Pg 373] favourable to the revenue of the sovereign; so far, at least, as that revenue depends upon the duties of customs.
In consequence of that system, the importation of several sorts of goods has been prohibited altogether. This prohibition has, in some cases, entirely prevented, and in others has very much diminished, the importation of those commodities, by reducing the importers to the necessity of smuggling. It has entirely prevented the importation of foreign wollens; and it has very much diminished that of foreign silks and velvets. In both cases, it has entirely annihilated the revenue of customs which might have been levied upon such importation.
The high duties which have been imposed upon the importation of many different sorts of foreign goods in order to discourage their consumption in Great Britain, have, in many cases, served only to encourage smuggling, and, in all cases, have reduced the revenues of the customs below what more moderate duties would have afforded. The saying of Dr. Swift, that in the arithmetic of the customs, two and two, instead of making four, make sometimes only one, holds perfectly true with regard to such heavy duties, which never could have been imposed, had not the mercantile system taught us, in many cases, to employ taxation as an instrument, not of revenue, but of monopoly.
The bounties which are sometimes given upon the exportation of home produce and manufactures, and the drawbacks which are paid upon the re-exportation of the greater part of foreign goods, have given occasion to many frauds, and to a species of smuggling, more destructive of the public revenue than any other. In order to obtain the bounty or drawback, the goods, it is well known, are sometimes shipped, and sent to sea, but soon afterwards clandestinely re-landed in some other part of the country. The defalcation of the revenue of customs occasioned by bounties and drawbacks, of which a great part are obtained fraudulently, is very great. The gross produce of the customs, in the year which ended on the 5th of January 1755, amounted to L.5,068,000. The bounties which were paid out of this revenue, though in that year there was no bounty upon corn, amounted to L.167,800. The drawbacks which were paid upon debentures and certificates, to L.2,156,800. Bounties and drawbacks together amounted to L.2,324,600. In consequence of these deductions, the revenue of the customs amounted only to L.2,743,400; from which deducting L.287,900 for the expense of management, in salaries and other incidents, the neat revenue of the customs for that year comes out to be L.2,455,500. The expense of management, amounts, in this manner, to between five and six per cent. upon the gross revenue of the customs; and to something more than ten per cent. upon what remains of that revenue, after deducting what is paid away in bounties and drawbacks.
Heavy duties being imposed upon almost all goods imported, our merchant importers smuggle as much, and make entry of as little as they can. Our merchant exporters, on the contrary, make entry of more than they export; sometimes out of vanity, and to pass for great dealers in goods which pay no duty and sometimes to gain a bounty or a drawback. Our exports, in consequence of these different frauds, appear upon the custom-house books greatly to overbalance our imports, to the unspeakable comfort of those politicians, who measure the national prosperity by what they call the balance of trade.
All goods imported, unless particularly exempted, and such exemptions are not very numerous, are liable to some duties of customs. If any goods are imported, not mentioned in the book of rates, they are taxed at 4s. 99⁄20d. for every twenty shillings value, according to the oath of the importer, that is, nearly at five subsidies, or five poundage duties. The book of rates is extremely comprehensive, and enumerates a great variety of articles, many of them little used, and, therefore, not well known. It is, upon this account, frequently uncertain under what article a particular sort of goods ought to be classed, and, consequently what duty they ought to pay. Mistakes with regard to this sometimes ruin the custom-house officer, and frequently occasion much trouble, expense, and vexation to the importer. In point of perspicuity, precision, and distinctness, therefore, the duties of customs are much more inferior to those of excise.
In order that the greater part of the members of any society should contribute to the public revenue, in proportion to their respective expense, it does not seem necessary that every single article of that expense should be taxed. The revenue which is levied by the duties of excise is supposed to fall as equally upon the contributors as that which is levied by the duties of customs; and the duties of excise are imposed upon a few articles only of the most general use and consumption. It has been the opinion of many people, that, by proper management, the duties of customs might likewise, without any loss to the public revenue, and with great advantage to foreign trade, be confined to a few articles only.
The foreign articles, of the most general use and consumption in Great Britain, seem at present to consist chiefly in foreign wines and brandies; in some of the productions of America and the West Indies, sugar, rum, tobacco, cocoa-nuts, &c. and in some of those of the East Indies, tea, coffee, china-ware, spiceries of all kinds, several sorts of piece-goods, &c. These different articles afford,[Pg 374] perhaps, at present, the greater part of the revenue which is drawn from the duties of customs. The taxes which at present subsist upon foreign manufactures, if you except those upon the few contained in the foregoing enumeration, have, the greater part of them, been imposed for the purpose, not of revenue, but of monopoly, or to give our own merchants an advantage in the home market. By removing all prohibitions, and by subjecting all foreign manufactures to such moderate taxes, as it was found from experience, afforded upon each article the greatest revenue to the public, our own workmen might still have a considerable advantage in the home market; and many articles, some of which at present afford no revenue to government, and others a very inconsiderable one, might afford a very great one.
High taxes, sometimes by diminishing the consumption of the taxed commodities, and sometimes by encouraging smuggling, frequently afford a smaller revenue to government than what might be drawn from more moderate taxes.
When the diminution of revenue is the effect of the diminution of consumption, there can be but one remedy, and that is the lowering of the tax.
When the diminution of revenue is the effect of the encouragement given to smuggling, it may, perhaps, be remedied in two ways; either by diminishing the temptation to smuggle, or by increasing the difficulty of smuggling. The temptation to smuggle can be be diminished only by the lowering of the tax; and the difficulty of smuggling can be increased only by establishing that system of administration which is most proper for preventing it.
The excise laws, it appears, I believe, from experience, obstruct and embarrass the operations of the smuggler much more effectually than those of the customs. By introducing into the customs a system of administration as similar to that of the excise as the nature of the different duties will admit, the difficulty of smuggling might be very much increased. This alteration, it has been supposed by many people, might very easily be brought about.
The importer of commodities liable to any duties of customs, it has been said, might, at his option, he allowed either to carry them to his own private warehouse; or to lodge them in a warehouse, provided either at his own expense or at that of the public, but under the key of the custom-house officer, and never to be opened but in his presence. If the merchant carried them to his own private warehouse, the duties to be immediately paid, and never afterwards to be drawn back; and that warehouse to be at all times subject to the visit and examination of the custom-house officer, in order to ascertain how far the quantity contained in it corresponded with that for which the duty had been paid. If he carried them to the public warehouse, no duty to be paid till they were taken out for home consumption. If taken out for exportation, to be duty-free; proper security being always given that they should be so exported. The dealers in those particular commodities, either by wholesale or retail, to be at all times subject to the visit and examination of the custom-house officer; and to be obliged to justify, by proper certificates, the payment of the duty upon the whole quantity contained in their shops or warehouses. What are called the excise duties upon rum imported, are at present levied in this manner; and the same system of administration might, perhaps, be extended to all duties upon goods imported; provided always that those duties were, like the duties of excise, confined to a few sorts of goods of the most general use and consumption. If they were extended to almost all sorts of goods, as at present, public warehouses of sufficient extent could not easily be provided; and goods of a very delicate nature, or of which the preservation required much care and attention, could not safely be trusted by the merchant in any warehouse but his own.
If, by such a system of administration, smuggling to any considerable extent could be prevented, even under pretty high duties; if every duty was occasionally either heightened or lowered according as it was likely, either the one way or the other, to afford the greatest revenue to the state; taxation being always employed as an instrument of revenue, and never of monopoly; it seems not improbable that a revenue, at least equal to the present neat revenue of the customs, might be drawn from duties upon the importation of only a few sorts of goods of the most general use and consumption; and that the duties of customs might thus be brought to the same degree of simplicity, certainty, and precision, as those of excise. What the revenue at present loses by drawbacks upon the re-exportation of foreign goods, which are afterwards re-landed and consumed at home, would, under this system, be saved altogether. If to this saving, which would alone be very considerable, were added the abolition of all bounties upon the exportation of home produce; in all cases in which those bounties were not in reality drawbacks of some duties of excise which had before been advanced; it cannot well be doubted, but that the neat revenue of customs might, after an alteration of this kind, be fully equal to what it had ever been before.
If, by such a change of system, the public revenue suffered no loss, the trade and manufactures of the country would certainly gain a very considerable advantage. The trade in the commodities not taxed, by far the greatest[Pg 375] number would be perfectly free, and might be carried on to and from all parts of the world with every possible advantage. Among those commodities would be comprehended all the necessaries of life, and all the materials of manufacture. So far as the free importation of the necessaries of life reduced their average money price in the home market, it would reduce the money price of labour, but without reducing in any respect its real recompense. The value of money is in proportion to the quantity of the necessaries of life which it will purchase. That of the necessaries of life is altogether independent of the quantity of money which can be had for them. The reduction in the money price of labour would necessarily be attended with a proportionable one in that of all home manufactures, which would thereby gain some advantage in all foreign markets. The price of some manufactures would be reduced, in a still greater proportion, by the free importation of the raw materials. If raw silk could be imported from China and Indostan, duty-free, the silk manufacturers in England could greatly undersell those of both France and Italy. There would be no occasion to prohibit the importation of foreign silks and velvets. The cheapness of their goods would secure to our own workmen, not only the possession of a home, but a very great command of the foreign market. Even the trade in the commodities taxed, would be carried on with much more advantage than at present. If those commodities were delivered out of the public warehouse for foreign exportation, being in this case exempted from all taxes, the trade in them would be perfectly free. The carrying trade, in all sorts of goods, would, under this system, enjoy every possible advantage. If these commodities were delivered out for home consumption, the importer not being obliged to advance the tax till he had an opportunity of selling his goods, either to some dealer, or to some consumer, he could always afford to sell them cheaper than if he had been obliged to advance it at the moment of importation. Under the same taxes, the foreign trade of consumption, even in the taxed commodities, might in this manner be carried on with much more advantage than it is at present.
It was the object of the famous excise scheme of Sir Robert Walpole, to establish, with regard to wine and tobacco, a system not very unlike that which is here proposed. But though the bill which was then brought into Parliament, comprehended those two commodities only, it was generally supposed to be meant as an introduction to a more extensive scheme of the same kind. Faction, combined with the interest of smuggling merchants, raised so violent, though so unjust a clamour, against that bill, that the minister thought proper to drop it; and, from a dread of exciting a clamour of the same kind, none of his successors have dared to resume the project.
The duties upon foreign luxuries, imported for home consumption, though they sometimes fall upon the poor, fall principally upon people of middling or more than middling fortune. Such are, for example, the duties upon foreign wines, upon coffee, chocolate, tea, sugar, &c.
The duties upon the cheaper luxuries of home produce, destined for home consumption, fall pretty equally upon people of all ranks, in proportion to their respective expense. The poor pay the duties upon malt, hops, beer, and ale, upon their own consumption; the rich, upon both their own consumption and that of their servants.
The whole consumption of the inferior ranks of people, or of those below the middling rank, it must be observed, is, in every country, much greater, not only in quantity, but in value, than that of the middling, and of those above the middling rank. The whole expense of the inferior is much greater than that of the superior ranks. In the first place, almost the whole capital of every country is annually distributed among the inferior ranks of people, as the wages of productive labour. Secondly, a great part of the revenue, arising from both the rent of land and the profits of stock, is annually distributed among the same rank, in the wages and maintenance of menial servants, and other unproductive labourers. Thirdly, some part of the profits of stock belongs to the same rank, as a revenue arising from the employment of their small capitals. The amount of the profits annually made by small shopkeepers, tradesmen, and retailers of all kinds, is everywhere very considerable, and makes a very considerable portion of the annual produce. Fourthly and lastly, some part even of the rent of land belongs to the same rank; a considerable part to those who are somewhat below the middling rank, and a small part even to the lowest rank; common labourers sometimes possessing in property an acre or two of land. Though the expense of those inferior ranks of people, therefore, taking them individually, is very small, yet the whole mass of it, taking them collectively, amounts always to by much the largest portion of the whole expense of the society; what remains of the annual produce of the land and labour of the country, for the consumption of the superior ranks, being always much less, not only in quantity, but in value. The taxes upon expense, therefore, which fall chiefly upon that of the superior ranks of people, upon the smaller portion of the annual produce, are likely to be much less productive than either those which fall indifferently upon the expense of all ranks, or even those which fall chiefly upon that of the inferior ranks, than[Pg 376] either those which fall indifferently upon the whole annual produce, or those which fall chiefly upon the larger portion of it. The excise upon the materials and manufacture of home-made fermented and spiritous liquors, is, accordingly, of all the different taxes upon expense, by far the most productive; and this branch of the excise falls very much, perhaps principally, upon the expense of the common people. In the year which ended on the 5th of July 1775, the gross produce of this branch of the excise amounted to L.3,341,837 : 9 : 9.
It must always be remembered, however, that it is the luxuries, and not the necessary expense of the inferior ranks of people, that ought ever to be taxed. The final payment of any tax upon their necessary expense, would fall altogether upon the superior ranks of people; upon the smaller portion of the annual produce, and not upon the greater. Such a tax must, in all cases, either raise the wages of labour, or lessen the demand for it. It could not raise the wages of labour, without throwing the final payment of the tax upon the superior ranks of people. It could not lessen the demand for labour, without lessening the annual produce of the land and labour of the country, the fund upon which all taxes must be finally paid. Whatever might be the state to which a tax of this kind reduced the demand for labour, it must always raise wages higher than they otherwise would be in that state; and the final payment of this enhancement of wages must, in all cases, fall upon the superior ranks of people.
Fermented liquors brewed, and spiritous liquors distilled, not for sale, but for private use, are not in Great Britain liable to any duties of excise. This exemption, of which the object is to save private families from the odious visit and examination of the tax-gatherer, occasions the burden of those duties to fall frequently much lighter upon the rich than upon the poor. It is not, indeed, very common to distil for private use, though it is done sometimes. But in the country, many middling, and almost all rich and great families, brew their own beer. Their strong beer, therefore, costs them eight shillings a-barrel less than it costs the common brewer, who must have his profit upon the tax, as well as upon all the other expense which he advances. Such families, therefore, must drink their beer at least nine or ten shillings a-barrel cheaper than any liquor of the same quality can be drank by the common people, to whom it is everywhere more convenient to buy their beer, by little and little, from the brewery or the alehouse. Malt, in the same manner, that is made for the use of a private family, is not liable to the visit or examination of the tax-gatherer; but, in this case the family must compound at seven shillings and sixpence a-head for the tax. Seven shillings and sixpence are equal to the excise upon ten bushels of malt; a quantity fully equal to what all the different members of any sober family, men, women, and children, are, at an average, likely to consume. But in rich and great families, where country hospitality is much practised, the malt liquors consumed by the members of the family make but a small part of the consumption of the house. Either on account of this composition, however, or for other reasons, it is not near so common to malt as to brew for private use. It is difficult to imagine any equitable reason, why those who either brew or distil for private use should not be subject to a composition of the same kind.
A greater revenue than what is at present drawn from all the heavy taxes upon malt, beer, and ale, might be raised, it has frequently been said, by a much lighter tax upon malt; the opportunities of defrauding the revenue being much greater in a brewery than in a malt-house; and those who brew for private use being exempted from all duties or composition for duties, which is not the case with those who malt for private use.
In the porter brewery of London, a quarter of malt is commonly brewed into more than two barrels and a-half, sometimes into three barrels of porter. The different taxes upon malt amount to six shillings a-quarter; those upon strong ale and beer to eight shillings a-barrel. In the porter brewery, therefore, the different taxes upon malt, beer, and ale, amount to between twenty-six and thirty shillings upon the produce of a quarter of malt. In the country brewery for common country sale, a quarter of malt is seldom brewed into less than two barrels of strong, and one barrel of small beer; frequently into two barrels and a-half of strong beer. The different taxes upon small beer amount to one shilling and fourpence a-barrel. In the country brewery, therefore, the different taxes upon malt, beer, and ale, seldom amount to less than twenty-three shillings and fourpence, frequently to twenty-six shillings, upon the produce of a quarter of malt. Taking the whole kingdom at an average, therefore, the whole amount of the duties upon malt, beer, and ale, cannot be estimated at less than twenty-four or twenty-five shillings upon the produce of a quarter of malt. But by taking off all the different duties upon beer and ale, and by trebling the malt tax, or by raising it from six to eighteen shillings upon the quarter of malt, a greater revenue, it is said, might be raised by this single tax, than what is at present drawn from all those heavier taxes.[Pg 377]
In 1772, the old malt tax produced 722,023 11 11
The additional 356,776 7 9¾
In 1773, the old tax produced 561,627 3 7½
The additional 278,650 15 3¾
In 1774, the old tax produced 624,614 17 5¾
The additional 310,745 2 8½
In 1775, the old tax produced 657,357 0 8¼
The additional 323,785 12 6¼
4)3,835,580 12 0¾
Average of these four years 958,895 3 03⁄16
In 1772, the country excise produced 1,243,120 5 3
The London brewery 408,260 7 2¾
In 1773, the country excise 1,245,808 3 3
The London brewery 405,406 17 10½
In 1774, the country excise 1,246,373 14 5½
The London brewery 320,601 18 0¼
In 1775, the country excise 1,214,583 6 1¼
The London brewery 463,670 7 0¼
4)6,547,832 19 2¼
Average of these four years 1,636,958 4 9½
To which adding the average malt-tax, or 958,895 3 03⁄16
The whole amount of those different taxes comes out to be 2,595,853 7 911⁄16
But, by trebling the malt tax, or by raising it from six to eighteen shillings upon the quarter of malt, that single tax would produce 2,876,685 9 09⁄16
A sum which exceeds the foregoing by 280,832 1 214⁄16
Under the old malt tax, indeed, is comprehended a tax of four shillings upon the hogshead of cyder, and another of ten shillings upon the barrel of mum. In 1774, the tax upon cyder produced only L.3083 : 6 : 8. It probably fell somewhat short of its usual amount; all the different taxes upon cyder, having, that year, produced less than ordinary. The tax upon mum, though much heavier, is still less productive, on account of the smaller consumption of that liquor. But to balance whatever may be the ordinary amount of those two taxes, there is comprehended under what is called the country excise, first, the old excise of six shillings and eightpence upon the hogshead of cyder; secondly, a like tax of six shillings and eightpence upon the hogshead of verjuice; thirdly, another of eight shillings and ninepence upon the hogshead of vinegar; and, lastly, a fourth tax of elevenpence upon the gallon of mead or metheglin. The produce of those different taxes will probably much more than counterbalance that of the duties imposed, by what is called the annual malt tax, upon cyder and mum.
Malt is consumed, not only in the brewery of beer and ale, but in the manufacture of low wines and spirits. If the malt tax were to be raised to eighteen shillings upon the quarter, it might be necessary to make some abatement in the different excises which are imposed upon those particular sorts of low wines and spirits, of which malt makes any part of the materials. In what are called malt spirits, it makes commonly but a third part of the materials; the other two-thirds being either raw barley, or one-third barley and one-third wheat. In the distillery of malt spirits, both the opportunity and the temptation to smuggle are much greater than either in a brewery or in a malt-house; the opportunity, on account of the smaller bulk and greater value of the commodity, and the temptation, on account of the superior height of the duties, which amounted to 3s. 102⁄3d.[73] upon the gallon of spirits. By increasing the duties upon malt, and reducing those upon the distillery, both the opportunities and the temptation to smuggle would be diminished, which might occasion a still further augmentation of revenue.
It has for some time past been the policy of Great Britain to discourage the consumption of spirituous liquors, on account of their supposed tendency to ruin the health and to corrupt the morals of the common people. According to this policy, the abatement of the taxes upon the distillery ought not to be so great as to reduce, in any respect, the price of those liquors. Spirituous liquors might remain as dear as ever; while, at the same time, the wholesome and invigorating liquors of beer and ale might be considerably reduced in their price. The people might thus be in part relieved from one of the burdens of which they at present complain the most; while, at the same time, the revenue might be considerably augmented.
The objections of Dr. Davenant to this alteration in the present system of excise duties, seem to be without foundation. Those objections are, that the tax, instead of dividing itself, as at present, pretty equally upon the profit of the maltster, upon that of the brewer, [Pg 378]and upon that of the retailer, would so far as it affected profit, fall altogether upon that of the maltster; that the maltster could not so easily get back the amount of the tax in the advanced price of his malt, as the brewer and retailer in the advanced price of their liquor; and that so heavy a tax upon malt might reduce the rent and profit of barley land.
No tax can ever reduce, for any considerable time, the rate of profit in any particular trade, which must always keep its level with other trades in the neighbourhood. The present duties upon malt, beer, and ale, do not affect the profits of the dealers in those commodities, who all get back the tax with an additional profit, in the enhanced price of their goods. A tax, indeed, may render the goods upon which it is imposed so dear, as to diminish the consumption of them. But the consumption of malt is in malt liquors; and a tax of eighteen shillings upon the quarter of malt could not well render those liquors dearer than the different taxes, amounting to twenty-four or twenty-five shillings, do at present. Those liquors, on the contrary, would probably become cheaper, and the consumption of them would be more likely to increase than to diminish.
It is not very easy to understand why it should be more difficult for the maltster to get back eighteen shillings in the advanced price of his malt, than it is at present for the brewer to get back twenty-four or twenty-five, sometimes thirty shillings, in that of his liquor. The maltster, indeed, instead of a tax of six shillings, would be obliged to advance one of eighteen shillings upon every quarter of malt. But the brewer is at present obliged to advance a tax of twenty-four or twenty-five, sometimes thirty shillings, upon every quarter of malt which he brews. It could not be more inconvenient for the maltster to advance a lighter tax, than it is at present for the brewer to advance a heavier one. The maltster does not always keep in his granaries a stock of malt, which it will require a longer time to dispose of than the stock of beer and ale which the brewer frequently keeps in his cellars. The former, therefore, may frequently get the returns of his money as soon as the latter. But whatever inconveniency might arise to the maltster from being obliged to advance a heavier tax, it could easily be remedied, by granting him a few months longer credit than is at present commonly given to the brewer.
Nothing could reduce the rent and profit of barley land, which did not reduce the demand for barley. But a change of system, which reduced the duties upon a quarter of malt brewed into beer and ale, from twenty-four and twenty-five shillings to eighteen shillings, would be more likely to increase than diminish that demand. The rent and profit of barley land, besides, must always be nearly equal to those of other equally fertile and equally well cultivated land. If they were less, some part of the barley land would soon be turned to some other purpose; and if they were greater, more land would soon be turned to the raising of barley. When the ordinary price of any particular produce of land is at what may be called a monopoly price, a tax upon it necessarily reduces the rent and profit of the land which grows it. A tax upon the produce of those precious vineyards, of which the wine falls so much short of the effectual demand, that its price is always above the natural proportion to that of the produce of other equally fertile and equally well cultivated land, would necessarily reduce the rent and profit of those vineyards. The price of the wines being already the highest that could be got for the quantity commonly sent to market, it could not be raised higher without diminishing that quantity; and the quantity could not be diminished without still greater loss, because the lands could not be turned to any other equally valuable produce. The whole weight of the tax, therefore, would fall upon the rent and profit; properly upon the rent of the vineyard. When it has been proposed to lay any new tax upon sugar, our sugar planters have frequently complained that the whole weight of such taxes fell not upon the consumer, but upon the producer; they never having been able to raise the price of their sugar after the tax higher than it was before. The price had, it seems, before the tax, been a monopoly price; and the arguments adduced to show that sugar was an improper subject of taxation, demonstrated perhaps that it was a proper one; the gains of monopolists, whenever they can be come at, being certainly of all subjects the most proper. But the ordinary price of barley has never been a monopoly price; and the rent and profit of barley land have never been above their natural proportion to those of other equally fertile and equally well cultivated land. The different taxes which have been imposed upon malt, beer, and ale, have never lowered the price of barley; have never reduced the rent and profit of barley land. The price of malt to the brewer has constantly risen in proportion to the taxes imposed upon it; and those taxes, together with the different duties upon beer and ale, have constantly either raised the price, or, what comes to the same thing, reduced the quality of those commodities to the consumer. The final payment of those taxes has fallen constantly upon the consumer, and not upon the producer.
The only people likely to suffer by the change of system here proposed, are those who brew for their own private use. But the exemption, which this superior rank of people at present enjoy, from very heavy taxes which[Pg 379] are paid by the poor labourer and artificer, is surely most unjust and unequal, and ought to be taken away, even though this change was never to take place. It has probably been the interest of this superior order of people, however, which has hitherto prevented a change of system that could not well fail both to increase the revenue and to relieve the people.
Besides such duties as those of customs and excise above mentioned, there are several others which affect the price of goods more unequally and more indirectly. Of this kind are the duties, which, in French, are called peages, which in old Saxon times were called the duties of passage, and which seem to have been originally established for the same purpose as our turnpike tolls, or the tolls upon our canals and navigable rivers, for the maintenance of the road or of the navigation. Those duties, when applied to such purposes, are most properly imposed according to the bulk or weight of the goods. As they were originally local and provincial duties, applicable to local and provincial purposes, the administration of them was, in most cases, entrusted to the particular town, parish, or lordship, in which they were levied; such communities being, in some way or other, supposed to be accountable for the application. The sovereign, who is altogether unaccountable, has in many countries assumed to himself the administration of those duties; and though he has in most cases enhanced very much the duty, he has in many entirely neglected the application. If the turnpike tolls of Great Britain should ever become one of the resources of government, we may learn, by the example of many other nations, what would probably be the consequence. Such tolls, no doubt, are finally paid by the consumer; but the consumer is not taxed in proportion to his expense, when he pays, not according to the value, but according to the bulk or weight of what he consumes. When such duties are imposed, not according to the bulk or weight, but according to the supposed value of the goods, they become properly a sort of inland customs or excise, which obstruct very much the most important of all branches of commerce, the interior commerce of the country.
In some small states, duties similar to those passage duties are imposed upon goods carried across the territory, either by land or by water, from one foreign country to another. These are in some countries called transit-duties. Some of the little Italian states which are situated upon the Po, and the rivers which run into it, derive some revenue from duties of this kind, which are paid altogether by foreigners, and which, perhaps, are the only duties that one state can impose upon the subjects of another, without obstructing, in any respect, the industry or commerce of its own. The most important transit-duty in the world, is that levied by the king of Denmark upon all merchant ships which pass through the Sound.
Such taxes upon luxuries, as the greater part of the duties of customs and excise, though they all fall indifferently upon every different species of revenue, and are paid finally, or without any retribution, by whoever consumes the commodities upon which they are imposed, yet they do not always fall equally or proportionally upon the revenue of every individual. As every man's humour regulates the degree of his consumption, every man contributes rather according to his humour, than in proportion to his revenue: the profuse contribute more, the parsimonious less, than their proper proportion. During the minority of a man of great fortune, he contributes commonly very little, by his consumption, towards the support of that state from whose protection he derives a great revenue. Those who live in another country, contribute nothing by their consumption towards the support of the government of that country, in which is situated the source of their revenue. If in this latter country there should be no land tax, nor any considerable duty upon the transference either of moveable or immoveable property, as is the case in Ireland, such absentees may derive a great revenue from the protection of a government, to the support of which they do not contribute a single shilling. This inequality is likely to be greatest in a country of which the government is, in some respects, subordinate and dependant upon that of some other. The people who possess the most extensive property in the dependant, will, in this case, generally chuse to live in the governing country. Ireland is precisely in this situation; and we cannot therefore wonder, that the proposal of a tax upon absentees should be so very popular in that country. It might, perhaps, be a little difficult to ascertain either what sort, or what degree of absence, would subject a man to be taxed as an absentee, or at what precise time the tax should either begin or end. If you except, however, this very peculiar situation, any inequality in the contribution of individuals which can arise from such taxes, is much more than compensated by the very circumstance which occasions that inequality; the circumstance that every man's contribution is altogether voluntary; it being altogether in his power, either to consume, or not to consume, the commodity taxed. Where such taxes, therefore, are properly assessed, and upon proper commodities, they are paid with less grumbling than any other. When they are advanced by the merchant or manufacturer, the consumer, who finally pays them, soon comes to confound them with the price of the commodities, and almost forgets that he pays any tax.[Pg 380]
Such taxes are, or may be, perfectly certain; or may be assessed, so as to leave no doubt concerning either what ought to be paid, or when it ought to be paid; concerning either the quantity or the time of payment. Whatever uncertainty there may sometimes be, either in the duties of customs in Great Britain, or in other duties of the same kind in other countries, it cannot arise from the nature of those duties, but from the inaccurate or unskilful manner in which the law that imposes them is expressed.
Taxes upon luxuries generally are, and always may be, paid piece-meal, or in proportion as the contributors have occasion to purchase the goods upon which they are imposed. In the time and mode of payment, they are, or may be, of all taxes the most convenient. Upon the whole, such taxes, therefore, are perhaps as agreeable to the three first of the four general maxims concerning taxation, as any other. They offend in every respect against the fourth.
Such taxes, in proportion to what they bring into the public treasury of the state, always take out, or keep out, of the pockets of the people, more than almost any other taxes. They seem to do this in all the four different ways in which it is possible to do it.
First, the levying of such taxes, even when imposed in the most judicious manner, requires a great number of custom-house and excise officers, whose salaries and perquisites are a real tax upon the people, which brings nothing into the treasury of the state. This expense, however, it must be acknowledged, is more moderate in Great Britain than in most other countries. In the year which ended on the 5th of July, 1775, the gross produce of the different duties, under the management of the commissioners of excise in England, amounted to L.5,507,308 : 18 : 8¼, which was levied at an expense of little more than five and a-half per cent. From this gross produce, however, there must be deducted what was paid away in bounties and drawbacks upon the exportation of exciseable goods, which will reduce the neat produce below five millions.[74] The levying of the salt duty, and excise duty, but under a different management, is much more expensive. The neat revenue of the customs does not amount to two millions and a-half, which is levied at an expense of more than ten per cent., in the salaries of officers and other incidents. But the perquisites of custom-house officers are everywhere much greater than their salaries; at some ports more than double or triple those salaries. If the salaries of officers, and other incidents, therefore, amount to more than ten per cent. upon the neat revenue of the customs, the whole expense of levying that revenue may amount, in salaries and perquisites together, to more than twenty or thirty per cent. The officers of excise receive few or no perquisites; and the administration of that branch of the revenue being of more recent establishment, is in general less corrupted than that of the customs, into which length of time has introduced and authorized many abuses. By charging upon malt the whole revenue which is at present levied by the different duties upon malt and malt liquors, a saving, it is supposed, of more than L.50,000, might be made in the annual expense of the excise. By confining the duties of customs to a few sorts of goods, and by levying those duties according to the excise laws, a much greater saving might probably be made in the annual expense of the customs.
Secondly, such taxes necessarily occasion some obstruction or discouragement to certain branches of industry. As they always raise the price of the commodity taxed, they so far discourage its consumption, and consequently its production. If it is a commodity of home growth or manufacture, less labour comes to be employed in raising and producing it. If it is a foreign commodity of which the tax increases in this manner the price, the commodities of the same kind which are made at home may thereby, indeed, gain some advantage in the home market, and a greater quantity of domestic industry may thereby be turned toward preparing them. But though this rise of price in a foreign commodity, may encourage domestic industry in one particular branch, it necessarily discourages that industry in almost every other. The dearer the Birmingham manufacturer buys his foreign wine, the cheaper he necessarily sells that part of his hardware with which, or, what comes to the same thing, with the price of which, he buys it. That part of his hardware, therefore, becomes of less value to him, and he has less encouragement to work at it. The dearer the consumers in one country pay for the surplus produce of another, the cheaper they necessarily sell that part of their own surplus produce with which, or, what comes to the same thing, with the price of which, they buy it. That part of their own surplus produce becomes of less value to them, and they have less encouragement to increase its quantity. All taxes upon consumable commodities, therefore, tend to reduce the quantity of productive labour below what it otherwise would be, either in preparing the commodities taxed, if they are home commodities, or in preparing these with which they are purchased, if they are foreign commodities. Such taxes, too, always alter, more or less, the natural direction of national industry, and turn it into a chan[Pg 381]nel always different from, and generally less advantageous, than that in which is would have run of its own accord.
Thirdly, the hope of evading such taxes by smuggling, gives frequent occasion to forfeitures and other penalties, which entirely ruin the smuggler; a person who, though no doubt highly blameable for violating the laws of his country, is frequently incapable of violating those of natural justice, and would have been, in every respect, an excellent citizen, had not the laws of his country made that a crime which nature never meant to be so. In those corrupted governments, where there is at least a general suspicion of much unnecessary expense, and great misapplication of the public revenue, the laws which guard it are little respected. Not many people are scrupulous about smuggling, when, without perjury, they can find an easy and safe opportunity of doing so. To pretend to have any scruple about buying smuggled goods, though a manifest encouragement to the violation of the revenue laws, and to the perjury which almost always attends it, would, in most countries, be regarded as one of those pedantic pieces of hypocrisy which, instead of gaining credit with anybody, serve only to expose the person who affects to practise them to the suspicion of being a greater knave than most of his neighbours. By this indulgence of the public, the smuggler is often encouraged to continue a trade, which he is thus taught to consider as in some measure innocent; and when the severity of the revenue laws is ready to fall upon him, he is frequently disposed to defend with violence, what he has been accustomed to regard as his just property. From being at first, perhaps, rather imprudent than criminal, he at last too often becomes one of the hardiest and most determined violators of the laws of society. By the ruin of the smuggler, his capital, which had before been employed in maintaining productive labour, is absorbed either in the revenue of the state, or in that of the revenue officer; and is employed in maintaining unproductive, to the diminution of the general capital of the society, and of the useful industry which it might otherwise have maintained.
Fourthly, such taxes, by subjecting at least the dealers in the taxed commodities, to the frequent visits and odious examination of the tax-gatherers, expose them sometimes, no doubt, to some degree of oppression, and always to much trouble and vexation; and though vexation, as has already been said, is not strictly speaking expense, it is certainly equivalent to the expense at which every man would be willing to redeem himself from it. The laws of excise, though more effectual for the purpose for which they were instituted, are, in this respect, more vexatious than those of the customs. When a merchant has imparted goods subject to certain duties of customs; when he has paid those duties, and lodged the goods in his warehouse; he is not, in most cases, liable to any further trouble or vexation from the custom-house officer. It is otherwise with goods subject to duties of excise. The dealers have no respite from the continual visits and examination of the excise officers. The duties of excise are, upon this account, more unpopular than those of the customs; and so are the officers who levy them. Those officers, it is pretended, though in general, perhaps, they do their duty fully as well as those of the customs; yet, as that duty obliges them to be frequently very troublesome to some of their neighbours, commonly contract a certain hardness of character, which the others frequently have not. This observation, however, may very probably be the mere suggestion of fraudulent dealers, whose smuggling is either prevented or detected by their diligence.
The inconveniencies, however, which are, perhaps, in some degree inseparable from taxes upon consumable commodities, fall as light upon the people of Great Britain as upon those of any other country of which the government is nearly as expensive. Our state is not perfect, and might be mended; but it is as good, or better, than that of most of our neighbours.
In consequence of the notion, that duties upon consumable goods were taxes upon the profits of merchants, those duties have, in some countries, been repeated upon every successive sale of the goods. If the profits of the merchant-importer or merchant-manufacturer were taxed, equality seemed to require that those of all the middle buyers, who intervened between either of them and the consumer, should likewise be taxed. The famous alcavala of Spain seems to have been established upon this principle. It was at first a tax of ten per cent, afterwards of fourteen per cent. and it is at present only six per cent. upon the sale of every sort of property, whether moveable or immoveable; and it is repeated every time the property is sold.[75] The levying of this tax requires a multitude of revenue officers, sufficient to guard the transportation of goods, not only from one province to another, but from one shop to another. It subjects, not only the dealers in some sorts of goods, but those in all sorts, every farmer, every manufacturer, every merchant and shopkeeper, to the continual visit and examination of the tax-gatherers. Through the greater part of the country in which a tax of this kind is established, nothing can be produced for distant sale. The produce of every part of the country must be proportioned to the consumption of the neighbourhood. It is to the alcavala, accordingly, that Ustaritz imputes the ruin [Pg 382]of the manufactures of Spain. He might have imputed to it, likewise, the declension of agriculture, it being imposed not only upon manufactures, but upon the rude produce of the land.
In the kingdom of Naples, there is a similar tax of three per cent. upon the value of all contracts, and consequently upon that of all contracts of sale. It is both lighter than the Spanish tax, and the greater part of towns and parishes are allowed to pay a composition in lieu of it. They levy this composition in what manner they please, generally in a way that gives no interruption to the interior commerce of the place. The Neapolitan tax, therefore, is not near so ruinous as the Spanish one.
The uniform system of taxation, which, with a few exceptions of no great consequence, takes place in all the different parts of the united kingdom of Great Britain, leaves the interior commerce of the country, the inland and coasting trade, almost entirely free. The inland trade is almost perfectly free; and the greater part of goods may be carried from one end of the kingdom to the other, without requiring any permit or let-pass, without being subject to question, visit or examination, from the revenue officers. There are a few exceptions, but they are such as can give no interruption to any important branch of inland commerce of the country. Goods carried coastwise, indeed, require certificates or coast-cockets. If you except coals, however, the rest are almost all duty-free. This freedom of interior commerce, the effect of the uniformity of the system of taxation, is perhaps one of the principal causes of the prosperity of Great Britain; every great country being necessarily the best and most extensive market for the greater part of the productions of its own industry. If the same freedom in consequence of the same uniformity, could be extended to Ireland and the plantations, both the grandeur of the state, and the prosperity of every part of the empire, would probably be still greater than at present.
In France, the different revenue laws which take place in the different provinces, require a multitude of revenue officers to surround, not only the frontiers of the kingdom, but those of almost each particular province, in order either to prevent the importation of certain goods, or to subject it to the payment of certain duties, to the no small interruption of the interior commerce of the country. Some provinces are allowed to compound for the gabelle, or salt tax; others are exempted from it altogether. Some provinces are exempted from the exclusive sale of tobacco, which the farmers-general enjoy through the greater part of the kingdom. The aides, which correspond to the excise in England, are very different in different provinces. Some provinces are exempted from them, and pay a composition or equivalent. In those in which they take place, and are in farm, there are many local duties which do not extend beyond a particular town or district. The traites, which correspond to our customs, divide the kingdom into three great parts; first, the provinces subject to the tariff of 1664, which are called the provinces of the five great farms, and under which are comprehended Picardy, Normandy, and the greater part of the interior provinces of the kingdom; secondly, the provinces subject to the tariff of 1667, which are called the provinces reckoned foreign, and under which are comprehended the greater part of the frontier provinces; and, thirdly, those provinces which are said to be treated as foreign, or which, because they are allowed a free commerce with foreign countries, are, in their commerce with the other provinces of France, subjected to the same duties as other foreign countries. These are Alsace, the three bishoprics of Mentz, Toul, and Verdun, and the three cities of Dunkirk, Bayonne, and Marseilles. Both in the provinces of the five great farms (called so on account of an ancient division of the duties of customs into five great branches, each of which was originally the subject of a particular farm, though they are now all united into one), and in those which are said to be reckoned foreign, there are many local duties which do not extend beyond a particular town or district. There are some such even in the provinces which are said to be treated as foreign, particularly in the city of Marseilles. It is unnecessary to observe how much both the restraints upon the interior commerce of the country, and the number of the revenue officers, must be multiplied, in order to guard the frontiers of those different provinces and districts which are subject to such different systems of taxation.
Over and above the general restraints arising from this complicated system of revenue laws, the commerce of wine (after corn, perhaps, the most important production of France) is, in the greater part of the provinces, subject to particular restraints arising from the favour which has been shown to the vineyards of particular provinces and districts above those of others. The provinces most famous for their wines, it will be found, I believe, are those in which the trade in that article is subject to the fewest restraints of this kind. The extensive market which such provinces enjoy, encourages good management both in the cultivation of their vineyards, and in the subsequent preparation of their wines.
Such various and complicated revenue laws are not peculiar to France. The little duchy of Milan is divided into six provinces, in each of which there is a different system of taxation, with regard to several different sorts of consumable goods. The still smaller territories of the duke of Parma are divided into three or four, each of which has, in the same manner, a system of its own. Under such [Pg 383]absurd management, nothing but the great fertility of the soil, and happiness of the climate, could preserve such countries from soon relapsing into the lowest state of poverty and barbarism.
Taxes upon consumable commodities may either be levied by an administration, of which the officers are appointed by government, and immediately accountable to government, of which the revenue must, in this case, vary from year to year, according to the occasional variations in the produce of the tax; or they may be let in farm for a rent certain, the farmer being allowed to appoint his own officers, who, though obliged to levy the tax in the manner directed by the law, are under his immediate inspection, and are immediately accountable to him. The best and most frugal way of levying a tax can never be by farm. Over and above what is necessary for paying the stipulated rent, the salaries of the officers, and the whole expense of administration, the farmer must always draw from the produce of the tax a certain profit, proportioned at least to the advance which he makes, to the risk which he runs, to the trouble which he is at, and to the knowledge and skill which it requires to manage so very complicated a concern. Government, by establishing an administration under their own immediate inspection, of the same kind with that which the farmer establishes, might at least save this profit, which is almost always exorbitant. To farm any considerable branch of the public revenue requires either a great capital, or a great credit; circumstances which would alone restrain the competition for such an undertaking to a very small number of people. Of the few who have this capital or credit, a still smaller number have the necessary knowledge or experience; another circumstance which restrains the competition still further. The very few who are in condition to become competitors, find it more for their interest to combine together; to become copartners, instead of competitors; and, when the farm is set up to auction, to offer no rent but what is much below the rent value. In countries where the public revenues are in farm, the farmers are generally the most opulent people. Their wealth would alone excite the public indignation; and the vanity which almost always accompanies such upstart fortunes, the foolish ostentation with which they commonly display that wealth, excite that indignation still more.
The farmers of the public revenue never find the laws too severe, which punish any attempt to evade the payment of a tax. They have no bowels for the contributors, who are not their subjects, and whose universal bankruptcy, if it should happen the day after the farm is expired, would not much affect their interest. In the greatest exigencies of the state, when the anxiety of the sovereign for the exact payment of his revenue is necessarily the greatest, they seldom fail to complain, that without laws more rigorous than those which actually took place, it will be impossible for them to pay even the usual rent. In those moments of public distress, their commands cannot be disputed. The revenue laws, therefore, become gradually more and more severe. The most sanguinary are always to be found in countries where the greater part of the public revenue is in farm; the mildest, in countries where it is levied under the immediate inspection of the sovereign. Even a bad sovereign feels more compassion for his people than can ever be expected from the farmers of his revenue. He knows that the permanent grandeur of his family depends upon the prosperity of his people, and he will never knowingly ruin that prosperity for the sake of any momentary interest of his own. It is otherwise with the farmers of his revenue, whose grandeur may frequently be the effect of the ruin, and not of the prosperity, of his people.
A tax is sometimes not only farmed for a certain rent, but the farmer has, besides, the monopoly of the commodity taxed. In France, the duties upon tobacco and salt are levied in this manner. In such cases, the farmer, instead of one, levies two exorbitant profits upon the people; the profit of the farmer, and the still more exorbitant one of the monopolist. Tobacco being a luxury, every man is allowed to buy or not to buy as he chuses; but salt being a necessary, every man is obligated to buy of the farmer a certain quantity of it; because, if he did not buy this quantity of the farmer, he would, it is presumed, buy it of some smuggler. The taxes upon both commodities are exorbitant. The temptation to smuggle, consequently, is to many people irresistible; while, at the same time, the rigour of the law, and the vigilance of the farmer's officers, render the yielding to the temptation almost certainly ruinous. The smuggling of salt and tobacco sends every year several hundred people to the galleys, besides a very considerable number whom it sends to the gibbet. Those taxes, levied in this manner, yield a very considerable revenue to government. In 1767, the farm of tobacco was let for twenty-two millions five hundred and forty-one thousand two hundred and seventy-eight livres a-year; that of salt for thirty-six millions four hundred and ninety-two thousand four hundred and four livres. The farm, in both cases, was to commence in 1768, and to last for six years. These who consider the blood of the people as nothing, in comparison with the revenue of the prince, may, perhaps, approve of this method of levying taxes. Similar taxes and monopolies of salt and tobacco have been established in many other countries, particularly in the Austrian and Prussian domi[Pg 384]nions, and in the greater part of the states of Italy.
In France, the greater part of the actual revenue of the crown is derived from eight different sources; the taille, the capitation, the two vingtiemes, the gabelles, the aides, the traites, the domaine, and the farm of tobacco. The five last are, in the greater part of the provinces, under farm. The three first are everywhere levied by an administration, under the immediate inspection and direction of government; and it is universally acknowledged, that in proportion to what they take out of the pockets of the people, they bring more into the treasury of the prince than the other five, of which the administration is much more wasteful and expensive.
The finances of France seem, in their present state, to admit of three very obvious reformations. First, by abolishing the taille and the capitation, and by increasing the number of the vingtiemes, so as to produce an additional revenue equal to the amount of those other taxes, the revenue of the crown might be preserved; the expense of collection might be much diminished; the vexation of the inferior ranks of people, which the taille and capitation occasion, might be entirely prevented; and the superior ranks might not be more burdened than the greater part of them are at present. The vingtieme, I have already observed, is a tax very nearly of the same kind with what is called the land tax of England. The burden of the taille, it is acknowledged, falls finally upon the proprietors of land; and as the greater part of the capitation is assessed upon those who are subject to the taille, at so much a-pound of that other tax, the final payment of the greater part of it must likewise fall upon the same order of people. Though the number of the vingtiemes, therefore, was increased, so as to produce an additional revenue equal to the amount of both those taxes, the superior ranks of people might not be more burdened than they are at present; many individuals, no doubt, would, on account of the great inequalities with which the taille is commonly assessed upon the estates and tenants of different individuals. The interest and opposition of such favoured subjects, are the obstacles most likely to prevent this, or any other reformation of the same kind. Secondly, by rendering the gabelle, the aides, the traites, the taxes upon tobacco, all the different customs and excises, uniform in all the different parts of the kingdom, those taxes might be levied at much less expense, and the interior commerce of the kingdom might be rendered as free as that of England. Thirdly, and lastly, by subjecting all those taxes to an administration under the immediate inspection and direction of government, the exorbitant profits of the farmers-general might be added to the revenue of the state. The opposition arising from the private interest of individuals, is likely to be as effectual for preventing the two last as the first-mentioned scheme of reformation.
The French system of taxation seems, in every respect, inferior to the British. In Great Britain, ten millions sterling are annually levied upon less than eight millions of people, without its being possible to say that any particular order is oppressed. From the Collections of the Abbé Expilly, and the observations of the author of the Essay upon the Legislation and Commerce of Corn, it appears probable that France, including the provinces of Lorraine and Bar, contains about twenty-three or twenty-four millions of people; three times the number, perhaps, contained in Great Britain. The soil and climate of France are better than those of Great Britain. The country has been much longer in a state of improvement and cultivation, and is, upon that account, better stocked with all those things which it requires a long time to raise up and accumulate; such as great towns, and convenient and well-built houses, both in town and country. With these advantages, it might be expected, that in France a revenue of thirty millions might be levied for the support of the state, with as little inconvenience as a revenue of ten millions is in Great Britain. In 1765 and 1766, the whole revenue paid into the treasury of France, according to the best, though, I acknowledge, very imperfect accounts which I could get of it, usually run between 308 and 325 millions of livres; that is, it did not amount to fifteen millions sterling; not the half of what might have been expected, had the people contributed in the same proportion to their numbers as the people of Great Britain. The people of France, however, it is generally acknowledged, are much more oppressed by taxes than the people of Great Britain. France, however, is certainly the great empire in Europe, which, after that of Great Britain, enjoys the mildest and most indulgent government.
In Holland, the heavy taxes upon the necessaries of life have ruined, it is said, their principal manufacturers, and are likely to discourage, gradually, even their fisheries and their trade in ship-building. The taxes upon the necessaries of life are inconsiderable in Great Britain, and no manufacture has hitherto been ruined by them. The British taxes which bear hardest on manufactures, are some duties upon the importation of raw materials, particularly upon that of raw silk. The revenue of the States-General and of the different cities, however, is said to amount to more than five millions two hundred and fifty thousand pounds sterling; and as the inhabitants of the United Provinces cannot well be supposed to amount to more than a third part of those of Great Britain, they must, in proportion to their number, be much more heavily taxed.[Pg 385]
After all the proper subjects of taxation have been exhausted, if the exigencies of the state still continue to require new taxes, they must be imposed upon improper ones. The taxes upon the necessaries of life, therefore, may be no impeachment of the wisdom of that republic, which, in order to acquire and to maintain its independency, has, in spite of its great frugality, been involved in such expensive wars as have obliged it to contract great debts. The singular countries of Holland and Zealand, besides, require a considerable expense even to preserve their existence, or to prevent their being swallowed up by the sea, which must have contributed to increase considerably the load of taxes in those two provinces. The republican form of government seems to be the principal support of the present grandeur of Holland. The owners of great capitals, the great mercantile families, have generally either some direct share, or some indirect influence, in the administration of that government. For the sake of the respect and authority which they derive from this situation, they are willing to live in a country where their capital, if they employ it themselves, will bring them less profit, and if they lend it to another, less interest; and where the very moderate revenue which they can draw from it will purchase less of the necessaries and conveniencies of life than in any other part of Europe. The residence of such wealthy people necessarily keeps alive, in spite of all disadvantages, a certain degree of industry in the country. Any public calamity which should destroy the republican form of government, which should throw the whole administration into the hands of nobles and of soldiers, which should annihilate altogether the importance of those wealthy merchants, would soon render it disagreeable to them to live in a country where they were no longer likely to be much respected. They would remove both their residence and their capital to some other country, and the industry and commerce of Holland would soon follow the capitals which supported them.
OF PUBLIC DEBTS.
In that rude state of society which precedes the extension of commerce and the improvement of manufactures; when those expensive luxuries, which commerce and manufactures can alone introduce, are altogether unknown; the person who possesses a large revenue, I have endeavoured to show in the third book of this Inquiry, can spend or enjoy that revenue in no other way than by maintaining nearly as many people as it can maintain. A large revenue may at all times be said to consist in the command of a large quantity of the necessaries of life. In that rude state of things, it is commonly paid in a large quantity of those necessaries, in the materials of plain food and coarse clothing, in corn and cattle, in wool and raw hides. When neither commerce nor manufactures furnish any thing for which the owner can exchange the greater part of those materials which are over and above his own consumption, he can do nothing with the surplus, but feed and clothe nearly as many people as it will feed and clothe. A hospitality in which there is no luxury, and a liberality in which there is no ostentation, occasion, in this situation of things, the principal expenses of the rich and the great. But these I have likewise endeavoured to show, in the same book, are expenses by which people are not very apt to ruin themselves. There is not, perhaps, any selfish pleasure so frivolous, of which the pursuit has not sometimes ruined even sensible men. A passion for cock-fighting has ruined many. But the instances, I believe, are not very numerous, of people who have been ruined by a hospitality or liberality of this kind; though the hospitality of luxury, and the liberality of ostentation have ruined many. Among our feudal ancestors, the long time during which estates used to continue in the same family, sufficiently demonstrates the general disposition of people to live within their income. Though the rustic hospitality, constantly exercised by the great landholders, may not, to us in the present times, seem consistent with that order which we are apt to consider as inseparably connected with good economy; yet we must certainly allow them to have been at least so far frugal, as not commonly to have spent their whole income. A part of their wool and raw hides, they had generally an opportunity of selling for money. Some part of this money, perhaps, they spent in purchasing the few objects of vanity and luxury, with which the circumstances of the times could furnish them; but some part of it they seem commonly to have hoarded. They could not well, indeed, do any thing else but hoard whatever money they saved. To trade, was disgraceful to a gentleman; and to lend money at interest, which at that time was considered as usury, and prohibited by law, would have been still more so. In those times of violence and disorder, besides, it was convenient to have a hoard of money at hand, that in case they should be driven from their own home, they might have something of known value to carry with them to some place of safety. The same violence which made it convenient to hoard, made it equally convenient to conceal the hoard. The frequency of treasure-trove, or of treasure found, of which no owner was known, sufficiently [Pg 386]demonstrates the frequency, in those times, both of hoarding and of concealing the hoard. Treasure-trove was then considered as an important branch of the revenue of the sovereign. All the treasure-trove of the kingdom would scarce, perhaps, in the present times, make an important branch of the revenue of a private gentleman of a good estate.
The same disposition, to save and to hoard, prevailed in the sovereign, as well as in the subjects. Among nations, to whom commerce and manufactures are little known, the sovereign, it has already been observed in the fourth book, is in a situation which naturally disposes him to the parsimony requisite for accumulation. In that situation, the expense, even of a sovereign, cannot be directed by that vanity which delights in the gaudy finery of a court. The ignorance of the times affords but few of the trinkets in which that finery consists. Standing armies are not then necessary; so that the expense, even of a sovereign, like that of any other great lord, can be employed in scarce any thing but bounty to his tenants, and hospitality to his retainers. But bounty and hospitality very seldom lead to extravagance; though vanity almost always does. All the ancient sovereigns of Europe, accordingly, it has already been observed, had treasures. Every Tartar chief, in the present times, is said to have one.
In a commercial country, abounding with every sort of expensive luxury, the sovereign, in the same manner as almost all the great proprietors in his dominions, naturally spends a great part of his revenue in purchasing those luxuries. His own and the neighbouring countries supply him abundantly with all the costly trinkets which compose the splendid, but insignificant, pageantry of a court. For the sake of an inferior pageantry of the same kind, his nobles dismiss their retainers, make their tenants independent, and become gradually themselves as insignificant as the greater part of the wealthy burghers in his dominions. The same frivolous passions, which influence their conduct, influence his. How can it be supposed that he should be the only rich man in his dominions who is insensible to pleasures of this kind? If he does not, what he is very likely to do, spend upon those pleasures so great a part of his revenue as to debilitate very much the defensive power of the state, it cannot well be expected that he should not spend upon them all that part of it which is over and above what is necessary for supporting that defensive power. His ordinary expense becomes equal to his ordinary revenue, and it is well if it does not frequently exceed it. The amassing of treasure can no longer be expected; and when extraordinary exigencies require extraordinary expenses, he must necessarily call upon his subjects for an extraordinary aid. The present and the late king of Prussia are the only great princes of Europe, who, since the death of Henry IV. of France, in 1610, are supposed to have amassed any considerable treasure. The parsimony which leads to accumulation has become almost as rare in republican as in monarchical governments. The Italian republics, the United Provinces of the Netherlands, are all in debt. The canton of Berne is the single republic in Europe which has amassed any considerable treasure. The other Swiss republics have not. The taste for some sort of pageantry, for splendid buildings, at least, and other public ornaments, frequently prevails as much in the apparently sober senate-house of a little republic, as in the dissipated court of the greatest king.
The want of parsimony, in time of peace, imposes the necessity of contracting debt in time of war. When war comes, there is no money in the treasury, but what is necessary for carrying on the ordinary expense of the peace establishment. In war, an establishment of three or four times that expense becomes necessary for the defence of the state; and consequently, a revenue three or four times greater than the peace revenue. Supposing that the sovereign should have, what he scarce ever has, the immediate means of augmenting his revenue in proportion to the augmentation of his expense; yet still the produce of the taxes, from which this increase of revenue must be drawn, will not begin to come into the treasury, till perhaps ten or twelve months after they are imposed. But the moment in which war begins, or rather the moment in which it appears likely to begin, the army must be augmented, the fleet must be fitted out, the garrisoned towns must be put into a posture of defence; that army, that fleet, those garrisoned towns, must be furnished with arms, ammunition, and provisions. An immediate and great expense must be incurred in that moment of immediate danger, which will not wait for the gradual and slow returns of the new taxes. In this exigency, government can have no other resource but in borrowing.
The same commercial state of society which, by the operation of moral causes, brings government in this manner into the necessity of borrowing, produces in the subjects both an ability and an inclination to lend. If it commonly brings along with it the necessity of borrowing, it likewise brings with it the facility of doing so.
A country abounding with merchants and manufacturers, necessarily abounds with a set of people through whose hands, not only their own capitals, but the capitals of all those who either lend them money, or trust them with goods, pass as frequently, or more frequently, than the revenue of a private man, who, without trade or business, lives upon his in[Pg 387]come, passes through his hands. The revenue of such a man can regularly pass through his hands only once in a year. But the whole amount of the capital and credit of a merchant, who deals in a trade of which the returns are very quick, may sometimes pass through his hands two, three, or four times in a year. A country abounding with merchants and manufacturers, therefore, necessarily abounds with a set of people, who have it at all times in their power to advance, if they chuse to do so, a very large sum of money to government. Hence the ability in the subjects of a commercial state to lend.
Commerce and manufactures can seldom flourish long in any state which does not enjoy a regular administration of justice; in which the people do not feel themselves secure in the possession of their property; in which the faith of contracts is not supported by law; and in which the authority of the state is not supposed to be regularly employed in enforcing the payment of debts from all those who are able to pay. Commerce and manufactures, in short, can seldom flourish in any state, in which there is not a certain degree of confidence in the justice of government. The same confidence which disposes great merchants and manufacturers upon ordinary occasions, to trust their property to the protection of a particular government, disposes them, upon extraordinary occasions, to trust that government with the use of their property. By lending money to government, they do not even for a moment diminish their ability to carry on their trade and manufactures; on the contrary, they commonly augment it. The necessities of the state render government, upon most occasions willing to borrow upon terms extremely advantageous to the lender. The security which it grants to the original creditor, is made transferable to any other creditor; and from the universal confidence in the justice of the state, generally sells in the market for more than was originally paid for it. The merchant or monied man makes money by lending money to government, and instead of diminishing, increases his trading capital. He generally considers it as a favour, therefore, when the administration admits him to a share in the first subscription for a new loan. Hence the inclination or willingness in the subjects of a commercial state to lend.
The government of such a state is very apt to repose itself upon this ability and willingness of its subjects to lend it their money on extraordinary occasions. It foresees the facility of borrowing, and therefore dispenses itself from the duty of saving.
In a rude state of society, there are no great mercantile or manufacturing capitals. The individuals, who hoard whatever money they can save, and who conceal their hoard, do so from a distrust of the justice of government; from a fear, that if it was known that they had a hoard, and where that hoard was to be found, they would quickly be plundered. In such a state of things, few people would be able, and nobody would be willing to lend their money to government on extraordinary exigencies. The sovereign feels that he must provide for such exigencies by saving, because he foresees the absolute impossibility of borrowing. This foresight increases still further his natural disposition to save.
The progress of the enormous debts which at present oppress, and will in the long-run probably ruin, all the great nations of Europe, has been pretty uniform. Nations, like private men, have generally begun to borrow upon what may be called personal credit, without assigning or mortgaging any particular fund for the payment of the debt; and when this resource has failed them, they have gone on to borrow upon assignments or mortgages of particular funds.
What is called the unfunded debt of Great Britain, is contracted in the former of those two ways. It consists partly in a debt which bears, or is supposed to bear, no interest, and which resembles the debts that a private man contracts upon account; and partly in a debt which bears interest, and which resembles what a private man contracts upon his bill or promissory-note. The debts which are due, either for extraordinary services, or for services either not provided for, or not paid at the time when they are performed; part of the extraordinaries of the army, navy, and ordnance, the arrears of subsidies to foreign princes, those of seamen's wages, &c. usually constitute a debt of the first kind. Navy and exchequer bills, which are issued sometimes in payment of a part of such debts, and sometimes for other purposes, constitutes a debt of the second kind; exchequer bills bearing interest from the day on which they are issued, and navy bills six months after they are issued. The bank of England, either by voluntarily discounting those bills at their current value, or by agreeing with government for certain considerations to circulate exchequer bills, that is, to receive them at par, paying the interest which happens to be due upon them, keeps up the value, and facilitates their circulation, and thereby frequently enables government to contract a very large debt of this kind. In France, where there is no bank, the state bills (billets d'etat[76]) have sometimes sold at sixty and seventy per cent. discount. During the great recoinage in king William's time, when the bank of England thought proper to put a stop to its usual transactions, exchequer bills and tallies are said to have sold from twenty-five to sixty per cent. discount; owing partly, no doubt, to the supposed instability of the new govern[Pg 388]ment established by the Revolution, but partly, too, to the want of the support of the bank of England.
When this resource is exhausted, and it becomes necessary, in order to raise money, to assign or mortgage some particular branch of the public revenue for the payment of the debt, government has, upon different occasions, done this in two different ways. Sometimes it has made this assignment or mortgage for a short period of time only, a year, or a few years, for example; and sometimes for perpetuity. In the one case, the fund was supposed sufficient to pay, within the limited time, both principal and interest of the money borrowed. In the other, it was supposed sufficient to pay the interest only, or a perpetual annuity equivalent to the interest, government being at liberty to redeem, at any time, this annuity, upon paying back the principal sum borrowed. When money was raised in the one way, it was said to be raised by anticipation; when in the other, by perpetual funding, or, more shortly, by funding.
In Great Britain, the annual land and malt taxes are regularly anticipated every year, by virtue of a borrowing clause constantly inserted into the acts which impose them. The bank of England generally advances at an interest, which, since the Revolution, has varied from eight to three per cent., the sums of which those taxes are granted, and receives payment as their produce gradually comes in. If there is a deficiency, which there always is, it is provided for in the supplies of the ensuing year. The only considerable branch of the public revenue which yet remains unmortgaged, is thus regularly spent before it comes in. Like an improvident spendthrift, whose pressing occasions will not allow him to wait for the regular payment of his revenue, the state is in the constant practice of borrowing of its own factors and agents, and of paying interest for the use of its own money.
In the reign of king William, and during a great part of that of queen Anne, before we had become so familiar as we are now with the practice of perpetual funding, the greater part of the new taxes were imposed but for a short period of time (for four, five, six, or seven years only), and a great part of the grants of every year consisted in loans upon anticipations of the produce of those taxes. The produce being frequently insufficient for paying, within the limited term, the principal and interest of the money borrowed, deficiencies arose; to make good which, it became necessary to prolong the term.
In 1697, by the 8th of William III., c. 20, the deficiencies of several taxes were charged upon what was then called the first general mortgage or fund, consisting of a prolongation to the first of August 1706, of several different taxes, which would have expired within a shorter term, and of which the produce was accumulated into one general fund. The deficiencies charged upon this prolonged term amounted to L.5,160,459 : 14 : 9½.
In 1701, those duties, with some others, were still further prolonged, for the like purposes, till the first of August 1710, and were called the second general mortgage or fund. The deficiencies charged upon it amounted to L.2,055,999 : 7 : 11½.
In 1707, those duties were still further prolonged, as a fund for new loans, to the first of August 1712, and were called the third general mortgage or fund. The sum borrowed upon it was L.983,254 : 11 : 9¼.
In 1708, those duties were all (except the old subsidy of tonnage and poundage, of which one moiety only was made a part of this fund, and a duty upon the importation of Scotch linen, which had been taken off by the articles of union) still further continued, as a fund for new loans, to the first of August 1714, and were called the fourth general mortgage or fund. The sum borrowed upon it was L.925,176 : 9 : 2¼.
In 1709, those duties were all (except the old subsidy of tonnage and poundage, which was now left out of this fund altogether) still further continued, for the same purpose, to the first of August 1716, and were called the fifth general mortgage or fund. The sum borrowed upon it was L.922,029 : 6s.
In 1710, those duties were again prolonged to the first of August 1720, and were called the sixth general mortgage or fund. The sum borrowed upon it was L.1,296,552 : 9 : 11¾.
In 1711, the same duties (which at this time were thus subject to four different anticipations), together with several others, were continued for ever, and made a fund for paying the interest of the capital of the South-sea company, which had that year advanced to government, for paying debts, and making good deficiencies, the sum of L.9,177,967 : 15 : 4, the greatest loan which at that time had ever been made.
Before this period, the principal, so far as I have been able to observe, the only taxes, which, in order to pay the interest of a debt, had been imposed for perpetuity, were these for paying the interest of the money which had been advanced to government by the bank and East-India company, and of what it was expected would be advanced, but which was never advanced, by a projected land bank. The bank fund at this time amounted to L.3,375,027 : 17 : 10½, for which was paid an annuity or interest of L.206,501 : 13 : 5. The East-India fund amounted to L.3,200,000, for which was paid an annuity or interest of L.160,000; the bank fund being at six per cent., the East-India fund at five per cent. interest.
In 1715, by the first of George I., c. 12, the different taxes which had been mortgaged for paying the bank annuity, together with[Pg 389] several others, which, by this act, were likewise rendered perpetual, were accumulated into one common fund, called the aggregate fund, which was charged not only with the payment of the bank annuity, but with several other annuities and burdens of different kinds. This fund was afterwards augmented by the third of George I., c. 8., and by the fifth of George I., c. 3, and the different duties which were then added to it were likewise rendered perpetual.
In 1717, by the third of George I., c. 7, several other taxes were rendered perpetual, and accumulated into another common fund, called the general fund, for the payment of certain annuities, amounting in the whole to L.724,849 : 6 : 10½.
In consequence of those different acts, the greater part of the taxes, which before had been anticipated only for a short term of years were rendered perpetual, as a fund for paying, not the capital, but the interest only, of the money which had been borrowed upon them by different successive anticipations.
Had money never been raised but by anticipation, the course of a few years would have liberated the public revenue, without any other attention of government besides that of not overloading the fund, by charging it with more debt than it could pay within the limited term, and not of anticipating a second time before the expiration of the first anticipation. But the greater part of European governments have been incapable of those attentions. They have frequently overloaded the fund, even upon the first anticipation; and when this happened not to be the case, they have generally taken care to overload it, by anticipating a second and a third time, before the expiration of the first anticipation. The fund becoming in this manner altogether insufficient for paying both principal and interest of the money borrowed upon it, it became necessary to charge it with the interest only, or a perpetual annuity equal to the interest; and such improvident anticipations necessarily gave birth to the more ruinous practice of perpetual funding. But though this practice necessarily puts off the liberation of the public revenue from a fixed period, to one so indefinite that it is not very likely ever to arrive; yet, as a greater sum can, in all cases, be raised by this new practice than by the old one of anticipation, the former, when men have once become familiar with it, has, in the great exigencies of the state, been universally preferred to the latter. To relieve the present exigency, is always the object which principally interests those immediately concerned in the administration of public affairs. The future liberation of the public revenue they leave to the care of posterity.
During the reign of queen Anne, the market rate of interest had fallen from six to five per cent.; and, in the twelfth year of her reign, five per cent. was declared to be the highest rate which could lawfully be taken for money borrowed upon private security. Soon after the greater part of the temporary taxes of Great Britain had been rendered perpetual, and distributed into the aggregate, South-sea, and general funds, the creditors of the public, like those of private persons, were induced to accept of five per cent. for the interest of their money, which occasioned a saving of one per cent. upon the capital of the greater part of the debts which had been thus funded for perpetuity, or of one-sixth of the greater part of the annuities which were paid out of the three great funds above mentioned. This saving left a considerable surplus in the produce of the different taxes which had been accumulated into those funds, over and above what was necessary for paying the annuities which were now charged upon them, and laid the foundation of what has since been called the sinking fund. In 1717, it amounted to L.323,434 : 7 : 7½. In 1727, the interest of the greater part of the public debts was still further reduced to four per cent.; and, in 1753 and 1757, to three and a-half, and three per cent., which reductions still further augmented the sinking fund.
A sinking fund, though instituted for the payment of old, facilitates very much the contracting of new debts. It is a subsidiary fund, always at hand, to be mortgaged in aid of any other doubtful fund, upon which money is proposed to be raised in any exigency of the state. Whether the sinking fund of Great Britain has been more frequently applied to the one or to other of those two purposes, will sufficiently appear by and by.
Besides these two methods of borrowing, by anticipations and by a perpetual funding, there are two other methods, which hold a sort of middle place between them; these are, that of borrowing upon annuities for terms of years, and that of borrowing upon annuities for lives.
During the reigns of king William and queen Anne, large sums were frequently borrowed upon annuities for terms of years, which were sometimes longer and sometimes shorter. In 1693, an act was passed for borrowing one million upon an annuity of fourteen per cent., or L.140,000 a-year, for sixteen years. In 1691, an act was passed for borrowing a million upon annuities for lives, upon terms which, in the present times, would appear very advantageous; but the subscription was not filled up. In the following year, the deficiency was made good, by borrowing upon annuities for lives, at fourteen per cent. or a little more than seven years purchase. In 1695, the persons who had purchased those annuities were allowed to exchange them for others of ninety-six years, upon paying into the exchequer sixty-three pounds in the hundred; that is, the difference[Pg 390] between fourteen per cent. for life, and fourteen per cent. for ninety-six years, was sold for sixty-three pounds, or for four and a-half years purchase. Such was the supposed instability of government, that even these terms procured few purchasers. In the reign of queen Anne, money was, upon different occasions, borrowed both upon annuities for lives, and upon annuities for terms of thirty-two, of eighty-nine, of ninety-eight, and of ninety-nine years. In 1719, the proprietors of the annuities for thirty-two years were induced to accept, in lieu of them, South-sea stock to the amount of eleven and a-half years purchase of the annuities, together with an additional quantity of stock, equal to the arrears which happened then to be due upon them. In 1720, the greater part of the other annuities for terms of years, both long and short, were subscribed into the same fund. The long annuities, at that time, amounted to L.666,821 : 8 : 3½ a-year. On the 5th of January 1775, the remainder of them, or what was not subscribed at that time, amounted only to L.136,453 : 12 : 8.
During the two wars which began in 1739 and in 1755, little money was borrowed, either upon annuities for terms of years, or upon those for lives. An annuity for ninety-eight or ninety-nine years, however, is worth nearly as much as a perpetuity, and should therefore, one might think, be a fund for borrowing nearly as much. But those who, in order to make family settlements, and to provide for remote futurity, buy into the public stocks, would not care to purchase into one of which the value was continually diminishing; and such people make a very considerable proportion, both of the proprietors and purchasers of stock. An annuity for a long term of years, therefore, though its intrinsic value may be very nearly the same with that of a perpetual annuity, will not find nearly the same number of purchasers. The subscribers to a new loan, who mean generally to sell their subscription as soon as possible, prefer greatly a perpetual annuity, redeemable by parliament, to an irredeemable annuity, for a long term of years, of only equal amount. The value of the former may be supposed always the same, or very nearly the same; and it makes, therefore, a more convenient transferable stock than the latter.
During the two last-mentioned wars, annuities, either for terms of years or for lives, were seldom granted, but as premiums to the subscribers of a new loan, over and above the redeemable annuity or interest, upon the credit of which the loan was supposed to be made. They were granted, not as the proper fund upon which the money was borrowed, but as an additional encouragement to the lender.
Annuities for lives have occasionally been granted in two different ways; either upon separate lives, or upon lots of lives, which, in French, are called tontines, from the name of their inventor. When annuities are granted upon separate lives, the death of every individual annuitant disburdens the public revenue, so far as it was affected by his annuity. When annuities are granted upon tontines, the liberation of the public revenue does not commence till the death of all the annuitants comprehended in one lot, which may, sometimes consist of twenty or thirty persons, of whom the survivors succeed to the annuities of all those who die before them; the last survivor succeeding to the annuities of the whole lot. Upon the same revenue, more money can always be raised by tontines than by annuities for separate lives. An annuity, with a right of survivorship, is really worth more than an equal annuity for a separate life; and, from the confidence which every man naturally has in his own good fortune, the principle upon which is founded the success of all lotteries, such an annuity generally sells for something more than it is worth. In countries where it is usual for government to raise money by granting annuities, tontines are, upon this account, generally preferred to annuities for separate lives. The expedient which will raise most money, is almost always preferred to that which is likely to bring about, in the speediest manner, the liberation of the public revenue.
In France, a much greater proportion of the public debts consists in annuities for lives than in England. According to a memoir presented by the parliament of Bourdeaux to the king, in 1764, the whole public debt of France is estimated at twenty-four hundred millions of livres; of which the capital, for which annuities for lives had been granted, is supposed to amount to three hundred millions, the eighth part of the whole public debt. The annuities themselves are computed to amount to thirty millions a-year, the fourth part of one hundred and twenty millions, the supposed interest of that whole debt. These estimations, I know very well, are not exact; but having been presented by so very respectable a body as approximations to the truth, they may, I apprehend, be considered as such. It is not the different degrees of anxiety in the two governments of France and England for the liberation of the public revenue, which occasions this difference in their respective modes of borrowing; it arises altogether from the different views and interests of the lenders.
In England, the seat of government being in the greatest mercantile city in the world, the merchants are generally the people who advance money to government. By advancing it, they do not mean to diminish, but, on the contrary, to increase their mercantile capitals; and unless they expected to sell, with some profit, their share in the subscription for a new loan, they never would sub[Pg 391]scribe. But if, by advancing their money, they were to purchase, instead of perpetual annuities, annuities for lives only, whether their own or those of other people, they would not always be so likely to sell them with a profit. Annuities upon their own lives they would always sell with loss; because no man will give for an annuity upon the life of another, whose age and state of health are nearly the same with his own, the same price which he would give for one upon his own. An annuity upon the life of a third person, indeed, is, no doubt, of equal value to the buyer and the seller; but its real value begins to diminish from the moment it is granted, and continues to do so, more and more, as long as it subsists. It can never, therefore, make so convenient a transferable stock as a perpetual annuity, of which the real value may be supposed always the same, or very nearly the same.
In France, the seat of government not being in a great mercantile city, merchants do not make so great a proportion of the people who advance money to government. The people concerned in the finances, the farmers-general, the receivers of the taxes which are not in farm, the court-bankers, &c. make the greater part of those who advance their money in all public exigencies. Such people are commonly men of mean birth, but of great wealth, and frequently of great pride. They are too proud to marry their equals, and women of quality disdain to marry them. They frequently resolve, therefore, to live bachelors; and having neither any families of their own, nor much regard for those of their relations, whom they are not always very fond of acknowledging, they desire only to live in splendour during their own time, and are not unwilling that their fortune should end with themselves. The number of rich people, besides, who are either averse to marry, or whose condition of life renders it either improper or inconvenient for them to do so, is much greater in France than in England. To such people, who have little or no care for posterity, nothing can be more convenient than to exchange their capital for a revenue, which is to last just as long, and no longer, than they wish it to do.
The ordinary expense of the greater part of modern governments, in time of peace, being equal, or nearly equal, to their ordinary revenue, when war comes, they are both unwilling and unable to increase their revenue in proportion to the increase of their expense. They are unwilling, for fear of offending the people, who, by so great and so sudden an increase of taxes, would soon be disgusted with the war; and they are unable, from not well knowing what taxes would be sufficient to produce the revenue wanted. The facility of borrowing delivers them from the embarrassment which this fear and inability would otherwise occasion. By means of borrowing, they are enabled, with a very moderate increase of taxes, to raise, from year to year, money sufficient for carrying on the war; and by the practice of perpetual funding, they are enabled, with the smallest possible increase of taxes, to raise annually the largest possible sum of money. In great empires, the people who live in the capital, and in the provinces remote from the scene of action, feel, many of them, scarce any inconveniency from the war, but enjoy, at their ease, the amusement of reading in the newspapers the exploits of their own fleets and armies. To them this amusement compensates the small difference between the taxes which they pay on account of the war, and those which they had been accustomed to pay in time of peace. They are commonly dissatisfied with the return of peace, which puts an end to their amusement, and to a thousand visionary hopes of conquest and national glory, from a longer continuance of the war.
The return of peace, indeed, seldom relieves them from the greater part of the taxes imposed during the war. These are mortgaged for the interest of the debt contracted, in order to carry it on. If, over and above paying the interest of this debt, and defraying the ordinary expense of government, the old revenue, together with the new taxes, produce some surplus revenue, it may, perhaps, be converted into a sinking fund for paying off the debt. But, in the first place, this sinking fund, even supposing it should be applied to no other purpose, is generally altogether inadequate for paying, in the course of any period during which it can reasonably be expected that peace should continue, the whole debt contracted during the war; and, in the second place, this fund is almost always applied to other purposes.
The new taxes were imposed for the sole purpose of paying the interest of the money borrowed upon them. If they produce more, it is generally something which was neither intended nor expected, and is, therefore, seldom very considerable. Sinking funds have generally arisen, not so much from any surplus of the taxes which was over and above what was necessary for paying the interest or annuity originally charged upon them, as from a subsequent reduction of that interest; that of Holland in 1655, and that of the ecclesiastical state in 1685, were both formed in this manner. Hence the usual insufficiency of such funds.
During the most profound peace, various events occur, which require an extraordinary expense; and government finds it always more convenient to defray this expense by misapplying the sinking fund, than by imposing a new tax. Every new tax is immediately felt more or less by the people. It occasions always some murmur, and meets with some[Pg 392] opposition. The more taxes may have been multiplied, the higher they may have been raised upon every different subject of taxation; the more loudly the people complain of every new tax, the more difficult it becomes, too, either to find out new subjects of taxation, or to raise much higher the taxes already imposed upon the old. A momentary suspension of the payment of debt is not immediately felt by the people, and occasions neither murmur nor complaint. To borrow of the sinking fund is always an obvious and easy expedient for getting out of the present difficulty. The more the public debts may have been accumulated, the more necessary it may have become to study to reduce them; the more dangerous, the more ruinous it may be to missapply any part of the sinking fund; the less likely is the public debt to be reduced to any considerable degree, the more likely, the more certainly, is the sinking fund to be misapplied towards defraying all the extraordinary expenses which occur in time of peace. When a nation is already overburdened with taxes, nothing but the necessities of a new war, nothing but either the animosity of national vengeance, or the anxiety for national security, can induce the people to submit, with tolerable patience, to a new tax. Hence the usual misapplication of the sinking fund.
In Great Britain, from the time that we had first recourse to the ruinous expedient of perpetual funding, the reduction of the public debt, in time of peace, has never borne any proportion to its accumulation in time of war. It was in the war which began in 1668, and was concluded by the treaty of Ryswick, in 1697, that the foundation of the present enormous debt of Great Britain was first laid.
On the 31st of December 1697, the public debts of Great Britain, funded and unfunded, amounted to L.21,515,742 : 13 : 8½. A great part of those debts had been contracted upon short anticipations, and some part upon annuities for lives; so that, before the 31st of December 1701, in less than four years, there had partly been paid off, and partly reverted to the public, the sum of L.5,121,041 : 12 : 0¾; a greater reduction of the public debt than has ever since been brought about in so short a period of time. The remaining debt, therefore, amounted only to L.16,394,701 : 1 : 7¼.
In the war which began in 1702, and which was concluded by the treaty of Utrecht, the public debts were still more accumulated. On the 31st of December 1714, they amounted to L.53,681,076 : 5 : 61⁄12. The subscription into the South-sea fund, of the short and long annuities, increased the capital of the public debt; so that, on the 31st of December 1722, it amounted to L.55,282,978 : 1 : 35⁄6. The reduction of the debt began in 1723, and went on so slowly, that, on the 31st of December 1739, during seventeen years of profound peace, the whole sum paid off was no more than L.8,328,354 : 17 : 113⁄12, the capital of the public debt, at that time, amounting to L.46,954,623 : 3 : 47⁄12.
The Spanish war, which began in 1739, and the French war which soon followed it, occasioned a further increase of the debt, which, on the 31st of December 1748, after the war had been concluded by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, amounted to L.78,293,313 : 1 : 10¾. The most profound peace of 17 years continuance, had taken no more than L.8,328,354 : 17 : 11¼ from it. A war, of less than nine years continuance, added L.31,338,689 : 18 : 61⁄6 to it.[77]
During the administration of Mr. Pelham, the interest of the public debt was reduced, or at least measures were taken for reducing it, from four to three per cent.; the sinking fund was increased, and some part of the public debt was paid off. In 1755, before the breaking out of the late war, the funded debt of Great Britain amounted to L.72,289,673. On the 5th of January 1763, at the conclusion of the peace, the funded debt amounted to L.122,603,336 : 8 : 2¼. The unfunded debt has been stated at L.13,927,589 : 2 : 2. But the expense occasioned by the war did not end with the conclusion of the peace; so that, though on the 5th of January 1764, the funded debt was increased (partly by a new loan, and partly by funding a part of the unfunded debt) to L.129,586,789 : 10 : 1¾, there still remained (according to the very well informed author of Considerations on the Trade and Finances of Great Britain) an unfunded debt, which was brought to account in that and the following year, of L.9,975,017, 12s. 215⁄44d. In 1764, therefore, the public debt of Great Britain, funded and unfunded together, amounted, according to this author, to L.139,561,807 : 2 : 4. The annuities for lives, too, which had been granted as premiums to the subscribers to the new loans in 1757, estimated at fourteen-years purchase, were valued at L.472,500; and the annuities for long terms of years, granted as premiums likewise, in 1761 and 1762, estimated at twenty-seven years and a-half purchase, were valued at L.6,826,875. During a peace of about seven years continuance, the prudent and truly patriotic administration of Mr. Pelham was not able to pay off an old debt of six millions. During a war of nearly the same continuance, a new debt of more than seventy-five millions was contracted.
On the 5th of January 1775, the funded debt of Great Britain amounted to L.124,996,086, 1s. 6¼d. The unfunded, exclusive of a large civil-list debt, to L.4,150,236 : 3 : 117⁄8. Both together, to L.129,146,322 : 5 : 6. According[Pg 393] to this account, the whole debt paid off, during eleven years of profound peace, amounted only to L.10,415,476 : 16 : 97⁄8. Even this small reduction of debt, however, has not been all made from the savings out of the ordinary revenue of the state. Several extraneous sums, altogether independent of that ordinary revenue, have contributed towards it. Amongst these we may reckon an additional shilling in the pound land tax, for three years; the two millions received from the East-India company, as indemnification for their territorial acquisitions; and the one hundred and ten thousand pounds received from the bank for the renewal of their charter. To these must be added several other sums, which, as they arose out of the late war, ought perhaps to be considered as deductions from the expenses of it. The principal are,
The produce of French prizes L.690,449 18 9
Composition for French prisoners 670,000 0 0
What has been received from the sale of the ceded islands 95,500 0 0
Total, L.1,455,949 18 9
If we add to this sum the balance of the earl of Chatham's and Mr. Calcraft's accounts, and other army savings of the same kind, together with what has been received from the bank, the East-India company, and the additional shilling in the pound land tax, the whole must be a good deal more than five millions. The debt, therefore, which, since the peace, has been paid out of the savings from the ordinary revenue of the state, has not, one year with another, amounted to half a million a-year. The sinking fund has, no doubt, been considerably augmented since the peace, by the debt which had been paid off, by the reduction of the redeemable four per cents to three per cents, and by the annuities for lives which have fallen in; and, if peace were to continue, a million, perhaps, might now be annually spared out of it towards the discharge of the debt. Another million, accordingly, was paid in the course of last year; but at the same time, a large civil-list debt was left unpaid, and we are now involved in a new war, which, in its progress, may prove as expensive as any of our former wars.[78] The new debt which will probably be contracted before the end of the next campaign, may, perhaps, be nearly equal to all the old debt which has been paid off from the savings out of the ordinary revenue of the state. It would be altogether chimerical, therefore, to expect that the public debt should ever be completely discharged, by any savings which are likely to be made from that ordinary revenue as it stands at present.
The public funds of the different indebted nations of Europe, particularly those of England, have, by one author, been represented as the accumulation of a great capital, superadded to the other capital of the country, by means of which its trade is extended, its manufactures are multiplied, and its lands cultivated and improved, much beyond what they could have been by means of that other capital only. He does not consider that the capital which the first creditors of the public advanced to government, was, from the moment in which he advanced it, a certain portion of the annual produce, turned away from serving in the function of a capital, to serve in that of a revenue; from maintaining productive labourers, to maintain unproductive ones, and to be spent and wasted, generally in the course of the year, without even the hope of any future reproduction. In return for the capital which they advanced, they obtained, indeed, an annuity of the public funds, in most cases, of more than equal value. This annuity, no doubt, replaced to them their capital, and enabled them to carry on their trade and business to the same, or, perhaps, to a greater extent than before; that is, they were enabled, either to borrow of other people a new capital, upon the credit of this annuity or, by selling it, to get from other people a new capital of their own, equal, or superior, to that which they had advanced to government. This new capital, however, which they in this manner either bought or borrowed of other people, must have existed in the country before, and must have been employed, as all capitals are, in maintaining productive labour. When it came into the hands of those who had advanced their money to government, though it was, in some respects, a new capital to them, it was not so to the country, but was only a capital withdrawn from certain employments, in order to be turned towards others. Though it replaced to them what they had advanced to government, it did not replace it to the country. Had they not advanced this capital to government, there would have been in the country two capitals, two portions of the annual produce, instead of one, employed in maintaining productive labour.
When, for defraying the expense of government, a revenue is raised within the year, from the produce of free or unmortgaged taxes, a certain portion of the revenue of private people is only turned away from maintaining one species of unproductive labour, towards maintaining another. Some part of[Pg 394] what they pay in those taxes, might, no doubt, have been accumulated into capital, and consequently employed in maintaining productive labour; but the greater part would probably have been spent, and consequently employed in maintaining unproductive labour. The public expense, however, when defrayed in this manner, no doubt hinders, more or less, the further accumulation of new capital; but it does not necessarily occasion the destruction of any actually-existing capital.
When the public expense is defrayed by funding, it is defrayed by the annual destruction of some capital which had before existed in the country; by the perversion of some portion of the annual produce which had before been destined for the maintenance of productive labour, towards that of unproductive labour. As in this case, however, the taxes are lighter than they would have been, had a revenue sufficient for defraying the same expense been raised within the year; the private revenue of individuals is necessarily less burdened, and consequently their ability to save and accumulate some part of that revenue into capital, is a good deal less impaired. If the method of funding destroys more old capital, it, at the same time, hinders less the accumulation or acquisition of new capital, than that of defraying the public expense by a revenue raised within the year. Under the system of funding, the frugality and industry of private people can more easily repair the breaches which the waste and extravagance of government may occasionally make in the general capital of the society.
It is only during the continuance of war, however, that the system of funding has this advantage over the other system. Were the expense of war to be defrayed always by a revenue raised within the year, the taxes from which that extraordinary revenue was drawn would last no longer than the war. The ability of private people to accumulate, though less during the war, would have been greater during the peace, than under the system of funding. War would not necessarily have occasioned the destruction of any old capitals, and peace would have occasioned the accumulation of many more new. Wars would, in general, be more speedily concluded, and less wantonly undertaken. The people feeling, during continuance of war, the complete burden of it, would soon grow weary of it; and government, in order to humour them, would not be under the necessity of carrying it on longer than it was necessary to do so. The foresight of the heavy and unavoidable burdens of war would hinder the people from wantonly calling for it when there was no real or solid interest to fight for. The seasons during which the ability of private people to accumulate was somewhat impaired, would occur more rarely, and be of shorter continuance. Those, on the contrary, during which that ability was in the highest vigour, would be of much longer duration than they can well be under the system of funding.
When funding, besides, has made a certain progress, the multiplication of taxes which it brings along with it, sometimes impairs as much the ability of private people to accumulate, even in time of peace, as the other system would in time of war. The peace revenue of Great Britain amounts at present to more than ten millions a year. If free and unmortgaged, it might be sufficient, with proper management, and without contracting a shilling of new debt, to carry on the most vigorous war. The private revenue of the inhabitants of Great Britain is at present as much incumbered in time of peace, their ability to accumulate is as much impaired, as it would have been in the time of the most expensive war, had the pernicious system of funding never been adopted.
In the payment of the interest of the public debt, it has been said, it is the right hand which pays the left. The money does not go out of the country. It is only a part of the revenue of one set of the inhabitants which is transferred to another; and the nation is not a farthing the poorer. This apology is founded altogether in the sophistry of the mercantile system; and, after the long examinatior, which I have already bestowed upon that system, it may, perhaps, be unnecessary to say any thing further about it. It supposes, besides, that the whole public debt is owing to the inhabitants of the country, which happens not to be true; the Dutch, as well as several other foreign nations, having a very considerable share in our public funds. But though the whole debt were owing to the inhabitants of the country, it would not, upon that account, be less pernicious.
Land and capital stock are the two original sources of all revenue, both private and public. Capital stock pays the wages of productive labour, whether employed in agriculture, manufactures, or commerce. The management of those two original sources of revenue belongs to two different sets of people; the proprietors of land, and the owners or employers of capital stock.
The proprietor of land is interested, for the sake of his own revenue, to keep his estate in as good condition as he can, by building and repairing his tenants houses, by making and maintaining the necessary drains and inclosures, and all those other expensive improvements which it properly belongs to the landlord to make and maintain. But, by different land taxes, the revenue of the landlord may be so much diminished, and, by different duties upon the necessaries and conveniencies of life, that diminished revenue maybe rendered of so little real value, that he may find himself altogether unable to make or maintain those expensive improvements. When the[Pg 395] landlord, however, ceases to do his part, it is altogether impossible that the tenant should continue to do his. As the distress of the landlord increases, the agriculture of the country must necessarily decline.
When, by different taxes upon the necessaries and conveniencies of life, the owners and employers of capital stock find, that whatever revenue they derive from it, will not, in a particular country, purchase the same quantity of those necessaries and conveniencies which an equal revenue would in almost any other, they will be disposed to remove to some other. And when, in order to raise those taxes, all or the greater part of merchants and manufacturers, that is, all or the greater part of the employers of great capitals, come to be continually exposed to the mortifying and vexatious visits of the tax-gatherers, this disposition to remove will soon be changed into an actual removing. The industry of the country will necessarily fall with the removal of the capital which supported it, and the ruin of trade and manufactures will follow the declension of agriculture.
To transfer from the owners of those two great sources of revenue, land, and capital stock, from the persons immediately interested in the good condition of every particular portion of land, and in the good management of every particular portion of capital stock, to another set of persons (the creditors of the public, who have no such particular interest), the greater part of the revenue arising from either, must, in the long-run, occasion both the neglect of land, and the waste or removal of capital stock. A creditor of the public has, no doubt, a general interest in the prosperity of the agriculture, manufactures, and commerce of the country; and consequently in the good condition of its land, and in the good management of its capital stock. Should there be any general failure or declension in any of these things, the produce of the different taxes might no longer be sufficient to pay him the annuity or interest which is due to him. But a creditor of the public, considered merely as such, has no interest in the good condition of any particular portion of land, or in the good management of any particular portion of capital stock. As a creditor of the public, he has no knowledge of any such particular portion. He has no inspection of it. He can have no care about it. Its ruin may in some cases be unknown to him, and cannot directly affect him.
The practice of funding has gradually enfeebled every state which has adopted it. The Italian republics seem to have begun it. Genoa and Venice, the only two remaining which can pretend to an independent existence, have both been enfeebled by it. Spain seems to have learned the practice from the Italian republics, and (its taxes being probably less judicious than theirs) it has, in proportion to its natural strength, been still more enfeebled. The debts of Spain are of very old standing. It was deeply in debt before the end of the sixteenth century, about a hundred years before England owed a shilling. France, notwithstanding all its natural resources, languishes under an oppressive load of the same kind. The republic of the United Provinces is as much enfeebled by its debts as either Genoa or Venice. Is it likely that, in Great Britain alone, a practice, which has brought either weakness or dissolution into every other country, should prove altogether innocent?
The system of taxation established in those different countries, it may be said, is inferior to that of England. I believe it is so. But it ought to be remembered, that when the wisest government has exhausted all the proper subjects of taxation, it must, in cases of urgent necessity, have recourse to improper ones. The wise republic of Holland has, upon some occasions, been obliged to have recourse to taxes as inconvenient as the greater part of those of Spain. Another war, begun before any considerable liberation of the public revenue had been brought about, and growing in its progress as expensive as the last war, may, from irresistible necessity, render the British system of taxation as oppressive as that of Holland, or even as that of Spain. To the honour of our present system of taxation, indeed, it has hitherto given so little embarrassment to industry, that, during the course even of the most expensive wars, the frugality and good conduct of individuals seem to have been able, by saving and accumulation, to repair all the breaches which the waste and extravagance of government had made in the general capital of the society. At the conclusion of the late war, the most expensive that Great Britain ever waged, her agriculture was as flourishing, her manufacturers as numerous and as fully employed, and her commerce as extensive, as they had ever been before. The capital, therefore, which supported all those different branches of industry, must have been equal to what it had ever been before. Since the peace, agriculture has been still further improved; the rents of houses have risen in every town and village of the country, a proof of the increasing wealth and revenue of the people; and the annual amount of the greater part of the old taxes, of the principal branches of the excise and customs, in particular, has been continually increasing, an equally clear proof of an increasing consumption, and consequently of an increasing produce, which could alone support that consumption. Great Britain seems to support with ease, a burden which, half a century ago, nobody believed her capable of supporting. Let us not, however, upon this account, rashly conclude that she is capable of supporting any burden; not even[Pg 396] be too confident that she could support, without great distress, a burden a little greater than what has already been laid upon her.
When national debts have once been accumulated to a certain degree, there is scarce, I believe, a single instance of their having been fairly and completely paid. The liberation of the public revenue, if it has ever been brought about at all, has always been brought about by a bankruptcy; sometimes by an avowed one, though frequently by a pretended payment.
The raising of the denomination of the coin has been the most usual expedient by which a real public bankruptcy has been disguised under the appearance of a pretended payment. If a sixpence, for example, should, either by act of parliament or royal proclamation, be raised to the denomination of a shilling, and twenty sixpences to that of a pound sterling; the person who, under the old denomination, had borrowed twenty shillings, or near four ounces of silver, would, under the new, pay with twenty sixpences, or with something less than two ounces. A national debt of about a hundred and twenty-eight millions, near the capital of the funded and unfunded debt of Great Britain, might, in this manner, be paid with about sixty-four millions of our present money. It would, indeed, be a pretended payment only, and the creditors of the public would really be defrauded of ten shillings in the pound of what was due to them. The calamity, too, would extend much further than to the creditors of the public, and those of every private person would suffer a proportionable loss; and this without any advantage, but in most cases with a great additional loss, to the creditors of the public. If the creditors of the public, indeed, were generally much in debt to other people, they might in some measure compensate their loss by paying their creditors in the same coin in which the public had paid them. But in most countries, the creditors of the public are, the greater part of them, wealthy people, who stand more in the relation of creditors than in that of debtors, towards the rest of their fellow-citizens. A pretended payment of this kind, therefore, instead of alleviating, aggravates, in most cases, the loss of the creditors of the public; and, without any advantage to the public, extends the calamity to a great number of other innocent people. It occasions a general and most pernicious subversion of the fortunes of private people; enriching, in most cases, the idle and profuse debtor, at the expense of the industrious and frugal creditor; and transporting a great part of the national capital from the hands which were likely to increase and improve it, to those who are likely to dissipate and destroy it. When it becomes necessary for a state to declare itself bankrupt, in the same manner as when it becomes necessary for an individual to do so, a fair, open, and avowed bankruptcy, is always the measure which is both least dishonourable to the debtor, and least hurtful to the creditor. The honour of a state is surely very poorly provided for, when, in order to cover the disgrace of a real bankruptcy, it has recourse to a juggling trick of this kind, so easily seen through, and at the same time so extremely pernicious.
Almost all states, however, ancient as well as modern, when reduced to this necessity, have, upon some occasions, played this very juggling trick. The Romans, at the end of the first Punic war, reduced the As, the coin or denomination by which they computed the value of all their other coins, from containing twelve ounces of copper, to contain only two ounces; that is, they raised two ounces of copper to a denomination which had always before expressed the value of twelve ounces. The republic was, in this manner, enabled to pay the great debts which it had contracted with the sixth part of what it really owed. So sudden and so great a bankruptcy, we should in the present times be apt to imagine, must have occasioned a very violent popular clamour. It does not appear to have occasioned any. The law which enacted it was, like all other laws relating to the coin, introduced and carried through the assembly of the people by a tribune, and was probably a very popular law. In Rome, as in all other ancient republics, the poor people were constantly in debt to the rich and the great, who, in order to secure their votes at the annual elections, used to lend them money at exorbitant interest, which, being never paid, soon accumulated into a sum too great for the debtor to pay, or for any body else to pay for him. The debtor, for fear of a very severe execution, was obliged, without any further gratuity, to vote for the candidate whom the creditor recommended. In spite of all the laws against bribery and corruption, the bounty of the candidates, together with the occasional distributions of coin which were ordered by the senate, were the principal funds from which, during the latter times of the Roman republic, the poorer citizens derived their subsistence. To deliver themselves from this subjection to their creditors, the poorer citizens were continually calling out, either for an entire abolition of debts, or for what they called new tables; that is, for a law which should entitle them to a complete acquittance, upon paying only a certain proportion of their accumulated debts. The law which reduced the coin of all denominations to a sixth part of its former value, as it enabled them to pay their debts with a sixth part of what they really owed, was equivalent to the most advantageous new tables. In order to satisfy the people, the rich and the great were, upon several different occasions, obliged to consent to laws, both for abolishing debts, and for introducing new tables; and they probably were induced to consent to this law, partly for the same[Pg 397] reason, and partly that, by liberating the public revenue, they might restore vigour to that government, of which they themselves had the principal direction. An operation of this kind would at once reduce a debt of L.128,000,000 to L.21,333,333 : 6 : 8. In the course of the second Punic war, the As was still further reduced, first, from two ounces of copper to one ounce, and afterwards from one ounce to half an ounce; that is, to the twenty-fourth part of its original value. By combining the three Roman operations into one, a debt of a hundred and twenty-eight millions of our present money, might in this manner be reduced all at once to a debt of L.5,333,333 : 6 : 8. Even the enormous debt of Great Britain might in this manner soon be paid.
By means of such expedients, the coin of, I believe, all nations, has been gradually reduced more and more below its original value, and the same nominal sum has been gradually brought to contain a smaller and a smaller quantity of silver.
Nations have sometimes, for the same purpose, adulterated the standard of their coin; that is, have mixed a greater quantity of alloy in it. If in the pound weight of our silver coin, for example, instead of eighteen penny-weight, according to the present standard, there were mixed eight ounces of alloy; a pound sterling, or twenty shillings of such coin, would be worth little more than six shillings and eightpence of our present money. The quantity of silver contained in six shillings and eightpence of our present money, would thus be raised very nearly to the denomination of a pound sterling. The adulteration of the standard has exactly the same effect with what the French call an augmentation, or a direct raising of the denomination of the coin.
An augmentation, or a direct raising of the denomination of the coin, always is, and from its nature must be, an open and avowed operation. By means of it, pieces of a smaller weight and bulk are called by the same name, which had before been given to pieces of a greater weight and bulk. The adulteration of the standard, on the contrary, has generally been a concealed operation. By means of it, pieces are issued from the mint, of the same denomination, and, as nearly as could be contrived, of the same weight, bulk, and appearance, with pieces which had been current before of much greater value. When king John of France,[79] in order to pay his debts, adulterated his coin, all the officers of his mint were sworn to secrecy. Both operations are unjust. But a simple augmentation is an injustice of open violence; whereas an adulteration is an injustice of treacherous fraud. This latter operation, therefore, as soon as it has been discovered, and it could never be concealed very long, has always excited much greater indignation than the former. The coin, after any considerable augmentation, has very seldom been brought back to its former weight; but after the greatest adulterations, it has almost always been brought back to its former fineness. It has scarce ever happened, that the fury and indignation of the people could otherwise be appeased.
In the end of the reign of Henry VIII., and in the beginning of that of Edward VI., the English coin was not only raised in its denomination, but adulterated in its standard. The like frauds were practised in Scotland during the minority of James VI. They have occasionally been practised in most other countries.
That the public revenue of Great Britain can never be completely liberated, or even that any considerable progress can ever be made towards that liberation, while the surplus of that revenue, or what is over and above defraying the annual expense of the peace establishment, is so very small, it seems altogether in vain to expect. That liberation, it is evident, can never be brought about, without either some very considerable augmentation of the public revenue, or some equally considerable reduction of the public expense.
A more equal land tax, a more equal tax upon the rent of houses, and such alterations in the present system of customs and excise as those which have been mentioned in the foregoing chapter, might, perhaps, without increasing the burden of the greater part of the people, but only distributing the weight of it more equally upon the whole, produce a considerable augmentation of revenue. The most sanguine projector, however, could scarce flatter himself, that any augmentation of this kind would be such as could give any reasonable hopes, either of liberating the public revenue altogether, or even of making such progress towards that liberation in time of peace, as either to prevent or to compensate the further accumulation of the public debt in the next war.
By extending the British system of taxation to all the different provinces of the empire, inhabited by people either of British or European extraction, a much greater augmentation of revenue might be expected. This, however, could scarce, perhaps, be done, consistently with the principles of the British constitution, without admitting into the British parliament, or, if you will, into the states-general of the British empire, a fair and equal representation of all those different provinces; that of each province bearing the same proportion to the produce of its taxes, as the representation of Great Britain might bear to the produce of the taxes levied upon Great Britain. The private interest of many power[Pg 398]ful individuals, the confirmed prejudices of great bodies of people, seem, indeed, at present, to oppose to so great a change, such obstacles as it may be very difficult, perhaps altogether impossible, to surmount. Without, however, pretending to determine whether such a union be practicable or impracticable, it may not, perhaps, be improper, in a speculative work of this kind, to consider how far the British system of taxation might be applicable to all the different provinces of the empire; what revenue might be expected from it, if so applied; and in what manner a general union of this kind might be likely to affect the happiness and prosperity of the different provinces comprehended within it. Such a speculation, can, at worst, be regarded but as a new Utopia, less amusing, certainly, but no more useless and chimerical than the old one.
The land tax, the stamp duties, and the different duties of customs and excise, constitute the four principal branches of the British taxes.
Ireland is certainly as able, and our American and West India plantations more able, to pay a land tax, than Great Britain. Where the landlord is subject neither to tythe nor poor's rate, he must certainly be more able to pay such a tax, than where he is subject to both those other burdens. The tythe, where there is no modus, and where it is levied in kind, diminishes more what would otherwise be the rent of the landlord, than a land tax which really amounted to five shillings in the pound. Such a tythe will be found, in most cases, to amount to more than a fourth part of the real rent of the land, or of what remains after replacing completely the capital of the farmer, together with his reasonable profit. If all moduses and all impropriations were taken away, the complete church tythe of Great Britain and Ireland could not well be estimated at less than six or seven millions. If there was no tythe either in Great Britain or Ireland, the landlords could afford to pay six or seven millions additional land tax, without being more burdened than a very great part of them are at present. America pays no tythe, and could, therefore, very well afford to pay a land tax. The lands in America and the West Indies, indeed, are, in general, not tenanted nor leased out to farmers. They could not, therefore, be assessed according to any rent roll. But neither were the lands of Great Britain, in the 4th of William and Mary, assessed according to any rent roll, but according to a very loose and inaccurate estimation. The lands in America might be assessed either in the same manner, or in according to an equitable valuation, in consequence of an accurate survey, like that which was lately made in the Milanese, and in the dominions of Austria, Prussia, and Sardinia.
Stamp duties, it is evident, might be levied without any variation, in all countries where the forms of law process, and the deeds by which property, both real and personal, is transferred, are the same, or nearly the same.
The extension of the custom-house laws of Great Britain to Ireland and the plantations, provided it was accompanied, as in justice it ought to be, with an extension of the freedom of trade, would be in the highest degree advantageous to both. All the invidious restraints which at present oppress the trade of Ireland, the distinction between the enumerated and non-enumerated commodities of America, would be entirely at an end. The countries north of Cape Finisterre would be as open to every part of the produce of America, as those south of that cape are to some parts of that produce at present. The trade between all the different parts of the British empire would, in consequence of this uniformity in the customs-house laws, be as free as the coasting trade of Great Britain is at present. The British empire would thus afford, within itself, an immense internal market for every part of the produce of all its different provinces. So great an extension of market would soon compensate, both to Ireland and the plantations, all that they could suffer from the increase of the duties of customs.
The excise is the only part of the British system of taxation, which would require to be varied in any respect, according as it was applied to the different provinces of the empire. It might be applied to Ireland without any variation; the produce and consumption of that kingdom being exactly of the same nature with those of Great Britain. In its application to America and the West Indies, of which the produce and consumption are so very different from those of Great Britain, some modification might be necessary, in the same manner as in its application to the cyder and beer counties of England.
A fermented liquor, for example, which is called beer, but which, as it is made of molasses, bears very little resemblance to our beer, makes a considerable part of the common drink of the people in America. This liquor, as it can be kept only for a few days, cannot, like our beer, be prepared and stored up for sale in great breweries, but every private family must brew it for their own use, in the same manner as they cook their victuals. But to subject every private family to the odious visits and examination of the tax-gatherers, in the same manner as we subject the keepers of alehouses and the brewers for public sale, would be altogether inconsistent with liberty. If, for the sake of equality, it was thought necessary to lay a tax upon this liquor, it might be taxed by taxing the material of which it is made, either at the place of manufacture, or, if the circumstances of the trade rendered such an excise improper, by laying a duty upon its importation into the[Pg 399] colony in which it was to be consumed. Besides the duty of one penny a-gallon imposed by the British parliament upon the importation of molasses into America, there is a provincial tax of this kind upon their importation into Massachusetts Bay, in ships belonging to any other colony, of eightpence the hogshead; and another upon their importation from the northern colonies into South Carolina, of fivepence the gallon. Or, if neither of these methods was found convenient, each family might compound for its consumption of this liquor, either according to the number of persons of which it consisted, in the same manner as private families compound for the malt tax in England; or according to the different ages and sexes of those persons, in the same manner as several different taxes are levied in Holland; or, nearly as Sir Matthew Decker proposes, that all taxes upon consumable commodities should be levied in England. This mode of taxation, it has already been observed, when applied to objects of a speedy consumption, is not a very convenient one. It might be adopted, however, in cases where no better could be done.
Sugar, rum, and tobacco, are commodities which are nowhere necessaries of life, which are become objects of almost universal consumption, and which are, therefore, extremely proper subjects of taxation. If a union with the colonies were to take place, those commodities might be taxed, either before they go out of the hands of the manufacturer or grower; or, if this mode of taxation did not suit the circumstances of those persons, they might be deposited in public warehouses, both at the place of manufacture, and at all the different ports of the empire, to which they might afterwards be transported, to remain there, under the joint custody of the owner and the revenue officer, till such time as they should be delivered out, either to the consumer, to the merchant-retailer for home consumption, or to the merchant-exporter; the tax not to be advanced till such delivery. When delivered out for exportation, to go duty-free, upon proper security being given, that they should really be exported out of the empire. These are, perhaps, the principal commodities, with regard to which the union with the colonies might require some considerable change in the present system of British taxation.
What might be the amount of the revenue which this system of taxation, extended to all the different provinces of the empire, might produce, it must, no doubt, be altogether impossible to ascertain with tolerable exactness. By means of this system, there is annually levied in Great Britain, upon less than eight millions of people, more than ten millions of revenue. Ireland contains more than two millions of people, and, according to the accounts laid before the congress, the twelve associated provinces of America contain more than three. Those accounts, however, may have been exaggerated, in order, perhaps, either to encourage their own people, or to intimidate those of this country; and we shall suppose, therefore, that our North American and West Indian colonies, taken together, contain no more than three millions; or that the whole British empire, in Europe and America, contains no more than thirteen millions of inhabitants. If, upon less than eight millions of inhabitants, this system of taxation raises a revenue of more than ten millions sterling; it ought, upon thirteen millions of inhabitants, to raise a revenue of more than sixteen millions two hundred and fifty thousand pounds sterling. From this revenue, supposing that this system could produce it, must be deducted the revenue usually raised in Ireland and the plantations, for defraying the expense of the respective civil governments. The expense of the civil and military establishment of Ireland, together with the interest of the public debt, amounts, at a medium of the two years which ended March 1775, to something less than seven hundred and fifty thousand pounds a-year. By a very exact account of the revenue of the principal colonies of America and the West Indies, it amounted, before the commencement of the present disturbances, to a hundred and forty-one thousand eight hundred pounds. In this account, however, the revenue of Maryland, of North Carolina, and of all our late acquisitions, both upon the continent, and in the islands, is omitted; which may, perhaps, make a difference of thirty or forty thousand pounds. For the sake of even numbers, therefore, let us suppose that the revenue necessary for supporting the civil government of Ireland and the plantations may amount to a million. There would remain, consequently, a revenue of fifteen millions two hundred and fifty thousand pounds, to be applied towards defraying the general expense of the empire, and towards paying the public debt. But if, from the present revenue of Great Britain, a million could, in peaceable times, be spared towards the payment of that debt, six millions two hundred and fifty thousand pounds could very well be spared from this improved revenue. This great sinking fund, too, might be augmented every year by the interest of the debt which had been discharged the year before; and might, in this manner, increase so very rapidly, as to be sufficient in a few years to discharge the whole debt, and thus to restore completely the at-present debilitated and languishing vigour of the empire. In the mean time, the people might be relieved from some of the most burdensome taxes; from those which are imposed either upon the necessaries of life, or upon the materials of manufacture. The labouring poor would thus be enabled to live[Pg 400] better, to work cheaper, and to send their goods cheaper to market. The cheapness of their goods would increase the demand for them, and consequently for the labour of those who produced them. This increase in the demand for labour would both increase the numbers, and improve the circumstances of the labouring poor. Their consumption would increase, and, together with it, the revenue arising from all those articles of their consumption upon which the taxes might be allowed to remain.
The revenue arising from this system of taxation, however, might not immediately increase in proportion to the number of people who were subjected to it. Great indulgence would for some time be due to those provinces of the empire which were thus subjected to burdens to which they had not before been accustomed; and even when the same taxes came to be levied everywhere as exactly as possible, they would not everywhere produce a revenue proportioned to the numbers of the people. In a poor country, the consumption of the principal commodities subject to the duties of customs and excise, is very small; and in a thinly inhabited country, the opportunities of smuggling are very great. The consumption of malt liquors among the inferior ranks of people in Scotland is very small; and the excise upon malt, beer, and ale, produces less there than in England, in proportion to the numbers of the people and the rate of the duties, which upon malt is different, on account of a supposed difference of quality. In these particular branches of the excise, there is not, I apprehend, much more smuggling in the one country than in the other. The duties upon the distillery, and the greater part of the duties of customs, in proportion to the numbers of people in the respective countries, produce less in Scotland than in England, not only on account of the smaller consumption of the taxed commodities, but of the much greater facility of smuggling. In Ireland, the inferior ranks of people are still poorer than in Scotland, and many parts of the country are almost as thinly inhabited. In Ireland, therefore, the consumption of the taxed commodities might, in proportion to the number of the people, be still less than in Scotland, and the facility of smuggling nearly the same. In America and the West Indies, the white people, even of the lowest rank, are in much better circumstances than those of the same rank in England; and their consumption of all the luxuries in which they usually indulge themselves, is probably much greater. The blacks, indeed, who make the greater part of the inhabitants, both of the southern colonies upon the continent and of the West India islands, as they are in a state of slavery, are, no doubt, in a worse condition than the poorest people either in Scotland or Ireland. We must not, however, upon that account, imagine that they are worse fed, or that their consumption of articles which might be subjected to moderate duties, is less than that even of the lower ranks of people in England. In order that they may work well, it is the interest of their master that they should be fed well, and kept in good heart, in the same manner as it is his interest that his working cattle should be so. The blacks, accordingly, have almost everywhere their allowance of rum, and of molasses or spruce-beer, in the same manner as the white servants; and this allowance would not probably be withdrawn, though those articles should be subjected to moderate duties. The consumption of the taxed commodities, therefore, in proportion to the number of inhabitants, would probably be as great in America and the West Indies as in any part of the British empire. The opportunities of smuggling, indeed, would be much greater; America, in proportion to the extent of the country, being much more thinly inhabited than either Scotland or Ireland. If the revenue, however, which is at present raised by the different duties upon malt and malt liquors, were to be levied by a single duty upon malt, the opportunity of smuggling in the most important branch of the excise would be almost entirely taken away; and if the duties of customs, instead of being imposed upon almost all the different articles of importation, were confined to a few of the most general use and consumption, and if the levying of those duties were subjected to the excise laws, the opportunity of smuggling, though not so entirely taken away, would be very much diminished. In consequence of those two apparently very simple and easy alterations, the duties of customs and excise might probably produce a revenue as great, in proportion to the consumption of the most thinly inhabited province, as they do at present, in proportion to that of the most populous.
The Americans, it has been said, indeed, have no gold or silver money, the interior commerce of the country being carried on by a paper currency; and the gold and silver, which occasionally come among them, being all sent to Great Britain, in return for the commodities which they receive from us. But without gold and silver, it is added, there is no possibility of paying taxes. We already get all the gold and silver which they have. How is it possible to draw from them what they have not?
The present scarcity of gold and silver money in America, is not the effect of the poverty of that country, or of the inability of the people there to purchase those metals. In a country where the wages of labour are so much higher, and the price of provisions so much lower than in England, the greater part of the people must surely have wherewithal to purchase a greater quantity, if it were either[Pg 401] necessary or convenient for them to do so. The scarcity of those metals, therefore, must be the effect of choice, and not of necessity.
It is for transacting either domestic or foreign business, that gold or silver money is either necessary or convenient.
The domestic business of every country, it has been shewn in the second book of this Inquiry, may, at least in peaceable times, be transacted by means of a paper currency, with nearly the same degree of conveniency as by gold and silver money. It is convenient for the Americans, who could always employ with profit, in the improvement of their lands, a greater stock than they can easily get, to save as much as possible the expense of so costly an instrument of commerce as gold and silver; and rather to employ that part of their surplus produce which would be necessary for purchasing those metals, in purchasing the instruments of trade, the materials of clothing, several parts of household furniture, and the iron work necessary for building and extending their settlements and plantations; in purchasing not dead stock, but active and productive stock. The colony governments find it for their interest to supply the people with such a quantity of paper money as is fully sufficient, and generally more than sufficient, for transacting their domestic business. Some of those governments, that of Pennsylvania, particularly, derive a revenue from lending this paper money to their subjects, at an interest of so much per cent. Others, like that of Massachusetts Bay, advance, upon extraordinary emergencies, a paper money of this kind for defraying the public expense; and afterwards, when it suits the conveniency of the colony, redeem it at the depreciated value to which it gradually falls. In 1747,[80] that colony paid in this manner the greater part of its public debts, with the tenth part of the money for which its bills had been granted. It suits the conveniency of the planters, to save the expense of employing gold and silver money in their domestic transactions; and it suits the conveniency of the colony governments, to supply them with a medium, which, though attended with some very considerable disadvantages, enables them to save that expense. The redundancy of paper money necessarily banishes gold and silver from the domestic transactions of the colonies, for the same reason that it has banished those metals from the greater part of the domestic transactions in Scotland; and in both countries, it is not the poverty, but the enterprizing and projecting spirit of the people, their desire of employing all the stock which they can get, as active and productive stock, which has occasioned this redundancy of paper money.
In the exterior commerce which the different colonies carry on with Great Britain, gold and silver are more or less employed, exactly in proportion as they are more or less necessary. Where those metals are not necessary, they seldom appear. Where they are necessary, they are generally found.
In the commerce between Great Britain and the tobacco colonies, the British goods are generally advanced to the colonists at a pretty long credit, and are afterwards paid for in tobacco, rated at a certain price. It is more convenient for the colonists to pay in tobacco than in gold and silver. It would be more convenient for any merchant to pay for the goods which his correspondents had sold to him, in some other sort of goods which he might happen to deal in, than in money. Such a merchant would have no occasion to keep any part of his stock by him unemployed, and in ready money, for answering occasional demands. He could have, at all times, a larger quantity of goods in his shop or warehouse, and he could deal to a greater extent. But it seldom happens to be convenient for all the correspondents of a merchant to receive payment for the goods which they sell to him, in goods of some other kind which he happens to deal in. The British merchants who trade to Virginia and Maryland, happen to be a particular set of correspondents, to whom it is more convenient to receive payment for the goods which they sell to those colonies in tobacco, than in gold and silver. They expect to make a profit by the sale of the tobacco; they could make none by that of the gold and silver. Gold and silver, therefore, very seldom appear in the commerce between Great Britain and the tobacco colonies. Maryland and Virginia have as little occasion for those metals in their foreign, as in their domestic commerce. They are said, accordingly, to have less gold and silver money than any other colonies in America. They are reckoned, however, as thriving, and consequently as rich, as any of their neighbours.
In the northern colonies, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, the four governments of New England, &c. the value of their own produce which they export to Great Britain is not equal to that of the manufactures which they import for their own use, and for that of some of the other colonies, to which they are the carriers. A balance, therefore, must be paid to the mother-country in gold and silver, and this balance they generally find.
In the sugar colonies, the value of the produce annually exported to Great Britain is much greater than that of all the goods imported from thence. If the sugar and rum annually sent to the mother-country were paid for in those colonies, Great Britain would be obliged to send out, every year, a very large balance in money; and the trade to the West Indies would, by a certain species of politicians, be considered as extremely disadvanta[Pg 402]geous. But it so happens, that many of the principal proprietors of the sugar plantations reside in Great Britain. Their rents are remitted to them in sugar and rum, the produce of their estates. The sugar and rum which the West India merchants purchase in those colonies upon their own account, are not equal in value to the goods which they annually sell there. A balance, therefore, must necessarily he paid to them in gold and silver, and this balance, too, is generally found.
The difficulty and irregularity of payment from the different colonies to Great Britain, have not been at all in proportion to the greatness or smallness of the balances which were respectively due from them. Payments have, in general, been more regular from the northern than from the tobacco colonies, though the former have generally paid a pretty large balance in money, while the latter have either paid no balance, or a much smaller one. The difficulty of getting payment from our different sugar colonies has been greater or less in proportion, not so much to the extent of the balances respectively due from them, as to the quantity of uncultivated land which they contained; that is, to the greater or smaller temptation which the planters have been under of over-trading, or of undertaking the settlement and plantation of greater quantities of waste land than suited the extent of their capitals. The returns from the great island of Jamaica, where there is still much uncultivated land, have, upon this account, been, in general, more irregular and uncertain than those from the smaller islands of Barbadoes, Antigua, and St. Christopher's, which have, for these many years, been completely cultivated, and have, upon that account, afforded less field for the speculations of the planter. The new acquisitions of Grenada, Tobago, St. Vincent's, and Dominica, have opened a new field for speculations of this kind; and the returns from those islands have of late been as irregular and uncertain as those from the great island of Jamaica.
It is not, therefore, the poverty of the colonies which occasions, in the greater part of them, the present scarcity of gold and silver money. Their great demand for active and productive stock makes it convenient for them to have as little dead stock as possible, and disposes them, upon that account, to content themselves with a cheaper, though less commodious instrument of commerce, than gold and silver. They are thereby enabled to convert the value of that gold and silver into the instruments of trade, into the materials of clothing, into household furniture, and into the iron work necessary for building and extending their settlements and plantations. In those branches of business which cannot be transacted without gold and silver money, it appears, that they can always find the necessary quantity of those metals; and if they frequently do not find it, their failure is generally the effect, not of their necessary poverty, but of their unnecessary and excessive enterprise. It is not because they are poor that their payments are irregular and uncertain, but because they are too eager to become excessively rich. Though all that part of the produce of the colony taxes, which was over and above what was necessary for defraying the expense of their own civil and military establishments, were to be remitted to Great Britain in gold and silver, the colonies have abundantly wherewithal to purchase the requisite quantity of those metals. They would in this case be obliged, indeed, to exchange a part of their surplus produce, with which they now purchase active and productive stock, for dead stock. In transacting their domestic business, they would be obliged to employ a costly, instead of a cheap instrument of commerce; and the expense of purchasing this costly instrument might damp somewhat the vivacity and ardour of their excessive enterprise in the improvement of land. It might not, however, be necessary to remit any part of the American revenue in gold and silver. It might be remitted in bills drawn upon, and accepted by, particular merchants or companies in Great Britain, to whom a part of the surplus produce of America had been consigned, who would pay into the treasury the American revenue in money, after having themselves received the value of it in goods; and the whole business might frequently be transacted without exporting a single ounce of gold or silver from America.
It is not contrary to justice, that both Ireland and America should contribute towards the discharge of the public debt of Great Britain. That debt has been contracted in support of the government established by the Revolution; a government to which the protestants of Ireland owe, not only the whole authority which they at present enjoy in their own country, but every security which they possess for their liberty, their property, and their religion; a government to which several of the colonies of America owe their present charters, and consequently their present constitution; and to which all the colonies of America owe the liberty, security, and property, which they have ever since enjoyed. That public debt has been contracted in the defence, not of Great Britain alone, but of all the different provinces of the empire. The immense debt contracted in the late war in particular, and a great part of that contracted in the war before, were both properly contracted in defence of America.
By a union with Great Britain, Ireland would gain, besides the freedom of trade, other advantages much more important, and which would much more than compensate any increase of taxes that might accompany that union. By the union with England, the[Pg 403] middling and inferior ranks of people in Scotland gained a complete deliverance from the power of an aristocracy, which had always before oppressed them. By a union with Great Britain, the greater part of people of all ranks in Ireland would gain an equally complete deliverance from a much more oppressive aristocracy; an aristocracy not founded, like that of Scotland, in the natural and respectable distinctions of birth and fortune, but in the most odious of all distinctions, those of religious and political prejudices; distinctions which, more than any other, animate both the insolence of the oppressors, and the hatred and indignation of the oppressed, and which commonly render the inhabitants of the same country more hostile to one another than those of different countries ever are. Without a union with Great Britain, the inhabitants of Ireland are not likely, for many ages, to consider themselves as one people.
No oppressive aristocracy has ever prevailed in the colonies. Even they, however, would, in point of happiness and tranquillity, gain considerably by a union with Great Britain. It would, at least, deliver them from those rancourous and virulent factions which are inseparable from small democracies, and which have so frequently divided the affections of their people, and disturbed the tranquillity of their governments, in their form so nearly democratical. In the case of a total separation from Great Britain, which, unless prevented by a union of this kind, seems very likely to take place, those factions would be ten times more virulent than ever. Before the commencement of the present disturbances, the coercive power of the mother-country had always been able to restrain those factions from breaking out into any thing worse than gross brutality and insult. If that coercive power were entirely taken away, they would probably soon break out into open violence and bloodshed. In all great countries which are united under one uniform government, the spirit of party commonly prevails less in the remote provinces than in the centre of the empire. The distance of those provinces from the capital, from the principal seat of the great scramble of faction and ambition, makes them enter less into the views of any of the contending parties, and renders them more indifferent and impartial spectators of the conduct of all. The spirit of party prevails less in Scotland than in England. In the case of a union, it would probably prevail less in Ireland than in Scotland; and the colonies would probably soon enjoy a degree of concord and unanimity, at present unknown in any part of the British empire. Both Ireland and the colonies, indeed, would be subjected to heavier taxes than any which they at present pay. In consequence, however, of a diligent and faithful application of the public revenue towards the discharge of the national debt, the greater part of those taxes might not be of long continuance, and the public revenue of Great Britain might soon be reduced to what was necessary for maintaining a moderate peace-establishment.
The territorial acquisitions of the East-India Company, the undoubted right of the Crown, that is, of the state and people of Great Britain, might be rendered another source of revenue, more abundant, perhaps, than all those already mentioned. Those countries are represented as more fertile, more extensive, and, in proportion to their extent, much richer and more populous than Great Britain. In order to draw a great revenue from them, it would not probably be necessary to introduce any new system of taxation into countries which are already sufficiently, and more than sufficiently, taxed. It might, perhaps, be more proper to lighten than to aggravate the burden of those unfortunate countries, and to endeavour to draw a revenue from them, not by imposing new taxes, but by preventing the embezzlement and misapplication of the greater part of those which they already pay.
If it should be found impracticable for Great Britain to draw any considerable augmentation of revenue from any of the resources above mentioned, the only resource which can remain to her, is a diminution of her expense. In the mode of collecting and in that of expending the public revenue, though in both there may be still room for improvement, Great Britain seems to be at least as economical as any of her neighbours. The military establishment which she maintains for her own defence in time of peace, is more moderate than that of any European state, which can pretend to rival her either in wealth or in power. None of those articles, therefore, seem to admit of any considerable reduction of expense. The expense of the peace-establishment of the colonies was, before the commencement of the present disturbances, very considerable, and is an expense which may, and, if no revenue can be drawn from them, ought certainly to be saved altogether. This constant expense in time of peace, though very great, is insignificant in comparison with what the defence of the colonies has cost us in time of war. The last war, which was undertaken altogether on account of the colonies, cost Great Britain, it has already been observed, upwards of ninety millions. The Spanish war of 1739 was principally undertaken on their account; in which, and in the French war that was the consequence of it, Great Britain, spent upwards of forty millions; a great part of which ought justly to be charged to the colonies. In those two wars, the colonies cost Great Britain much more than double the sum which the national debt amounted to before the commencement of the first of them. Had it not been for those wars, that debt[Pg 404] might, and probably would by this time, have been completely paid; and had it not been for the colonies, the former of those wars might not, and the latter certainly would not, have been undertaken. It was because the colonies were supposed to be provinces of the British Empire, that this expense was laid out upon them. But countries which contribute neither revenue nor military force towards the support of the empire, cannot be considered as provinces. They may, perhaps, be considered as appendages, as a sort of splendid and shewy equipage of the empire. But if the empire can no longer support the expense of keeping up this equipage, it ought certainly to lay it down; and if it cannot raise its revenue in proportion to its expense, it ought at least to accommodate its expense to its revenue. If the colonies, notwithstanding their refusal to submit to British taxes, are still to be considered as provinces of the British empire, their defence, in some future war, may cost Great Britain as great an expense as it ever has done in any former war. The rulers of Great Britain have, for more than a century past, amused the people with the imagination that they possessed a great empire on the west side of the Atlantic. This empire, however, has hitherto existed in imagination only. It has hitherto been, not an empire, but the project of an empire; not a gold mine, but the project of a gold mine; a project which has cost, which continues to cost, and which, if pursued in the same way as it has been hitherto, is likely to cost, immense expense, without being likely to bring any profit; for the effects of the monopoly of the colony trade, it has been shewn, are to the great body of the people, mere loss instead of profit. It is surely now time that our rulers should either realize this golden dream, in which they have been indulging themselves, perhaps, as well as the people; or that they should awake from it themselves, and endeavour to awaken the people. If the project cannot be completed, it ought to be given up. If any of the provinces of the British empire cannot be made to contribute towards the support of the whole empire, it is surely time that Great Britain should free herself from the expense of defending those provinces in time of war, and of supporting any part of their civil or military establishments in time of peace; and endeavour to accommodate her future views and designs to the real mediocrity of her circumstances.
[1] It is mentioned, that when about three years old, he was stolen from the door of his uncle, Mr. Douglas, in Strathenry, where his mother had been on a visit, by some tinkers, or gypsies. He was rescued in Leslie wood by his uncle, who was thus the happy instrument, Mr. Stewart observes, of preserving to the world, a genius, which was destined, not only to extend the boundaries of science, but to enlighten and reform the commercial policy of Europe.
[2] Boswell's Life of Johnson, vol. iv. p. 17
[3] Edinburgh Review, vol. i. p. 432.
[4] It may not be uninteresting to mention what has been said of the manner in which the writings of Mr. Smith were composed.—'Mr. Smith observed to me, not long before his death,' says Mr. Stewart, 'that after all his practice in writing, he composed as slowly, and with as great difficulty as at first.' He added, at the same time, that Mr. Hume had acquired so great a facility in this respect, that the last volume of his History was printed from the original copy, with a few marginal corrections. Mr. Smith, when be was employed in composition, generally walked up and down his apartment, dictating to a secretary. All Mr. Hume's works, it has been said, were written with his own hand.
[5] This observation, as may easily be perceived, cannot apply in certain indirect imposts, such as those for the support of the roads; which, as they cannot be confounded with the price of any consumable commodity, combine all the inconveniencies of indirect, with those of direct imposts.
[6] Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. 33, cap. 3.
[7] Pliny, lib. xxxiii. cap. 3.
[8] This was written in 1773, before the commencement of the late disturbances.
[9] See his scheme for the maintenance of the poor, in Burn's History of the Poor Laws.
[10] See Denisart, Article Taux des Interests, tom. iii, p. 18.
[11] See Idyllium xxi.
[12] See Madox Firma Burgi p. 26 &c.
[13] See the Statute of Labourers, 25, Ed. III.
[14] Voyages d'un Philosophe.
[15] Douglas's Summary, vol. ii, p. 372, 373.
[16] See his Preface to Anderson's Diplomata Scotiæ.
[17] Lowndes's Essay on the Silver Coin, 68.
[18] See Tracts on the Corn Trade, Tract 3.
[19] Solorzano, vol. ii.
[20] Postscript to the Universal Merchant, p. 15 and 16. This postscript was not printed till 1756, three years after the publication of the book, which has never had a second edition. The postscript is, therefore, to be found in few copies; it corrects several error in the book.
[21] See Ruddiman's Preface to Anderson's Diplomata, &c. Scotiæ.
[22] Lib. x, c. 29.
[23] Lib. ix, c. 17.
[24] Kalm's Travels, vol. i, p. 343, 344.
[25] See Smith's Memoirs of Wool, vol. i. c. 5, 6, 7. also vol. ii.
[26] Wanting in the account. The year 1646 supplied by Bishop Fleetwood.
[28] The method described in the text was by no means either the must common or the most expensive one in which those adventurers sometimes raised money by circulation. It frequently happened, that A in Edinburgh would enable B in London to pay the first bill of exchange, by drawing, a few days before it became due, a second bill at three months date upon the same B in London. This bill, being payable to his own order, A sold in Edinburgh at par; and with its contents purchased bills upon London, payable at sight to the order of B, to whom he sent them by the post. Towards the end of the late war, the exchange between Edinburgh and London was frequently three per cent. against Edinburgh, and those bills at sight must frequently have cost A that premium. This transaction, therefore, being repeated at least four times in the year, and being loaded with a commission of at least one half per cent, upon each repetition, must at that period have cost A, at least, fourteen per cent. in the year. At other times A would enable B to discharge the first bill of exchange, by drawing, a few days before it became due, a second bill at two months date, not upon B, but upon some third person, C, for example, in London. This other bill was made payable to the order of B, who, upon its being accepted by C, discounted it with some banker in London; and A enabled C to discharge it, by drawing, a few days before it became due, a third bill likewise at two months date, sometimes upon his first correspondent B and sometimes upon some fourth or fifth person, D or E, for example. This third bill was made payable to the order of C, who, as soon as it was accepted, discounted it in the same manner with some banker in London. Such operations being repeated at least six times in the year, and being loaded with a commission of at least one half per cent. upon each repetition, together with legal interest of five per cent. this method of raising money, in the same manner as described in the text, must have cost A something more than eight per cent. By saving, however, the exchange between Edinburgh and London, it was less expensive than that mentioned in the foregoing part of this note; but then it required an established credit with more houses than one in London, an advantage which many of these adventurers could not always find it easy to procure.
[29] James Postlethwaite's History of the Public Revenue, p. 301
[30] Some French authors of great learning and ingenuity have used those words in a different sense. In the last chapter of the fourth book, I shall endeavour to shew that their sense is an improper one.
[31] See Brady's Historical Treatise of Cities and Boroughs, p. 3. &c.
[32] See Madox, Firma Burgi, p. 18; also History of the Exchequer, chap. 10, sect. v, p. 223, first edition.
[33] See Madox, Firma Burgi. See also Pfeffel in the Remarkable events under Frederick II. and his Successors of the House of Suabia.
[34] See Madox
[35] See Pfeffel
[36] See Sandi Istoria civile de Vinezia, part 2, vol. i, page 247 and 256.
[37] The following are the prices at which the bank of Amsterdam at present (September 1775) receives bullion and coin of different kinds:
Mexico dollars } Guilders. B—22 per mark.
French crowns
English silver coin
Mexico dollars, new coin 21 10
Ducatoons 3 0
Rix-dollars 2 8
Bar silver, containing 11-12ths fine silver, 21 per mark, and in this proportion down to 1-4th fine, on which 5 guilders are given.
Fine bars, 28 per mark.
Portugal coin } B—310 per mark.
Louis d'ors, new
Ditto old 300
New ducats 4 19 8 per ducat.
Bar or ingot gold is received in proportion to its fineness, compared with the above foreign gold coin. Upon fine bars the bank gives 340 per mark. In general, however, something more is given upon coin of a known fineness, than upon gold and silver bars, of which the fineness cannot be ascertained but by a process of melting and assaying.
[38] This paragraph was written in the year 1775.
[39] See the accounts at the end of this Book.
[40] Before the 13th of the present king, the following were the duties payable upon the importation of the different sorts of grain:
Grain.
Duties.
Beans to 28s. per qr. 19s. 10d. after till 40s. 16s. 8d. then 12d.
Barley to 28s. 19s. 10d. after till 32s. 16s. 12d.
Malt is prohibited by the annual malt-tax bill.
Oats to 16s. 5s. 10d. after 9½d.
Pease to 40s. 16s. 0d. after 9¾d.
Rye to 36s. 19s. 10d. till 40s. 16s. 8d. then 12d.
Wheat to 44s. 21s. 9d. till 53s. 4d. 17s. then 8s.
till L.4, and after that about 1s. 4d.
Buck-wheat to 32s. per qr. to pay 16s.
These different duties were imposed, partly by the 22d of Charles II. in place of the old subsidy, partly by the new subsidy, by the one-third and two-thirds subsidy, and by the subsidy 1747.
[41] See Dictionnaire des Monnoies, tom. ii. article Seigneurage, p. 489, par M. Abbot de Baringhen, Conseiller-Commissaire en la Cour des Monnoies à Paris.
[42] The interest of every proprietor of India stock, however, is by no means the same with that of the country in the government of which his vote gives him some influence.—See book v, chap. i, part ii.
[43] See book I chap. I
[44] See the Journal of Mr. De Lange, in Bell's Travels, vol. ii. p. 258, 276, 293.
[45] Plin. 1. ix. c. 30.
[46] Plin. 1. viii. c. 48.
[47] They are to be found in Tyrol's History of England.
[48] Since publishing the first two editions of this book, I have got good reasons to believe that all the turnpike tolls levied in Great Britain do not produce a neat revenue that amounts to half a million; a sum which, under the management of government, would not be sufficient to keep in repair five of the principal roads in the kingdom.
[49] I have now good reason to believe that all those conjectural sums are by much too large.
[50] See Memoires concernant les Droits et Impositions en Europe, tome i. page 73. This work was compiled by the order of the court, for the use of a commission employed for some years past in considering the proper means for reforming the finances of France. The account of the French taxes, which takes up three volumes in quarto, may be regarded as perfectly authentic. That of those of other European nations was compiled from such information as the French ministers at the different courts could procure. It is much shorter, and probably not quite so exact as that of the French taxes.
[51] See Memoires concernant les Droits et Impositions en Europe tome i. p. 73.
[52] See Sketches of the History of Man page 474, and Seq.
[53] Memoires concernant les Droits, p. 240, 241.
[54] Memoires concernant les Droits, &c. tom. i. p. 114, 115, 116, &c.
[55] Id. tom. i. p. 83, 84.
[56] Id. p. 280, &c.; also p. 287, &c. to 316.
[57] Memoires concernant les Droits, &c. tom. ii. p. 139, &c.
[58] Since the first publication of this book, a tax nearly upon the above-mentioned principles has been imposed.
[59] Memoires concernant les Droits, &c. p. 223.
[60] Memoires concernant les Droits, tom. i, p. 74.
[61] Memoires concernant les Droits, tom. i, p. 163, 167, 171.
[62] Memoires concernant les Droits, &c. tom. ii. p. 17.
[63] Lib. 55. See also Burman, de Vectigalibus Pop. Rom. cap. xi. and Bouchaud de l'impot du vingtieme sur les successions.
[64] See Memoires concernant les Droits, &c. tom. i. p. 225.
[65] Memoires concernant les Droits, &c. tom. i. p. 154.
[66] Id. p. 157.
[67] Memoires concernant les Droits, &c. tom. i. p. 223, 224, 225.
[68] Memoires concernant les Droits, &c. tom. ii. p. 108.
[69] Memoires concernant les Droits, &c. tom. iii. p. 87.
[70] See book i. chap. 8.
[71] Memoires concernant les Droits, &c., p. 210, 211.
[72] Le Reformateur
[73] Though the duties directly imposed upon proof spirits amount only to 2s. 6d. per gallon, these, added to the duties upon the low wines, from which they are distilled, amount to 3s. 102⁄3d. Both low wines and proof spirits are, to prevent frauds, now rated according to what they gauge in the wash.
[74] The neat production of that year, after deducting all expenses and allowances, amounted to L.4,975,652 : 19 : 6.
[75] Memoires concernant les Droits, &c. tom. 1, p. 45
[76] See Examen des Reflections Politiques sut les Finances.
[77] See James Postlethwaite's History of the Public Revenue.
[78] It has proved more expensive than any one of our former wars, and has involved us in an additional debt of more than one hundred millions. During a profound peace of eleven years, little more than ten millions of debt was paid; during a war of seven years, more than one hundred millions was contracted.
[79] See Du Cange Glossary, voce Moneta; the Benedictine Edition.
[80] See Hutchinson's History of Massachusetts Bay vol. ii, page 436, et seq.
Absentee tax, the propriety of, considered with reference to Ireland, 379.
Accounts of money, in modern Europe, all kept, and the value of goods computed, in silver, 16.
Actors, public, paid for the contempt attending their profession, 44.
Africa, cause assigned for the barbarous state of the interior parts of that continent, 9.
African company, establishment and constitution of, 309.
Receive an annual allowance from parliament for forts and garrisons, 310.
The company not under sufficient controul, ib.
History of the Royal African company, 311.
Decline of, ib. Rise of the present company, ib.
Age, the foundation of rank and precedency in rude as well as civilized societies, 297.
Aggregate fund, in the British finances, explained, 388.
Agio of the bank of Amsterdam explained, 194.
Of the bank of Hamburgh, 195.
The agio at Amsterdam, how kept at a medium rate, 197.
Agriculture, the labour of, does not admit of such subdivisions as manufactures, 3.
This impossibility of separation prevents agriculture from improving equally with manufactures, ib.
Natural state of, in a new colony, 38.
Requires more knowledge and experience than most mechanical professions, and yet is carried on without any restrictions, 53.
The terms of rent, how adjusted between landlord and tenant, 60.
Is extended by good roads and navigable canals, 62.
Under what circumstances pasture land is more valuable than arable, 63.
Gardening not a very gainful employment, 64.
Vines the most profitable article of culture, 65.
Estimates of profit from projects very fallacious, ib.
Cattle and tillage mutually improve each other, 93.
Remarks on that of Scotland, ib.
On that of North America, 94.
Poultry, a profitable article in husbandry, ib.
Hogs, 95.
Dairy, 96.
Evidences of land being completely improved, ib.
The extension of cultivation, as it raises the price of animal food, reduces that of vegetables, 103.
By whom and how practised under feudal government, 137.
Its operations not so much intended to increase, as to direct the fertility of nature, 149.
Has been the cause of the prosperity of the British colonies in America, 150.
The profits of, exaggerated by projectors, 154.
On equal terms, is naturally preferred to trade, 156.
Artificers necessary to the carrying it on, ib.
Was not attended to by the northern destroyers of the Roman empire, 157.
The ancient policy of Europe unfavourable to, 162.
Was promoted by the commerce and manufactures of towns, 170.
The wealth arising from, more solid and durable than that which proceeds from commerce, 172.
Is not encouraged by the bounty on the exportation of corn, 207.
Why the proper business of new companies, 251.
The present agricultural system of political economy adopted in France, described, 275.
Is discouraged by restrictions and prohibitions in trade, 279.
Is favoured beyond manufactures in China, 282.
And in Indostan, 283.
Does not require so extensive a market as manufactures, 284.
To check manufactures in order to promote agriculture, false policy, 285.
Landlords ought to be encouraged to cultivate part of their own land, 350.
Alcavala, the tax in Spain so called, explained and considered, 381.
The ruin of the Spanish manufactures attributed to this tax, ib.
Alehouses, the number of, not the efficient cause of drunkenness, 148, 200.
Allodial rights, mistaken for feudal rights, 168.
The introduction of the feudal law tended to moderate the authority of the allodial lords, ib.
Ambassadors, the first motive of their appointment, 307.
America, why labour is dearer in North America than in England, 29.
Great increase of population there, ib.
Common rate of interest there, 38.
Is a new market for the produce of its own silver mines, 85.
[Pg 406]The first accounts of the two empires of Peru and Mexico greatly exaggerated, ib.
Improving state of the Spanish colonies there, 86.
Account of the paper currency of the British colonies, 134.
Cause of the rapid prosperity of the British colonies there, 150.
Why manufactures for distant sale have never been established there, 156.
Its speedy improvement owing to assistance from foreign capitals, 157.
The purchase and improvement of uncultivated land the most profitable employment of capitals, 171.
Commercial alterations produced by the discovery of, 181.
But two civilized nations found on the whole continent, ib.
The wealth of the North American colonies increased, though the balance of trade continued against them, 203.
Madeira wine, how introduced there, 204.
Historical review of the European settlements in, 229.
Of Spain, 232, 233.
Of Holland, 234.
Of France, ib.
Of Britain, ib.
Ecclesiastical government in the several European colonies, 235.
Fish a principal article of trade from North America to Spain, Portugal, and the Mediterranean, 237.
Naval stores to Britain, 238.
Little credit due to the policy of Europe from the success of the colonies, 242.
The discovery and colonization of, how far advantageous to Europe, 243.
And to America, ib.
The colonies in, governed by a spirit of monopoly, 261.
The interest of the consumer in Britain sacrificed to that of the producer, by the system of colonization, 274.
Plan for extending the British system of taxation, over all the provinces of, 397, 398.
The question, how the Americans could pay taxes without specie, considered, 402.
Ought in justice to contribute to discharge the public debt in Britain, 402.
Expediency of their union with Britain, 403.
The British empire there a mere project, 404.
Amsterdam, agio of the bank of, explained, 194.
Occasion of its establishment, 195.
Advantages attending payments there, ib.
Rate demanded for keeping money there, ib.
Prices at which bullion and coin are received, 196, note.
This bank the great warehouse of Europe for bullion, 197.
Demands upon, how made and answered, ib.
The agio, how kept at a medium rate, ib.
The treasure of, whether all preserved in its repositories, 198.
The amount of its treasure only to be conjectured, ib.
Fees paid to the bank for transacting business, ib.
Annuities, for terms of years, and for lives, in the British finances, historical account of, 389.
Apothecaries, the profit on their drugs, unjustly stigmatized as exorbitant, 46.
Apprenticeship, the nature and intention of this bond of servitude, explained, 42.
The limitations imposed on various trades as to the number of apprentices, 50.
The statute of apprenticeship in England, ib.
Apprenticeships in France and Scotland, 51.
General remarks on the tendency and operation of long apprenticeships, ib.
The statute of, ought to be repealed, 191.
Arabs, their manner of supporting war, 289.
Army, three different ways by which a nation may maintain one in a distant country, 178.
Standing, distinction between and a militia, 292.
Historical review of, 294.
The Macedonian army, ib.
Carthaginian army, ib.
Roman army, ib.
Is alone able to perpetuate the civilization of a country, 296.
Is the speediest engine for civilizing a barbarous country, ib.
Under what circumstances dangerous to, and under what favourable to liberty, ib.
Artificers prohibited by law from going to foreign countries, 273.
Residing abroad, and not returning on notice, exposed to outlawry, ib.
See Manufactures.
Asdrubal, his army greatly improved by discipline, 294.
How defeated, ib.
Assembly, houses of, in the British colonies, the constitutional freedom of, shewn, 240.
Assiento Contract, 312.
Assize of bread and ale, remarks on that statute, 75, 77.
Augustus, emperor, emancipates the slaves of Vedius Pollio for his cruelty, 241.
Balance of annual produce and consumption explained, 203.
May be in favour of a nation, when the balance of trade is against it, ib.
Balance of trade, no certain criterion to determine on which side it turns between two countries, 192.
The current doctrine of, on which most regulations of trade are founded, absurd, 199.
If even, by the exchange of their native commodities, both sides may be gainers, ib.
How the balance would stand if native commodities on one side were paid with foreign commodities on the other, ib.
How the balance stands when commodities are purchased with gold and silver, ib., 200.
The ruin of countries often predicted from the doctrine of an unfavourable balance of trade, 202.
Banks, great increase of trade in Scotland since the establishment of them in the principal towns, 120.
Their usual course of business, 121.
Consequences of their issuing too much paper, 122.
Necessary caution for some time observed by them with regard to giving credit to their customers, 124.
Limits of the advances they may imprudently make to traders, 125.
How injured by the practice of drawing and redrawing bills, 126, 127.
History of the Ayr bank, 128.
History of the bank of England, 130.
The nature and public advantage of banks considered, 131.
Bankers might carry on their business with less paper, 132.
Effects of the optional clauses in the Scotch notes, 133.
Origin of their establishment, 194.
Bank money explained, 195.
Bank of England, the conduct of, in regard to the coinage, 226.
[Pg 407]Joint stock companies, why well adapted to the trade of banking, 317, 318.
A doubtful question, whether the government of Great Britain is equal to the management of the bank to profit, 344.
Bankers, the credit of their notes how established, 118.
The nature of the banking business explained, ib., 121.
The multiplication and competition of bankers, under proper regulations of service to public credit, 135.
Baretti, Mr. his account of the quantity of Portugal gold sent weekly to England, 225.
Barons, feudal, their power contracted by the grant of municipal privileges, 163.
Their extensive authority, 168.
How they lost their authority over their vassals, 169.
And the power to disturb their country, 170.
Barter, the exchange of one commodity for another, the propensity to, of extensive operation, and peculiar to man, 6.
Is not sufficient to carry on the mutual intercourse of mankind, 10. See Commerce.
Batavia, causes of the prosperity of the Dutch settlement there, 263.
Beaver skins, review of the policy used in the trade for, 273.
Beef, cheaper now in London than in the reign of James I., 63.
Compared with the prices of wheat at the corresponding times, 64.
Benefices, ecclesiastical, the tenure of, why rendered secure, 335.
The power of collating to, how taken from the pope, in England and France, 338.
General equality of, among the presbyterians, 340.
Good effects of this equality, ib.
Bengal, to what circumstances its early improvement in agriculture and manufactures was owing, 9.
Present miserable state of the country, 30.
Remarks on the high rates of interest there, 39.
Oppressive conduct of the English there, to suit their trade in opium, 263.
Why more remarkable for the exportation of manufactures than of grain, 284.
Berne, brief history of the republic of, 164.
Establishment of the reformation there, 338.
Application of the revenue of the catholic clergy, 341.
Derives a revenue from the interest of its treasure, 344.
Bills of Exchange, punctuality in the payment of, how secured, 126.
The pernicious practice of drawing and redrawing explained, ib.
The arts made use of to disguise this mutual traffic in bills, 127.
Birth, superiority of, how it confers respect and authority, 298.
Bishops, the ancient mode of electing them, and how altered, 335, 337.
Body, natural and political, analogy between, 280.
Bohemia, account of the tax there on the industry of artificers, 366.
Bounty, on the exportation of corn, the tendency of this measure examined, 81.
Bounties, why given in commerce, 183.
On exportation, the policy of granting them considered, 205.
On the exportation of corn, 206.
This bounty imposes two taxes on the people, 207.
Evil tendency of this bounty, 209.
The bounty only beneficial to the exporter and importer, ib.
Motives of the country gentlemen in granting the bounty, 210.
A trade which requires a bounty, necessarily a losing trade, ib.
Tonnage bounties to the fisheries considered, 211.
Account of the white-herring fishery, 212.
Remarks on other bounties, 213.
A review of the principles on which they are generally granted, 267.
Those granted on American produce founded on mistaken policy, 268.
How they affect the consumer, 274.
Bourdeaux, why a town of great trade, 138.
Brazil grew to be a powerful colony under neglect, 233.
The Dutch invaders expelled by the Portuguese colonists, ib.
Computed number of inhabitants there, ib.
The trade of the principal provinces oppressed by the Portuguese, 236.
Bread, its relative value with butcher's meat compared, 62, 63.
Brewery, reasons for transferring the taxes on to the malt, 376.
Bridges, how to be erected and maintained, 303.
Britain, Great, evidences that labour is sufficiently paid for there, 30.
The price of provisions nearly the same in most places, 31.
Great variations in the price of labour, ib.
Vegetables imported from Flanders in the last century, 32.
Historical account of the alterations interest of money has undergone, 37.
Double interest deemed a reasonable mercantile profit, 40.
In what respects the carrying trade is advantageous to, 152, 153.
Appears to enjoy more of the carrying trade of Europe than it really has, 153.
It is the only country of Europe in which the obligation of purveyance is abolished, 161.
Its funds for the support of foreign wars inquired into, 178, 179.
Why never likely to be much affected by the free importation of Irish cattle, 186.
Nor salt provisions, ib.
Could be little affected by the importation of foreign corn, 187.
The policy of the commercial restraints on the trade with France examined, 192.
The trade with France might be more advantageous to each country than that with any other, 202.
Why one of the richest countries in Europe, while Spain and Portugal are among the poorest, 221.
Review of her American colonies, 234.
The trade of her colonies, how regulated, 236.
Distinction between enumerated and non-enumerated commodities explained, 237.
Restrains manufactures in America, 238, 239.
Indulgences granted to the colonists, 239.
Constitutional freedom of her colony government, 240.
The sugar colonies of, worse governed than those of France, 241.
Disadvantages resulting from retaining the exclusive trade of tobacco with Maryland and Virginia, 244, 245.
[Pg 408]The navigation act has increased the colony trade, at the expense of many other branches of foreign trade, 245.
The advantage of the colony trade estimated, 247.
A gradual relaxation of the exclusive trade recommended, 250.
Events which have concurred to prevent the ill effects of the loss of the colony trade, ib.
The natural good effects of the colony trade more than counterbalance the bad effects of the monopoly, 251.
To maintain a monopoly, the principal end of the dominion assumed over the colonies, 254.
Has derived nothing but loss from this dominion, ib.
Is perhaps the only state which has only increased its expenses by extending its empire, 256.
The constitution of, would have been completed by admitting of American representation, 258.
Review of the administration of the East India Company, 264, 265.
The interest of the consumer sacrificed to that of the producer in raising an empire in America, 274.
The annual revenue of, compared with its annual rents and interest of capital stock, 345, 346.
The land-tax of, considered, 348.
Tithes, 352.
Window-tax, 357.
Stamp-duties, 363, 365.
Poll-taxes in the reign of William III., 367.
The uniformity of taxation in, favourable to internal trade, 382.
The system of taxation in, compared with that in France, 384.
Account of the unfunded debt of, 387.
Funded debt, 388.
Aggregate and general funds, ib.
Sinking fund, 389.
Annuities for terms of years and for lives, ib.
Perpetual annuities the best transferable stock, 391.
The reduction of the public debts during peace bears no proportion to their accumulation during war, 392.
The trade with the tobacco colonies, how carried on, without the intervention of specie, 401.
The trade with the sugar colonies explained, ib.
Ireland and America ought in justice to contribute towards the discharge of her public debts, 402.
How the territorial acquisitions of the East India Company might be rendered a source of revenue, 403.
If no such assistance can be obtained, her only resource pointed out, ib.
Bullion, the money of the great mercantile republic, 179. See Gold and Silver.
Burghs, free, the origin of, 163.
To what circumstances they owed their corporate jurisdictions, ib.
Why admitted to send representatives to parliament, 164.
Are allowed to protect refugees from the country, 165.
Burn, Dr. his observation on the laws relating to the settlements of the poor, 58, 59.
Butcher's meat, nowhere a necessary of life, 370.
Calvinists, origin of that sect, 339.
Their principles of church government, ib.
Cameron, Mr. of Lochiel, exercised, within thirty years since, a criminal jurisdiction over his own tenants, 168.
Canada, the French colony there, long under the government of an exclusive company, 234.
But improved speedily after the dissolution of the company, ib.
Canals, navigable, the advantages of, 62.
How to be made and maintained, 303.
That of Languedoc, the support of, how secured, ib.
May be successfully managed by joint stock companies, 317.
Cantillon, Mr. remarks on his account of the earnings of the labouring poor, 28.
Cape of Good Hope, causes of the prosperity of the Dutch settlement there, 263.
Capital, in trade, explained, and how employed, 112.
Distinguished into circulating and, fixed capitals, ib.
Characteristic of fixed capitals, 113.
The several kinds of fixed capitals specified, ib.
Characteristic of circulating capitals, and the several kinds of, 114.
Fixed capitals supported by those which are circulating, ib.
Circulating capitals how supported, ib.
Intention of a fixed capital, 116.
The expense of maintaining the fixed and circulating capitals illustrated, ib.
Money, as an article of circulating capital, considered, ib.
Money no measure of capital, 118.
What quantity of industry any capital can employ, 120.
Capitals, how far they may be extended by paper credit, 125.
Must always be replaced with profit by the annual produce of land and labour, 136.
The proportion between capital and revenue regulates the proportion between industry and idleness, 138.
How it is increased or diminished, ib.
National evidences of the increase of, 141.
In what instances private expenses contribute to enlarge the national capital, 142.
The increase of, reduces profits by competition, 145.
The different ways of employing a capital, 147.
How replaced to the different classes of traders, 148.
That employed in agriculture puts into motion a greater quantity of productive labour than any equal capital employed in manufacturers, 149.
That of a manufacturer should reside within the country, 150.
The operation of capitals employed in agriculture, manufactures, and foreign trade compared, ib.
The prosperity of a country depends on the due proportion of its capital applied to these three grand objects, 151.
Different returns of capitals employed in foreign trade, 152.
Is rather employed in agriculture than in trade and manufactures, on equal terms, 155, 156.
Is rather employed in manufactures than in foreign trade, 156.
The natural progress of the employment of, 157.
Acquired by trade, is very precarious, until realized by the cultivation and improvement of land, 172.
The employment of, in the different species of trade, how determined, 183.
Capitation taxes, the nature of, considered, 367.
In England, ib.
In France, ib.
Carriage, land and water, compared, 8.
Water carriage contributes to improve arts and industry in all countries where it can be used, 9, 62, 87.
Land, how facilitated and reduced in price by public works, 303.
Carrying trade, the nature and operation of, examined, 152.
Is the symptom, but not the cause of national wealth, and hence points out the two richest countries in Europe, 153.
Trades may appear to be carrying trades which are not so, ib.
The disadvantages of, to individuals, 183.
The Dutch, how excluded from being the carriers to Great Britain, 187, 188.
Drawbacks of duties originally granted for the encouragement of, 205.
Carthaginian army, its superiority over the Roman army accounted for, 294.
Cattle and Corn, their value compared, in the different stages of agriculture, 62.
The price of, reduced by artificial grasses, 63.
To what height the price of cattle may rise in an improving country, 92, 93.
The raising a stock of, necessary for the supply of manure to farms, 93.
Cattle must bear a good price to be well fed, ib.
The price of, rises in Scotland in consequence of the union with England ib.
Great multiplication of European cattle in America, 94.
Are killed in some countries merely for the sake of the hides and tallow, 97.
The market for these articles more extensive than for the carcase, ib.
This market sometimes brought nearer home by the establishment of manufactures, ib.
How the extension of cultivation raises the price of animal food, 103.
Is perhaps the only commodity more expensive to transport by sea than by land, 186.
Great Britain never likely to be much affected by the free importation of Irish cattle, ib.
Certificates, parish, the laws relating to, with observations on them, 58.
Child, Sir Josiah, his observation on trading companies, 309.
Children, riches unfavourable to the production, and extreme poverty to the raising, of them, 33.
The mortality still greater among those maintained by charity, ib.
China, to what the early improvement in arts and industry there was owing, 9.
Concurrent testimonies of the misery of the lower ranks of the Chinese, 30.
Is not, however, a declining country, ib.
High rate of interest of money there, 40.
Great state assumed by the grandees, 86.
The price of labour there lower than in the greater mpart of Europe, 87.
Silver the most profitable article to send thither, ib.
The proportional value of gold to silver, how rated there, 89.
The value of gold and silver much higher there than in any part of Europe, 101.
Agriculture favoured there beyond manufactures, 282.
Foreign trade not favoured there, 283.
Extension of the home market, ib.
Great attention paid to the roads there, 305, 306.
In what the principal revenue of the sovereign consists, 353.
The revenue of, partly raised in kind, ib.
Church, the richer the church the poorer the state, 341.
Amount of the revenue of church of Scotland, 342.
The revenue of the church heavier taxed in Prussia than lay proprietors, 351.
The nature and effect of tithes considered, 352.
Circulation, the dangerous practice of raising money by, explained, 127.
In traffic, the two different branches of, considered, 132.
Cities, circumstances which contributed to their opulence, 165.
Those of Italy the first that rose to consequence, ib.
The commerce and manufactures of, have occasioned the improvement and cultivation of the country, 170.
Clergy, a supply of, provided for, by public and private foundations for their education, 55.
Curates worse paid than many mechanics, ib.
Of an established religion, why unsuccessful against the teachers of a new religion, 330.
Why they persecute their adversaries, ib.
The zeal of the inferior clergy of the church of Rome, how kept alive, ib.
Utility of ecclesiastical establishments, 331.
How connected with the civil magistrate, ib., 332.
Unsafe for the civil magistrate to differ with them, 334.
Must be managed without violence, ib., 335.
Of the church of Rome, one great army cantoned over Europe, ib., 336.
Their power similar to that of the temporal barons during the feudal monkish ages, ib.
How the power of the Romish clergy declined, 337.
Evils attending allowing parishes to elect their own ministers, 339.
Clothing, more plentiful than food in uncultivated countries, 68.
The materials for, the first articles rude nations have to offer, ib.
Coal must generally be cheaper than wood to gain the preference for fuel, 70.
The price of, how reduced, ib.
The exportation of, subjected to a duty higher than the prime cost of, at the pit, 273.
The cheapest of all fuel, 370.
The tax on absurdly regulated, ib.
Coal mines, their different degrees of fertility, 70.
When fertile, are sometimes unprofitable by situation, ib.
The proportion of rent generally paid for, ib., 71.
The machinery necessary to, expensive, 112.
Coal trade from Newcastle to London employs more shipping than all the other carrying trade of England, 153.
Cochin China, remarks on the principal article of cultivation there, 66.
Coin, stamped, the origin and peculiar advantages of, in commerce, 11.
The different species of, in different ages and countries, ib.
Causes of the alterations in the value of, ib., 12, 13, 14.
How the standard coin of different nations came to be of different metals, 16.
A reform in the English coinage suggested, 19.
Silver, consequences attending the debasement of, 82.
Coinage of France and Britain examined, 193.
Why coin is privately melted down, 225.
The mint chiefly employed to keep up the quantity thus diminished, ib.
A duty to pay the coinage would preserve money from being melted or counterfeited, ib.
Standard of the gold coin in France, ib.
How a seignorage on coin would operate, 226.
[Pg 410]A tax upon coinage is advanced by every body, and finally paid by nobody, ib.
A revenue lost by government defraying the expense of coinage, 227.
Amount of the annual coinage before the late reformation of the gold coin, ib.
The law for the encouragement of, founded on prejudice, ib.
Consequences of raising the denomination as an expedient to facilitate the payment of public debts, 395.
Adulteration of, 397.
Colbert, M., the policy of his commercial regulations disputed, 189, 275.
His character, 275.
Colleges, cause of the depreciation of their money rents inquired into, 14.
The endowments of, from whence they generally arise, 318.
Whether they have in general answered the purposes of their institution, ib.
These endowments have diminished the necessity of application in the teachers, 319.
The privileges of graduates by residence, and charitable foundation of scholarships, injurious to collegiate education, 320.
Discipline of, ib.
Colliers and Coal-heavers, their high earnings accounted for, 43.
Colonies, new, the natural progress of, 38.
Modern, the commercial advantages derived from them, 183.
Ancient, on what principles founded, 227, 228.
Ancient Grecian colonies not retained under subjection to the parent states, ib.
Distinction between the Roman and Greek colonies, 228.
Circumstances that led to the establishment of European colonies in the East Indies and America, ib.
The East Indies discovered by Vasco de Gama, 229.
The West, Indies discovered by Columbus, ib.
Gold the object of the first Spanish enterprises there, 230.
And of all those of all other European nations, 231.
Causes of the prosperity of new colonies, ib.
Rapid progress of the ancient Greek colonies, 232.
The Roman colonies slow in improvement, ib.
The remoteness of America and the West Indies greatly in favour of the European colonies there, ib.
Review of the British American colonies, 234.
Expense of the civil establishments in British America, 235.
Ecclesiastical government, ib.
General view of the restraints laid upon the trade of the European colonies, 236.
The trade of the British colonies, how regulated, ib.
The different kinds of non-enumerated commodities specified, 237.
Enumerated commodities, 238.
Restraints upon their manufactures, ib.
Indulgences granted them by Britain, 239.
Were free in every other respect except as to their foreign trade, 240.
Throve by the disorder and injustice of the European governments, ib.
Have contributed to augment the industry of all the countries of Europe, 243.
Exclusive privileges of trade a dead weight upon all these exertions both in Europe and America, ib.
Have in general been a source of expense instead of revenue to their mother countries, 244.
Have only benefited their mother countries by the exclusive trade carried on with them, ib.
Consequences of the navigation act, 245.
The advantage of the colony trade to Britain estimated, 247.
A gradual relaxation of the exclusive commerce recommended, 250.
Events which have prevented Britain from sensibly feeling the loss of the colony trade, ib.
The effects of the colony trade, and the monopoly of that trade, distinguished, ib.
To maintain a monopoly, the principal end of the dominion Great Britain assumes over the colonies, 254.
Amount of the ordinary peace establishment of, ib.
The two late wars Britain sustained, colony wars, to support a monopoly, ib.
Two modes by which they might be taxed, 255.
Their assemblies not likely to tax them, ib.
Taxes by parliamentary requisition as little likely to be raised, 256.
Representatives of, might he seated into the British parliament with good effect, 257.
Answer to objections against American representation, 258.
The interest of the consumer in Britain sacrificed to that of the producer in raising an empire in America, 274.
Columbus, the motive that led to his discovery of Americas, 229.
Why he gave the name of Indies to the islands he discovered, ib.
His triumphal exhibition of their productions, 230.
Columella, his instructions for fencing a kitchen garden, 64.
Advises the planting of vineyards, 65.
Commerce, the different common standards or mediums made use of to facilitate the exchange of commodities in the early stages of, 10.
Origin of money, ib.
Definition of the term value, 12.
Treaties of, though advantageous to the merchants and manufacturers of the favoured countries, necessarily, disadvantageous to those of the favouring country, 222.
Translation of the commercial treaty between England and Portugal, concluded in 1703, by Mr. Methuen, 223.
Restraints laid upon the European colonies in America, 236.
The present splendour of the mercantile system owing to the discovery and colonization of America, 259.
Review of the plan by which it proposes to enrich a country, 266.
The interest of the consumer constantly sacrificed to that of the producer, 274.
See Agriculture, Banks, Capital, Manufactures, Merchant, Money, Stock, Trade, &c.
Commodities, the barter of, insufficient for the mutual supply of the wants of mankind, 10.
Metals found to be the best medium to facilitate the exchange of, ib.
Labour an invariable standard for the value of, 14.
Real and nominal prices of, distinguished, ib.
Component parts of the prices of, explained and illustrated, 21.
Natural and market prices of, distinguished and how regulated, 23.
[Pg 411]The ordinary proportion between the value of two commodities, not necessarily the same as between the quantities of them commonly in the market, 89.
The price of rude produce, how affected by the advance of wealth and improvement, 91, 92.
Foreign are primarily purchased with the produce of domestic industry, 151.
When advantageously exported in a rude state, even by a foreign capital, 156.
The quantity of, in every country, naturally regulated by the demand, 176.
Wealth in goods, and in money, compared, 177.
Exportation of, to a proper market, always attended with more profit than that of gold and silver, 179.
The natural advantages of countries in particular productions sometimes not possible to struggle against, 185.
Company, mercantile, incapable of consulting their true interests when they become sovereigns, 264.
An exclusive company a public nuisance, 265.
Trading, how first formed, 307.
Regulated and joint-stock companies distinguished, ib.
Regulated companies in Great Britain specified, ib., 308.
Are useless, 308.
Constant view of such companies, ib.
Forts and garrisons, why never maintained by regulated companies, 309.
The nature of joint-stock companies explained, 310, 311, 316.
A monopoly necessary to enable a joint-stock company to carry on a foreign trade, 317.
What kind of joint-stock companies need no exclusive privileges, ib.
Joint-stock companies, why well adapted to the trade of banking, ib.
The trade of insurance may be carried on successfully by a joint-stock company, ib.
Also, inland navigations, and the supply of water to a great city, ib.
Ill success of joint-stock companies in other undertakings, 318.
Competition, the effect of, in the purchase of commodities, 23.
Among the venders, ib., 37.
Concordat in France, its object, 337.
Congress, American, its strength owing to the important characters it confers on the members of it, 257.
Conversion price, in the payment of rents in Scotland, explained, 76, 77.
Copper, the standard measure of value among the ancient Romans, 16.
Is no legal tender in England, ib.
Cori, the largest quadruped on the island of St. Domingo, described, 229.
Corn, the raising of, in different countries, not subject to the same degree of rivalship, as manufactures, 3, 4.
Is the best standard for reserved rents, 14.
The price of, how regulated, 15.
The price of, the best standard for comparing the different values of particular commodities at different times and places, 16.
The three component parts in the price of, 21.
Is dearer in Scotland than in England, 31.
Its value compared with that of butcher's meat, in the different periods of agriculture, 62.
Compared with silver, 75.
Circumstances in a historical view of the prices of corn that have misled writers in treating of the value of silver at different periods, 76.
Is always a more accurate measure of value than any other commodity, 79.
Why dearer in great towns than in the country, 80.
Why dearer in some rich commercial countries, as Holland and Genoa, ib.
Rose in its nominal price on the discovery of the American mines, 81.
And in consequence of the civil war under king Charles I., ib.
And in consequence of the bounty on the exportation of, 82.
Tendency of the bounty examined, 83.
Chronological table of the prices of, 108.
The least profitable article of growth in the British West Indian colonies, 159.
The restraints formerly laid upon the trade of, unfavourable to the cultivation of land, 162.
The free importation of, could little affect the farmers of Great Britain, 187.
The policy of the bounty on the exportation of, examined, 206.
The reduction in the price of, not produced by the bounty, ib.
Tillage not encouraged by the bounty, ib.
The money price of, regulates that of all other home-made commodities, 207.
Illustration, 208.
Ill effects of the bounty, ib.
The natural value of not to be altered by altering the money price, 210.
The four several branches of the corn trade specified, 213.
The inland dealer, for his own interest, will not raise the price of, higher than the scarcity of the season requires, ib.
Corn a commodity the least liable to be monopolised, 214.
The inland dealers too numerous and dispersed to form a general combination, ib.
Dearths, never artificial, but when government interferes improperly to prevent them, ib.
The freedom of the corn trade the best security against a famine, 215.
Old English statute to prohibit the corn trade, ib.
Consequences of farmers being forced to become corn dealers, ib.
The use of corn dealers to the farmers, 216.
The prohibitory statute against the corn trade softened, 217.
But still under the influence of popular prejudices, ib., 218.
The average quantity imported and exported compared with the consumption and annual produce, ib.
Tendency of a free importation of, 219.
The home-market the most important one for corn, ib.
Impropriety of the statute 22 Car. II. for regulating the importation of wheat, confessed by the suspension of its execution by temporary statutes, ib.
Duties payable on the importation of grain before 13 Geo. III. ib. note, ib.
The home-market indirectly supplied by the exportation of corn, ib.
How a liberal system of free exportation and importation and among all nations would operate, 220.
The laws concerning corn, similar to those relating to religion, 221.
The home-market supplied by the carrying trade, ib.
The system of laws connected with the establishment of the bounty, undeserving of praise, ib.
Remarks on the statute 13 Geo. III. ib.
[Pg 412]Corporations, tendency of the exclusive privileges of, on trade, 26.
By what authority erected, 50, 52.
The advantages they derive from the surrounding country, ib.
Check the operations of competition, 54.
Their internal regulations combinations against the public, ib.
Are injurious even to the members of them, ib.
The laws of, obstruct the free circulation of labour from one employment to another, 57.
Origin of, 163.
Are exempted by their privileges from the power of the feudal barons, 164.
The European East India companies disadvantageous to the eastern commerce, 181, 182.
The exclusive privileges of corporations ought to be destroyed, 191.
Cottagers, in Scotland, their situation described, 49.
Are cheap manufacturers of stockings, ib.
The diminution of, in England, considered, 95.
Coward, character of, 329.
Credit. See Paper Money.
Crusades, to the Holy land, favourable to the revival of commerce, 165.
Currency of states, remarks on, 194.
Customs, the motives and tendency of drawbacks from the duties of, 203.
The revenue of the customs increased by drawbacks, 205.
Occasion of first imposing the duties of, 307.
Origin of those duties, 371.
Three ancient branches of, 372.
Drawbacks of, ib.
Are regulated according to the mercantile system, ib., 373.
Frauds practised to obtain drawbacks and bounties, ib.
The duties of, in many instances uncertain, ib.
Improvement of, suggested, 374.
Computation of the expense of collecting them, 380.
Dairy, the business of, generally carried on as a save-all, 96.
Circumstances which impede or promote the attention to it, ib.
English and Scotch dairies, ib.
Danube, the navigation of that river, why of little use to the interior parts of the country from whence it flows, 9.
Davenant, Dr. his objections to the transferring the duties on beer to the malt considered, 377.
Dearths, never caused by combinations among the dealers in corn, but by some general calamity, 214.
The free exercise of the corn trade the best palliative against the inconveniencies of a dearth, 217.
Corn dealers the best friends to the people at such seasons, 218.
Debts, public, the origin of, traced, 386.
Are accelerated by the expenses attending war, ib.
Account of the unfunded debt of Great Britain, 387.
The funded debt, 388.
Aggregate and general funds, 389.
Sinking fund, ib.
The reduction of, during peace, bears no proportion to its accumulation during war, 391.
The plea of the interest being no burden to the nation considered, 394.
Are seldom fairly paid when accumulated to a certain degree, 396.
Might easily be discharged, by extending the British system of taxation over all the provinces of the empire, 397.
Ireland and America ought to contribute to discharge the public debts of Britain, 402.
Decker, Sir Matthew, his observations on the accumulation of taxes, 369.
His proposal for transferring all taxes to the consumer, by annual payments, considered, 371.
Demand, though the increase of, may at first raise the price of goods, it never fails to reduce it afterwards, 314.
Denmark, account of the settlements of, in the West Indies, 234.
Diamonds, the mines of, not always worth working for, 73.
Discipline, the great importance of, in war, 293.
Instances of, ib.
Diversions, public, their political use, 334.
Domingo, St. mistaken by Columbus for a part of the East Indies, 229.
Its principal productions, ib.
The natives soon stripped of all their gold, 230.
Historical view of the French colony there, 234.
Doomsday-book, the intention of that compilation, 351.
Dorians, ancient, where the colonies of, settled, 227.
Dramatic exhibitions, the political use of, 334.
Drawbacks, in commerce, explained, 182.
The motives to, and tendency of, explained, 203.
On wines, currants, and wrought silks, ib.
On tobacco and sugar, 204.
On wines, particularly considered, ib.
Were originally granted to encourage the carrying trade, 205.
The revenue of the customs increased by them, ib.
Drawbacks allowed in favour of the colonies, 213.
Drugs, regulations of their importation and exportation, 272.
Drunkenness, the motive to this vice inquired into, 200.
Dutch, their settlements in America slow in in improvement, because under the government of an exclusive company, 234.
Their East India trade checked by monopoly, 261.
Measures taken by, to secure the monopoly of the spice trade. See Holland.
East Indies, representation of the miserable state of the provinces of, under the English government there, 30.
Historical view of the European trade with those countries, 86.
Rice countries more populous and rich than corn countries, ib.
The real price of labour lower in China and Indostan than in the greater part of Europe, 87.
Gold and silver the most profitable commodities to carry thither, ib.
Great extension of foreign commerce by the discovery of a passage to, round the Cape of Good Hope, 181.
Historical review of the intercourse with, ib., 182.
Effect of the annual exportation of silver to, from Europe, ib.
The trade with, chiefly carried on by exclusive companies, 261.
Tendency of their monopolies, ib.
East India company, a monopoly against the very nation in which it is erected, 261.
The operation of such a company in a poor and in a rich country compared, ib.
That country whose capital is not large enough to extend to such a distant trade ought not to engage in it, 262.
The mercantile habits of trading companies render them incapable of consulting their true interests when they become sovereigns, 264.
The genius of the administration of the English company, ib.
Subordinate practices of their agents and clerks, 265.
The bad conduct of agents in India owing to their situation, ib.
Such an exclusive company a nuisance in every respect, 266.
Brief review of their history, 313.
Their privileges invaded, ib.
A rival company formed, ib.
The two companies united, 314.
Are infected by the spirit of war and conquest, ib.
Agreements between the company and government, ib.
Interference of government in their territorial administration, 315.
And in the direction at home, ib.
Why unfit to govern a great empire, ib.
Their sovereign and commercial characters incompatible, 344.
How the territorial acquisitions of, might be rendered a source of revenue, 403.
Economists, sect of, in France, their political tenets, 275.
Edinburgh, its present share of trade owing to the removal of the court and parliament, 138.
Education, the principal cause of the various talents observable in different men, 7.
Those parts of, for which there are no public institutions, generally the best taught, 320.
In universities, a view of, 323.
Of travelling for, 324.
Course of, in the republics of ancient Greece, ib.
In ancient Rome, ib.
The ancient teachers superior to those in modern times, 326.
Public institutions injurious to good education, ib.
Inquiry how far the public ought to attend to the education of the people, 327.
The different opportunities of education in the different ranks of the people, 328.
The advantages of proper attention in the state to the education of the people, 329.
Egypt, the first country in which agriculture and manufactures appear to have been cultivated, 9.
Agriculture was greatly favoured there, 283.
Was long the granary of the Roman empire, 284.
Ejectment, action of, in England, when invented, and its operation, 160.
Employments, the advantages and disadvantages of the different kinds of, in the same neighbourhood, continually tend to equality, 41.
The differences or inequalities among, specified, ib.
The constancy or precariousness of, influences the rate of wages, 43.
England, the dates of its several species of coinage, silver, gold, and copper, 16.
Why labour is cheaper there than in North America, 29.
The rate of population in both countries compared, ib.
The produce and labour of, have gradually increased from the earliest accounts in history, while writers are representing the country as rapidly declining, 141.
Enumeration of obstructions and calamities which the prosperity of the country has surmounted, ib.
Circumstances that favour commerce and manufactures, 171.
Laws in favour of agriculture, ib.
Why formerly unable to carry on foreign wars of long duration, 180.
Why the commerce with France has been subjected to so many discouragements, 202.
Foundation of the enmity between these countries, ib.
Translation of the commercial treaty concluded in 1703 with Portugal, 223.
Inquiry into the value of the trade with Portugal, ib., 224.
Might procure gold without the Portugal trade, ib.
Consequences of securing the colony trade by the navigation act, 245.
Engrossing. See Forstalling.
Entails, the law of, prevents the division of land by alienation, 157.
Intention of, 158.
Europe, general review of the several nations of, as to their improvement since the discovery of America, 85.
The two richest countries in, enjoy the greatest shares of the carrying trade, 153.
Inquiry into the advantages derived by, from the discovery and colonization of America, 243.
The particular advantages derived by each colonizing country, 244.
And by others which have no colonies, 259.
Exchange, the operation of, in the commercial intercourse of different countries, 174.
The course of, an uncertain criterion of the balance of trade between two countries, 192, 193.
Is generally in favour of those countries which pay in bank money, against those which pay in common currency, 198.
Excise, the principal objects of, 371.
The duties of, more clear and distinct than the customs, 373.
Affects only a few articles of the most general consumption, ib.
The scheme of Sir Robert Walpole defended, 375.
The excise upon home-made fermented and spiritous liquors the most productive, 376.
Expense of levying excise duties computed, 380.
The laws of, more vexatious than those of the customs, 381.
Exercise, military, alteration in, produced by the invention of fire-arms, 292.
Expenses, private, how they influence the national capital, 33.
Advantage of bestowing them on durable commodities, ib.
Export trade, the principles of, explained, 153.
When rude produce may be advantageously exported, even by a foreign capital, 156, 157.
Why encouraged by European nations, 182, 183.
By what means promoted, ib.
The motives to, and tendency of, drawbacks of duties, 203.
The grants of bounties on, considered, 205.
Exportation of the materials of manufactures, review of the restraints and prohibitions of, 268.
Faith, articles of, how regulated by the civil magistrate, 354.
Families seldom remain on large estates many generations in commercial countries, 170.
Famine. See Dearth.
Farmers of land, the several articles that compose their gain distinguished, 22.
Require more knowledge and experience than the generality of manufacturers, 53.
In what their capitals consist, 112.
The great quantity of productive labour put into motion by their capitals, 149.
Artificers necessary to them, 156.
Their situation better in England than in any other part of Europe, 160.
Labour under great disadvantages everywhere, 161.
Origin of long leases of farms, 170.
Are a class of men least subject to the wretched spirit of monopoly, 187.
Were forced by old statutes to become the only dealers in corn, 215.
Could not sell corn cheaper than any other corn merchant, 216.
Could seldom sell it so cheap, ib.
The culture of land obstructed by this division of their capitals, 217.
The use of corn-dealers to the farmers, ib.
How they contribute to the annual production of the land, according to the French agricultural system of political economy, 275.
Farmers of the public revenue, their character, 383, 391.
Feudal government, miserable state of the occupiers of land under, 137.
Trade and interest of money under, ib.
Chiefs, their power, 157.
Slaves, their situation, 159.
Tenures of land, ib.
Taxation, 161.
Original poverty and servile state of the tradesmen in towns, 162.
Immunities seldom granted but for valuable considerations, 163.
Origin of free burghs, ib.
The power of the barons reduced by municipal privileges, ib.
The cause and effect of ancient hospitality, 167.
Extensive power of the ancient barons, 168.
Was not established in England until the Norman conquest, ib.
Was silently subverted by manufactures and commerce, 169.
Feudal wars, how supported, 290.
Military exercises not well attended to, under, 291.
Standing armies gradually introduced to supply the place of the feudal militia, 295.
Account of the casualties or taxes under, 363.
Revenues under, how enjoyed by the great landholders, 385.
Fairs, public, in Scotland, the nature of the institution, explained, 76, 77.
Fines for the renewal of leases, the motive for exacting them, and their tendency, 349.
Fire-arms, alteration in the art of war effected by the invention of, 292, 295.
The invention of, favourable to the extension of civilisation, 296.
Fish, the component parts of the price of, explained, 21.
The multiplication of, at market, by human industry, both limited and uncertain, 99.
How an increase of demand raises the price of fish, 100.
Fisheries, observations on the tonnage bounties granted to, 211.
To the herring fishery ib.
The boat fishery ruined by this bounty, 212.
Flanders, the ancient commercial prosperity of, perpetuated by the solid improvements of agriculture, 172.
Flax, the component parts of the price of, explained, 21.
Fleetwood, Bishop, remarks on his Chronicon Pretiosum, 77, 78.
Flour, the component parts of the price of, explained, 21.
Food, will always purchase as much labor as it can maintain on the spot, 61.
Bread and butcher's meat compared, 62, 63.
Is the original source of every other production, 69.
The abundance of, constitutes the principal part of the riches of the world, and gives the principal value to many other kinds of riches, 73.
Forestalling and engrossing, the popular fear of, like the suspicions of witchcraft, 218.
Forts, when necessary for the protection of commerce, 306.
France, fluctuations in the legal rate of interest for money there during the course of the present century, 37, 38.
Remarks on the trade and riches of, ib.
The nature of apprenticeships there, 51.
The propriety of restraining the planting of vineyards examined, 65.
Variations in the price of grain there, 73.
The money price of labour has sunk gradually with the money price of corn, 84.
Foundation of the Mississippi scheme, 130.
Little trade or industry to be found in the parliament towns of, 138.
Description of the class of farmers called metayers, 159.
Laws relating to the tenure of land, 161.
Services formerly exacted besides rent, ib.
The taille, what, and in operation in checking the cultivation of land, ib.
Origin of the magistrates and councils of cities, 164.
No direct legal encouragement given to agriculture, 171.
Ill policy of M. Colbert's commercial regulations, 189.
French goods heavily taxed in Great Britain, 192.
The commercial intercourse between France and England, now chiefly carried on by smugglers, ib.
The policy of the commercial restraints between France and Britain considered, ib.
State of the coinage there, 194.
Why the commerce with England has been subjected to discouragement, 202.
Remarks concerning the seignorage on coin, 225.
Standard of the gold coin there, ib.
The trade of the French colonies, how regulated, 237.
The government of the colonies conducted with moderation, 241.
The sugar colonies of, better governed than those of Britain, ib.
The kingdom of, how taxed, 256.
The members of the league fought more in defence of their own importance than for any other cause, 258.
[Pg 415]The present agricultural system of political economy adopted by philosophers there described, 275.
Under what direction the funds for the repair of the roads are placed, 305.
General state of the roads, ib.
The universities badly governed, 319.
Remarks on the management of the parliaments of, 335.
Measures taken in, to reduce the power of the clergy, 337.
Account of the mode of rectifying the inequalities of the predial taille in the generality of Montauban, 352.
The personal taille explained, 360.
The inequalities in, how remedied, 361.
How the personal taille discourages cultivation, ib.
The vingtieme, 362.
Stamp duties and the controle, 364, 365.
The capitation tax, how rated, 367.
Restraints upon the interior trade of the country by the local variety of the revenue laws, 382.
The duties on tobacco and salt, how levied, 383.
The different sources of revenue in, 384.
How the finances of, might be reformed, ib.
The French system of taxation compared with that in Britain, ib.
The nature of tontines explained, 390.
Estimate of the whole national debt of, ib.
Frugality, generally a predominating principle in human nature, 140.
Fuller's earth, the exportation of why prohibited, 271.
Funds, British, brief historical view of, 387.
Operation of, politically considered, 393.
The practice of funding has gradually enfeebled every state that has adopted it, 395.
Fur trade, the first principles of, 68.
Gama, Vasco de, the first European who discovered a naval track to the East Indies, 229.
Gardening, the gains from, distinguished into the component parts, 22.
Not a profitable employment, 64.
Gems, See Stones.
General fund in the British finances explained, 389.
Genoa, why corn is dear in the territory of, 80.
Glasgow, the trade of, doubled in fifteen years, by erecting banks there, 120.
Why a city of greater trade than Edinburgh, 138.
Gold, not the standard value in England, 16.
Its value measured by silver, 17.
Reformation of the gold coin, ib.
Mint price of gold in England, ib.
The working the mines of, in Peru, very unprofitable, 71.
Qualities for which this metal is valued, 72.
The proportionate value of, to silver, how rated before and after the discovery of the American mines, 89.
Is cheaper in the Spanish market than silver, 90.
Great quantities of, remitted annually from Portugal to England, 223.
Why little of it remains in England, ib.
Is always to be had for its value, 224.
Gold and Silver, the prices of, how affected by the increase of the quantity of the metals, 79.
Are commodities that naturally seek the best market, 80.
Are metals of the least value among the poorest nations, ib.
The increase in the quantity of, by means of wealth and improvement, has no tendency to diminish their value, 81.
The annual consumption of those metals very considerable, 87.
Annual importation of, into Spain and Portugal, 88.
Are not likely to multiply beyond the demand, ib.
The durability of, the cause of the steadiness of their price, ib.
On what circumstances the quantity of, in every particular country, depends, 100.
The low value of these metals in a country no evidence of its wealth, nor their high value of its poverty, 101.
If not employed at home, will be sent abroad notwithstanding all prohibitions, 139.
The reason why European nations have studied to accumulate these metals, 174.
Commercial arguments in favour of their exportation, ib.
These and all other commodities are mutually the prices of each other, 175.
The quantity of, in every country, regulated by the effectual demand, 176.
Why the prices of these metals do not fluctuate so much as those of other commodities, ib.
To preserve a due quantity of, in a country, no proper object of attention for the government, 176.
The accumulated gold and silver in a country distinguished into three parts, 178.
A great quantity of bullion alternately exported and imported for the purposes of foreign trade, 179.
Annual amount of these metals imported into Spain and Portugal, 180.
The importation of, not the principal benefit derived from foreign trade, 181.
The value of, how affected by the discovery of the American mines, ib.
And by the passage round the Cape of Good Hope to the East Indies, ib.
Effect of the annual exportation of silver to the East Indies, 182.
The commercial means pursued to increase the quantity of these metals in a country, ib., 192.
Bullion, how received and paid at the bank of Amsterdam, 195.
At what prices, 196, note.
A trading country without mines not likely to be exhausted by an annual exportation of these metals, 200.
The value of, in Spain and Portugal, depreciated by restraining the exportation of them, 208.
Are not imported for the purposes of plate or coin, but for foreign trade, 224.
The search after mines of, the most ruinous of all projects, 230.
Are valuable because scarce and difficult to be procured, 231.
Gorgias, evidence of the wealth he acquired by teaching, 56.
Government, civil, indispensibly necessary for the security of private property, 297.
Subordination in society, by what means introduced, ib.
Inequality of fortune introduces civil government for its preservation, 299.
The administration of justice a source of revenue in early times, ib.
Why government ought not to have the management of turnpikes, 304.
Nor of other public works, 306.
Want of parsimony during peace imposes a necessity of contracting debts, to carry on a war, 386.
[Pg 416]Must support a regular administration of justice to cause manufactures and commerce to flourish, 387.
Origin of a national debt, ib.
Progression of public debts, ib.
War, why generally agreeable to the people, 391.
Governors, political, the greatest spendthrifts in society, 142.
Grasses, artificial, tend to reduce the price of butcher's meat, 63.
Graziers, subject to monopolies obtained by manufactures to their prejudice, 271.
Greece, foreign trade promoted in several of the ancient states of, 284.
Military exercises a part of general education, 291.
Soldiers not a distinct profession in, ib.
Course of education in the republics of, 324.
The morals of the Greeks inferior to those of the Romans, ib.
Schools of the philosophers and rhetoricians, 325.
Law no science among the Greeks, ib.
Courts, of justice, ib.
The martial spirit of the people, how supported, 329.
Greek colonies, how distinguished from Roman colonies, 227, 228.
Rapid progress of these colonies, 232.
Greek language, how introduced as a part of university education, 322.
Philosophy, the three great branches of, ib.
Ground rents, great variations of, according to situation, 354.
Are a more proper subject of taxation, than houses, 355.
Gum senega, review of the regulations imposed on the trade for, 272.
Gunpowder, great revolution effected in the art of war by the invention of, 292, 296.
This invention favourable to the extension of civilization, 296.
Gustavus Vasa, how enabled to establish the Reformation in Sweden, 338.
Hanseatic league, causes that rendered it formidable, 164.
Why no vestige remains of the wealth of the Hans towns, 172.
Hamburgh, agio of the bank of, explained, 195.
Sources of the revenue of that city, 343, 344.
The inhabitants of, how taxed to the state, 359.
Hamburgh company, some account of, 308.
Hearth money, why abolished in England, 356, 357.
Henry VIII. of England, prepares the way for the Reformation, by shutting out the authority of the pope, 338.
Herring buss bounty, remarks on, 211.
Fraudulent claims of the bounty, ib.
The boat fishery the most natural and profitable, 212.
Account of the British white herring fishery, ib.
Account of the busses fitted out in Scotland, the amount of their cargoes, and the bounties on them, 287, Append.
Hides, the produce of rude countries commonly carried to a distant market, 97.
Price of, in England three centuries ago, 98.
Salted hides inferior to fresh ones, 98, 99.
The price of, how affected by circumstances in cultivated and in uncultivated countries, ib.
Highlands of Scotland, interesting remarks on the population of, 33.
Military character of the Highlanders, 293.
Hobbes, Mr. remarks on his definition of wealth, 13.
Hogs, circumstances which render their flesh cheap or dear, 95.
Holland, observations on the riches, and trade of the republic of, 38.
Not to follow some business unfashionable there, 40.
Cause of the dearness of corn there, 80.
Enjoys the greatest share in the carrying trade of Europe, 153.
How the Dutch were excluded from being the carriers to Great Britain, 188.
Is a country that prospers under the heaviest taxation, 189.
Account of the bank of Amsterdam, 194, 195.
This republic derives even its subsistence from foreign trade, 202, 203.
Tax paid on houses there, 356.
Account of the tax upon successions, 363.
Stamp duties, 364.
High amount of the taxes in, 370, 384.
Its prosperity depends on the republican form of government, 385.
Honoraries, from pupils to teachers in colleges tendency of, to quicken their diligence, 319.
Hose, in the time of Edward IV., how made, 104.
Hospitality, ancient, the cause and effect of, 169, 385.
House, different acceptations of the term in England, and some other countries, 49.
Houses considered as part of the national stock, 113.
Houses produce no revenue, ib.
The rent of, distinguished into two parts, 354.
Operation of a tax upon house rent, payable by the tenant, ib.
House rent, the best test of the tenant's circumstances, 355.
Proper regulation of a tax on, ib.
How taxed in Holland, 356.
Hearth money, ib.
Window tax, 357.
Hudson's Bay company, the nature of their establishment and trade, 312.
Their profits not so high as has been reported, ib.
Hunters, war, how supported by a nation of, 289.
Cannot be very numerous, 290.
No established administration of justice needful among them, 297.
Age the sole foundation of rank and precedency among, ib.
No considerable inequality of fortune or subordination to be found among them, 298.
No hereditary honours in such a society, ib.
Husbandmen, war, how supported by a nation of, 290.
Husbandry. See Agriculture.
Jamaica, the returns of trade from that island, why irregular, 402.
Idleness unfashionable in Holland, 40.
Jewels. See Stones.
Importation, why restraints have been imposed on, with the two kinds of, 182.
How restrained to secure a monopoly of the home market to domestic industry, 183.
The true policy of these restraints doubtful, ib.
[Pg 417]The free importation of foreign manufactures more dangerous than that of raw materials, 186.
How far it may be proper to continue the free importation of certain foreign goods, 189.
How far it may be proper to restore the free importation of goods, after it has been interrupted, ib.
Of the materials of manufacture, review of the legal encouragements given to, 266.
Independents, the principles of that sect, explained, 332.
Indies. See East and West.
Indostan, the several classes of people there kept distinct, 283.
The natives of, how prevented from undertaking long sea voyages, ib.
Industry, the different kinds of, seldom dealt impartially with by any nation, 1, 2.
The species of, frequently local, 8.
Naturally suited to the demand, 24.
Is increased by the liberal reward of labour, 34.
How affected by seasons of plenty and scarcity, ib., 35.
Is more advantageously exerted in towns than in the country, 53.
The average produce of, always suited to the average consumption, 79.
Is promoted by the circulation of paper money, 119.
Three requisites to putting industry in motion, 120.
How the general character of nations is estimated by, 137.
And idleness, the proportion between, how regulated, ib.
Is employed for subsistence before it extends to conveniencies and luxury, 155.
Whether the general industry of a society is promoted by commercial restraints on importation, 183.
Private interest naturally points to that employment most advantageous to the society, ib.
But without intending or knowing it, 184.
Legal regulations of private industry dangerous assumptions of power, 185.
Domestic industry ought not to be employed on what can be purchased cheaper from abroad, ib.
Of the society, can augment only in proportion as its capital augments, ib.
When it may be necessary to impose some burden upon foreign industry to favour that at home, 187.
The free exercise of industry ought to be allowed to all, 191.
The natural effort of every individual to better his condition, will, if unrestrained, result in the prosperity of the society, 221.
Insurance, from fire and sea risks, the nature and profits of examined, 45.
The trade of insurance may be successfully carried on by a joint-stock company, 317, 318.
Interest, landed, monied, and trading, distinguished, 144.
Interest for the use of money, the foundation of that allowance explained, 22.
Historical view of the alterations of, in England, and other countries, 37.
Remarks on the high rates of, in Bengal, 39.
And in China, 40.
May be raised by defective laws, independent on the influence of wealth or poverty, ib.
The lowest ordinary rate of, must somewhat more than compensate occasional losses, ib.
The common relative proportion between interest and mercantile profits inquired into, ib.
Was not lowered, in consequence of the discovery of the American mines, 145.
How the legal rate of, ought to be fixed, 146.
Consequences of its being fixed too high or too low, ib., 147.
The market rate of, regulates the price of land, ib.
Whether a proper object of taxation, 357.
Ireland, why never likely to furnish cattle to the prejudice of Great Britain, 186.
The proposed absentee tax there considered, 379.
Ought in justice to contribute towards the discharge of the public debt of Great Britain, 402.
Expediency of an union with Great Britain, ib.
Isocrates, the handsome income he made by teaching, 56.
Italy, the only great country in Europe which has been cultivated and improved in every part by means of its foreign commerce, 172.
Was originally colonized by the Dorians, 227.
Jurisdictions, territorial, did not originate in the feudal law, 168.
Justice, the administration of, a duty of the sovereign, 297.
In early times a source of revenue to him, 299.
The making justice subservient to the revenue a source of great abuses, ib.
Is never administered gratis, 300.
The whole administration of, but an inconsiderable part of the expense of government, ib.
How the whole expense of justice might be defrayed from the fees of court, ib.
The interference of the jurisdictions of the several English courts of law accounted for, 301.
Law language, how corrupted, 302.
The judicial and executive power, why divided, ib.
By whom the expense of administration of, ought to be borne, 342.
Kalm, the Swedish traveller, his account of the husbandry of the British colonies in North America, 94.
Kelp, a rent demanded for the rocks on which it grows, 61.
King, Mr. his account of the average price of wheat, 83.
King, under feudal institutions, no more than the greatest baron in the nation, 168.
Was unable to restrain the violence of his barons, 169.
Treasure-trove an important branch of revenue to, 385, 386.
His situation, how favourable for the accumulating treasure, ib.
In a commercial country, naturally spends his revenue in luxuries, ib.
Is hence driven to call upon his subjects for extraordinary aids, ib.
Kings and their ministers the greatest spendthrifts in a country, 149.
Labour, the fund which originally supplies every nation with its annual consumption, 1.
How the proportion between labour and consumption in regulated, ib.
The different kinds of industry seldom dealt impartially with by any nation, 2.
The division of labour considered, ib., 3.
This division increases the quantity of work, 4.
Instances in illustration, 5.
[Pg 418]From what principle the division of labour originates, 6.
The divisibility of governed by the market, 8.
Labour the real measure of the exchangeable value of commodities, 12.
Different kinds of, not easily estimated by immediate comparison, 13.
Is compared by the intermediate standard of money, ib.
In an invariable standard for the value of commodities, 14.
Has a real and a nominal price, ib.
The quantity of labour employed on different objects, the only rule for exchanging them in the rude stages of society, 20.
Difference between the wages of labour and profits on stock in manufactures, ib.
The whole labour of a country never exerted, 22.
Is in every instance suited to the demand, 24.
The effect of extraordinary calls for, 25.
The deductions made from the produce of labour employed upon land, 27.
Why dearer in North America than in England, 29.
Is cheap in countries that are stationary, ib.
The demand for, would continually decrease, in a declining country, 30.
The province of Bengal cited as an instance, ib.
Is not badly paid for in Great Britain, ib., 31.
An increasing demand for, favourable to population, 33.
That of freemen cheaper to the employers than that of slaves, ib.
The money price of, how regulated, 36.
Is liberally rewarded in new colonies, 38.
Common labour and skilful labour distinguished, 42.
The free circulation of, from one employment to another, obstructed by corporation laws, 57.
The unequal prices of, in different places, probably owing to the law of settlements, 59.
Can always procure subsistence on the spot, where it is purchased, 61.
The money price of, in different countries, how governed, 80.
Is set into motion by stock employed for profit, 106.
The division of, depends on the accumulation of stock, 111.
Machines to facilitate labour advantageous to society, 116.
Productive and unproductive distinguished, 135.
Various orders of men specified whose labour in unproductive, 136.
Unproductive labourers all maintained by revenue, ib.
The price of, how raised by the increase of the national capital, 145.
Its price, though nominally raised, may continue the same, 146.
Is liberally rewarded in new colonies, 231.
Of artificers and manufacturers, never adds any value to the whole amount of the rude produce of the land, according to the French agricultural system of political economy, 277.
This doctrine shewn to be erroneous, 281.
The productive powers of labour, how to be improved, ib.
Labourers, useful and productive, everywhere proportioned to the capital stock on which they are employed, 1, 2.
Share the produce of their labour, in most cases, with the owners of the stock on which they are employed, 20.
Their wages a continued subject of contest between them and their masters, 28.
Are seldom successful in their outrageous combinations, ib.
The sufficiency of their earnings a point not easily determined, ib.
Their wages sometimes raised by increase of work, ib.
Their demands limited by the funds destined for payment, 29.
Are continually wanted in North America, ib.
Miserable condition of those in China, ib., 30.
Are not ill paid in Great Britain, ib., 31.
If able to maintain their families in dear years, they must be at their ease in plentiful seasons, ib.
A proof furnished in the complaints of their luxury, 33.
Why worse paid than artificers, 42.
Their interests, strictly connected with the interests of the society, 106.
Labour the only source of their revenue, 112.
Effects of a life of labour on the understandings of the poor, 327.
Land, the demand of rent for, how founded, 21.
The rent paid enters into the greater part of all commodities, ib.
Generally produces more food than will maintain the labour necessary to bring it to market, 61.
Good roads and navigable canals equalize difference of situation, 62.
That employed in raising food for men and cattle regulates the rent of all other cultivated land, 64, 67.
Can clothe and lodge more than it can feed while uncultivated, and the contrary when improved, 68.
The culture of land producing food creates a demand for the produce of other lands, 73.
Produces by agriculture a much greater quantity of vegetable than of animal food, 79.
The full improvement of, requires a stock of cattle to supply manure, 93.
Cause and effect of the diminution of cottagers, 95.
Signs of the land being completely improved, 96.
The whole annual produce, or the price of it, naturally divides itself into rent, wages, and profit of stock, 106.
The usual price of, depends on the common rate of interest for money, 147.
The profits of cultivation exaggerated by projectors, 154.
The cultivation of, naturally preferred to trade and manufactures, on equal terms, 155.
Artificers necessary to the cultivation of, 156.
Was all appropriated, though not cultivated, by the northern destroyers of the Roman empire, 157.
Origin of the law of primogeniture under the feudal government, ib.
Entails, 158.
Obstacles to the improvement of land under feudal proprietors, ib.
Feudal tenures, 159, 160.
Feudal taxation, 161.
The improvement of land checked in France, by the taille, ib.
Occupiers of, labour under great disadvantages, ib.
Origin of long leases of, 169.
Small proprietors the best improvers of, 170.
Small purchasers of, cannot hope to raise fortunes by cultivation, ib., 171.
Tenures of, in the British American colonies, 235.
Is the most permanent source of revenue, 345.
The rent of a whole country not equal to the ordinary levy upon the people, ib.
The revenue from, proportioned not to the rent, but to the produce, 346.
Reasons for selling the crown lands, ib.
The land tax of Great Britain considered, 348.
An improved land-tax suggested, 349.
[Pg 419]A land-tax, however equally rated by a general survey, will soon become unequal, 352.
Tithes a very unequal tax, ib.
Tithes discourage improvement, ib.
Landholders, why frequently inattentive to their own particular interests, 106.
Should be encouraged to cultivate a part of their own land, 350.
Latin language, how it became an essential part of university education, 321.
Law, the language of, how corrupted, 302.
Did not improve into a science in ancient Greece, 325.
Remarks on the courts of justice in Greece and Rome, ib., 326.
Law, Mr. account of his banking scheme for the improvement of Scotland, 130.
Lawyers, why amply rewarded for their labour, 44.
Great amount of their fees, 300.
Leases, the various usual conditions of, 349, 350.
Leather, restrictions on the exportation of unmanufactured, 271.
Lectures in universities frequently improper for instruction, 320.
Levity, the vices of, ruinous to the common people, and therefore severely censured by them, 332, 333.
Liberty, three duties only necessary for a sovereign to attend to for supporting a system of, 286.
Lima, computed number of inhabitants in that city, 233.
Linen manufacture, narrow policy of the master manufacturers in, 266.
Literature, the rewards of, reduced by competition, 56.
Was more profitable in ancient Greece, ib.
The cheapness of literary education an advantage to the public, 57.
Loans of money, the nature of, analysed, 144.
The extensive operation of, ib.
Locke, Mr. remarks on his opinion of the difference between the market and mint prices of silver bullion, 18.
His account of the cause of lowering the rates of interest for money, examined, 145.
His distinction between money and moveable goods, 173.
Lodgings, cheaper in London than in any other capital city in Europe, 49.
Logic, the origin and employment of, 322.
Lotteries, the true nature of, and the causes of their success, explained, 45.
Luck, instances of the universal reliance mankind have on it, 45.
Lutherans, origin and principles of that sect, 339.
Luxuries, distinguished from necessaries, 368.
Operation of taxes on, ib.
The good and bad properties of taxes on, 380.
Macedon, Philip of, the superiority that discipline gave his army over that of his enemies, 294.
Machines for facilitating mechanical operations, how invented and improved, 4, 5.
Are advantageous to every society, 116.
Madder, the cultivation of, long confined to Holland by English tithes, 353.
Madeira wines, how introduced into North America and Britain, 204.
Malt, reasons for transferring the duties on brewing to, 378.
Distillery, how to prevent smuggling, 377.
Manufactures, the great advantages resulting from a division of labour in, 3.
Why profits increase in the higher stages of, 21.
Of what parts the gain consists, 22.
The private advantages of secrets in, 25.
Peculiar advantages of soil and situation, ib.
Monopolies, ib.
Corporation privileges, 26.
The deductions made from labour employed on manufactures, 27.
Inquiry how far they are affected by seasons of plenty and scarcity, 35.
Are not no materially affected by circumstances in the country where they are carried on, as in the places where they are consumed, ib.
New manufactures generally give higher wages than old ones, 48.
Are more profitably carried on in towns than in the open country, 53.
By what means the prices of, are reduced while the society continues improving, 103.
Instances in hardware, ib.
Instances in the woollen manufacture, 104.
What fixed capitals are required to carry on particular manufactures, 112.
Manufactures for distant sale, why not established in North America, 156.
Why preferred to foreign trade for the employment of a capital, ib.
Motives to the establishment of manufactures for distant sale, 165.
How shifted from one country to another, ib., 166.
Natural circumstances which contribute to the establishment of them, ib.
Their effect on the government and manners of a country, 167.
The independence of artisans explained, 169.
May flourish amidst the ruin of a country, and begin to decay on the return of its prosperity, 180.
Inquiry how far manufactures might be affected by a freedom of trade, 190.
British restraints on manufactures in North America, 238, 239.
The exportation of instruments in, prohibited, 273.
By the principal support of foreign trade, 283.
Require a more extensive market than rude produce of the land, ib.
Were exercised by slaves in ancient Greece, 284.
High prices of, in Greece and at Rome, 285.
False policy to check manufactures in order to promote agriculture, ib.
In Great Britain, why principally fixed in the coal countries, 370.
Manufacturers, those thrown out of one business can transfer their industry to colateral employments, 190.
A spirit of combination among them to support monopolies, 191.
Manufacturers prohibited by old statutes from keeping a shop, or selling their own goods by retail, 215, 216.
The use of wholesale dealers to manufacturers, 217.
An unproductive class of the people, according to the French agricultural system of political economy, 276.
[Pg 420]The error of this doctrine shewn, 280.
How manufacturers augment the revenue of a country, 281.
Manure, the supply of, in most places depends on the stock of cattle raised, 93.
Maritime countries, why the first that are civilized and improved, 9.
Martial spirit, how supported in the ancient republics of Greece and Rome, 329.
The want of it now supplied by standing armies, ib.
The establishment of a militia little able to support it, ib.
Mediterranean sea, peculiarly favourable for the first attempts in navigation, 9.
Meggens, Mr. his account of the annual importation of gold and silver into Spain and Portugal, 88.
His relative proportion of each, 89.
Mercantile system explained, 372.
Mercenary troops, origin and reason of, 291.
The numbers of, how limited, ib.
Merchants, their judgments more to be depended on respecting the interest of their particular branches of trade, than with regard to the public interest, 106, 107.
Their capitals altogether circulating, 112.
Their dealings extended by the aid of bankers notes, 121, 124.
Customs of, first established to supply the want of laws, and afterwards admitted as laws, 126.
The manner of negociating bills of exchange, explained, ib.
The pernicious tendency of drawing and redrawing, ib., 127.
In what method their capitals are employed, 147.
Their capitals, dispersed and unfixed, 149.
The principles of foreign trade examined, 153.
Are the best of improvers when they turn country gentlemen, 167.
Their preference among the different species of trade, how determined, 183.
Are actuated by a narrow spirit of monopoly, 201.
The several branches of the corn trade specified and considered, 215.
The government of a company of, the worst a country can be under, 234.
Of London, not good economists, 253.
An unproductive class of men, according to the present agricultural system of political economy in France, 277.
The quick return of mercantile capitals enables merchants to advance money to government, 386, 387.
Their capitals increased by lending money to the state, 387.
Mercier, de la Riviere, M. character of his natural and essential order of political societies, 282.
Metals, why the best medium of commerce, 10.
Origin of stamped coins, 11.
Why different metals became the standard of value among different nations, 16.
The durability of, the cause of the steadiness of their price, 88.
On what the quantity of precious metals in every particular country depends, 100.
Restraints upon the exportation of, 272.
Metaphysics, the science of, explained, 323.
Metayers, description of the class of farmers so called in France, 159.
Methodists, the teachers among, why popular preachers, 330.
Methuen, Mr. translation of the commercial treaty concluded by him between England and Portugal, 223.
Mexico, was a less civilized country than Peru, when first visited by the Spaniards, 85.
Present populousness of the capital city, 233.
Low state of arts at the first discovery of that empire, ib.
Militia, why allowed to be formed in cities, and its formidable nature, 164.
The origin and nature of, explained, 292.
How distinguished from a regular standing army, ib.
Must always be inferior to a standing army, 293.
A few campaigns of service may make a militia equal to a standing army, ib.
Instances, 294.
Milk, a most perishable commodity, how manufactured for store, 96.
Mills, wind and water, their late introduction into England, 105.
Mines, distinguished by their fertility or barrenness, 70.
Comparison between those of coal and those of metals, 71.
The competition between, extends to all parts of the world, ib.
The working of, a lottery, 72.
Diamond mines not always worth working, 73.
Tax paid to the king of Spain from the Peruvian mines, 85.
The discovery of mines not dependent on human skill or industry, 100.
In Hungary, why worked at less expense than the neighbouring ones in Turkey, 284.
Mining, projects of, uncertain and ruinous, and unfit for legal encouragement, 230.
Mirabeau, Marquis de, his character of the economical table, 282.
Mississippi scheme in France, the real foundation of, 130.
Modus for tithe, a relief to the farmer, 353.
Money, the origin of, traced, 10.
Is the representative of labour, 13.
The value of, greatly depreciated by the discovery of the American mines, 14.
How different metals became the standard money of different nations, 16.
The only part of the circulating capital of a society, of which the maintenance can diminish their neat revenue, 116.
Makes no part of the revenue of a society, 117.
The term money, in common acceptation, of ambiguous meaning, ib.
The circulating money, in society, no measure of its revenue, 118.
Paper money, ib.
Effect of paper on the circulation of cash, ib., 119.
Inquiry into the proportion the circulating money of any country bears to the annual produce circulated by it, 120.
Paper can never exceed the value of the cash, of which it supplies the place, in any country, 122.
The pernicious practice of raising money by circulation, explained, 126.
The true cause of its exportation, 139.
Loans of, the principles of, analysed, 144.
Monied interest distinguished from the landed and trading interest, ib.
Inquiry into the real causes of the reduction of interest, 145.
Money and wealth synonymous terms in popular language, 173.
And moveable goods compared, ib.
[Pg 421]The accumulation of, studied by the European nations, 174.
The mercantile arguments for liberty to export gold and silver, ib.
The validity of these arguments examined, 175.
Money and goods mutually the price of each other, ib.
Over-trading causes complaints of the scarcity of money, 176.
Why more easy to buy goods with money, than to buy money with goods, 177.
Inquiry into the circulating quantity of, in Great Britain, 178.
Effect of the discovery of the American mines on the value of, 181.
Money and wealth different things, 182.
See Coins, Gold, and Silver.
Monopolies in trade or manufactures, the tendency of, 25.
Are enemies to good management, 62.
Tendency of making a monopoly, of colony trade, 251.
Countries which have colonies obliged to share their advantages with many other countries, 260.
The chief engine in the mercantile system, 261.
How monopolies derange the natural distribution of the stock of the society, ib.
Are supported by unjust and cruel laws, 268.
Of a temporary nature, how far justifiable, 316.
Perpetual monopolies injurious to the people at large, ib.
Montauban, the inequalities in the predial taille in that generality, how rectified, 352.
Montesquieu, reasons given by him for the high rates of interest among all Mahometan nations, 40.
Examination of his idea of the cause of lowering the rate of interest of money, 145.
Morality, two different systems of, in every civilized society, 332.
The principal points of distinction between them, 333.
The ties of obligation in each system, ib.
Why the morals of the common people are more regular in sectaries than under the established church, ib.
The excesses of, how to be corrected, ib.
Morellet, M. his account of joint-stock companies, defective, 317.
Mun, Mr. his illustration of the operation of money exported for commercial purposes, 174.
Music, why a part of the ancient Grecian education, 324.
And dancing, great amusement among barbarous nations, ib.
Nations, sometimes driven to inhuman customs, by poverty, 1.
The number of useful and productive labourers in, always proportioned to the capital stock on which they are employed, 1, 2.
The several sorts of industry seldom dealt impartially by, 2.
Maritime nations, why the first improved, 8.
How ruined by a neglect of public economy, 140.
Evidences of the increase of a national capital, 141.
How the expenses of individuals may increase the national capital, 142.
Navigation, inland, a great means of improving a country in arts and industry, 9.
The advantages of, 62.
May be successfully managed by joint-stock companies, 317.
Navigation act of England, the principal dispositions of, 187.
Motives that dictated, this law, 188.
Its political and commercial tendency, ib.
Its consequences, so far as it affected the colony trade with England, 245.
Diminished the foreign trade with Europe, 246.
Has kept up high profits in the British trade, ib.
Subjects Britain to a disadvantage in every branch of trade of which she has not the monopoly, ib., 247.
Necessaries distinguished from luxuries, 368.
Principal necessaries taxed, 369.
Negro slaves, why not much employed in raising corn in the English colonies, 159.
Why more numerous on sugar than on tobacco plantations, ib.
Nile, river, the cause of the early improvement of agriculture and manufactures in Egypt, 9.
Oats, bread made of, not so suitable to the human constitution as that made of wheat, 68.
Ontology, the science of, explained, 323.
Oxford, the professorships there, sinecures, 319.
Paper money, the credit of, how established, 118.
Its operation explained, ib.
Its effect on the circulation of cash, ib., 119.
Promotes industry, ib.
Operation of the several banking companies established in Scotland, 120.
Can never exceed the value of the gold and silver, of which it supplies the place in any country, 122.
Consequences of too much paper being issued, ib.
The practice of drawing and redrawing explained, with its pernicious effects, 126.
The advantages and disadvantages of paper credit, stated, 131.
Ill effects of notes issued for small sums, 132.
Suppressing small notes renders money more plentiful, ib.
The currency of, does not affect the prices of goods, 133.
Account of the paper currency in North America, 134.
Expedient of the government of Pennsylvania to raise money, 345.
Why convenient for the domestic purposes of the North Americans, 400.
Paris enjoys a little more trade than is necessary for the consumption of its inhabitants, 138.
Parish ministers, evils attending vesting the election of, in the people, 339.
Parsimony is the immediate cause of the increase of capitals, 138.
Frugal men public benefactors, 140.
Is the only means by which artificers and manufacturers can add to the revenue and wealth of society, according to the French agricultural system of political economy, 277.
Pasture land, under what circumstances more profitable than arable land, 62, 63.
Why it ought to be inclosed, 63.
Patronage, the right of, why established in Scotland, 340.
Pay, military, origin and reason of, 291.
Pennsylvania, account of the paper currency there, 134.
Good consequences of the government there having no religious establishment, 332.
Derive a revenue from their paper currency, 401.
People, how divided into productive and unproductive classes according to the present French system of agricultural political economy, 275.
The unproductive class greatly useful to the others, 277.
The great body of, how rendered unwarlike, 292.
The different opportunities of education in the different ranks of, 328.
The inferior ranks of, the greatest consumers, 375.
The luxurious expenses of these ranks ought only to be taxed, 376.
Persecution for religious opinions, the true cause of, 330.
Peru, the discovery of the silver mines in, occasioned those in Europe to be in a great measure abandoned, 71.
These mines yield but small profit to the proprietors, ib.
Tax paid to the king of Spain from these mines, 85.
The early accounts of the splendour and state of arts, in this country greatly exaggerated, 85, 86.
Present state of, under the Spanish government, 86.
The working of the mines there becomes gradually more expensive, 90.
Low state of arts there when first discovered, 233.
Is probably more populous now than at any former period, ib.
Philosophy, natural, the origin and objects of, 322.
Moral, the nature of, explained, ib.
Logic, the origin and employment of, ib.
Physicians, why amply rewarded for their labour, 43, 44.
Physics, the ancient system of, explained, 322.
Pin-making, the extraordinary advantage of a division of labour in this art, 3.
Plate of private families, the melting it down to supply state exigencies, an insignificant resource, 178.
New plate is chiefly made from old, 225.
Ploughmen, their knowledge more extensive than the generality of mechanics, 53.
Pneumatics, the science of, explained, 323.
Poivre, M. his account of the agriculture of Chochin-China, 66.
Poland, a country still kept in poverty by the feudal system of its government, 101.
Political economy, the two distinct objects and two different systems of, 173.
The present agricultural system of, adopted by French philosophers, described, 275.
Classes of the people who contribute to the annual produce of the land, ib.
How proprietors contribute, ib.
How cultivators contribute, ib.
Artificers and manufacturers unproductive, 276.
The unproductive classes maintained by the others, 277.
Bad tendency of restrictions and prohibitions in trade, 279.
How this system is delineated by M. Quesnai. The bad effects of an injudicious political economy, how corrected, 280.
The capital error in this system pointed out, ib.
Poll-taxes, origin of, under the feudal government, 162, 163.
Why esteemed badges of slavery, 362.
The nature of, considered, 367.
Poor, history of the laws made for the provision of, in England, 57.
Pope of Rome, the great power formerly assumed by, 335.
His power how reduced, 337.
Rapid progress of the Reformation, 338.
Population, riches and extreme poverty equally unfavourable to, 33.
Is limited by the means of subsistence, ib., 69.
Porter, the proportion of malt used in the brewing of, 376.
Portugal, the cultivation of the country not advanced by its commerce, 171, 172.
The value of gold and silver there depreciated by prohibiting their exportation, 208.
Translation of the commercial treaty concluded in 1703 with England, 223.
A large share of the Portugal gold sent annually to England, ib.
Motives that led to the discovery of a passage to the East round the Cape of Good Hope, 229.
Lost its manufactures by acquiring rich and fertile colonies, 251.
Post-office, a mercantile project, well calculated for being managed by a government, 344.
Potatoes, remarks on, as an article of food, 67.
Culture and great produce of, ib.
The difficulty of preserving them the great obstacle to cultivating them for general diet, 68.
Poverty, sometimes urges nations to inhuman customs, 1.
Is no check to the production of children, 33.
But very unfavourable to raising them, ib.
Poultry, the cause of their cheapness, 95.
Is a more important article of rural economy in France than in England, ib.
Pragmatic sanction in France, the object of, 337.
Is followed by the concordat, ib.
Preferments, ecclesiastical, the means by which a national clergy ought to be managed by the civil magistrate, 335.
Alterations in the mode of electing to them, ib., 337.
Presbyterian church government, the nature of, described, 340.
Character of the clergy of, ib., 341.
Prices, real and nominal, of commodities, distinguished, 14.
Money price of goods explained, 19.
Rent for land enters into the price of the greater part of all commodities, 21.
The component parts of the price of goods explained, ib.
Natural and market prices distinguished, and how governed, 23, 36.
Though raised at first by an increase of demand, always reduced by it in the result, 314.
Primogeniture, origin and motive of the law of succession by, under the feudal government, 157.
In contrary to the real interest of families, 158.
Princes, why not well calculated to manage mercantile projects for the sake of a revenue, 344.
Prodigality, the natural tendency of, both to the individual and to the public, 138.
Prodigal men enemies to their country, 140.
Produce of land and labour the source of all revenue, 136.
The value of, how to be increased, 141.
Professors in Universities, circumstances which determine their merit, 340, 341.
Profit, the various articles of gain that pass under the common idea of, 22.
An average rate of, in all countries, 23.
Averages of, extremely difficult to ascertain, 37.
Interest of money the best standard of, ib.
The diminution of, a natural consequence of prosperity, 38.
Clear and gross profit distinguished, 40.
The nature of the highest ordinary rate of, defined, ib.
Double interest deemed in Great Britain a reasonable mercantile profit, ib.
In thriving countries low profit may compensate the high wages of labour, 41.
The operation of high profits and high wages compared, ib.
Compensates inconvenience and disgrace, 42.
Of stock, how affected, 46.
Large profits must be made from small capitals, 47.
Why goods are cheaper in the metropolis than in country villages, ib.
Great fortunes more frequently made by trade in large towns than in small ones, ib.
Is naturally low in rich, and high in poor countries, 106.
How that of the different classes of traders is raised, 148.
Private, the sole motive of employing capitals in any branch of business, 154.
When raised by monopolies, encourage luxury, 253.
Projects, unsuccessful in arts, injurious to a country, 140.
Property, passions which prompt mankind to the invasion of, 297.
Civil government necessary for the production of, ib.
Wealth a source of authority, 298.
Provisions, how far the variations in the price of, affect labour and industry, 30, 34, 36.
Whether cheaper in the metropolis or in country villages, 47.
The prices of, better regulated by competition than by law, 60.
A rise in the prices of, must be uniform, to shew that it proceeds from a depreciation of the value of silver, 102.
Provisers, object of the statute of, in England, 337.
Prussia, mode of assessing the land-tax there, 351.
Public works and institutions, how to be maintained, 302.
Equity of tolls for passage over roads, bridges and canals, 303.
Purveyance, a service still exacted in most parts of Europe, 161.
Quakers of Pennsylvania, inference from their resolution to emancipate all their negro slaves, 159.
Quesnai, M. view of his agricultural system of political economy, 279.
His doctrine generally subscribed to, 282.
Quito, populousness of that city, 233.
Reformation, rapid progress of the doctrines of, in Germany, 338.
In Sweden and Switzerland, ib.
In England and Scotland, ib., 339.
Origin of the Lutheran and the Calvinistic sects, ib.
Regulated companies. See Companies.
Religion, the object of instruction in, 330.
Advantage the teachers of a new religion enjoy over those of one that is established, ib.
Origin of persecutions for heretical opinions, ib.
How the zeal of the inferior clergy of the church of Rome is kept alive, ib.
How united with the civil power, ib., 332.
Rent, reserved, ought not to consist of money, 14.
But of corn, ib.
Of land, constitutes a third part of the price of most kinds of goods, 21.
An average rate of, in all countries, and how regulated, 23.
Makes the first deduction from the produce of labour employed upon land, 27.
The terms of, how adjusted between landlord and tenant, 60, 61.
Is sometimes demanded for what is altogether incapable of human improvement, 61.
Is paid for, and produced, by land in almost all situations, ib.
The general proportion paid for coal mines, 71.
And metal mines, ib.
Mines of precious stones frequently yield no rent, 73.
How paid in ancient times, 76.
Is raised, either directly or indirectly, by every improvement in the circumstances of society, 105.
Gross and neat rent distinguished, 115.
How raised and paid under feudal governments, 137.
Present average proportion of, compared with the produce of the land, ib.
Of houses distinguished into two parts, 354.
Difference between rent of house and rent of land, 355.
Rent of a house the best estimate of a tenants circumstances, ib.
Retainers, under the feudal system of government described, 167.
How the connection between them and their lords was broken, 169.
Revenue, the original source of, pointed out, 22.
Of a country, of what it consists, 115.
The neat revenue of a society diminished by supporting a circulating stock of money, 116.
Money no part of revenue, 117.
Is not to be computed in money, but in what money will purchase, ib.
How produced, and how appropriated, in the first instance, 136.
Produce of land, ib.
Produce of manufactures, ib. Must always replace capital, ib.
The proportion between revenue and capital regulates the proportion between idleness and industry, 138.
Both the savings and the spendings of, annually, consumed, ib.
Of every society, equal to the exchangeable value of the whole produce of its industry, 184.
[Pg 424]Of the customs, increase by drawbacks, 205.
Why government ought not to take the management of turnpikes, to derive a revenue from them, 304.
Public works of a local nature always better maintained by provincial revenues than by the general revenue of the state, 306.
The abuses in provincial revenues trifling, when compared with those in the revenue of a great empire, ib.
The greater the revenue of the church, the smaller must be that of the state, 341.
The revenue of the state ought to be raised proportionably from the whole society, 342.
Local expenses ought to be defrayed by a local revenue, 343.
Inquiry into the sources of public revenue, ib.
Of the republic of Hamburgh, ib., 344.
Whether the government of Britain could undertake the management of the bank, to derive a revenue from it, ib.
The post office, a mercantile project, well calculated for being managed by government, ib.
Princes not well qualified to improve their fortunes by trade, ib.
The English East India Company good traders before they became sovereigns, but each character now spoils the other, ib.
Rent of land the most permanent fund, ib.
Feudal revenues, ib.
Of Great Britain, ib.
Revenue from land proportioned not to the rent but to the produce, 346.
Reasons for selling the crown lands, ib., 347.
The nature and effect of tithes explained, 352.
Why a revenue cannot be raised in kind, 353.
When raised in money, how affected by different modes of valuation, ib.
A proportionable tax on houses the best source of revenue, 355.
Remedies for the diminution of, according to their causes, 374.
Bad effects of farming out public revenues, 381.
The different sources of revenue in France, 384.
How expended in the rude state of society, 385.
Rice, a very productive article of cultivation, 67.
Requires a soil unfit for raising any other kind of food, ib.
Rice countries more populous than corn countries, 86.
Riches, the chief enjoyment of, consists in the parade of, 72, 73.
Risk, instances of the inattention mankind pay to it, 45.
Roads, good, the public advantages of, 62.
The maintenance of, why improper to be trusted to private interest, 304.
General state of, in France, 305.
In China, ib.
Romans, why copper became the standard of value among them, 16.
The extravagant prices paid by them for certain luxuries for the table accounted for, 92.
The value of silver higher among them than at the present time, ib.
The republic of, founded on a division of land among the citizens, 228.
The Agrarian law only executed upon one or two occasions, ib.
How the citizens who had no land subsisted, ib.
Distinction between the Roman and Greek colonies, ib.
The improvement of the former slower than that of the latter, 232.
Origin of the social war, 257.
The republic ruined by extending the privilege of Roman citizens to the greater part of the inhabitants of Italy, 258.
When contributions were first raised to maintain those who went to the wars, 290.
Soldiers not a distinct profession there, 291.
Improvement of the Roman armies by discipline, 294.
How that discipline was lost, 295.
The fall of the western empire, how effected, ib.
Remarks on the education of the ancient Romans, 324.
Their morals superior to those of the Greeks, ib.
State of law, and forms of justice, 325.
Great reductions of the coin practised by, at particular exigencies, 396.
Rome, modern, how the zeal of the inferior clergy of, is kept alive, 330.
The clergy of, one great spiritual army dispersed in different quarters over Europe, 335.
Their power during the feudal monkish ages similar to that of the temporal barons, 336.
Their power, how reduced, 337.
Rouen, why a town of great trade, 138.
Ruddiman, Mr. remarks on his account of the ancient price of wheat in Scotland, 77.
Russia, was civilized under Peter the Great by a standing army, 296.
Sailors, why no sensible inconvenience felt by the great numbers disbanded at the close of a war, 190.
Salt, account of foreign salt imported into Scotland, and of Scotch salt delivered duty free for the fishery, 288, Append.
Is an object of heavy taxation everywhere, 369.
The collection of the duty on, expensive, 380.
Sardinia, the land-tax how assessed there, 352.
Saxon lords, their authority and jurisdiction as great before the Conquest as those of the Normans were afterwards, 168.
Schools, parochial, observations on, 328.
Science is the great antidote to the poison of enthusiasm and superstition, 333.
Scipio, his Spanish militia rendered superior to the Carthaginian militia by discipline and service, 294.
Scotland, compared with England as to the prices of labour and provisions, 31.
Remarks on the population of the Highlands, 33.
The market rate of interest higher than the legal rate, 37.
The situation of cottagers there described, 49.
Apprenticeships and corporations, 51.
The common people of, why neither so strong nor so handsome as the same class in England, 68.
Cause of the frequent emigrations from, 80.
Progress of agriculture there before the union with England, 93.
Present obstructions to better husbandry, ib., 94.
The price of wool reduced by the Union, 99.
[Pg 425]Operation of the several banking companies established there, 120.
Amount of the circulating money there before the Union, ib.
Amount of the present circulating cash, 121.
Course of dealings in the Scotch banks ib.
Difficulties occasioned by these banks issuing too much paper, 123.
Necessary caution for some time observed by the banks in giving credit to their customers, with the good effects of it, 124.
The scheme of drawing and redrawing adopted by traders, 126.
Its pernicious tendency explained, ib., 127.
Mr. Law's scheme to improve the country, 130.
The prices of goods in, not altered by paper currency, 133.
Effect of the optional clauses in their notes, ib.
Cause of the speedy establishment of the Reformation there, 339.
The disorders attending popular elections of the clergy there, occasioned the right of patronage to be established, ib.
Amount of the whole revenue of the clergy, 342.
Sea service and military service by land, compared, 45.
Sects in religion, the more numerous, the better for society, 332.
Why they generally profess the austere system of morality, 333.
Self-love the governing principle in the intercourse of human society, 6.
Servants, menial, distinguished from hired workmen, 135.
The various orders of men who rank in the former class in reference to their labour, 136.
Their labour unproductive, 280.
Settlements of the poor, brief review of the English laws relating to, 57.
The removals of the poor a violation of natural liberty, 59.
The law of, ought to be repealed, 191.
Sheep, frequently killed in Spain for the sake of the fleece and the tallow, 97.
Severe laws against the exportation of them and their wool, 268.
Shepherds, war, how supported by a nation of, 289.
Inequality of fortune among, the source of great authority, 298.
Birth and family highly honoured in nations of shepherds, ib.
Inequality of fortune first began to take place in the age of shepherds, 299.
And introduced civil government, ib.
Shetland, how rents are estimated and paid there, 61.
Silk manufacture, how transferred from Lucca to Venice, 166.
Silver, the first standard coinage of the northern subverters of the Roman empires, 16.
Its proportional value to gold regulated by law, 17.
Is the measure of the value of gold, ib.
Mint price of silver in England, ib.
Inquiry into the difference between the mint and market price of bullion, ib., 18.
How to preserve the silver coin from being melted down for profit, 18.
The mines of, in Europe, why generally abandoned, 71.
Evidences of the small profit they yield to the proprietors in Peru, ib.
The most abundant mines of, would add little to the wealth of the world, 73.
But the increase in the quantity of, would depreciate its own value, 74.
Circumstances that might counteract this effect, ib.
Historical view of the variations in the value of, during the four last centuries, ib., 75.
Remarks on its rise in value compared with corn, 76.
Circumstances that might have misled writers in reviewing the value of silver, ib.
Corn the best standard for judging of the real value of silver, 79.
The price of, how affected by the increase of quantity, ib.
The value of, sunk by the discovery of the American mines, 81.
When the reduction of its value from this cause appears to have been completed, ib.
Tax paid from the Peruvian mines to the king of Spain, 85.
The value of silver kept up by an extension of the market, ib.
Is the most profitable commodity that can be sent to China, 86.
The value of, how proportioned to that of gold before and after the discovery of the American mines, 89.
The quantity commonly in the market in proportion to that of gold probably greater than their relative values indicate, ib.
The value of, probably rising, and why, 90, 91.
The opinion of a depreciation of its value not well founded, 100.
The real value of, degraded by the bounty on the exportation of corn, 207.
Sinking fund in the British finances explained, 389.
Is inadequate to the discharge of former debts, and almost wholly applied to other purposes, 391.
Motives to the misapplication of it, ib., 392.
Slaves, the labour of, dearer to the masters than that of freemen, 53.
Under feudal lords, circumstances of their situation, 159.
Countries where this order of men still remains, ib.
Why the service of slave is preferred to that of freemen, ib.
Their labour why unprofitable, ib.
Causes of the abolishing of slavery throughout the greater part of Europe, 160.
Receive more protection from the magistrate in an arbitrary government than in one that is free, 241.
Why employed in manufactures by the ancient Grecians, 284.
Why no improvements are to be expected from them, ib.
Smuggling, a tempting, but generally a ruinous employment, 46.
Encouraged by high duties, 373.
Remedies against, 374.
The crime of, morally considered, 381.
Society, human, the first principles of, 6.
Soldiers, remarks on their motives for engaging in the military line, 45.
Comparison between the land and sea service, ib.
Why no sensible inconvenience felt by the disbanding of great numbers after a war is over, 190.
Reason of their first serving for pay, 291.
How they became a distinct class of the people, 292.
How distinguished from the militia, ib.
Alteration in their exercise produced by the invention of fire-arms, ib.
South Sea company, amazing capital once enjoyed by, 311.
Mercantile and stock-jobbing projects of, 312.
Assiento contract, ib.
Whale fishery, ib.
The capital of, turned into annuity stock, ib., 388.
Sovereign and trader, inconsistent characters, 344.
Sovereign, three duties only necessary for him to attend to for supporting a system of natural liberty, 286.
How he is to protect the society from external violence, 289, 296.
And the members of it from the injustice and oppression of each other, 297.
And to maintain public works and institutions, 302.
Spain, One of the poorest countries in Europe, notwithstanding its rich mines, 101.
Its commerce has produced no considerable manufactures for distant sale, and the greater part of the country remains uncultivated, 171, 172.
Spanish mode of estimating their American discoveries, 173.
The value of gold, and silver there depreciated by laying a tax on the exportation of them, 208.
Agriculture and manufactures there discouraged by the redundancy of gold and silver, ib., 209.
Natural consequences that would result from taking away this tax, ib.
The real and pretended motives of the court of Castile for taking possession of the countries discovered by Columbus, 230.
The tax on gold and silver, how reduced, ib.
Gold the object of all the enterprises to the new world, ib.
The colonies of, less populous than those of any other European nation, 232, 233.
Asserted an exclusive claim to all America, until the miscarriage of their invincible armada, ib.
Policy of the trade with the colonies, 236.
The American establishments of, effected by private adventurers, who received little beyond permission from the government, 242.
The alcavala tax there explained, 381.
The ruin of the Spanish manufactures attributed to it, ib.
Speculation, a distinct employment in improved society, 5.
Speculative merchants described, 47.
Stage, public performers on, paid for the contempt attending their profession, 44.
The political use of dramatic representations, 334.
Stamp duties in England and Holland, remarks on, 363, 364, 365.
Steel-bow tenants in Scotland, what, 160.
Stock, the profits raised on, in manufactures, explained, 20.
In trade, an increase of, raises wages, and diminishes profit, 36.
Must be larger in a great town than in a country village, 37.
Natural consequences of a deficiency of stock in new colonies, 38.
The profits on, little affected by the easiness or difficulty of learning a trade, 43.
But by the risk or disagreeableness of the business, 46.
Stock employed for profit sets into motion the greater part of useful labour, 106.
No accumulation of, necessary in the rude state of society, 111.
The accumulation of, necessary to the division of labour, ib.
Stock distinguished into two parts, 112.
The general stock of a country or society explained, 113.
Houses, ib.
Improved land, ib.
Personal abilities, ib.
Money and provisions, 114.
Raw materials and manufactured goods, ib.
Stock of individuals, how employed, 115.
Is frequently buried or concealed in arbitrary countries, ib.
The profits on, decrease in proportion as the quantity increases, 137.
On what principles stock is lent and borrowed at interest, 144.
That of every society divided among different employments, in the proportion most agreeable to the public interest, by the private views of individuals, 260.
The natural distribution of, deranged by monopolizing systems, 261.
Every derangement of, injurious to the society, 262.
Mercantile, is barren and unproductive, according to the French agricultural system of political economy, 277.
How far the revenue from, is an object of taxation, 357.
A tax on, intended under the land-tax, 358.
Stockings, why cheaply manufactured in Scotland, 49.
When first introduced into England, 104.
Stone quarries, their value depends on situation, 69, 74.
Stones, precious, of no use but for ornament, and how the price of, is regulated, 73.
The most abundant mines, would add little to the wealth of the world, ib.
Subordination, how introduced into society, 297.
Personal qualifications, ib.
Age and fortune, ib.
Birth, 298.
Birth and fortune two great sources of personal distinction, ib.
Subsidy, old, in the English customs, the drawbacks upon, 203.
Origin and import of the term, 372.
Sugar, a very profitable article of cultivation, 66, 159.
Drawbacks on the importation of, from England, 204.
Might be cultivated by the drill-plough, instead of all hand-labour by slaves, 241.
A proper subject for taxation, as an article sold at monopoly price, 378.
Sumptuary laws, superfluous restraints on the common people, 142.
Surinam, present state of the Dutch colony there, 234.
Switzerland, establishment of the Reformation in Berne and Zurich, 338.
The clergy there zealous and industrious, 342.
Taxes how paid there, 359, 363.
Taille, in France, the nature of that tax, and its operation, explained, 161.
Talents, natural, not so various in different men as is supposed, 7.
Tartars, their manner of conducting war, 289.
Their invasions dreadful, ib.
Tavernier, his account of the diamond mines of Golconda and Visiapour, 73.
Taxes, the origin of, under the feudal government, 162.
The sources from whence they must arise, 347.
Unequal taxes, ib.
Ought to be clear and certain, ib.
Ought to be levied at the times most convenient for payment, ib.
Ought to take as little as possible out of the pockets of the people more than is brought into the public treasury, 348.
[Pg 427]How they may be made more burdensome to the people than beneficial to the sovereign, ib.
The land-tax of Great Britain, ib.
Land-tax of Venice, 349.
Improvements suggested for a land-tax, ib.
Mode of assessing the land-tax in Prussia, 351.
Tithes a very unequal tax, and a discouragement to improvement, 352.
Operation of tax on house rent, payable by the tenant, 354.
How far the revenue from stock is a proper object of taxation, 357.
Whether interest of money is proper for taxation, ib.
How taxes are paid at Hamburgh, 339.
In Switzerland, ib.
Taxes upon particular employments, ib.
Poll-taxes, 362.
Taxes badges of liberty, ib.
Taxes upon the transfer of property, 362.
On whom the several kinds of taxes principally fall, 364.
Taxes upon the wages of labour, 365.
Capitation taxes, 367.
Taxes upon consumable commodities, 368.
Upon necessaries, ib.
Upon luxuries, ib.
Absurdities in taxation, 370.
Different parts of Europe very highly taxed, ib.
Two different methods of taxing consumable commodities, ib.
Sir Matthew Decker's scheme of taxation considered, 371.
Excise and customs, ib.
Taxation sometimes not an instrument of revenue, but of monopoly, 373.
Improvements of the customs suggested, 374.
Taxes paid in the price of a commodity little adverted to, 379, 380.
On luxuries, the good and bad properties of, ib.
Bad effects of farming them out, 383.
How the finances of France might be reformed, 384.
French and English taxations compared, ib.
New taxes always generate discontent, 391, 392.
How far the British system of taxation might be applicable to all the different provinces of the empire, 397.
Such a plan might speedily discharge the national debt, 399.
Tea, great importation and consumption of that drug in Britain, 86.
Teachers in Universities, tendency of endowments to diminish their application, 319.
The jurisdictions to which they are subject little calculated to quicken their diligence, ib.
Are frequently obliged to gain protection by servility, ib.
Defects in their establishments, ib., 320.
Teachers among the ancient Greeks and Romans superior to those of modern times, 326.
Circumstances which draw good ones to, or drain them from, the universities, 340.
Their employment naturally renders them eminent in letters, 341.
Tenures, feudal, general observations on, 137.
Described, 157.
Theology, monkish, the complexion of, 323.
Thoulouse, salary paid to counsellor or judge in the parliament of, 301.
Tin, average rent of the mines of in Cornwall, 71.
Yield a greater profit to the proprietors than the silver mines of Peru, ib., 72.
Regulations under which tin mines are worked, ib.
Tobacco, the culture of, why restrained in Europe, 66.
Not so profitable an article of cultivation in the West Indies as sugar, ib.
The amount and course of the British trade with, explained, 153.
The whole duty upon, drawn back on exportation, 204.
Consequences of the exclusive trade Britain enjoys with Maryland and Virginia in this article, 244.
Tolls, for passage over roads, bridges, and navigable canals, the equity of, shewn, 303.
Upon carriages of luxury, ought to be higher than upon carriages of utility, ib.
The management of turnpikes often an object of just complaint, 304.
Why government ought not to have the management of turnpikes, ib., 379.
Tonnage and poundage, origin of those duties, 372.
Tontine in the French finances, what, with the derivation of the name, 390.
Towns, the places where industry is most profitably exerted, 53.
The spirit of combination prevalent among manufacturers, ib., 54.
According to what circumstances the general character of the inhabitants as to industry is formed, 137.
The reciprocal nature of the trade between them and the country explained, 155.
Subsist on the surplus produce of the country, ib.
How first formed, 156.
Are continual fairs, ib.
The original poverty and servile state of the inhabitants of, 162.
Their early exemptions and privileges, how obtained, ib.
The inhabitants of, obtained liberty much earlier than the occupiers of land in the country, 163.
Origin of corporations, ib.
Why allowed to form militia, 164.
How the increase and riches of commercial towns contributed to the improvement of the countries to which they belonged, 167.
Trade, double interest deemed a reasonable mercantile profit in, 40.
Four general classes of, equally necessary to, and dependent on, each other, 147.
Wholesale, three different sorts of, 151.
The different returns of home and foreign trade, ib.
The nature and operation of the carrying trade examined, 152.
The trade between town and country explained, 155.
Original poverty and servile state of the inhabitants of towns under feudal government, 162.
Exemptions and privileges granted to them, ib.
Extension of commerce by rude nations selling their own raw produce for the manufactures of more civilised countries, 165.
Its salutary effects on the government and manners of a country, 167.
Subverted the feudal authority, 168.
The independence of tradesmen and artizans explained, 169.
The capitals acquired by, very precarious, until some part has been realised by the cultivation and improvement of land, 172.
Over-trading, the cause of complaints of the scarcity of money, 176.
The importation of gold and silver not the principal benefit derived from foreign trade, 181.
[Pg 428]Effect produced in trade and manufactures by the discovery of America, ib.
And by the discovery of a passage to the East Indies round the Cape of Good Hope, ib.
Error of commercial writers in estimating national wealth by gold and silver, 182.
Inquiry into the cause and effect of restraints upon trade, ib.
Individuals, by pursuing their own interest, unknowingly promote that of the public, 184.
Legal regulations, of trade unsafe, ib.
Retaliatory regulations between nations, 189.
Measures for laying trade open ought to be carried into execution slowly, 191.
Policy of the restraints on trade between France and Britain considered, 192.
No certain criterion to determine on which side the balance of trade between two countries turns, ib.
Most of the regulations of, founded on a mistaken doctrine of the balance of trade, 199.
Is generally founded on narrow principles of policy, 201.
Drawbacks of duties, 203.
The dealer who employs his whole stock on one single branch of business has an advantage of the same kind with the workman who employs his whole labour on a single operation, 216.
Consequences of drawing it from a number of small channels into one great channel, 249.
Colony trade, and the monopoly of that trade distinguished, 250.
Advantages attending a perfect freedom of, to landed nations, according to the present agricultural system of political economy in France, 278.
Origin of foreign trade, 279.
Consequences of high duties and prohibitions in landed nations, ib.
How trade augments the revenue of a country, 281.
Nature of the trading intercourse between the inhabitants of towns and those of the country, 285.
Trades, cause and effect of the separation of, 3.
Origin of, 7.
Transit duties explained, 379.
Travelling for education, summary view of the effects of, 324.
Treasures, why formerly accumulated by princes, 180.
Treasure-trove, the term explained, 115.
Why an important branch of revenue under the ancient feudal governments, 385.
Turkey company, short historical view of, 308.
Turnpikes. See Tolls.
Tithes, why an unequal tax, 352.
The levying of, a great discouragement to improvements, ib.
The fixing a modus for, a relief to the farmer, 353.
Value, the term defined, 12.
Vedius Pollio, his cruelty to his slaves checked by the Roman emperor Augustus, which could not have been done under the republican form of government, 241.
Venice, origin of the silk manufacture in that city, 166.
Traded in East India goods before the sea track round the Cape of Good Hope was discovered, 228, 229.
Nature of the land-tax in that republic, 349.
Venison, the price of, in Britain, does not compensate the expense of a deer park, 94.
Vicesima hereditatum among the ancient Romans, the nature of, explained, 363.
Villages, how first formed, 156.
Villenage, probable cause of the wearing out of that tenure in Europe, 160, 161.
Vineyard, the most profitable part of agriculture, both among the ancients and moderns, 65.
Great advantages derived from peculiarities of soil in, ib.
Universities, the emoluments of the teachers in, how far calculated to promote their diligence, 319.
The professors at Oxford have mostly given up teaching, ib.
Those in France subject to incompetent jurisdictions, ib.
The privileges of graduates improperly obtained, 320.
Abuse of lectureships, ib.
The discipline of, seldom calculated for the benefit of the students, ib.
Are in England more corrupted than the public schools, 321.
Original foundation of, ib.
How Latin became an essential article in academical education, ib.
How the study of the Greek language was introduced, ib., 322.
The three great branches of the Greek philosophy, ib.
Are now divided into five branches, ib.
The monkish course of education in, 323.
Have not been very ready to adopt improvements, ib.
Are not well calculated to prepare men for the world, 324.
How filled with good professors or drained of them, 340.
Where the worst and best professors are generally to be met with, ib., 341.
—See Colleges and Teachers.
Wages of labour, how settled between masters and workmen, 27.
The workmen generally obliged to comply with the terms of their employers, ib.
The opposition of workmen outrageous, and seldom successful, 28.
Circumstances which operate to raise wages, ib.
The extent of wages limited by the funds from which they arise, ib.
Why higher in North America than in England, ib.
Are low in countries that are stationary, ib.
Not oppressively low in Great Britain, 30.
A distinction made here between the wages in summer and in winter, 31.
If sufficient in dear years, they must be ample in seasons of plenty, ib.
Different rates of, in different places, ib.
Liberal wages encourage industry and propagation, 33.
An advance of, necessarily raises the price of many commodities, 36.
An average of, not easily ascertained, 37.
The operation of high wages and high profits compared, 41.
Causes of the variations of, in different employments, ib.
Are generally higher in new, than in old trades, 48, 57.
Legal regulations of, destroy industry and ingenuity, 59, 60.
Natural effect of a direct tax upon, 365.
Walpole, Sir Robert, his excise scheme defended, 375.
Wants of mankind, how supplied through the operation of labour, 9, 10.
How extended, in proportion to their supply, 69.
The far greater part of them supplied from the produce of other men's labour, 111.
Wars, foreign, the funds for the maintenance of, in the present century, have little dependence on the quantity of gold and silver in a nation, 178, 179.
How supported by a nation of hunters, 289.
By a nation of shepherds, ib.
By a nation of husbandmen, 290.
Men of military age, what proportion they bear to the whole society, ib.
Feudal wars, how supported, ib.
Causes which, in the advanced state of society, rendered it impossible for those who took the field, to maintain themselves, ib.
How the art of war became a distinct profession, 291.
Distinction between the militia and regular forces, 292.
Alteration in the art of war produced by the invention of fire-arms, ib., 296.
Importance of discipline, 293.
Macedonian army, 294.
Feudal armies, 295.
A well regulated standing army, the only defence of a civilized country, and the only means for speedily civilizing a barbarous country, 296.
The want of parsimony during peace, imposes on states the necessity of contracting debts to carry on war, 386, 391.
Why war is agreeable to those who live secure from the immediate calamities of it, 391.
Advantages of raising the supplies for, within the year, 394.
Watch movements, great reduction in the prices of, owing to mechanical improvements, 103.
Wealth and money, synonymous terms, in popular language, 173, 182.
Spanish and Tartarian estimate of, compared, 173.
The great authority conferred by the possession of, 298.
Weavers, the profits of, why necessarily greater than those of spinners, 21.
West Indies, discovered by Columbus, 229.
How they obtained this name, ib.
The original native productions of, ib.
The thirst of gold the object of all the Spanish enterprises there, 230.
And of those of every other European nation, 231.
The remoteness of, greatly in favour of the European colonies there, 232.
The sugar colonies of France better governed than those of Britain, 241.
Wheat. See Corn.
Window-tax in Britain, how rated, 357.
Tends to reduce house rent, ib.
Windsor market, chronological table of the prices of corn at, 109.
Wine, the cheapness of, would be a cause of sobriety, 200.
The carrying trade in, encouraged by English statutes, 204.
Wood, the price of, rises in proportion as a country is cultivated, 70.
The growth of young trees prevented by cattle, ib.
When the planting of trees becomes a profitable employment, ib.
Wool, the produce of rude countries, commonly carried to a distant market, 97.
The price of, in England, has fallen considerably since the time of Edward III., ib.
Causes of this diminution in price, 98.
The price of, considerably reduced in Scotland, by the Union with England, 99.
Severity of the laws against the exportation of, 268.
Restraints upon the inland commerce of, 269.
Restraints upon the coasting trade of, ib.
Pleas on which these restraints are founded, ib.
The price of wool depressed by these regulations, 270.
The exportation of, ought to be allowed, subject to a duty, 271.
Woollen cloth, the present prices of, compared with those at the close of the fifteenth century, 104.
Three mechanical improvements introduced in the manufacture of, ib., 105.
End of An Inquiry Into the Nature and Causes
of the Wealth of Nations, by Writer 35
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Community / Lifestyle
The International Experience at Dana Hall
Posted by Sarah Syed on October 13, 2017 at 4:20 pm
If you walk into a Johnston Dormitory on any given day, you might see a group of Korean international students circled around the common room table, eating homemade kimchi while watching a Korean drama. Or maybe you’ll hear some students from Mexico jamming out to their favorite tunes and being one of the very few people you will meet that actually know the lyrics to “Despacito.” Even though international students seem to easily adapt to boarding life at Dana Hall, it’s not always the case. In reality, they may face many obstacles due to cultural boundaries.
“The most challenging transition for international students is the culture shock.” Says Mrs. Corrigan, Dean of Residential Life/International Student Advisor. Having worked with students from all over the world, Mrs. Corrigan notes the arduous journey of students “who are coming from a place where they’ve lived and grown with traditions they’ve been immersed in all their lives. Then they come to the United states and have a new experience adjusting to the norms and environment.”
Cultural change is a major struggle that is often overlooked in our community. Students at Dana Hall are so used to having international students around them, in their classes, advisories, sports teams, and friend groups. They tend to forget that it is very different for their international peers, with homes 16 hour flights away, possibly operating under a government with a whole other lifestyle, and a different perspective of the world. It’s important that we don’t forget that and appreciate their strength to fight any struggles they have as international students.
The two main struggles that students themselves have dealt with, apart from the obvious cultural differences, are homesickness and time management. International students face homesickness to a greater extent than domestic boarding students. As families swarm around campus during family weekend or as boarders leave for home during short breaks, international students are unable to reunite with their families like their friends. “Sometimes all you want to do is see your family in person. Sometimes Skype just isn’t enough.”
Freshman Rachael Chandley from Jamaica says. Although it’s a struggle to cope with, Rachel finds herself being able to exploit Dana’s riding facility to mitigate her feelings of homesickness. New sophomore Bink Vijitkasemkij says her main struggle at Dana is time management. She never had much difficulty managing time at her previous school in Thailand, as she did not have to play sports every day, which she finds takes a lot of time away from her studying. As she works through her time obstacle, Bink finds herself succeeding in making new friends and taking advantage of new academic opportunities and becoming active in the school community. “Everyone is so welcoming and friendly. I love the people who I am with, they’re amazing and push me to do my best” she says.
As students of Dana Hall, we all have been impacted by the Dana Bubble– boarders more so than day students. While some students like the seclusion and security away from the outside world, others find it frustrating that they are separated from the rest of the world. Many international students at Dana seem to like the “safe and protective environment that Dana offers” as Bink suggests.
Junior Saida Canales from Mexico says loves it as well. “I don’t feel like the Dana bubble is made of steel because once in awhile you can pop the bubble and head outside for some really cool trips” she says. As a person who enjoys having her academic life mixed in with her home life, she says she likes seeing the people that are in her dorm at school because it lets her see another side to them that she would not be able to see if they did not live together. For students who face hardships coming from another culture and country, they feel as though they are fortunate to have Dana be their home away from home, therefore enjoying the Bubble, its people, and its traditions.
“We are really lucky to be at Dana Hall as international students. It gives us the opportunity to come out of our comfort zone and try and learn new things that we are not used to” says Katherine Tsai, co-leader of the International Student Association (ISA) from the class of 2018. Although she faces struggles at Dana as an international student, she also appreciates being here as “people back at home typically don’t have the chance to see the outside world and make friends from different countries.”
Senior Ji Woo Jun from Korea who was a new student in her sophomore year realizes that during her three years at Dana, she’s grown so much. “I was afraid of being judged as an international student, but I’ve learned to speak up because I’m in this environment that is so supportive.” Both seniors agree that they can appreciate new things that they were not able to do in their respective countries, but they are now able to at Dana such as rock climbing, riding lessons, and being leaders in the school community.
Dana Hall truly is is a melting pot of diverse experiences and cultures from girls all over the world that are brought together and create our close-knit community. While we all have our own struggles in the end, what really matters is that we’re there for eachother together.
Author: Sarah Syed
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Moby: I Like To Score
Just as electronica hype was at its peak early this year, Moby—who has long been one of the genre's most talented, versatile and recognizable practitioners—went and released Animal Rights, a self-indulgent, overblown scrapheap in which Moby inexplicably decided to ape Trent Reznor. That album possessed a tiny handful of excellent tracks, but they weren't enough, and his star has faded considerably since the album's release. In an apparent attempt to mend Moby's reputation a bit, here's I Like To Score, a collection of the New Yorker's film-score work. Entries are all over the map: There's Cool World's dancy "Ah-Ah," which you've probably heard before, as well as languid material like the Enya-esque "Novio," and "Go," an early Moby hit which extensively samples some of Angelo Badalamenti's Twin Peaks score. "New Dawn Fades" is a Joy Division cover, while "James Bond Theme" turns the venerable, unmistakable song into an energized, rave-'til-dawn dance number. Disappointingly, though, I Like To Score is padded to album length with material already owned by any Moby fan who'd shell out the money to buy a compilation like this: "God Moving Over The Face Of The Waters" and "First Cool Hive" may be from Heat and Scream, respectively, but they can also be heard on his 1995 classic Everything Is Wrong. If you don't already have that album, buy it. In the meantime, you can probably pass on this.
Recent from Stephen Thompson
Everclear: Ten Years Gone: The Best Of Everclear 1994-2004
A day in the life of basic cable
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Blog, Michigan, News
Medical Weight Loss Clinic encourages those with IBD to share stories this Crohn’s and Colitis Awareness Week
We’re in the midst of an important week here at Medical Weight Loss Clinic – Crohn’s and Colitis Awareness Week extends until Dec. 7, 2018. Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis both represent types of inflammatory bowel diseases. According to the Crohn’s & Colitis Foundation, IBD affects an estimated 1.6 million Americans. Crohn’s disease impacts the gastrointestinal tract, while ulcerative colitis is often limited to the colon. Both chronic illnesses are marked by an abnormal response from the body’s immune system. Men and women are equally impacted by these diseases.
That’s why this week, the foundation encourages those with related health challenges to share their stories with #myIBD. It isn’t restricted to those who have been diagnosed with either Crohn’s disease or ulcerative colitis – but those who are caregivers or have friends and loved ones with these chronic illnesses.
Owner David Paull, of Medical Weight Loss Clinic, has a strong personal connection to this cause. And it’s one we feel many friends, family and members of our community may connect with as well.
“I was diagnosed with Crohn’s in 2008,” David says. “Once I was healthy enough to do so, I wanted to get involved. I knew that a friend of mine had Crohn’s and he was on the Board of Directors for the Michigan Chapter of the Crohn’s & Colitis Foundation. I asked him how I could get involved and he recommended that I join the board, which I did in 2012.”
His work with CCF ties in closely with his role at Medical Weight Loss Clinic. “At Medical Weight Loss Clinic, we are interested in promoting a healthy lifestyle, and diet and nutrition plays a big role in this,” he adds. “The same is true for people who suffer from IBD or Intestinal Bowel Disease.”
David urges those with questions about programs at the Clinic or concerns related to Crohn’s or ulcerative colitis to ask questions and seek help. Many programs at the clinic address health issues including those associated with IBD. “The kinder you are to your digestive system, the kinder it will be to you,” he says.
David is proud to represent the Michigan Chapter of the Crohn’s & Colitis Foundation, based in Farmington HIlls. He will serve as its president in 2019.
“I am excited with the opportunity to grow awareness for the Foundation,” David says. “Ultimately our goal is to find a cure. I hope to get more people involved with the organization and raise more money for research. I am grateful that I am in a position to give back.”
To learn more about their mission and the work David is doing there, please visit
http://www.crohnscolitisfoundation.org/chapters/michigan.
To learn more about the Medical Weight Loss Center and how healthy choices can enhance your life, call 248-353-8446 or visit https://mwlc.com.
Tagged: Crohn's diesease, Crohn’s and Colitis Awareness Week, David Paull, IBD, Intestinal Bowel Disease-, Medical Weight Loss Clinic, Michigan Chapter of the Crohn’s & Colitis Foundation, ulcerative colitis
Newer PostBrownies
Older PostTips for Using a Slow Cooker
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Mashreq–Worldwide RelationsTurkey & Iran
Iranian Protests Expose Contours of Leadership in the Muslim Majority World
January 16, 2018011 James M. Dorsey
© Photo: ABC News. Iranian protests
If week-long anti-government protests in Iran exposed the Islamic republic’s deep-seated economic and political problems, they also laid bare Saudi Arabia’s structural inability to establish itself as the leader of the Sunni Muslim world.
The responses to the protests of major Sunni Muslim countries in the Middle East and North Africa demonstrated that none of the contenders for regional dominance and leadership that include Turkey and Egypt were willing to follow the Saudi lead.
In fact, the responses appeared to confirm that regional leadership was likely to be shared between Turkey, Iran, and Egypt rather than decided in a debilitating power struggle between Saudi Arabia and the Islamic republic that has wreaked havoc across the Middle East and North Africa and that the kingdom has so far lost on points.
James M. Dorsey
is a senior fellow at the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies as Nanyang Technological University in Singapore, co-director of the Institute of Fan Culture of the University of Würzburg and the author of the blog, The Turbulent World of Middle East Soccer, and a forthcoming book with the same title.
Latest posts by James M. Dorsey (see all)
African Cup of Nations: PR Fiasco for Egyptian Hosts - July 12, 2019
Public Decency Law Puts Saudi Reforms in Perspective - June 30, 2019
The Middle East: Barrelling towards a Nuclear and Ballistic Missiles Arms Race - June 27, 2019
Uncharacteristically, Saudi Arabia under the rule of King Salman and his son, Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, has refrained from commenting on the protests. The kingdom has also been silent in the walk-up to US President Donald J. Trump’s decision what to do with American adherence to the 2015 international nuclear agreement with Iran.
While Saudi media, oblivious of the potential for dissent in the kingdom, gloated about the exploding discontent in Iran, Saudi leaders stayed quiet in a bid to avoid providing Iranian leaders with a pretext to blame external forces for the unrest. (That did not stop Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei and other Iranian leaders from laying the blame at the doors of Saudi Arabia, Israel and the United States).
Similarly, Saudi Arabia, whose regional prominence is to a significant extent dependent on US, if not international containment of Iran, stayed publicly on the side lines as Mr. Trump deliberated undermining the agreement that for almost three years has severely restricted Iran’s nuclear program and halted the Islamic republic’s potential ambition of becoming a nuclear power any time soon.
While the Saudis would welcome any tightening of the screws on Iran, they have come to see the agreement as not only preventing Iran, at least for now, from developing a military nuclear capability but also as avoiding a regional nuclear arms race in which Turkey and Egypt as well as potentially the United Arab Emirates would not be left out.
The agreement gives the kingdom in the meantime an opportunity to put in place building blocks for a future military nuclear capability, if deemed necessary. Mr. Trump’s apparent willingness to ease restrictions on Saudi enrichment of uranium as part of his bid to ensure that US companies play a key role in the development of Saudi Arabia’s nuclear energy sector facilitates the Saudi strategy.
In contrast to the Saudis, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdogan was vocal in his support for the Iranian government and call to Iranian President Hassan Rouhani to express his solidarity. Egypt, like Saudi Arabia, has not commented on the protests but has been studious in avoiding being sucked into the Saudi-Iranian rivalry, including its multiple proxy battles in Yemen and elsewhere.
The different responses to the Iranian protests represent more than a difference of evaluation of recent events in the Islamic republic. They represent the fault lines of two, if not three, major alliances that are emerging in the Middle East and North Africa and adjacent regions like the Horn of Africa around the contenders for regional leadership.
They also highlight Saudi Arabia’s inability to garner overwhelming support for its ambition and/or multiple efforts to achieve it by among others declaring an economic and diplomatic boycott of Qatar, intervening militarily in Yemen, and failing to force the resignation of Lebanese prime minister Saad Hariri.
Turkey has effectively sought to counter Saudi moves not only by forging close ties to the Islamic republic despite differences over Syria, but also by supporting Qatar with a military base in the Gulf state and the supply of food and other goods whose flow was interrupted by the Saudi-led boycott.
Turkey has further established a military training facility in Somalia; is discussing creating a base in Djibouti, the Horn of Africa’s rent-a-military base country par excellence with foreign military facilities operated by France, the United States, Saudi Arabia, China and Japan; and recently signed a $650 million agreement with Sudan to rebuild a decaying Ottoman port city and construct a naval dock to maintain civilian and military vessels on the African country’s Red Sea coast. Saudi Arabia sees the Turkish moves as an effort to encircle it.
Turkey, to the chagrin of Saudi Arabia, and its closest regional ally, the UAE, as well as Egypt has supported the Muslim Brotherhood as well as other strands of political Islam. Egypt this week launched an investigation into embarrassing leaks from an alleged intelligence officers that were broadcast on the Brotherhood’s Istanbul-based Mekameleen tv station and published in The New York Times. Egypt has denied the accuracy of the leaks.
If Saudi Arabia, backed by the UAE and Bahrain and Israel as an officially unacknowledged partner constitutes one block, Turkey forms another that could either include or cooperate with the region’s third pole, Iran. Egypt, conscious of its past as the Arab world’s undisputed leader, may not be able to yet carve out a distinct leadership role for itself, but has worked hard to keep the door open.
Underlying the jockeying for regional dominance is a stark reality. Turkey, Iran and Egypt, to varying degrees, have crucial assets that Saudi Arabia lacks: large populations, huge domestic markets, battle-hardened militaries, resources, and a deep sense of identity rooted in an imperial past and/or a sense of thousands of years of history. Saudi Arabia has as the custodian of Islam’s most holy cities, Mecca and financial muscle. In the longer run, that is unlikely to prove sufficient.
Related tags : allies in the Middle East and North AfricaEgyptIran nuclear agreementIranian ProtestsLeadership in the Muslim majority worldmajor Sunni Muslim countries in the Middle East and North Africaregional leadership in the Middle Eastrelation betwenn Saudi Arabia and IranSaudi Arabia unable to be the leader of the Sunni Muslim worldSaudi Arabia's dependence on the USASaudi Arabia's nuclear energy sectorTurkey's support for the Iranian government
Damming the Nile – Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia Battle It out
Radicalization: The Road to Terrorism – Op-Ed
LGBT+Social Minorities
August 2, 2015044
Where Is LGBT Community in the Arab-Muslim Majority World?
[ezcol_1fifth][/ezcol_1fifth] [ezcol_3fifth] A report of the Academy of Science of South Africa titled “Diversity in Human Sexuality: Implications for policy in Africa” has just been published
Study in Contrasts: Militaries in Political Transitions in Asia, the Middle East and North Africa
[ezcol_1fifth][/ezcol_1fifth] [ezcol_3fifth] The Economist recently highlighted the contrast between post-revolt Asian societies and Middle Eastern and North African societies in the woes of a
EgyptNews
Egypt Sentences Six to Death and Morsi to Life Prison in Qatar Spying Case
Causing uproar among journalists and human rights groups, the Egyptian court verdict is being massively criticised. The long winded Qatar espionage case is finally coming to close as six
Atheists+DiversitySocial Minorities
January 1, 2016121
When I started writing this article, one idea dominated my thoughts: “I don’t want to be sent to prison.” Then I thought, religious tolerance doesn’t punish reporting about the taboo of atheism in t
March 25, 2015014
Egypt’s President Asks Muslims to Mind What They Are Doing to Humanity
The President of Egypt Abdulfattah Al-Sisi expressed his concerns about what he called the "true image of Islam". In an interview on Al-Quran Al-Kareem (The Holy Quran) Radio, Al-Sisi endorsed the
Culture +Religion +Society
Egyptian Journalist Invites Women to Take off Headscarf
A journalist invited Egyptian women to take off their hijab in a protest in Tahrir Square because hijab is not a religious issue but rather a political one. Cherif Choubachy, an Egyptian journalist a
EgyptNorthern Africa
Egypt Inches Towards Return of Militant Fans to Stadium Terraces
Egypt may be inching towards a return to the stands of soccer fans, who played a key role in the 2011 toppling of President Hosni Mubarak and have been barred entry into stadiums for much of the las
Arabian PeninsulaLevant & MesopotamiaNorthern AfricaPolitical Analysis
June 8, 2015049
Power in the Mashreq and Ideological Vie That Doesn’t Work
[ezcol_1fifth][/ezcol_1fifth] [ezcol_3fifth] A relatively veracious pattern in the Middle East is emerging to reshape the political, social, economic and cultural structures in the region. Whil
Fearful of Protests, Egypt Keeps Stadia Closed
UN’s Indoctrination Against ‘Violent Extremism’
Palestinian Politics in Turmoil
I Am Muslim and I Am Angry – OpEd
US Air Force F-16’s Deploy to Turkish Air Base
7 Ways to Celebrate Christmas with Muslim Refugees
Stop the Bombs on Medics in Syria
Trump’s Mid-East Venture
Rising Iranian-Pakistani Tensions Render Pakistani Policy Unsustainable
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‘It’s A Miracle!’ Great-Grandmother Wins $10 Million On Christmas Eve
Filed Under:Local TV, talkers
RALEIGH, N.C. (CBS Local) — A great-grandmother in North Carolina struck it rich on Christmas Eve, declaring “It’s a miracle!”
Dorothy Martin said she was sitting in a convenience store parking lot when the numbers on her “Extreme Millions” scratch-off lottery ticket started adding up to a $10 million win.
“I started at the bottom,” Martin said, according to a press release from the North Carolina Education Lottery. “I didn’t match any of the numbers. When I got to the top I closed my eyes and scratched. When I opened them I couldn’t believe it. I just thought, ‘Could this be real?'”
Martin had purchased the ticket at Number Three Handy Mart in tiny Grover, North Carolina. She went back inside and asked the clerk to double-check the ticket.
The ticket was real and Martin claimed her prize Friday at lottery headquarters in Raleigh. She chose the lump sum and took home $4,230,069 after required state and federal tax withholdings.
“It’s a Christmas Eve miracle,” Martin said. “I still can’t believe this is happening.”
Martin plans to use some of the money to buy a new house. She also plans to help her grandchildren and great-grandchildren.
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Tag Archives: seat
Democracy in the UK – or What is your MP doing in your name?
Posted by Mike Sivier in Conservative Party, Economy, Labour Party, Liberal Democrats, People, Politics, Poverty, UK
agricultural, arrogance, assessment, Blairite, board, Conservative, cumulative, democracy, impact, Jobseekers (Back to Work Schemes) Act, Labour, Mike Sivier, mikesivier, MP, neoliberal, not in my name, safe, seat, Tories, Tory, Unite. union, Vox Political, wages
They Work For Themselves Not You.com: Michael Gove may well have told IPSA to “stick” its pay rise but you can be sure that this is a publicity stunt. And how long will this principled stand last when his colleagues all take the money?
There’s a strong smell of arrogance coming from Westminster at the moment – an attitude of “What are you going to do about it?” to everything. Am I wrong?
On one side we see Labour, trying to divest itself of union influence – and therefore its last link to its working-class background. Ed Miliband thinks the middle class is where the votes are, and he’s absolutely determined to ruin his entire organisation in a vain attempt to prove it. He’ll turn Labour into a plastic copy of the Conservative Party (in the course of which, of course, he’ll also have to change its name. You can’t be the Labour Party if you don’t represent people who work. I understand the word ‘Tory’ is going spare). Trouble is, there is already a Conservative Party. If your politics leans to the right anyway, why support the copy when you can have the original?
The Tories know this. They reckon Labour will self-destruct in fairly short order, leaving the way open for them to continue doing exactly anything they like – as they have been for the past three years and more, despite never having been voted into power by the British people, because they have support from the Liberal Democrats – who are enjoying their very last taste of any national political power.
Both the main parties are sneering at you. They think they know that you will stick to your traditional choices when election time rolls around again: Labour or Conservative. And they know that this means they will be allowed to continue doing whatever they want, against the wishes of the nation in most cases.
That’s how our version of democracy works. You get one chance to vote for the organisation that will rule over you for the next five years. Your decision is nominally based on the promises they make in their various manifestos (many of which will be broken. These documents are rarely worth the paper on which they’re printed), but most likely to be based on habit and an impression of what each party stands for – one that is no longer likely to bear any relationship to reality. Your influence is diminished by the fact that most Parliamentary seats are ‘safe’. The voting population is locked into a particular pattern and each political party can ‘parachute’ its own favoured candidates – people who will support the leaders’ policies, no matter what the wishes of their constituents – into those seats and be assured of support from these drones over the next five years. This is why Labour and the union Unite have been at loggerheads recently – Unite wants candidates who genuinely represent the people of their constituencies; Blairite Labour wants neoliberal, party-propping drones. It looks like Blairite Labour has won the battle, meaning the Labour Party will lose the war; how are they doing in the polls?
So elections are determined on the basis of a tiny number of marginal or ‘swing’ seats. Do you live in a marginal constituency? No? Then your vote probably doesn’t count.
It seems to me that, if we ever want to see democracy in the UK, we need to make it possible for EVERY seat to become a ‘swing’ seat – make it a much harder job for the large parties to ‘parachute’ in their party faithfuls and open up the field to candidates from smaller parties (not just UKIP). But how?
The answer’s obvious, isn’t it? You make sure everyone in your constituency knows exactly what their MP has been doing in their name. Only an informed electorate can make useful decisions, after all – and government of the uninformed is not legitimate government at all.
For example: My MP is a Liberal Democrat backbench drone called Roger Williams. I’ve known him for years and thought he was a nice enough fellow. In fact I voted for him at the last election. It was a tactical vote to keep the Tories out (foolish, in hindsight) – but he has let me down on many major votes, and I’m about to give you two examples.
My constituency is Brecon and Radnorshire – the most rural in England and Wales. It relies on agriculture for much of its income. Therefore it was a shock to our economy when the Westminster government voted to dissolve the Agricultural Wages Board. I cannot currently find any information about how Mr Williams voted on this issue of major importance to his constituency.
I can, however, report his fellow Liberal Democrats’ response to the Welsh Government’s plan for a replacement body covering Wales – they oppose it.
The AWB ensured consistent wages among agricultural workers, and prevented disputes over pay and conditions. Abolishing the board removes recognition of workers’ unique skills, bringing with it a significant pay cut. It is also a mark of disrespect.
In Brecon and Radnorshire, cuts to state benefits will take an average of £433 from working-age people’s incomes – more than a week’s take-home pay where wages are only around 76 per cent of the national average. The loss of the AWB means a significant extra cut to the local economy.
According to Lib Dem AM Bill Powell, his party doesn’t want the Welsh Government to “ram through” this emergency legislation “without allowing Assembly members and committees to scrutinise their proposals fully”.
Perhaps he is forgetting that Mr Williams voted in March to help the Conservative Party “ram through” emergency legislation on the Work Programme in a much quicker and undignified way, in order to prevent jobseekers from claiming back the £130 million that had been stolen from them in illegal sanctions by the Department for Work and Pensions?
So we see that my MP’s party supports the abolition of the AWB, and my MP supported the retroactive law. Both were acts of repression; both were pieces of legislation I oppose. Did he act according to my wishes? Most assuredly not. But he acts in my name.
Oh yes… He also voted against a cumulative impact assessment on the effects of benefit cuts on people with disabilities.
Should he – or any Liberal Democrat – represent Brecon and Radnorshire after 2015? Absolutely not – it would not be in the best interests of the constituency.
But we shouldn’t tolerate anyone from the other parties who preaches freedom for us but practises similar policies of repression.
That’s the message that needs to go out:
“Not in my name.”
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Minister Louis Farrakhan’s Letter To ADL’s Abraham Foxman
August 8, 2012 NOI Research News 9
The Nation of Islam has released the full text of The Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan’s letter to the National Director of the Anti-Defamation League, Abraham H. Foxman. The letter dated June 24, 2010 was sent with copies of two newly released books by the Nation of Islam’s Historical Research Department, The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews, Volume 2: How Jews Gained Control of the Black American Economy and Jews Selling Blacks: Slave Sale Advertising by American Jews. Additionally, he sent copies of the books and the letter to all of the heads of the major influential Jewish organizations.
Full text of the letter:
Minister Louis Farrakhan
NATIONAL REPRESENTATIVE OF THE HONORABLE ELIJAH MUHAMMAD
THE NATION OF ISLAM
IN THE NAME OF ALLAH, THE BENEFICENT, THE MERCIFUL.
I BEAR WITNESS THAT THERE IS NO GOD BUT ALLAH AND I BEAR
WITNESS THAT MUHAMMAD IS HIS MESSENGER
President Abraham Foxman
Dear Mr. Foxman,
Please accept these two books enclosed from our Historical Research Department titled The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews, Volume 2: How Jews Gained Control of the Black American Economy and Jews Selling Blacks: Slave Sale Advertising by American Jews.
The charge of anti-Semitism has been leveled against the Honorable Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam for many years. For twenty-five of the thirty-three years of my rebuilding of the Nation of Islam, I and we, in the Nation of Islam have suffered under the charge of “anti-Semitism” because I have dared to be critical of what I and many others feel is Jewish behavior that has ill-affected Black people and others.
Our Nation of Islam Historical Research Team was motivated by these false charges to study the works of Jewish scholars, historians, and Rabbis, being very careful to omit any words written or spoken, no matter how truthful, by those who are considered “anti-Semitic.”
We can now present to our people and the world a true, undeniable record of the relationship between Blacks and Jews from their own mouths and pens. These scholars, Rabbis and historians have given to us an undeniable record of Jewish anti-Black behavior, starting with the horror of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, plantation slavery, Jim Crow, sharecropping, the labor movement of the North and South, the unions and the misuse of our people that continues to this very moment.
As you have constantly labeled me and done everything within your power to hinder me and us from the civilizing work that Allah (God) has given to The Honorable Elijah Muhammad and myself to do, I ask you to find one act committed by me or those who follow me that has injured one Jewish person, stopped Jews from doing business, hindered their education, injured their families, sullied or desecrated their synagogues. You will not find one. So, except for our willingness to tell the truth and our unwillingness to apologize to you for telling the truth, on what basis do you charge me and us as being “anti-Semitic”?
Armed with this knowledge from the pens of Jewish scholars, Rabbis, and historians, we could now charge you with the most vehement anti-Black behavior in the annals of our history in America and the world. We could charge you with being the most deceitful so-called friend, while your history with us shows you have been our worst enemy.
I do not write this with vitriol, hatred, bitterness, or a spirit of vengeance, because One greater than you and me has permitted this for His own wise purposes.
However, what is done is done. We cannot change the past. You and I, your children and mine, your people and mine are living in the present. Your present reality is sitting on top of the world in power, with riches and influence, while the masses of my people here in America, in the Caribbean, Central and South America and elsewhere in the world are in the worst condition of any member of the human family.
I have pleaded with you over the years for a sensible, intelligent dialogue. You have rejected me, and some Rabbis have given me terms for friendship that any self-respecting person could never accept. So with this truth in our hands and yours, and soon in the hands of tens of thousands, I again ask you for a dialogue.
You are in a position to help me in the civilizing work that The Honorable Elijah Muhammad was given to do by Allah (God), whose burden and Mission–Allah and He–has made me to share. With this historical research in your hands, you may either gather your forces for an all-out struggle against me, the Nation of Islam, and the truth that I and we speak and write, or as an intelligent and civilized people, we can sit down and carve out a way forward that can obliterate the stain of the past and render us, Jews and Blacks–before Allah (God) and the world–in a new, honorable, and mutually respectful relationship.
This is an offer asking you and the gentiles whom you influence to help me in the repair of my people from the damage that has been done by your ancestors to mine. This is a wonderful way of the present generation of Jews to escape the Judgment of Allah (God) by aiding in the repair of His people.
However, should you choose to make our struggle to civilize our people more difficult, then I respectfully warn you, in the Name of Allah (God) and His Messiah, The Honorable Elijah Muhammad, that the more you fight and oppose me rather than help me to lift my people from their degraded state, Allah (God) and His Messiah will bring you and your people to disgrace and ruin and destroy your power and influence here and throughout the world.
I pray that you will make the wise and best choice.
Respectfully and Sincerely Submitted,
The Honorable Minister Louis Farrakhan
Servant to the Lost-Found
Nation of Islam in the West
Cc: Chairman Alan Solow, American Conference of Presidents of Major Jewish Organizations
President William Hess, American Zionist Movement
President Bob Elman, American Jewish Committee
President Dennis W. Glick, B’nai B’rith International
President Richard S. Gordon, American Jewish Congress
President Rabbi Moshe Kletenik, Rabbinical Council of America
President Rabbi Ellen Weinburg Dreyfus, Central Conference of American Rabbis
Executive Director Jerry Silverman, Jewish Federation of North America
President Stephen J. Savitsky, Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America
Executive Director Martin Schwartz, Jewish Labor Committee
President Lee Rosenberg, American Israel Public Affairs Committee
President Wayne Firestone, Hillel: The Foundation for Jewish Campus Life
National Executive Director Herb Rosenbleeth, Jewish War Veterans of the United States of America
President Morton Klein, Zionist Organization of America
Executive Director Jeremy Ben-Ami, J Street
The Leo Frank Case: The Lynching of a Guilty Man
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Tag Archives: Charlie Feathers
Only Lovers Left Alive (Jim Jarmusch, USA, 2013)
February 23, 2014 Art House, VampiresAnton Yelchin, Charlie Feathers, Denise LaSalle, Jim Jarmusch, John Hurt, José Arroyo, Mia Wasikowska, Tilda Swinton, Tom Hiddleston, Yasmine HamdamNotesonFilm1
In Only Lovers Left Alive, Tilda Swinton and Tom Hiddleston are said to have lived for thousands of years but clearly haven’t spent even ten minutes of them Hoovering their homes. They live in dusty spaces crammed with things they’ve loved enough to keep for centuries, books and music mostly. Some people walked out of the film but I loved it; the anomie, the sadness, the great r&b tracks — particularly Charlie Feathers’ Can’t Hardly Stand It and Denise Lasalle’s Trapped by a Thing Called Love — which speak of loss and loneliness but with an energy that conveys the opposite; the use of drugs as a parable for vampirism; the final insistent choice on life and love. It’s stayed with me all day.
The film begins with Adam, played by Tom Hiddlestone, shy, reclusive, living in Detroit, a city as much of a shell of former glories as he himself, a spectral place with hidden beauties, echoes of former lives and secret places were bodies can easily be disposed of. Adam lives for his music and for his fix. He’s got everything neatly arranged, a doctor who gives him top-grade, really pure blood and a sweet-faced squeaky-voiced young man (Anton Yelchin) on the edges of the music industry who might be pirating and selling on Adam’s compositions but can arrange pretty much everything else Adam might need and is well-paid for doing so. Adam is trying to find a reason to continue living and having trouble finding it.
Meanwhile, Eve (Tilda Swinton) is living in Tangiers, the Tangiers of myth with Pepe Le Moko streets, Paul and Jane Bowles ambiance, and the sheltering sky of balmy nights and a good supply. She’s got a friend there, Christopher Marlowe (John Hurt, gruff, poetic, endearing) who is also her connection to centuries-old literary gossip and grade-A blood. Her life is neatly arranged until she talks to Adam, finds out the extent of his loneliness and goes out to him. Adam and Eve once, maybe even originary lovers, reconnect as soul-mates, wonder through the nights, talk, find their old maybe unexciting but still essential rhythm with each other, until Eve’s sister Ava (Mia Wasikowska) arrives. The aptly named Ava, with her disrespect for convention, her selfish need to have a good time, her intense focus on her bodily needs and pleasures disrupt the more cerebral, retired life of Adam and Eve and brings chaos: though Adam and Even try to keep the humans they call zombies at bay, Ava has a positive and dangerous relish for them.
I can’t imagine watching Only Lovers Left Alive on anything but a big screen. It has its own pace, one which requires patience, but if you give yourself to its tempo and its conceits, it draws one into its enveloping images and and hazy rhythms, enthralls, involves you in its play of allegory, meaning, sensation. By the end, the audience becomes enveloped and enchanted by the Tangier sky, the night, the music, the feelings and views of worn out junkies in love wondering what the point of it all is, the speculation on the meaning of life and art. Then, when Adam and Eve, and we, hear Yasmine Hamdam sing ‘Hal’ in a café, we understand why art, why evoking what Hamdam conveys and makes us feel, is worth living for — even if the price is murder. And we then realise that Only Lovers Left Alive has provided that as well.
It was nominated for the Palme D’Or at Cannes and worth seeing on the largest screen you can find.
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The way to the dream wasn’t going to be a short one… First we needed to take a train to Moscow which is about 500km away from Voronezh. In the capital we would meet our travelling guide and the rest of the tourists who would join us on our journey. We would then set on a train trip from Moscow to the city of Brest, Belarus which would take us about 14 hours. This is where our coach trip would get underway. If all went as planned, then we would cross the Belarus-Poland border and… would actually be in the dream (i.e. in Europe)…
Actually for me the trip started as we got on a train to Moscow… This was when it finally dawned on me that that was it, there was no way back and what seemed an alluring dream, then a beautiful plan was now my reality… It felt really scary to get on the road, to feel the way travellers do, experience life in the way they do… As I was looking at my city through the windows of the train, I was wondering whether I would be ever coming back again… It wasn’t that I felt homesick before I actually left but the thought of going on such an extensive trip for the first time ever was incredibly overwhelming… Maybe in moments like these you really need to be secure in the knowledge that there is a place where you belong and you would definetely be back whatever trips and journeys life takes you on… Anyway, firsts always feel scary and cause one to think in quirky ways…
I always feel uncomfortable and quirky on trains (which might effect my thinking as well)… I was on a sleeping car only a couple of times and I knew this could well be my least favourite part of the trip… I just hate to be on a sleeper with a bunch of other people… It feels much like an invasion of privacy (in Russia we don’t make much of it, though) with all these people going about their daily routine in the space of a small sleeping car… It might look like the Big Brother Show or something… It’s just something I can’t explain because even though I’m not used to having a lot of space to myself in my day-to-day life, being on a train and sharing this space with other people makes me sick… More like emotionally sick with me having to watch these people and them watching me… It just makes you wonder how fate works bringing together all these different people travelling for their own different reasons… It feels like so many lives and fates are cluttered here… Were we all really meant to be at the same time in the same place like that?
So our trip officially started as the train set in motion… The only thing I like about trains is to hear the sound of a train’s wheels touching the rails… This rumbling sound alone is so serene and calm and so Russian to me… (I know it should be pretty much the same in the rest of the world)… So here we were listening to this sound and basically doing nothing apart from playing cards (this is what Russians do if we have some time to kill time on a train…). I was getting my head around how on earth I was going to sleep on this terrible, revoltingly pristine lining on this bunk bed a countless number of people had laid in… On the plus side, I knew I was this one trip away from coming back to Moscow… It’s been a long long time and I was eager to experience my capital again… I was on a brief visit there about twelve years which was actually the only trip I had been on… So coming back to Moscow was like revisiting this time (not that I miss it but I just enjoy letting my brain take me down a memory lane which is always an interesting and in a way self-indulging experience) and see how the city had changed or I had changed in the way I see it… Lying on a bunk bed felt like lying under the train itself with the wheels beating in my temple… I was tossing and turning and let my imagination take me far far away, to all these places where a dream becomes a reality, where I see, feel, hear in a new way… I was wondering where exactly we were as the train took us further and further away… I need to remind myself that I was still in Russia and my actual trip hadn’t started yet… But our country is so big and diverse that travelling from its one end to the other would be a journey in itself and who knows – it might even teach one to see, hear, feel differently… I might someday find that out but only after I get this dream of mine come true. I was certain I would change in the process…
As a matter of fact, a trip to Moscow might feel as a trip abroad for some. It’s a fact that a capital and all its grandeur and magnificence don’t really sum up the country… Neither does Moscow sum up Russia… If Moscow is the heart of Russia, it means that it has so much more different kinds of blood pumping through it thus making it work with twice as much effort… This is how I see this difference between Moscow and the rest of Russia… It’s like Russia on an exaggerated scale blended with glamour, prosperity and pursue for the dream of prosperity for thousands of people coming here daily… I know it’s wrong to begrudge Moscovites their right to take this place for granted because it makes us seem truly provincial and makes them treat us in a patronizing way but it’s something that we can’t help really…
This is how I felt as I got off the train after a sleepless night and started taking in the capital and listening to the big heart of Russia beating with twice as much effort. I was ready to experience new things and even my bag that was heavy as much as I tried to empty it of all the things that I decided I could do without as I was packing back home did not stop me from feeling all these emotions… To my disappointment, things seemed the same as I left them back at home – people, streets, even the overcast sky seemed to follow us all the way from Voronezh…
I was terrified about the trip on the Metro (underground or tube depending on where you are in the world). We don’t have it here in Voronezh and the thought of travelling from home to work which seems so habitual to many people in the world was overwhelming…. But it wasn’t that bad after all and I even managed to do some people watching and wondered whether they could say that we were not locals or not and whether I could guess which of them were locals…. It was again fate bringing people from different background and sometimes places together in the same space… The Metro proved to be a quick and comfortable (something we are not used to here) way of travelling which took us to the centre of the big heart of Russia… I felt like the grandeur and beauty of Russia’s large heritage was within an easy reach as we were approaching the building of the Bolshoy theatre and seeing to the monument to Karl Marx on the way (which I remembered seeing in a travel guide book when I was small).
It felt like some opera music was about to play with people in fancy clothes and big smiles appearing from everywhere to get swept away by the power of art… I wanted to take a mental picture of everything – fountains, people, the vibe of the early morning capital.
I felt my heart trembling as I saw a glimpse of the Red Square from far away. This is sure the place not to be missed if you are in Moscow. It’s like travelling to London without seeing the Big Ben. The hotel where top celebrities stay at, the building of the Duma – everything felt surreal… The highlight of the trip was definitely the Red Square. The word “Red” means “beautiful” in old Russian. I virtually had to hold my breath before actually stepping in on the Square… It was like getting ready to take a dip into the ocean of emotions… Standing there I could actually feel the sound of blood pumping through the heart of Russia… It’s the image of Russia that we are grown up… It’s not the Russia that we see through our windows, it’s the Russia as an entity, as something massive both politically and geographically. It’s the place we remember from historical footages where so many crucial decisions were announced to the whole country listening in…
And, of course, it is the place for Victory Day parades with soldiers rumbling across Red Square bringing together people with a living memory of the devastating war and the emotions of people like myself who were lucky enough to be spared the sufferings of the time. There was so much history there that it made me want to cry… As I was walking down the square, I felt like it was a safe place to feel proud to be Russian and embrace a Russian in me. I felt privileged to be standing there and to be a sort of a memory card connected to all the variety of the feelings ranging from joy to sorrow felt here, all the events taking place here. It was a vague feeling but intense enough to make me emotional and say to my sister and friend who didn’t seem to be as impressed as me “Look around you!”. I felt incredibly proud to see all those people from around the world (especially from Asia) taking a guided tour of the square. I couldn’t believe that all these people came such a long way to experience the capital. It was incredible to look at their faces, hear them speak other languages. I knew I would be like one of those tourists the next day if (fingers crossed) I arrive safely in Poland. I had a feeling that here (in what I had to remember what was my own country) my first international got to a good start. It felt like Russia on the grandeur scale with me suffocating with history and seeing Russia the way people in the rest of the world see it. It was an iconic image of Russia. It was like a mirage to me which I felt physically. I wanted to come up to these foreigners and say “Love or hate it, this is Russia. We are ready to share it with you!”. I really felt like sharing just the way I’m sharing my feelings now…
I remember throwing a coin near the monument to Zhukov when I was to Moscow twelve years ago to come here again… And I did… I remember taking pictures of these places on our old photo camera which is now history… A lot has changed in the city itself or it’s rather me and my perception of the world around that changed…
I have one more thing to remind me of Moscow… It’s my Cheburashka T-shirt. Cheburashka is a character in a very popular Soviet cartoon. I have several Cheburashka toys at home as well. Cheburashka always brings out a child in me. And it was how I felt in Moscow, like a child who was so excited to see, feel, hear things…
It was an emotional day in Moscow and I think that it really got me ready for what would be my first trip abroad… It made my feelings more acute, enhanced my vision (the contact lenses were on of course). I was longing for more and said goodbye to Moscow only to come back here again as I got on the train to Brest… It was all REAL…
Author OlgaPosted on October 27, 2012 January 7, 2013 Categories My first travelling experienceTags Moscow, RussiaLeave a comment on My capital
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One Focus
One Shirt One Body was started by student-athletes for student-athletes. Our organization allows student-athletes to develop their skills in leadership and initiative, while giving back to the community. One Shirt One Body always seeks to expand its leadership throughout the United States. Please reach out here if you are interested in joining One Shirt One Body’s leadership group.
Andrew Helmin, President and Co-Founder
Andrew is a graduate from the University of Notre Dame with a major in Finance and concentration in Entrepreneurship. He is an Illinois High School State Champion in the 110m hurdles and a former track and field athlete for Notre Dame.
Andrew started One Shirt One Body during his sophomore summer of college after spending two weeks at a United Nations summit focused on sport for peace and development. He saw an opportunity to increase the presence and power of sport in communities throughout the country, using student-athlete apparel as a medium. Since graduating in 2017, Andrew has been running One Shirt One Body full-time.
Kyle McMahon, Vice President
Kyle serves as the Vice President for One Shirt One Body. In his role, McMahon oversees partnerships and assists in operations, while actively developing new opportunities to help One Shirt One Body grow.
Also, McMahon is on the board of The Drake Group, a reform group within college sports. Kyle finished a Master's in Sports Management from the University of New Haven in May of 2018. Previously, McMahon worked for University of Notre Dame Sports Properties from 2014-2017, serving as Account Executive & Client Manager for corporate sponsorships within the school's athletic department. Kyle and Andrew met at a United Nation Sports Summit in 2016.
Follow us on social media to stay updated with One Shirt One Body!
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It May Be A "Magic Bus" After All: NB As The Center Of Rapid Transit
Posted in downtown, environment, Hard Hittin' New Britain, transportation by nbpoliticus on January 26, 2014
CT Fastraks — called the “magic bus” to critics such as former Governor John Rowland — will start rolling 12 months from now (February 2015) on the 9.3-mile rail right of way from New Britain to Hartford.
The New Britain Herald’s Scott Whipple previews the potential of Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) for New Britain folks using the bus to get to Hartford’s theater and cultural institutions in a Sunday story.
At drive time I’ve listened to WTIC’s Rowland carp about a project (ironically) launched during his time in the Governor’s office.
But next winter I am counting on it to get to the job in Hartford instead of sitting in stalled traffic on I-84. It just so happens that the I-84 trek that intersects with I-91in Hartford has the most traffic volume anywhere in the nation. Not surprising given the limits and difficulty of what CT Transit busses currently offer.
New Britain’s Terminal Takes Shape (CT DOT)
Right now, if the work day in downtown Hartford takes me past 5:30 pm, I’ll miss the last departure for the “2” Express to the commuter lot at Brittany Farms. I am left to get home some other way. The CT Fastraks — BRT or Bus Rapid Transit is a better name — will keep going well into the night for the same regular bus fares we pay now.
For New Britain the BRT system means a lot more than getting back and forth from Hartford for work, school or seeing the sites. The terminal being built at the old Greenfield’s site is the only stop with a significant amount of parking. The two large municipal garages are expected to be utilized in an a yet to be defined arrangement between the city and the state Department of Transportation.
With ample parking and unused, long vacant commercial property in the center of New Britain, BRT is setting downtown up for transit-oriented developments in retail, housing and new businesses. A small-scale renaissance is possible bringing people and commerce back after they left for the malls and the burbs a generation ago. Not exactly the “magic bus” Rowland and the naysayers are predicting.
Critics like Rowland linger. They predict low ridership will turn the region’s first real stab at rapid transit into a boondoggle. But more knowledgeable opponents who favored rail over a BRT system are resigned to making the project work as part of a network inclusive of rail or other options that will reduce traffic on the deteriorating I-84/I-91 corridor and connect communities for work, school and just getting around.
Twelve months and counting.
Tim O’Brien: A Call To Renew Rev. King’s Work For Economic Justice
Posted in civil rights, economy by nbpoliticus on January 20, 2014
By Tim O’Brien
This weekend, our nation, state and communities celebrate and remember the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and his accomplishments. It is a time when I have always felt inspired by his work, as a leader, and by the movement that he embodies. No Martin Luther King Day passes without me feeling emboldened and empowered to carry forward work toward building a better future.
I believe that King is our nation’s most important hero. Our nation has many great figures, well deserving of our honor, who strove and struggled to build our nation, by, of and for the people. Our nation is built on great ideals – democracy, justice, liberty and a decent life for all. But those ideals have all too often not been met in practice. For African-Americans, the experience was, instead, not just inequality, but the terror of violence and daily humiliation. The work of King, and the movement he led, was the struggle to breathe life into our country’s great ideals. His work was nothing short of making our nation, conceived in greatness, the great nation it was meant to be. He, and so many others, took on the face of grotesque oppression and successfully pushed it back.
King, himself, probably would bristle at the idea of himself being held up in this way. He was an organizer – yes, a community organizer. In that, he knew that, while sometimes a person can symbolize and personify a movement, the real truth is always that the movement is about us all, everyday people. It is people – all the people – who create change for the better, and it is the people – all the people – whose lives are made better from that work. On Martin Luther King Day, we honor King, himself, as well as the many people who struggled and sacrificed in the Civil Rights Movement and the movements for justice and equality before and since.
But King, himself, was extraordinary. He believed so purely in creating a better world. He believed deeply in the goodness of humanity and in our potential to set aside our differences for our common good. He would sacrifice of himself, over and over again, and, when he thought he had no energy left to give, would still muster a little more energy to give away to people thirsting for inspiration and hope.
Thankfully, we have, for the most part, put to rest the question of whether Martin Luther King should be honored as a national hero. Even those who, today, know that their own opinions differ from King’s values must at least give lip service to the rightness and greatness of his work. Of course, one of the side effects of that acceptance is that political figures who do not agree with King’s real values try to re-interpret his words to fit their own political agendas, such as saying that he would have opposed Affirmative Action, even when it is obvious that King would not have agreed with them. Other politicians try to appear to agree with King by lauding, post-fact, his leadership in winning reforms that are not controversial anymore, such such as doing away with overt “separate but equal” – even while those same politicians, to this day, perpetuate things, like voter suppression, that King would have told them are clearly wrongheaded. While it is easy to criticize defeated injustices, real courage is in challenging current injustices.
I think it is very important to point out, in this time of honoring the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King. Jr., that this kind of benign-sounding lip service to the memory of King is intended to prevent a more complete recounting of King’s actual values and what he stood for from shining a not-so-flattering light on the agendas many politicians are currently pressing in the halls of government.
Part of the pure goodness of King as a leader was his compulsion to stand up for what was right, no matter what the cost to himself. That was true of his work for civil rights and, in the years leading up to his assassination, it was why he took positions against the Vietnam War, against exploitation of people in other countries and for economic justice for all Americans.
His assassination occurred during his work to organize the Poor People’s Campaign, which was meant to follow up on the important work for civil rights – even more directly challenging the systems of injustice in the country by advocating for economic justice. He asked, “What does it profit a man to be able to eat at an integrated lunch counter if he doesn’t earn enough money to buy a hamburger and a cup of coffee?” 1 He spoke for economic justice as an essential part of the promise of our nation – “If a man doesn’t have a job or an income, he has neither life nor liberty nor the possibility for the pursuit of happiness. He merely exists.” 2 And this was not only to advance communities of color, noting that white Americans also faced economic oppression and were likewise in need of reforms.
King challenged our nation to adopt reforms to make the free market work for everyone, African-American, Latino, white – everyone. Needless to say, in doing that, he was upsetting some very, very powerfulful monied interests in our country. “We have so energetically mastered production that we now must give attention to distribution,” he wrote, and clearly laid out that this meant that, “We must create full employment or we must create incomes…” 3
The Poor People’s Campaign in 1968 was organized to demand adoption of an Economic and Social Bill of Rights to make the promise of our nation real for everyone. The Economic and Social Bill of Rights (in a draft written in February, 1968, before King’s assassination 4) was to proclaim:
“The Right of every employable citizen to a decent job.” It is worth pointing out how this called for “good jobs”, not just “dead end jobs,” and was clear that it should be the responsibility of the country to ensure that this happened. The draft Economic and Social Bill of Rights proposed an ambitious federal job-creation program to make this a reality.
“The right of every citizen to a minimum income.” A guaranteed standard of living for people, “too young, too old or too handicapped to work.”
“The right of a decent house and the free choice of neighborhood.” The draft Economic and Social Bill of Rights challenged that the more affluent were benefitted when, “Federally subsidized credit built suburbs and federally supported roads to access [them],” while other public spending displaced neighborhoods where whites and people of color of more modest means lived. It pointed out that, amidst a paucity of support for affordable housing, people of modest means were left to suffer in slum housing conditions. The proposed solution was the creation of many more units of decent, affordable housing.
“The right to an adequate education.” Noting gross inequities in educational attainment along racial lines and that “only out-and-out racists believe that this tragedy is a consequence of inherent deficiency on the part of the child…”, the draft Economic and Social Bill of Rights proposed, “a massive effort to upgrade the education available to” both children of color and white children and to fund higher education so that all Americans could afford to attend.
“The right to participate in the decision making process.” The draft Economic and Social Bill of Rights placed importance on participatory democracy, “political action and voting protection.”
“The right to the full benefit of modern science in health care.” Noting the inhuman differences in health and mortality based upon income, the draft Economic and Social Bill of Rights proposed extending Medicare to everyone in America.
This draft5 of the Economic and Social Bill of Rights was clear that greater economic equity should be considered as part of America’s great ideals and Constitutional promise: “Without these rights, neither the black and white poor, and even some who are not poor, can really possess the inalienable rights to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. With these rights, the United States could, by the two hundredth anniversary of its Declaration of Independence, take giant steps toward redeeming the American dream.”
The assassination of Martin Luther King took the great measure of the energy away from the Poor People’s Campaign. It still went on as planned that summer, but it ended, having not achieved the goals for which King and so many others strove. As we well know, the objectives of the campaign, expressed in the Economic and Social Bill of Rights, for the most part, have yet to be achieved. Far from it, these are all, very much, front burner issues in our current politics. In the areas where there have been advances, those advances are now under powerful attack. In other areas, especially in the area of jobs, not having in place now what King advocated then makes middle class and poor people worse off now than they would have been. And when elected officials, such as President Barack Obama and our own Governor Dannel Malloy, press for changes that advance King’s ideals, they must labor against difficult political headwinds.
Given what Martin Luther King advocated for when he was with us, it is clear that, were he alive today, he would be pressing hard for significant change. It is no wonder than many politicians of today will spend their Martin Luther King Day glossing over the full depth of what King believed in. If they acknowledged his real policy objectives, they would have to admit that they disagree with what King would have wanted them to do.
So let us make this Martin Luther King Day one of renewing our commitment to the movement and the great and important objectives for which King gave his life. Let us not allow people who oppose justice, equality and fairness for all to dissuade us from doing what is right through their various tactics of harsh mean-spiritedness and silver-tongued distraction. King taught us that people of ill intent would try to make it difficult for people who stand-up what is right. He also taught us that, “The ultimate measure of a man is not where he stands in moments of comfort and convenience, but where he stands at times of challenge and controversy.” 6
We can, in our nation, our state and our communities have a better, fairer, more just, more equitable future for ourselves and generations to come – one that we can all share. Now, more than ever, we must renew the work that our great national hero, the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., championed.
1 Joe Fassler, “‘All Labor Has Dignity’: Martin Luther King, Jr.’s Fight for Economic Justice”, The Atlantic, February 22, 2011
2 Mark Engler, “Dr. Martin Luther King’s Economics: Through Jobs, Freedom”, The Nation, January 15, 2010
4 “Economic and Social Bill of Rights”, King Center online document repository
5 After King’s assassination, the Committee of 100 created the version of the Economic and Social Bill of Rights that was advocated during the Campaign, which called for
“a meaningful job at a living wage for every employable citizen.”, “a secure and adequate income for all who cannot find jobs or for whom employment is inappropriate”, “access to land as a means to income and livelihood”, “access to capital as a means of full participation in the economic life of America” and “the right of the people to ‘play a truly significant role’ in shaping government programs design and implementation”, Amy Nathan Wright,“Unfinished Business”, (2007) pages 195–197
6 NPR Staff“King’s Son And Friend Talk New Memorial, Media”, NPR website
[ Tim O’Brien is the former Mayor of New Britain and State Representative from the 24th District]
Mayor Hires GOP Chair: SEEC Complaint Involving Peter Steele For Campaigning From Mayor’s Office Still Under Investigation
Posted in city politics and government by nbpoliticus on January 12, 2014
“Oh. What a tangled web we weave when first we practice to deceive.” – Sir Walter Scott
In her campaign for Mayor last fall Erin Stewart was critical of Tim O’Brien for rewarding political friends while in office. As Ms. Stewart said last year, she wanted to “take the city back from political cronyism.”
In her first announced appointments Stewart tapped staffers from her youthful campaign team and appointed John Healey, an aide to Republican House Minority Leader Larry Cafero, to be a $90,000+ a year chief of staff. So far so good. New Britain mayors, coming into office just one week after elections, are entitled to assemble an office with people they know — even if the hires are political friends.
Two months after the election, however, Erin Stewart’s promise to root out cronyism is just that — a campaign promise not meant to be kept. More important, her recent and unannounced hire raises new concerns about the use of government resources for partisan political activity. Republican Town Committee Chair Peter Steele, a perennial GOP candidate, comes in — “returns” is a better word — as an aide at $45,000 annually. For Steele this is a pay hike and political reward. He was a $25,000 a year aide to Mayor Tim Stewart during his time in office.
GOP Town Chair Peter Steele
(NBRTC)
Here is where candidate Stewart’s anti-cronyism pitch falls apart. In that previous stint in the Mayor’s office, Steele may have blatantly used city resources to do political campaigning on the public’s dime in the Mayor’s office..
In a complaint filed early last year to the State Elections Enforcement Commission (SEEC) by O’Brien Aide Rosemary Klotz, Klotz asserted that when O’Brien came into office city information technology employees discovered “at least 200 files on city computers that indicate former Mayor Stewart and his staff, including Steele, used the machines to conduct campaign business.” After the complaint was filed SEEC investigators subsequently visited City Hall and collected evidence in the still unresolved case.
The New Britain Herald in a March 26, 2013 story by Lisa Backus, reported:
“Klotz’s complaint alleges that the files, which range from campaign fundraising lists to lists on which residents would allow campaign signs on their lawns, were created and maintained on city computers, by Stewart and city staff members Peter Steele, Joe Shilinga and Lisa Carver, on city time.”
The dates of when the files were created range from 2003 as Stewart was running a mayoral re-election campaign to 2011 when Stewart ran in a special election to fill a vacancy in the state Senate 6th District. The documents, obtained by the Herald, include drafts and final versions of campaign mailings, scripts for electoral “robo-calls,” and “primed” voter lists indicating voter preference.”
As of now that SEEC investigation about using the Mayor’s office for partisan Republican work is active and awaits a judgment from the commission.
The hiring of GOP Chair Steele in and of itself isn’t surprising. What is disturbing is that an unresolved case alleging campaign work in the Mayor’s office by former Mayor Stewart and Peter Steele still hangs in the air.
To be true to her high-mindedness against “political cronyism” it’s time for Mayor Stewart to publicly announce the hiring of GOP Chair Peter Steele and provide the specifics on what his job functions are at $45,000 a year.
For all the campaign talk of cronyism in the O’Brien administration, every position in the last term had a clear function and every hire was tasked to be working in service to the city, not a political party.
At the very least the public has a right to know what Peter Steele does and when he does it on the City Hall clock.
ALEC: Buying Influence and Tilting Laws Against Solar Energy
Posted in Campaign Finance, energy, environment, Money in Politics, Solar Energy by nbpoliticus on January 2, 2014
Why would the ALEC network of state-level lobbyists want to make solar energy cost-prohibitive for homeowners and businesses?
By Isaiah J. Poole
Now the Koch brothers are coming after my solar panels.
I had solar panels installed on the roof of our Washington, D.C. home this year. My household took advantage of a generous tax incentive from the District government and a creative leasing deal offered by the solar panel seller.
Brookhaven National Laboratory/Flickr
Our electric bills fell by at least a third. When people make this choice, the regional electric company grows less pressured to spend money to expand generating capacity and the installation business creates good local jobs. Customers who use solar energy also reduce carbon emissions.
What’s not to love?
According to the American Legislative Exchange Council, a conservative network better known as ALEC, our solar panels make us “free riders.” What?
Yes, according to ALEC, an organization that specializes in getting the right-wing agenda written into state laws, people like me who invest in energy-efficiency and shrinking our carbon footprints ought to be penalized.
Why does ALEC want us punished? Since it’s bankrolled by, among others, the billionaire brothers Charles and David Koch, it’s hard not to surmise that they’re worried about a threat to fossil fuels businesses. Koch Industries’ operations include refineries, oil and natural gas pipelines, and petrochemicals
That’s no conspiracy theory. Recently the British newspaper The Guardian wrote aboutthe assault on solar panels as part of a broader exposé on ALEC.
John Eick, the legislative analyst for ALEC’s energy, environment and agriculture program, confirmed to The Guardian that the organization would support making solar panel users pay extra for the electricity they generate. That’s already about to happen in Arizona, where homeowners who use solar panels will pay an average of about $5 extra a month for the privilege, starting in January.
The solar power industry called the new rule a victory only because power companies in the state were demanding assessments of as much as $100 a month — more than high enough to deter families from considering switching to solar.
Making solar energy cost-prohibitive for homeowners and businesses is part of a larger ALEC objective, affirmed at its recent annual meeting, to continue its effort to eliminate state renewable energy mandates.
According to meeting minutes, ALEC has already succeeded in getting legislation introduced in 15 states to “reform, freeze, or repeal their state’s renewable mandate.” ALEC lobbyists are pushing policies through states that will speed up climate change and increase pollution. They’re threatening the renewable energy industry, which is already creating new jobs and saving money for homeowners and businesses.
Without the current policy paralysis in Washington and a lack of bold, creative thinking about how to build a new, green economy at the national level, they wouldn’t be making so much headway.
My organization, Institute for America’s Future — together with the Center for American Progress and the BlueGreen Alliance — recently published a report that shows what’s at stake with ALEC’s destructive agenda.
Our “green industrial revolution” report recommends tying together a series of regional solutions that take advantage of the unique assets of each part of the country, such as the abundance of sun in the West and the wind off the Atlantic coast, into a cohesive whole.
These regional strategies would be supported by smart federal policies, such as establishing a price for carbon emissions and a national clean energy standard, creating certainty and stability in the alternative energy tax credit market, and providing strong support for advanced energy manufacturing.
This is the way to unleash the kind of innovation and job creation our economy — and our rapidly warming planet — desperately needs.
My solar panels are the envy of my block and I wish more of my neighbors will be able to make the same choice I did. But they won’t if fossil-fuel dinosaurs like the Koch brothers and right-wing organizations like the American Legislative Exchange Council keep casting their dark clouds on efforts to build a clean energy future.
It’s time for them to step aside and let the sun shine in.
Isaiah J. Poole is the editor of OurFuture.org, the website of the Campaign for America’s Future. OurFuture.org
Distributed via OtherWords. OtherWords.org
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NCAC Files Amicus Brief Arguing Congressional Art Competition Violated First Amendment Rights of High School Student
David Pulphus
New York, NY 1/9/2017– The National Coalition Against Censorship (NCAC) and 16 other nonprofits have filed an amicus brief in the D.C. Circuit in support of Representative William Lacy Clay of Missouri and his constituent, David Pulphus. Pulphus’s painting, Untitled #1, was selected as a winner in 2016’s Congressional Art Competition for high school students. After pressure from some members of Congress, including Speaker of the House Paul Ryan, the Architect of the Capitol retroactively removed the painting over the objections of its sponsor, Congressman Clay, citing competition guidelines that had never before been enforced.
Pulphus’s artwork is an allegorical depiction of clashes between protesters and police in Ferguson, MO. The work hung among the hundreds of other winning artworks in the Cannon Tunnel at the US Capitol Building. Seven months after the painting was first displayed, internet commentators began advocating for its removal, claiming it was offensive to law enforcement. Apparently bowing to partisan pressure, the Architect of the Capitol removed the painting. Congressman Clay and David Pulphus subsequently filed suit over the violation of Pulphus’s First Amendment rights.
As NCAC’s Director of Programs, Svetlana Mintcheva, argues, “David’s painting follows a long tradition of socially-engaged political allegory. Removing it because some Representatives disagree with its viewpoint sends a message to young people – and all citizens – that political censorship is alive and well in the hallways of Congress. And if censorship is welcome there, would it not also be tolerable in other public venues?”
The lower court found that the removal was undoubtedly “viewpoint-based,” but held that the competition itself constituted “government speech,” which allows the government to control the message it is expressing and limits First Amendment protections. In this recent brief, NCAC and its fellow amici argue that the District Court erred in treating the art competition as “government speech” and setting a dangerous precedent for politically-motivated art censorship.
The co-signatories of this brief include arts services, volunteer lawyers for the arts, arts advocates and defenders of free expression. The blatant viewpoint-based censorship in this case opens the door to future censorship of political speech in frequent art exhibition venues including public libraries, universities and government buildings, be they village halls or the US Capitol Building.
Amici Curiae: Americans For The Arts; Arts & Business Council Of Greater Boston; California Lawyers For The Arts; College Art Association Of America; Comic Book Legal Defense Fund; The Free Speech Coalition; Greater Pittsburgh Arts Council; Index On Censorship; Lawyers For The Creative Arts; Maryland Lawyers For The Arts; National Coalition Against Censorship; Oregon Volunteer Lawyers For The Arts; Pen American Center; Springboard For The Arts; St. Louis Volunteer Lawyers And Accountants For The Arts; Volunteer Lawyers For The Arts; Washington Area Lawyers For The Arts
Original NCAC Statement
Full text of the amicus brief can be read below. Click here for a full screen view:
By NCAC|2018-01-09T17:17:30-04:00January 9th, 2018|Press Releases|
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Eddie Murphy Gets Candid In In-Depth Interview, Talks Return To Film And Stand-Up
This in-depth conversation with the legendary comedian is defintely worth a look.
Danielle Jennings
It’s an understatement to say that Eddie Murphy changed the face of comedy, between being the first comedian (and first of color) to become a huge blockbuster draw and star in some of the biggest film franchises of all-time, he is largely considered the modern blueprint for a comedian crossover. However, while he is considered one of the funniest comedians in history, his impressive dramatic acting is often overlooked.
In a recent (and rare) new interview, Murphy candidly discusses his career and opens up about his desire to further his dramatic acting by working with some of the biggest heavyweight directors in the industry. The last several years of his career has seen the legendary performer make the bulk of his money from animated films and smaller features with the exception of his Oscar-nominated turn as Jimmy “Thunder” Early in 2006’s Dreamgirls. Now he’s ready to return to film in a big, dramatic way, and also returning to his stand-up comedy roots. Industry insider Shadow and Act has the full details of Murphy’s interview, including which directors he would like to work with.
Via Shadow and Act:
It’s rare these days that Eddie Murphy sits for more than a few minutes to be interviewed, so it was good to watch this almost 40-minute conversation with the actor (and musician) courtesy the SAG-AFTRA Foundation. Moderated by Stacey Wilson Hunt of New York Magazine, and happening in front of a live audience, Murphy was on hand to discuss his latest big screen project, “Mr. Church,”
[During the interview] he [says he] is interested in getting back on the stage, but not just to do stand-up comedy. Murphy’s ambitions for a stage return will encompass more than just comedy. As he says when asked whether he’ll ever entertain doing a comedy tour again, he answers: “Yeah, I’ll entertain it. I think about it. Eventually I will. But it won’t just be stand-up. It’ll be music. It’ll be comedy. It’ll be stuff from my movies… I’ve just got to figure out a way to put a show together. Because me just coming out on stage and doing stand-up, I can’t see myself doing just that. I can see having some of that, and then doing everything else. We’ll see.”
A big screen “comeback” might also be something [fans can] to look forward to; at least that’s what I immediately thought about when Murphy told the audience that he’d like to work with Quentin Tarantino, [Steven Spielberg and Martin Scorsese.]
You can check out the FULL interview with Eddie Murphy BELOW:
Check out today’s Top Stories here:
http://hellobeautiful.com/2913888/west-virginia-white-man-killed-black-teen/
http://hellobeautiful.com/2913758/gucci-mane-proposal/
Eddie Murphy Gets Candid In In-Depth Interview, Talks Return To Film And Stand-Up was originally published on hellobeautiful.com
celebrity interviews , celebrity news , Eddie Murphy , Entertainment News , movie news
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Here’s What You Need to Know About the Zika Virus
July 26, 2016 July 26, 2016 vickielrock
— by Sylvia Mathews Burwell, HHS Secretary
If you’ve read the headlines over the past few months, you’ve probably heard about the Zika virus. You might wonder how serious the virus is and what steps you can take to help protect yourself and your family.
HHS is committed to giving the American people the tools they need to live healthy and productive lives. And information can often be one of the best tools. So I want to share with you some of the things we have learned about this virus, and what you should know.
What is Zika?
Zika is a virus that is primarily spread by mosquitoes, though it can also be sexually transmitted. As of July 20, there have been 5,200 cases of Zika in the United States and its territories.
The biggest risk of Zika is to pregnant women or women of childbearing age. Zika virus can cause a serious birth defect called microcephaly, as well as other severe fetal brain defects.
Zika can cause symptoms including fever, rash, joint pain, or red eyes. An illness from Zika is usually mild, and the symptoms typically will only last several days to a week. Based on previous outbreaks, approximately 80 percent of people who have Zika will not have any symptoms.
How Do I Prevent Getting Zika?
Our colleagues at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have laid out helpful prevention guidance, which you can find right here. This is particularly important if you travel to an area with active Zika transmission. It is important to remember to follow the guidance not only when you are in an area with active Zika transmission, but also for three weeks after you return.
Pregnant women should not travel to areas with active Zika transmission. If you’re pregnant and you have traveled to an area with Zika, you should visit your doctor or other health care provider as soon as possible, even if you don’t feel sick. This checklist offers some topics and questions you should bring up.
Another way you can prevent Zika is by preventing the most common way Zika spreads – mosquito bites. You can reduce your risk of being bitten by:
Wearing long-sleeved shirts, and long pants when outside.
Using EPA-registered insect repellents.
Installing screens on your windows and doors.
Emptying containers that collect water, or notifying the proper authorities if you see places where water has collected. The most common type of mosquito that spreads Zika can reproduce in as little water as a bottle cap.
What Is All This Talk About Funding?
Back in February, the Obama Administration asked Congress for $1.9 billion to fight Zika and protect pregnant women. It was a request based on the advice of our most experienced public health experts.
These funds would be used to protect pregnant women in the United States by better controlling the mosquitoes that spread Zika, by developing new tools like vaccines and better diagnostics, and by conducting crucial research so we can better understand the effects of Zika, especially on infants and children.
Congress recently left Washington without providing these additional funds. At HHS, we’re going to do everything we can to prevent, detect and respond to this virus here in the United States, and especially in hard-hit places like Puerto Rico, but hope there is action on this necessary funding as soon as the Congress returns.
We are always stronger against public health threats when we work together. So the best thing you can do right now is to make sure more people get more information on the Zika virus.
Help us reach others by sharing this blog post on Facebook and Twitter. Click the “Share” button in the top right corner of this post, or click the “Tweet This” button at the bottom.
And share this information with your family, friends, neighbors, and coworkers. Make sure that everyone knows the risks, and how to stay safe.
Health & Human Svcs, Health IssuesDept of Health & Human Svcs, health, HHS, Zika
4.683 Million Unanswered Questions in Halbig
July 29, 2014 NVRDC
Appeals will continue, but let’s take the Halbig decision at face value. How much will this decision cost the working poor? The amount varies with income and other variables, but for a 40 year old individual making $30,000 a year, the tax credit was estimated at $1345 (KFF estimate here). Retroactive tax bills under Halbig will be significant and everyone impacted will have trouble paying for health insurance going forward (about 57% of exchange participants were previously uninsured, according to a KFF survey).
How many people will be hurt?
Read more here at “The Incidental Economist” ….
Health Care, Health Care Exchanges, Health Issues, Medicaid, Social Safety NetAlabama, Alaska, Arizona, ARKANSAS, ASPE Report, CMS, Deleware, Federal Health Exchanges, FFE, Florida, Georgia, GOP, Halbig, Health insurance, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisianna, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, new Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Repeal Health Care Reform a piece at a time, Repeal Obamacare, SHOP exchanges, South Carolina, South Dakota, State Health Exchanges, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming
#ItsNotUpToThem Week
— Roberta Lange, Nevada State Democratic Party Chair
A few weeks ago, the United States Supreme Court issued a backwards ruling that allows for-profit corporate CEOs to make medical decisions that should be made between a woman and her doctor. That’s right – in the year 2014, the Supreme Court thinks female employees’ healthcare decisions should be made in a corporate boardroom, not a doctor’s office.
This week, the United States Senate will vote on legislation to address the Supreme Court’s ruling and ensure women who work at for-profit corporations have access to reproductive healthcare. While Democrats like Senator Reid, Reps. Dina Titus and Steven Horsford, and Erin Bilbray support ensuring women have access to reproductive healthcare, Republicans like Dean Heller and Joe Heck have consistently voted to restrict women’s access to contraception.
In support of the Senate bill, Nevada Democrats are launching #ItsNotUpToThem week. All week we will be highlighting how dangerous the Republican agenda is for the health of Nevada women. Because whether it’s Mark Hutchison leading the charge to go back to a time where private insurance companies could treat being a woman as a pre-existing condition, or Joe Heck voting to weaken the Violence Against Women Act, it’s time we send a message to Nevada Republicans that women’s healthcare decisions aren’t up to them or corporate bosses.
Sign your name here to tell Republicans it’s 2014, not 1914.
Please note that Roberta mentioned Candidate Erin Bilbray who is running agains Rep. Joe Heck, but failed to mention Candidate Kristen Spees who is running against Rep. Mark Amodei to represent those of us who are unfortunate enough to live in NV-Congressional District 2!
Advocacy, Birth Control, Congressional Activity, Contraception, CultureWar, Health Care, Health Issues, Misogyny, Preventive Care, Senate, Womens Issues#ItsNotUpToThem, Dean Healler, Erin Bilbray, Female Healthcare Decisions, For-Profit CEOs, Joe Heck, Kristen Spees, Nevada Democratic State Party, NSDP, Rep Steven Horsford, Rep. Dina Titus, Roberta Lange, SCOTUS, Sen. Harry Reid, Supreme Court of the United States, Violence Against Women, Women's healthcare decisions
Corporate Rights Trump Women’s Health in Hobby Lobby Ruling
June 30, 2014 June 30, 2014 NVRDC
‘This ruling goes out of its way to declare that discrimination against women isn’t discrimination.’
– Lauren McCauley, staff writer at Common Dreams
Defenders of women’s health and reproductive freedom are reacting with anger to the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision on Monday which ruled that an employer with religious objection can opt out of providing contraception coverage to their employees under the Affordable Care Act.
Writing for the majority side of the 5-4 decision in Burwell v. Hobby Lobby, Justice Samuel Alito argued that the “the HHS mandate demands that they engage in conduct that seriously violates [employers’] religious beliefs.”
Rights advocates were quick to condemn the court’s decision.
“Today’s decision from five male justices is a direct attack on women and our fundamental rights. This ruling goes out of its way to declare that discrimination against women isn’t discrimination,” said Ilyse Hogue, president of NARAL Pro-Choice America.
“Allowing bosses this much control over the health-care decisions of their employees is a slippery slope with no end,” Hogue continued. “Every American could potentially be affected by this far-reaching and shocking decision that allows bosses to reach beyond the boardroom and into their employees’ bedrooms. The majority claims that its ruling is limited, but that logic doesn’t hold up. Today it’s birth control; tomorrow it could be any personal medical decision, from starting a family to getting life-saving vaccinations or blood transfusions.”
Ninety-nine percent of sexually active women in the U.S. use birth control for a variety of health reasons, according to research by women’s health organizations.
“The fact of the matter is that birth control is a wildly popular and medically necessary part of women’s health care,” said Nita Chaudhary, co-founder of UltraViolet, a national women’s advocacy organization.Chaudhary adds that despite it’s clear necessity for the reproductive health of the majority of women, one in three women have struggled at some point to afford birth control.
Monday’s ruling focuses specifically on companies that are “closely-held,” which analysts report covers over 90 percent of businesses in the United States.
The dissenting opinion, penned by Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg and supported by Justice Sonia Sotomayor and mostly joined by Justices Elena Kagan and Stephen Breyer, acknowledges that the decision was of “startling breadth” and said that it allows companies to “opt out of any law (saving only tax laws) they judge incompatible with their sincerely held religious beliefs.”
The opinion was based largely on the Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA), which provides that a law that burdens a person’s religious beliefs must be justified by a compelling government interest.
“There is an overriding interest, I believe, in keeping the courts ‘out of the business of evaluating the relative merits of differing religious claims,'” Ginsburg adds, concluding: “The Court, I fear, has ventured into a minefield.”
Echoing Ginsburg’s concern, Rev. Barry W. Lynn, executive director of Americans United for Separation of Church and State called the ruling “a double-edged disaster,” saying it “conjures up fake religious freedom rights for corporations while being blind to the importance of birth control to America’s working women.”
Similar reactions were expressed on Twitter following the news. Summarizing the crux of the decision, NBC producer Jamil Smith wrote:
The Hobby Lobby decision means that in terms of personhood, corporations > women. And Christianity > everyone else.
— Jamil Smith (@JamilSmith) June 30, 2014
Others, joining Ginsburg’s outrage that now “legions of women who do not hold their employers’ beliefs” would be denied essential health coverage, expressed their opinions under the banner “#jointhedissent.”
#jointhedissent Tweets
The majority opinion leaves open the possibility that the federal government can cover the cost of contraceptives for women whose employers opt out, leaving many to look to the Obama administration for their next move.
GINSBURG: Supreme Court Has ‘Ventured Into A Minefield’ On Obamacare Decision
The 8 Best Lines From Ginsburg’s Dissent on the Hobby Lobby Contraception Decision
Ruling: BURWELL, SECRETARY OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES, ET AL. v. HOBBY LOBBY STORES, INC., ET AL.
3 Ways Hobby Lobby Ruling Could Impact 2014
What The Hobby Lobby Decision Means For Your Health Care
Why Today’s Hobby Lobby Decision Actually Hurts People Of Faith
Hobby Lobby case: What birth control is affected?
Read Justice Ginsburg’s Passionate 35-Page Dissent of Hobby Lobby Decision
Actual Text of Justice Ginsburg’s Dissent
Birth Control, Constitution, Corporate Rights, CultureWar, Discrimination, GOP, Health Care, Health Issues, Individual Rights, Judiciary/AttyGnrl, SCOTUS, Womens Issues#5OldBigots, #jointhedissent, Birth Control, HHS Mandate, Hobby Lobby, Ilyse Hogue, Jamil Smith, Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Justice Samuel Alito, NARAL Pro-Choice America, Nita Chaudhary, Religious Freedom Restoration Act, Reproductive health, Rev Barry W. Lynn, RFRA, SCOTUS, Women, Women's Health
Observing LGBT Health Awareness Week
March 26, 2014 NVRDC1 Comment
A statement by HHS Secretary Kathleen Sebelius
LGBT Health Awareness Week is an important time to bring attention to the unique health needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) Americans and to highlight the progress we’ve made in our work to ensure LGBT Americans have the same rights and protections as other Americans, especially through implementation of the Affordable Care Act.
It’s critical for the LGBT community and all Americans to remember that Monday, March 31 is the last day of open enrollment and those who miss out can’t get covered through the Marketplace until 2015.
Access to affordable care has long been an obstacle to good health and financial security for the LGBT community and all Americans. On average, LGBT Americans suffer from higher rates of cancer, obesity, HIV/AIDS and mental illness than the rest of the nation. For those with chronic conditions such as HIV/AIDS, dollar caps on annual and lifetime coverage meant astronomical bills and debt for many in the community.
But thanks to the Affordable Care Act, it is a new day. Lifetime and annual dollar caps are a thing of the past and no one can be denied coverage based on their health history.
Legally married couples are treated equally when it comes to coverage or financial assistance, no matter who they are married to. And, for the first time, Marketplace coverage is now affordable for the LGBT community and Americans all over the country.
Remember: Monday, March 31 is the last day of enrollment – that’s only five days left to get everyone covered who still needs it.
This Administration is committed to improving the health of all Americans, including LGBT Americans, and we look forward to continuing this work during LGBT Health Awareness Week and beyond.
Health Care, Health Issues, LGBTACA Enrollment deadline, Affordable Care Act, Health Issues, HIV/AIDS, LGBT, LGBT Health Awareness Week, ObamaCare
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Centers, Sanctuaries & Chapters
25 Years at Constitution Marsh
Longtime director (and photographer) Eric Lind moving on
Original story published by The Highlands Current
November 2, 2018 | By Alison Rooney
Eric Lind, who has spent 25 years at the Constitution Marsh Audubon Center and Sanctuary in Garrison, including the past 20 as director, will depart this month to relocate to Albany, where he will become director of community science and restoration for Audubon New York.
During Lind’s quarter-century at the sanctuary, its budget doubled. Among other accomplishments, he oversaw the construction of the boardwalk and developed a year-round internship and mentoring program for students entering the conservation field. (To honor his work at the marsh, Audubon New York is creating a scholarship fund in Lind’s name for high school and college students.)
This weekend, the Garrison Art Center is hosting an exhibition of photographs that Lind has taken at the marsh (including in its waters) and the surrounding area. The Marsh opened today (Nov. 2) and continues Saturday and Sunday from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. The Current spoke with Lind earlier this week.
What brought you to Constitution Marsh?
Close to 30 years ago, I came to see it out of curiosity. I had read about it in an Audubon Field Guide. I always had a deep interest in the natural world. I met Jim Rodd, who was my predecessor — he was leaning out a window, painting a ledge. We developed a friendship, and he ended up recommending me for the job.
What is the most important change you’ve implemented?
The continuous restoration of the habitat matters most of all. There is no finish line. The marsh is incredibly complex, and we’re barely scratching the surface of how we understand it and what we can do to maintain it. We’re concerned about rising sea levels and climate change; we’re always thinking about what it might look like in 50 years.
What has been the most positive aspect of working at the marsh?
As a younger person I used to be focused on birds, wildlife and habitat. But the real joy and pleasure here came from the people I’ve worked with, including the seasonal staff. Seeing them mature and gain an understanding of the consequences of what we do here, and what they can continue to do, has been rewarding. People connect to this place and lifelong friendships develop. I’ve also enjoyed working with my colleagues on the Philipstown Conservation Board.
What’s been the greatest challenge?
We’re a small facility in a region which has exploded in popularity. We have the desire to show off the site, but we have restraints in how to handle it.
How would you describe your new position?
I’ll be looking at projects statewide, and I’ll be able to apply what has worked here on a broader scale. It’s a big change, but I’m not leaving Audubon. I’ll always be connected to the marsh.
Is there a small thing that gets to you most about the marsh?
There’s no singular thing. It’s so extraordinarily beautiful and interesting. It’s a privilege to be in a place for so long that you become aware of how little you know about it.
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Long Island Students Spread Artful Awareness
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Tag Archive | Bruce Feiler
Telling Tales that Matter
Credit: Some rights reserved by woodleywonderworks
By Chris Little
As a parent you want to equip your kids to handle whatever comes their way. You buy them helmets to wear when they ride their bikes, and shin guards for soccer practice. But how do you protect their hearts, their emotions, for the inevitable bruises they’ll receive? In this New York Times article, Bruce Feiler writes that the best way to equip your kids with emotional resilience is by telling them stories — specifically stories about their family.
Feiler describes his search after a strained family reunion for what he called the “secret sauce” that holds a family together. “What are the ingredients that make some families effective, resilient, happy?” he asks.
After years of research he came up with an unexpected answer: “The single most important thing you can do for your family may be the simplest of all: develop a strong family narrative,” he writes.
Feiler suggests playing a game of 20 questions with your kids. Ask them questions like: Where did your grandparents grow up? Where did your dad (or mom) and I go to high school? Where did we meet? What is the story of your birth? And others like: How did your grandparents weather the Depression? How about World War II? Even: Where were we on 9/11?
Kids who can answer those questions correctly, Feiler says, have been found to be more resilient when faced with challenges, have a greater sense of control over their lives, and exhibit higher self-esteem. In fact, the ability to answer questions about their family history is the “best single predictor of children’s emotional health and happiness,” he writes. The reason may have to do with your child feeling like she’s part of a larger social group, a larger narrative, a history.
So naturally the first thing I did after reading this article was ask my kids if they knew where their dad and I met, and where their grandparents grew up, and how their great-grandparents got through the Depression. I was happy to learn that they could answer fairly well — and it was interesting to identify the gaps in their knowledge — but even more gratifying were the discussions we got into as a result. We’ve done a lot more talking about our family history lately.
Feiler points out in his article that there are different ways to tell your family story. There’s what he calls the “ascending narrative,” where you might describe your family’s rise from humble roots to a position of relative prosperity. There’s the “descending narrative,” where you might focus on your family’s fall from heights of prestige or wealth, perhaps in the Depression or as recently as the Great Recession. But the most helpful way to frame your family story, Feiler writes, is called the “oscillating family narrative,” where you point out your family’s ups and downs over the years or generations, and how you’ve always stuck together and supported each other to the best of your ability.
This might be a challenge for some of us, granted. We might be carrying a family narrative in our heads that’s been passed down through generations, one that could be either ascending or descending. But I suppose for the most part we have a choice in how we tell our family stories to our kids — and it might be good for us to look at how we talk about our families and see if we can make adjustments. We can choose to frame our histories in terms of an oscillation, sharing the good times and acknowledging the bad times, always looking for ways to emphasize family cohesion.
For example, I can tell the story of how my grandmother’s family lost everything in the Depression and struggled mightily to avoid going on “relief,” of how their house burned down, and of how my great-uncle failed in his first attempt to win acceptance to the Naval Academy — or I can tell the story of how the family moved to a new city and started a new business and eventually regained their footing, and about how my great-uncle eventually got into the Naval Academy, even serving at Pearl Harbor. Better yet — I can tell both stories. There are ups and downs in every family. What’s important, Feiler says, is to share with your kids the stories of your family’s perseverance and courage and commitment to each other, through thick and thin. It helps them to know they’re part of something bigger than they are. Something that lasts.
“Decades of research have shown that most happy families communicate effectively,” Feiler writes. “But talking doesn’t mean simply ‘talking through problems,’ as important as that is. Talking also means telling a positive story about yourselves. When faced with a challenge, happy families, like happy people, just add a new chapter to their life story that shows them overcoming the hardship. This skill is particularly important for children, whose identity tends to get locked in during adolescence.
“[I]f you want a happier family,” he concludes, “create, refine and retell the story of your family’s positive moments and your ability to bounce back from the difficult ones. That act alone may increase the odds that your family will thrive for many generations to come.”
You can read the full article here.
This entry was posted on April 12, 2013, in Family Life, Feeding Your Soul and tagged 20 questions, Bruce Feiler, family history, family narratives, Feiler, kids emotional health, New York Times, teen self-esteem. 9 Comments
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In the years since, Blanco has amassed 26 total #1 songs and is recognized for his achievements with Ed Sheeran, Justin Bieber, The Weeknd, Selena Gomez, Ariana Grande, Lana Del Rey, Miguel, Halsey, Camila Cabello and many more.Blanco was named Producer of the Year at the 2017 i Heart Radio Music Awards.Blanco eventually secured an apprenticeship with producer Disco D after countless trips to New York City from his home in Virginia to meet with labels and producers.In 2007, Blanco and rapper Spank Rock teamed up on Bangers & Cash, a collaborative EP that caught the attention of many in the industry, including Dr.Blanco has written and produced songs for artists including Ed Sheeran ("Don't" and "Castle on the Hill"), Justin Bieber ("Love Yourself"), Major Lazer ("Cold Water"), Maroon 5 ("Moves Like Jagger", "Don't Wanna Know", "Payphone", "Maps", "Animals"), Katy Perry ("Teenage Dream", "California Gurls"), Rihanna ("Diamonds"), Kesha ("Ti K To K"), Taio Cruz ("Dynamite"), Wiz Khalifa ("Work Hard, Play Hard"), Gym Class Heroes ("Stereo Hearts"), Tory Lanez ("Luv") and many more.February 14, 1894 – December 26, 1974) was an American comedian, vaudevillian, radio, television and film actor, and violinist.Luke, and also sparked connections to future collaborators Amanda Blank and Santigold.Blanco was mentored for several years by songwriter and producer Dr.
began by producing hip-hop instrumentals in his bedroom and recording his own vocals on top of them.Benny's parents refused to let their son go on the road at 17, but it was the beginning of his long friendship with the Marx Brothers, especially Zeppo Marx.The next year, Benny formed a vaudeville musical duo with pianist Cora Folsom Salisbury, a buxom 45-year-old divorcee who needed a partner for her act.His first serious exposure to music came in 1994 with the cassette singles Nas's "The World Is Yours" and All-4-One's "I Swear", which heavily influenced his early productions.After early experiments with beat making and recording himself on his boombox, Blanco's rapping earned the attention of The Source and executives at Columbia Records. Andredi, and spent many months in his VA basement studio collaborating and working to perfect his craft.
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Posts Tagged Darren Osborne
London: Finsbury Park Mosque Attack, Dividing the World into Religious Lines by Sajjad Shaukat
Posted by farrukh in RACISM IN BRITAIN on July 2nd, 2017
London: Finsbury Park Mosque Attack, Dividing the World into Religious Lines
Sajjad Shaukat
A man died and at least 11 people were injured in the early hours of Monday (June 19, 2017) morning after a van was rammed into a crowd of Muslims worshipers in Finsbury Park near a mosque in north London.
Eyewitnesses reported chaotic scenes, as the incident unfolded just after midnight when worshipers had just finished evening Ramadan prayers. They said that the driver shouted, “I want to kill all Muslims” before onlookers pinned him to the ground. He was protected from a crowd by an Imran and other Muslims who have been credited with saving his life.
Next day, British police and media that a white man-47-year-old man, namely, Darren Osborne who has previously expressed hatred of Muslims was arrested by police on suspicion of attempted murder and of the terror offense. He was not known to the security services.
Earlier, the British police stated, the man who died was already being treated for an unrelated ailment and they are still investigating whether or not his death was related to the attack.
British Prime Minister Theresa May has vowed that that “hatred and evil of the kind seen in the terror attack on a London mosque will never succeed—every bit as insidious and destructive to our values and our way of life”, as recent terror attacks motivated by Islamist extremism.”
While warning the rise of Islamophobia, leader of the Labour party Jeremy Corbyn said, “I see it this is a terror on the streets…in the communities…We have to all reach out and feel their pain and their stress.”
The Guardian reported on June 20, this year, “White supremacists celebrated the attack [On Muslim worshippers], according to the US extremist monitoring group Site. It also said pro-Islamic State channels were using reports of the incident to incite Muslims.”
According to the latest news, ISIS extremists operating online have used the terror attack outside a mosque in London to call for more violent assaults on the West in response.
Much has been written and said by writers and analysts of print and electronic media about the terror attacks in Finsbury Park near a mosque. On the social media, the opinion of some Christians, Jews, and Muslims are divided, while elaborating the tragedy in accordance with their own particular religious background. Prejudice is running so high against one another that by reading the name, some people of the opposite side ignore his views. Despite it, fact remains that we are living in a world of Zionist-controlled media which is very strong and whatever it releases by concealing the truth and propagating Israeli interests as part of the disinformation, impress the politicians and general masses in the whole world.
In this regard, scholars of international affairs agree that “foreign affairs are too foreign” to the citizens of a country. Renowned scholar Prof. Hoslti opines that “issues and situations” have “influence on public opinion” which in turn “influences the objectives and actions.”
In fact, the fault cannot be laid on the general masses, a majority of whom does not have much time to go in-depth. Hence, they are swayed by emotions, stereotypes, and prejudices created by the political leaders who keep on manipulating any crisis for their own self-interests with the sole aim of getting their sympathies to increase their vote bank. There are equally strong pressures from religious and nationalist forces in wake of fake global war on terror which is dividing the world into religious lines.
Therefore, terror attack on the Muslim worshippers in Finsbury Park cannot be seen in isolation. We need to analyze variously related developments of the recent past and the present ones in the world and inside the UK to reach the conclusion.
It is notable that no party gain a clear majority in the general elections of the UK, which were held on June 8, 2017.
Jeremy Corbyn has declared his party the victors after addressing staff at Labour Party’s headquarter. Corbyn also repeated his call for the prime minister to resign.
On the other side, Conservative Party of Prime Minister May lost its majority and was eight seats short of a majority. Brushing aside the call of resignation, May has sought permission from the Queen to form a new government.
British analysts opined that there would not be a stable government, as the election results have shown. Instead, there would be hung Parliament in the UK.
It was the right hour for the Israeli Secret Agency Mossad to arrange another terror assault in the UK, which targeted the Muslim worshippers in Finsbury Park near a mosque.
It is mentionable that at least 22 people were killed in a terror attack at Ariana Grande concert in Manchester on May 22, 2017.
British police said that the attack was carried out by a single suicide bomber, who also died. Afterward, the man who targeted the Ariana Grande gig has been named as 22-year-old Salman Abedi who was a British national and the child of Libyan refugees.
Ian Hopkins, the Chief Constable of Greater Manchester Police stated, “Abedi was said to have been known to police and the intelligence agencies. British Prime Minister Theresa May said, “Salman Abadi may have been part of a bigger network.”
After the Manchester terror assault, British police had arrested several people in connection with the investigation, and some were released without charge. A Libyan pilot was also arrested as part of the investigation into the terror network behind Manchester bomber.
But, a German intelligence official stated that Abedi-the real culprit of the Manchester rampage flew from Istanbul to the UK via Dusseldorf’s international airport. A senior Turkish official disclosed that the Turkish government had already sent a file on Abedi to British authorities, but declined to discuss the details of the communication.
Following the Manchester carnage, Prime Minister May, the leader of the Conservative Party and Jeremy Corbyn, the leader of the Labour Party, including Liberal Democrat leader Tim Farron had suspended the campaigning for the general election.
On the social media, the ISIS claimed responsibility for the terror assault at Ariana Grande concert. Other ISIS supporters said online that the attack was revenge for the UK’s involvement in the bombing campaign against ISIL in Iraq and Syria.
Similarly, seven people were killed and 48 persons injured in the terror attack on London Bridge and at the adjacent Borough Market on June 3, 2017.
According to the British police and media, a van driving at high speed mowed down pedestrians on London Bridge before the occupants got out and began stabbing patrons at nearby bars and restaurants at the adjacent Borough Market.
The terror attacks came days before the general election and two weeks after the Manchester tragedy. It was the third terrorist attack to strike the Great Britain, this year after a man drove a car into a pedestrian on Westminister Bridge in March.
About the London terror assaults of June 3, the CNN disclosed on June 4, 2017, “The ISIS-linked Amaq Agency claimed a “detachment of Islamic State fighters” carried out the attack, but CNN terrorism analyst Paul Cruickshank cautions ISIS has provided no evidence to back up its claim. Amaq also claimed ISIS was behind the attack at a resort in Manila last week, despite Filipino authorities asserting it was not terror-related. A US counterterrorism source tells CNN that US intelligence is aware of the London claim. Mark Rowley, an assistant commissioner for specialist operations in the Metropolitan Police Service, says that authorities will “release the identities of the three men directly responsible for the attacks…as soon as operationally possible.” Police are searching four properties. As for the 12 arrests made during the Barking raids, one man, 55, has been released without charge.”
The Telegraph said on June 5, 2017, that the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant claimed responsibility for the London attacks on June 7. However, it was quite opposite to the report of CNN.
Earlier, British Prime Minister Theresa May warned that Britain is in the grip of a spate of copycat terror attacks in the wake of the London Bridge atrocity. She elaborated that for the second time, this election campaign, Mrs May who had just chaired a meeting of the Government’s Cobra emergency committee, stated that while the Manchester Ariana attack which killed 22 people, the Westminster attack in March which left four people dead and the London Bridge attack were not directly connected, there was now a “new trend” in the threat the UK faces.
She further remarked, “Terrorism breeds terrorism and perpetrators are inspired to attack, not only on the basis of carefully constructed plots after years of planning and training, and not even as lone attackers radicalized online, but by copying one another and often using the crudest of means of attack…We cannot and must not pretend that things can continue as they are. Things need to change…the recent attacks were all connected by “the single evil ideology of Islamist extremism that preaches hatred, sows division and promotes sectarianism”. Analysts and sources pointed out that her reference to the public sector meant that schools and other public bodies had to adopt a much stricter approach to extremism, while councils had to make sure they did not create ghettos by housing Muslims in areas where they become concentrated together.
Mrs May also added that the internet provided a “safe space” for extremists to spread their creed and plan attacks, and said it was time to “regulate cyberspace” through the sort of agreements she reached at the G7 summit in Italy recently, when leaders agreed to pile pressure on social media companies to block extremist material.
After the terror attacks on London Bridge and at Borough Market London, again, major parties of the Britain, temporarily, suspended the national election campaigning for the general elections which were held on June 8, this year.
Regarding London attacks, Jeremy Corbyn, the leader of the Labour Party had said that Prime Minister May should resign—three days “before polling day may not seem particularly realistic. Corbyn also said, “The election might be a better way of removing her.”
It is notable that three days before the first round of France’s presidential elections, held on April 23, 2017, a French policeman was shot dead and two others were wounded in central Paris on April 20, 2017, when a gunman wielding a machine gun leapt out of a car and opened fire on the Champs-Elysees, Paris’s most famous boulevard. ISIS claimed that the attack was carried out by “Abu Yousuf al-Baljiki (the Belgian) and he is one of the Islamic State’s fighters.”
In the aftermath of the shooting, the three main candidates canceled campaign events and instead made televised statements in which they competed to talk tough on security and vowed a crackdown on ISIS. The incident brought issues of terrorism, the French Muslims, security, and immigration back to the forefront of the campaign. Marine Le Pen demanded the closure of all Islamist mosques, repeating her call for Europe’s partly open borders to be closed. The centrist Emmanuel Macron was elected French president by defeating the ultra-nationalist and far-right candidate Marine Le Pen in the second round of the French presidential election.
Karim Cheurfi, a 39-year-old French national who was shot dead by the police was identified as the attacker.
In fact, terror attack at Champs-Elysees-Paris’s Boulevard was arranged by the Israeli Mossad with the assistance of the ISIS to ensure the victory of Macron in the French presidential elections. The pro-Israeli, the then French president-elect Emmanuel Macron who was having connections with Tel Aviv in the past will maintain the US-led status quo in the world and will further advance the Israeli agenda against Russia, China, Syria, Pakistan etc, and the Muslims, while further advancing the international forces of globalization, controlled by the wealthy Jews and the elite class at the cost of small countries and the poor class.
Recall that three days before the general elections in Spain, the train bombings in Madrid on March 11, 2004, which killed more than 200 people turned the election results in favour of Jose Luis Rodriguez Zapatero whose Socialist Party won the elections, as he had said that Spain where the “US war has been deeply unpopular”, would withdraw its troops from Iraq. While government led by the Prime Minister Jose Maria who staunchly supported the American-led war in Iraq lost the election. The victory of the Socialist Party in Spain was being called by some in Europe and America as a victory for terrorism, a precedent that offers Al-Qaeda or groups like it the notion that they can alter the democratic process with bombs and murder. A former member of the Spanish Parliament, Pedro Schwartz remarked, “Al-Qaeda won the election”.
As a matter of fact, the agents of Mossad who are in collaboration with the CIA sympathizers, Syrian rebel groups and the ISIL militants arranged terror attacks in Paris, Brussels, Orlando, San Bernardino, Nice, Munich, London (March 22, 2017), St. Petersburg (Metro train) in Stockholm, in Manchester and again in London, and now at the London mosque. While, a gunman who went by the nickname Black Jesus was identied—39-year-old Kori Ali Muhammad, making militant comments on social media killed three white men in downtown Fresno, California, on April 18, 2017, and fired at another before he was taken into custody, while shouting “Allahu Akhbar,” as the Fresno police stated.
There is an interrelationship of the terror attacks in the US, Europe, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Yemen, Philippines etc., and elsewhere in the world, which were false flag terror attacks, conducted by Mossad in connivance with the agents of Indian secret agency RAW and those of the vulnerable CIA operatives.
Through all these false flag terror operations, the US and Israel wanted to obtain their covert aims against Russia and the Muslims. Mossad had also provided the US President Donald Trump with an opportunity to manipulate various terror assaults of Europe and America to win the US presidential election and to reunite America and Europe, as a rift was created between America and its Western allies, especially Europe on a number of issues, including NATO. And, President Donald Trump had left no stone unturned in implementing anti-Muslim policies, while speaking openly against the Muslims and Syrian immigrants.
It is noteworthy that since September 2015, Russian-led coalition of Iran, Iraq, the Syrian army the National Defense Forces (NDF) and Lebanon-based Hezbollah in support of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad has been achieving successes in Syria and Iraq by retaking several regions from the occupation of the CIA-Mossad led rebel groups and ISIS militants after their failure to topple the Assad government—proving links of Al-Qaeda’s Al-Nusra Front and ISIS with America and Israel, Mossad with the cooperation of some CIA agents started terrorism-related attacks in the US and Europe. Meanwhile, the CIA-Plan B for partition of Syria also failed. Moscow also exposed smuggling of oil supply by the ISIL-controlled areas to Europe and silence of their governments in this connection. In this regard, Russian Presidents Vladimir Putin’s successful diplomacy surprised the Israel-led America and some European countries who still want to oust the Assad regime to obtain the greater interests of Israel.
In response, taking note of various developments and some other ones such as reluctance of NATO countries to support America’s fake global war on terror, acceptance of Syrian refugees by the European countries, especially Germany, criticism of the controversial Turkish-EU refugee deal by a number of human rights groups, the EU rule to boycott goods produced in Israeli settlements on the West Bank, Britain’s decision to leave the European Union (EU), after the referendum (Brexit) on June 24, 2016, prospects of Scotland and some other countries for separation from the EU, and the divide between the elite class which run multinational companies with the direct or indirect control of the Jews and the general masses who are suffering from multiple problems in wake of differences on the refugee crisis, Syrian war, Greece’s weak economy, violent protests against the labour laws in France etc.—the chances of European Union’s disintegration and a rift among the NATO countries, as noted in the recent past by the “Stop NATO protests in Europe were quite opposite to the Israeli secret interests. Hence, Israeli Mossad which was in collaboration with the vulnerable CIA operatives organized terror assaults in the US and Europe. As part of the double game, these terror attacks were conducted by these secret agencies, particularly Mossad with the assistance of the ISIS terrorists who used the home-grown terrorists of these countries.
Owing to the irresponsible approach of the Western leaders and their media, far right-wing parties and “Stop Islam” movement in the West, especially in Europe has been becoming popular by largely attracting their people. Right-wing parties in a growing number of European countries have made electoral gains. The right-wing parties range across a wide policy spectrum, from populist and nationalist to far-right neofascist.
Other aims of Tel Aviv was to muster the support of America’s Western allies against Russia in relation to the Syrian war, as US-led countries like France, UK also started airstrikes in Syria and Iraq, under the cover of targeting ISIL.
When American President Trump’s extremist policies were strongly criticized inside America and around the world, including particularly her Western allies, his advisers, Secretary of State Rex Tillerson and Defense Secretary Jim Mattis, neoconservatives and Israeli-backed officials directed him to implement dual strategy of Bush and Obama, with the aim to keep America and Western allies, particularly Europe united against Syria, Russia, China, Pakistan etc., while covertly continuing anti-Muslim rhetoric so as to safeguard the interests of Tel Aviv.
Nonetheless, Israel succeeded in its sinister designs. Notably, backing out from his earlier statements, American President Trump has changed his policy regarding Europe and NATO. In this context, he stated on April 13, 2017, that US relations with Russia may be at “an all-time low” and declared a new-found faith in NATO, suggesting the alliance was “no longer obsolete”. Besides, US President Donald Trump attended a summit of NATO nations, held on May 25, 2017, in Brussels. He also met leaders of NATO and those of EU. His trip to the European countries came in wake of the deadly attack in Manchester. Talking to the Belgium prime minister, Trump said that countries would work together to defeat various problems and “new one is terrorism.”
Here, it is mentionable that Machiavelli advises the rulers to have a lion-like image outwardly, and act upon the traits of goat inwardly. He also suggests them foreign adventures and the use of terror to obtain their goals. In his sense, a good ruler should be a good opportunist and hypocrite. While echoing Machiavelli, Morgenthau points out that sometimes, rulers act upon immoral activities like deceit, fraud, falsehood and even murder to fulfill their selfish aims.
Now, Trump has begun acting upon the discarded theory of the past in the modern era. It could be judged from the recent trip of Trump to the Middle East. Backing out from his earlier statements—banning the Muslims from entering the United States, whetting of the Muslims—blocking visas being issued to anyone from Syria, Iraq, Iran, Libya, Somalia, Sudan and Yemen—strict conditions for the citizens from Afghanistan, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Egypt and Lebanon, in Saudi Arabia, in his address at a regional summit in Riyadh, on May 22, 2017, President Donald Trump called for “Muslim unity in the fight against terrorism…a battle between good and evil…U.S. wants a coalition of nations who share the aim of stamping out extremists. This is a battle between barbaric criminals who seek to obliterate human life, and decent people of all religions who seek to protect it,” as he elaborated.
Like Bush and Obama, Trump described Islam as “a religion of peace” and did not use the contentious phrase “radical Islamic terrorism,” as he frequently has in US speeches. Instead, he called on the Muslim leaders to honestly confront “the crisis of Islamist extremism and the Islamist terror groups.”
Setting aside the Israeli-led US state terrorism and CIA-backed terror in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Syria, Yemen and other vulnerable Islamic countries, Trump singled out Iran, accusing Tehran of contributing to instability in the region. He supposedly said, “From Lebanon to Iraq to Yemen, Iran funds, arms and trains terrorists, militias and other extremist groups that spread destruction and chaos across the region.” Keeping Israeli hidden agenda in his mind, Trump also stated that all the Muslim nations should boycott Iran, and also pledged to resolve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict for peace of the region.
Trump’s address was a mixture of calls for Israeli-Arab peace and a defense of Israel from threats in the region, including from the groups allied with the Palestinian cause.
On May 21, 2017, Saudi King Salman bin Abdulaziz and Trump signed a defense deal of nearly $110 billion agreement to bolster the military capabilities of Saudi Arabia. The defense deal, effective immediately, was one of the series agreements the two countries signed to enhance their military and economic partnerships, including a second defense pact with options valued up to $350 billion over the next 10 years. In fact, by keeping the Iranian phobia, the major purpose of Trump’s visit was to sell America arms to Saudi Arabia.
President Trump also encouraged NATO-like alliance of Saudi Arabia, which includes the Sunni countries against Shia states, especially Iran and Yemen. It was formed on the instructions of Washington. As after the US-led invasion of the Afghanistan, Iraq, airstrikes on Libya and promotion of war in Syria have been clearly exposed, therefore, America revived the old phony global war on terror to secure the illegitimate interests of Tel Aviv, whose major aim was to deceive the Muslims.
President Donald Trump pledged on May 23, 2017, at the Israel Museum in Jerusalem that he would work for an Israeli-Palestinian peace, while, protecting the region from Iran and other threats. He stated, “Israelis have experienced firsthand the hatred and terror of radical violence…Hamas and Hezbollah launch rockets into Israeli communities…The United States is firmly committed to keeping Iran from developing a nuclear weapon…America’s security partnership with Israel is stronger than ever.” Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu praised Trump and his wife, daughter, and son-in-law for visiting the Western Wall before saying Israel must always be able to defend itself against any threat.
Trump met earlier in the day with Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas in Bethlehem and came back to Jerusalem insisting that a peace deal is possible.
All this reminds that before attacking Iraq in 2013, British Prime Minister Tony Blair and the US President Bush had announced the Road Map to the Middle East so as to please the Islamic World that Palestinian-Israeli issue would be settled. But no progress took place in that respect.
It is also of particular attention that on June 5, this year, six Arab countries including Saudi Arabia and Egypt cut diplomatic ties with Qatar for allegedly supporting terrorism. Trump also raised similar false allegations in connection with Qatar. While Saudi Arabian king who wants to save the kingdom of the country has been creating division and divide between the Muslim countries on the basis of Shia and Sunni. In fact, America and Israel are diverting the attention of the international community from their own state terrorism and terrorism-related attacks in the world.
Despite the revival of the fake global war on terror, some developments disappointed the Israelis. In this regard, Russia-Turkey alliance to fight the ISIS, and US decision to dispatch more troops in Afghanistan where America and its NATO allies have entangled in the prolonged war of history, which has, rapidly, increased the cost of war, bringing about multiple internal crises, affecting the ordinary Americans and Western citizens, particularly those of Europe might be cited as example. Besides, differences between the Britain and the US about Manchester terror attack—probe of Trump that the US intelligence agencies already knew it, Trump’s criticism of Germany regarding trade, conduction of missile test by North Korea, failure of Thump’s war-like diplomacy against the latter and waning of Russia and China to America in this regard also depressed the Israelis.
Notably, on June 8, 2017, the Russian Defense Ministry said that it is checking on information, indicating that the Islamic State leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi was reportedly killed in a Russia-led airstrike in Syria. However, this incident further disappointed the Israelis.
Moreover, US intelligence agencies, especially FBI has continued the so-called investigation that Russia and President Putin authorized the hacking in the November 8 US presidential election aimed to help Donald Trump to win it. Both Putin and Trump have denied the charges. In this connection, differences between CIA and FBI also frustrated Tel Aviv.
Especially, Tel Aviv wants to intensify the new Cold War between the US-led West and Russia so as to avoid the two-state solution of the Israeli-Palestinian dispute, as some European countries have been emphasizing on Israeli Prime Minister Netanyahu to stop the expansion of West Bank settlements and restart a negotiation process for the two-state solution of the Israeli-Palestinian dispute in wake of the debate between the Zionists and non-Zionist Jews in relation to the two-state solution of the issue.
Earlier, on January 15, 2016, France who is a staunch supporter of the two-state solution of the Israeli-Palestinian issue conducted a summit in Paris which was attended by 70 nations. In a statement, delegates at the summit also restated their commitment to the two-state solution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and emphasized on them to restart negotiations. Palestinians welcomed the conference, but Israel called it “rigged”.
As regards the new Cold War, ABC News (Wire Service News) pointed out on June 14, 2017, “The U.S. has deployed a truck-mounted missile system into Syria, an official said Wednesday, to a forward operating group of rebels and U.S. military advisers that have repeatedly clashed with government forces. The deployment raises the stakes in eastern Syria, where Iranian-sponsored pro-government forces have outflanked U.S. advisers and rebels holding the Tanf border crossing to establish their own link to Iraq for the first time in years.”
Taking note of America’s ineffective diplomacy in Syria, by violating the international law, an American fighter jet shot down a Syrian warplane on June 18, this year. In reaction, Russia has shut down a communication line with its US counterparts in Syria, threatening to target any aircraft including US aircraft operating, above Russian and Syrian regime-controlled territory in the country. Under the guise of combating terrorism, on June 20, 2017, a US fighter jet also shot down an armed Iranian drone in southern Syria.
It is also of particular attention that by pursuing the double standards of America in its worst form, Trump also intends to favor India, while opposing the nuclear weapons of Pakistan. However, like Obama, Trump has brushed aside the ground realities that Indian Prime Minister Modi-led by the ruling fundamentalist party BJP has been implementing anti-Muslim and anti-Pakistan agenda while encouraging Hindutva (Hindu nationalism).
As part of the double game, based in Afghanistan, operatives of CIA, RAW and Mossad which have well-established their collective secret network there, and are well-penetrated in the terrorist outfits like ISIS, Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and their affiliated Taliban groups are using their terrorists to destabilize Tibetan regions of China, Iranian Sistan-Baluchistan and Pakistan by arranging the subversive activities. In this context, China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is their special target. Recent acts of terrorism in Afghanistan and Pakistan’s Balochistan are part of the same scheme.
Although Mossad was behind terror attacks in Madrid and at Champs-Elysees, Boulevard to affect the election results, as already mentioned, yet the case of the latest terror assaults in Britain is a little bit different, though having similar purposes of Tel Aviv.
According to a report of Telegraph, “Landmark study shows the number of children under five being brought up as Muslim rose 80 per cent in a decade while three-quarters of Muslims in the UK identify themselves solely as British…The number of children…in what experts have described as an “unprecedented” shift in Britain’s social make-up. One in 12 schoolchildren in England and Wales are now officially classed as Muslim after a decade which saw the number of followers of Islam surge by just over 1.1 million, according to the most detailed study of its kind ever published. The report, presented to Parliament, concludes that Muslims could play a decisive role in the coming general election…making up a significant share of voters in some of the most marginal seats in the country. Significantly, Muslims make up more than a fifth of the population in 26 parliamentary constituencies and around 50 per cent in some areas. There are also 70 council wards with a Muslim population of 40 percent or more…This statistic highlights the diversity in modern Britain and the need that this is reflected in all spheres of life, from top management opportunities to political representation.”
In the meantime, last year, the success of first Muslim Pakistan’s origin Sadiq Khan as mayor of London by defeating the Conservative rival Zac Goldsmith-a wealthy Jew who was supported by the former British Prime Minister David Cameron also depressed the Israelis. In May 2015, the number of Muslim MPs in Britain increased from eight to 13.
Now, a total of 16 Muslims, including a dozen British Pakistanis, have won UK Parliamentary elections of 2017 to become members of the House of Commons on mainly Labour and Conservative tickets.
Unlike the other European countries, Britain has strongly favored American policies. By bypassing the UN Security Council, Anglo-American invasion of Iraq might be cited as an instance. As regards the anti-Muslim policy of the UK, on January 18, 2015, while singling out only Muslim women British Prime Minister David Cameron had announced that Muslim women who fail to learn English to a high enough standard could face deportation from Britain. He also suggested that poor English skills can leave people “more susceptible to the messages of groups like Islamic State (IS).” His biased statement was firmly criticized by the Muslim MPs and some members of his own party.
Therefore, either it is Conservative Party or Labour Party, which, usually, wins the election; it does not matter, as both the parties are pro-American. Interestingly, both were trying to win the support of the Muslim voters for the recent election.
It is noteworthy that, taking cognizance of the growing threat of global terrorism which has been dividing the Western and Islamic nations into cultural and religious lines since 9/11, American and European governments had already started an inter-faith dialogue, especially between the Christian and Muslim nations. The main aim of such a dialogue was to create interfaith harmony among various religious communities. In the recent years, many conferences were held in various countries in which scholars from Islamic states also participated with a view to creating cultural understanding and interfaith cooperation among major religious communities. But, all these measures proved fruitless due to a deliberate anti-Muslim campaign, launched by the Indo-Israeli lobbies, resulting in obstacles in global interfaith harmony. America and its allies continued to kill many innocent civilians in Iraq, Afghanistan, Kashmir, and Palestine through heavy aerial bombardment and ground shelling in the name of the war on terror. The occupying forces have been using every possible technique of state terrorism in these territories which have become the breeding grounds of a prolonged interaction between freedom fighters and state terrorists, thwarting global interfaith harmony.
It is because of these developments that a greater resentment is being found among the Muslims who think that the US in connivance with the Indo-Israeli lobbies is sponsoring state terrorism, directly or indirectly from Kashmir to Palestine.
In this context, on October 19, 2007, the special issue of South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal, under the caption-‘Working for India or against Islam? Islamophobia in Indian American Lobbies’ had written, “In the past few years, Indian American community has gained an unprecedented visibility in the international arena and now constitutes influential ethnic lobbies in Washington. Among other factors, Hindu aligned with Jewish pressure groups in relation to the war against terrorism and to further the India-Israel-US strategic partnership play a major role in exaggerating Islamophobic overtones in the Indian American lobbies”.
Another regrettable point is that irresponsible attitude of Indian, Israeli and some Western politicians have introduced dangerous socio-religious dimension in their societies by equating the “war on terror” with “war on Islam” and acts of Al Qaeda with all the Muslims. Their media have also been contributing to heighten the currents of world politics on cultural and religious lines with the negative projection of Islam.
Anyhow, through the terror attacks in the UK before the general election, the major aim of Mossad was to affect the election campaign. And, through the terror assault by a white man at Muslims worshipers in Finsbury Park near the mosque, Mossad’s real purpose is to create a division of the world on religious lines, particularly between the Christians of the Western World and the Muslim World. For these sinister designs, Mossad, RAW, and CIA operatives have also been assisting ISIS and Al Qaeda and similar terror outfits which have accepted responsibility in relation to various terrorism-related attacks on Christians in Egypt and some African countries, including Pakistan.
While, like other European countries, especially France, Mossad wanted to accelerate persecution of Muslims, hate-crime against them and also to compel the Britain to make discriminatory laws against them. So, besides other terror attacks in the UK, the latest one is part of the same policy of Israel, implemented by Mossad.
However, like Trump, Israeli rulers have also been confused due to the above-mentioned developments which do not favor Israel like the past, while, still some CIA agents, Indian RAW and particularly Mossad want to divide the world into religious lines. Like Tel Aviv, India also wants to keep its control on the Occupied Kashmir through state terrorism and to avoid its solution.
Although overtly President Trump has softened his external policy regarding Muslims and Islamic countries, yet covertly, he is acting upon the conspiracy of Mossad and RAW, which is, intentionally or intentionally, being followed by America’s Western partners against the Muslims. If not checked in time by the peace-loving Muslims, Christians, Hindus, Jews and Buddhists, these policies of the President Donald Trump who is particularly completing the extremist agenda of Israel are likely to result in more recruitment in the militant outfits, especially in the ISIS group, inspiring the extremist Muslims for more terrorism-related attacks. Israel, who will never accept the two-state solution of the Israeli-Palestinian issue, will prefer to seek the final revenge by bringing about a major war between the Muslim and the Christian worlds or to cause a major war between Russia and the US-led some Western countries, which will convert the entire world into the Holocaust.
We may conclude that although agents of RAW and CIA are in a collaboration which managed terrorism-related assaults in the US and Europe and elsewhere in the world, yet Mossad is, particularly behind terror attacks in America and Europe. So, undoubtedly, Mossad is, again and again, targeting the UK through ISIS. The latest terror attack which was conducted by a white man on the Muslims worshipers in Finsbury Park near a mosque in north London clearly proves that especially Mossad seems determined to divide the world into religious lines.
Sajjad Shaukat writes on international affairs and is author of the book: The US vs Islamic Militants, Invisible Balance of Power: Dangerous Shift in International Relations
Email: sajjad_logic_pak@hotmail.com
and Muslims are divided, Darren Osborne, Jews, London: Finsbury Park Mosque, some Christians
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Top 10 Protests That Saved TV Shows from Cancellation
by Becky Striepe
Following in the footsteps of "Family Guy," "Futurama" fans brought the show back from cancellation simply by being fans. DVD sales and high ratings for syndicated episodes, along with some good old determination from producer David X. Cohen, convinced executives to revive the series.
Fox canceled "Futurama" in 2003 after a four-year run, and the series remained off the air for years until Adult Swim picked up it up in syndication. Those old episodes got great ratings, and Cohen took a hint from "Family Guy" and pushed Fox to produce a direct-to-DVD movie. "Bender's Big Score" was the first of four feature-length "Futurama" movies. Based on DVD sales, Comedy Central picked up the series, where it's been renewed for another 26 episodes. That means "Futurama" will be on the air through at least the summer of 2013, much to its fans' delight.
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Heads Wall Street Wins, Tails You Lose
Wall Street lawyer Steve Eckhaus defends his cruelly misunderstood clients:
"It was understandable why there was anger," says Mr. Eckhaus, but "the crisis was not caused by Wall Street fat cats. It was caused by a confluence of economic, political and historical factors."
In general, he said his clients are "pure as the driven snow" and doing work that supports the economy and justifies their pay. Mr. Eckhaus wouldn't discuss his clients' or their pay, but some agreed to be interviewed. His representation also was noted in news clippings and public filings.
"You have to know what the profits are" to know what someone should make, said Mr. Eckhaus, noting Wall Street's top performers usually gobble up 80% of the bonus pool. "Those who are responsible for profits should share in the profits in a way that rewards them."
This is rich. In one breath, Eckhaus attributes the crash of the financial system to outside forces. In the next breath, he attributes the profits of the financial system to the genius of Wall Street. When they win, they deserve full credit. When they lose, it's somebody else's fault. Nice racket.
Jonathan Chait, Steve Eckhaus
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An Amateur Metal Detectorist Found an Ancient Roman Coin Depicting the ‘First Brexiteer’ in an English Field
The gold coin shows the face of Allectus, who ruled Britannia as an independent nation during the Roman Empire.
Sarah Cascone, April 5, 2019
An amateur metal detectorist discovered this rare 24-carat gold Roman aureus coin in a field in Kent. It shows the face of the Emperor Allectus, who ruled Britain as an independent nation from 293 to 296 AD, during the time of the Roman Empire. Photo courtesy of Dix Noonan Webb.
A rare 24-carat gold coin almost 2,000 years old has been discovered by an amateur metal detectorist in a field in Kent, England, near the site of an ancient Roman road. Now it could sell for as much as £100,000 ($130,000) when it hits the block at London auctioneers Dix Noonan Webb on June 12.
“This really is the find of a lifetime for me and the greatest discovery I have made by miles,” the 30-year-old artist who found the coin told the Daily Mail, noting that he’s been using a metal detector for seven years. “At first I was quite skeptical of its authenticity because it was so shiny, but when I realized what it could be potentially, I just completely freaked out.”
The coin bears the visage of the Roman Emperor Allectus with two kneeling captives at the feet of the god Apollo on the obverse.
In power from 293 to 296 AD, Allectus was one of two Roman emperors who ruled Britannia and northern Gaul as an independent nation between 286 and 296 AD. The Daily Mail has dubbed him a “Brexiteer of his day” for taking Britain out of the Roman Empire. (Last month, the British Museum held a talk titled “The First Brexit,” which considered Allectus’s reign as a historical precedent for the nation’s looming exit from the European Union.)
An amateur metal detectorist discovered this rare 24-carat gold Roman aureus coin in a field in Kent. Photo courtesy of Dix Noonan Webb.
The British Museum owns the only other known example of a gold Allectus aureus, and no one has discovered a coin bearing his visage in 50 years. An expert from the museum authenticated the find.
Because only one coin was found at the site, the antiquity does not fall under the UK’s Treasure Act and it is allowed to go to auction. The proceeds will be split between the finder and the landowner.
Golden aureus coin featuring a bust of Allectus, the Roman emperor who ruled Britain as an independent nation from 293 to 296 AD, during the time of the Roman Empire. Photo ©Trustees of the British Museum.
The auction house “expect[s] it to attract a lot of interest as it just has everything going for it,” said Nigel Mills, a coin consultant from Dix Noonan Webb, told the Mail. “The rarity is there, the condition is there, and it’s made of 24 carat gold, all of which make it a fantastic coin.”
An Ancient Roman Gold Coin Found in a Field Just Sold for $700,000 at Auction, Making One Very Happy Metal Detectorist
By Taylor Dafoe , Jun 7, 2019
‘It Allows Them All to Freak Out’: Artist Sanford Biggers on Collaborating With Visionary Musicians to Form an ‘Afrofuturist Boy Band’
By , Apr 5, 2019
Meet the miart Early Birds: 10 Fairgoers Share Their Highlights of Milan’s International Art Fair
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Anguilla Antigua & Barbuda Aruba Barbados Belize Bermuda British Virgin Is. Canada Cayman Is. Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic El Salvador Greenland Grenada Guadeloupe Guatemala Haiti Honduras Jamaica Martinique Mexico Montserrat Netherlands Antilles Nicaragua Puerto Rico X St. Kitts & Nevis St. Lucia St. Pierre & Miquelon St. Vincent & the Grenadines The Bahamas Trinidad & Tobago Turks & Caicos Is. United States Virgin Is.
Slovenia US Consular Information Sheet
Slovenia operates under a parliamentary democracy.
In May 2004, Slovenia became a member of the European Union.
Tourist facilities are widely available th Read More Show Less
oughout the country.
Read the Department of State’s Background Notes on Slovenia for additional information.
Slovenia is a party to the Schengen agreement.
As such, U.S. citizens may enter Slovenia for up to 90 days for tourist or business purposes without a visa.
The passport should be valid for at least three months beyond the period of stay.
For further details about travel into and within Schengen countries, please see our Schegen fact sheet.
Slovene authorities may confiscate passports with signs of damage, such as missing pages, as suspicious documents, potentially causing travel delays.
American citizens entering and exiting Slovenia by personal vehicle are required to have a valid U.S. and International Driver’s License (See our Road Safety page for further information) or they may be refused entry into the country and/or fined.
All non-EU citizens staying longer than 3 days in Slovenia must register with the local police within 3 days of arrival and inform the office about any change in their address. Registration of foreign visitors staying in hotels or accommodations rented through an accommodation company is done automatically by the hotelier or accommodation company, but visitors staying with family members must register themselves.
Registration is available 24 hours a day at police stations and is free of charge. Failure to register can result in a significant fine of up to 400 euros.
For further information on entry requirements for Slovenia, travelers may contact the Embassy of Slovenia at 2410 California Street, NW, Washington, DC
20008, tel. (202) 386-6610; the Consulate General of Slovenia in New York City, tel. (2l2) 370-3006; or the Consulate General in Cleveland, Ohio, tel. (216) 589-9220.
Visit the Embassy of Slovenia’s web site for the most current visa information.
Slovenia remains largely free of terrorist incidents.
This assessment takes into account historical data relevant to terrorist activities and recent reporting indicating whether acts could be conducted without prior advance warnings.
However, like other countries in the Schengen area, Slovenia shares open borders with its Western European neighbors, allowing the possibility of terrorist groups entering/exiting the country with anonymity.
There are occasional political demonstrations in city centers in Slovenia.
They occur most often in central Ljubljana in areas around Kongresni Trg (Congress Square), in front of the Parliament building, around other government facilities, and, at times, near the American Embassy.
These demonstrations are usually peaceful and generally are not anti-American in nature.
However, there have been demonstrations that voiced anti-American sentiments.
American citizens should keep in mind that even demonstrations intended to be peaceful can turn confrontational and possibly escalate into violence.
American citizens are therefore urged to avoid the areas of demonstrations if possible, and to exercise caution if within the vicinity of any demonstrations.
For additional information, Americans are encouraged to check the Embassy’s website or call the Embassy at 386-1-200-5595 or 200-5599 (200-5556 after hours and on weekends/holidays).
For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs’ web site, where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, as well as the Worldwide Caution, can be found.
Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444.
Slovenia’s overall crime rate is low and violent crimes are relatively uncommon.
Most crimes tend to be non-violent and directed towards obtaining personal property, such as purse-snatching, pick-pocketing, and residential and vehicle break-ins.
Visitors should take normal security precautions and are requested to report any incidents to the local police.
Vehicle break-in/theft is a continuous problem in Slovenia.
Individuals should always lock vehicles, use vehicle anti-theft devices, park in well-lighted areas, and secure vehicles in residential or hotel garages.
Residential burglaries occur where there are security vulnerabilities and/or where residents are not implementing residential security practices.
American citizens should ensure their residence is properly secured at all times, as recent burglary reports indicate access was gained when doors were not secured with an appropriate lock.
The embassy/consulate staff can, for example, assist you to find appropriate medical care, contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred.
The local equivalent to the “911” emergency line in Slovenia is: 113.
Please see our information on Victims of Crime, including possible victim compensation programs in the United States.
Persons violating Slovenian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned.
Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Slovenia are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines.
Adequate medical care is readily available.
Travelers to Slovenia may obtain a list of English-speaking physicians at the U.S. Embassy.
Antibiotics, as well as other American-equivalent prescription medications are available at local pharmacies.
In Slovenia all medications, including drugs considered over-the-counter and first aid supplies, are dispensed through pharmacies (“lekarna”).
For those persons who engage in outdoor activities, a vaccine to prevent tick-borne encephalitis is recommended.
The U.S. Department of State is unaware of any HIV/AIDS entry restrictions for visitors to or foreign residents of Slovenia.
Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s web site.
For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) web site.
Further health information for travelers is available from the WHO.
The information below concerning Slovenia is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.
Slovenia has a well-developed road network that is safe for travel.
Highways connect to neighboring cities and countries and are clearly sign-posted; road signs and traffic rules are consistent with those used throughout Europe.
As the number of cars in Slovenia continues to rise, roads are becoming more heavily congested during the weekends on major routes and during rush hours.
Parking is difficult and can be expensive in the center of Ljubljana.
Traffic moves on the right.
Third-party liability insurance is required for all vehicles; coverage is purchased locally.
Travelers should be alert to aggressive drivers both in cities and on highways.
Many of the serious accidents in Slovenia occur as a result of high-speed driving.
Emergency roadside help and information may be found by dialing 1-987 for vehicle assistance and towing services, 112 for an ambulance or fire brigade, and 113 for police.
By Slovene law, the maximum legal blood-alcohol content limit for drivers is 0.05%.
U.S. visitors or U.S. residents in Slovenia must be in possession of both a valid U.S. driver’s license and an International Driver’s License in order to drive in Slovenia.
International Driver’s Licenses are valid for a maximum of one year, after which residents of Slovenia are required to obtain a Slovene driver's license.
Current information about traffic and road conditions is available in English by calling (01) 530-5300 and online from the Automobile Association of Slovenia and the Traffic Information Center for Public Roads.
The speed limit is 50kph/30 mph in urban areas, 130 kph/80 mph on expressways (the avtocesta).
Motorists are required to have their headlights on during the daytime; drivers and passengers alike must wear seat belts; motorcyclists and their passengers must wear approved helmets.
The use of handheld cellular telephones while driving is prohibited in Slovenia.
Highway vignettes are obligatory for all vehicles with the permissible maximum weight of 3,500 kg on motorways and expressways in Slovenia.
A one-year vignette costs EUR 55; a half-year vignette costs EUR 35; for motorcycles, the one-year vignette is EUR 27,50 and the half-year vignette is EUR 17,50.
A one-year vignette for the current year is valid from December 1st of the previous year to January 31st of the next year (a total of 14 months). The half-year vignette is valid for six months following the day of its purchase.
Using motorways and expressways without a valid and properly-displayed vignette in a vehicle is considered a violation of the law; violators may be fined between EUR 300 and 800. In addition to this fine, a new sticker must be purchased and displayed on the vehicle.
Vignettes can be purchased in Slovenia at petrol stations, newsstands, automobile clubs, post offices (Posta Slovenije), and some toll stations, and also at petrol stations in neighboring countries.
Current information is also available at the website of Slovenia’s national tourist office, which is the national authority responsible for road safety.
As there is no direct commercial air service to the United States by carriers registered in Slovenia, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Slovenia’s Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards.
For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s website.
Americans living or traveling in Slovenia are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy or through the State Department’s travel registration website so that they can obtain updated information on travel and security within Slovenia.
Americans without Internet access may register directly with the U.S. Embassy.
The U.S. Embassy is located at Presernova 31, Ljubljana 1000, Tel: (386)(1) 200-5500 or Fax: (386)(1) 200-5535.
This replaces the Country Specific Information for Slovenia dated July 29, 2008, to update the
Entry/Exit Requirements and Traffic Safety and Road Conditions sections.
Slovenians strive to live in peace with bears
Animal Attacks Slovenia - 11 months ago
Date: Mon, 6 Aug 2018 12:06:36 +0200
By Bojan KAVCIC
Markovec, Slovenia, Aug 6, 2018 (AFP) - When he used to go hunting, Miha Mlakar would dream of killing a bear. But today the 33-year-old from Slovenia makes his living watching the animals, peacefully, in their natural forest environment. The turnaround to shooting bears with a camera, not a rifle, puts Mlakar, who runs bear observation tours, in step with wider efforts in the small Alpine nation to promote the coexistence of humans and bears.
Once on the verge of extinction, Slovenia's brown bear population is booming, with the number roaming the sprawling forests having doubled in the last decade to around 1,000. As a result, encounters with bears have increased -- not that it seems to unduly worry everyone. "If you run into a bear, you have to step back... (But) there is no danger. The bear also prefers to move away," Ljubo Popovic, a 67-year-old pensioner who lives in the village of Banja Loka in the southern Kocevje region, told AFP. Lying an hour to the west, near Markovec village, Mlakar has built 20 hides in a remote patch of forest reachable only by off-road vehicle and takes visitors, including foreign tourists, to observe the bears. "I cannot imagine this forest without bears. Bears make the forest wild and pristine, natural, like it was a few hundred or thousand years ago... I feel a connection with bears," he tells AFP.
- Managing bears -
Slovenian bears are even sought after abroad. Between 1996 and 2006, eight Slovenian bears were released in the French Pyrenees, and France currently has a population of about 40 bears, whose presence divides opinion in regions where they live. In Slovenia, more than 60 percent of respondents in a 2016 survey carried out in areas where bears live said they were in favour of the bears' presence, even if many also said they would like to see the numbers regulated. "We have an average of one to three cases of physical contact between bears and humans per year," Rok Cerne, of the Slovenia Forest Service in charge of wildlife, told AFP.
"Fortunately, we haven't registered any serious incident over the last years," he added, stressing they were "very active in preventive measures". Removing food sources that could attract bears has been one such step. In villages close to bear habitats, local authorities have replaced regular plastic waste and compost bins, which can be easily opened or flipped by the animals, with containers protected by heavy metal cages.
Meanwhile, damage to cattle from bear forays has remained stable, at up to 200,000 euros ($231,500) a year, despite the bear population increasing, Cerne said. Farmers are entitled to an 80-percent subsidy for using electric fences to protect flocks and the loss of cattle due to bears is compensated. If a bear becomes a habitual visitor to a village, special intervention groups step in to kill or relocate the animal with the help of local hunters. Regular culling also keeps the population under control to ensure long-term cohabitation, Cerne said. This year, authorities have proposed culling 200 bears, twice as many as last year.
- Romania's 'Van Damme' bear -
Slovenia's approach could inspire neighbouring Romania, home to about 6,000 bears or 60 percent of Europe's estimated bear population, where tourists to villages in the Carpathian Mountains often post pictures online of bears waiting to be hand-fed. Bears rummaging through waste containers on the outskirts of cities, such as Brasov in central Romania, have become a common sight. And on a central motorway construction site, workmen have christened a regularly spotted sturdy male bear Van Damme after the Hollywood star.
Beyond tourists' anecdotes however, Romania has seen a "growing number of attacks" by bears, highlighted in a conservation plan published last month that recommends hunting to keep numbers at optimum levels. Use of reinforced bins, as well as a proposal for building work to be limited in regions where bears live, are also included in the government plan. Since the beginning of last year, 31 people, mostly shepherds, have been attacked, one of them fatally.
Meanwhile, some 940 forays by bears into populated areas were registered last year, including attacks on sheep flocks and entry into gardens; so far this year, the figure is 120. But environmental campaigners fear that "hunting will be the main instrument to keep bear populations under control", when other measures could work, said Livia Cimpoeru, of the WWF Romania. The government has proposed 4,000 bears as the ideal number in the country of 20 million people. Learning simple rules, such as how to avoid startling bears and not feeding them, as well as efficient management like accurate counting to ascertain trends, is crucial for reducing conflicts with humans, said Mareike Brix, of German-based EuroNatur foundation. "There is a risk, and there can be problems... But it's also great (to have bears). Wild nature has become so rare in Europe," she tells AFP.
Measles cases reported in Slovenia
Disease Measles Slovenia - 1 year ago
Date: Thu 13 Jun 2018
Source: STA [not open access; edited]
<https://english.sta.si/2524873/three-more-measles-cases-in-maribor>
The UKC Maribor hospital has registered 3 new cases of measles infection, including a doctor and a nurse who treated 1 of the 3 patients who got measles earlier.
The rest of this story is by subscription....
[A HealthMap/ProMED-mail map of Slovenia can be found at
Child with Tetanus reported in Slovenia
Disease Tetanus Slovenia - 3 years ago
Date: Mon 17 Oct 2016
<http://outbreaknewstoday.com/slovenia-reports-first-tetanus-case-in-two-decades-69285/>
The vaccine-preventable disease, tetanus, has been considered eradicated among children in the Central European country of Slovenia for the past 20 years; health officials report a case in an unvaccinated child as reported in local media Fri, 14 Oct 2016.
The National Public Health Institute (NIJZ) says while the disease has been considered eradicated among children for the past 2 decades, a few cases are reported every year among the elderly, who grew up before systemic vaccination against the disease was introduced. Tetanus vaccination has been available in Slovenia since 1951.
Tetanus is caused by a very potent toxin produced by the anaerobic bacterium, _Clostridium tetani_. The spores of this organism are very resistant to environmental factors and are found widely distributed in soil and in the intestines and feces of horses, sheep, cattle, dogs, cats, rats, guinea pigs, and chickens. Manure-treated soil may contain large numbers of spores. In agricultural areas, a significant number of human adults may harbor the organism.
These spores are usually introduced into the body through a puncture wound contaminated with soil, street dust, animal bites or animal or human feces, through lacerations, burns or trivial unnoticed wounds or by injecting contaminated drugs. So many times you hear about concern over stepping on a rusty nail; however the rust has nothing to do with tetanus. At this point the spores germinate into bacteria which multiply and produce toxin. Depending on the extent of the wound, the incubation of tetanus is around 10-14 days.
Some of the common symptoms of tetanus are lockjaw, followed by stiffness of the neck, difficulty swallowing, and rigidity of abdominal muscles. Other symptoms include fever, sweating, elevated blood pressure, and episodic rapid heart rate. Spasms may occur frequently and last for several minutes. Spasms continue for 3-4 weeks. The typical features of a tetanus spasm are the position of opisthotonos and the facial expressions known as "risus sardonicus". The death rate for this disease ranges from 10 to 80 percent depending on age and quality of care.
There are really no laboratory findings that are characteristic of tetanus. The diagnosis is entirely clinical and does not depend upon bacteriologic confirmation. This disease in not transmitted from person to person. Even if you had tetanus and recovered, this potent toxin produces no immunity. [Byline: Robert Herriman]
[Tetanus is a potentially fatal disease characterized by skeletal muscle rigidity and painful convulsive spasms, which are caused by a potent neurotoxin, tetanospasmin, produced by the vegetative form of _Clostridium tetani_, an anaerobic spore-forming Gram-positive bacillus. _C. tetani_ is a member of the normal intestinal flora of animals, including humans. Tetanus usually occurs following contamination of wounds by soil or animal feces in which the spores of _C. tetani_ can be found.
A newly published article demonstrates that the extracellular matrix proteins called nidogens (or entactins) appear to be the receptor for the tetanus neurotoxin to enter the neuromuscular junction (Bercsenyi K, Schmieg N, Bryson JB, et al: Tetanus toxin entry. Nidogens are therapeutic targets for the prevention of tetanus. Science. 2014;346(6213):1118-23. doi: 10.1126/science.1258138, abstract available at: <http://science.sciencemag.org/content/346/6213/1118.long>).
"Tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) is among the most poisonous substances on Earth and a major cause of neonatal death in nonvaccinated areas. TeNT targets the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) with high affinity, yet the nature of the TeNT receptor complex remains unknown. Here, we show that the presence of nidogens (also known as entactins) at the NMJ is the main determinant for TeNT binding. Inhibition of the TeNT-n idogeninteraction by using small nidogen-derived peptides or genetic ablation of nidogens prevented the binding of TeNT to neurons and protected mice from TeNT-induced spastic paralysis. Our findings demonstrate the direct involvement of an extracellular matrix protein as a receptor for TeNT at the NMJ, paving the way for the development of therapeutics for the prevention of tetanus by targeting this protein-protein interaction."
Tetanus may follow surgical procedures, burns, deep puncture wounds, crush wounds, otitis media, dental infection, animal bites, abortion, and pregnancy. The presence of necrotic tissue and/or foreign bodies increases risk for tetanus because they favor growth of _C. tetani_. Tetanus can also follow injection of contaminated illicit drugs. Neonatal tetanus occurs usually in developing countries in infants with infection of the umbilical stump who are born to a non-immune mother. Infants of actively immunized mothers acquire passive immunity that protects them from neonatal tetanus. Tetanus is not directly transmitted from person to person.
Tetanus occurs in people who are inadequately immunized, i.e., people who have not completed the primary series and received appropriate boosters. Recovery from tetanus is not necessarily associated with immunity, and primary immunization is indicated after recovery from tetanus. - ProMED Mod.LL]
Authorities in Slovenia remove sections of razor-wire border fence due to floods
Climate Changes Slovenia - 4 years ago
Ljubljana, Jan 12, 2016 (AFP) - The Slovenian army on Tuesday began removing sections of a razor-wire border fence, erected to control the inflow of migrants from Croatia, due to flooding by the Kolpa river, local media reported. Slovenian soldiers removed 200-300 metres of the fence in the Griblje and Dragatus areas, villages some 110 kilometres (70 miles) south of Ljubljana, after the Kolpa burst its banks and floodwaters threatened to tear down the fence, the STA news agency reported.
Since mid-November Slovenia has built over 150 kilometres of razor-wire fence along its border with Croatia, hoping to prevent an uncontrolled inflow of migrants across the "green border". Over 400,000 migrants have crossed into Slovenia since mid-October, most hoping to carry on to Austria or Germany.
The Slovenian government's information office said Monday that the border fence would be removed in areas where the stream of the Kolpa river was strongest and replaced, in the near future, by a more resistant fence. Situated in one of Slovenia's most attractive natural parks, the Kolpa river marks over 100 kilometres of the 670 kilometre-long Slovenia-Croatia border. The fence has been criticised by environmentalists and civil groups in Slovenia and Croatia which claim the razor wire is a threat to wildlife.
Further details following reported disease outbreak in Solvenia
Disease Gastroenteritis Slovenia - 4 years ago
Date: 4 Jan 2016
From: Maja Socan, M.D. Maja.Socan@nijz.si
In response to the request for information in the ProMED mail post "Undiagnosed gastroenteritis - Slovenia (GO): international athletes, RFI http://promedmail.org/post/20151228.3896510, the following information was received 4 Jan 2016 [edited]:
As a response to the ProMED request for information on 28 Dec 2015 quoting izvestia.ru from 19 Dec [2015] that 3 teams were affected by a viral epidemic during Biathlon World Cup in Pokljuka, Slovenia, an investigation has been carried out. Regional epidemiologists contacted the organizers, the hotel where athletes were staying, local outpatient clinics/emergency teams and both hospitals nearby.
The organizers of the Biathlon World Cup in Slovenia were not aware of any communicable diseases affecting biathlon teams during the cup. One of the athletes was admitted to the hospital but the reason for the admission was non-infectious. Another athlete lost consciousness during the competition.
Neither emergency medical teams nor nearby hospitals were contacted for any health intervention except for the above-mentioned situations.
The hotel where the teams were staying was not informed about any gastrointestinal problems among its guests during the competition.
The findings of our investigation do not preclude that some of the athletes had health problems during the competition but apparently not severe enough to contact local health services. We assume that if high numbers of athletes had become ill with gastrointestinal problems the organizer would have been informed. According to the national algorithm for mass gatherings (with emphasis on the international ones), the National Institute of Public Health is obligated to provide in advance the information to the organizers about possible health issues during mass gatherings and measures which must be taken to stop the spread of communicable diseases or at least to mitigate the outbreak.
To conclude, we were not able to identify an outbreak of acute gastrointestinal or respiratory infection among competing athletes during the Biathlon World Cup in Pokljuka, Slovenia.
Maja Socan, M.D.
Communicable Diseases Centre
National Institute of Public Health
Maja.Socan@nijz.si
[ProMED thanks Dr. Socan for the thorough investigation into this report and for sharing the information with the ProMED community.
A HealthMap/ProMED-mail map can be accessed at:
<http://healthmap.org/promed/p/115>. - ProMed Mod.LK]
Uganda - US Consular Information Sheet
Uganda is a landlocked, developing country in central eastern Africa. Infrastructure is adequate in Kampala, the capital, but is limited in other areas.
Read t Read More Show Less
e Department of State Background Notes on Uganda for additional information.
A passport valid for three months beyond the date of entry, visa and evidence of yellow fever vaccination are required.
Visas are available at Entebbe Airport upon arrival or may be obtained from the Embassy of the Republic of Uganda.
The current fee for a three month tourist visa obtained upon arrival at Entebbe Airport is $50.00.
Travelers should be aware that a visa does not determine how long a person may remain in Uganda.
The Ugandan immigration officer at the port of entry will determine the length of authorized stay, which is generally from one to three months as a tourist.
Extensions of duration of stay may be requested at Ugandan immigration headquarters on Jinja Road in Kampala.
Airline companies may also require travelers to have a visa before boarding.
Travelers should obtain the latest information and details from the Embassy of the Republic of Uganda at 5911 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC
20011; telephone (202) 726-7100.
The Ugandan Embassy may also be contacted by email.
Travelers may also contact the Ugandan Permanent Mission to the United Nations, telephone (212) 949-0110. Overseas, inquiries may be made at the nearest Ugandan embassy or consulate.
U.S. citizens residing in or planning to visit Uganda should be aware of threats to their safety posed by insurgent groups operating in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and southern Sudan, and the potential of cross border attacks carried out by these armed groups.
In addition, U.S. citizens traveling to the area commonly known as Karamoja in northeastern Uganda should also be aware of ongoing conflict and armed banditry in this region.
Northern Uganda:
After years of conflict, relative stability has returned to northern Uganda with the departure of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) insurgent group in 2006.
Recent LRA activity has been restricted to the remote region of Garamba National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), where LRA insurgents have continued to attack and terrorize civilian populations.
LRA attacks have also occurred in the neighboring Central African Republic and southern Sudan.
The Governments of Uganda, the DRC, and southern Sudan initiated joint military operations against LRA bases in Garamba National Park on December 14, 2008, after LRA leader Joseph Kony refused to sign a peace agreement following two years of negotiations.
These military operations continue and in order to deter an LRA return to Uganda, the Uganda Peoples Defense Force (UPDF) maintains a significant presence in the northern districts.
Given the continued threat to regional security posed by the LRA, American citizens should exercise caution when traveling in those districts of northwestern Uganda that border the DRC and southern Sudan and which could potentially be subject to LRA incursions.
The Ugandan Government also continues to expand and improve the capacity of the civilian police force in northern Uganda by deploying additional personnel and concentrating resources to further recovery and re-development activities throughout the north.
American citizens traveling to northern Uganda are advised to ensure that they have made appropriate travel, lodging, and communication arrangements with their sponsoring organization before visiting the region.
Local officials in northern Uganda have expressed concern for the safety and security of foreigners visiting the area to assist with relief efforts, but without any specific arrangements with a sponsoring organization.
Foreign citizens who travel to the region without a sponsoring organization may not find secure lodging or safe transport, and may become more susceptible to crime.
They may also find that local officials are unable to provide assistance in the event of an emergency.
There is a general lack of infrastructure throughout northern Uganda, and services such as emergency medical care are nonexistent.
Given crime and other security concerns in northern Uganda, American citizens are advised to restrict travel to primary roads and during daylight hours only.
Cattle rustling, armed banditry, and attacks on vehicles are very common in the Karamoja region of northeastern Uganda, and the UPDF continues to implement a program to disarm Karamojong warriors.
Past incidents have included ambushes of UPDF troops, and attacks on vehicles, residences, and towns that resulted in multiple deaths.
Most of the violence occurred in the districts of Kaabong, Kotido, and Abim, although some violent incidents also occurred in Moroto and Nakapiripirit Districts.
American citizens are advised to avoid travel to the Karamoja region given the frequent insecurity.
Any travel to Karamoja (excluding charter flights to Kidepo National Park) by U.S. Embassy personnel must first be authorized by the Chief of Mission.
Southwestern Uganda:
American citizens traveling in southwestern Uganda should also exercise caution given the ongoing conflict in the districts of North and South Kivu in the DRC, and the close proximity of fighting to the Ugandan border.
During spikes in the conflict, refugee flows across the border number in the thousands and there is also a risk of incursions by armed combatants.
American citizens should review the Travel Warning for the Democratic Republic of the Congo for the most up-to-date information regarding the conflict in the DRC.
On August 8, 2007, a group of armed assailants entered Uganda from the DRC and raided Butogota, a town in Kanungu District, southwestern Uganda.
Three Ugandans were killed and many others assaulted during the raid.
Ugandan officials believe that the perpetrators of the attack were members of one of the various militia groups operating in the southeastern region of the DRC or possibly remnants of the "Interahamwe," a group that participated in the 1994 genocide in Rwanda and was also responsible for the 1999 attack on Bwindi Impenetrable National Park.
The 1999 Bwindi attack killed four Ugandans and eight foreign tourists.
The 2007 raid on Butogota is in an area transited by tourists traveling to Bwindi, a popular gorilla-trekking destination.
Within Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, armed security personnel accompany tourists on the daily gorilla hikes and the UPDF maintains a military presence.
At Ishasha Camp, another popular tourist destination located in the southern sector of Queen Elizabeth National Park, the UPDF also maintains a small military base near the park headquarters for security purposes.
Eastern Uganda:
In February 2008, an isolated incident occurred in Mount Elgon National Park in eastern Uganda that resulted in the death of a foreign tourist.
A Belgian tourist climbing Mt. Elgon in the company of park rangers was shot and killed.
The attack occurred while the group was camped for the night and assailants fired into the campsite.
The tourist was reportedly struck by gunfire when exiting her tent in the darkness.
Ugandan security and park officials suspected that the attack was perpetrated by smugglers engaged in cattle rustling or other illicit activities that are common in the border area.
Demonstrations:
Demonstrations take place in Kampala and other Ugandan cities from time to time in response to world events or local developments.
In most cases, these demonstrations occur with no warning and demonstrations intended to be peaceful can turn confrontational and possibly violent.
American citizens are therefore urged to avoid the areas of demonstrations if possible, and to exercise caution if they find themselves in the vicinity of any demonstration.
American citizens should stay current with media coverage of local events and be aware of their surroundings at all times.
Because many demonstrations are spontaneous events, the U.S. Embassy may not always be able to alert American citizens that a demonstration is taking place and to avoid a specific area.
If employed with an institution or other large organization, American citizens may find it helpful to request that local employees notify expatriates when they learn of a demonstration from local radio reports or other sources.
Recent protests have occurred over land disputes involving Kampala market areas, university closures and strikes, opposition political party demonstrations, and protests by taxi drivers over the enforcement of traffic regulations.
For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department of State's, Bureau of Consular Affairs’ web site, where the current Travel Warnings and Travel Alerts, as well as the Worldwide Caution, can be found.
Crimes such as pick pocketing, purse snatching, and thefts from hotels and parked vehicles or vehicles stalled in traffic jams are common.
The Embassy receives frequent reports of theft of items from locked vehicles, even when the stolen items were secured out of sight and the vehicle was parked in an area patrolled by uniformed security personnel.
Pick pocketing and the theft of purses and bags is also very common on public transportation.
Armed robberies of pedestrians also occur, sometimes during daylight hours and in public places.
Although infrequent, the Embassy also receives reports of armed carjackings and highway robbery.
In May 2007, two American citizens reported an attempted robbery when they were traveling near the town of Bugiri in eastern Uganda.
The Americans reported that a second vehicle with at least one armed assailant tried to stop their vehicle by forcing it off the road.
This incident occurred during daylight hours.
On June 27, 2007, two American citizens were robbed and held at gunpoint when the vehicle transporting them to Entebbe Airport was stopped by a group of armed men.
This incident occurred during the early morning hours on Entebbe Road.
Although some of these attacks are violent, victims are generally injured only if they resist.
U.S. Embassy employees are advised against using roads at night, especially in areas outside the limits of cities and large towns. Home burglaries also do occur and sometimes turn violent.
In April 2008, the Ugandan police reported an increase in armed robberies in the Kampala neighborhoods of Bukoto, Kisaasi, Kiwatule, Naalya, Najera, and Ntinda.
Several of these robberies occurred as the victims were arriving at their residences after nightfall and the assailants struck as they were entering their residential compounds.
Women traveling alone are particularly susceptible to crime.
In early 2008, there was an increase in reports of sexual assaults against expatriate females.
In some instances, the victims were walking alone, or were single passengers on one of the common modes of public transport which include "boda boda" motorcycle taxis.
If the victim of a sexual assault, medical assistance should be sought immediately and counseling provided regarding prophylactic treatment to help prevent the transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases. The U.S. Embassy provides a list of local medical providers for those with medical needs.
American citizens visiting Uganda are advised not to accept food or drink offered from a stranger, even a child, because such food may contain narcotics used to incapacitate a victim and facilitate a robbery or sexual assault.
In addition, patrons of bars, casinos, nightclubs, and other entertainment centers should never leave their drink or food unattended.
When visiting such establishments, it is advisable to remain with a group of friends as single individuals are more likely to be targeted.
Victims have included female patrons who reported they were drugged, and taken to another location and sexually assaulted.
Robberies have been facilitated on public transportation under similar circumstances.
In 2006, an American citizen traveling by bus from Kenya to Uganda was incapacitated and robbed on the bus when the passenger accepted a sealed beverage from a fellow traveler.
Expatriates traveling by bus to the popular tourist destination of Bwindi Impenetrable National Forest in southwest Uganda were also incapacitated and robbed when they accepted snacks from fellow bus passengers.
There has been a recent, marked increase in financial crime, including fraud involving wire transfers, credit cards, checks, and advance fee fraud perpetrated via email.
The U.S. Embassy recommends using money orders for all fund transfers and protecting all bank account and personally identifiable information such as social security numbers and other types of information.
An increasing number of U.S. exporters (primarily vendors of expensive consumer goods such as computers, stereo equipment, and electronics) have been targeted by a sophisticated check fraud scheme.
A fictitious company in Uganda locates a vendor on the Internet, makes e-mail contact to order goods, and pays with a third-party check.
The checks, written on U.S. accounts and made out to entities in Uganda for small amounts, are intercepted, chemically "washed" and presented for payment of the goods with the U.S. vendor as payee and an altered amount.
If the goods are shipped before the check clears, the U.S. shipper will have little recourse, as the goods are picked up at the airport and the company cannot be traced.
American companies receiving orders from Uganda are encouraged to check with the Political - Economic Section of the Embassy to verify the legitimacy of the company.
The Embassy strongly cautions U.S. vendors against accepting third-party checks as payment for any goods to be shipped to Uganda.
Additional information about the most common types of financial fraud can also be found in the State Department Financial Scams brochure.
The local equivalent to the "911" emergency line in Uganda is: 999.
Persons violating Ugandan laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, arrested or imprisoned.
Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Uganda are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines.
Please note that U.S. currency notes in $20 and $50 denominations are exchanged at a lower rate than $100 currency notes.
In addition, travelers often find that they cannot exchange or use U.S. currency printed earlier than the year 2000.
Travelers who find they cannot pay for accommodation or expenses often must request that friends or family wire money to them in Uganda.
There are offices that facilitate Western Union, MoneyGram, and other types of money transfers in Kampala and other cities throughout the country.
ATMs are available in Uganda, particularly in downtown Kampala, but usually only customers who have an account with a specific Ugandan bank may use them.
A few machines function with overseas accounts.
The U.S. Embassy frequently receives requests from American citizens to verify the bona fides of nongovernmental (NGO) and charity organizations operating in Uganda.
The Embassy is unable to provide information regarding the bona fides of these organizations and American citizens traveling to Uganda to work for an organization are encouraged to request that the charity provide references of past volunteers whom they may contact.
American citizens have also reported intimidation and harassment by directors of organizations, when the Americans questioned the organization's activities or use of donated funds.
While the vast majority of NGOs operating in Uganda are legitimate organizations aiding development efforts, there have been reports from concerned Americans regarding the suspected diversion of charity funds for personal gain, etc.
Ugandan Customs authorities may enforce strict regulations concerning the importation of pets.
A Ugandan import permit is required, along with an up-to-date rabies vaccination certificate and a veterinary certificate of health issued by a USDA-approved veterinarian no more than thirty days before arrival.
Travelers are advised to contact the Ugandan Embassy in the United States for specific information regarding customs requirements.
Please see our Customs Information sheet.
Photography in tourist locations is permitted.
However, taking pictures of military/police installations or personnel is prohibited.
Military and police officers have detained tourists for taking photographs of Entebbe Airport and of the area around Owen Falls Dam, near Jinja, although the prohibition on taking photographs is not publicly displayed on signs.
The U.S. Embassy receives frequent inquiries from American citizens wishing to register a nongovernmental organization (NGO) in Uganda.
Information about registering an NGO can be obtained from the Ugandan NGO Board which has offices within the Ministry of Internal Affairs.
The NGO Board can be reached on phone number: 256 414 341 556.
One of the requirements for registering an NGO is that a foreign national employee or volunteer must provide a Certificate of Good Conduct/Criminal Background Check.
The U.S. Embassy Kampala cannot provide a Certificate of Good Conduct or Criminal Background Check, so American citizens intending to travel to Uganda as an employee an NGO or who plan to register an NGO should obtain a Certificate of Good Conduct from their local police or the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) before departing the United States.
More information on how to obtain a Criminal Background Check can be found on the FBI web page about Identification Record Requests.
Medical facilities in Uganda, including Kampala, are limited and not equipped to handle most emergencies, especially those requiring surgery. Outside Kampala, hospitals are scarce and offer only basic services.
Recently, American citizens involved in automobile accidents required immediate evacuation from Uganda as surgery could not be performed due to insufficient blood supplies at the hospital where they sought treatment.
Equipment and medicines are also often in short supply or unavailable.
Travelers should carry their own supplies of prescription drugs and preventive medicines.
A list of medical providers is available at the U.S. Embassy.
Tuberculosis is an increasingly serious health concern in Uganda.
For further information, please consult the CDC's Travel Notice on TB.
Malaria is prevalent in Uganda.
Travelers who become ill with a fever or flu-like illness while traveling in a malaria-risk area and up to one year after returning home should seek prompt medical attention and tell the physician their travel history and what antimalarials they have been taking.
For additional information on malaria, including protective measures, see the CDC’s information on malaria.
In January, 2009, the CDC’s Special Pathogens Branch retrospectively diagnosed a case of Marburg hemorrhagic fever in a U.S. traveler, who had returned from Uganda in January, 2008. The patient developed illness four days after returning to the United States.
The Amcit had visited the “python cave” in Queen Elizabeth Park, western Uganda, which is a popular destination among tourists to see the bat-infested cave.
For additional information on Marburg hemorrhagic fever, including protective measures, visit the CDC web site.
Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s web site.
Further health information for travelers is available from the WHO. Uganda has experienced recent outbreaks of Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever, Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever, Pneumonic Plague, Meningitis, and other types of infectious diseases.
The U.S. Department of State is unaware of any HIV/AIDS entry restrictions for visitors to or foreign residents of Uganda.
American citizens who are seriously injured in vehicle or other types of accidents in Uganda generally seek medical evacuation to Kenya or other destinations for more advanced emergency medical treatment.
These medical evacuations can be very expensive, and in the event the American citizen does not have sufficient insurance coverage, the evacuation is carried out at their personal expense.
The information below concerning Uganda is provided for general reference only, and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.
Most inter-city transportation in Uganda is by small van or large bus.
Many drivers of these vehicles have little training and some are reckless.
Small vans and large buses are often poorly maintained, travel at high speeds, and are the principal vehicles involved in the many deadly single and multi-vehicle accidents along Ugandan roads.
Accident victims have included American citizens traveling in small vans and personal cars, passengers on motorcycle taxis locally known as "boda bodas," and pedestrians.
Large trucks on the highways are often over-loaded, with inadequately secured cargo and poor braking systems.
Alcohol frequently is a contributing factor in road accidents, particularly at night.
Drivers are advised to take extra care when driving.
Nighttime driving and road transportation should be avoided whenever possible.
Pedestrians often walk in the roads and may not be visible to motorists.
Large branches or rocks in the road sometimes indicate an upcoming obstruction or other hazard.
Highway travel at night is particularly dangerous, including the road between Entebbe Airport and Kampala.
The Embassy recommends caution on this road and use of a reliable taxi service to and from the airport.
Traffic accidents draw crowds.
Ugandan law requires that the drivers stop and exchange information and assist any injured persons.
In some cases where serious injury has occurred, there is the possibility of mob anger.
In these instances, Ugandans often do not get out of their cars, but drive to the nearest police station to report the accident.
For specific information concerning Ugandan driving permits, vehicle inspection, road tax and mandatory insurance, please contact Tourism Uganda, IPS building, 14, Parliament Avenue, Kampala, Uganda; telephone 256-414-342 196. You may also wish to consult the Tourism Uganda web site or, for information on government agencies, see the My Uganda web site.
As there is no direct commercial air service to the United States by carriers registered in Uganda, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Uganda's Civil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards.
For more information, travelers may visit the FAA web site.
International airlines offer several weekly flights to Europe and the United Arab Emirates, and Kenya Airways has daily flights between Entebbe Airport and Nairobi.
Other regional airlines operate weekly flights to other destinations in Africa, such as Dar es Salaam, Addis Ababa, Cairo, and Johannesburg.
Americans living or traveling in Uganda are encouraged to register with the U.S. Embassy in Kampala through the State Department’s travel registration web site to obtain updated information on travel and security within Uganda.
The U.S. Embassy is located at 1577 Ggaba Road, Kampala; telephone 256-414-259-791 or 256 414 306 001; fax 256-414-258-451.
You may contact the Embassy via e-mail.
This replaces the Country Specific Information dated May 6, 2008, to update sections on Entry/Exit Requirements, Safety and Security, Crime, Information for Victims of Crime, Medical Facilities and Health Information, Medical Insurance, Traffic Safety and Road Conditions, Special Circumstances, Aviation Safety Oversight, Special Circumstances, and Registration/Embassy Location.
Report on Bilharzia control in Uganda as infections hit 12 million
Disease Schistosomiasis Mansoni Uganda - 4 days ago
Date: Thu 11 Jul 2019
Source: Daily Monitor [edited]
<https://www.monitor.co.ug/SpecialReports/Bilharzia-infections-hit-12m-Ugandans-report/688342-5190618-x7tnh4/index.html>
Bilharzia infections in Uganda have hit 12 million cases and the threat continues, 14 years after the Health ministry launched a programme to wipe out the disease. The ministry launched the Bilharzia Control Programme in 2003, with mass treatment of affected communities once every year with a drug called Praziquantel. The drug was used in areas with bilharzia infection of 20% and above.
The government also launched mass treatment of school-age children once every 2 years in areas where the infection ranges were from 1% to 20%. However, despite its high prevalence, bilharzia is clustered among the tropical neglected diseases, with little funding allocated to combat it. This has made its control and elimination a difficult task for health experts. A 2018 research report released by Makerere University School of Public Health indicates that 29% of 40 million Ugandans are infected by bilharzia, which translates into about 12 million people suffering from the disease. The research findings say the burden is up to 42% among children aged between 2 and 4, posing a huge risk to their health.
Currently, there is no bilharzia treatment for children below 5 years. This means they are at more risk than those above 5 years and adults, yet they have a lot of contact with contaminated water. In an earlier interview with Daily Monitor, Mr. Moses Adriko, the programme officer for vector control at the Vector Control Division of Ministry of Health, said the bilharzia problem is huge yet the disease falls under the neglected tropical disease category. [Byline: Franklin Draku]
[ProMED does not agree that children under 5 years of age with schistosomiasis cannot be treated. Please refer to a recent review (Osakunor, DNM, Woolhouse MEJ, Mutapi F et al. Paediatric schistosomiasis: What we know and what we need to know. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2018 Feb; 12(2): e0006144. <https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5805162/>)
Followed by an endorsement from the WHO (Montresor A, Garba A. Treatment of preschool children for schistosomiasis.
Lancet Glob Health. 2017;5(7):e640-e1. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30202-4; available at: <https://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(17)30202-4/fulltext>), a recent randomised dose-ranging trial reports that a single 40 mg/kg dose of PZQ can be used for treatment in preschool-aged children (PSAC) (Coulibaly JT, Panic G, Silué KD, Kovac J, Hattendorf J,
and Keiser J. Efficacy and safety of praziquantel in preschool-aged and school-aged children infected with Schistosoma mansoni: a randomised controlled, parallel-group, dose-ranging, phase 2 trial. Lancet Glob Health. 2017;5(7):e688-e98; available at: <https://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(17)30187-0/fulltext>).
PZQ is currently administered to PSAC as crushed tablets with juice or bread. In conclusion, paediatric schistosomiasis can and should be treated. - ProMED Mod. EP]
[HealthMap/ProMED map available at: Uganda:
Relief as no further Ebola cases reported in Uganda since deaths in June
Disease Ebola Virus Uganda - 7 days ago
Kinshasa, July 10, 2019 (AFP) - Uganda says there have been no further cases of Ebola on its territory resulting from the deaths of two Ugandans who had travelled to DR Congo, the Congolese authorities said Wednesday. In an update on the epidemic in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo, the health ministry said its Ugandan counterparts had confirmed there had been no further infections. "The health ministry of the Republic of Uganda has announced that all contacts with the index case completed their obligatory 21-day monitoring period without developing signs of the disease," it said. The "index case" was a five-year-old Ugandan boy who was the first of the two to die, followed by his grandmother.
His family had travelled to DRC where they had buried an Ebola-stricken relative. They were then placed in an isolation ward in the DRC but fled and returned to Uganda across the porous border, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). A total of 1,641 deaths have been recorded in DRC's North Kivu and neighbouring Ituri provinces since August 1, according to the latest toll. The epidemic is the worst outbreak of Ebola on record after more than 11,300 were killed Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone between 2014-2016.
Uganda-DRC border point on high alert over Ebola outbreak
Tourism Uganda - 1 month ago
Date: Thu, 13 Jun 2019 17:37:51 +0200
By Grace Matsiko
Mpondwe, Uganda, June 13, 2019 (AFP) - At the bustling Mpondwe border post, a woman crossing from the Democratic Republic of Congo into Uganda is whisked away to an isolation unit after a thermal scanner picks up her high temperature. Health workers keep Mulefu Kyakimwa, a 32-year-old vegetable oil trader, under observation but later discharge her, once Ebola has been ruled out as the cause of her fever.
The border post is on high alert after a family with suspected Ebola escaped isolation on the Congolese side and entered Uganda, where two of them died this week. The spread of the deadly virus to Uganda comes after months of efforts in a region of porous borders to contain an outbreak in Congo which has killed 1,400 people, according to the latest official data. "Since the start of the outbreak, the total number of cases is 2,084, of which 1,990 have been confirmed and another 94 are probable," the Congolese health ministry said in its daily bulletin from Wednesday. "In all, there have been 1,405 deaths -- 1,311 confirmed and 94 probable -- and 579 people have recovered," the bulletin said, adding that 132,679 people had been vaccinated.
- 'We expected it' -
Few people seem to be surprised that Ebola would eventually make its way to Uganda -- which has experienced outbreaks in the past. "The outbreak is not a surprise. We expected it. People cross the borders all the time and interact a lot," said Dorcus Kambere, a 29-year-old Ugandan bar attendant who feels her job puts her at risk.
At Mpondwe -- where 25,000 people cross daily -- travellers undergo rigorous health checks to detect the lethal virus, which attacks the organs and leads to internal and external bleeding. Soldiers carrying automatic rifles guide travellers through the screening process, making sure they wash their hands with disinfectant. The travellers then pass through a shelter with a thermal scanner that feeds people's body temperatures into a computer. "This is a situation we go through every day since the Ebola outbreak," said Ambrose Nyakitwe, 34, a Ugandan trader returning from the Congo side. "It is good. I have a family. I have to see that they don't get affected," he added, after passing through the scan. Outside the busy border post, business carries on as usual, with children swimming and playing in the muddy Lhubiriha river that draws a natural boundary between the two nations.
- 'Not safe' -
A woman serves pancakes with her bare hands from a bucket as pot-bellied money changers lounging next to her carry out their trade. However, while some carry on seemingly oblivious to the dangers posed by the virus, others are increasingly suspicious. "It is not safe. If they say people with Ebola crossed into Uganda, how sure are we there are not many who will infect us and are yet to be got?" asked Bernadette Bwiso, 41, a trader. "Government must do a house-to-house search," she said. Meanwhile, Nyakitwe is anxious about how the infected patients managed to cross into Uganda despite heightened surveillance. A Congolese woman -- who is married to a Ugandan -- her mother, three children and their nanny had travelled to DRC to care for her ill father, who later died of Ebola.
The World Health Organization said 12 members of the family who attended the burial in Congo were placed in isolation in the DRC, but six "escaped and crossed over to Uganda" on June 9. The next day, a five-year-old was checked into hospital in Bwera vomiting blood. Tests confirmed he had Ebola and the family was placed in an isolation ward. His three-year-old brother was also confirmed to have Ebola, as was their grandmother who died late Wednesday. Uganda and the RDC are discussing what can be done to intensify collaboration between the two countries to prevent the spread, the Congolese authorities said.
- No surveillance -
Uganda's health ministry said that the surviving travellers and the Ugandan father -- five people in total -- had agreed to be repatriated to DRC on Thursday for treatment and "family support and comfort" from relatives on the other side of the border. However, three unrelated patients are still in a Ugandan hospital awaiting the result of Ebola tests.
Uganda's Health Minister Jane Ruth Aceng said challenges remained at "unofficial entry points" between Congo and Uganda, which share a porous 875-kilometre (545-mile) border. These unauthorised border crossings, known as "panyas" in the local Lukonzo language, are often merely planks laid down across a point in the river, or through forests and mountains where there is no surveillance. In a bid to contain the spread of the disease the Ugandan government has suspended market days and urged people to stop shaking hands and hugging.
WHO provides confirmation of case of ebola virus disease in Uganda
Disease Ebola Virus Uganda - 1 month ago
https://afro.who.int/news/confirmation-case-ebola-virus-disease-uganda
Kampala, 11 June 2019 - The Ministry of Health and the World Health Organization (WHO) have confirmed a case of Ebola Virus Disease in Uganda. Although there have been numerous previous alerts, this is the first confirmed case in Uganda during the Ebola outbreak on-going in neighbouring Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The confirmed case is a 5-year-old child from the Democratic Republic of the Congo who travelled with his family on 9th June 2019. The child and his family entered the country through Bwera Border post and sought medical care at Kagando hospital where health workers identified Ebola as a possible cause of illness. The child was transferred to Bwera Ebola Treatment Unit for management. The confirmation was made today by the Uganda Virus Institute (UVRI). The child is under care and receiving supportive treatment at Bwera ETU, and contacts are being monitored.
The Ministry of Health and WHO have dispatched a Rapid Response Team to Kasese to identify other people who may be at risk, and ensure they are monitored and provided with care if they also become ill. Uganda has previous experience managing Ebola outbreaks. In preparation for a possible imported case during the current outbreak in DRC, Uganda has vaccinated nearly 4700 health workers in 165 health facilities (including in the facility where the child is being cared for); disease monitoring has been intensified; and health workers trained on recognizing symptoms of the disease. Ebola Treatment Units are in place.
In response to this case, the Ministry is intensifying community education, psychosocial support and will undertake vaccination for those who have come into contact with the patient and at-risk health workers who were not previously vaccinated.
Ebola virus disease is a severe illness that is spread through contact with the body fluids of a person sick with the disease (fluids such as vomit, faeces or blood). First symptoms are similar to other diseases and thus require vigilant health and community workers, especially in areas where there is Ebola transmission, to help make diagnosis. Symptoms can be sudden and include:
People who have been in contact with someone with the disease are offered vaccine and asked to monitor their health for 21 days to ensure they do not become ill as well.
The investigational vaccine being used in DRC and by health and frontline workers in Uganda has so far been effective in protecting people from developing the disease, and has helped those who do develop the disease to have a better chance of survival. The Ministry strongly urges those who are identified as contacts to take this protective measure.
Investigational therapeutics and advanced supportive care, along with patients seeking care early once they have symptoms, increase chances of survival.
The Ministry of Health has taken the following actions to contain spread of the disease in the country:
The District administration and local councils in the affected area have been directed to ensure that any person with Ebola signs and symptoms in the community is reported to the health workers immediately and provided with advice and testing.
The Ministry of Health is setting up units in the affected district and at referral hospitals to handle cases if they occur.
•Social mobilization activities are being intensified and education materials are being disseminated.
There are no confirmed cases in any other parts of the country.
The Ministry is working with international partners coordinated by the World Health Organization.
The Ministry of Health appeals to the general public and health workers to work together closely, to be vigilant and support each other in helping anyone with symptoms to receive care quickly. The Ministry will continue to update the general public on progress and new developments.
Update on 4 deaths from food poisoning in Uganda
Disease Food Borne Disease Uganda - 1 month ago
Date: Wed 5 Jun 2019
Source: Food Safety News [edited]
<https://www.foodsafetynews.com/2019/06/fda-and-cdc-helping-with-ugandan-outbreak-investigation/>
Two federal agencies in the USA are part of efforts to find the source of food poisoning in Uganda that led to 4 deaths. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are involved in the investigation of the outbreak that occurred in March and April [2019].
The World Food Programme (WFP) previously reported 3 people died and hundreds more were admitted to health centers in the Karamoja region of northeast Uganda after eating Super Cereal, which had been distributed to prevent malnutrition. Symptoms included mental confusion, vomiting, headache, high fever, and abdominal pain.
The food came from a Turkish supplier, which has been suspended from local and international Super Cereal distribution pending results of the investigation. Super Cereal is corn or wheat blended with soya beans, fortified with vitamins and minerals, processed into flour and supplied in 25 kg [55 lb] bags.
It was established all 296 people who fell ill had eaten porridge from one batch of specially fortified food called Super Cereal (also known as CSB+). However, lab testing so far has not found the causative agent.
The FDA detected traces of alkaloids, specifically atropine, but is yet to establish the levels of contamination and whether the alkaloids are synthetic or natural. More tests are being performed by the agency, and results will be released at a later date, according to a statement from the Ugandan Ministry of Health.
Samples were collected from WFP warehouses, health facilities, and the homes of patients to rule out the presence of mycotoxins, heavy metals, pesticides, and microbial agents. Lab tests were complemented by an epidemiological review by the ministry of health and CDC, as well as toxicologists from the UK who visited Karamoja to examine patients.
Representatives from the CDC are part of a task force that includes the Ugandan Ministry of Health, Ministry of Internal Affairs, World Health Organization (WHO), WFP, and Ugandan National Bureau of Standards (UNBS).
Of 18 samples tested by UNBS, one had aflatoxin B1 slightly higher than the acceptable limit and a few had low levels of yeast and mould, but levels were lower than those required to cause illness, according to the ministry of health statement. The government analytical laboratory also found one sample with slightly high aflatoxin B1, but these levels could not explain the acute symptoms of toxicity seen in patients.
Testing by the Ministry of Health central public health lab found _Bacillus cereus_ twice and _Salmonella_ spp. once in 3 samples from a household. Contamination was not found in samples from the warehouse.
An Intertek lab in Mombasa detected coliforms in 3 samples. In the Johannesburg lab owned by the same company, one sample failed the aflatoxin B1 test, 3 were contaminated with _B. cereus_ and 33 also had coliforms. The FDA did not report any of these findings, but further analysis is ongoing.
UNBS and the Directorate of Government Analytical Laboratory (DGAL) boosted analytical capabilities through support from the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). "In the past, the lack of adequate diagnostic and analytical testing capacities limited our ability to minimize health risks to the public, including responding to outbreaks and emergencies and investigating suspected causes," said Deus Mubangizi, manager of the Testing Division at UNBS.
The IAEA supported expert missions, training courses, and delivery of equipment such as radio receptor assays, isotope-dependent liquid chromatographic and spectrometric tools, liquid chromatographic instruments, tools to help sample preparation and storage, and analytical material to ensure performance according to international standards.
"The outbreak could have spread further or affected more consumers if stakeholders including the 2 laboratories...had not been in a position to intervene, promptly," said Kepher Kuchana Kateu, director of DGAL.
The Ugandan Government and WFP suspended distribution of Super Cereal in the country from all suppliers. The United Nations agency started distributing foods of equal or higher nutritional value to vulnerable people.
Testing at the FDA showed Super Cereal from all suppliers other than the Turkish firm is safe to eat. The government has allowed WFP to resume Super Cereal distributions from the other suppliers. The WFP previously said food supplies on hold around the world totaled more than 21,000 metric tons [23,150 US tons] with an estimated replacement value of USD 22 million.
[The clinical signs described above are somewhat general and could fit a number of contaminants. However, they are not a very good match to the contaminants found thus far. In fact finding coliforms in the cereal/flour substance may result from a lack of hygiene by the workers or in the processing plant in general. Either way, it is a nauseating thought.
Alkaloids are mentioned, specifically atropine. Tropane alkaloids are known to produce clinical signs including dilated eyes, flushed skin or a feverish feeling and is often associated with the inability to sweat.
While there have been some bacterial contaminants found, it has not
been wide spread, nor have levels been noted as being very high.
Aflatoxin most often causes liver damage and may first be noticed as jaundice or yellowing of the whites of the eyes. This has not been mentioned.
It would seem the causative agent of the death and illnesses is either multifactorial or has not yet been uncovered. - ProMED Mod.TG]
Nigeria US Consular Information Sheet
Nigeria is a developing country in western Africa that has experienced periods of political instability. It has the largest population on the continent, estimated at Read More Show Less
44 million people, and its infrastructure is not fully functional or well maintained. Read the Department of State’s Background Notes on Nigeria for additional information.
ENTRY/EXIT REQUIREMENTS: A passport and visa are required. The visa must be obtained in advance from a Nigerian Embassy or Consulate. Visas cannot be obtained on arrival at the airport. Promises of entry into Nigeria without a visa are credible indicators of fraudulent commercial schemes in which the perpetrators seek to exploit the foreign traveler's illegal presence in Nigeria through threats of extortion or bodily harm. U.S. citizens cannot legally depart Nigeria unless they can prove, by presenting their entry visas, that they entered Nigeria legally. Entry information may be obtained at the Embassy of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 3519 International Court NW, Washington, DC 20008, telephone (202) 822-1500, or at the Nigerian Consulate General in New York, telephone (212) 808-0301. Overseas, inquiries may be made at the nearest Nigerian embassy or consulate.
Visit the Embassy of Nigeria web site at http://www.nigeriaembassyusa.org/ for the most current visa information.
Information about dual nationality or the prevention of international child abduction can be found on our web site. For further information about customs regulations, please read our Customs Information sheet.
The Department of State continues to caution U.S. citizens about the possible dangers of travel to some parts of Nigeria. [Please also see the Crime Section below.] In light of the risk of kidnapping, crime, militant activity, or armed attacks, the U.S. Mission restricts the travel of U.S. government personnel to the following states to official travel only: Delta, Bayelsa, Rivers and Akwa Ibom in the Niger Delta, and Edo and Imo in the south. Only essential travel by non-official Americans is recommended to these areas. In addition, the military's Joint Task Force patrols the creeks in the Niger Delta because of ongoing militant and piracy incidents, especially against oil-related facilities or infrastructure, so individuals may be questioned, detained or arrested when traveling in these sensitive areas without evidence of permission from the Nigerian government or for carrying electronic equipment such as cameras, recorders, etc. Periodically, travel by U.S. mission personnel is restricted in certain parts of Nigeria based on changing security conditions, often due to crime, general strikes, or student/political demonstrations or disturbances. See the Department of State’s Travel Warning for Nigeria for more information.
For the latest security information, Americans traveling abroad should regularly monitor the Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs’ web site at http://travel.state.gov, where current Travel Warnings, Travel Alerts, and the Worldwide Caution can be found.
Up-to-date information on safety and security can also be obtained by calling 1-888-407-4747 toll free in the U.S. and Canada, or for callers outside the U.S. and Canada, a regular toll-line at 1-202-501-4444. These numbers are available from 8:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. Eastern Time, Monday through Friday (except U.S. federal holidays).
CRIME: Violent crime committed by individual criminals and gangs, as well as by some persons wearing police and military uniforms, is a problem, especially in Lagos, Abuja and other large cities, although it can occur anywhere. Some visitors and resident Americans have experienced armed muggings, assaults, burglary, carjacking, kidnappings and extortion, often involving violence. Home invasions are on the rise in Lagos, with armed robbers accessing even guarded compounds by following, or tailgating, residents or visitors arriving by car into the compound, subduing guards and gaining entry into homes or apartments. Armed robbers in Lagos also access waterfront compounds by boat. U.S. citizens, as well as Nigerians and other expatriates, have been victims of armed robbery on roads to airports during both daylight and evening hours. Law enforcement authorities usually respond to crimes slowly or not at all, and provide little or no investigative support to victims. U.S. citizens and other expatriates have experienced harassment and shakedowns at checkpoints and during encounters with Nigerian officials.
Nigerian-operated fraud scams, known as 419s, are noted for their cleverness and ingenuity. These scams target foreigners worldwide, posing risks of both financial loss and personal danger to their victims. Scams are often initiated through internet postings or from internet cafes, by unsolicited emails, faxes, and letters, or can involve credit card use. As anywhere else, no one should provide personal or financial information to unknown parties or via Nigerian telephone lines. The expansion of bilateral law enforcement cooperation, which has resulted in numerous raids on commercial fraud premises, has reduced the overall level of overt fraud activity, but new types of sophisticated scams are introduced daily.
American citizens are very frequently the victims of Nigerian confidence artists offering companionship through internet dating websites. These confidence artists almost always pose as American citizens visiting or living in Nigeria who unexpectedly experience a medical, legal, financial or other type of “emergency” that requires the immediate financial assistance of the American citizen in the United States. In these cases, we strongly urge the American citizen in the United States to be very cautious about sending money to any unknown person purportedly acting on their behalf, or traveling to Nigeria to meet someone with whom their sole communications have been via the internet. Other common scams involve a promise of an inheritance windfall, work contracts in Nigeria, or an overpayment for goods purchased on-line. For additional information on these types of scams, see the Department of State's publication, International Financial Scams.
Commercial scams or stings that targets foreigners, including many U.S. citizens, continue to be a problem. One needs to be alert to scams that may involve U.S. citizens in illegal activity, resulting in arrest, extortion or bodily harm. These scams generally involve phony offers of either outright money transfers or lucrative sales or contracts with promises of large commissions or up-front payments, or improperly invoke the authority of one or more ministries or offices of the Nigerian government and may cite, by name, the involvement of a Nigerian government official. In some scams, government stationery and seals are also improperly used to advance the scam. The ability of U.S. consular officers to extricate U.S. citizens from unlawful business deals or scams and their subsequent consequences is extremely limited. U.S. citizens have been arrested by police officials and held for varying periods on charges of involvement in illegal business activity or scams. Nigerian police or other law enforcement officials do not always inform the U.S. Embassy or Consulate immediately of the arrest or detention of a U.S. citizen. The U.S. Department of Commerce has advisories to the U.S. business community on a variety of issues that should be seriously reviewed with respect to doing business in Nigeria. To check on a business’s legitimacy while in the United States, contact the Nigeria Desk Officer at the International Trade Administration, Room 3317, Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C. 20230, telephone 1-800-USA-TRADE or (202) 482-5149, fax (202) 482-5198. If you are abroad, contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate.
The Department of State encourages all travelers abroad to register their travel. The most convenient way to do so would be through the online travel registration page. Travelers may also register in person at the U.S. Embassy in Abuja or the U.S. Consulate General in Lagos. See the section on Registration / Embassy Location below.
INFORMATION FOR VICTIMS OF CRIME: The loss or theft abroad of a U.S. passport should be reported immediately to the local police and the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. If you are the victim of a crime while overseas, in addition to reporting to local police, please contact the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate for assistance. The Embassy/Consulate staff, for example, can provide you with a list for appropriate medical care, or contact family members or friends and explain how funds could be transferred to you to cover unexpected costs. Although the investigation and prosecution of the crime is solely the responsibility of local authorities, consular officers can help you to understand the local criminal justice process and to find an attorney if needed.
See the Department of State’s information on Victims of Crime.
MEDICAL FACILITIES AND HEALTH INFORMATION: While Nigeria has many well-trained doctors, medical facilities in Nigeria are in poor condition, with inadequately trained nursing staff. Diagnostic and treatment equipment is most often poorly maintained, and many medicines are unavailable. Caution should be taken as counterfeit pharmaceuticals are a common problem and may be difficult to distinguish from genuine medications. This is particularly true of generics purchased at local pharmacies or street markets. Hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for health services.
Information on vaccinations and other health precautions, such as safe food and water precautions and insect bite protection, may be obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s hotline for international travelers at 1-877-FYI-TRIP (1-877-394-8747) or via the CDC’s web site at http://wwwn.cdc.gov/travel/default.aspx. For information about outbreaks of infectious diseases abroad, consult the World Health Organization’s (WHO) web site at http://www.who.int/en. Further health information for travelers is available at http://www.who.int/ith.
MEDICAL INSURANCE: The Department of State strongly urges Americans to consult with their medical insurance company prior to traveling abroad to confirm whether their health insurance policy applies overseas and whether it will cover emergency expenses such as a medical evacuation from a foreign country to the United States or another location. Please see the our brochure on medical insurance overseas.
TRAFFIC SAFETY AND ROAD CONDITIONS: While in a foreign country, U.S. citizens may encounter road conditions that differ significantly from those in the United States. The information below concerning Nigeria is provided for general reference only and may not be totally accurate in a particular location or circumstance.
Roads in many areas are generally in poor condition, causing damage to vehicles and contributing to hazardous traffic conditions. There are few working traffic lights or stop signs. The rainy season from May to October is especially dangerous because of flooded roads and water-concealed potholes.
Excessive speed, unpredictable driving habits, and the lack of basic maintenance and safety equipment on many vehicles are additional hazards. Motorists seldom yield the right-of-way and give little consideration to pedestrians and cyclists. Gridlock is common in urban areas. Chronic fuel shortages have led to long lines at service stations, which disrupt or block traffic for extended periods.
Public transportation vehicles are unsafe due to poor maintenance, high speeds and overcrowding. Motorbikes, known in Nigeria as "okadas," are a common form of public transportation in many cities and pose particular danger to motorists, their own passengers and pedestrians. Motorbike drivers frequently weave in and out of traffic at high speeds and observe no traffic rules. Motorbikes are banned within Abuja's city limits. Passengers in local taxis have been driven to secluded locations where they were attacked and robbed. Several of the victims required hospitalization. The U.S. Mission advises that public transportation throughout Nigeria be avoided.
It is recommended that short-term visitors not drive in Nigeria. A Nigerian driver's license can take months to obtain, and to date an international driving permit is not recognized. Major hotels offer reliable car-hire services complete with drivers. Reliable car-hire services can also be obtained at the customer service centers at the airports in Lagos, Abuja, and Kano. Inter-city travelers must also consider that roadside assistance is extremely scarce, and as noted above medical facilities and emergency care are poor, meaning that being involved in a traffic incident might result in a lack of available medical facilities to treat either minor or life-threatening injuries.
All drivers and passengers are reminded to wear seat belts, lock doors, and raise windows. It is important to secure appropriate automobile insurance. It is also important to be aware that drivers and passengers of vehicles involved in accidents resulting in injury or death have experienced extra-judicial actions, i.e., mob attacks, official consequences such as fines and incarceration or involvement with the victim's family. Night driving should be done with extreme caution, but it is recommended to avoid driving between 6:00 p.m. and 6:00 a.m. as bandits and police roadblocks are more numerous at night. Streets are very poorly lit, and many vehicles are missing one or both headlights, tail lights, and reflectors.
The Government of Nigeria charges the Federal Road Safety Commission with providing maps and public information on specific road conditions. The Federal Road Safety Commission may be contacted by mail at: Ojodu-Isherri Road, PMB 21510, Ikeja, Lagos; telephone [243] (1) 802-850-5961 or [234] (1) 805-684-6911.
AVIATION SAFETY OVERSIGHT: As there is no direct commercial air service to the United States by carriers registered in Nigeria, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has not assessed Nigeria’sCivil Aviation Authority for compliance with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) aviation safety standards. For more information, travelers may visit the FAA’s web site at http://www.faa.gov/safety/programs_initiatives/oversight/iasa.
The Port Harcourt International Airport, which was closed in mid-2006 for rehabilitation, resumed operations in December 2007 for domestic daylight flights. Installations and improvements needed for international flights and night operations are expected to be completed in 2008.
For additional information on aviation safety concerns, see the Department of State’s Travel Warning for Nigeria.
Permission is required to take photographs or videotape any government buildings, airports, bridges, and in areas where the military is operating throughout the country. These sites include, but are not limited to, Federal buildings in the Three Arms Zone (Presidential palace area, National Assembly, Supreme Court/Judiciary) of the capital of Abuja, other government buildings around the country and foreign Embassies and Consulates. Many restricted sites are not clearly marked, and application of these restrictions is subject to interpretation by the Nigerian security services and can result in detention. Permission may be obtained from Nigeria's State Security Services, but even permission may not prevent the imposition of penalties or detention. Penalties for unauthorized photography or videography may include confiscation of the still or video camera, exposure of the film or deletion of film footage, a demand for payment of a fine or bribe, and/or detention, arrest, or physical assault. For these reasons, visitors to Nigeria should avoid taking still photos or videotaping in and around areas that are potentially restricted sites, including any government sites.
The Nigerian currency, the naira, is non-convertible. U.S. dollars are widely accepted. Nigeria is a cash economy, and it is usually necessary to carry sufficient currency to cover the expenses of a planned visit, which makes travelers an attractive target for criminals. Credit cards are rarely accepted beyond a few upscale hotels. Due to credit card fraud in Nigeria and by cohorts in the United States, credit card use should be considered carefully. While Citibank cashes some traveler’s checks, most other banks do not. American Express does not have offices in Nigeria; however, Thomas Cook does. Inter-bank transfers are often difficult to accomplish, though money transfer services such as Western Union are available. For further information, visitors may contact the U.S. Embassy or Consulate.
Please see the Department of State’s information on Customs Information.
CRIMINAL PENALTIES: While in a foreign country, a U.S. citizen is subject to that country's laws and regulations, which sometimes differ significantly from those in the United States and may not afford the protections available to the individual under U.S. law. Penalties for breaking the law can be more severe than in the United States for similar offenses. Persons violating Nigerian laws, even unknowingly, may be expelled, detained, arrested or imprisoned. Penalties for possession, use, or trafficking in illegal drugs in Nigeria are severe, and convicted offenders can expect long jail sentences and heavy fines. Engaging in sexual conduct with children or using or disseminating child pornography in a foreign country is a crime, prosecutable in the United States. Please see the Department of State’s information on Criminal Penalties.
CHILDREN'S ISSUES: For information see the Department of State’s Office of Children’s Issues web pages on intercountry adoption and international parental child abduction.
Americans living or traveling in Nigeria are encouraged to register with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate through the State Department’s travel registration website so that they can obtain updated information on travel and security within Nigeria and other general information.Americans withoutInternet access may register directly with the nearest U.S. Embassy or Consulate. By registering, American citizens make it easier for the Embassy or Consulate to contact them in case of emergency.
The U.S. Embassy is located at 1075 Diplomatic Drive, Central Area, Abuja. American citizens can call [234] (9) 461-4176 during office hours (Monday through Thursday, 7:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m.; Friday, 7:30 a.m. to 1:30 p.m.). For after-hours emergencies, call [234] (9) 461-4000. The email address for the Consular Section in Abuja is ConsularAbuja@state.gov.
The U.S. Consulate General is located at 2 Walter Carrington Crescent, Victoria Island, Lagos. American citizens can call [234] (1) 261-1215 during office hours (7:30 a.m. to 4:00 p.m.). For after-hours emergencies, call [234] (1) 261-1414, 261-0050, 261-0078, 261-0139, or 261-6477. The e-mail address for the Consular Section in Lagos is Lagoscons2@state.gov.
The Embassy and Consulate website is http://nigeria.usembassy.gov/.
This replaces the Consular Information Sheet dated April 16, 2007, to update sections on Country Description, Safety and Security, Crime, Traffic Safety and Road Conditions, Aviation Safety Oversight, Special Circumstances and Registration / Embassy Location.
10 recent cases of Cholera reported in Adamawa State of Nigeria
Disease Cholera Nigeria - 4 days ago
Source: Government of Nigeria [edited]
<https://reliefweb.int/report/nigeria/adamawa-state-situation-report-cholera-outbreak-no-11-8th-july-2019>
Adamawa State situation report of cholera outbreak no. 11: 8 Jul 2019
- 10 new cases reported from 5 to 8 Jul 2019 from the 3 affected LGAs, bringing total case count to 213.
- No new deaths reported within the reporting period.
- One new ward affected. Total number of wards that reported at least one suspected case stands at 16.
Epidemiological summary
The total number of cases reported as of 8 Jul 2019 stands at 223, with 3 deaths (case fatality rate [CFR] = 1.35%). Yola North has 119 cases with 2 deaths (CFR = 1.68%); Girei has 95 cases with 1 death (CFR = 1.05%) and Yola South has 9 cases with 0 deaths (CFR = 0%). So far, 71 samples yielded growth typical of _Vibrio cholera_ on culture, and results of 7 isolates from the reference laboratory revealed 01 serotype.
Concern over new case of Polio in Lagos State of Nigeria
Disease Poliomyelitis Nigeria - 1 month ago
Date: Thu 13 Jun 2019 (submitted 16 Jun 2019 03:32 AM)
Source: Nigerian Tribune [edited]
<https://tribuneonlineng.com/218439/>
The Lagos State Ministry of Health, World Health Organisation (WHO), United States Children Fund (UNICEF), Belinda and Bill Gates Foundation, and Rotary International, among other organizations, have swung into action to interrupt a new poliovirus outbreak in Lagos state, Nigeria. This is as the state embarks on a house-to-house aggressive vaccination exercise across 20 local government areas of the state on Friday [14 Jun 2019].
The permanent secretary, Lagos State Ministry of Health, Dr. Titilayo Goncalves, confirmed the outbreak of poliovirus in the state during an emergency press briefing in Lagos on Thursday [13 Jun 2019]. She disclosed that the virus was detected on water samples taken from 3 canals in Makoko, Itire, and Maracana areas of the state during a routine surveillance exercise carried out on all the water bodies in the state.
The outbreak represents the 1st poliovirus incident after 12 years of no report in the state and 32 months of non-occurrence in Nigeria. According to Dr. Usman Adamu, the incident manager, National Emergency Operation Centre (NEOC) of the National Primary Health Care Development Agency (NPHCDA), Nigeria was on the verge of being declared a poliovirus-free nation by the WHO before the current incident.
"This is why we will be here on the field in the next few days to support the supervision of the outbreak response in Lagos," Dr. Fiona Braka, the WHO representative and immunization team lead, said while addressing stakeholders and newsmen during the emergency meeting. "It is our mandate to see a world free of polio and a Nigeria free of polio."
"Nigeria has made remarkable progress in the fight against polio, having recorded 32 months without a wide polio outbreak. However, this outbreak is a different strain, and we are responding differently and appropriately to it. The vaccination exercise is aimed at administering 2 drops of polio vaccines to children who are below 5 years of age across 20 local government areas of the state using a house-to-house approach. However, we can only achieve this if everyone works collectively to bring out children under the age of 5 to get 2 drops of polio vaccines over the next 4 days."
Speaking about the vaccination exercise, Braka stressed that "All children regardless of their previous vaccination status must receive this vaccine. High coverage with the vaccine is needed to break the transmission and build immunity against the virus. The vaccine we are going to provide is not the routine vaccine given through the health facilities. So we do not want any child to miss this opportunity, because we have a specific period in which to provide this vaccine." She maintained that the vaccine was safe, effective, and free of charge and should not be denied of any child in Lagos.
Speaking against complacency at this stage in Nigeria's battle against polio eradication, the Rotary International representative and vice chairman, Southwest Rotary (NNPPC), and past district governor, Abayomi Adewunmi, enjoined all stakeholders to rally round to ensure that this current outbreak is interrupted. "We are 99.9% towards eradicating polio in Nigeria. You know when the race is about to finish, that is when people usually start getting tired and complacent. We do not want complacency to kick in; we want to completely kick polio out in Nigeria. We are asking all hands to be on deck. Now that the outbreak is here, we must work together to interrupt it."
According to the Adewunmi, the Rotary International has been on the forefront in the fight against the eradication of polio, spending over USD 9 billion with a record of over 2.7 billion children successfully immunized since 1985.
The C4D polio specialist, UNICEF, Nigeria, Hayon Nam, in her speech enjoined on the media to support the campaign to end poliovirus spread by creating awareness for parents to bring out their children for the vaccination exercise.
Nigeria is among the 3 countries with poliovirus prevalence in the world. The 2 other countries are Pakistan and Afghanistan. In 2019 alone, 2 countries have recorded about 29 cases, while Nigeria was on the last lap of being declared poliovirus free. [Byline: Newton-Ray Ukwuoma]
Anjorin, A. AbdulAzeez
Lagos State University
Ojo, Nigeria
<http://epicore.org>
Report of ploy in Nigeria to disrupt Polio vaccination programme
Disease Poliomyelitis Nigeria - 2 months ago
Date: Wed 22 May 2019
Source: PM News Nigeria [edited]
<https://www.pmnewsnigeria.com/2019/05/22/lagos-uncovers-plot-to-disrupt-ongoing-polio-vaccination/>
The Lagos state government says it has uncovered a plot by a non-governmental organisation (NGO) to disrupt the ongoing polio vaccination in the state by administering harmful vaccines to children. Dr Jide Lawal, permanent secretary, Primary Healthcare Board, made this known on Tuesday night [21 May 2019] in Lagos.
Lawal said that the organisation, which he did not name, was going around schools in the state to administer vaccines believed to be harmful to children. He said that the state Ministry of Health had commenced an investigation into the allegation.
According to Lawal, the ministry suspected that the sabotage was intended to disrupt the ongoing polio immunisation campaign.
"The move by the NGO is intended to thwart other efforts of the state government in maintaining 100% immunisation coverage of eligible children as well as maintain the "polio-free status" attained since 2009.
"For the purpose of clarity, it is important to mention that the safety of lives and the wellbeing of citizens are of utmost importance to the state government, and all efforts are geared toward protecting the citizenry. Hence, we wish to emphasise that the oral polio vaccine is free, safe, and effective in protecting children against polio.
"We will also like to assure you that the administration of this vaccine is not hazardous or dangerous to humans as being erroneously propagated. In fact, the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommends that all children below the age of 5 years get this vaccine for protection against polio, " Lawal said.
He added that the benefits of receiving the polio vaccination and other scheduled immunisations were numerous.
"Good health and survival of children have been associated with immunisation, because it reduces disability, morbidity, and mortality. It also contributes to lowering the incidence of diseases and results in less frequent visits to health facilities.
"Immunisation remains the most cost-effective and efficient child survival strategy for children who are the future of the nation. Also, this informs our unrelenting efforts in protecting our children from the vaccine-preventable killer diseases," he said.
Lawal urged stakeholders, including parents, political and religious leaders, civil society organisations, and mass media to ensure that children under 5 years were immunised free of charge.
He said, "This is to ensure that we reduce the risk of death and disability from vaccine-preventable diseases such as polio."
He said the current vaccination campaign against polio was being conducted by the National Primary Healthcare Development Agency, state Ministry of Health, and Lagos state Primary Healthcare Board.
According to Lawal, this is in partnership with health development partners such as World Health Organisation (WHO) United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) CDC-AFENET and Rotary.
"While the state collaborates with NGOs, the administration of vaccines is the sole responsibility of health workers trained to conduct the exercise. The public are, therefore, enjoined to be vigilant and authenticate the identity of immunisation officers," Lawal said. "They should report any suspicion about the implementation of any of the state or national immunisation campaigns to the nearest local government, the Ministry of Education, or the Ministry of Health, or call 08023020581," he added.
[I'm posting these media reports as examples of the politics of health. When the incident occurred in Pakistan in April [2019], the media reports had not covered the politics behind the scare tactics. A very sorry state of affairs that politicians are using children and their health to manipulate voters in their areas. One can't help but wonder how much of the global anti-vaccine movement (significantly contributing to the global increase in measles) has a political basis behind it as well.
The change in approach to the campaign activities might well help win over many of the vaccine refusers in Pakistan. One hopes that will be the case.
With respect to WPV [wild poliovirus] in Nigeria, it is important to mention that with respect to the WPV1 [wild poliovirus type 1] isolated in Nigeria in 2016, "It is the 1st WPV1 detected in Nigeria since July 2014. Genetic sequencing of the isolated viruses suggest they are most closely linked to WPV1 last detected in Borno in 2011, indicating the strain has been circulating without detection since that time" (see Poliomyelitis update (11): Nigeria (BO) http://promedmail.org/post/20160811.4410331). Hence caution is needed in interpreting the observation that the absence of new cases since 2016 suggests Nigeria can be safely declared as having interrupted transmission of the WPV. And given the highly political nature of polio in Pakistan, one can't help but wonder if 3 years without a case is a fail-safe time to declare interruption of transmission there as well.
As for this current situation, the media report is unclear whether rumors have been circulating re: administration of harmful vaccines or if the NGO is administering vaccines claiming the government is administering bad vaccine. Notwithstanding the potential impact of this is an increase in vaccine refusal in Lagos as well as in neighboring areas when they learn of this. Another example of the politics of health impacting on the lives of children in a country.
HealthMap/ProMED-mail maps can be found at
Pakistan: <http://healthmap.org/promed/p/140>
Nigeria: <http://healthmap.org/promed/p/62>. - ProMED Mod.MPP]
Update on Yellow Fever situation In Nigeria with over 300 suspected cases in past month
Disease Yellow Fever Nigeria - 2 months ago
Date: Tue 30 Apr 2019
Source: Nigeria CDC monthly yellow fever situation report [edited]
<https://ncdc.gov.ng/themes/common/files/sitreps/33df034e696fc54e144eb5d8f8ce9c66.pdf>
In this reporting month of April 2019:
- 332 suspected cases were recorded
- 3 new presumptive positive cases were recorded
- NCDC Central Public Health Laboratory (CPHL) reported 1 new presumptive positive case from Imo State - (Orsu LGA)
- Yusuf Danshoho Memorial Hospital (YDMH) Kaduna reported 1 presumptive case - case from Kebbi - (Arewa Dandi LGA)
- Gombe Specialist Hospital (GSH) Gombe reported 1 presumptive case from Gombe LGA
- 3 new confirmed cases from the Institute Pasteur (IP) Dakar from Edo State - (Uhunmwode -2, Ikpoba-Okha -1).
- Last IP Dakar confirmed cases were reported 18 Apr 2019
- 19 states have recorded at least one confirmed case from Institute Pasteur (IP) Dakar since the onset of the outbreak in 2017
- Yellow fever response activities are being coordinated by the Yellow Fever Technical Working Group (YF TWG).
- From 1 Jan - 30 Apr 2019:
- 930 suspected cases have been reported in 447 (57.8%) LGAs
- All suspected cases reported had blood samples collected
- 35 presumptive positive and 12 inconclusive cases from 12 states in 32 LGAs: Table 1
- 12 confirmed cases were reported from 2019 samples sent to Institute Dakar [Edo (7) confirmed and 1 inconclusive) Ondo (2), Imo (1) and Osun (1)]
- One death of a suspected yellow fever case has been recorded from Adamawa
- Case fatality rate (CFR) is 0.11%
- Rapid response teams have been deployed to Abia, Imo and Osun States
Summary of outbreak 2017-2018
A yellow fever outbreak has been active in Nigeria since September 2017:
- From 2017 to 2018, 163 cases were confirmed in 17 states: Kwara (8), Kogi (12), Kano (1), Zamfara (19), Kebbi (7), Nasarawa (3), Niger (1), Katsina (2), Edo (90), Ekiti (2), Rivers (1), Anambra (1), FCT (11), Benue (1), Delta (1), Ondo (2) and Abia (1): in 52 Local Government areas (LGAs).
- From September 2017 to December 2018, 283 samples (presumptive positive - 246 and inconclusive - 37) were sent to IP Dakar for re-confirmation.
- All Nigerian states (36 + FCT) reported 4132 suspected cases in 616 (79.6%) LGAs.
- Of all suspected, probable and confirmed cases, 90 deaths were recorded with 31 deaths among confirmed cases.
- The case fatality ratio (CFR) for all cases (suspected, probable and confirmed) is 2.2%, and 19.0% for confirmed cases
- Yellow fever preventive mass vaccination campaigns (PMVC) have been completed in 12 states, led by NPHCDA:
- 2013 PMVC phase 1 Nasarawa, Cross River, Akwa Ibom.
- 2018 Phase 2a: Kogi, Kwara and Zamfara and in 58 political wards in 25 LGAs in Borno State.
- 2018 phase 2b PMVC: Sokoto, Kebbi, Niger, FCT, Plateau and Borno (3 LGAs (Askira/Uba, Chibok, Konduga) States.
- Yellow fever Reactive vaccination campaigns were implemented in Katsina (Danja LGA), Edo (13) LGAs and Benue (Vandekeiya)
- 2019 phase 3 PMVC will be implemented in all LGAs where no YF campaigns have been implemented in Edo, Ekiti, Katsina and Rivers States.
Epi- summary
[Table] 1: Showing All Affected States and Cases with Yellow Fever as at Week 18, 30 Apr 2019 [with data for categories that interested readers can see at the source URL]:
- Total number of cases in the line list
- Attack rate per 100 000 population
- Number of LGAs with suspected cases
- Number of LGAs with presumptive/inconclusive cases
- Number of LGAs with confirmed cases from IP Dakar
- Number suspected cases with blood sample collected in Nigeria
- Number of presumptive positives in Nigeria
- Number with inconclusive results in Nigeria
- Total number of samples sent to IP Dakar
- Number positive cases from IP Dakar
- Total number negative in IP Dakar
- Number awaiting result from IP Dakar
- Number of deaths from all cases
- Positives
- Number of deaths from IP Dakar confirmed
Figure 1: Epidemic Curve of All Cases of Yellow Fever in Nigeria as at Week 18, 30 Apr 2019 [graph not shown]
Figure 2: Trend of Confirmed Cases of Yellow Fever in Nigeria 2017-2019
Figure 3: Map of Nigeria Showing States with
Suspected/Presumptive/Confirmed Cases as at Week 18, 30 Apr 2019 [Figure 4 not shown]
Figure 5: Map showing states that implemented PMVC/proposed PMVC from 2019-2021.
[The above report indicates that 930 suspected cases have been reported this year (2019) from 1 Jan - 30 Apr 2019. There are 332 suspected cases during the April 2019 reporting period, up from 254 suspected cases on 19 Feb 2019. There are 3 new presumptive and 3 new confirmed yellow fever cases during the April 2019 reporting period. The YF virus is endemic in Nigeria, and cases occur there sporadically. Because the 2019 outbreak that began in Edo state may have started as sylvatic (forest) yellow fever spread by various _Aedes_ species with subsequent rapid development suggesting urban yellow fever transmission spread by _Ae. aegypti_, it is reassuring to learn that the Edo state outbreak was declared over with a reported vaccination coverage of 120%. This startling level of coverage may have occurred as a result of individuals vaccinated outside the state being vaccinated in the state as well, and/or by individuals having been vaccinated twice within the state. It is encouraging to learn that phase 3 vaccination will be implemented in all LGAs where no YF campaigns have been implemented thus far in Edo, Ekiti, Katsina and Rivers States. - ProMED Mod.TY]
Nigeria: <http://healthmap.org/promed/p/62>]
Doctor stricken with Lassa Fever in Kebbi State of Nigeria
Disease Lassa Fever Nigeria - 2 months ago
Source: AllAfrica, The Guardian report edited
<https://allafrica.com/stories/201905160190.html>
A serving medical doctor has been infected with Lassa fever while 2 persons were confirmed dead in Kebbi state. Another medical doctor disclosed this yesterday [15 May 2019] when The Guardian visited the Federal Medical Centre (FMC), Birnin Kebbi. He said that 2 children died last week [week of 6 May 2019] as a result of the Lassa fever while a medical doctor, who was doing his primary assignment treating the patients, was also infected.
"You see, the management of the FMC has opened a special unit called isolated unit for the Lassa fever patients. We still have some patients inside. Also, a medical doctor, who was managing some patients last month [April 2019], has also been infected and he is presently on admission," he said.
Meanwhile, the state's Commissioner for Health, Alhaji Umar Kambaza, who confirmed the incident, said they were aware of the cases in the state but the government is working towards them. [Byline: Michael Egbejule, Ahmadu Baba Idris]
[The dates of occurrence of these cases is not given. Presumably, they were hospitalized after 12 May 2019 when the Nigeria CDC update was issued. It is indeed unfortunate that an attending physician became infected in the hospital. Nosocomial infections are not unusual when personal protective equipment and barrier nursing measures are not employed. - ProMED Mod.TY]
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Marathi Cinema is in its Golden Phase: Madhuri Dixit
Madhuri made her acting debut three decades ago, but it took her over three decades to star in a Marathi film.
“I was waiting for the right Marathi script to come my way. This is a great story. It is about every day women and the way she gets lost. She forgets who she is as she does things for her family. When she gets on this journey and tries to complete a bucket list of someone else, she finds herself. I was a housewife for a brief period and they all go through this. I think they all would relate to this,” Madhuri said.
With this film, Madhuri has again collaborated with her Hum Aapke Hain Koun co-star Renuka Shahane after a gap of 24 years, and with Ranbir Kapoor, who has a guest appearance in the movie.
“It was wonderful working with both of them. I first met Renuka on the sets of Hum Aapke Hain Koun and we got along immediately. We both are from Maharashtra and had the same cultural background. I was happy working with her again. Our relationship is different in this film. We share an emotional bond in this film. Ranbir is one of my favourite actors. I appreciate his work. We had a great time. He was gracious to do this film. He is a charming boy,” Madhuri said.
When mainstream stars take on regional scripts, its an immediate hit on ticket sales and it also increases their range of viewers by about fifteen-fold. Here are three more actresses that have excelled in regional cinema:
* Aishwarya Rai Bachchan: What many of us might not know is that she has also acted in Tamil films. In fact, her debut in cinema was with a Tamil film, Iruvar . She is a celebrated Tollywood actress. And you will be surprised to know that she has done a Bengali film as well!
* Juhi Chawla: Juhi Chawla wowed Bollywood in the '90s with her beautiful smile and her impeccable comic timing. She has acted in various South Indian movies as well.
* Sushmita Sen: Yes, the beautiful and enigmatic Miss Universe has also done a couple of films for Tollywood. She has acted in Tamil movies and has created a niche for herself there as well. Her performance in Ratchagan was much applauded.
In a first, US murder conviction overturned using THIS revolutionary technique
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Dec 19, 2016 News Hour Correspondent -
Christmas brings some cheer in Bethlehem
This Christmas, for once, Bethlehem really can boast again that there is no room at the inn, as relative calm in the Israeli-occupied West Bank brings pilgrims and tourists flocking to the town of Jesus’s birth.
Elias Al-Arja of the Bethlehem hoteliers’ association said the troubles of the surrounding region had boosted numbers in the biblical Holy Land, and bookings were up on last year.
Tourism is a major source of revenue for the Palestinian economy – and provides livelihoods for about 5,000 families in Bethlehem, which has some 5,000 rooms in 46 hotels.
“Hopefully all will go well, and there’s full occupancy in all Bethlehem hotels on the 23rd, 24th and 25th of December,” Arja said.
Israeli-Palestinian violence has driven tourists away in the past, especially during the 2000-2005 Palestinian uprising when Bethlehem was a particularly lonely place.
While the security situation is more relaxed now, Israeli roadblocks and a six-metre (20-foot) Israeli-built concrete separation barrier snaking through the landscape are still part of the Bethlehem vista.
Palestinian Tourism Minister Rula Ma’ayah said 2.3 million tourists have visited the Palestinian territories this year, slightly more than last.
The main attractions in Bethlehem are the 4th-century Church of the Nativity, built over a grotto where Christian tradition says Jesus was born, and the Christmas tree in Manger Square, where choirs sing carols during the holiday.
The church, on UNESCO’s list of endangered World Heritage sites, is currently undergoing its first comprehensive renovation since it was completed 1,700 years ago.
On Christmas Eve, the acting Latin patriarch of Jerusalem will lead an annual procession to Bethlehem and then celebrate Midnight Mass in the church.
Many of the pilgrims’ Holy Land itineraries include nearby Jerusalem and Jesus’s boyhood town of Nazareth in the Galilee, now the largest Arab city in Israel.
Checking into her hotel, Evana, a tourist from Poland, summed it up: “Very nice place, very historical – and we came to see everything: Jerusalem, Nazareth, Bethlehem.”
ChristmasLifestyle
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Sep 29, 2017 News Hour Correspondent -
Indonesians celebrate the dead in ancient ritual
Yosefina Tumanan, a resident of the remote Toraja region of Indonesia’s island of Sulawesi, was thrilled to see her sister-in-law.
“You look so beautiful!” Tumanan told the skeletal remains of her relative who has been dead for six years.
The scene is part of an ancient Torajan ritual known as “Ma‘nene”, in which clans visit the tombs of deceased family members, clean their remains and replenish the coffins with personal belongings.
“Even though she’s not here physically, we still have a connection,” Tumanan told Reuters as several families gathered at Loko‘mata, a massive boulder in a misty, rice-terraced valley that houses the remains of dozens of people.
“It’s a chance for the whole family to visit and express our love,” she said, adding that the ritual was like a family reunion every few years.
The people of Tana Toraja, or “the land of Toraja”, are mostly Christian, but adhere to old traditions whose roots trace back to animistic beliefs.
This is common in Indonesia, a predominantly Muslim country of 250 million people that is also home to minority groups which espouse Hinduism, Buddhism, and traditional beliefs.
Unlike some other cultures, death is barely a parting for those in Toraja.
The deceased are mummified and housed in ornate, colorful coffins and spend several months or even years in their own homes before receiving a funeral and burial.
Relatives talk to the deceased, offer them food and drink, and involve them in family gatherings, as if they are still alive.
Once sufficient family members can attend and money is available to pay for sacrificial buffaloes and pigs, a funeral ceremony, known as ‘Rambu Solo’, is held, with the whole village usually invited to a feast celebrating communal ties.
Family members shed tears for their dead as the coffin is carried in a chaotic funeral procession to the burial site.
The coffins – painted in bright reds and ochres – are stuffed with clothes and personal effects and placed in narrow tombs carved into monolithic rocks that pepper the mountainous region.
The boulders can be as high as a three-storey building and each tomb can take between three to six months to carve.
Keeping the tradition alive for future generations is an important responsibility, said Renolt Patrian, a 21-year-old studying to be a mining engineer.
“When I have a job and earn money, I will not give up the tradition,” he said after visiting his great-grandmother who died last month in the family home.
IndonesianLifestyle
This article has been posted by a News Hour Correspondent. For queries, please contact through [email protected]ewshour.online
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Ones and Sixes
by Corbin Reiff
The members of Low retreated deep into rural Wisconsin with producer BJ Burton and recorded their latest album at Justin Vernon’s April Base Studios in Eau Claire. The band hasn’t sounded this lively in years; maybe not since its Sub Pop debut The Great Destroyer from a decade ago.
Featured Tracks:
"Lies" — LowVia SoundCloud
Low will always be considered the quintessential slowcore band, but their real mastery, and the secret to their decades-long vitality, lies in something more intangible than tempo. They have a preternatural mastery of arrangement and dynamics, an instinct for when and how to pick the exact right moment to lift the volume a bit, to accent a repetitive moment with this synth line or that fuzzed guitar. The steady pace and the melancholy atmospherics are important, but without their keen ear for detail, the music would simply be a haze.
Admittedly, Low’s last album The Invisible Way, produced by Wilco frontman Jeff Tweedy and released in 2013, could have benefited from a few more of those lively punctuations. But it seems as though the fallout from that experience woke the band up, and Ones and Sixes is a far more interesting record for it. To create their new one, the members retreated deep into rural Wisconsin with producer BJ Burton and recorded at Justin Vernon’s April Base Studios in Eau Claire. It’s hard to tell what might have triggered it, but the band hasn’t sounded this lively in years; maybe not since its Sub Pop debut The Great Destroyer from a decade ago.
The opening track "Gentle" is a discomfiting funeral dirge that sets an unnerving mood early on. The instrumentation combines static-y bits of industrial percussion with rich, elegant keyboard accents, as Mimi Parker’s near-falsetto flutters in and out, sometimes multi-tracked and sometimes padded out with as much reverb as can conceivably be applied. The song's verses feel like free-associative jumbles of words like, "gentle, battle, torture, stable and silence", underscoring the song's fitful, uneasy energy.
That mood settles into the album, which otherwise doesn't offer dramatic shifts. Airy, luscious backing vocals and sparse, gritty instrumentation remain the mainstay of Low’s sound, and they are used to wondrous effect on the nearly 10-minute long penultimate track "Landslide". But there’s a real immediacy and liveliness to Alan Sparhawk's vocals and playing there that’s been missing from the group’s more recent records. His singing is so full and present on songs like "Spanish Translation" and "Lies" that it feels like a renewed bid for your undivided attention. And as much as they are able to make a conventional "pop" song then "No End" is it. For all intents and purposes it’s a pretty standard, under three-minute, get-in and get-out love song, and based on the words alone, a very treacly one at that: "I couldn’t wait to come back through/ To you." Not exactly a left-turn, but a welcome, additional flavor.
Most bands don’t have either the stamina or the creative drive to make it up to and past the 20-year mark. The ones that do rarely find new things to say. As its enters its third decade making music, Low has reached a comfortable but engaging stride creating music that consistently seems to be at odds with itself. Ones and Sixes is all at once beautiful, ugly, tense, warm, inviting and repellent. It’s an emotional and sonic juggling act where even the slightest bum-note would draw attention to itself. As always with Low, the beauty is all about the details.
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Together Nothing is Impossible
Proceeds benefit American Cancer Society
Based on 30 medals, each worth $187.56
39 pledgers
Help Team USATF & the American Cancer Society fight cancer!
EVERY TEAM USATF MEDAL IS ONE STEP CLOSER TO THE END OF CANCER
USA Track & Field is heading to the IAAF World Championships this August to continue our reign as the World’s #1 Track & Field Team. But we’ll be competing for much more than medals in London. We’re competing to show the world that Together: Nothing is Impossible!
Together with the American Cancer Society, Team USATF is proud to join in the fight against cancer. But we need YOU to join our team. Pledge for every gold, silver and bronze medal won by Team USATF in London to help us beat the ultimate opponent - cancer.
Help us get the word out on social media using #NOTHINGISIMPOSSIBLE and share your support of Team USATF and the American Cancer Society in the fight against cancer.
PLEDGE TO EARN EXCLUSIVE SWAG!*
By making a Diamond or Gold tier pledge, you will earn an exclusive Together: Nothing Is Impossible tech tee!
*Pledge per medal at Diamond or Gold tier or make a $100+ flat donation to qualify for the tech tee. Donors qualifying for the shirt will be emailed an order following the completion of the campaign. For inquires, please contact Kathleen.Horgan@cancer.org.
Thank you to everyone who supports this campaign, whether you pledge per medal, give a flat donation or spread the word on social media. Team USATF cannot be the World’s #1 Team without the World’s #1 fans. Together, with the American Cancer Society, we can prove that nothing is impossible!
*Your donation is a tax-deductible contribution to the American Cancer Society. 25% of net proceeds will then be donated to Team USATF athlete development programs.
8/4 IAAF World Championships 30 $5,627
The American Cancer Society’s vision is a world free from the pain and suffering of cancer. Our purpose is to achieve it.
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Archaeology for All
Platform Transform
Cluster edYOUcate
From Apri 2019, the Regional Archaeological Museum - Plovdiv, launches its free tours titled "Archaeology for all".
The guided tours are a journey through history, culture, archeology of Plovdiv and the Plovdiv region; a story about the treasures that are stored in the museum's funds and archives; about the little-known or unknown artefacts from our past and an accessible guide in the past of our town and the museum as one of the bearers and guardians of our cultural and historical heritage and memory.
Tours will take place every Saturday from 10:30. After purchasing a regular ticket, everyone will be able to join the guides and hear their narrative about little known artefacts from the Museum's exposition. Working language is Bulgarian, the tour is appropriate for every audience and it will last approximately half an hour. Subscription and additional information by phone +35932 62 43 39. Number of participants is limited.
April programme:
06.04. – The Treasures’ Secrets
13.04. – The History of Plovdiv in 5 Objects from the Museum
20.04. – Religious Beliefs in Ancient Philippopolis
27.04. – Everyday Life in the Past
May programme:
18.05. – The Prehistoric Past of Plovdiv
June programme:
1.06. – Children ask! - Meeting and Talk for Children
8.06 – Water Supply to Philippopolis
15.06 – The Panagyurishte Treasure - Truths and Myths
22.06 – The Prehistoric Past of Plovdiv
29.06 – The Advent of Christianity in Philippopolis
July programme:
06.07.2019 г. – The most extensive archaeological excavations in Plovdiv
13.07.2019 г. – The incredible story of the Valchitran treasure
20.07.2019 г. – Plovdiv during the Hellenistic period
27.07.2019 г. – The role of the woman in Thracian society
August programme:
03.08.2019 – The prehistoric past of Plovdiv
10.08.2019 – Religious beliefs in Ancient Philippopolis
17.08.2019 – Excavations in urban environment. How it works?
24.08.2019 – Myths and legends in the museum
31.08.2019 – Roman road system in the Upper Thracian Plain
The Regional Archaeological Museum in Plovdiv, Bulgaria (RAM – Plovdiv) is one of the first Bulgarian cultural institutions, officially opened in 1882. It gradually earned the status of Archaeological Museum during the 1920s.
The Museum boasts one of the richest collections of over 100.000 exhibits of artefacts related to the history of Plovdiv and its region. Plovdiv is the heir to one of the biggest and most famous ancient towns in the Balkan Penninsula - Philippopolis.
The project is implemented by the Regional Archaeological Museum in Plovdiv and it is associated with the programme of Plovdiv 2019.
Archaeology for All: Everyday Life in the Past (27 April 2019)
When 27.04.2019 from 10:30
Where Plovdiv Regional Archaeological Museum
Programme Transform
Archaeology for All: Religious Beliefs in Ancient Philippopolis (20 April 2019)
Archaeology for All: The History of Plovdiv in 5 objects (13 April 2019)
Archaeology for all: The treasures’ secrets (6 April 2019)
Archaeology for All (4 May 2019)
Archaeology for All (11 May 2019)
Archaeology for All (1 June 2019)
Archaeology for All (15 June 2019)
Archaeology for All (6 July 2019)
Archaeology for All (13 July 2019)
Archaeology for All (3 August 2019)
Archaeology for All (10 August 2019)
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dfo28q713 sec ago
SevTech Crash27 sec ago
The Northwest Front: ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Table of Contents: 0) About the Northwest Front 1) Northwest Front Related Website Links 2) Radio Free Northwest Recommended Listening List 3) Northwest Front Handbook 4) Northwest Homeland Book Series 5) Harold Covington's Recommended Reading List 6) Northwest Front YouTube Videos ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 0) About the Northwest Front: The Northwest Front is a political organization of Aryan men and women in the United States and Canada, of all ages and social backgrounds, who recognize that an independent and sovereign White nation in the Pacific Northwest is the only possibility for the survival of the White race on this continent. Get Involved http://northwestfront.org/contact/get-involved/ Northwest Front EMail Address nwnet@earthlink.net Northwest Front Mailing Address P.O. Box 2188 Bremerton, Washington 98310-2188 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1) Northwest Front Related Website Links: Northwest Front Website http://northwestfront.org/ Radio Free Northwest http://northwestfront.org/media/radio-free-northwest/ Donate to the Northwest Front Privately and Securely via Hatreon https://hatreon.net/npa/ Northwest Front Forum http://northwestfront.net/forums/index.php Northwest Front on Twitter https://twitter.com/nwfront Northwest Front on YouTube https://youtube.com/user/NorthwestFreedom Harold Covington on Gab https://gab.ai/hac1488 Harold Covington on Twitter https://twitter.com/hacnorthwest Harold Covington's Blog https://downwithjugears.blogspot.com/ Northwest Homeland Audiobook Series https://theendofzion.com/harold-covington/ Radio Free Northwest: Recommended Listening List http://downwithjugears.blogspot.com/2015/08/revised-rfn-recommended-listening-list.html http://archive.is/XYZCH Harold Covington's Recommended Reading List https://archive.org/details/HaroldCovingtonsRecommendedReadingList Northwest Homeland Book Series: Recommended Reading Order http://downwithjugears.blogspot.com/2017/02/what-order-should-northwest-novels-be.html http://archive.is/EDdyV All website links in this section are active as of: January 4, 2018 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2) Radio Free Northwest Recommended Listening List: To everyone getting this: If you haven't listened to these, I demand you download them and do so. Most of the Northwest Front's core concepts are contained in here, and also included are some shortcasts for entertainment value. If you have a monotonous job where you can use a .mp3 player and headphones, these make for fantastic listening. Mr. Covington often speaks of spaced repetition. I doubt he will complain if you take the initiative and do it yourself. The end of the year all music podcasts are especially good for expanding your musical knowledge into the wide universe of the White Man's music. This list will also make a handy cheat sheet for pointing your own new contacts in the proper direction. -Marcus in Idaho A Short Introduction to the Northwest Front This is a short audio introduction to the Northwest Front meant to be sent out to people who contact us as part of their introductory packet. Essentially a brief intro to the Northwest Front along with content from Harold Covington speaks to Conservatives and Why I Say Nigger. http://northwestfront.org/2014/02/a-short-introduction-to-the-northwest-front/ A Short Five Minute Intro to the Northwest Front A distilled version of the into. Five minutes and to the point. Useful for spreading the message to the uninitiated and those who are attention-span challenged. http://northwestfront.org/audio/intro-to-the-NF.mp3 The FAQ Episode This special two hour Radio Free Northwest is a FAQ broadcast, wherein Mr. Covington answers a number of standard questions that come up all the time such as does the Northwest Front advocate violence? Does the Northwest Front preach "hate?" What about small White enclaves instead of a whole new country? Why can't we take back all of America? Are today's White youth really completely useless? and many others... http://northwestfront.org/2010/09/radio-free-northwest-september-23rd-2010/ Why Racism is Right A no-brainer for anyone racially conscious, but never hurts to reinforce our ideals. Can also be used to help convert muggles that have conflicting feelings about their own racism. http://northwestfront.org/audio/why-racism-is-right.mp3 Conservatives and the Northwest Front Mr. Covington on what makes us different from Conservatives. http://northwestfront.org/2013/06/conservatives-and-the-northwest-front/ Why I Say "Nigger" Mr. Covington on his use of forbidden language. http://northwestfront.org/2013/07/why-i-say-nigger/ The Northwest Front and Class A shortcast by Mr. Covington on the subject of class divisions within the White Nationalist movement. http://northwestfront.org/2014/04/the-northwest-front-and-class/ Grow Stronger! Mr. Covington speaks frankly and to the point, to the existing racially conscious community, on the subject of White Character. http://northwestfront.org/2013/06/grow-stronger/ Shortstopping and "Standing and Fighting" Another shortcast from Mr. Covington on people who won't migrate and people who won't migrate all the way. http://northwestfront.org/2013/06/shortstopping-and-standing-and-fighting/ The Propaganda of the Deed Mr. Covington on throwing your life away, and why it's a bad idea. http://northwestfront.org/audio/fireside-stack021810.mp3 The Charleston Vespers Mr. Covington speaks about the events in Charleston, and why you DO NOT DO THESE KIND OF THINGS. Includes poetry by the Old Man. http://northwestfront.org/2015/06/radio-free-northwest-june-25th-2015/ Contra Mundum Who are the authors of the liberal-left agenda, and what is their purpose? http://northwestfront.org/2013/08/hac-contra-mundum/ American Immigration for White Nationalists Mr. Covington talks to White Nationalists outside of the U.S. about the difficulty of immigration. http://northwestfront.org/2012/03/american-immigration-for-white-nationalists/ White Character Mr. Covington's canned answer on goat dancers, space madness, and GUBU (Grotesque, Unbelievable, Bizarre and Unprecedented). Basically the bad parts of White Character. http://northwestfront.org/2013/02/radio-free-northwest-february-21st-2013/ The Revolution Starts Now The Old Man's Speech from A Distant Thunder. http://northwestfront.org/2013/08/the-revolution-starts-now/ Let's Talk a Little Treason Mr. Covington reads one of his "famous" short articles. http://northwestfront.org/2013/08/lets-talk-a-little-treason-2/ Dreaming the Iron Dream Mr. Covington reads one of his most well known articles, Dreaming The Iron Dream. http://northwestfront.org/2010/10/dreaming-the-iron-dream/ HAC Reads Freedom's Sons Prologue Mr. Covington reads the Prologue to Freedom's Sons, demonstrating his talent as a voice actor, and makes us all wish he would personally make the Northwest Quintet into audiobooks. http://northwestfront.org/2013/05/hac-reads-freedoms-sons-prologue/ Songs of the Northwest At the end of the year, HAC has a special all-music podcast featuring some his favorite tunes, along with other songs popular with the audience. Averages about two hours in length. 2010: http://northwestfront.org/2010/12/radio-free-northwest-december-30th-2010/ 2011: http://northwestfront.org/2011/12/radio-free-northwest-december-29th-2011/ 2012: http://northwestfront.org/2012/12/radio-free-northwest-december-27th-2012/ 2013: http://northwestfront.org/2014/01/radio-free-northwest-december-31st-2013/ 2014: http://northwestfront.org/2014/12/radio-free-northwest-december-25th-2014/ 2015: http://northwestfront.org/2015/12/radio-free-northwest-december-31st-2015/ 2016: http://northwestfront.org/2016/12/radio-free-northwest-december-29th-2016/ 2017: http://northwestfront.org/2017/12/radio-free-northwest-december-28th-2017/ All website links in this section are active as of: January 4, 2018 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 3) Northwest Front Handbook Introduction to the Northwest Front Handbook http://northwestfront.org/audio/whitebookinto.wma The Northwest Front Handbook http://thechristianidentityforum.net/downloads/Northwest-Handbook.pdf Note: The copy of the Northwest Front Handbook provided in this section is an old version. It is the only version the compiler of this document has been able to find online. You may obtain an up to date version of the Northwest Front Handbook by contacting the Northwest Front itself. All website links in this section are active as of: January 4, 2018 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4) Northwest Homeland Book Series: "These novels are not meant to be mere entertainment. They are meant to be self-fulfilling prophecies. The author wishes to inspire the creation of a real Northwest American Republic, and his novels are filled with a great deal of sound practical advice about how to do it." The Hill of the Ravens by H.A. Covington It is morning in America, many years in the future. As the 22nd century approaches, the United States and Canada have been shattered by war and upheaval and have broken up into separate ethnic, racial, and political enclaves. On the East Coast a crumbling, bankrupt and tottering United States government still holds a weak and impotent sway over a ragged collection of tattered states and cities, but life is chaotic and plagued with poverty, violence, and desperation. The entire Southwest, beginning with Texas and extending westward to southern California and north as far as Utah, has become the Spanish-speaking Mexican state of Aztlan. And in the Pacific Northwest, from northern California on up to Alaska, a brutal fascist and white supremacist dictatorship rules the Northwest American Republic. Colonel Donald Redmond of the Bureau of State Security (BOSS) is one of the Northwest Republic's most ruthless and skillful political policemen. Then on a bright October morning he is called into the office of the State President, where he is given a top-secret assignment. A skeleton from the bloody and treacherous days of the revolution against America is about to emerge from the closet, and one of the most carefully guarded and suppressed mysteries of that revolution may become public knowledge. That long hidden truth may undermine the very moral and political foundations of the white supremacist state. A woman's life hangs in the balance, but possibly even the fate a of a continent as well, as Donald Redmond and his partner Sergeant Nel plunge into the past and seek for the answer: who betrayed the Olympic Flying Column, and why? https://archive.org/details/HillOfTheRavens-haroldCovington A Distant Thunder by H.A. Covington Shane Ryan is a wrong guy. Wrong race. Wrong gender. Wrong class. Wrong side of the tracks. Wrong attitude. America in the near future is a cold, cruel place, especially in the hardscrabble rural Pacific Northwest. There’s war in the Middle East, a revived draft, mass unemployment, an economy permanently on the skids, greed and corruption, incompetence and stupidity at the top. Poor blue-collar kids from the trailer park are last in line for everything. America has screwed Shane Ryan, and he returns the favor. He joins the Northwest Volunteer Army, a terrorist organization dedicated to overthrowing the United States government and establishing an independent nation. America is about to learn the hard way that what goes around, comes around. https://archive.org/details/ADistantThunder_201704 A Mighty Fortress by H.A. Covington In a not-too-distant future, the United States is on the verge of collapse. America is hopelessly bogged down in a war against the Islamic world in a dozen countries that seems to have no end, while at the same time the nation is torn by years of bloody domestic terrorism on the part of white militias in the Pacific Northwest, and Hispanic separatists in the Southwest. The economy, the government, and the legal system are falling apart. America is going broke and on the verge of meltdown, as well as facing a major Arab offensive in the Middle East. Finally, the Federal government has no choice but to submit to negotiations with the terrorists, and a peace conference is called at Longview, Washington. Cody Brock is a tough Seattle street kid, a runaway who joined the Northwest Volunteer Army at sixteen. By day he attends Hillside High School, where he falls in love with the cheerleader, homecoming queen, and budding actress, Kelly Shipman. By night he rides with the most deadly of all the terrorist hit squads, the murderous crew of the gangster-like Robert "Bobby Bells" DiBella, along with his girl comrade Nightshade. The two of them are selected to accompany the rebel delegation to Longview, where suddenly Cody is compelled to confront a ghost from his past. His Jewish past... https://archive.org/details/AMightyFortress The Brigade by H.A. Covington The poet William Butler Yeats wrote "Things fall apart; the center cannot hold." America in the decades of the 21st century has become a living hell. There is massive unemployment, uncontrolled immigration, along with overseas war and occupation without end of any land with crude petroleum. Total corruption in a politically correct police state, the legalized murder of the elderly, and the loss of the social safety net have created intolerable desolation and made life for everyday people a nightmare. Finally, Americans can take no more, and in the Pacific Northwest they revolt. Led by embittered Iraq veterans, ex-convicts, teenagers, and blue-collar family men and women driven to desperation, in Portland and along Oregon’s northern coast, they join The Brigade. https://archive.org/details/TheBrigade Freedom's Sons by H.A. Covington Chronicles the first fifty years of the Northwest American Republic's existence as a country and a new society, including the struggle against crushing economic sanctions imposed by the outside world, as well as an attempt by the enraged Americans to reconquer the Northwest with a military invasion. The novel follows the fortune of three families, one of former rebel guerrilla fighters from the Northwest Volunteer Army, one Unionist, and one refugee family who flees to the Republic from the collapsing U.S.A. Freedom's Sons is a story of redemption and the triumph of the human spirit over the darkness now engulfing the world. http://www.thechristianidentityforum.net/downloads/Freedoms-Sons.pdf Harold Covington's Recommended Reading Order for the Northwest Homeland Book Series: First: The Brigade Second: A Distant Thunder Third: A Mighty Fortress Fourth: Freedom's Sons Fifth: The Hill of the Ravens If you wish to purchase physical copies of the Northwest Homeland Book Series: The Hill of the Ravens https://amazon.com/Hill-Ravens-H-Covington/dp/1410765601/ A Distant Thunder https://amazon.com/Distant-Thunder-H-Covington/dp/1418480983/ A Mighty Fortress https://amazon.com/Mighty-Fortress-Harold-Covington/dp/1420859005/ The Brigade https://amazon.com/Brigade-H-Covington/dp/1436328020/ Freedom's Sons https://amazon.com/Freedoms-Sons-H-Covington/dp/149181120X/ All website links in this section are active as of: January 4, 2018 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 5) Harold Covington's Recommended Reading List: The following works have been selected because each of them has something of value to offer the Aryan reader by way of information, ideas, or instruction. This does not mean that we agree with every single word in them, or that you will. Most are written by our own people, but some are outright anti-White in content, while others contain leftist propaganda or perpetuate liberal stereotypes. Learning to read such enemy literature between the lines, to garner the truth and wisdom while scorning the lies and the malice, is in itself a skill which racial nationalists should cultivate and master. Most of these works are available in bookstores and public libraries, although many are out of print, and you may have to hunt a bit or get them on inter-library loan. To assist you in obtaining those which are not readily available, we append a list of racial nationalist booksellers at the end of these recommendations. A final word: inevitably, we will have left out someone's favorite book or author. This will largely be due to the fact that I have not myself read some of the works in question, and I hesitate to recommend a work that I am not personally familiar with, so please don't take it amiss if your favorites are not on the list. No derogation is intended. The corpus of Aryan racialist literature in the English language is far more extensive than the few titles listed here, and in future we hope to publish an even more extensive list when resources permit. Remember: cliché though it may be, it is a truth that those who will not read have no advantage over those who cannot read. So turn off that damned tube and get down to the library! Aryan Fiction A Candidate for the Order by Michael Hoffman II - Ripping good read. Get it. A Distant Thunder by H. A. Covington https://archive.org/details/ADistantThunder_201704 A Mighty Fortress by H.A. Covington https://archive.org/details/AMightyFortress Bard by Morgan Llewellyn - Fictional history of Bronze Age Ireland. Brave New World by Aldous Huxley - Futuristic novel of PC gone berserk. https://archive.org/details/BraveNewWorldAldousHuxley_201312 Darkness at Noon by Arthur Koestler - A novel of Stalin's bloody purges. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99646 Fire and Rain by H.A. Covington Imperial Governor by George Shipway - Ripping good tale of Roman Britain. Knight in Anarchy by George Shipway - Medieval swashbuckler. Very good. Red Branch by Morgan Llewellyn - The story of Cuchulain of Ulster. Mystical. Sir Nigel by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - Another superb medieval swashbuckler. https://archive.org/details/sirnigel01doylgoog Slow Coming Dark by H. A. Covington Starkadder by Leonard Pauling - Nordic mysticism at its most weird and bloody. The Camp of the Saints by Jean Raspail - Prophetic tale of mass mud immigration. https://archive.org/details/CampOfTheSaints_201510 The Brigade by H. A. Covington https://archive.org/details/TheBrigade The Dark Angel by Mika Waltari - Medieval historical. Depressing but good. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.148197 The Hill of the Ravens by H.A. Covington https://archive.org/details/HillOfTheRavens-haroldCovington The Iron Heel by Jack London - "Third Position" cult novel. Dated but good. https://archive.org/details/ironheel00meregoog The Kings in Winter by Celia Holland - Medieval Ireland novel. The Paladin and The Wolf Time by George Shipway - Superb medieval series. The Scottish Chiefs by Jane Porter - Good Braveheart-style swashbuckling. https://archive.org/details/scottishchiefs00portgoog The Viking by Edison Marshall - The ultimate Viking novel! Five stars!***** The White Company by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - Sequel to Sir Nigel. https://archive.org/details/whitecompanypict00doylrich Warrior in Bronze and King in Splendour by George Shipway - Trojan War. A-1. Freedom's Sons by H.A. Covington http://www.thechristianidentityforum.net/downloads/Freedoms-Sons.pdf Aryan History A Distant Mirror by Barbara Tuchman - A social history of fourteenth century France. Anabasis (The March Up Country) by Xenophon - Epic of ancient Greek courage. https://archive.org/details/xenophonanabasi00xenogoog Beowulf - Ancient Saxon epic poem, full of blood and guts. Great stuff! https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.185634 Fifteen Decisive Battles of History by Edward Creasey - Military history. https://archive.org/details/15decisivebattle00crea Our Nordic Race by Richard Kelly Hoskins - A good basic introduction. http://www.balderexlibris.com/index.php?post/Hoskins-Richard-Kelly-Our-Nordic-Race Poetic Edda - Norse epic poem. https://archive.org/details/PoeticEddaBellows The Conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar - Roman method versus Celtic courage. http://stcharlesprep.org/01_parents/oneil_j/Useful%20Links/AP%20Latin%20Assignments/HW/The%20Gallic%20Wars.pdf The Conquest of Mexico by Thomas Prescott - Five-Hundred White men gain an empire. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.36311 https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.36322 The Diary of Benvenuto Cellini - The ultimate Renaissance man. Witty and fun. https://archive.org/details/autobiographyofb00cell The Guns of August by Barbara Tuchman - How Western civilization perished. https://archive.org/details/gunsofaugust00tuch_gaq The Proud Tower by Barbara Tuchman - Europe at its height before World War One. https://archive.org/details/TheProudTower The Spanish Civil War by Hugh Thomas - The good guys win one, for a change. The Story of English (MacNeil/Lehrer) - The book from the PBS television series. Marxist Socialism Animal Farm by George Orwell - Classic allegory about Communist society. https://archive.org/details/Wa7a-el3rob-bahaaTaher Behind Communism by Frank L. Britton - THE basic introduction to the subject. https://archive.org/details/BehindCommunism_201502 Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Frederich Engels. https://archive.org/details/TheCommunistManifesto_201502 Cuba by Jacobo Timerman - Even this lefty Jew can't say much good about Fidel. Destructive Generation by Collier and Horowitz - Bad-mouths the 1960's. A-1. Down and Out in Paris and London by George Orwell - Early Communist polemic. https://archive.org/details/DownAndOutInParisAndLondon-English-GeorgeOrwell Harvest of Sorrow by Robert Conquest - The Ukraine famine which killed millions. https://archive.org/details/harvestofsorrows00conq_0 Out of the Night by Jan Valtin - Story of a Communist agent in 1930's Germany. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.168200 The Great Terror by Robert Conquest - Mass murder in 1930's Russia. The God That Failed - Various authors, all ex-Communists. To the point. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.59237 The Red Decade by Eugene Lyons - First rate! Now almost impossible to find. https://archive.org/details/RedDecade_EugeneLyons The Road to Wigan Pier by George Orwell - The beginning of his disillusionment. https://archive.org/details/TheRoadToWiganPier-English-GeorgeOrwell The Troubles by Joseph Conlon - Another readable, jaundiced look at the 1960's. Witness by Whittaker Chambers - The best written work on American Communism. The Jewish Question God, Jews and History by Max Dimont - Arrogant, boastful, paranoid Yiddishkeit. http://nemzeti.net/contents/library/dimont_P.pdf Anti-Zion compiled by William Grimstad - Hard to obtain but good. https://web.archive.org/web/20111008003632/http://holocaust.nu/media/10148/antizion.pdf Did Six Million Really Die? by Richard Harwood - Good intro to Revisionism. https://archive.org/details/HarwoodRichardDidSixMillionReallyDieEN200541S.Text Tales of the Holohoax by Michael Hoffman and A. Wyatt Mann - Ve haff vays of makink you laff! https://archive.org/details/AJournalOfSatireTalesOfTheHolohoaxEN14P.Scan Jews Must Live by Samuel Roth - Gives away a lot of their trade secrets. https://archive.org/details/JewsMustLive The Hoax of the Twentieth Century by Dr. Arthur Butz - Revisionist classic. http://holocausthandbooks.com/dl/07-thottc.pdf The International Jew by Henry Ford - This one still gets the hebes gibbering. https://archive.org/details/TheInternationalJewByHenryFord1920 The Jewish State by Theodor Herzl - The foundation of Zionist thought. https://archive.org/details/ajewishstateana00aviggoog The Leuchter Report by Fred Leuchter http://holocausthandbooks.com/dl/16-tlr.pdf The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion - Zionist planning document. https://archive.org/details/TheProtocolsOfTheLearnedEldersOfZion_201510 The Revolt by Menachem Begin - How the Jews seized Palestine by violence. The Zionist Connection by Alfred Lilienthal - How Zionism works in practice. National Socialism For My Legionaries by Corneliu Codreanu - Leader of Romanian Iron Guard. https://archive.org/details/AWordForMyLegionaries-1938SpeechByCorneliuCodreanu George Lincoln Rockwell: A National Socialist Life by William L. Pierce. http://archive.is/t6ijs Hitler: Memoirs of a Confidant by Gen Otto Wegener - Good read. Hitler: The Path to Power by Charles Bracelen Flood - Surprisingly unbiased. In Hoc Signo Vinces by George Lincoln Rockwell - Superb short introduction. http://archive.is/4VCs Mein Kampf by Adolf Hitler - The foundation of Aryan racial renewal. Essential. https://archive.org/details/MeinKampfByAdolfHitler My Part in Germany's Fight by Dr. Joseph Goebbels - Early Kampfzeit diaries. https://archive.org/details/MyPartInGermanysFightPaulJosephGoebbels Other Losses by James Bacque - The murder of German POWS by Allies in World War II. https://archive.org/details/OtherLosses_201608 The Destruction of Dresden by David Irving - The real Holocaust, circa 1945. https://archive.org/details/Apocalypse1945TheDestructionOfDresden_201505 The Lightning and the Sun by Savitri Devi - Essential work of National Socialist thought. https://archive.org/details/TheLightningAndTheSun_201307 The Order of the Death's Head by Heinz Hohne - The story of the SS. The Young Hitler I Knew by August Kubizek - The Fuhrer's boyhood friend. https://archive.org/details/TheYoungHitlerIKnewAugustKubizek1953 This Time the World by George Lincoln Rockwell https://archive.org/details/ThisTimeTheWorld White Power by George Lincoln Rockwell - The book for American National Socialist. https://archive.org/details/WhitePower_189 Political Science and Statecraft Citizens by Simon Schama - The story of the French Revolution. https://archive.org/details/citizenschronic00scha Reflections on the French Revolution by Edmund Burke - Fundamental work. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.23940 Stalin in Power by Robert Tucker - The monstrous modern master in action. The Peter Principle by Lawrence Peter - Why things don't work in society. The Prince by Niccolo Machiavelli - The basic textbook on the subject. https://archive.org/details/MachiavelliNiccoloThePrinceEN1513239P. The Shadows of Power by James Perloff - Good, basic introduction to the Council on Foreign Relations/The Trilateral Commission. https://archive.org/details/ShadowOfPowerTheCouncilOnForeignRelationsAndTheAmericanDecline War Cycles, Peace Cycles by Richard K. Hoskins - Politics, economics, and race. Racial Theory and Philosophy America's Decline by Dr. Revilo Oliver - The greatest post-war Aryan polemicist. https://archive.org/details/AmericasDecline1983V2 Conspiracy or Degeneracy? by Dr. Revilo Oliver - His famous 1966 speech. https://archive.org/details/DrReviloP.OliverConspiracyOrDegeneracy Imperium by Francis Parker Yockey - An essential cornerstone of our cause. https://archive.org/details/FrancisParkerYockeyImperium Paved With Good Intentions by Jared Taylor - Affirmative action analysis. https://archive.org/details/Paved-With-Good-Intentions-Jared-Taylor Race, Evolution, and Behavior by Dr. J. Phillippe Rushton - Recent work. https://archive.org/details/RaceEvolutionAndBehaviorALifeHistoryPerspective2ndSpecialAbridgedEditionJ.PhilippeRushton Race and Reason by Carleton Putnam - Academic but definitive and convincing. https://archive.org/details/RaceAndReason Race and Reality by Carleton Putnam - Sequel to above work, equally good. https://archive.org/details/RaceAndReality Republic by Plato - Often called the earliest surviving work of Fascist theory. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.148798 The Biology of the Race Problem by Wesley George - Comes well recommended. https://archive.org/details/TheBiologyOfTheRaceProblem1962 The Decline of the West by Oswald Spengler - Heavily influenced the Fuhrer. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.49906 The Dispossessed Majority by Wilmot Robertson - Excellent intro to race issue. https://archive.org/details/DispossessedMajorityWilmotRobertson The Ethnostate by Wilmot Robertson - The author's latest update to the above. https://archive.org/details/TheEthnostate The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century by Houston Stewart Chamberlain https://archive.org/details/FoundationsOfThe19thCentury The Myth of the Twentieth Century by Alfred Rosenberg - From Noontide Press. https://archive.org/details/MemoirsOfAlfredRosenberg The Seven Pillars of Wisdom by T.E. Lawrence - Part history, part philosophy. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.155717 Which Way Western Man? by William Gayley Simpson - Profound and powerful. https://archive.org/details/WhichWayWesternMan_316 Revolution, The Art and Science Dreaming the Iron Dream by H. A. Covington http://www.balderexlibris.com/index.php?post/Covington-Harold-Armstead-Dreaming-the-iron-dream Guerrilla Warfare by Che Guevara - Valuable manual for advanced study. https://archive.org/details/On_Guerrilla_Warfare_Che_Guevara Hunter by William L. Pierce - How to manual disguised as fiction. http://www.balderexlibris.com/index.php?post/2012/03/02/Pierce-William-Luther-Hunter 150 Questions for a Guerrilla by Gen. Alberto Bayo - Castro's guerrilla trainer. Soldier for the Arabs by Sir John Glubb - "Glubb Pasha" beat Zionists in 1948. The Anarchist's Cookbook - Blow up a bridge and then blow your mind. The I.R.A. by Tim Pat Coogan – The basic Establishment text. The Irish War of Independence by Michael Hopkinson - How it was done in the Old Sod 1916-1922. The March Up Country by H. A. Covington https://archive.org/details/TheMarchUpCountry The Poor Man's James Bond by Kurt Saxon - A little more practical than most. The True Believer by Eric Hoffer - Revolutionary psychology handbook. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.167977 The Turner Diaries by William L. Pierce - How-to manual disguised as fiction. The Voices of Guns by Vin McLellan and Paul Avery - The story of the so-called "Symbionese Liberation Army", a cautionary tale we all need to read on how not to do this. Southern Nationalism A Fools's Errand by Albion Tourgee - A carpetbagger's butt is kicked by the Klan. https://archive.org/details/afb2013.0001.001.umich.edu Against the Barbarians by M. E. Bradford - Southern nationalist essays. Collected Speeches and Letters of John C. Calhoun - The Father of the South I'll Take My Stand - Southern agrarian authors speak out on their Folk. The Clansman by Thomas Dixon - The book on which "Birth of a Nation" was based. https://archive.org/details/theclansmananhis26240gut The Case for the South by W. J. Workman - 1960 Nationalist work. A-1. https://archive.org/details/caseforsouth00work The Diaries of Mary Chestnut Boykin - What the Old South was really like. The Impending Crisis in the South by Hinton Rowan Helper – 1856 warning cry. https://archive.org/details/impendingcrisis00helpme The Tragic Era by Claude Bowers - The best book ever written on Reconstruction. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.2473 Tombee - The diary of an antebellum planter in South Carolina. HAC's Personal Picks 1984 by George Orwell - If writers may be gifted with prophecy, Orwell had it. This book is absolutely essential to understanding the world we live in today---the abuse of language in the name of "political correctness", the attempt to criminalize thought, the demand of complete, lockstep conformity with Big Brother. Read! https://archive.org/details/1984GeorgeOrwell_201606 A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess - The sparkling quasi-Russian slang alone makes this a joy to read, but beyond that we are once again confronted with an establishment attempt to penalize difference and enforce conformity, in this case through the use of biochemical behavior modification. The character of Alex is a shining monument to that irrepressible spirit of human depravity which can never be vanquished, his ultimate fate a triumph of man's unconquerable will to destroy. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.182027 The Complete Sherlock Holmes Stories by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - Not only enjoyable as detective stories, but for the glimpse they offer into the late Victorian era which I personally believe to have been Aryan man's pinnacle of achievement. https://archive.org/details/CompleteSherlockHolmes Selected Works of Booth Tarkington - I can hear some of you now, saying "huh?" But I read Tarkington for relaxation, schmaltzy stuff like the Penrod series and Seventeen. I enjoy it because for a very brief time, I can return to a sane, stable, White America of peace and order and normal human relationships not based on psycho-political power games, political correctness, "diversity", the desperate scramble for money, or deviate sexual acts. We've pretty much forgotten what such a world is like, I'm afraid. It helps to go back every now and then. Selected Works of H. P. Lovecraft - An Aryan fantaisist and a genuine mystic, in my view second only to Edgar Allan Poe. Liberal revisionists have desperately tried to "clean up" Lovecraft's open Aryan racialism in the years since his death in 1937, but it ain't gonna fly. Lovecraft was one of us, all right. https://archive.org/details/TheCompleteWorksOfHPLovecraft_201412 Selected Works of H. L. Mencken - Another one of our people's forgotten literary heroes and philosophers. Sometimes called "the Will Rogers of Fascism". Complete Works of William Shakespeare - No comment necessary, forsooth. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.202648 All website links in this section are active as of: June 11, 2017 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 6) Northwest Front YouTube Videos A Message from the Underground https://youtube.com/watch?v=lJjB7oEXjmU The Browning of America https://youtube.com/watch?v=fwW1bUviMi8 Harold Covington talks about uncontrolled Third World immigration and what we have to do about it. Conservative and the Northwest Front Harold Covington talks about the relationship between White revolutionaries and conservatism, and how conservatives can be radicalized. https://youtube.com/watch?v=0Jyhwso_o2E Is the Northwest Full of Liberals? Harold Covington takes on the myth that the Pacific Northwest is some kind of "liberal paradise." Not true at all. https://youtube.com/watch?v=WA2FiOAaUY8 Jobs in the Northwest Harold Covington talks about employment in the future Northwest Homeland. https://youtube.com/watch?v=ajc9tjPldmk Northwest Migration 101 Andy Donner goes over the Northwest migration process for those who want to live in a White Homeland of our own. https://youtube.com/watch?v=8P4v1a2MLA0 Our Planned Racial Destruction Harold Covington talks about race, the Jewish question, and the impending genocidal destruction of the White race if no steps are taken to prevent it. https://youtube.com/watch?v=1WUm1GzT9ok Our Time is Coming https://youtube.com/watch?v=mTIp4xPmU6k What is the Northwest Front? Harold Covington talks about the Northwest independence movement and the creation of a White Homeland. https://youtube.com/watch?v=jLT_T3CnUxA Why is the Northwest Front Better? Harold Covington explains why the Northwest Front offers a better hope for the White race to survive and implement the Fourteen Words than some computer bulletin board. https://youtube.com/watch?v=1KBRkzA6HV0 Why the Northwest? Harold Covington explains why we can't take back all of America and turn the clock back to the 1950s. https://youtube.com/watch?v=CpT6Su2y_kY All website links in this section are active as of: January 4, 2018 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ This Pastebin was Compiled By: Iron Falcon This Pastebin was Last Updated: January 4, 2018 This Pastebin's Website Link: https://pastebin.com/Vr6jhEW5 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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Rock On The Range Sells Out For Fourth Straight Year
Courtesy: AEG Live/Danny Wimmer Presents/Ashton-Magnuson Media
The annual Rock on the Range festival has done it again.
For the fourth consecutive year the Rock on the Range festival has officially sold out. This year’s mark is especially important for the festival as it marks the festival’s 10th anniversary. Last year 120,000 people from all across America and the world bought every last ticket to the three-day festival. This year’s festival will be another three-day event, running from May 20th – 22nd. It will take place at the MAPFRE Stadium in Columbus, Ohio. The lineup for this year’s festival includes: Red Hot Chili Peppers, Disturbed, Rob Zombie, Deftones, Shinedown, Five Finger Death Punch, Bring Me The Horizon, A Day To Remember, Megadeth, At The Drive-In, Lamb Of God, Sixx:A.M., Hellyeah, and Pennywise, as well as a number of up-and-coming acts.
Along with some of the rock and metal community’s biggest names and biggest names of their next generation, the Rock on the Range Festival will also feature some of the most well-known and respected comedians out there today. They include: Big Jay Oakerson, Nate Bargatze, Craig Gass, Bethany Dwyer, Madison Malloy and Grammy®–nominated comedian Jay Mohr in the Rock on the Range Rolling Rock Comedy Tent. There will even be a craft beer village featuring the top breweries from the region, new art installations, and activities special to the festival among so much more. ROTR co-executive producer Danny Wimmer discussed the sellout and what it says not only of the festival but of rock and metal as well in a recent interview. “Anyone who says, ‘Rock is Dead,’ hasn’t paid attention to Rock On The Range,” he said. “This festival has grown in each one of its 10 years, selling out in record time this year. Rock On The Range’s strength stands as a testament that rock fans are not only alive and well, they are flourishing.”
Whether or not audiences will be headed to the annual festival they can still get all of the latest information on the festival including performance times and more via its new mobile app. The app is free and can be downloaded via iTunes and Google Play.
Rock on the Range is produced by Danny Wimmer Presents, AEG Live, and MAPFRE Stadium. It is sponsored by Monster Energy, Jack Daniel’s, Zippo, The Music Experience, and Bud Light. More information on the Rock on the Range festival is available online along with all of its latest news at:
Website: http://www.RockOnTheRange.com
Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/rockontherange
Twitter: http://twitter.com/rockontherange
This entry was posted in Celebrities, Concerts, Internet, Music and tagged A Day to Remember, AEG live, At The Drive In, Bethany Dwyer, Big Jay Oakerson, Bring Me The Horizon, Bud Light, celebrities, Craig Gass, Danny WImmer Presents, Deftones, Disturbed, entertainment, facebook, Five Finger Death Punch, Google Play, Grammy, Grammys, Hellyeah, internet, iTunes, Jack Daniel's Zippo, Jay Mohr, Lamb of God, Madison Malloy, MAPFRE Stadium, Megadeth, Monster Energy, music, Nate Bargatze, Pennywise, Phils Picks, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Rob Zombie, Rock on The Range, Shinedown, Sixx:A.M., The Music Experience, Twitter, Wordpress by philspicks. Bookmark the permalink.
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Tag Archives: itv
‘Space: 1999 — The Complete Series’ Is A “Universal” Hit For Science Fiction Fans Everywhere
Courtesy: Shout! Factory
Shout! Factory is resurrecting the cult classic sci-fi series Space: 1999. Due out July 16 on DVD and Blu-ray, the upcoming re-issue marks the first time that the series has received a full domestic release. It was released most recently released in a full set overseas via Network in 2017. Spread across 13 discs on DVD and Blu-ray, the collection is a must have for the most devout fans of the short-lived British import. That is due in part to the set’s packaging, which will be addressed shortly. The bonus content, which is expansive to say the least, is another key addition to the collection. The companion booklet that is also featured with the set, rounds out the set’s most important elements. Each item noted here is important in its own way to the whole of Space: 1999 – The Complete Series. All things considered, they make this first-ever domestic home release of the series one that will be difficult to top for any future re-issues domestic or otherwise.
Shout! Factory’s upcoming domestic release of Space: 1999 – The Complete Series is a collection that the cult classic series’ most devoted fans will appreciate. That is due in part to the set’s packaging. The series’ 48-episode run is spread across 13 discs in two separate Blu-ray boxes. The discs are placed on either side of a series of plates inside each box. While the series’ two seasons are separated out into boxes, the packaging manner for the discs actually minimizes the bulk of each box. Even with the main bonus features being placed on their own disc inside its own third case, the set’s overall Blu-ray box size is conservative on its size because of how the discs are packaged within the cases and because Blbu-ray boxes are themselves smaller than DVD boxes.
The actual packaging of the discs is just one key item to note in examining the overall packaging of Space: 1999’s Blu-ray set. Audiences will note that on the back of each of the collection’s main two cases is an episode listing for that season. The episodes are specifically aligned with their respective discs. This might not seem overly important on the surface, but in reality it is very important. Having the episodes listed specifically on their discs saves time for viewers in deciding which disc and episode to watch. Of course, this is nothing new for Shout! Factory’s home releases, but it is still worth noting since it is another example of that continued effort by the people at Shout! Factory to give viewers the best experience possible with each of its multi-disc sets. While the episode summaries are not included inside or outside the cases, Shout! Factory’s people did not forget those, either. They will be discussed a little later. Moving on, the packaging of Space: 1999 – The Complete Series is just one part of what makes the collection stand out for the series’ fans. The bonus content featured throughout the set adds even more to the set’s presentation.
The bonus content featured in this first-ever domestic release of Space: 1999 – The Complete Series is spread across the set’s 13-discs with the main discs featuring picture galleries from each episode. The main bonus content is a series of featurettes and a mix of old and new interview segments. Star Barbara Bain’s interview features her talking about her draw to the series despite not being a science fiction fan at the time that she tried out for a role on the series, but coming to enjoy her time on the show. Bain also mentions in her interview, her interest in the show’s premise and its set. There is also an entertaining anecdote shared by Bain here, about working with Christopher Lee in one episode of Season One. She joked about his height and how the show’s creative heads wanted to make him even taller than his natural 6-foot 4-inch height. That is just the tip of the proverbial iceberg here. The discussions on the series’ concept and creation features discussions with the series’ creator Gerry Anderson – who also created other classic series, such as Thunderbirds, Stingray and Joe 90 – as well as other members of the series’ creative team discussion the series’ creation. Anderson discusses the role that ITC had in the importing of the series to the United States while others discuss the things that went on behind the scenes. Perhaps one of the most intriguing discussions is that of show runner Fred Freiberger, who came into the show near the end of its first season. Anderson’s wife Sylvia speaks one way of Freiberger – essentially saying he did not understand the difference between British television and American – while cast member Nick Tate spoke a little more warmly of Freiberger. As if all of that is not enough for viewers, there is also a look into the models that were used That look is key because it reminds people about how groundbreaking Anderson’s series were then and are now in hindsight. As another interviewee noted in another segment, shows of this series’ caliber can only be made in this era using CG. Between these discussions, so many others featured in the bonus content, the bonus picture galleries and the audio commentaries also featured throughout the set, audiences get here a full and fully immersive viewing experience. It takes the foundation formed by the set’s packaging and strengthens it even more than one could even imagine. That foundation is strengthened more still through the companion booklet that is also featured as part of the collection’s whole.
The companion booklet that is featured with Space: 1999 – The Complete Series opens with a brief but concise look at the history of Space: 1999 by pop culture historian and Shout! Factory Associate Producer Russell Dyball. The history is also an appreciation for the series, with Dyball discussing the series’ theme music, its stylistic approach, which was far different from that of Star Trek – but common for Gerry and Sylvia Anderson’s series – and the expansive merchandising associated with the show. From there, the booklet features a full rundown of the series’ episodes with brief, but concise summaries of each episode. There is even a note ahead of the episode summaries stating that the lineup is based on the series’ episode production order, the most commonly accepted episode order. Considering that there was not enough space inside and outside the series’ cases for episode summaries, the people at Shout! Factory are to be commended for taking the time to make sure even that element was still included in one way or another with the set. Audiences will likely end up using this episode guide even more than the episode guides printed on the backs of the cases. It’s just one more positive to an already positive presentation that the most devoted fans of this classic series will appreciate. When it is considered along with the previously noted positives – the packaging and the bonus content – the set in whole becomes a presentation that every Space: 1999 fan will want to add to their home library.
Shout! Factory and itv’s upcoming domestic release of Space: 1999 – The Complete Series is a presentation that the most devoted fans of the series and the most devoted science fiction fans will appreciate. That is due in part to the set’s packaging. Once again, Shout! Factory has set the bar for multi-disc packaging with this Blu-ray set. The bonus content featured with the set adds even more interest to its whole, as it includes audio commentaries, interviews, retrospectives and picture galleries throughout the set’s 13 discs. The companion booklet that is also featured with the set rounds out its most important elements. Each item noted is key in its own way to the whole of the set. All things considered, they make this collection a “universal” hit among science fiction audiences, not just fans of this series. More information on this and other titles is available online now at:
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PBS Distribution Announces ‘Endeavour: Season Six’ Release Date
Courtesy: PBS/PBS Distribution
PBS Distribution is bringing the sixth season of the British crime drama Endeavour home next week.
Endeavour: Season 6 is scheduled for release July 9 on DVD and Blu-ray. Shaun Evans returns as the series’ titular character Endeavour Morse alongside co-star Roger Allman, who portrays Detective Inspector Fred Thursday for four more episodes of murder and mystery.
Season Six picks up right where Season Five left off. The Oxford City Police Department has been dissolved and combined with the Thames Valley Constabulary. Detective Constable George Fancy remains in the minds of everybody from the Oxford City Police Department, even as the longtime friends and co-workers are all filling new roles in the new merger of departments.
In the season premiere — “Pylon” — Morse is back in uniform, working a quiet, rural region of Oxford when he discovers the body of a missing schoolgirl. Problems within the Castle Gate CID leave Endeavour to take the lead on the case and prove the innocence of a teenage suspect and find the girl’s real killer.
Episode Two — “Apollo: — is Evans’ directorial debut. The story in this episode ties the impending Apollo 11 mission to the death of a young astrophysicist and his girlfriend. The couple’s death in a car accident seems at first, to be completely accidental. However, a deeper investigation leads to the suspicion of foul play. In turn, Morse must get Thursday’s help to investigate and solve the case.
In Episode Three — “Confection” — Morse investigates the death of a successful chocolate factory owner. The investigation leads Morse to connect the confectioner’s death to another murder — that of a young, single mother.
The season finale — “Duguello” — centers on the death of a librarian, leaving Morse and Thursday to become their own Holmes and Watson. All the pair has to go on in their investigation is a pair of muddy boot prints. Morse’s investigation leads to an unlikely suspect.
Endeavour: Season 6 will retail for MSRP of $39.99 on DVD and $49.99 on Blu-ray. the DVD can be pre-ordered now at a reduced price of $34.99 and the Blu-ray at a reduced price of $44.99 via PBS’ online store. More information on Endeavour is available online now at:
Website: http://www.pbs.org/masterpiece
Facebook: http://www.facebook.com/masterpiecepbs
Twitter: http://twitter.com/masterpiecepbs
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itv’s TV Take Of ‘The Sound Of Music’ Will “Score” With Musical Fans
Courtesy: itv/Shout! Factory
Sixty years have passed this year since Rodgers & Hammerstein’s timeless musical The Sound Of Music made its stage debut. The timeless musical, which was based on the memoir of Maria Von Trapp went on to earn five Tony® awards. This is despite the historical inaccuracies in the story. The story won the awards — and went on to spawn an equally famed big-screen musical in 1965, that starred actress Julie Andrews – because of its musical numbers and performances by its cast. 20th Century Fox’s 1965 film adaptation of the play was just one of countless adaptations of Rodgers & Hammerstein’s timeless work that have been crafted on stage and screen around the world. British broadcasting network itv produced its own TV take on the play in the form of The Sound of Music Live in 2015. Its broadcast was followed early last November with a Blu-ray home release of the production, courtesy of Shout! Factory. The presentation is one that any die-hard fan of The Sound of Music will appreciate. That is due in part to its story, which will be discussed shortly. Its very presentation also plays into its appeal, and will be discussed a little later. The bonus content included with the show’s home release is important to its appeal, too, and will be discussed later as well. Each item noted here is important in its own way to the whole of the home release of The Sound of Music Live. All things considered, they make The Sound of Music Live a good addition to the library of any musical fan’s library and to that of any devotee of The Sound of Music.
British broadcaster itv’s 2015 small-screen take of The Sound of Music is a work that is certain to appeal to musical theater fans just as much as devotees of The Sound of Music. That is thanks in part to its story. The story presented here uses Rodgers & Hammerstein’s original musical, which made its stage debut in 1959, as its source more so than the 1965 big screen adaptation, which starred Julie Andrews as Maria. However, much of what is included in the cinematic take is also included in the stage version, so audiences get here, the best of both worlds. Given there are some slight alterations between the 1965 version and this take, such as how the Von Trapp family ultimately escapes the Nazis (not to give away too much) and the initial ‘Do-Re-Me’ scene. That number’s setting is different in the two versions. The execution of the ‘Edelweiss’ number is also slightly different between the two versions, especially considering that in itv’s take, there is only one performance of the song while in the 1965 version, the song is performed twice in two separate settings. This is just one of the few differences that exist between itv’s live version of The Sound of Music and 20th Century Fox’s 1965 presentation of the story. There are other minute variances between each take. The fact that the differences are so minute ensures even more, that this version will still appeal to fans of the original play and those who are more loyal to the story’s cinematic standard. The story is just one part of what makes this performance of The Sound of Music so widely-appealing to audiences. The show’s very presentation adds to its appeal even more.
The presentation of The Sound of Music Live is important to address in examining the movie in that it adds to the ability of audiences to suspend their disbelief. This includes the sets and cinematography. Audiences get a behind-the-scenes look at the sets in the presentation’s bonus material. This will be discussed a little later. The sets give the feeling that they could just as easily have been used in an actual stage presentation of the classic musical, yet are just enough to give the show a little bit of a cinematic feel at the same time. That attention to detail and balance makes the show’s set designers worthy of their own share of applause. The equally sharp camera work throughout gives even more, that feeling of a stage presentation on screen without being too much over the top. The movements and the shots themselves couple with the sets to give audiences the best seat in the house. It’s like being in a theater watching the musical take place, but not having to deal with the noise and congestion created by other people. In other words, the sets and cinematography presented in The Sound of Music Live do just as much for the show’s overall presentation as its story. That collective is not the last of the presentation’s most important elements. The bonus content featured in its Blu-ray release is key in its own way to the whole package.
The bonus content featured as part of The Sound of Music Live’s home release is made up of a full-length audio commentary track featuring lead stars Kara Tointon and Julian Ovenden, as well as the previously noted behind-the-scenes featurette. The behind-the-scenes featurette is enlightening in its own right, as it shows viewers the intensity of the preparations for the show (roughly two months worth of preps to be exact). It also shows how hard it was to actually put on the show once the proverbial curtain lifted. That alone makes for more appreciation for the show. The bonus feature-length commentary adds its own share of enlightenment and interest. That is thanks to the variety of items that Tointon and Ovenden discuss. The pair addresses items, such as Tointon’s lack of knowledge about playing guitar, thee difficulty of shooting a stage presentation for the small screen and commentary that the cast and crew received from audiences in Austria. They note that the noted audiences were not happy with The Sound of Music in general because of the story’s historical inaccuracies. That’s just a sampling of what was discussed in the commentary. The pair also talks briefly about the use of the stock footage as part of the show, the humility of the younger cast members and the success of the casting for other parts, just to name a little bit more. Between all of this and the items not mentioned in reference to the bonus commentary (and the behind-the-scenes featurette), the bonus content featured in this Blu-ray adds even more appeal for the overall presentation. When it is considered along with the story and the show’s aesthetic elements, the whole proves to be a presentation that will appeal to plenty of audiences.
itv’s small-screen iteration of Rodgers & Hammerstein’s classic musical The Sound of Music Live is a work that will appeal easily to musical fans in general as well as to devoted fans of the noted musical. That is due in part to the show’s story with includes elements of the 1965 cinematic adaptation from 20th Century Fox and of the original stage musical. The sets and cinematography presented in the show collectively add more interest and appeal to the presentation. The bonus content featured in the show’s Blu-ray release adds its own share of interest to the presentation, too. Each item noted here is important in its own right to the whole of The Sound of Music Live. All things considered, the show is one that, again, is certain to appeal to musical devotees across the board. The Sound of Music Live is available now. More information on this and other titles from Shout! Factory is available online now at:
Posted in DvD's and blu-rays, Internet, Movies, Television | Tagged 20th Century Fox, entertainment, facebook, internet, itv, Julie Andrews, movies, Phil's Picks, Shout! Factory, Television, The Sound of Music, Twitter, Wordpress | Leave a reply
‘Endeavour: Season 5’ U.S. Release Date Announced
Posted on June 6, 2018 by philspicks
Courtesy: itv/PBS Distribution
itv’s hit crime drama Endeavour wrapped its fifth season this past March, and now Season 5 is coming home for the series’ American audiences.
Public Media Distribution will release Masterpiece Mystery!: Endeavour Season 5 July 10. It will be released on DVD ($39.99) and Blu-ray ($49.99). In the fifth season of the international hit series, it’s 1968, and turmoil is brewing inside and outside the Cowley Police Station.
As Endeavour Morse takes a new recruit named Fancy (Lewis Peek — Poldark, Curse of the Phoenix, Dartmoor Killing) under his wing, his current partner, Thursday (Roger Allam — V For Vendetta, Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides, The Wind That Shakes The Barley) is considering retirement. Organized crime is also on the rise in Oxford, causing plenty of concern for Morse and company.
Season 5 opens with an auction of a famed Faberge Egg at Lonsdale College. It catches the attention of an international thief — and in turn, the police — upon the report of a failed burglary. That case turns to an even bigger investigation into a serial killer. Along the way, Morse ends up taking the aforementioned Fancy under his wing, but not entirely willingly.
In ‘Cartouche,’ the second of Season 5’s episodes, a horror movie filming in Oxford crosses with the investigation into the poisoning of a former detective sergeant as Morse and Thursday are led to a theater in their investigation. It just so happens that the theater is hosting the stars of that horror film at a special event. Things take an even more unexpected turn when the theater’s organist is also poisoned, leading the movie’s stars to think an Egyptian curse is to blame for the poisonings. The reality though, is much darker.
‘Passenger,’ the season’s third episode follows Endeavour as he investigates a woman’s disappearance, fearing it may be linked to a cold case involving the death of a teenager killed years ago. Thursday meanwhile, is investigating a truck hijacking that is believed to have been linked to organized crime in the city.
The death of a model following a photoshoot on an army base lies at the center of the season’s fourth episode, ‘Colours.’ Things get even more complicated when Sam Thursday — the son of Morse’s partner — is implicated in the model’s death, leading him to be sidelined. DS Jim Strange takes Thursday’s place during the investigation. Tensions rise between the pair during the investigation, especially after a second model is found dead and more secrets are revealed.
‘Quartet,’ the season’s fifth episode, is a turning point for Morse and Thursday as Thursday decides to step away and work more from home following an investigation into an attempted assassination. While the investigation into the assassination attempt is halted, Morse wants to keep investigating, leading him deeper into the underbelly of Oxford than ever before, and revealing even more secrets than ever thought. Thursday meanwhile, has to face his own issues as he works from home.
The season’s finale continues the turning point in Morse and Thursday’s working relationship after Thursday’s brother returns suddenly. Meanwhile, Morse is investigating a case at a school involving the disappearance of a teacher and the appearance of a body. The discovery leads Morse to question who he can and cannot trust.
While audiences will have to wait until July 10 for Season 5 to be released on DVD and Blu-ray, the wait for its American television premiere is much shorter. Season 5 is currently scheduled to premiere on PBS stations nationwide June 24. Audiences can view a full season trailer for Season 5 online now here.
Season 5 is spread across three discs on each platform with a total run time of 540 minutes. It can be pre-ordered online now via PBS’ online store at reduced prices of $34.99 (DVD) and $44.99 (Blu-ray). More information on Endeavour is available online now at:
Website: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/masterpiece/shows/endeavour
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‘Endeavour: Season 4′ Lives Up To PBS’ “Masterpiece” Moniker
Posted on November 2, 2017 by philspicks
Courtesy: itv/Public Media Distribution/PBS
Early this past September, Public Media Distribution released to American audiences the fourth season of PBS’ hit British import Endeavour. The latest season of the phenomenal crime drama is yet another successful release for both itv and PBS that shows once again why this series easily bests any American crime drama on television today. That is proven in part to the writing in more than one way. This will be discussed shortly. The work of the series’ cast cannot be ignored in examining this latest of the series’ installments. It will be discussed later. Last but definitely not least of note in examining this season’s recent home release is its bonus material. It, like the season’s writing and acting, plays its own important part to the whole of the season’s presentation. All things considered, the fourth season of Endeavour proves to be yet another entertaining offering from one of the U.K.’s top crime dramas.
Endeavour: The Complete Fourth Season has been available to American audiences for almost two months, having been released Sept. 5 via Public Media Distribution. For those who perhaps have not yet had the opportunity to view this latest installment in the ongoing series, it goes without saying that it is another enjoyable effort for the series. That is due in no small part to the work of the series’ writers. This applies both to the stories featured in this season and to the series’ interweaving subplots. All four of this season’s episodes give something totally different from one to the next. The season premiere, for instance, is easily comparable to the story at the center of the hit 19999 Denzel Washington/Angelina Jolie crime blockbuster The Bone Collector. At the same time, a comparison to author Dianne Setterfield’s novel The 13th Tale in the story, too (not to give away too much of the plot). The second episode, ‘Canticle’ plays directly off of the summer of love for its central story. Even with this in mind, it still manages to make itself an intriguing story nonetheless. ‘Lazaretto,’ the season’s penultimate episode, changes things up yet again by taking place almost entirely in a hospital ward as Morse tries to find out why occupants of one bed keep dying. The answer plays out almost like something right out of today’s headlines (again, not to give away too much). There is even a nice, action packed police foot chase complete with gunfire for action fans. The season finale, ‘Harvest’ centers around a body found during an archaeological dig. The killer may or may not be connected to a pagan ritual held near a power station. It is yet another story that stands easily on its own feet separate from its counterparts in this season. That distinct identity of the season’s stories is but one part of what makes the season’s writing stand out so much. The writers’ ability to balance the stories with their underlying, interweaving subplots strengthens the writing even more.
Audiences will note in watching this season that while the central stories are solidly entertaining in their own right, they are not the only stories featured throughout the episodes. From one episode to the next, the writers make sure to not forget the Thursdays’ anxiousness over their daughter Joan as well as Endeavour’s personal struggle with himself over his feelings for her. Given, it is a serial element, but the writers at no point ever allow this element to overpower the season’s central standalone stories. That balance gives fans of serials and standalone series alike something to anticipate and appreciate.
As if the stories presented within each of this season’s episodes are not enough for audiences (and their balance with the episodes’ secondary stories), the writers’ ability to keep audiences guessing right up until the end of each episode proves to be yet another way in which the writing proves so critical. The stories put in just enough red herrings and twists to keep viewers completely engaged right to each story’s end without leaving viewers confused. When this is considered along with the already discussed elements in the season’s writing, it becomes wholly clear why the writing is so critical to the season’s overall presentation. It is only one part of what makes this season so engaging. The work of the series’ cast is once again just as notable as the work of the show’s writers.
The series’ cast – most notably lead stars Shaun Evans and Roger Allum – is top-notch once more in this season. This especially the case as Endeavour and Thursday raise personal matters in each story. Thursday becomes a powerfully sympathetic character as he tries to cope his daughter’s disappearance. Allum’s handling of Thursday’s emotional struggle makes these moments so powerful, even in their simplicity. In the same breath, his stress at trying to fill in for Chief Superintendent Bright late in the season is just as engaging. It is another way in which the writers develop Thursday’s character even more this season and another example of Allum’s expert acting chops.
Evans’ acting chops are just as notable as those of Allum this time around. The way in which he handles’ Morse’s continued dedication to his job alone will keep audiences engaged. His reaction at discovering the result of his Sergeant’s exam clearly exemplifies this. His reaction at finally locating Joan (there again is that secondary story aspect) is just as moving and will keep viewers just as engaged as his handling of Morse’s casework. When the work of the series’ supporting cast and extras is added alongside the work of Allum and Evans, the whole of the cast’s work does plenty to add its own share of engagement and entertainment to this season, showing in whole why the cast’s work is just as important as the work of the series’ writers. It is not the last of the season’s most notable elements. The bonus material that is included in the season’s home release is the last of those elements.
The bonus material included in Season 4’s home release includes a group of behind-the-scenes featurettes that discuss a handful of items. From the series’ look as it applies to the era in which the season is set (the late 1960s) to Evans discussing his take on his character and on Morse’s relationship with Joan Thursday to Evans even taking a shot at being a cameraman behind the scenes, audiences are given quite the insight into how this season came to life. Viewers will appreciate the discussion on the sets and costumes in “Making Endeavour in Oxford” because it shows the efforts taken to recreate 1960s Oxford. Evans’ discussions on Morse and Morse’s relationship with Joan adds even more to that one underlying subplot that runs throughout all four episodes, adding even more interest to this season. When that interest is joined with the interest created through the cast’s work and that of the series’ writers, the whole of those elements makes this season of Endeavour some of the show’s best work to date.
The fourth season of itv’s Endeavour is some of the series’ best work to date. Even at only four episodes, this season offers audiences plenty to appreciate including the extensive work by the series’ writers. The ast’s work adds even more interest to this season. The bonus material included in the season’s home release outs the finishing touch to the season. Each element is important in its own right to the season’s home presentation. All things considered, they make the season in whole another fully engaging offering from what is one of the U.K.’s best crime dramas. It is available now and can be ordered online direct via PBS’ online store. More information on this and other PBS Masterpiece series is available online at:
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‘Masterpiece Mystery: Endeavour’ Returns Sunday
Posted on August 19, 2017 by philspicks
Endeavour returns tomorrow.
The fourth season of Masterpiece Mystery: Endeavour begins at 9 p.m. ET on PBS stations nationwide. The series’ fourth season opens with yet another major mystery for Endeavour Morse to solve. This time, the clock is ticking as Endeavour tries to solve the connection between a drowning and a chess-playing “thinking” machine.
Audiences can view a trailer for Season 4’s premiere episode online now here.
Courtesy: PBS/itv
Support for Masterpiece Mystery: Endeavour is provided by Viking River Cruises and Farmers Insurance.
More information on Masterpiece Mystery: Endeavour is available online now along with all of the series’ latest news at:
Website: www.pbs.org/masterpiece
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Public Media Distribution Announces ‘Endeavour: Season 4’ Domestic Release Date
Public Media Distribution is bringing home the fourth season of the hit British crime drama Endeavour this summer.
Endeavour: Season Four will be released Sept. 4, just as summer starts to wind down and the weather starts to change, giving audiences plenty to enjoy through the rest of this year. Season 4 picks up right where Season 3 left off with the young Detective Morse and his partner Thursday dealing with more personal and work issues.
Morse waits in the series fourth season for the results of his Sergeant’s exam at work while dealing with emotional issues off the job. Thursday and Win have their own issues as Sam has left for the army and Joan has gone off to points unknown.
Season 4’s four episodes—‘Game,’ ‘Canticle,’ ‘Lazaretto,’ and ‘Harvest’—are spread across two discs, totaling 480 minutes. The DVD will retail for MSRP of $34.99 and the Blu-ray for 44.99. It will be listed soon online via PBS’ online store. More information on this and other PBS Masterpiece series is available online now at:
Posted in DvD's and blu-rays, Internet, Television | Tagged educational programming, educational television, Endeavour, entertainment, facebook, internet, itv, masterpiece mystery, Phil's Picks, Public Broadcasting, Public Media Distribution, public television, Television, Twitter, Wordpress | Leave a reply
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CAUGHT ON TAPE: Hillary’s “47%” moment
Remember when Republican Mitt Romney sunk his 2012 presidential campaign by attacking “47%” of Americans by trying to smear them as freeloaders?
Well, Hillary Clinton just pulled a Romney, ladies and gentlemen. That’s because Hillary, while at a political fundraiser in White Plains, New York, bragged about how she was taking “a little breather” from campaigning in Iowa:
Please note that I did NOT record the video.
It’s pretty clear to me that Hillary doesn’t like Iowa or the people who call Iowa home, and she’s willing to bash Iowa while in a friendly environment to her, such as a political fundraiser in the New York City suburbs.
For those of you who are Iowa Democrats, if there’s one thing that you’ll ever do that’s worthwhile in your entire life, caucus for Bernie Sanders!
Friday, January 29, 2016 Friday, January 29, 2016
breather
history repeated
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White Plains NY
Paul Ryan opposed abortion rights for women impregnated by rapists during failed 2012 VP bid
U.S. Rep. Paul Ryan (R-WI), the unsuccessful Republican vice-presidential nominee in 2012, is now officially considering a bid for U.S. House Speaker after previously having repeatedly refused to do so.
However, Ryan won’t negotiate with the House Freedom Caucus, a group of Republican right-wing extremists in the House that have refused to back a GOP establishment candidate for speaker unless said establishment candidate agrees to giving the Republican rank-and-file, which is chock full of right-wing nuts, more power in the House and cover-your-rear-end treatment from the GOP leadership every time someone in the rank-or-file says or does something incredibly stupid.
While Ryan considers whether or not to seek the speakership, I think it’s appropriate for me to mention that this is an actual quote from Paul Ryan from when he was running for vice president in 2012:
Well, I’m very proud of my pro-life record, and I’ve always adopted the idea, the position, that the method of conception doesn’t change the definition of life.
What Paul Ryan effectively said was that he thinks that any woman who was impregnated by a rapist should be forced to carry the fetus(es) to term, even if she does not want to. That’s because Ryan was asked by an interviewer about his thoughts on whether or not women who are impregnated by a rapist should be allowed to seek an abortion, and Ryan said that he was strongly anti-abortion and that the “method of conception doesn’t change the definition of life”. That is an absolutely barbaric point of view. While there was YouTube video of Ryan’s remarks online back in 2012, the video has long since been removed from YouTube. However, I’ve been able to confirm that Ryan actually made the remarks, because the International Business Times, which is where I got the Ryan quote from, and several other websites with credible political reporting and/or commentary, such as the Huffington Post and AlterNet, reported on it back in 2012, and their articles are still online.
Paul Ryan’s view that women impregnated by rapists should be forced to carry their fetuses to term is barbaric and sexist. Now, he wants to be House Speaker so that he’s in even more powerful of a position to control women’s bodies by legislative fiat, especially if a Republican were to win the White House in next year’s presidential race.
Tuesday, October 20, 2015 Tuesday, October 20, 2015
considering bid
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definition of life
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The following publications from the PLF are available for download in PDF format.
America’s Public Lands: origin, history, future
A publication of the PLF designed to define and clarify the status of federal public lands in America and to answer questions people pose on a daily basis, such as:
How did the U.S. acquire the public lands owned collectively by the American people?
How did the U.S. transfer most of the original public lands to state, private and other ownership?
How did the Bureau of Land Management, an agency within the Department of the Interior, become responsible for administering its remaining 245 million acres of public domain lands, now known as the National System of Public Lands?
How does federal ownership and management of public domain lands benefit America?
Download your PDF copy
The Nation Possessed
The Conflicting Claims on America’s Public Lands and the Commemoration of the 200th Anniversary of the Founding of the General Land Office.
The Public Lands Foundation has produced a brochure that captures the spirit of the work that went into the 2012 National Meeting in Boulder, Colorado, and presents (1) the next-generation priorities for the Bureau of Land Management as seen through the eyes of the Student Congress, (2) the roundtable recommendations for ‘Finding Common Ground on the Public Lands’ as developed by a group of fifteen state, federal, and local citizen representatives, and (3) a set of policy recommendations as prepared by the Public Lands Foundation for preserving the legacy of the public lands and meeting the needs of future generations.
Historical Record (1934 – 2012) of the Offices, Managers and Organizations of
the U. S. Bureau of Land Management
PLF completed work on the 1934-2012 Historical Record document as part of its contribution to commemorate the 200th Anniversary of the establishment of the General Land Office. The PLF documents the organizational history of the BLM and the line office managers who have headed the principal offices of the agency. Since BLM’s roots are in the Grazing Service, the General Land Office, and the O&C Revested Lands Administration, those agencies are included as well.
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‘Spider-Man’ actor Jacob Batalon sends greetings to fellow Filipinos
Filipino actor Jacob Batalon has returned in the second installment of the hit Marvel superhero film “Spider-Man Homecoming” to be released worldwide this Friday.
Photo credit: @lifeisaloha on Instagram
A Filipino actor has returned in the second installment of the hit Marvel superhero film Spider-Man Homecoming to be released worldwide this week.
Jacob Batalon will continue his role as Spider-Man’s best friend and confidante Ned Leeds in Spider-Man: Far From Home as Peter Parker (Tom Holland) gets recruited by Nick Fury (Samuel Jackson) to fight against elemental threats from another dimension together with new character Mysterio (Jake Gyllenhaal).
In his interview with ABS-CBN Correspondent Yong Chavez, Jacob shared how his Filipino family has been reacting to his newfound fame as a Marvel actor.
“They don’t really know anything about Spider-Man!,” he answered. “They’re just really enjoying that I’m living my best life and that we got to make an incredible movie together.”
The best part of being chosen to join the Marvel Cinematic Universe, he says, is “meeting amazing people and working with people who want to make good movies and put out things into the universe. [I’m] just living a good life with everyone that I’ve met. It’s just an experience.”
Jacob also sent his regards to his folks back in the Philippines by inviting his fans to support the film.
“Magandang araw! It’s Jacob Batalon. Check out this clip from my new movie ‘Spider-Man’: Far From Home’. Mabuhay!” he said.
A movie by Jon Watts, Spider-Man: Far From Home premiered in theaters in the United States last July 2. It is scheduled for a worldwide release on July 5, also starring Zendaya, Cobi Smulders, and Jon Favreau.
Jacob Batalon , Spider-Man , Spider Man , Far From Home , Ned Leeds , Tom Hollan , Marvel
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Experimental heart patient reports progress
Just two months after one local man underwent an experimental heart procedure at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), he says he is doing well and hopes results of the procedure will one day help other heart patients.
By Kelsey Givens Pahrump Valley Times kgivens@pvtimes.com
Marty Greenfield, owner of Jewelry and Appraisal Consulting on Matthew Lane, says he has lost 31 pounds and his energy levels have increased since he had what he and a team of doctors hope were his own stem cells injected into his heart as part of an experimental study funded by Baxter Healthcare Corporation.
Greenfield suffers from a painful heart condition known as angina, which occurs when there is inadequate blood flow to the heart.
On Oct. 17 Greenfield underwent an experimental procedure that is part of Phase III of a clinical trial called RENEW that uses a patient’s own blood-derived stem cells to restore blood circulation to their damaged heart. The trial uses the latest technology to map the heart in 3D and guides doctors to deliver the stem cell injections to targeted sites in the heart muscle.
Although neither Greenfield nor his team of doctors at UCLA know yet if he received his own stem cells or a placebo, Greenfield says he has begun to feel slightly better than before the procedure. And either way he is just happy to be part of a study that could one day help thousands of people worldwide.
“The most important thing about what has occurred since you saw me more than a month ago is my stamina has been tremendous, absolutely tremendous so far,” Greenfield said of his progress. “I used to have to go to bed around 7:30 p.m. or eight o’clock because that’s as far as I could go after working all day, but now I’m good until 11 or 11:30 p.m. if I’m in a relaxed atmosphere. There have been times I haven’t gone to bed until 12:30 a.m. and then gotten up at 6:30 a.m. to start my day…My physical condition has also improved in stature. I’m 31 pounds thinner, so I’m happy with that.”
Although he has more energy and has lost some weight, the procedure hasn’t been without side effects.
For several weeks following the injection Greenfield said he suffered from an intense pain in his abdomen and his blood pressure has been both high and low over the last two months.
“They had a few problems with my blood pressure, but they’ve been able to stabilize that. But keep in mind since my body has been invaded with all of these procedures there is the tendency for that to be erratic,” he said. “The abdominal pain I was experiencing for a long time, one day I woke up and it was gone. When I first brought that up to the doctors, they thought it might have been an acute abdominal issue, not necessarily that, but there was no rhyme or reason to it to contradict that. But one day I woke up and it was completely gone after I had just complained about it the week before. I’ve had nothing since then, so they have actually documented it as a possible side effect.”
While Greenfield is happy with the progress he’s made so far, whether that’s just from the medication changes his doctors have made for him or he actually received the stem cell injection and it’s working, he said it’s still hard for him to believe sometimes that he was lucky enough to have been asked to be involved in the RENEW study.
“Nobody looks at the mental side of what a patient has gone through. You endure a lot of pain, you endure a lot of discomfort. The injections were so bad I was like climbing the walls. But you just don’t realize the mental state you go through. At times I am on top of the world, I’m so blessed and I have every reason to be full of jubilation that I’ve been given this reason to live, but there are moments, whether it’s the adhesion in my neck that’s killing me from where they did the injection, or you think about what did I really go through, what did my body really have to endure? And it’s hard to believe what you’ve been through,” he said.
Since his procedure two months ago, Greenfield said Baxter has temporarily suspended research with new patients at UCLA.
“Baxter has suspended all future candidates to stem cell heart injections for UCLA. I am the only candidate that received the heart injections,” he explained, but said the company is still going forward with his research.
“I am so blessed and when I talk about it I cry and tears come to my eyes because there are so many people out there who need this help, but I’m blessed to know that even though it’s suspended, I’m the only one who got the injections from UCLA, which is huge. Baxter has not stopped my research. So in other words next month there’s some additional testing with me they’ve never done before,” he said.
Although he hasn’t been told officially one way or the other if he truly received the stem cell injections, Greenfield said the most important thing to him is still that the data his team of doctors could help others suffering from heart conditions similar to his own.
“It’s a remarkable dream,” he said. “Being in the right place at the right time and to have my body to be the right guinea pig for Baxter to take a chance with me. And like I’ve said all along, I’m not just doing this for me, I’m doing this so one day they will hopefully be able to take this research and help others.”
For more information about the RENEW study or to find out more about the cardiology unit at UCLA contact the hospital at 310-794-4797.
Posted on: News
Woman goes missing during Inyo County camping excursion
By Selwyn Harris Pahrump Valley Times
A hiker reported missing July 12 was found alive Monday in Inyo County, the sheriff’s office there reported.
Community news briefs from Pahrump region
Moose blood drive
Tour to highlight funding for employment and training programs for Nye residents
By Jeffrey Meehan Pahrump Valley Times
An event at the NyE Communities Coalition building will present information to the public on millions of dollars in federal funding being invested in Southern Nevada for employment and training programs.
BLM to hold oil and gas lease sale in Nevada
The U.S. Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is holding a competitive oil and gas lease sale on Sept. 10, the federal government announced.
New law designates cannabis license funds go to Nevada counties, not towns
By Robin Hebrock Pahrump Valley Times
A bill passed by the Nevada Legislature this past session will change the law regarding which entities, unincorporated towns or the counties in which they reside, are entitled to the revenue from the licensing of marijuana businesses in those towns.
Small businesses focus of effort
The U.S. Small Business Administration announced that the federal government exceeded its small business federal contracting goal for the sixth consecutive year, awarding 25.05 percent in federal contract dollars to small businesses, totaling $120.8 billion, an increase from the previous fiscal year of nearly $15 billion.
California Lottery
No one matched all five numbers and the mega number in the Saturday, July 13 drawing of the California Super Lotto. The next jackpot will be at least $62 million.
Nye County’s Kaminski selected for leadership post
Nye County resident Cindy Kaminski, of Veterans of Foreign Wars Post 1103 in Tonopah, was selected as elected as state auxiliary president during the annual VFW Department of Nevada state convention held recently in Mesquite.
Pahrump power outage linked to California earthquake activity
By David Jacobs Pahrump Valley Times
A power outage in Pahrump is being linked to recent earthquake activity in the region.
Talk of Area 51 raid is growing
Roughly 1.3 million people on Facebook have enlisted on a mission to uncover the mystery of Area 51: Does the complex have aliens?
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DC2, Dance Spot recitals coming this month to Queen Creek Performing Arts Center
Jun 6th, 2017 · by Queen Creek Independent staff report · Comments:
Editor’s note: Items on the entertainment page run free of charge as space is available for events in the area. Please submit items by e-mail to qcnews@newszap.com.
JUNE 6-JULY 29
•APACHE JUNCTION — Classic Western Movies: Superstition Mountain Museum, 4087 N. Apache Trail (Highway 88). Free. Beat the heat this summer by attending free weekly movies in the air-conditioned Elvis Chapel. At 1 p.m. each Tuesday and Saturday June 6-July 29, classic Western movies will be shown to the public. Snacks will be available for purchase. The movies are well-known favorites from the 1940s-70s. They include: Tuesday, June 6, and Saturday, June 10, “Angel and the Badman,” 1947; Tuesday, June 13, and Saturday, June 17, “Over-the-Hill Gang,” 1969; Tuesday, June 20, and Saturday, June 24, “Rage at Dawn,” 1955; Tuesday, June 27, and Saturday, July 1, “Seven Alone,” 1974; Tuesday, July 4, and Saturday, July 8, 2017, “Guns of Fort Petticoat,” 1957; Tuesday, July 11, and Saturday, July 15, “Powder Keg,” 1971; Tuesday, July 11, and Saturday, July 15, “Powder Keg,” 1971,; Tuesday, July 18, and Saturday, July 22, “The Painted Hills,” 1951; and Tuesday, July 25, and Saturday, July 29, “McClintock,” 1963. Seating will be on a first-come, first-served basis in the chapel on the museum grounds. The museum is open 9 a.m.-4 p.m. daily except on Thanksgiving, Christmas and New Year’s Day. For more information, visit www.superstitionmountainmuseum.org or call 480-983-4888.
JUNE 9-FRIDAY
•QUEEN CREEK — Queen Creek “Feastival”: 5:30-9 p.m., in the north parking lot of the Queen Creek Branch Library, 21802 S. Ellsworth Road (facing Ellsworth Loop). This gathering of 15-30 gourmet food trucks, 10-20 boutique market and music returns every Friday night. For more information and a list of food trucks, visit the event Facebook page or visit azfeastivals.com/qcfeastival.
•QUEEN CREEK — Corn Roast 2017: 6-10 p.m. June 9 at the Queen Creek Olive Mill, 25062 S. Meridian Road. Admission is free. Celebrate the local sweet corn season with the annual Corn Roast at the Olive Mill. Grilled local, non-GMO sweet corn will be available four ways: classic, Italian street, chile lime and roasted garlic and black pepper. Live music will performed 6-9:30 p.m. by Notes from Neptune. Blankets and chairs are welcome. No outside food or beverage will be allowed. Pets allowed on leashes only. For more information, visit www.queencreekolivemill.com.
•QUEEN CREEK — “A Night at the Movies,” Dance Connection 2 Summer Recital: Queen Creek Performing Arts Center, 22149 E. Ocotillo Road. Showtimes are 5 p.m. and 7:30 p.m. Friday, June 9, and 10 a.m., 1 p.m., 4 p.m. and 7 p.m. Saturday, June 10. Tickets are $9 for all shows except for the 7 p.m. show on June 10. Tickets for that show cost $18. The first five shows will last about 90 minutes each and feature the group’s recreational dancers along with selected dances. The 7 p.m. performance June 10 is the company show. It will feature the group’s advanced company dancers and introduce DC2’s scholarship winner for 2017. Experience “A Night At The Movies” as popular show tunes come alive through dance as part of DC2’s summer recital. DC2 has served the east Valley for 28 years. Classes are offered for children ages 2-18 in all areas of dance training and performance. Included are ballet, tap, jazz, lyrical, contemporary hip hop, tumbling, aerial arts, ballroom and musical theater. To purchase tickets or for more information, visit www.qcpac.com or call the box office at 480-987-7469.
JUNE 10-SATURDAY
•SAN TAN VALLEY — San Tan Valley Farmers Market and Bazaar/Powwow: Combs High School, 2505 E. Germann Road. Buy up to 60 pounds of produce for $10. Powwow is open from 7 a.m. until sold out. Generally held the second Saturday of each month. This marks the event’s third anniversary. For more information, visit http://santanvalleyfarmersmarket.com or call 480-788-3648.
•MESA — “The Story of Our Lives with the Ballet ‘Beauty and The Beast’”: Presented by Paula Carr Dance Academy at 2 p.m. Saturday, June 10, at Piper Repertory Theater at Mesa Arts Center, 1 E. Main St. See dancers ages 3-18 perform tap, jazz, hip hop, ballet, lyrical, musical theatre, contemporary and more. Also enjoy the 13th annual ballet production, “Beauty and the Beast,” directed by Christa McCormick. Tickets $18. For more information visit https://boxoffice.mesaartscenter.com/Online/or call 480-644-6500.
JUNE 16-FRIDAY
Dance Spot will present its fifth annual spring recital June 17 at Queen Creek Performing Arts Center. It will include the popular “dads’ dance.” (Special to the Independent/Dance Spot)
•QUEEN CREEK — Kickin’ It Old School Dance Spot Recital: 10 a.m., 1:30 p.m. and 5 p.m., Queen Creek Performing Arts Center, 22149 E. Ocotillo Road. Tickets for all shows are $9.50. This is The Dance Spot’s fifth annual dance recital. Participants are ages 2-adult. Specialty numbers include dances with the students’ moms and dads. To purchase tickets or for more information, visit www.qcpac.com or call the box office at 480-987-7469.
JUNE 23-24, 26
•QUEEN CREEK — “Shrek, the Musical”: 7 p.m., Queen Creek Performing Arts Center, 22149 E. Ocotillo Road. Showtimes are 7 p.m. Friday, 2 p.m. and 7 p.m. Saturday and 7 p.m. Monday. Tickets are $15 for adults and $13 for children. Based on the Oscar-winning animated film and hit Broadway musical, the story’s well-known ogre leads a cast of fairytale misfits on a fun-filled adventure to rescue a princess and find that dreams can come true. To purchase tickets or for more information, visit www.qcpac.com or call the box office at 480-987-7469.
JULY 4-TUESDAY
•QUEEN CREEK — Hometown July 4th at Schnepf Farms: 4-10 p.m., Schnepf Farms, 24610 S. Rittenhouse Road. Gates open 4–10:30 p.m.; events held 4-9:30 p.m. Admission is $20 per carload. A portion of the admission will benefit the Queen Creek Performing Arts Center. Celebrate Independence Day with hometown fun, food, entertainment and a fireworks display. For more information, visit http://www.schnepffarms.com.
•QUEEN CREEK — Fourth of July Pizza Party: 6-10 p.m., Queen Creek Olive Mill, 25062 S. Meridian Road. For more information, visit www.queencreekolivemill.com or call 480-888-9290.
JULY 29-SATURDAY
•QUEEN CREEK — Ice Cream Social: 10 a.m.-noon, Queen Creek Parks and Recreation, 21802 S. Ellsworth Road. Free. Cool down at the free ice cream social and open house hosted by the town of Queen Creek. The community outreach event provides residents with an opportunity to learn about the current and future outreach projects share feedback directly to town staff and lend their voices to the planning process. Residents will learn about new businesses coming to the town, plan for future growth, transportation and infrastructure improvements, parks and trails, recreation and more. For more information, visit www.queencreek.org/icecream.
•APACHE JUNCTION — Lost Dutchman State Park: 6109 N Apache Trail. Check http://azstateparks.com/Parks/LODU/index.html for schedule of events and activities. Call 480-982-4485 for more information.
•APACHE JUNCTION — Superstition Mountain Museum: An exhibit of original work by famed Southwest artist Ted DeGrazia is in the museum exhibit gallery and will be on display throughout the 2016-17 season. The museum is at 4087 N. Apache Trail. This exhibit is a retrospective of his paintings and sketches depicting prospectors and pack animals. Regular admission is $5 for adults, $4 for seniors, $3 for students, and children under 12 are admitted free with an adult admission. Free admission to active-duty military personnel and their spouses and children is offered through Labor Day, Sept. 4. Approved ID must be furnished. Call the museum for details. Hours are 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. daily. For more information, go to superstitionmountainmuseum.org. Culture Passes allowing for free admission to the Superstition Mountain Museum are available at the Apache Junction Public Library, 1177 N. Idaho Road.
•MESA — Salt River Tubing: It costs $17 a person to ride a tube at Salt River Tubing on the Lower Salt River. Cost includes tube rental, shuttle bus ride and free customer parking at Salt River Tubing in Tonto National Forest, seven minutes from Loop 202 East on North Power Road. Salt River Tubing will be open 9 a.m.-6:30 p.m. seven days a week, weather and water flow permitting. Sunblock, cap or visor should be worn. A minimum 30 SPF is recommended. Tennis shoes or closed toes are also recommended while tubing. A valid driver’s license is required for a tube rental deposit per five tubes rented. Children must be at least 8 years or older and 4 feet tall for tubing and shuttle bus service. Life vests are recommended for children, non-swimmers and inexperienced swimmers. Go to www.saltrivertubing.com for more details.
•QUEEN CREEK — Karaoke: Happy hour karaoke 3-6 p.m. Wednesdays; karaoke 9 p.m.-close Wednesdays-Sundays; Saturday Night Karaoke and DJ Dance Party, 9 p.m.; Queen Creek Cafe and Sports Lounge, 22002 S. Ellsworth Road. For more information, visit http://queencreekcafe.com or call 480-888-9241.
•QUEEN CREEK — San Tan Historical Society Museum: Open 9 a.m.-1 p.m. Saturdays at 20425 S. Old Ellsworth Road. Free admission. The museum is inside the historic Rittenhouse Elementary School house, one of the last landmarks in the Queen Creek area. The San Tan Historical Society meets at the museum at 7 p.m. on the third Thursday of each month. Members and guests alike are welcome to join these public meetings. For more information, visit www.santanhistoricalsociety.org or call 480-987-9380.
•QUEEN CREEK — Queen Creek Olive Mill: 25062 S. Meridian Road. The Olive Mill is closed Mondays from June 5 to Aug. 28. Learn the history of the Olive Mill’s company and olive oil production during the 30- to 45-minute tours offered at 10:30 a.m., 12:30 p.m. and 2:30 p.m. daily. Admission is $5 person. Children under 12 are admitted free. Reservations are not required for groups of eight or fewer. For more information, visit www.queencreekolivemill.com or call 480-888-9290.
•QUEEN CREEK — Schnepf Farms: Schnepf Farms, 24610 S. Rittenhouse Road. Home to U-pick veggies, country store, bakery, train rides, hayride tours, petting zoo, museum and holiday events. For more information, including hours, visit http://www.schnepffarms.com.
Tags:Featured · Queen Creek Olive Mill · Queen Creek Performing Arts Center
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W. H. E. Terry Comes to Ray City
April 21, 2012 at 12:34 am (Terry Family)
Tags: C.O. Terry, Charles Herman Terry, Charles Oscar Terry, Effie Knight, Harvey Terry, Macedonia FL, Mary Virgina Pert, Nebbie Luckie, Terry's Drug Store, W. C. McGill, W.H.E. Terry, William F. Luckie, Zachariah Taylor Terry
William Henry Edward Terry was born August 26, 1890 in Madison County, Florida. His father, Zachary Taylor Terry, was from Alabama, and his mother, Mary Virginia Pert, was a Florida girl.
In 1900, at age nine, little Willie Terry was living with his family in Macedonia, Madison County, FL. Willie’s father was a farmer. Willie had attended school for two months that year, he could not yet read or write.
About 1910 W. H. E. Terry came from Florida to live in the new town of Ray City, GA. At the age of twenty-something, he was tall and slender young man, with blue eyes and black hair. An entrepreneur, W.H.E. Terry became one of the young businessmen of Ray City, building one of the first brick buildings in the community (W.H.E Terry’s Store at Rays Mill, GA). His brother, Charles Oscar Terry, became the town pharmacist, and their cousin Harvey Terry, became the editor of the Ray City newspaper.
In Ray City, William Henry Terry met Nebbie Luckie. She was the daughter of William F. Luckie, a successful businessman and a big sawmill operator of Ray City, GA (see William F. Luckie ~ Luckie Lumber Mill). On August 23, 1913 William H. E. Terry and Nebbie J. Luckie were joined in holy matrimony. W.C. McGill, Minister of God, performed the ceremony.
Marriage certificate of W. H. Terry and Nebbie Luckie, August 28, 1913.
On March 8, 1916 Nebbie gave birth to their first son, whom they named after his father. A second son followed, Charles Herman Terry, born October 24, 1917. With a young family to support, William Henry Terry went into the drug store business with his brothers.
In the meantime, the United States had entered World War I, declaring war on Germany on April 6, 1917. William Henry Terry and cousin Harvey Terry, registered for the draft on June 5, 1917.
1918 Draft registration of W. H. E. Terry.
In 1920, William H. Terry lived in a home on Main Street, Ray City, GA. Just a few doors down the street was the home of C. Oscar Terry, proprietor of a drug store. William H. Terry was working as a retail drug salesman. Effie Guthrie Knight, subject of previous posts, became one of his employees in 1923, hired as a saleswoman at a salary of $150.00.
By 1930 W. H. E. Terry had moved to Quitman, GA where he continued in the retail drug trade. His brother, C. O. Terry, had acquired the drugstore in Quitman (see Ray City Soda Jerk).
W.H.E Terry’s Store at Rays Mill, GA
Luckie Stop at Ray City
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A Time to Gather Stones: Nomadism After War in Susanne Slavick's Out of Rubble
Nomadism after War in Susanne Slavick's Out of Rubble
G. Roger Denson
Cultural Politics (2012) 8 (2): 254-271.
G. Roger Denson; A Time to Gather Stones: Nomadism After War in Susanne Slavick's Out of Rubble
. Cultural Politics 1 July 2012; 8 (2): 254–271. doi: https://doi.org/10.1215/17432197-1575138
Susanne Slavick's Out of Rubble is an exhibition in a book that boldly epitomizes the new, globally nomadic curation of art representative of current concerns of the world's vital cultures, both ancient and modern. Although the motif of rubble is chosen by Slavick to index the ubiquitous features of war and its aftermath, the artworks included herein equally represent indigenous cultures' intent to reinforce and maintain local customs and values as a defense against both reactionary regional insurgencies that embrace modernity from within and the long arm of homogenizing forces that are insidiously imposed from without, internationally. Although largely unintentional, Slavick's essay and selection of art combined present the scholar and critic of theory and ideology with a fascinating study of the ongoing tension between the current predilection for commentary and analysis of conflict and the universal visual signage of war that compels a more immediate response. This tension agitates beneath the surface of Slavick's study, renewing the debate between poststructuralist and existentialist analyses of conflict. Whereas the poststructuralist commentary is ideally suited for exhuming the archeology and economics of war, it is prone to textual insularity. By contrast, the existentialist reading, particularly well suited to the imagery of the aftermath of war, is given to overly metaphysical, if at times overwrought, ideological melodrama. Meanwhile, Slavick's selection of artworks reconciles two threads of the art-making process that are exceedingly relevant to cultures grappling with the effects of war: the direct experience of war knowable only by living through it and the empathetic response to war gathered and “known” through the media. In less capable hands, the distinct responses would polarize to the point of canceling each other out. It is to Slavick's credit that she manages to make the two seem equally viable, even complementary.
war, art, rubble, aftermath, empathy, nomadic curation, multipolarities, existentialism, poststructuralism, aestheticization, anesthetization of suffering
There is no superiority in the experience of war. At least, so goes the wisdom championed by pacifists for millennia. Yet the myth extolling the virtues of war veterans—be they military or civilian—is gratuitously resurrected at the outset of Susanne Slavick's Out of Rubble, a book that functions as much as an exhibition of vitally relevant visual art made in the wake of 9/11 and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan as it does an essay on how the signage and embodiments of war, specifically the remains and evidence of war's aftermath, have come to dominate the aesthetics and artistic production of politically minded artists of the previous decade.
Rubble, it turns out, is more than a ubiquitous gravel and detritus in the hands of the artists of the twenty-first century. It is even more than the signage and embodiment of war and devastation. Rubble has evolved into a globally encompassing cipher for that singular wisdom shared by those elected as reverse elite by the chance forces of war, unified by their sudden victimization and impoverishment.
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Lida Abdul, White House, 2005. Video stills from 16 mm film on DVD, 4:58 min. © Lida Abdul, Courtesy of The Banff Center and Giorgio Persano, Turin
Slavick is purposely vague on whether she subscribes to the myth of war as ennobling to humanity. But considering that a number of the artists in her survey clearly make work that is largely or wholly informed indirectly through the media, she leaves us perplexed, and a trifle troubled, as to why she invokes the myth of wartime ennoblement to begin with. Slavick does proceed to counterpoint the valuation of the firsthand experience of war—and thereby justifies the art made by artists with only indirect experience—by compiling a succession of citations made by prior writers on the necessity for empathy in any art of war. But in so doing, Slavick neither speaks out against the militaristic valuation of wartime experience, nor does she endorse the view that the art of war produced by media-oriented artists is as meritorious as the art made by the artist-veterans of war.
Jennifer Karady, Soldiers' Stories from Iraq and Afghanistan: Former Sergeant Steve Pyle, U.S. Army, 101st Airborne Division, veteran of the Shock and Awe Invasion of Iraq, with wife Debbie, and children, Steven, Brooke, Cassie, Chloe, Michaela, Mandy, and Brandi, DeLand, FL, July 2006. Chromogenic color print, 48 × 48 in. Courtesy of the artist
This is only the first of instances in which Slavick reprises a myth that has been devalued by recent generations of artists and public, to counter with the current valuation of the issue before moving on without either dismissing or endorsing it or attempting to reconcile either of the views she has just unearthed. If neutrality is her aim, Slavick might have pointed us to the fact that the military model for evaluating the art of war hasn't been applicable to wartime art in the West since the late nineteenth century—the last time that painters who glamorized war were made canonical to art history.
Perhaps Slavick is playing devil's advocate, spurring us on to reminding ourselves that the tradition of glorifying war in art was laid to rest on that day in 1863 when Mathew Brady produced his daguerreotype that famously changed the world. Federal Dead on the Field of Battle of First Day, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, with its depiction of rotting soldier-corpses, made it impossible to ever again return to a serious consideration of the aesthetic and romantic valorization of war, as had been imagined by painters and sculptors for millennia before the notion of propaganda was conceived. We know how the reality principle of photography was revised by every wartime generation and every advance in photographic media, whether in the depiction of trench warfare brought home from World War I, the corpses strewn across Nanjing and the Normandy beaches in World War II, the My Lai massacre in Vietnam, the Highway of Death in the first Gulf War, or the torture and humiliation of Abu Ghraib prisoners in Iraq. But unlike the Myth of the Glory of War, the Myth of the Superiority Found in Surviving War lingers with the help of photography, for the obvious reasons that it consoles the surviving victims and awards the bravery of soldiers.
Simon Norfolk, Afghanistan: Chronotopia; The brickworks at Hussain Khil, east of Kabul, 2001. Archival digital chromogenic print, 40 × 50 in. © Simon Norfolk
Despite the sentimentalism that permeates so much journalism, the reality of war has held sway in recent US presidential elections, namely, in the victory of civilian Bill Clinton over the war veterans George H. W. Bush and Robert Dole and again in the recent victory of civilian Barack Obama over erstwhile prisoner of war John McCain. Yet there are at least two circumstances that compel us to consider Slavick's motivation for resurrecting the military bias for civilians; it may be justified, at least ironically. In keeping mindful of the wars that the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and its allies have led in Eastern Europe and the Middle East in the past two decades, the militaries of Western governments have shown how well they learned from the liberal media's close observation of the Vietnam War, to the extent that they today banish journalists to green zones miles removed from the front lines—except when embedding them within military campaigns, with all their attendant restraints, censorship, and disinformation. The US government also sought, but failed, to legally ban the media from the funerals of fallen soldiers. Considering the West's continued financial and cultural ties with military-backed governments, occupying powers, and parliamentary governments under threat of civil war, it may be no exaggeration to say that we find ourselves assimilating military perspectives into our media and art at a level comparable to that not exercised since the early 1960s, a time when the world political theater was dominated by Charles de Gaulle in France, Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy in the United States, Juan Perón in Argentina, Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt, Nikita Khrushchev in the Soviet Union, Mao Tse-tung in China, Chiang Kai-shek in Taiwan, and Fidel Castro in Cuba—all of these men championed to lead their nations during peacetime on the basis of their wartime achievements.
There is another, more pressing reason to review the military model. One look at Slavick's roster of artists informs us that she has compiled a globally representative selection, with a good number hailing from nations that have developed historically outside the Western avant-garde and its devaluation of art made in the service of state, church, and class propaganda. With Lida Abdul from Afghanistan; Adel Abidin from Iraq; Diana Al-Hadid from Syria; Taysir Batniji from Gaza; Xu Bing, Liu Bolin, and Xu Zhen from China; Osman Khan and Samina Mansuri from Pakistan; Julie Mehretu from Ethiopia; Simon Norfolk from Nigeria; Walid Raad from Lebanon; Armita Raafat from Iran; and Rocio Rodriguez from Cuba, more than one-third of the artists gathered by Slavick have experienced their primary enculturation in nations that, in many cases, have only in recent decades emerged from colonial rule, some of the nations having been wracked by wars during the artists' lifetimes, while others continue to be governed by despots and military occupations. Such an expansive representation at this point in the developing global agora of art urges us—as it obviously did Slavick—to reprise the debate on whether or not surviving war somehow makes us better, wiser, more responsible citizens and spiritually more enlightened leaders—if for no other reason than that this is a prejudice that still vitally propels the military backing of the administrations and regimes in several of these states.
As if to counter our discreet slide back into the international military rationale, Slavick's book in many regards offers the legatees of the cultural avant-garde reassurance that an unprecedented number of artists from around the world openly demonstrate their democratic and pacifist affinities with the artists and liberal-to-left public in the West. If Slavick refrains from exposing the demagoguery of the military model that holds veterans of war as somehow more valorous, and of electing the war veteran to lead while the mere civilian is deemed unqualified or even cowardly, then it would seem that Slavick's first concern is for protecting the artists and their families from retaliation by reactionary regimes. It helps to remember that in the time frame in which Slavick produced her book, artist Ai Wei Wei in China and film director Jafar Panahi in Iran were arrested and imprisoned by their respective authorities for making “subversive” statements and art. In July 2011, the elderly parents of émigré Syrian composer and pianist Malek Jandali were attacked in their Damascus home in retaliation for the performance Jandali gave at a protest rally outside the White House against the regime of Bashar al-Assad and in support of the Syrian uprising.
Diana Al-Hadid, Built from Our Tallest Tales, 2008. Wood, metal, polystyrene, polymer gypsum, fiberglass, plastic, concrete, and paint, 144 × 100 × 80 in. © Diana Al-Hadid. Courtesy of the artist and Marianne Boesky Gallery. Photograph: Mariano C. Peuser
One myth that Slavick might have better left dormant for its having so little influence today concerns the so-called beautification of tragedy and suffering through art. On the surface, the myth is a fallacy by the mutual exclusion of its terms: how can tragedy and suffering be rendered beautiful? And yet there remains the belief among certain moralizing schools of aesthetics that the beautiful art of tragedy is capable, through prolonged exposure, of anesthetizing the viewer to the pain of its subjects. It is ironic that Slavick would allow this myth such leeway, considering that her entire project is to a great degree devoted to an aesthetic process that gets erroneously labeled alternately as the aestheticization and the anesthetization of suffering.
The issue of Slavick's ambiguity toward these myths becomes clearer when we are made aware that it is through the eyes of Walter Benjamin, Theodor Adorno, and Bertolt Brecht that the old admonishments of the aestheticization and anesthetization of suffering and tragedy seep into her discourse. In our resistance to let go of canonical texts, we signal that it is long past the time when our old warhorses of aesthetic criticism should be put to rest—if for no other reason than to clear room for more viable and vital voices to take hold. Benjamin, Adorno, and Brecht will always have much to tell us about the art and developing culture of the mid-twentieth century, as they had much to remind us between the 1960s and 1980s, when a new generation of political art cognoscenti were negotiating postmodernism. Yet not only have we since assimilated their more arcane insights with the art and criticism of our own day, but all three are to some extent being reduced to threadbare clichés in having their theories trotted out by every art writer seeking credibility by association with their precedents. All of which appears ironic when considering that as early as the late 1960s, student radicals in Europe, particularly in Frankfurt, came to regard theorists such as Adorno to be hopelessly out of date for their reticence toward taking political action (Leslie 1999).
In dwelling on aesthetic and political theories derived from the political events of the 1930s and 1940s, along with the then new development, spread, and application of photographic media, Slavick appears distracted from the vital issues of our own day. As for the myth of the beautified view of suffering, the myth is no more than the result of a misalignment of terms producing a disordering of the phenomenology of the simultaneous experience of beauty and politics in art. The dilemma facing artists isn't a matter of seeing to it that the viewer is or isn't anesthetized to suffering by beauty; it's a matter of the artist and viewer who refuse to look at ugliness and specifically at the ugly depiction of tragedy and suffering. The aesthete willfully turns away from the ugliness of suffering before art enters the equation and makes it so known by assuming the willful appellation of the “aesthete.” The empathetic viewer, by contrast, is capable of seeing the political significance of an artwork despite whether it is beautiful or ugly. There is no anesthetization of the medium involved because the detachment of the apathetic viewer and the empathy of the compassionate viewer are both a priori to the art. What does harden us to tragedy and suffering is the sheer number of representations—beautiful and ugly—bombarding us daily. And against this barrage of journalistic depictions, a counterargument can be made that it is beauty in all its multivalent tropes that proves itself capable of drawing our attention back to the meaningful representations of human tragedy and suffering.
Jennifer Allora & Guillermo Calzadilla, How to Appear Invisible, 2009. Super 16 mm film transferred to HD video, 21:26 min. © JAllora & Calzadilla. Images courtesy Gladstone Gallery, New York
For whatever reason, Slavick doesn't come out in full support of empathy. Instead, she prefers to cite an array of antecedents and competing critical opinions that mull over the beauty versus empathy debate. Of course, in raising the very name empathy, the author cancels out the notion that the “beautiful view of suffering” is an anesthetic. We need only understand that empathy isn't a learned trait but rather is evidenced as early as infancy. Empathy enables us, as we mature, to form instantaneous judgments against cruelty, in favor of the generosity of others. And since empathy cannot proceed from nothing, the metaphors by which we express our capacity for empathy—that empathy is “in our blood,” an innate component of “our collective unconscious,” that we “inherit it genetically”—all convey that empathy is received through some innately human, and perhaps some higher animal, structural regeneration.
Whatever arguments we pick with Slavick over her rhetorical delivery, we must give her credit where it is due for focusing our attention on the generic and iconic manifestations of rubble as the premiere and ubiquitous signifiers of war. Not since the early 1950s, when Harold Rosenberg (1952) branded action painters as existentialist—their primal marks registering as political defiance and asserting their individual existence in the face of adversity and enmity—have we witnessed so acute a singling out of an artistic motif, in this case to represent the universality of war. Rubble is, of course, not just a metaphor for war; it is the direct material effect of war, and in the art that depicts or assimilates war, rubble is war's document and evidence. Rubble is the single assuredly universal and unifying principle providing continuity between present-day representations of war and the historic and prehistoric visual representations of battles known through art and archeology, even to the earliest human memories and recognitions of combat and ruin.
Hence this is not the first generation to incorporate rubble as the subject of the iconographic theater of war. Since the earliest war photographers were not able to record the motion of soldiers and their weaponry, after the remains of the dead and the convalescence of the wounded, the sedentary remains of fallen fortifications marking the abandoned battlefields are what characterize some of the more placid and picturesque nineteenth-century war photography. Among the earliest of these, Roger Fenton's Valley of the Shadow of Death, taken in 1855 during the Crimean War, has captured a dirt road in a ravine littered with cannonballs. Similarly, Interior View of Fort Sumter Showing Ruins, one of the many well-known photographs by anonymous Confederate photographers of the ruins of the South near the close of the American Civil War, demonstrates a remarkable continuity with the video (or stills) of Lida Abdul's White House, Jennifer Allora & Guillermo Calzadilla's How to Appear Invisible, MadeIn Company's Calm, and many other works depicted in Slavick's book.
Despite the petty gripes we may have concerning her rhetoric, Slavick's nomadic selection process, and her choices in representing artists from myriad cultures, allows Out of Rubble to rise above and beyond this criticism. From the moment one opens the book, one is swept up by the powerful currents of cross-culturalism that flow through it. This is all the more interesting considering the number of artists that hail from nations once occupied by European powers. Taken together here, after decades of anti-Western postcolonial posturing, at last sharing the arena with their former colonizers, they transact, if not dictate, the terms of their own cultural interpretation. Given that the dominant art markets around the world, to say nothing of the traditionally polarized cultures they emerge from, still show steep resistance to the diversity and lineage of global multipolarity, Slavick's selection takes an elite, Westernized market to task—a market out of sync with the culturally diverse range of artists, who prove themselves repeatedly to be both activist and accessible to a wide range of audiences.
Interior view of Fort Sumter showing ruins, taken by a Confederate photographer in 1864, Charleston, South Carolina. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-116996 (black-and-white film copy negative)
Roger Fenton (1819–69), The Valley of the Shadow of Death, 1855. Salted paper print; 28 × 36 cm. Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, LC-USZ62-2322 (black-and-white film copy negative)
All of this makes one pause; it a curious thing that Slavick doesn't make more of the nomadic process required to produce global surveys of art such as Rubble, particularly given that the primary and unifying element of this nomadism is empathy. As for Slavick's curation, it is eminently open-ended, and it incorporates an array of aesthetics, genres, media, and production values. Realism, surrealism, existentialism, expressionism, minimalism, conceptualism, popularism—all the dominant models of the previous century stream through the film, video, sculpture, painting, photography, and installation art she has assembled here. This diversity is all the more admirable considering that the context and content of war is, by comparison, focused narrowly on relatively few motifs: the aftermath of the explosion/implosion, the ubiquitous and universal rubble, the survivors, the empathy felt for them, the location of the self amid the devastation, the question of “what next,” the choice between more destruction or reconstruction. In the end, there is no one fixed political ideology manifested and no formula proffered for artistically depicting or embodying one. There are no revolutionary or utopian ends proclaimed, no strategies or tactics prescribed. Capitalism and government will not be rocked by this art; solutions to the world's conflicts will likely not be gleaned from it. And yet, much like the individualistic and highly subjective postwar art made under the canopy of existentialism between 1945 and 1965, there is a vital and resonant life force pulsing through the aesthetics of rubble.
Wafaa Bilal, The Ashes Series, 2009. Archival inkjet print mounted on Dibond, 38 × 46.5 in. Courtesy of the artist
Slavick's curation of a visual exhibition in a book succeeds to the extent that it should be recommended to any and all who both value a survey of politically motivated art and are searching for an art of renewed existential priorities. The reason that Slavick's nomadic selection works so well is that, besides the unifying principle of rubble that each work shares, the visual art assembled here presents interpretive and theoretical microcosms that are bound in forms we can accept as complete or, at the very least, sufficient to promote understanding. In each work of art, we are supplied with ample visual and contextual information to draw a meaningful model of some plausible reality. It doesn't matter whether the reality of the depiction is imaginary or real; what matters is that, bound by its own rules and structural framework, the art imparts all that we may require. In this respect, Slavick has curated a compelling array of art, successful as individual works and taken together to compose an overarching dialogue on the subject of the aftermath of war.
Pamela Wilson-Ryckman, Corner (left), 2007. Watercolor on paper, 22.5 × 27.5 in. Private collection, San Francisco. Courtesy Gallery Paule Anglim and the artist
Slavick's discursive exegeses of texts, by contrast, is confounded and complicated by the brevity and dialectical succession of the textual snippets she provides. Before we can grasp at any one of the cursory handles to meaning extended by Slavick's citations, the handle is cut from us, preventing us from deriving any gratification from the citation before we are handed the next one and the next after it. If we at all sympathize with Slavick's Rolodex approach to skimming through cultural theory, it is because the idea of nomadically visiting the different, contrasting, even conflicting conceptual paradigms is a highly desirable method of comprehending the many facets of any given global conflict when afforded the opportunity to study its multipolarities in depth. Unfortunately, while we are provided an index of contemporary criticism of great value to the student who can use Slavick's book as an introduction to more in-depth criticism and commentary, in the cursory and elliptical format that Slavick has submitted, the coherence required to formulate a compelling argument for or against any given issue remains fugitive. We know that the clues are somewhere there to be found, but they pass us by too discreetly, too quickly, to be identified with any real assurance. To succeed resoundingly in her ambitious project, Slavick would have to compile a more comprehensive and thorough anthology of writings that are at least representative of each writer's reasonings.
However, in those portions of Slavick's essay when she relies on her own insights instead of deferring to a barrage of critical citations, or when she buttresses her chief points with passages of Wisława Szymborska's tone-setting poem The End and the Beginning, we begin to understand Slavick's motivation to produce a project that conceptually locates the detritus of war as corresponding with the observations of the artists. Slavick's vision especially translates into lucid and self-confident commentary when she concentrates on the artists' work, and it is these passages in the writing that shine. Yet, even here, she too often falls prey to the poststructuralist conceit of projecting the structure and tropes of texts onto the world—as when she refers repeatedly to the demolition and renewal of cities as “erased” and “overwritten.” What is this but the symptom of an imbalance of idealist textual emersion, at the cost of a real perception of the world, which in this case deprives us of an appreciation of the collective manual labor and the years and billions of dollars it takes to level and rebuild war-torn cities?
MadeIn Company, Calm, 2009. Waterbed, carpet, bricks, 196.9 × 137.8 in. Seeing One's Own Eyes installation, Ikon Gallery, Birmingham, UK. Photograph: Stuart Whipps. Courtesy MadeIn Company
It may be true that empathy can fill in the voids left by inexperience, but it must be an empathy that engages the perception of real events and living things—their sensations and affects in the world—not representations of them in language and art alone. The trouble is that a too-fussy preoccupation with language and structure that has seized hold of late poststructuralism to the point of making it unreliable as a recorder and analytic of observations makes us sacrifice facts for the self-important flourish of their expression. Slavick, who has an excellent command of the poststructuralist lexicon, too often falls into the traps that language and its cadence spring on us at the moment of our heightened seduction. The result is that too often the description of a sculpture or image becomes exaggerated, which causes us, in the distraction of poetics, to lose sight of the proportions of an event or a person in the world. If this sounds at all like the complaint that compels Plato to banish the poets from the Republic, this is indication of just how long we've been trying to balance the aesthetics and idealism that Slavick favors with the principles of representation and pragmatism that enable them to be shared with a wider and, in this case, political audience.
Cornelia Parker, Cold Dark Matter: An Exploded View, 1991. A garden shed and contents blown up for the artist by the British army, the fragments suspended around a lightbulb. Varying dimensions. Courtesy of the artist and Tate Gallery
In addition to the artists already named in this review, Out of Rubble features the work of Joseph Beuys, Enrique Castrejon, Lenka Clayton, Helen de Main, Decolonizing Architecture, Jane Dixon, Christoph Draeger, Monica Haller, IDEA sarl, Andrew Ellis Johnson, Jennifer Karady, Mary Kelly, Anselm Kiefer, Barry Le Va, Curtis Mann, Raquel Maulwurf, Cornelia Parker, Thomas Ruff, elin o'Hara slavick, Susanne Slavick, Elaine Spatz-Rabinowitz, Pamela Wilson-Ryckman, and Tomoko Yoneda as well as an essay by Holly Edwards.
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Introduction to Adorno/Marcuse Correspondence on the German Student Movement
, no.
platypus1917.home.comcast.net/∼platypus1917/leslieesther_adornomarcusenewleft.pdf
The American Action Painters
figures&tables
Horsepower Hubris
Losing My Religion
Ekphrasis in Recent Popular Novels: Reaffirming the Power of Art Images
The End of Art and the Future of Criticism in Wilhelm Worringer's Art History
nomadic curation
multipolarities
aestheticization
anesthetization of suffering
Vulnerable Times
Reading the Real Žižek’s Literary Materialism
Asrul Sani’s “Richard Wright The Artist Turned Intellectual” (1956)
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Fake Tax Reform
08 Dec, 2017 by Peter Schiff
After supposedly chomping on the bit for years to pass meaningful tax reform, Republicans are now set to blow an historic opportunity. Whatever version of the Bill that emerges from the House and Senate Conference Committee (which will be signed by President Trump faster than he can down a Filet o’Fish), will be far less than the Republicans envisioned when they finally captured the White House and both Congressional Chambers in 2016. But from what I have seen of the particulars, the revisions to the tax code will offer a marginal, although temporary, win for low income individuals, a major slap for moderately successful wage earners and home owners, (especially in the high tax Blue States) and a huge victory for the extremely wealthy and certain categories of business owners. While it is certain that the plan will add to the growing deficit, its immediate economic and political impact is hard to predict.
For generations, taxpayers and politicians alike lambasted our overly complex tax code for its myriad of economic distorting loopholes that seemed to produce nothing except employment for legions of accountants and tax lawyers adept at gaming the system. As a result, talk about tax reform has always included proposals to make the system simpler, fairer, and more transparent. But on that front, the Republican proposals fail miserably. Trump and Congress will hail this achievement as being a major victory for the American people. But the true winner will be the swamp that Trump promised to drain.
Unlike Ronald Reagan, who passed tax reform in 1986 by striking a deal with Democrat House Speaker Tip O’Neill, Trump and Congressional Republicans faced no particular need to compromise. If Reagan had the benefits enjoyed by Trump, Ryan and McConnell, his tax cuts would have been paired with significant spending cuts and perhaps a balanced budget. But to get O’Neill (and his whopping 71 seat House majority) to go along, Reagan’s ideals of fiscal prudence and smaller government had to be set aside. But Trump is no Reagan, and today’s Republican Party has about as much commitment to shrinking the size of government as did the Democrats in the 1980s.
Taxes are the price we pay for government. If Republicans want to reduce the tax burden, they need to make government less expensive. Tax cuts without spending cuts is the Republican version of a free lunch. But if government spending is not paid for with tax revenue, alternate sources must be found that will ultimately prove more costly than the forgone tax revenue.
Despite endless campaign rhetoric to the contrary, the Republican Party is no longer the party of limited government, fiscal responsibility, Federalism, the Constitution, sound money, or any of the principals that they typically espouse while stumping for office or raising money. Instead of reducing the size of government, thereby lightening the burden on taxpayers and limiting the economic drag caused by government, Republicans have chosen the easy course of tax cuts, replete with overly optimistic assumptions and gimmicks meant to disguise their true impact on future deficits. Adding insult to injury, they leave in place an even more complex tax code, replete with even more loopholes, that limits individual freedom and undermines economic growth.
True reform would have eliminated the income tax completely, or at a minimum, replaced it with a flat tax. It would have abolished the corporate income tax, payroll taxes, and the estate and gift taxes, and replaced them with a tax system based on consumption rather than production. Such a system would encourage savings rather than debt accumulation, and would restore some semblance of sanity to a system increasingly dependent on borrowing. Real reform would have included entitlement reform, as well as across the board reductions in government spending. Entire agencies and departments would have been eliminated, making government smaller and less expensive. These are the types of changes that are needed to head off a possible looming debt crisis and put the country back on a path to achieve real economic growth, not the phony financial gains we have seen in the past generation.
But instead, Republicans crafted a plan that would cut taxes for some while raising taxes for others. The political genius of the plan can be found in the elimination of state and local tax deductions that will raise taxes predominantly on higher wage earners in Democrat controlled states with high taxes. This move was a political freebie for Republicans, as it largely spares their constituents from tax hikes, but prevents Democrats from protecting theirs because to do so would require them to argue against raising taxes on the “wealthy.” It may also trigger a fiscal crisis in largely Democrat states as high earners, who provide an outsize share of state tax revenue, consider pulling up stakes for lower tax jurisdictions. But Republicans did not leave well enough alone. The taxes raised on rich Democrats will not nearly be enough to pay for the cuts they offer business owners, passive investors, and corporations. The balance will be “paid for” by borrowing. In addition, high tax states may be forced to scramble to adjust their tax policies in an attempt to forestall defections of the wealthy. To do so, they may shift taxes to businesses (for which state taxes will still be deductible from federal taxes). The businesses in turn, can pass these costs onto their employees in the form of lower wages and their customers in the form of higher prices.
Republicans, of course, argue that the economic growth that will be generated by lowering the corporate tax rate from 35% to 20% will generate enough new tax revenue to offset what is lost. While that idea is sound in theory, nothing about our current situation would suggest that a growth surge is around the corner, with or without corporate tax cuts.
We are already in the ninth year of a supposed economic expansion. Over the last century, these expansions (the time between recessions) have lasted, on average, about five and a quarter years. So, already our current “expansion” has lasted nearly twice the average. Also, this expansion has been extraordinarily weak, with growth averaging around 2% since 2009. This is far below the 3% to 4% rate seen in prior recoveries. (data from the National Bureau of Economic Research and Bureau of Labor Statistics) It is also clear that this tepid number has relied heavily on surging asset prices in stocks, real estate, and bonds. But all three of those markets could easily reverse course.
The stock market has surged to all-time highs based on the expected likelihood that tax reform would be passed early in the Trump Administration. When this hope becomes reality, it may be that we will get a “buy the rumor, sell the fact” decline, especially if the final package is not all that investors hoped it would be. The real estate market may actually suffer under the new rules as high-end properties become more expensive to own and less attractive to buy given the limits on property tax and mortgage deductions. On the lower end of the market, the expansion of the standard deduction could mean far fewer will receive a tax benefit from buying modestly priced homes, thereby mitigating the advantages of buying over renting. (It is no accident that some of the biggest objections to the new proposals have come from real estate industry groups). And lastly, the bond market faces no shortage of headwinds. With the Fed threatening to sell much of its $4.5 Trillion holdings of Treasury and Mortgage bonds, the likelihood of falling bond prices and rising yields looms large. (In the past three months, 10-year Treasury yields have increased 30 basis points). Even the tax bill’s supporters acknowledge that it will increase the deficit significantly in the near term, thereby requiring the Treasury to sell more bonds to fill the gap. The extra supply could put downward pressure on bond prices and raise yields on the long end, creating losses in the bond market and raising borrowing costs for government, businesses and consumers.
For these reasons, it is logical to assume that the current tax proposals will have a more modest economic impact than the Tax Cuts of 1986 or even the Bush tax cuts of 2001. It is important to note that the Bush tax cuts occurred while the economy was already in recession, a time where economists could at least plausibly argue that fiscal stimulus was needed. But by putting these cuts through now, while the economy is still expanding (at least on paper), by the time the next recession arrives, the fiscal bullets will have already been fired.
Assuming that the hoped for economic growth does not materialize, the money borrowed now must eventually be repaid. Deficit spending means that today’s tax cuts merely sow the seeds for tomorrow’s tax hikes. But since taxpayers will not only be on the hook for the money borrowed, but the added interest associated with that debt, the future tax hikes could be larger than today’s cuts.
Of course, instead of raising future taxes to repay the money borrowed to fund today’s cuts, a cooperative Federal Reserve could simply print the money needed to buy the additional Treasury debt. But this does not mean we get all this government for free. The cost will come in the form of higher consumer prices as a new round of monetary expansion could cause a continuing drop in the dollar. So Americans may end up with more after tax dollars in their paychecks, but the reduced value of those dollars means they will actually be able to afford to buy less stuff. Just because it appears consumers dodged this bullet during the first three phases of Quantitative Easing does not mean that we will be as lucky with additional rounds.
More articles by Peter Schiff
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Arizona-American Water Company, Inc. - Transaction with Maricopa County Municipal Water Conservation District Number One
W-01303A-05-0718
M. Diaz Cortez
W. Rigsby
S. Wakefield
D. Pozefsky
On October 11, 2005, Arizona-American Water Company ("Arizona-American" or "Company") filed an application ("Original Application") with the Arizona Corporation Commission ("ACC" or "Commission") requesting certain approvals associated with a transaction between the Company's Aqua Fria Water District and the Maricopa County Municipal Water Conservation District Number One ("MWD") for the purpose of obtaining treatment, at a planned regional water treatment facility, of a portion of the Company's Central Arizona Water Project ("CAP") water allocation.
Arizona-American's Original Application outlined the Company's plans to purchase water treatment capacity, through a capital lease arrangement, from MWD. At the time of the filing, MWD had plans to finance, build, and own a water treatment facility (the "White Tanks Plant") that could provide treated CAP water for the Company's Agua Fria District service territory located west of Phoenix and north of Interstate 10, between the White Tank Mountains and the Arizona Loop 101 freeway.
Arizona-American's Original Application sought the following:
a) Commission pre-approval of and a finding of prudency for a capital lease agreement for CAP water treatment capacity between the Company and MWD;
b) authority to issue debt;
c) authority to transfer assets from the Company to MWD;
d) revisions to an existing Company hook-up fee; and,
e) preapproval of rate treatment and rate process for the proposed capital lease.
RUCO filed an Application to Intervene in the case on January 4, 2006. RUCO's request was granted by the ACC's Hearing Division in a procedural order dated January 10, 2006. The procedural order also set a hearing date on the matter.
On February 10, 2006 RUCO filed direct testimony on Arizona-American's Original Application. ACC Staff filed a Staff Report on the same date.
On March 2, 2006, the ACC Hearing Division issued a procedural order that granted Arizona-American's request to suspend the procedural schedule (and the hearing) because of issues that had developed between the Company and MWD.
After filing several status reports on capital lease negotiations between the Company and MWD, and appearing at a procedural conference on August 1, 2006, Arizona-American filed a revised application ("Revised Application") on September 1, 2006.
The Revised Application describes MWD's decision not to finance, build, and own the proposed White Tanks Plant. The Revised Application also states that the Company could construct, own and operate the White Tanks Plant but would not be able to do so under the conventional rate-making process.
Arizona-American's Revised Application is requesting that the Commission approve increases to the Agua Fria District's existing Water Facilities Hook-Up Fee ("Hook-Up Fee") that will be used to finance construction of the White Tanks Plant. The Hook-Up Fee is currently being charged to builders that are operating in the Agua Fria District. Arizona-American presents two different options for increasing the existing Hook-Up Fee in the Company's Revised Application. Arizona-American is also seeking approval of an accounting order that will make the Company whole during the construction of the White Tanks Plant.
On September 21, 2006, RUCO filed comments on Arizona-American's Revised Application. RUCO's comments voiced no objection to the increases in hook-up fees requested by the Company. RUCO also stated its preference for the Company-proposed "Option 2 hook-up fee increase" presented in the Revised Application.
Between October 23, 2006 and December 6, 2006, MWD and numerous developers filed for intervention in the case.
On October 27, 2006, ACC Staff filed a Staff Report on the Company's Revised Application recommending approval of the Company's proposed hook-up fee and accounting order as requested.
On December 27, 2006, the Administrative Law Judge ("ALJ") assigned to the case issued a procedural order that set the evidentiary hearing on the matter for 10:00 a.m. on March 19, 2007 at the ACC's Phoenix Offices at 1200 W. Washington.
On January 24, 2007, RUCO and other intervenors to the case filed direct testimony on Arizona-American's Revised Application. RUCO's direct testimony largely supported the Company's requests and reiterated the comments that RUCO filed earlier in September 2006.
RUCO filed rebuttal testimony on February 21, 2007. RUCO's rebuttal testimony continued to support the Company's requests and argued why it was premature to make any decisions on whether or not the Company's estimated costs represent impudent expenditures.
Surrebuttal testimony from RUCO was filed as scheduled on March 12, 2007. RUCO's surrebuttal testimony took issue with one of the components of a Company-proposed formula that would recalculate the amount of hook-up fee to be charged in the event of third party capacity sales.
The evidentiary hearing on Arizona-American's application was concluded on Monday, March 26, 2007. Closing briefs were filed by the attorneys for the various parties to the case on Tuesday, April 17, 2007. Reply briefs were filed on Tuesday, April 27, 2007. After weighing all of the evidence presented during the proceeding, the ALJ assigned to the case issued her Recommended Opinion and Order ("ROO") on Tuesday, September 4, 2007. The ROO recommended that Arizona-American's requests for an increase in the Company's hook-up fees and an accounting order that will keep Arizona-American whole during the construction of the White Tanks Plant be granted.
On Tuesday, September 18, 2007, the five ACC Commissioners adopted an amended version of the ALJ's ROO by a vote of 5-0.
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