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The Debates are the report—transcribed, edited, and corrected—of what is said in the House. The Journals are the official record of the decisions and other transactions of the House. The Order Paper and Notice Paper contains the listing of all items that may be brought forward on a particular sitting day, and notices for upcoming items.
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41st Parliament, 2nd Session (October 16, 2013 - August 2, 2015)
Order Paper and Notice Paper
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EDITED HANSARD • NUMBER 107
ROUTINE PROCEEDINGS
Mr. Tom Lukiwski (Parliamentary Secretary to the Leader of the Government in the House of Commons, CPC)
Mrs. Sadia Groguhé (Saint-Lambert, NDP)
Environment and Sustainable Development
Ms. Megan Leslie (Halifax, NDP) (10:10) (10:15)
Mr. Kevin Lamoureux (Winnipeg North, Lib.) (10:20)
Ms. Megan Leslie (10:25)
Mr. Tyrone Benskin (Jeanne-Le Ber, NDP)
Ms. Megan Leslie
Ms. Ruth Ellen Brosseau (Berthier—Maskinongé, NDP) (10:30)
The Deputy Speaker
(Division 221) (11:10)
Instruction to the Standing Committee on Veterans Affairs
Mr. Peter Julian (Burnaby—New Westminster, NDP)
Mr. Peter Julian (11:15) (11:20)
Mr. David McGuinty (Ottawa South, Lib.)
Mr. Peter Julian
Hon. Julian Fantino (Minister of Veterans Affairs, CPC) (11:25)
Mr. Sylvain Chicoine (Châteauguay—Saint-Constant, NDP) (11:30) (11:35)
Mr. Sean Casey (Charlottetown, Lib.) (11:40)
Mr. Sylvain Chicoine
Ms. Lysane Blanchette-Lamothe (Pierrefonds—Dollard, NDP)
Mr. Tom Lukiwski (Parliamentary Secretary to the Leader of the Government in the House of Commons, CPC) (11:45)
Mr. Mike Sullivan (York South—Weston, NDP)
Mr. Jack Harris (St. John's East, NDP)
Impaired Driving (12:25)
Mr. Russ Hiebert (South Surrey—White Rock—Cloverdale, CPC)
Cell Towers
Mr. Frank Valeriote (Guelph, Lib.)
Mr. Dan Harris (Scarborough Southwest, NDP)
Sex Selection
Mr. Brad Trost (Saskatoon—Humboldt, CPC)
Mr. Robert Aubin (Trois-Rivières, NDP)
Emergency Protection Order
Mr. LaVar Payne (Medicine Hat, CPC)
Mr. Sean Casey (Charlottetown, Lib.)
Ms. Peggy Nash (Parkdale—High Park, NDP)
National Day of the Midwife
Sex Selection (12:30)
Mr. Leon Benoit (Vegreville—Wainwright, CPC)
Ms. Elizabeth May (Saanich—Gulf Islands, GP)
Mr. Alain Giguère (Marc-Aurèle-Fortin, NDP)
Ms. Ève Péclet (La Pointe-de-l'Île, NDP)
Mr. François Pilon (Laval—Les Îles, NDP)
Ms. Marie-Claude Morin (Saint-Hyacinthe—Bagot, NDP)
Mr. Glenn Thibeault (Sudbury, NDP)
Questions Passed as Orders for Returns
The Acting Speaker (Mr. Barry Devolin)
Mr. Tom Lukiwski
Prohibiting Cluster Munitions Act
Mr. Jasbir Sandhu (Surrey North, NDP) (12:40) (12:45) (12:50)
Mr. Kevin Lamoureux (Winnipeg North, Lib.)
Mr. Jasbir Sandhu
Rouge National Urban Park Act (12:55)
Hon. Ed Holder
Mr. Colin Carrie (Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of the Environment, CPC) (13:00) (13:05)
Ms. Megan Leslie (Halifax, NDP)
Mr. Colin Carrie
Hon. John McKay (Scarborough—Guildwood, Lib.) (13:10)
Mr. David Wilks (Kootenay—Columbia, CPC)
Mr. Dan Harris (Scarborough Southwest, NDP) (13:15)
Ms. Rathika Sitsabaiesan (Scarborough—Rouge River, NDP) (13:20) (13:25) (13:30)
Ms. Rathika Sitsabaiesan (13:35)
Mr. Corneliu Chisu (Pickering—Scarborough East, CPC)
Ms. Rathika Sitsabaiesan
The Acting Speaker (Mr. Barry Devolin) (13:40)
Hon. John McKay (Scarborough—Guildwood, Lib.)
Mr. Robert Sopuck
Mr. Dan Harris
Mr. Leon Benoit
Mrs. Cathy McLeod (Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Labour and for Western Economic Diversification, CPC)
Hon. John McKay (Scarborough—Guildwood, Lib.) (13:50) (13:55)
STATEMENTS BY MEMBERS
Mr. Mark Adler (York Centre, CPC)
Mr. Wayne Marston (Hamilton East—Stoney Creek, NDP)
Mr. Dave MacKenzie (Oxford, CPC)
Canada's Top Chef
Hon. Mauril Bélanger (Ottawa—Vanier, Lib.)
Canadian Forces Health Services (14:05)
Mr. Royal Galipeau (Ottawa—Orléans, CPC)
Ms. Jean Crowder (Nanaimo—Cowichan, NDP)
School Graduations
Mr. Wladyslaw Lizon (Mississauga East—Cooksville, CPC)
International Peace Garden
Mr. Larry Maguire (Brandon—Souris, CPC)
WorldPride Human Rights Conference
Mr. Randall Garrison (Esquimalt—Juan de Fuca, NDP)
Agreement on Internal Trade (14:10)
Mr. Dan Albas (Okanagan—Coquihalla, CPC)
Cultural Festival
Leader of the Liberal Party of Canada
Mrs. Stella Ambler (Mississauga South, CPC)
Hon. Mark Eyking (Sydney—Victoria, Lib.)
International Trade (14:15)
Mr. Randy Hoback (Prince Albert, CPC)
Northern Gateway Pipeline
Mr. Murray Rankin (Victoria, NDP)
Sealers Memorial Statue
Mr. Robert Goguen (Moncton—Riverview—Dieppe, CPC)
Mrs. Kelly Block (Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Natural Resources, CPC)
Mrs. Kelly Block (Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Natural Resources, CPC) (14:20)
Mr. Nathan Cullen (Skeena—Bulkley Valley, NDP)
Ms. Chrystia Freeland (Toronto Centre, Lib.)
Hon. Peter MacKay (Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Canada, CPC) (14:25)
Hon. Carolyn Bennett (St. Paul's, Lib.)
Hon. Peter MacKay (Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Canada, CPC)
Hon. Scott Brison (Kings—Hants, Lib.)
Hon. K. Kellie Leitch (Minister of Labour and Minister of Status of Women, CPC)
Ms. Rosane Doré Lefebvre (Alfred-Pellan, NDP)
Mr. Alexandre Boulerice (Rosemont—La Petite-Patrie, NDP)
Mr. Paul Calandra (Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister and for Intergovernmental Affairs, CPC)
Mr. Charlie Angus (Timmins—James Bay, NDP) (14:35)
Mr. Charlie Angus (Timmins—James Bay, NDP)
Ms. Irene Mathyssen (London—Fanshawe, NDP)
Hon. Julian Fantino (Minister of Veterans Affairs, CPC)
Mr. Sylvain Chicoine (Châteauguay—Saint-Constant, NDP)
Intergovernmental Relations (14:40)
Hon. Kevin Sorenson (Minister of State (Finance), CPC)
Mr. Peter Braid (Parliamentary Secretary for Infrastructure and Communities, CPC)
Ms. Joyce Murray (Vancouver Quadra, Lib.)
Ms. Linda Duncan (Edmonton—Strathcona, NDP)
Hon. Bernard Valcourt (Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, CPC)
Ms. Jean Crowder (Nanaimo—Cowichan, NDP) (14:45)
Ms. Rathika Sitsabaiesan (Scarborough—Rouge River, NDP)
Hon. Jason Kenney (Minister of Employment and Social Development and Minister for Multiculturalism, CPC)
Mr. Ted Opitz (Etobicoke Centre, CPC)
Hon. Rob Nicholson (Minister of National Defence, CPC)
Mr. Hoang Mai (Brossard—La Prairie, NDP)
Hon. Lisa Raitt (Minister of Transport, CPC)
Hon. Stéphane Dion (Saint-Laurent—Cartierville, Lib.)
Hon. Shelly Glover (Minister of Canadian Heritage and Official Languages, CPC)
Mrs. Carol Hughes (Algoma—Manitoulin—Kapuskasing, NDP)
Hon. Rona Ambrose (Minister of Health, CPC)
Parks Canada (15:00)
Hon. Leona Aglukkaq (Minister of the Environment, Minister of the Canadian Northern Economic Development Agency and Minister for the Arctic Council, CPC)
Ms. Kirsty Duncan (Etobicoke North, Lib.)
Mr. David Anderson (Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, CPC)
Ms. Libby Davies (Vancouver East, NDP)
Democratic Reform
Mr. Joe Preston (Elgin—Middlesex—London, CPC)
Hon. Pierre Poilievre (Minister of State (Democratic Reform), CPC)
Public Service of Canada
Mr. Mathieu Ravignat (Pontiac, NDP)
Mr. Dan Albas (Parliamentary Secretary to the President of the Treasury Board, CPC) (15:05)
Respect for Communities Act
(Bill read the second time and referred to a committee)
(Bill read the third time and passed)
Hon. Peter Van Loan (Leader of the Government in the House of Commons, CPC) (15:25)
Hon. Peter Van Loan
The Speaker (15:30)
Mr. Massimo Pacetti (Saint-Léonard—Saint-Michel, Lib.)
Red Tape Reduction Act
Hon. Michelle Rempel
Mr. Dan Albas (Parliamentary Secretary to the President of the Treasury Board, CPC) (15:35) (15:40) (15:45)
Mr. Jamie Nicholls (Vaudreuil—Soulanges, NDP) (15:50)
Mr. Dan Albas
Hon. John McCallum (Markham—Unionville, Lib.)
Mr. Dan Albas (15:55)
Hon. Michelle Rempel (Minister of State (Western Economic Diversification), CPC)
Mr. Mike Sullivan (York South—Weston, NDP) (16:00)
Ms. Annick Papillon (Québec, NDP) (16:05) (16:10) (16:15) (16:20)
Mr. Denis Blanchette (Louis-Hébert, NDP)
Ms. Annick Papillon
Ms. Marjolaine Boutin-Sweet (Hochelaga, NDP) (16:25)
Mr. Tarik Brahmi (Saint-Jean, NDP)
Ms. Annick Papillon (16:30)
Mr. Massimo Pacetti (Saint-Léonard—Saint-Michel, Lib.) (16:35) (16:40) (16:45)
Hon. Lynne Yelich (Minister of State (Foreign Affairs and Consular), CPC) (16:50)
Mr. Massimo Pacetti
Ms. Marjolaine Boutin-Sweet (Hochelaga, NDP)
Mr. Massimo Pacetti (16:55)
Mr. Ted Hsu (Kingston and the Islands, Lib.)
Message from the Senate (17:10)
Mr. Mark Warawa (Langley, CPC)
Mr. Mike Sullivan
Mrs. Anne-Marie Day (Charlesbourg—Haute-Saint-Charles, NDP) (17:20)
Mrs. Anne-Marie Day
PRIVATE MEMBERS' BUSINESS
Conflict Minerals Act
Ms. Christine Moore (Abitibi—Témiscamingue, NDP) (17:35)
Ms. Lois Brown (Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of International Development, CPC) (18:00)
Mr. Wayne Marston (Hamilton East—Stoney Creek, NDP) (18:05) (18:10) (18:15)
Ms. Irene Mathyssen (London—Fanshawe, NDP) (18:20)
Ms. Annick Papillon (Québec, NDP) (18:25) (18:30) (18:35)
Mr. Paul Dewar (Ottawa Centre, NDP)
The Acting Speaker (Mr. Bruce Stanton) (18:40)
Combating Counterfeit Products Act
Mr. Paul Dewar (Ottawa Centre, NDP) (18:50) (18:55)
The Acting Speaker (Mr. Bruce Stanton)
Ms. Hélène LeBlanc (LaSalle—Émard, NDP)
Mr. Paul Dewar
Mr. Alain Giguère (Marc-Aurèle-Fortin, NDP) (19:00)
Mr. Robert Aubin (Trois-Rivières, NDP) (19:10)
Mr. Alain Giguère (19:15)
Ms. Christine Moore (Abitibi—Témiscamingue, NDP)
Mr. Alain Giguère
Ms. Annick Papillon (Québec, NDP) (19:20) (19:25)
Ms. Hélène LeBlanc (LaSalle—Émard, NDP) (19:30)
Mr. Robert Aubin (Trois-Rivières, NDP) (19:35) (19:40)
Mr. Tarik Brahmi (Saint-Jean, NDP) (19:45)
Mr. Robert Aubin
Mr. Robert Aubin (19:50)
Mr. Alexandre Boulerice (Rosemont—La Petite-Patrie, NDP) (19:55) (20:00)
Mr. Alexandre Boulerice
Mr. Alexandre Boulerice (20:05)
Ms. Marie-Claude Morin (Saint-Hyacinthe—Bagot, NDP) (20:10)
Mr. Jack Harris (St. John's East, NDP) (20:15)
Ms. Marie-Claude Morin
Ms. Marie-Claude Morin (20:20)
Mr. Tarik Brahmi (Saint-Jean, NDP) (20:25) (20:30) (20:35)
Mr. Tarik Brahmi
Mr. Tarik Brahmi (20:45)
Ms. Hélène LeBlanc (LaSalle—Émard, NDP) (20:55) (21:00) (21:05)
Ms. Hélène LeBlanc
Mr. Peter Julian (Burnaby—New Westminster, NDP) (21:15)
House of Commons Debates
41st PARLIAMENT
OFFICIAL REPORT (HANSARD)
Speaker: The Honourable Andrew Scheer
The House met at 10 a.m.
[Routine Proceedings]
[Table of Contents]
Mr. Tom Lukiwski (Parliamentary Secretary to the Leader of the Government in the House of Commons, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, pursuant to Standing Order 36(8), I have the honour to table, in both official languages, the government's responses to 10 petitions.
[Translation]
Mrs. Sadia Groguhé (Saint-Lambert, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, pursuant to Standing Order 34(1), I have the honour to present to the House, in both official languages, the report of the delegation of the Canada-France Interparliamentary Association respecting its participation at the 41st annual meeting of the Canada-France Interparliamentary Association, held in Paris and Grenoble, France, from April 25 to 29, 2014.
Ms. Megan Leslie (Halifax, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I move that the second report of the Standing Committee on Environment and Sustainable Development, presented on Wednesday, February 5, 2014, be concurred in.
I want to thank my colleagues for such a warm welcome. We have been here for so long that it is hard to be warm these days.
I am moving concurrence in the report from the Standing Committee on Environment and Sustainable Development. I am a member of that committee. The report is called “Terrestrial Habitat Conservation in Canada”. Why did we study this? That is a good question. I am going to go back a bit on why we even have a report on terrestrial conservation.
I do not actually remember which throne speech it was, but a couple of throne speeches ago, there were some hints that the government was going to have a conservation strategy. That is not bad news. It is ostensibly good news, so we were excited to see what was going to happen with that. Then the environment committee was tasked with doing a study on what a conservation plan would look like.
On the face of it, that actually seems like really good parliamentary procedure. We have an idea from government. We are going to task a committee to study something and get some really good information so we can give advice to the minister. As I said, on its face, that seems wonderful and it is exciting to actually do good parliamentary work at committee, but what happened is it went off the rails a little bit. I know it is hard to imagine in this environment.
Where we started was with a general conservation study. My colleagues and I would show up and we would be keen. We had done our research. We would ask questions of the witnesses about conservation, what a conservation plan would look like, what that kind of strategy would look like. It was interesting. There were moments when it was very frustrating, because for some reason the Conservatives did not want to hear anything about climate change when it comes to conservation. It is interesting because conservation actually is a good solution to climate change on a lot of fronts. For example, if we are preserving large tracts of land, we are keeping the vegetation that is there. It is basically a natural carbon storage.
We heard some interesting testimony about climate change and how conservation would actually help us deal with the effects of climate change and prevent climate change from advancing. We also heard some really interesting testimony about the impacts of climate change on conservation efforts, the fact that we are going to have to adapt a little bit. If we are going to create parks, for example, we need to think about extreme meteorological events. We need to think about the impact of waves, tides, and storms on our infrastructure. It was good testimony. Remember that this is not the current report on which I moved this concurrence motion; it was the report before.
There was good information, good testimony about climate. None of it is in the report. We have to remember that Conservatives do have a majority on these committees, so what comes out in the end, although we can fight in camera and try to get stuff in a report, it does not end up in the report. There was nothing about climate change. The report was absolutely silent on that subject.
Getting back to this idea of studying conservation generally, as I said, there was good testimony. We were pretty excited. We were thinking that this was our way to contribute to the parliamentary process, the democratic process. We were going to give some advice to the minister. Despite the fact that climate change did not make it into the report, there were some other positives about the report. We had these moments of feeling that we were part of a parliamentary project, that it was a worthwhile endeavour.
Then we went in camera to decide the next committee business. All kinds of ideas were put forward. The NDP has all kinds of ideas. We put forward so many motions. We put forward a motion that our committee review the government's sectoral approach to greenhouse gas regulations, and review the delays in establishing those regulations for the oil and gas sector. We put forward a motion on the Great Lakes and how climate change is impacting the water levels. We put forward a motion about the Arctic, to study the impacts of climate change and resulting new resource development and transportation routes on the Arctic, its environment, species and ecological balance. We came armed with so many good ideas.
We went in camera, where the majority rules, and we came out with a study on urban conservation. We went from conservation to urban conservation. We tried to be optimistic and full of energy and said, “Okay, another conservation study. Here we go.”
Maybe there is a point to the urban conservation study, because in some musings that the government members had, they also talked about the creation of Rouge Park, a national park that would be an urban park. I think it would be North America's first urban national park. That is pretty exciting stuff. Again, there is a glimmer of this ability to contribute to the parliamentary process and government decision-making. That means there would be another study on conservation, but at least it would be on something where maybe there is a hope that the minister would be listening and we could talk about some important issues that we would see the results of in a bill about Rouge Park.
We started our study. There was some great testimony from people about urban conservation, the way that people can connect with the natural environment while living in cities and urban environments. We heard really good testimony about climate change, the way we can mitigate the impacts of climate change, and that we can mitigate the fact that climate is changing, and there are things we need to do to adapt when we are looking at urban conservation and climate change. Of course, none of that ended up in the report, because we cannot talk about climate change at the environment committee. It is quite amazing.
We did this study on urban conservation. What was interesting is that on Friday last week the government tabled a bill on the creation of Rouge Park in Scarborough. I believe it may be on the docket to talk about today, so I have been madly prepping to speak to the bill. It has been really difficult. I read the bill yesterday during my caucus meeting. We had a briefing on it from the minister's office yesterday afternoon. We are scrambling to give some feedback on the bill and we have not had the time to do a proper analysis. I have read it, but I have not digested it. I have not had time to reach out to stakeholders to get their advice on what is in the bill and if it is doing what it purports to do. However, I will say that I have had the time to look at our notes from that urban conservation study. There was a small section on Rouge Park that we did in that study. I looked at the bill, and it is not apparent to me where those suggestions from our witnesses are in the final bill.
At the time I felt a bit discouraged that we were doing urban conservation right on the heels of a conservation study. However, I thought that maybe we would have an impact on the legislation, that maybe we are giving advice to the minister, which is what committees are supposed to be doing, and maybe it would be in the bill. I have the bill. Perhaps it will become clearer to me later when I listen to the minister's speech, but I do not see that good advice from the witnesses that we heard at committee reflected in the legislation.
I have gone from being a little disheartened by doing two studies in a row on the same subject to wondering what is the point of us even doing these studies if the minister is not listening. We did not choose the study topic. I will leave it to everyone's imagination, but a majority on the committee probably made the decision to study these topics. I wanted to study climate change. I wanted to study some other topics, but let us make the best of it if we are doing conservation, and then the results of our report are not even reflected in the bill. There were two studies on conservation.
We finished the study on urban conservation. If my memory serves me correctly, I think we managed to work in a rare show of collaboration with the Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of the Environment. I think we had a unanimous report on urban conservation. There is nothing egregious in it. We pointed out that it is missing a lot of things, but the information that was in there was accurate. There was no discussion on climate change, which we pointed out.
Then we went in camera and we made decisions about what we would study next. It is on the public record that the NDP put forward some incredible motions, such as doing a study on the Species at Risk Act, its implementation and funding. That is a really important issue right now. It is one of the only pieces of environmental legislation that was not gutted in the 2012 omnibus budgets.
Speaking of budgets, we put on the record that we wanted to do a study on the impacts of budget cuts on the operations, sustainability and accessibility for visitors, and sustainability impacts for the surrounding communities to Parks Canada. That is a great idea. Why are we not looking at the fact that we have seen all these job losses and all these budget cuts at Parks Canada?
Time passes. Also, in 2013, we had motion to receive a briefing by the official Canadian delegation to the climate change convention negotiations prior to the meetings in Warsaw in November 2013 to detail Canada's negotiating priorities. It sounded good to me. We are still waiting for that briefing.
An hon. member: 2014.
Ms. Megan Leslie: It is 2014, I know, Mr. Speaker. There is no point any more.
We come out, and what is on the docket for us to study? Terrestrial conservation. Do we not wish we were on environment committee? Talk about demoralizing. I think there are good reasons to talk about terrestrial conservation, but there are so many other issues, and we have already done two studies on conservation. Now we are doing terrestrial conservation, and that is what this report is, for which I moved concurrence today.
Why terrestrial conservation? Why not marine conservation? We would not want to study marine conservation because then we would have to talk about fish habitat. This is a way of excluding the important legislation that government gutted back in 2012. The House will remember there was a budget announcement in 2012 and then there were two bills after that in 2012. Those two bills, both of which passed, were remarkable in many ways. They were omnibus pieces of legislation. The first one touched over 70 pieces of legislation: it amended or repealed in some way or added to 70 pieces of legislation, all wrapped up in one bill that was over 400 pages long. Then we had a second one in the fall. This is really significant.
It is a little hobby horse of mine that the first bill, a budget bill, made changes to assisted human reproduction. Whether or not I can be a surrogate, whether or not I can sell my eggs was in a budget bill. My reproduction has nothing to do with the budget.
We have these giant omnibus bills. What happened on environment? A number of things. The Environmental Assessment Act was repealed. It was not tweaked or amended; it was pulled off the books and replaced with another one. What are the problems with it? For example, we have had what is called a trigger system with environment assessment. If a project touched a federal issue, such as migratory birds or waterways that crossed provincial boundaries, it would trigger an environmental assessment.
That makes sense. We can wrap our head around why it would be that way. However, now we have a list of things that mean environmental assessment. If something is not on the list, there is no environmental assessment.
Why is that problematic? Members should think about the oil sands. If we had had a definitive list 70 years ago, oil sands exploration would not have been on that list because we would not have known it was in the realm of the possible. We would not have considered that we should put oil sands development on the list. A trigger is important, because it is the situation that causes the assessment, not this definitive list. The other thing about the list is that it is cabinet that makes up the list. It is trouble, because the list is narrow. Seismic testing in the Gulf of St. Lawrence is not on that list. I think that is pretty problematic. We have moved from the trigger to the list.
We also had the environment commissioner testify at committee about this list. There used to be three stages of environmental assessment. The lowest stage was like a paper stage, where one would submit documents and get feedback on them, but it was still effective. Forgive me if I get the numbers a little bit wrong because I am tapping into my memory. We asked the environment commissioner how many environmental assessments were being done. My memory says he said 4,000 to 6,000 per year. My next question was how many will be done now that the Environmental Assessment Act has been replaced in this regime. He said 10 to 12. I actually thought he meant 10,000 to 12,000, but he said it was just 10 to 12 for the country. These are incredible changes to our environmental assessment regime. It practically does not exist anymore.
There are also all of the changes to consultation, where people now have to be directly affected. What does “directly affected” mean? If I live 10 kilometres downstream, am I directly affected? If I live 100 kilometres downstream, am I directly affected? If I am a scientist living in Vancouver who has expertise about the Douglas Channel, am I directly affected? There is no definition of this, and it completely curtails who can testify and be a party to these hearings.
In addition to the changes to the Environmental Assessment Act in 2012, there were changes to the Fisheries Act. The Fisheries Act was one of the strongest pieces of environmental legislation that we had here in Canada, because it talked about the protection of fish habitats. If we are going to protect our fish and our fisheries, we have to protect our fish habitat. That makes sense.
In 2012, the protection of fish habitat was taken out of the legislation. What does that mean?
An hon. member: Incredible.
Ms. Megan Leslie: It is incredible, Mr. Speaker. Now we are not protecting fish habitat. We are protecting fish, but not all fish. We are only going to protect fish that we name, and they are going to be fish that are of commercial significance, first nations significance, and recreational significance.
An hon. member: What about all of the other fish?
Ms. Megan Leslie: What about the other fish, Mr. Speaker? That is a great question. They are not protected. What about the fish that the protected fish eat? They are not protected. If we talk to anybody at the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, they cannot tell us what fish are on the list. It does not exist. They do not know which fish are protected. It is a secret. Secret fish are being protected. Their food stock is not being protected.
An hon. member: It is a conspiracy.
Ms. Megan Leslie: It is a conspiracy, Mr. Speaker. We are not protecting fish. We can destroy their food source, we can destroy their breeding grounds, we can have a fish with three heads and that is okay, as long as we do not kill them. We can kill a lot of fish, just not the protected fish that do not exist and that are secret. It makes no sense that we have done this to one of the greatest environmental protections that we had.
We did a study on terrestrial conservation. Why? We do not want to talk about fish habitat because it agitates the Conservatives when people come and say that it was a bad decision, that we are not going to have a fishery anymore if we do not protect fish habitat.
We have a very narrow study on terrestrial habitat. The terrestrial habitat conservation in Canada report that came out had no mention of fish habitat. I will say that the New Democrats were crafty. We talked about that liminal space between the terrestrial habitat and the marine habitat, and we managed to get some soggy land in some of the testimony. We asked, “What about that soggy area in between the lakes and the land?” That soggy area can sometimes be fish habitat. We were tricky and we managed to get in some important information about fish habitat.
We have a supplementary opinion to this report. It is a dissenting opinion that is on the record. It is worth a read. It is two pages. I want to point out that one of the things we said clearly was that there is no greater threat to our ecosystems or barrier to habitat conservation than climate change. There was significant consensus from witnesses on the need to address climate change issues in order to protect our biodiversity, and to design strategies for habitat conservation and the preservation of biodiversity in the context of a changing climate.
The Conservatives can control the reports. They can control the outcome. They can control what it is that they say happened at committee, but they cannot change committee witness testimony. They cannot change the fact that we had witnesses saying that we need to address climate change if we are going to do anything about habitat conservation in Canada.
Mr. Kevin Lamoureux (Winnipeg North, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, I acknowledge the almost standing ovation from the NDP caucus for the member's speech. We can see that they are quite excited about this issue. However, one could ask why they would not be as excited about the numerous other agenda items that are before us, and the many other concurrence reports.
That is not to take anything away from the issues of the environment and conservation. Those are very important issues, and I do not question that. I enjoy the opportunity to debate on a wide variety of issues, including this one. However, in going through the many concurrence reports, there are a number of them that are very significant. I would love to see more discussion and debate on concurrence.
When we think about the environment and conservation, and when it comes to ranking priorities, I wonder if the NDP members feel that this particular motion of concurrence would have been a good opportunity to talk about a very topical issue in Canada today, which is the northern gateway pipeline. Is this something that we should try to facilitate more debate on here today, given the impact it would have on our environment?
Conservationists are very concerned about this issue. However, I could not help but notice, given how big an issue it is, that the member did not make any reference to it and the impact that it has on conservation here in Canada. The member might want to provide some feedback on pipelines.
Ms. Megan Leslie:
Mr. Speaker, I thank my colleague for his question. I will answer it, but I first want to get to the point on why I moved a concurrence motion on this topic. Any chance we have to talk about climate change in this House is a chance that I will take. We have a Minister of the Environment who, until I asked her a direct question in the House after her appointment, had never publicly uttered the words “climate change” that we can find on the record. Therefore, I will take any moment I have to talk about climate change, which I think is the most important issue facing us today.
When I was appointed the environment critic by Jack Layton, I asked what my mandate was. He said, “climate change”. This was the thing I had to work on. It is the most important thing. However, there are other important things going on, and the question about pipelines is relevant.
One thing I did not talk about in my speech was how agitated the Conservatives get any time someone talks about the Species at Risk Act. It is like they visibly start to twitch, because they do not want to talk about that act, which is directly related to pipelines, and oil and gas exploration generally.
If we look at the sage grouse, I think there are 12 left in Alberta. Why? It is because they need big spaces to roam, and those big spaces are being interrupted by oil and gas development. If we look at something like pipelines, the fact is that they can bifurcate the existing grazing area of caribou, which is a species at risk. However, the Conservatives do not want to talk about this.
When we talk about conservation, especially terrestrial conservation, we have to talk about the full ecosystem, which includes animals. I think that we did miss an opportunity to talk about the impact of pipelines on our conservation efforts.
Mr. Tyrone Benskin (Jeanne-Le Ber, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, my hon. colleague for Halifax, in her very eloquent speech on the environment, touched on a link between the existence of species and our existence, such as the fact that certain fish are not listed as protected but they are the food source for other fish. She also mentioned the fact that caribou lands are being threatened, which threatens the existence of caribou, which threatens the existence and livelihood of our first nations brothers and sisters. I would love it if the member could take a moment to expand on that theory.
Our colleagues from across the way seem to feel that it is okay not to think about the big picture, to just kind of pull a few things that make money out of the works of nature and everything else can go to blazes, as my grandmother would say. I hope that is not unparliamentary language.
Mr. Speaker, I thank my colleague, the member for Jeanne-Le Ber for his question and also for his incredible advocacy on environment in this House. He stands up for the interests of his constituents. They care very much about the environment, as does he.
The member brings up a good point, about the fact that it is not about a species. It is not about a tiny tract of land that we can protect. It is about these full ecosystems. As I said earlier, how can we protect a fish if we are not protecting its habitat and if we are not protecting the fish that it eats or its other food sources? There is a chain here, and we have to look at things in this chain, in this holistic way.
Speaking about fish habitat, we heard very quick testimony at committee during those omnibus budgets on changes to the Fisheries Act. We heard quick testimony. We were sitting until quite late at night. There was a limited amount of time and a limited number of witnesses we could actually bring to testify.
However, we brought those witnesses. Some of them, representing incredible science-based organizations, said that the answer is no. The answer is not making an amendment to this. The answer is no; this change cannot be made, about protecting fish habitat.
We did the responsible thing. We moved amendments. I cannot remember how many hundreds, but there were hundreds of amendments. Not one was accepted. Not a single one was accepted. We do our due diligence on this side, but unfortunately the Conservatives are not listening.
Ms. Ruth Ellen Brosseau (Berthier—Maskinongé, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I really enjoyed the passionate speech from my colleague, as well as all the work she does for the environment and with the environment team.
I wonder if the member could comment on—when we form government in 2015, because the Conservatives are considered an endangered species nowadays—what she would put top of mind, along with climate change?
I would also like to note that there are a lot of students here and youth in the galleries listening to us. I know environment is very top of mind, preserving our country and making it a better place, making sure we do our best and address climate change.
I wonder if the member could comment on what she would do as environment minister, potentially, in 2015.
Mr. Speaker, that makes me a little shy. I thank my colleague for the great work she does, standing up for her constituents here in the House. We sit close to each other, and she talks to me a lot about environment, the hopes and passions of her constituents around the issue of environment.
In 2015, first up on the endangered species list would be Conservative MPs.
It is easy enough to talk about some of the big-picture visionary things we would do. For example, we would put a price on carbon; we would bring back the ecoENERGY home retrofit program; we would take that $1.3 billion in subsidies to oil and gas companies, which do not need our help to make money, and we would transfer that money to the new, incredible, innovative start-ups in the green tech industry.
Why are we subsidizing companies that are making billions of dollars, and not giving that leg up to those great new start-ups in the green tech world that will help us make the transition to the green energy economy?
Some of this is a little tougher. When it comes to CEAA, the Canadian Environmental Assessment Act, would we bring back the old bill? There were actually problems with the old bill, so we would make sure we consulted with people, consulted with scientists, and consulted with experts, and took that evidence before we made those decisions.
It will be tough. Mark my words. Government has done a fantastic job of absolutely gutting our scientific capacity. It is going to be hard. I do not know that we have the scientific capacity right now. We need to start by rebuilding that scientific capacity and then taking that information and actually making changes to legislation.
moved:
That the debate be now adjourned.
The Deputy Speaker:
The question is on the motion. Is it the pleasure of the House to adopt the motion?
Some hon. members: Agreed.
Some hon. members: No.
The Deputy Speaker: All those in favour of the motion will please say yea.
Some hon. members: Yea.
The Deputy Speaker: All those opposed will please say nay.
Some hon. members: Nay.
The Deputy Speaker: In my opinion the yeas have it.
And five or more members having risen:
The Deputy Speaker: Call in the members.
(The House divided on the motion, which was agreed to on the following division:)
(Division No. 221)
YEAS
Ablonczy
Aglukkaq
Allen (Tobique—Mactaquac)
Bernier
Bezan
Blaney
Boughen
Breitkreuz
Brown (Leeds—Grenville)
Brown (Newmarket—Aurora)
Brown (Barrie)
Crockatt
Dechert
Devolin
Dreeshen
Duncan (Vancouver Island North)
Dykstra
Fantino
Findlay (Delta—Richmond East)
Finley (Haldimand—Norfolk)
Galipeau
Goguen
Gosal
Harris (Cariboo—Prince George)
Hawn
Hoback
Kamp (Pitt Meadows—Maple Ridge—Mission)
Keddy (South Shore—St. Margaret's)
Komarnicki
Kramp (Prince Edward—Hastings)
Leitch
Lizon
Lobb
Lukiwski
Lunney
MacKay (Central Nova)
McColeman
Menegakis
Moore (Fundy Royal)
Norlock
Poilievre
Raitt
Rajotte
Rempel
Schellenberger
Seeback
Shory
Sopuck
Tilson
Toet
Trottier
Van Kesteren
Van Loan
Warkentin
Weston (West Vancouver—Sunshine Coast—Sea to Sky Country)
Weston (Saint John)
Yelich
Young (Oakville)
Young (Vancouver South)
Total: -- 133
Allen (Welland)
Atamanenko
Bélanger
Benskin
Bevington
Blanchette
Blanchette-Lamothe
Boulerice
Boutin-Sweet
Chicoine
Comartin
Cuzner
Davies (Vancouver East)
Dewar
Dionne Labelle
Doré Lefebvre
Dubé
Dubourg
Duncan (Etobicoke North)
Duncan (Edmonton—Strathcona)
Eyking
Genest-Jourdain
Giguère
Goodale
Gravelle
Groguhé
Harris (Scarborough Southwest)
Harris (St. John's East)
Latendresse
LeBlanc (LaSalle—Émard)
MacAulay
Mathyssen
McCallum
McGuinty
McKay (Scarborough—Guildwood)
Moore (Abitibi—Témiscamingue)
Morin (Laurentides—Labelle)
Morin (Saint-Hyacinthe—Bagot)
Nunez-Melo
Pacetti
Péclet
Quach
Rafferty
Ravignat
Saganash
Sandhu
Sitsabaiesan
Thibeault
Turmel
Valeriote
Total: -- 85
The Speaker:
I declare the motion carried.
The House will now resume with the remaining business under routine proceedings under the rubric “motions”.
That it be an instruction to the Standing Committee on Veterans Affairs that, during its consideration of Bill C-27, An Act to amend the Public Service Employment Act (enhancing hiring opportunities for certain serving and former members of the Canadian Forces), the Committee be granted the power to expand the scope of the Bill in order to allow members of the RCMP to qualify for the priority hiring program.
He said: Mr. Speaker, I am pleased to rise to speak about this important veterans and RCMP veterans issue. I would like to say right at the beginning that I am very fortunate to be sharing my time with the extraordinary member of Parliament for Châteauguay—Saint-Constant.
The government shut down the debate on the environment, and it seems to want to shut down the debate on veterans. The Conservatives should actually be listening attentively.
An RCMP veteran named Eric Rebiere, from Bath, Ontario, said yesterday that the government is discriminating against veterans by offering different groups of them different benefits packages. The article, which has been carried across the country, says the following: “I feel like a second-class veteran.” This is an ex-Mountie speaking.
I am just going to read for the record the article itself. It is from Kingston, Ontario, and is dated yesterday. It states:
A retired Kingston-area RCMP officer is calling for the federal government to stop what he calls "discrimination" between different groups of veterans. Eric Rebiere, whose 24-year career in the federal police force ended in 2006—
Some hon. members: Oh, oh!
Mr. Peter Julian: Mr. Speaker, if you could get some order in this House, it would be appreciated.
I know we just had a vote, and sometimes it takes a few minutes to clear out the room. However, we are on to another item of business. For those of us who need to carry on conversations with a colleague, it would be more respectful to the member speaking to the House if they carried on those conversations outside the chamber.
The hon. member for Burnaby—New Westminster.
Mr. Peter Julian:
Mr. Speaker, I think it would be more respectful to veterans and to former RCMP officers as well.
Eric Rebiere, whose 24-year career in the federal police force ended in 2006, two years after being diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder after taking part in NATO policing missions in Croatia and Kosovo, said the government should have one standard for all people who served in military operations, including RCMP officers who volunteered for policing missions.“They have created sub-classes of veterans, and that is discriminatory under the (Veteran) Charter”, Rebiere said. “To say we are not veterans is an insult”.
At a rally on Parliament Hill earlier this month, Rebiere spoke about how the RCMP has for more than a century participated in Canada's military ventures. Like other retired RCMP officers, Rebiere is covered by the Pension Act and receives monthly payments, but can't access many of the programs the Canadian Forces veterans have.
Eric Rebiere pointed to Section 4 of the Department of Veterans Affairs Act, which requires the ministry to be responsible for “the care, treatment, or re-establishment in civil life of any person who served in the Canadian Forces” and “of any person who has otherwise engaged in pursuits relating to war”.
What we have also found among veterans themselves is great support among veterans organizations that have felt often under attack by the government. We have seen the closing of so many veterans offices that the cutbacks in services to veterans have been quite appalling. I know on this side of the House that particularly the member for Châteauguay—Saint-Constant and the member for Sackville—Eastern Shore have been at the forefront in standing and saying that it is unacceptable. What we need to do is put in place a full array of services for our veterans, but that is not what is happening, and veterans are aware of that.
Even at the Royal Canadian Legion's Dominion Convention in Edmonton on Tuesday, members voted unanimously to amend the Legion's definition of a veteran to include RCMP members and peace officers who serve in special duty areas. There is support from the veterans organizations themselves to say that veterans organizations should include RCMP veterans.
What the NDP motion of instruction is stating is that we instruct the Standing Committee on Veterans Affairs “that, during its consideration of Bill C-27, an Act to amend the Public Service Employment Act (enhancing hiring opportunities for certain serving and former members of the Canadian Forces), the Committee be granted the power to expand the scope of the Bill in order to allow members of the RCMP to qualify for the priority hiring program.”
This is no small thing. As Mr. Rebiere has said so eloquently, RCMP veterans are treated even worse than veterans by the government. It is an appalling state. Just two weeks ago, as I was leaving Parliament Hill to go to the airport to take a flight home, I came across a group of Canadian veterans standing at a table in front of Parliament Hill on Wellington Street. They were selling T-shirts to raise funds for their services. Look at that picture for just a moment. Because of the Conservatives' slashing and cutting of veterans' services, we have veterans selling T-shirts to try to provide services.
These are people who put their lives on the line for Canada. These are people who have said that they are willing to do anything to reinforce and defend Canadian democracy, yet Conservatives are forcing them to sell T-shirts to provide for services. I can think of nothing more despicable and nothing more hypocritical than the Conservative government's actions in the cutbacks to veterans' services and the closure of veterans' services offices right across this country. The hallmark of the government is treating our veterans with disrespect, and we see that constantly.
They are willing to be there when there is a photo-op. They are not willing to be there when it counts, which is where the NDP is every day in the House of Commons fighting for veterans and saying that veterans have the right to be treated with due respect by the Conservatives and have the right to a full array of services when they have been willing to put their lives on the line for their country.
In my riding there is a veterans hospital, George Derby Centre. It is another one of the veterans hospitals that have been subject to cutbacks in the services offered to veterans. I see veterans regularly. Some of them are my friends. When I see the cutbacks being put in place and the services not being offered to the same extent they were even a few years ago, it saddens me.
That is why New Democrats are saying today that we want to engage in a vigorous debate, rather than having the debate shut down, as we just saw happen in the debate on the environment. My seat mate, the member for Halifax, spoke very eloquently about the environment. We wanted to engage the government on the environment, and the government said no, it was not going to talk about the environment in the House of Commons.
Now we have a debate on veterans' services and on expanding the scope of Bill C-27 to allow members of the RCMP to qualify for a priority hiring program. Our hope is that instead of the government shutting down debate, which is the only thing it seems to be able to do these days, it will actually engage in what is an important debate.
Mr. Rebiere was very clear that what is needed is the provision of services for RCMP veterans that match the services offered to veterans. New Democrats go even further. We would say that the services offered to veterans need to be expanded and enhanced, and the cutbacks have to stop. It is fair to say that this motion of instruction, if Conservatives are going to be consistent in what they have been saying, should receive the support of the Conservative members of the House so that they provide RCMP veterans and veterans with the full array of services that should be the entitlement of those who have been willing to put their lives on the line for their country.
When the bill was first introduced, New Democrats said that Bill C-27 simply does not go far enough. It overlooks entire groups of veterans. We thought that in principle, it was a good start, but that is only a first step in providing the full array of services that need to be provided to veterans in this country. We are saying today that we indeed need to expand the purview of Bill C-27 so that RCMP officers are included.
Eric Rebiere, a 24-year veteran of the RCMP, says that he feels like a second-class veteran. When there are veterans outside Parliament Hill selling T-shirts to try to provide some semblance of service because of the cutbacks by the government in terms of veterans' services, it is fair to say that veterans need to be treated better. That includes RCMP veterans. That is why we are offering the motion of instruction today. We hope it will have the support of both sides of the House so that RCMP veterans are no longer treated like second-class veterans and are included within the scope of Bill C-27.
Mr. David McGuinty (Ottawa South, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, the government knows it has let go, either through attrition or outright dismissal, some 47,000 employees from the public service of Canada. Conservatives know that there is a freeze in hiring right now in the federal public service. They know that their existing bill does not meet the same criteria as the bill in the United States, which allows for more preparation and training not just for public service jobs but for private sector opportunities, where so much of the growth is in Canada.
Can the member help Canadians understand why the government would persist in putting forward what is clearly an incomplete bill?
Mr. Speaker, I thank the member for Ottawa South for his question. I have worked with him often in committee and I quite like his approach when it comes to legislation. He is aware that this government has botched more pieces of legislation than any other government in Canadian history. It has had more pieces of legislation thrown on the floor of the House of Commons and subject to a record number of closure motions.
I think the member would perhaps try to defend it, but the former Liberal government, which had nearly 70 motions of closure in the course of its mandate, pales in comparison. This government has had 75, which is why it is being condemned by a number of journalists, saying the government simply does not believe in democratic debate.
However, the problem is this. The government has had more bills rejected, more shoddy product quality, because the bills it puts in the House of Commons are rejected, certainly by the courts. There has been a record number of rejections by the court. They have also been rejected by Canadians, as my colleague mentioned. The reality is that the government has had to produce more pieces of remedial legislation. That is a product recall. It botches the first bill it puts on the floor, then it has to introduce another bill to fix the errors in the first bill.
Therefore, my answer to the question from the member for Ottawa South is quite simple. The government does not respect the legislative process and that is why it has botched so many bills. In this case, it means that veterans are going to be more poorly served because the government did not do its homework.
Hon. Julian Fantino (Minister of Veterans Affairs, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I respect the theme of my colleague's comments about looking after our veterans and RCMP officers, but I do take issue with the truthfulness of some of the comments he made about supposedly closing offices all over the country. These issues have been dealt with on the basis of expanding the number of services.
His comments about our cutting back funding for veterans issues are totally untrue. Since 2006, we have added some $5 billion, new dollars, to veterans program services and support for veterans and their families. The rhetoric is really inflammatory when we misinform, miscommunicate, and also convey false information to those who are most vulnerable and most affected by some of these issues pertinent to veterans, their families, and their well-being.
I will be as crude as he has been with respect to commentary. I would suggest that, if he and his party pay back the $1.17 billion in respect to the misappropriated funds, we could probably do a lot more for veterans and the RCMP.
The hon. member for Burnaby—New Westminster, you have about 45 seconds.
Mr. Speaker, I have 45 seconds to say this is exactly why veterans say they are being treated with such disrespect. That statement comes from the minister who, a week and a half ago, was running away from Jenifer Migneault, who just wanted to speak to him about the services that her husband, who is a serving member of the Canadian military, was not receiving. All she wanted to do was speak with him, and he ran away. That shows both the arrogance of the government and also its complete lack of respect for veterans.
In New Westminster, right outside city hall, are the names of two members of my family who gave their lives for our country. I believe, as do all New Democrats, that veterans should be treated with respect, and it should start with this minister. The minister should be—
Order, please. The hon. member for Châteauguay—Saint-Constant.
Mr. Sylvain Chicoine (Châteauguay—Saint-Constant, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I would really like to thank my colleague from Burnaby—New Westminster for moving this motion in the House.
Not that long ago, we voted on a bill that completely overlooked RCMP veterans, who should be included and treated as such. Unfortunately, they are too often forgotten. They were once again completely overlooked in Bill C-27. That was one of our misgivings about that bill. I would like to thank the hon. member for Burnaby—New Westminster for moving this motion that we had been discussing for a few days.
Eric Rebiere, an RCMP veteran with 26 years of service, spoke out during an interview with Elliot Ferguson from QMI Agency. He said he was outraged at how services were provided to him and that the government was not treating retired RCMP officers as full-fledged veterans.
I would like to read my colleague's motion in order to explain it to those watching at home:
RCMP veterans have been completely left out of this bill. This huge gap shows that this bill is incomplete. I am unhappy with another aspect of this bill, which is that it has created even more classes of veterans. There are World War II and Korean War veterans who have access to health care still for some time.
Ste. Anne's Hospital, near my riding, is destined to be transferred to the province, when it provided very good services to World War II and Korean War veterans. They are obviously aging, and there are fewer and fewer of them. Why not change the eligibility criteria and open this hospital to all veterans? That is what veterans groups are requesting. They say they are all veterans who served under the same flag.
Why always make classes of veterans who do not have access to the same services and the same health care? It is completely unacceptable that RCMP veterans have been completely left out of Bill C-27. The government should have considered them and stopped this tendency to create classes of veterans. We support the veterans ombudsman, who has been asking for years that the government stop creating classes of veterans and instead place them in a single veterans group. That is the approach we want to take in the House. The official opposition is asking the government to move in that direction, as all veterans and the ombudsman are requesting.
Mr. Rebiere says that he is absolutely outraged at the way services are provided to RCMP veterans, because they are full-fledged veterans. We are asking that they not be left out, which is what this bill does. They have been completely forgotten, which is why the motion by my colleague from Burnaby—New Westminster asks that they be included.
The motion asks to find a way to include RCMP veterans and allow them to qualify for the public service priority hiring program, just as other veterans groups have been included. Mr. Rebiere is left with the impression that the government does not consider retired RCMP officers as veterans. He says he is completely outraged, and rightly so, at being treated like this and never getting the same services as other veterans groups.
I will read an excerpt from the article. I think it is very important.
A retired Kingston-area RCMP officer is calling for the federal government to stop what he calls "discrimination" between different groups of veterans.
Eric Rebiere, whose 24-year career in the federal police force ended in 2006, two years after being diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder after taking part in NATO policing missions in Croatia and Kosovo, said the government should have one standard for all people who served in military operations, including RCMP officers who volunteered for policing missions.
The ombudsman said, and Mr. Rebiere echoed this as well, that RCMP veterans do not get the same services and that is absolutely disgraceful.
To come back to the subject, Bill C-27 was already incomplete since it followed Bill C-11, for which we had only one or two hours of debate. That bill was incomplete and dropped and then was replaced with this one. We think that Bill C-27 is also incomplete since it completely excludes RCMP officers.
For an officer like Mr. Rebiere, having access to public service jobs could be very beneficial, which is understandable. He could continue to serve his country in the public service. This would be especially beneficial to those with post-traumatic stress disorder. These are people who are no longer able to work in the military or the federal police service. If they could bring their expertise and skills to the public service, that would be very beneficial. If they also had access to the public service priority hiring program, they could pursue their career.
That perhaps could have been the case for Mr. Rebiere. The public service actually has a number of jobs for our soldiers and also for RCMP officers, who have been left out of this bill. We are asking the government to agree to our request and find a way to put RCMP officers on the priority list, which, for the time being, is for veterans only. We are hopeful that this bill will pass and come into force very soon. It would be completely unacceptable to exclude RCMP officers. They must also be included so that they can continue their careers. Many are forced to continue serving in the RCMP, without being totally employable and able to effectively serve the public as RCMP officers. They could continue to do so in the public service.
This is an entirely reasonable request. We are asking the government to vote in favour of this important motion and find a way to also include RCMP officers. In future bills, we will also ask the government to try to limit the number of groups of veterans to only one. We really believe in having only one group of veterans instead of creating divisions and more classes of veterans, as Bill C-27 does. Let us have only one group of veterans. They all served their country in the same way, so why give certain benefits to one group of veterans and forget about the others? That is completely unacceptable. It is fair to treat all groups of veterans equitably and in the same way.
Mr. Sean Casey (Charlottetown, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, I would like to thank my colleague for his speech.
First, I would like to speak about cuts. The minister said that there were no cuts, but that is not true. The head office of the Department of Veterans Affairs is located in Charlottetown. This office now has far fewer employees to serve veterans, and the same is true of other offices across the country. It is completely false to say that no cuts have been made.
The question I want to pose is with respect to the view of the government with respect to RCMP veterans. We know there was a class action lawsuit launched by Dennis Manuge against the government with respect to the clawbacks of their disability benefits. We know that at the same time that class action lawsuit was commenced, a companion lawsuit was commenced by RCMP veterans who were in the exact same situation.
The Conservatives settled the case with Dennis Manuge after they lost at the Federal Court. They refused for months to include the RCMP vets in that settlement and made the them wait for several more months before finally bringing them to the table.
What does it say about the view of the government with respect to the status of RCMP vets in the eyes of the Department of Veterans Affairs and the Government of Canada?
Mr. Sylvain Chicoine:
Mr. Speaker, I would like to thank my colleague for his intelligent question and comments.
I have the pleasure of being a member of the Standing Committee on Veterans Affairs, with the member for Charlottetown. He is very knowledgeable about veterans issues, and he made intelligent comments about the cuts to Veterans Affairs Canada. The number of case managers is being cut, and the people who are left in those positions are being given more files. If memory serves, in the recent past, case managers used to handle 35 cases and now they handle about 40. They are responsible for more files and they have less time for veterans. They also have less time to figure out which services veterans are entitled to. In my opinion, veterans have not been receiving very good service in recent years.
I will now respond to the question about the RCMP. RCMP veterans are treated differently than other classes of veterans. The veterans in the class action law suit initiated by Dennis Manuge won their case, and the government agreed to reduce the disability benefits of those who are receiving retirement pensions. RCMP officers are in the same class. They have also launched a class action suit. However, the government does not want to apply the same rule. RCMP officers continue to be the victims of discrimination, when a settlement was reached in the Dennis Manuge case. This is further proof that the government is treating veterans who were members of the RCMP differently than veterans in other classes. The government is not treating all of our veterans in the same way, and that is completely disgraceful.
Ms. Lysane Blanchette-Lamothe (Pierrefonds—Dollard, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I thank my colleague for his speech.
In his speech, he mentioned Ste. Anne's Hospital. We have worked together on matters related to this hospital. This is a very important hospital, located on the West Island of Montreal, between his riding and mine.
Last weekend, I met with an employee of the hospital. The employees are very concerned about the situation. This is a clear illustration of the government's lack of respect for veterans. Veterans are not being accepted at this hospital, even though we are told that the hospital will shut down services because there are not enough clients. People who would like to have access to the hospital deplore the situation, just as current veterans do. Our veterans are afraid of losing the services they are entitled to.
I thank my colleague for showing his solidarity with the employees and users of Ste. Anne's Hospital.
Mr. Speaker, I thank my colleague for her question and for the work that she does for veterans and the employees of Ste. Anne's Hospital, who are indeed very concerned about the situation.
Three years ago, the government announced that the hospital would be transferred to the province, under the pretext that there are fewer and fewer veterans who have access to the hospital, given that it is reserved for World War II and Korean War veterans. Instead, the criteria should be changed to open this hospital to all veterans who might need hospital services.
In fact, this is an excellent hospital, and I have had the pleasure of visiting it. Veterans receive wonderful, outstanding services there. However, since it is half-empty, the criteria could be changed so that those spots would be available to any groups of veterans who need long-term care. This would be a good alternative to transferring the hospital to the province.
I move:
Hiebert
Brison
Nantel
Presenting petitions. The hon. member for York South—Weston.
Mr. Mike Sullivan (York South—Weston, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, residents in my riding have continued to register their objection to the loss of home mail delivery by signing a number of petitions that I am tabling today.
The petitioners call upon the Government of Canada to reject Canada Post's plan for reduced services and to explore other options to update Canada Post's business plan.
Mr. Jack Harris (St. John's East, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I have two petitions to present to the House today.
The first petition is for the Minister of National Defence concerning the Valcartier cadets and an explosion that occurred in 1974, killing six cadets and injuring some 60 others.
The petition is signed by a number of residents of Quebec.
They are calling on the Minister of National Defence to ask the National Defence and Canadian Forces Ombudsman to investigate this situation and to make recommendations to the government on how to help these former cadets.
It is an important matter. Permission has been granted.
The 40th anniversary of this explosion is July 30 of this year.
Mr. Speaker, the second petition concerns Canada Post.
The petitioners call upon the Government of Canada to reject Canada Post's plans for reduced services and explore other options to update the crown corporation's business plan.
Mr. Russ Hiebert (South Surrey—White Rock—Cloverdale, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I am here to present two petitions on behalf of constituents who are concerned about the lack of tough laws when it comes to drinking and driving.
The petitioners would like to see tougher laws and the implementation of a new mandatory minimum sentence for those persons convicted of impaired driving causing death. In particular, they would like an offence of impaired driving causing death classified as vehicular manslaughter.
Mr. Frank Valeriote (Guelph, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, the petitions I am presenting to the House today are signed by my constituents in Guelph as well as by Canadians across the country.
The petitioners call upon the Government of Canada to allow cities, local residents, and politicians to make their own decisions when it comes to the installation of cell towers. They are concerned that we still do not fully understand the health impact of emissions. They indicate that there must be advance consultations with residents within a 1,000-metre radius so that the people most significantly impacted can have a say.
Specifically, the petitioners are asking Industry Canada and the Conservative government to reject proposals for the installation of Rogers Communications cell towers at the intersection of Alma and Crimea Streets in Guelph.
I look forward to the government's response.
Mr. Dan Harris (Scarborough Southwest, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I hold in my hand a petition signed by 1,000 residents of my riding of Scarborough Southwest who are opposed to the cuts to Canada Post.
The petitioners are opposed to their postal worker neighbours losing their jobs. They are offended at the impact these cuts will have on seniors and people with disabilities.
The petitioners call upon the Government of Canada and Canada Post to reverse these devastating cuts and find better options so they can keep their home mail delivery.
Mr. Brad Trost (Saskatoon—Humboldt, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I have petitions signed mostly by residents of Vancouver.
The petitioners note that millions of girls have been lost through sex-selective pregnancy termination. They call upon Parliament to condemn discrimination against females occurring through sex-selective abortions.
Mr. Speaker, pursuant to Standing Order 36, I rise today to table yet another petition regarding the devastating cuts in service and the huge price increases at Canada Post.
I am pleased to table this petition on behalf of many concerned Canadians.
Mr. Robert Aubin (Trois-Rivières, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I do not know how many signatures it will take for the government to listen.
I am presenting another petition today signed by hundreds of people who are calling on the government to reverse the decisions made at Canada Post and to find new means to finance this crown corporation instead of cutting services and constantly managing downsizing.
Mr. LaVar Payne (Medicine Hat, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I have three petitions to present. Two of them are very similar and are with respect to the greater sage grouse in Canada.
The petitioners request the Government of Canada to rescind this strategy and to rescind the emergency protection order.
Mr. Speaker, I have another petition to present with respect to the Species at Risk Act.
The petitioners, citizens from right across Canada, ask for the Species at Risk Act to be rescinded and for it to be replaced with something that encourages voluntary implementation.
Mr. Speaker, I rise today to present a petition with respect to the drastic cuts at Canada Post, which will eliminate door-to-door delivery, close post offices, and drastically increase postage rates.
The petitioners, who are from Prince Edward Island, indicate that Canada Post is a public service that needs to be protected. They call upon the government to reverse the cuts and to look at ways to innovate.
Ms. Peggy Nash (Parkdale—High Park, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I have three petitions.
The first petition is signed by many members of our community on behalf of Jozsef Pusuma and his family. They were human rights activists in Hungary who, due to very poor legal representation, had their case mishandled. They are asking to stay in Canada until the Law Society of Upper Canada continues and finalizes an investigation into the conduct of their lawyer.
Second, Mr. Speaker, I have a petition signed by many members of my community who are calling for safer rail cars, especially the DOT-111 cars, in our community. The petitioners want to know what is being transported. They want these cars diverted from our area, if possible.
Third, Mr. Speaker, I have a petition with many signatures. It calls for May 5 to be designated as the National Day of the Midwife in recognition of the tremendous contribution to maternal and newborn health that midwives make.
Mr. Leon Benoit (Vegreville—Wainwright, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I am proud to present, on behalf of constituents, a petition whereby they note that an Environics poll has indicated that 92% of Canadians are against pregnancy termination for sex selection purposes.
The petitioners call upon this House to condemn discrimination against girls caused through gender selection pregnancy termination.
Ms. Elizabeth May (Saanich—Gulf Islands, GP):
Mr. Speaker, I rise today to present two petitions.
The first petition is from literally hundreds of residents throughout Ontario, particularly in the Toronto area, calling for action to protect the human rights of those in China who practise Falun Dafa or Falun Gong. We know that many of them are imprisoned unfairly.
Mr. Speaker, I present a petition from residents of my own constituency on Salt Spring Island. They are asking for the government to reverse itself on Enbridge and on approval of the so-called northern gateway risky pipeline and tanker scheme.
Mr. Alain Giguère (Marc-Aurèle-Fortin, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I am presenting petitions protesting the elimination of postal delivery at Canada Post. I do not need to remind members that home delivery will be eliminated in three municipalities in my riding: Lorraine, Rosemère and Bois-des-Filion.
This same government supports keeping seniors at home, but it is depriving them of this rather essential service. I am presenting these petitions to protest this situation.
Ms. Ève Péclet (La Pointe-de-l'Île, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I am pleased to present a petition signed by more than 150 Canadians who are opposed to the elimination of mail delivery.
The elimination of mail delivery in urban areas will affect more than five million households, and the most vulnerable members of society, people with reduced mobility and seniors, will suffer directly.
Mr. François Pilon (Laval—Les Îles, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I am pleased to present a petition signed by many of my constituents who are calling on the government to create a legal ombudsman mechanism for mining, to ensure that Canadian mining companies operating abroad are held accountable to local populations.
Ms. Marie-Claude Morin (Saint-Hyacinthe—Bagot, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I am pleased to present a petition signed by hundreds of citizens who are opposed to cuts at Canada Post.
I should also note that hundreds, if not thousands, of people in my riding have contacted me to say that they are concerned about these cuts. The cuts will have serious consequences, particularly for seniors and people with reduced mobility. I am pleased to be presenting this petition.
Mr. Glenn Thibeault (Sudbury, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I am rising in the House today to present a new series of petitions. They have been signed by people in my riding, Sudbury, who are opposed to the Canada Post service cuts. This is not the first time I have presented such petitions, and it will not be the last.
The Conservatives' changes to Canada Post will have a significant impact on people in my riding and across Canada. This is an unfair, unjustified and arbitrary decision.
Mr. Peter Julian (Burnaby—New Westminster, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I am pleased to present a petition with 600 names from people across the Lower Mainland in Vancouver, Surrey, New Westminster, and Burnaby. All of them are protesting the impending service cuts to Canada Post. They are calling upon the Government of Canada to reverse those cuts in services announced by Canada Post and to instead look at innovation within the postal service so that it can be a profitable national delivery service, as is the case in pretty well every other industrialized country. These hundreds of British Columbians are asking the government to reconsider the cuts, stop the cuts, and start offering home delivery service.
Mr. Speaker, Question No. 498 will be answered today.
[Text]
Question No. 498--Mr. Matthew Dubé:
With regard to the children’s fitness tax credit, do Canadian Heritage or Sport Canada have studies in their possession measuring the impact that this tax credit has on the level of sports participation among young Canadians and the impact that it has on parents’ decisions to register their children in physical activities that are eligible for the tax credit?
Mr. Rick Dykstra (Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Canadian Heritage, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, to date the Department of Canadian Heritage is not aware of any published studies that measure the impact of the children's fitness tax credit on the level of sports participation among young Canadians and on parents' decisions to register their children in physical activities that are eligible for the tax credit. Members should please note as well that the Department of Canadian Heritage has not conducted any research in this area.
Mr. Speaker, if Questions Nos. 489, 490, 491, 492, and 496 could be made orders for returns, these returns would be tabled immediately.
The Acting Speaker (Mr. Barry Devolin):
Is that agreed?
Question No. 489--Hon. Carolyn Bennett:
With regard to the International Upper Great Lakes Study (IUGLS) commissioned by the International Joint Council (IJC): (a) what input or comment did the government provide, through any department or agency, during the comment periods for the two stages of the report; (b) what documents have been produced by any departments or agencies in preparation for or as a result of the IUGLS report, including the date and authoring department or agency of each document; (c) for each year since 2006, what measures have been taken by the government to mitigate falling water levels in the Great Lakes, broken down by department and agency; (d) what measures have been taken by departments or agencies as a result of the recommendations in the IUGLS; (e) what measures are being considered by departments or agencies as a result of, or in relation to, the IUGLS; and (f) what documents have been produced by any department or agency with regard to existing or future economic or environmental impacts of volatile water levels in the Great Lakes basin, including the date and authoring department or agency of each document?
(Return tabled)
Question No. 490--Ms. Hélène LeBlanc:
With regard to government funding in the riding of LaSalle—Émard, how much was provided for fiscal years 2012-2013 and 2013-2014, broken down by (i) department or agency, (ii) name of initiative or program and its description, (iii) date, amount and name of recipient?
Question No. 491--Ms. Yvonne Jones:
With regard to contracts under $10,000 granted by the Canadian Northern Economic Development Agency since January 1, 2013, for each contract, what is the: (a) vendor's name; (b) reference number; (c) date; (d) description of the services provided; (e) delivery date; (f) original value; and (g) final value if different from the original value?
Question No. 492--Mr. François Choquette:
With regard to Health Canada’s study on neonicotinoid pesticides: (a) what is the mandate of the study; (b) when will the study be completed; (c) will the results be released publicly and, if so, how will they be released; (d) will the study include public consultations and, if so, (i) with what groups, (ii) where, (iii) when; (e) will the study include case studies and, if so, (i) which case studies will be chosen, (ii) will the case studies cover the decline in the health of insect pollinators; (f) will part of the study include the impact of the use of neonicotinoid pesticides on the decrease in insect pollinators; (g) who will have access to the final report of the study from among (i) the public, (ii) government departments and agencies, (iii) ministers; (h) which (i) groups, (ii) departments (iii) organizations, (iv) scientists, (v) regions, (vi) groupings; (vii) towns, (viii) municipalities, (ix) provinces and territories will be consulted; (i) when determining the scope of the problem, will the study take into account the (i) direct, (ii) indirect, (iii) cumulative impacts of neonicotinoid pesticides; (j) which pesticides will be studied; (k) what impacts will be studied in terms of (i) the economy, (ii) municipalities (iii) communities, (iv) Aboriginal peoples, (v) human health, (vi) animal health, (vii) aquatic flora, (viii) aquatic fauna, (ix) terrestrial flora, (x) terrestrial fauna; and (l) what are the titles of the studies on neonicotinoid pesticides undertaken between 2004 and 2014?
Question No. 496--Hon. John McCallum:
With regard to the Temporary Foreign Worker Program, what is: (a) the number of all positions authorized through Labour Market Opinions, broken down by (i) region, (ii) National Occupation Code; and (b) the number of all temporary foreign workers, broken down by region and National Occupation Code, employed by (i) any government department, (ii) any government agency, (iii) any Crown Corporation?
Mr. Tom Lukiwski:
Mr. Speaker, I ask that the remaining questions be allowed to stand.
[Government Orders]
The House resumed from June 18 consideration of the motion that Bill C-6, An Act to implement the Convention on Cluster Munitions, be read the third time and passed.
Mr. Jasbir Sandhu (Surrey North, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, as always, it is an honour to speak in the House on behalf of my constituents of Surrey North.
I know this may be out of order, but I would like to take a couple of seconds to acknowledge my staff who are here today in the gallery. I would like to thank my constituency staff for the wonderful work they do in the constituency. MPs are very busy. We would not be able to do our jobs unless we had our constituency staff to help us out. That is across party lines in the House.
I have been waiting to speak to this important bill. Last night I was here until midnight, because of the scheduling, and I am here again this morning. It is an opportunity for me to voice my concerns on behalf of the constituents of Surrey North.
Unfortunately, over and over again throughout this session the government has been moving time allocation motions. It is basically shutting down the debate and prohibiting the opportunity for members of Parliament to represent their constituents and bring their views to Ottawa. That is what we on this side of the House, the NDP members, like to do. We like to bring the views of our constituents to the House so that they can be heard. Unfortunately, this is the 76th time that time allocation has been used.
Unfortunately, Conservatives do not believe in bringing forward the views of their constituents. Time after time, they do not speak to some of these bills. A number of Conservative members do not speak to these bills. Maybe they do not want to bring the views of their constituents into the House. I believe what we are brought here to do is to represent our constituents. Unfortunately, the Conservatives have failed to do that not only on this bill, but on many other bills that have been introduced in the House.
There have been 76 time allocation motions. The Conservatives have tried to ram through every bill that has come before us. Omnibus bills containing some 500 pages have been brought into the House and the Conservatives have put time allocation on them. It prevents not only NDP members but Conservative members as well from bringing forward the views of their constituents.
This bill to implement the Convention on Cluster Munitions is important. Cluster munitions are little explosives that are dropped and burst into thousands of mini bombs. They cause great damage, not only when they are dropped, but many years afterward as well. I have seen many times on TV where children are playing with these explosives and they get hurt. Some 98% of those injured by cluster munitions are civilians. People are not only injured during conflicts, but many years after as well. It is the civilians who are impacted the most when cluster munitions are used.
Canada participated in the Oslo process and worked with other countries to bring forth this convention. This was right after the signing of the treaty to ban land mines which took place in Ottawa. We had an opportunity to bring other countries together to show leadership on this very important issue of cluster munitions, where we could make a real impact around the world and ensure that these kinds of things are not used against civilians, children and women, to make sure that they are not hurt by these explosives. Unfortunately, the Conservative government has failed time after time.
There was a time when Canadians were viewed around the world as peacemakers. Canadians were viewed as people who would bring the world together. They would negotiate between different countries to bring them together for peaceful purposes. Unfortunately, under the Conservative government, we have seen the deterioration of our reputation around the world.
There was a time when Canadians were proud to wear the Canadian flag pin on their lapels. Citizens of other countries would wear the Canadian flag on their backpacks when travelling around the world. We were viewed as a peaceful country that brought people together, instead of what we have seen from the Conservative government, which is divisive and forceful attitudes, and empty rhetoric.
We have always been viewed as people who have helped countries. We look at the work of CIDA that was done many years ago. We helped poor nations. We helped nations come together. That is where we had our influence. We were out there helping many nations around the world. We had influence. We brought countries together for peaceful purposes.
Unfortunately, under the Conservative government, we have seen the deterioration in the CIDA funding that we provide around the world. It is now tied to businesses. It is tied more to mining companies or oil companies rather than humanitarian causes for which it was originally intended. That helped us have influence around the world to bring those countries together.
What has happened over the years? We pulled out of Kyoto. We were supposed to be the leaders in bringing countries together to deal with climate change. I know the Conservatives do not like the term “climate change”. They rarely use it. This morning, the member for Halifax spoke about the environment, and that we should have a debate about the environment. She pointed out that Conservatives rarely use the term “climate change”. There is scientific research behind it, and people all around the world know about it, yet some of the members from the Conservative side do not even want to use the term. They deny there is such a thing as climate change. We had an opportunity to show leadership in that regard.
The damage to our reputation has been severe. The UN Security Council is very powerful. We have had a seat on it on a rotating basis every year since the UN Security Council was formed, but this year we lost that seat. We did not even run because we knew we would lose to some other country, and we did lose. We did not even ask to be on the Security Council. That is how much damage the Conservative government has done to our reputation around the world. The UN Security Council was a place where we played an important role with all the work we have done as parliamentarians and as Canadians to bring countries across the world together for peaceful purposes. Under the Conservative government, we have lost that seat. That is the record of the government over the last six to eight years, and it has been downhill ever since.
We had an opportunity with this bill, Bill C-6, to repair some of the damage done by the government. Unfortunately, the Conservatives have failed in this regard. Some of the experts are saying that the Conservatives' legislation to implement the Convention on Cluster Munitions is widely recognized as the weakest and worst in the world, that it undermines the very spirit of the convention it is supposed to implement. This is what the world is saying.
We had a great reputation as peacemakers and world leaders in bringing countries together, but now we have taken some steps backward. Not only did we not ratify the Kyoto agreement, but we also do not have a seat on the Security Council. Now the world is saying that we have an opportunity to be positive and show leadership around the world, and yet this particular legislation on cluster munitions is a step backward.
People around the world are saying that this will set a precedent for other countries to also undermine the regulation or banning of these explosive, deadly munitions that hurt people. Again, 98% of the injuries are to civilians.
Despite the strong opposition of a majority of participatory states and non-governmental organizations, Canada succeeded in negotiating into the final text of the convention an article that explicitly allows for continued military interoperability with non-party states. That is a troublesome issue. That is a very troublesome article that Canada actually championed and negotiated to include in the convention.
Bill C-6 goes beyond even the interoperability allowance in the convention. The main problem lies in clause 11. We heard this last night, and I am saying it again this morning. I think it is important because clause 11 establishes an extremely broad list of exceptions. We know what happens when there is a broad list of exceptions; it sort of guts the bill. I have used these words before with most of the legislation that the government presents, but we could drive a truck through this legislation which has been so gutted by these broad exceptions.
In its original form, this clause permitted Canadian soldiers to use, acquire, possess and/or transport cluster munitions whenever they are acting in conjunction with another country that is not a member of the convention, and to request the use of cluster munitions by another country.
China, Russia and the U.S. are not signatories to the convention. This is where we could have used our influence around the world. We could have brought countries together to persuade the countries that have not signed on to the convention to eliminate and ban the use of cluster munitions. The 98% of the people who are hurt by these munitions are civilians. We could help these people around the world. This is where leadership comes in.
Time after time the Conservatives have failed not only on the international stage but also on the domestic stage to show leadership in the areas where Canadians want their government to show leadership.
At the foreign affairs committee, the NDP supported Canadians and international civil society groups in pushing for changes to the bill. We engaged closely with the government, in public and through direct dialogue, to encourage improvements to this legislation.
We were successful in persuading the government to formally prohibit the use of cluster munitions at least by Canadian soldiers. There was a small give on the part of the Conservatives. However, other loopholes remain. Without amendments to rectify these loopholes, Canada's commitment to ending the use of cluster munitions will be superficial at best.
Indeed, Bill C-6 may even be damaging, as I pointed out earlier, by establishing an international precedent for opting out and exceptions. Therein lies the problem. The Conservatives entered into the process on the Convention on Cluster Munitions and came back with a whole bunch of exemptions. Exemptions are basically loopholes that allow for cluster munitions to still be used.
We have seen this over and over. In order for Canada to be a leader on this around the world, we need to close these loopholes. We need to work with other nations, our NATO allies, our Norad allies, and the UN. We need to work with all these international organizations to bring the countries on board so we can look at banning these explosives that hurt civilians, including children, around the world. What do the Conservatives do? They basically leave huge loopholes in the bill and that will not help.
As it currently stands, Canada's legislation will be the weakest of all countries that have ratified this convention. Unfortunately, with the government's approach to international issues, where it could take a leadership role and had shown leadership many years ago, it has failed to live up to that leadership. Canadians expect the government to live up to that leadership. Unfortunately, the Conservatives have failed Canadians again. This was an opportunity for them to show that leadership and, again, they failed.
Mr. Speaker, I want to pick up on the member's last comments with regard to international leadership. The government has been able to demonstrate leadership on that file. My question is related to the fact that Canada played such a strong leadership role during the 1990s in terms of the land mines treaty. Not only did the Ottawa land mines treaty originate in Ottawa but it was then ratified during Jean Chrétien's era. Liberals demonstrated very clear leadership. Not only did we sign it off, but it was passed through the House unanimously, from what I understand.
My question is this. Does the member recognize that the government has not been able to get unanimous support from the House of Commons, which demonstrates a deficiency, and it also took so many years to bring it before us in the House today?
Mr. Jasbir Sandhu:
Mr. Speaker, the Conservatives have not shown leadership on this issue. The member always talks about the Liberal leadership. Canadians know what leadership Liberals have shown. They are sitting in that corner with the little group and Canadians have told them what they have done.
Mr. Speaker, I would like to thank the member for Surrey North for his very eloquent remarks about this bill on cluster munitions and the failure of the government to live up to the promise of many international treaties. Just today, I introduced a motion calling on the government to sign the Marrakesh treaty so that people who are visually impaired can get access to these documents.
Can the member comment on the importance of signing treaties like the Marrakesh treaty?
Mr. Speaker, those are the kinds of things we need to do. The Conservative government has failed. In 2015, New Democrats will take those initiatives to bring honour back to Canada.
It being 12:54 p.m., pursuant to an order made on Monday, June 16, 2014, it is my duty to interrupt the proceedings and put forthwith every question necessary to dispose of the third reading stage of the bill now before the House.
The Acting Speaker (Mr. Barry Devolin): All those in favour of the motion will please say yea.
The Acting Speaker (Mr. Barry Devolin): All those opposed will please say nay.
The Acting Speaker (Mr. Barry Devolin): In my opinion the yeas have it.
The Acting Speaker (Mr. Barry Devolin): Pursuant to an order made on Tuesday, May 27, 2014, the division stands deferred until later this day at the expiry of the time provided for oral questions.
Rouge National Urban Park Act
Hon. Ed Holder (for the Minister of the Environment)
moved that Bill C-40, An Act respecting the Rouge National Urban Park be now read a second time and referred to the Standing Committee on Environment and Sustainable Development.
Mr. Colin Carrie (Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of the Environment, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, it is truly an honour and a privilege for me to speak in support of the bill to establish Rouge national urban park in the greater Toronto area. This park celebrates and protects, for current and future generations, a diverse landscape in Canada's largest metropolitan area. It offers engaging and varied experiences. It inspires personal connections to its natural beauty and rich history and promotes a vibrant farming community. In close proximity to 20% of Canada's population, the park includes more than 10,000 years of rich human history.
The national park would increase the size of the regional park by 25%, making it more than 13 times the size of Stanley Park in Vancouver and 16 times the size of Central Park in New York.
As Canada's first ever national urban park, the Rouge offers an unprecedented opportunity to support all three priorities of our government's national conservation plan: to connect Canadians to nature and to restore and conserve the parks' ecosystems and cultural resources.
We can all be proud that this legislation would create a remarkable new entity, one located within Canada's largest and most culturally diverse metropolis. This vast area would be an extraordinary mix of natural, cultural, and agricultural lands. Given its close proximity to one-fifth of Canada's population, the park would be easily accessible for people in the greater Toronto area.
This legislation would establish the Rouge national urban park as a new model of protected area in Canada. The park owes its very existence to local visionaries and stewards, citizens, organizations, governments, and countless volunteers. Our government is proud to pay tribute to the nearly 30 years of hard work and determination in building one of the largest urban parks in the world. We also want to acknowledge the over 100 provincial, municipal, aboriginal, and community stakeholders, and thousands of members of the public, who contributed to the vision and plans for Canada's first urban national park.
As hon. members will observe, the bill provides a new framework that would enable Parks Canada to manage the park's natural, cultural, and agricultural resources and to recognize the opportunities and challenges that its urban context brings. Home to nearly 1,700 species of plants and animals, several of which are rare or threatened, Parks Canada would apply its world-leading expertise in conservation and restoration and work with partners to ensure Rouge's ecosystems, plants, and animals are cared for, maintained, and restored for present and future generations.
The Rouge national urban park act would provide broad regulatory powers to address all aspects of park management. A flexible management approach is needed to meet future infrastructure. The minister of the environment, through Parks Canada, would be able to protect and present this unique place that encompasses deep river valleys and glacial features, thousands of species of plants and animals, farmlands, archeological resources, built heritage, and cultural landscapes.
I want to emphasize that the park's tradition of agriculture is a unique feature among Canadian protected heritage areas. The presence of working farms would be integral to the future success of this park. People would continue to live and work on the park's agricultural landscape, as many families have done since the late 1700s. The national urban park status would also bring a new sense of security to the park farming community. Parks Canada would become the landlord of all existing leases on transferred lands and is working closely with the farming community to develop a lease structure that supports long-term farming. There is a real potential for visitors to connect with farming as it exists now, as well as opportunities for new types of farming to serve the growing and increasingly diverse population of the greater Toronto area.
The legislation would ensure that all these natural, cultural, and agricultural landscapes are protected and managed in an integrated way to the benefit of Canadians, now and for generations to come. In fact, the bill would give the Rouge the highest level of ecological protection it has ever had. The management plan would permit the minister to present a comprehensive conservation approach. This would be based on the most up-to-date science expertise and experience, drawn from the entire system of national protected areas.
The approach to management planning would strive to maximize the ecosystem health of the park by maintaining and restoring its native Carolinian and Mixedwood Plains forests, and wetland meadow and aquatic ecosystems. The approach to the ecosystem health envisioned in the bill for the Rouge would take into account the park's increasingly urban surroundings and the working farms, roads, rail lines, and hydro corridors. The bill recognizes that this dynamic urban and agricultural context has long driven change, both within and around the park, and it would continue to do so.
The agency would therefore manage the park, but in an adaptive way, maximizing ecosystem health in these ever-changing conditions. Working with people living next to and in the park would be an essential component of the management approach. The park lessee community and the park stewardship volunteers would play an important role in maintaining ecosystem health, visitor experience, and cultural heritage.
Our government's long-standing commitment to first nations involvement in protected heritage places would also play an important role in this park. The new status for the Rouge would facilitate first nations celebrations of their historical roots in this park. The bill contains a provision that would respect traditional renewable resource harvesting activities by aboriginal people. The bill would also respect the rights of aboriginal people in the event of any future agreement for the settlement of land claims.
As the House knows, our government made a commitment in the 2012 budget to invest more than $143 million over 10 years and $7.6 million annually thereafter to make Rouge national urban park a reality. This is a commitment we reasserted in the 2014 budget.
Among other things, this investment would make possible a protected area that is both larger and more strategically situated than the existing park. Increasing the park's size would also help advance the goal of connecting Lake Ontario and the Oak Ridges Moraine.
Moreover, with the creation of the Rouge national urban park we would expand the level of experiences that visitors have in the park. Residents of the greater Toronto area and all Canadians would be able to explore more areas of the larger park. This might inspire them to visit more of Canada's heritage places.
As I mentioned earlier, the creation of the Rouge national urban park supports Canada's national conservation plan. I would like to take a few minutes to explain how this plan will work.
The plan responds to a clear message from Canadians that they care deeply about the natural environment and want to enjoy and conserve it for future generations. The plan aligns and bolsters conservation efforts across this country. It protects the environment while supporting a growing economy and makes concrete and tangible progress to conserve and restore Canada's lands and waters and connect Canadians to nature.
The launch of the plan is an opportunity to continue to work together to conserve Canada's rich natural heritage. Many Canadians are already working to conserve and restore Canada's lands and waters. This includes all levels of government, aboriginal groups, environmental organizations, and the private sector, as well as many Canadians at the local level including landowners, land managers, community groups, and individuals across our great country.
The national conservation plan celebrates collective efforts to conserve the environment. It also invests $252 million toward concrete and targeted actions on conservation. This investment over five years will support and expand successful initiatives, and also broaden work through new activities.
The plan built on the announcement on the 2014 budget including measures to invest in national parks, conserve recreational fisheries, encourage donations of ecologically sensitive land, and expand recreational trails. The national conservation plan's vision is to contribute to a stronger Canada, a country that cares about the conservation of its national heritage and where citizens can enjoy the beauty of Canada's environment from coast to coast to coast.
The plan focuses on action across three priority areas: conserving Canada's lands and waters, restoring Canada's ecosystems, and connecting Canadians to nature.
The first priority, conserving Canada's lands and waters, aims to safeguard and enhance biodiversity and ecosystems through conservation and stewardship actions.
The second priority is about restoring degraded ecosystems. Once restored, these ecosystems provide clean water and habitat for wildlife and are essential for the protection and recovery of species at risk. The plan also includes $50 million in funding to expand support for landowners, aboriginal communities, agricultural producers, conservation and community groups, and other partners to voluntarily implement measures to restore and conserve essential habitat and vulnerable species.
Stakeholders have reiterated that voluntary conservation and stewardship efforts are critical to achieving Canada's conservation objectives. These restoration actions complement existing efforts by the federal government such as the cleanup of contaminated sites.
With this in mind, the national conservation plan's third priority is to connect Canadians to nature. This work will leverage existing successful initiatives to help foster an appreciation for nature and build a community of stewards among Canadians of all ages.
Investments of $9.2 million will be made to improve public access to protected areas and green spaces, focusing on those areas located in and near cities.
To conclude my remarks, the creation of this unique park, the Rouge park, will be another milestone in our government's renowned history of heritage protection. Since we formed government, we have created two national marine conservation areas, three marine protected areas, three national wildlife areas, one national historic site, and two national parks. This does not include the Rouge national urban park.
It also does not include the bill we tabled last week in the House to create the Nááts’ihch’oh national park reserve in the Northwest Territories.
We have done more than any other government. In fact, the total area of lands we have protected in this area is more than twice the size of Vancouver Island.
The Rouge park's urban setting would offer exciting unprecedented opportunities and would connect Canadians to nature, culture, and agriculture. Nowhere is there greater opportunity to showcase and share our natural and cultural heritage than the greater Toronto area, which is home to millions of urban, new, and young Canadians.
Mr. Speaker it is an exciting idea to create a national park in an urban space. I have been waiting for this legislation, because it has been promised for a while. I have to say I have been waiting for the speech, because the bill was just tabled on Friday, the departmental briefing was yesterday, and I have not even had time to do a proper analysis of the bill; so I was really looking forward to the speech today to figure out some details about it.
I am very disappointed that the minister is not the first to speak to this. I am also disappointed that more than half the speech was about the conservation plan and not about this park.
I have so many questions, but this is the question that I would love to have answered right now. We have a National Parks Act that says, “Maintenance or restoration of ecological integrity...shall be the first priority of the Minister...”.
The Ontario Parks Act, where this park is located, says that these areas “...shall be managed to maintain their ecological integrity...”.
The Rouge Park management plan says “The vision of the park has, as its primary focus, the continuing health and integrity of natural systems and habitats....in protecting the ecological integrity of the Rouge River watershed.”
The bill before us says, “The Minister must...take into consideration the protection of its natural ecosystems...”. How is taking consideration of a natural ecosystem actually going to fulfill the focus of all these other policies and pieces of legislation?
Mr. Colin Carrie:
Mr. Speaker, I am very disappointed that the critic for the NDP did not take the time to actually read the bill. As she said, it was tabled on Friday. As she quite rightly stated, there was a briefing yesterday, and unfortunately, she could not make the time to attend that. The answers to her questions would have been in there. If she had listened to my speech, she would have actually heard that the bill would provide the greatest protection that the Rouge has ever had in its history.
One of our priorities is to make sure we protect our environment for our future. As I said in my opening remarks, this has been a 30-year task. It has been 30 years in the making between all levels of government, and I must say, I am very pleased and I am very thankful for all levels of government—federal, provincial, and municipal—and all the stakeholders who have come together to make this a reality.
This is truly a historic moment for Canada. This is a unique park that is the first one in an urban area. It is a model, and it would be treated slightly differently because of the realities that are presented in the park. For example, there are things called highways. That is called development. There are things called hydro corridors. There are things called railways. These are developments that are in place.
Unfortunately, the NDP, instead of being known as the New Democratic Party, is now being known as the no development party, because it seems New Democrats are against everything.
Hon. John McKay (Scarborough—Guildwood, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, it seems to me that the Government of Canada has a talent for turning what should be a good news story into a dubious, suspicious story about which Canadians have questions.
Frankly, I join with the member for Halifax in saying that the Conservatives could have done this in a fashion so people could have read it in advance, and they just possibly could have got more support than they presently have, because all they do is raise suspicions.
The first question comes out of clause 4, which is how the park is established. It says that one is supposed to go to the schedule of the lands that are being transferred, so one goes to the schedule of the lands that are being transferred, but there are actually three little squibs of land in Markham, hardly amounting to an acre or two of land, which are actually being transferred. However, according to the presentation the hon. member made, we would be getting 58 square kilometres, which some people argue is even less than it should be.
Nevertheless, what is actually being transferred right now is three little squibs of land. Therefore, when Parliament passes the bill, that is all we would have. There is a heck of a lot of land to be transferred from the Province of Ontario, the municipalities, the TRCA, et cetera before this is actually anywhere close to reality.
Why present the bill now when you actually have no land, when the bill could have been presented when you actually had land to transfer—
Order. I do not know how many times I have said this, but hon. members need to address their comments to the Chair rather than directly to their colleagues.
The hon. parliamentary secretary.
Mr. Speaker, I want to thank the critic for the Liberal Party. At least he took the time to attend the briefing yesterday. However, I do believe his question was answered at the briefing.
The member may or may not be aware that when transferring lands from different levels of government, the process requires something to transfer them to. As I have said, we have got agreement with different levels of government to move forward in this way. The member is correct in that once the act were passed, there would be a certain amount of land, and once there were an official entity to which to transfer the lands, then the other levels of government and other entities would be able to transfer this way.
As I said, one of the things we should be very proud of is that this would be 25% bigger than the area that is there now, and it would be a parcel of land 16 times greater than the size of Central Park in New York City. This is historic. Unfortunately, it has taken a long time.
I agree with the member's former leader, Mr. Ignatieff, who said when it comes to the environmental files, “We didn't get it done.” This is other proof that the Liberals did not get it done. We are getting it done for Canadians.
Mr. David Wilks (Kootenay—Columbia, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, recently, the Prime Minister launched the national conservation plan. I wonder if the hon. parliamentary secretary could explain how the creation of the Rouge national urban park would support this particular plan.
Mr. Speaker, I want to thank my colleague from Kootenay—Columbia for the question and also for all the good work he does in his community. He lives in one of the most beautiful places in Canada, and he is very committed to conserving Canada's environment.
The Rouge national urban park would support the key pillars of the national conservation plan by taking practical action to connect Canadians to nature, restore Canada's ecosystems, and contribute to the conservation of Canada's lands and waters. Situated close to 20% of Canada's population, the park would provide a great place for Canadians to connect with nature, culture, and agriculture without having to travel far from home.
This park, as I said in my speech, has about 1,700 species of plants and animals, several of which are rare or threatened. Parks Canada would apply its world-leading expertise in conservation and restoration and work with partners to ensure Rouge's precious ecosystem, plants, and animals are cared for, maintained, and restored for present and future generations.
Mr. Speaker, I share our critic's dismay that the minister was not here, because there are some important questions to ask her about letters that local groups have sent and to which they are still waiting for a response.
My question is very specific and it has to do with one of the driving forces in the creation of Rouge Park, which is the Friends of the Rouge Watershed.
Jim Robb, the general manager of Friends of the Rouge Watershed said that his group and others have asked the Government of Ontario not to transfer Ontario's lands, which amount to about two-thirds of the park, until standards of past Rouge Park plans are met, because the current plan that the government is putting forward is not even as good as the last one. He is quoted as saying that, “The park they’re proposing is actually not as good as the park they already have.”
I would like to hear the parliamentary secretary respond to Mr. Robb's questions about why the government's current plan is not even as good as the park we have there now.
Before I go to the parliamentary secretary, just to clarify, for a member to reference that someone did or did not speak to something is acceptable, because that is a matter of public record. However, to make reference to the fact that someone was or was not here is not. I understand that is a subtle distinction, but that is the rule.
Mr. Speaker, again the premise of the member's question is incorrect. If he had listened to my speech, he would have heard that what we are putting forward would offer the most protection that this area has ever been given.
There appear to be certain single-focus groups out there that may or may not have some misunderstanding of what exactly is going on with the new act. The individual he mentioned did take the time to come down and was there on Monday. I had the opportunity to speak with him, and I will be meeting with him in the near future to help answer many of the questions.
I am very pleased that all of these different groups have done a lot of good work to make this day happen. It is unfortunate that the NDP, the no development party, would even be against the development of the Rouge Park in the way it has been agreed upon. This is a historic agreement. All levels of government and all stakeholders are happy about it. The only people who are not, I guess, are the members of the opposition.
Ms. Rathika Sitsabaiesan (Scarborough—Rouge River, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, it is an honour for me to speak to Bill C-40, and I thank the minister for bringing it forward. The name of my constituency is Scarborough--Rouge River. The Rouge River and the largest piece of the current Rouge Park are in my constituency.
We are excited about this legislation, but we have some concerns. When I say we, I am referring to myself and thousands of activists who have worked for over 35 years in the community to create the current Rouge Park. We have called for national protection of the park and national park status. It started many decades ago with people literally sitting down on these lands and hugging trees. Conservatives do not like tree huggers and environmentalists, but these people feel they have to protect the park's natural habitat.
Rouge Park is the northern most point of the mixed woodlands and the Carolinian forest. Activists on the ground felt they had to protect this land from being handed over to developers who might plan to build condos.
I am privileged to have this park in my community. Many of my constituents have the luxury of living with the Rouge River, or the Duffins Creek or Rouge Creek running along their backyards.
The minister has shown concern about who has read the bill and who has not. I have the bill in my hand and I have read it.
My first concern about the legislation is with respect to the section dealing with management of the park and factors to be considered with the management of the park. Clause 6 says, “The Minister must, in the management of the Park”, and this is the concerning part, “ take into consideration the protection of its natural ecosystems and cultural landscapes”.
This clause looks like it makes sense on the first reading of it. It looks like it is a responsible measure. However, the language is weak compared to the existing legislation, which has stronger language.
Let me read section 8(2) of the existing Canada National Parks Act. It states:
Maintenance or restoration of ecological integrity, through the protection of natural resources and natural processes, shall be the first priority of the Minister when considering all aspects of the management of parks.
I note the words “shall be the first priority”. This is far stronger language than what is in Bill C-40, which is “take into consideration” the protection of natural ecosystems.
Let us look at the Provincial Parks and Conservation Reserves Act. section 6, which reads:
Ontario’s provincial parks and conservation reserves are dedicated to the people of Ontario and visitors for their inspiration, education, health, recreational enjoyment and other benefits with the intention that these areas shall be managed to maintain their ecological integrity and to leave them unimpaired for future generations.
The important words here are “shall be managed to maintain their ecological integrity”. Let us compare that with what is proposed in the new bill, which states “take into consideration the protection of natural ecosystems and cultural landscapes”.
The Canada National Parks Act states “shall be the first priority”. In the Provincial Parks Act it is “shall be managed to maintaining ecological integrity”. In the proposed bill it is “take into consideration”.
The Conservative government, under the guise of this bill, “an act respecting the Rouge national urban park”, somewhere refers to making life better for everybody in the country as well. That is what the Conservatives do with omnibus bills. I am joking. I have actually read the whole bill, and it does not talk about the economic action plan once, which is pretty awesome because the Conservatives usually like to talk about immigration, economic action and job creation in every bill. That does not happening with this one. I congratulate the government for not making this an omnibus bill about 75 different pieces of legislation.
However, what the government is doing is weakening the protection of my and the people's park in Scarborough. That is what I do not like to see, especially because so many people have worked for so long to create this park and to protect it.
Just this past year, I have taken groups of schoolchildren and community activists to plant more trees and bushes in this park. We did it to ensure the sustainability and ecological viability of it. We have planted spruce, dark cherry, and bushes. We have taken students and gone in and removed invasive species that are not naturally occurring in this area, so the trees, bushes, and plants can actually thrive.
Activists and people who care about this park are the wardens of it. We are the ones who take care of it. I and my constituents in Scarborough—Rouge River want to ensure that the park has higher protection through the creation of national park status, rather than disintegrating the quality of it.
I can read more from the Rouge Park management plan of 1994, which was cabinet approved, by the way. The cabinet-approved the Rouge Park management plan in 1994. I will read excerpts from sections 6.1 and 10.3.
Section 6.1 reads, “The vision of the park has, as its primary focus, the continuing health and integrity of natural systems and habitats.”
Section 10.3 reads, “protecting the ecological integrity of the Rouge River watershed”.
Once again these are stronger words than “take into consideration the protection”.
Section 3.2.1 of the Greenbelt plan says:
The Protected Countryside contains a Natural System that provides a continuous and permanent land base necessary to support human and ecological health in the Greenbelt and beyond...support biodiversity and overall ecological integrity.
All of this is much stronger than clause 6 of the bill, which states “take into consideration the protection of its natural ecosystems and cultural landscapes and the maintenance of its native wildlife and of the health of those ecosystems”.
Let us look at clause 4 of the bill, which is on the establishment of the park. The minister wrote or oversaw the writing of this bill. It is funny because the bill lists the purposes of the creation of the Rouge national urban park and the first thing identified is protection. However, when it goes into the implementation and the factors to be considered in the management of the park, there is weak language.
Let me read part of clause 4. It says:
Rouge National Urban Park...is established for the purposes of protecting and presenting, for current and future generations, the natural and cultural heritage of the Park and its diverse landscapes, promoting a vibrant farming community and encouraging Canadians to discover and connect with their national protected heritage areas.
Once again, the government talks about protection, but in reality it weakens the protection for the park.
I would like to talk a bit about the responses since the bill has been tabled. We know that the idea of the creation of Rouge national urban park was mentioned in a couple of throne speeches. It got us all excited in the community, but then we saw there was no real financial commitment. We pushed and pushed and we saw some financial commitment, which is great. We then saw that somebody from Parks Canada had been assigned.
We thought the community would have a say in the creation of what we wanted to call “the people's park”. I remember that at the first public consultation, as it was called, which happened at the University of Toronto Scarborough campus, the member of Parliament who had the largest piece of the current Rouge Park in their riding was not invited. That was me.
My constituency is home to the largest piece of the Rouge Park. However, when the government was holding public consultations, I was not even invited. I forced myself in to ensure I was there. This is the people's park. Did the Conservatives say that it is about consideration for future generations? I was the youngest person in the room, and I was not even invited. I make sure that my opinions, the opinions of my constituents, and the opinions of those who have been activists on the ground were brought forward at that meeting.
The whole idea of “the people's park” came from that first consultation. I know we will probably hear Conservative members say that there was plenty of consultation, but if we speak to residents who live in the vicinity of the park, they will not even know that these consultations took place because not much notice was given to them. There needs to be a thorough inclusion of the constituents who will be affected in the area surrounding this park.
Recently, since the tabling or announcement of this bill in the House on June 13, CPAWS, which is the Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society, has issued a quick reaction to the tabling of this. I want to read a excerpt from the group's reaction. It says:
CPAWS recognizes and supports the importance of Rouge National Urban Park in connecting urban Canadians to nature and encouraging them to become nature stewards. It is imperative, however, that conservation is prioritized in the park’s legislation and management plan to ensure this remarkable natural area and its wildlife are not “loved to death” over time. Putting nature conservation first is also consistent with the international definition and guidance for protected areas.
On first glance, it’s not clear if the Bill accomplishes this as it only requires the Minister to take the health of park ecosystems and wildlife “into consideration” in park management. We also note there is very little information provided about how agriculture will be managed in the park.
The Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society is concerned about the weak protection of the conservation of the park. It is the same point I mentioned about clause 6 of the bill, which states, “take into consideration the protection”.
The second issue the group identified was the agriculture in the area. We know that within the park boundaries, much of the land is leased to people for private interests. A lot of the agriculture and farming that happens in the parklands is cash-cropping. We know there is usage of pesticides, a concern for many environmentalists, activists and neighbours.
Residents whose water is drawn out of the watershed and who take their children to walk in the park are concerned about pesticides being used in a soon to be nationally protected park. That is a problem. We need to ensure that the agricultural development and investments in this community are done in a way that is sustainable. Also, we should be supporting organic farming or local community farming in Rouge Park. We want it to be known as “the people's park”.
I want to mention one other item. The parliamentary secretary mentioned that a lot of consultation was done and that this was the largest the park could be. We know that is not true because this park can be 100 square kilometres. What is being proposed is that it would be North America's largest urban park. Central Park is the largest as of now. We are going to make it bigger than that.
It is an historic moment for this country's national parks. I agree. However, why do we not make it the best park it can be? Why does it have to be a mediocre one?
I want to read from a motion from the city of Toronto. The city council actually passed a motion. It was passed unanimously by the city councillors who were present. I will quote from the recommendations with respect to what Toronto city council wanted to make sure was respected and conserved in Rouge national park. City council wanted to encourage the federal government to:
Ensure that the concept, legislation and management plan for Rouge National Urban Park respects, strengthens and implements the vision, goals and objectives of the City approved Rouge Park Plans (1994 and 2001) and current Toronto Official Plan, the Provincial Greenbelt Plan (2005) and the Rouge Natural Heritage Action Plan (2008); including incorporating the existing park vision
This is the current park vision:
the Rouge National Urban Park will be a special place of outstanding natural features and diverse cultural heritage in an urban-rural setting, protected and flourishing as an ecosystem in perpetuity. Human activities will exist in harmony with the natural values of the Park. The Park will be a sanctuary for nature and the human spirit
That sounds fabulous. I have so much more to say. The recommendations go on to say:
Respect conservation science, good planning principles and long term park ecological health and visitor potential, by including the 100+ km2 public land assembly within the Rouge and Duffins Creek watersheds as part of the Rouge National Urban Park study area;
iii. Ensure restoration of a large mixed-wood and Carolinian forest habitat system linking Lake Ontario to the Oak Ridges Moraine with public parkland and trails; and
iv. Include First Nations and other respected conservation NGOs on the Rouge National Urban Park Advisory Board.
The motion was passed unanimously by city council.
How does it make sense to create legislation to create Canada's first national urban park but to also push forward and support a pipeline that goes through this park, and then, to make this even worse, to not protect the main waterway that goes through this park and has the pipeline cutting across it? How does that make sense?
I put forward one of my private member's bills, Bill C-532, an act to amend the Navigable Waters Protection Act (Rouge River), to ensure that the Rouge River, from end to end, is a protected waterway so that the pipeline that cuts across it does not actually pollute the waterway, which is the main waterway for this entire Rouge park. It goes into the tributaries, the Little Rouge Creek, and the underground water tables.
How is it that the government seems to think it makes sense when creating a national urban park, and saying that it is protecting it with the most protection it has ever had in its history, to not protect the largest waterway that cuts through this park? The government supports having an oil pipeline that cuts through the park.
For about two years, there was exposed pipeline in the park. It took Enbridge, or the company that went to fix it, two weeks to set up to access the pipeline to fix it. Imagine if there were a disaster.
There are pieces in the bill about spills—
Hon. Kevin Sorenson: Have you ever been to the park?
Mrs. Cathy McLeod: Jasper. What about Jasper?
Hon. Kevin Sorenson: Jasper.
Ms. Rathika Sitsabaiesan: Oh, Mr. Speaker, a Conservative member is heckling me and asking if I have been to the park. Of course I have. I go there and plant trees and bushes, and I take care of that park. I personally take care of Rouge Park.
Mr. Robert Sopuck: I want to see deer.
Ms. Rathika Sitsabaiesan:
Mr. Speaker, I am one of the stewards of this park, and that is why I am saying that this bill is a good start, but we need to make sure we are protecting this park and making it the best park it can be.
Mr. Corneliu Chisu (Pickering—Scarborough East, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I was listening attentively to the presentation by my colleague. I have heard a lot of misinformation presented to the House regarding the park. She said she participates in many activities in the park. Unfortunately, I have not seen her very much. I go there. I live in the park.
I would like to ask my colleague if there is a difference between a national park and an urban national park. Does she think Highway 401 should not be in Rouge Park, that the 401 should be destroyed, and that they should block the entrance to the park to everyone but the NDP? I would ask her to tell me, please.
Mr. Speaker, it is really funny that the member would say that he does not see me in the park, because the one or two times he has been to the park, I was there. I do not understand what he means. However, it does not matter. Let us not talk about what he does or does not do. I want to talk about the park.
The park is very important to me. He says that I was giving misinformation here. I was reading from existing legislation. I was reading from the Canada National Parks Act, the Provincial Parks Act, the Rouge Park Management Plan, and the Greenbelt Plan. I was reading from the motion from city council, from a release that CPAWS put out, and from the legislation itself. The member said he was listening very hard. Maybe he missed the parts I quoted from the existing legislation and the legislation that is before us.
After he attacked and said I do not spend time in Rouge Park, which is a joke, he asked about the difference between a national park and an urban national park and if I feel the park does not need highways. My vision for this park is that it will be one that conserves and protects the natural habitat and ecosystems of this park while allowing the residents of the area to enjoy the park. It also means making sure that there is not a large oil spill and that the water system is protected.
Before I go to questions and comments, I would remind all hon. members that they should wait until their colleagues are finished their questions before standing. Standing up before their colleagues are finished does not increase your chances of being recognized; in fact, it decreases your chances of being recognized.
The hon. member for Scarborough—Guildwood.
Mr. Speaker, I want to ask the hon. member about her participation in Rouge Park activities. Those who have been active in the last 25 years, groups like Save the Rouge Valley System, Friends of the Rouge Watershed, Lois James, Derek Lee, a former colleague, Pauline Browes, a former colleague of members opposite, and a whole variety of others appear not to be involved in, or have been specifically excluded from, the management plan of the park. I wonder whether she could comment on their apparent treatment.
Mr. Speaker, Lois James is known as the grandmother of the park, and the Friends of the Rouge Watershed are the ones who take care of a lot of the tree planting in the area. The activists and community members who care seem to be left out. Who was invited to the announcement about the Rouge Park legislation? All of the Conservatives' friends were invited to it, it seemed, but Friends of the Rouge Watershed was not. My office did not get notice that they were going to be making an announcement about it.
Of course, the announcement was made in Markham, but we know that Rouge Park affects multiple ridings in the area, and we need to make sure that we work together for the creation of Canada's first urban national park. People like the grandmother of the park, Lois James, need to be included in at least the visioning of it.
Order, please. While the Chair appreciates the assistance of hon. members in this place, it is in fact the responsibility of the Chair to try to manage the clock. I know it is getting near the end of the session, but interruptions and interventions from the floor are more likely to delay the business of this House rather than expedite it.
Questions and comments. The hon. member for Scarborough Southwest.
Mr. Speaker, I want to start off by commenting on the heckling from the member for Dauphin—Swan River—Marquette when he was talking about wanting to see the deer in the park.
Deer are one of 27 mammal species in the park. There are 55 fish species, 19 reptile and amphibian species, and 762 plant species. Over a quarter of Ontario's flora can be found in the park, as well as 225 bird species, including 123 breeding species. Therefore, there is a lot to see in the park beyond deer.
I want to ask my hon. colleague about the absolute negligence of the changes that were made to the Navigable Waters Protection Act by making sure—
Order, please. The hon. member for Dauphin—Swan River—Marquette is rising on a point of order.
Mr. Robert Sopuck:
Mr. Speaker, I rise on a point of order. The hon. member across the way referred to me as making a comment, and I have yet to speak today, so I would ask him to retract it.
On the same point of order, the hon. member for Scarborough Southwest.
Mr. Dan Harris:
Mr. Speaker, I was commenting on heckling by the member when he was not recognized by the Chair, not on a comment he made when he was. Maybe he might want to wait until he is recognized before he speaks up.
My question to my hon. colleague was about the negligence in the changes to the Navigable Waters Protection Act that mean that there will not be stop valves placed on both sides of the line 9 pipeline when the reversal is made and why that could lead to potential spills down the road.
Mr. Speaker, my hon. colleague from Scarborough Southwest is correct.
Ms. Rathika Sitsabaiesan: Mr. Speaker, would you like me to continue over these hecklers?
Mr. Leon Benoit:
You have your own members heckling.
Order, please. Could all hon. members speak when they have the floor and refrain from doing so when they do not? If there is a discussion that needs to take place, members are obviously free to leave the chamber and do it outside the chamber.
The hon. member for Scarborough—Rouge River.
Mr. Speaker, thank you. I very much appreciate your getting the House to order.
My colleague from Scarborough Southwest is correct in stating that Rouge Park is home to many endangered species. I can list a lot too. It is home to 70 species of trees, 27 species of reptiles, and 20 species of amphibians. More rare species of plants and animals are within Rouge Park than in any other region in Canada. That is not me saying that. That is from research done by the Canadian Environmental Law Association.
To answer the question my hon. colleague asked, which was about the protection of the waterway and the changes to the Navigable Waters Protection Act and the Migratory Birds Convention Act that were brought forward by the Conservative government in one of its many omnibus bills, they actually makes it not safe. It was probably in a budget bill. I really do not remember. The changes ensure that the Rouge River, which is the main waterway in Rouge Park, is not a protected waterway. There is a pipeline going through it, and we need to make sure that there are protective measures and that there are valves on each side of the river to stop the flow into the waterway.
Mrs. Cathy McLeod (Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Labour and for Western Economic Diversification, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I listened with great interest. I know that the New Democratic Party is anti- pipelines going anywhere. I do not know if the member is aware, but the Kinder Morgan pipeline goes through our beautiful Jasper National Park, and has for many years. I do not think there is anyone in the House who would say that Jasper National Park is not a phenomenal treasure. The Kinder Morgan pipeline supplies 90% of the gas to the Lower Mainland. It has gone through my riding for many years.
I would ask the member this. Is she saying that Jasper National Park is less of a park because it has a pipeline that has gone through it safely for over 60 years and that pipelines and protected and treasured areas cannot coexist?
Mr. Speaker, I have not had a chance to visit Jasper National Park, so I look forward to visiting it one day.
Every single one of our national parks in this country is a treasure. Every single one needs to be protected. We need to ensure that every single one is ecologically sustainable and that its habitat is protected. I'm saying this should happen for every single park; I am not saying that one park is more important than the other.
However, for me, Rouge Park is going to be the most important because it is in my backyard. It is the park I go to most frequently, because it is my park. It is the park where I go to hang out. It is the park where I run and go for a walk. Hopefully, someday I will take my children or grandchildren to that park.
However, if it is not protected and if there is a spill in it, as happened in Kalamazoo, then my park, the river, the watershed, and the groundwater tables will be ruined. That is what I want to prevent.
Mr. Speaker, thank you for the opportunity to enter into this debate. In the interests of full disclosure, Rouge Park is very close to my riding as well, and I have taken my children and my grandchildren through the park from time to time, both in winter and summer, so I am quite familiar with this piece of real estate and am very pleased to see that we have moved to the point of presenting legislation. However, in typical fashion, the government seems to have a talent for taking good news and turning it into bad news.
I suppose it is only coincidental that after the northern gateway decision, we are now debating two park bills, the first with respect to Rouge Park and the second with respect to a park up in the Northwest Territories. It is only coincidental that the announcement about northern gateway and the discussion about parks happens almost sequentially. It has nothing to do with trying to burnish the environmental creds of the government.
Before I go too much further, I want to acknowledge the 25-year effort by my colleague, Derek Lee, in conjunction with Pauline Browes, in advocating on the floor of the House for the park and the reservation of these lands, along with a number of citizens groups, Friends of the Rouge, Save the Rouge, WWF, COSCA, and of course the patron saint of the park, Lois James. I am certain that I have left out a number of NGOs and individuals who have been very important to why we are here today. Regrettably, they do not seem to be as involved in the potential management plan as they possibly should be, and I hope that once the dust settles here, the officials will think it over and see their way clear to incorporate them into the park management plan.
The interesting part of this proposal is that according to the bill itself, what is actually being incorporated into the park are three little pieces of property in Markham. When asked about this at the briefing yesterday, the Conservatives said they are actually in negotiation with three or four levels of government, a variety of conservation authorities, et cetera, but the way it is being presented by the parliamentary secretary and others is that this is 58 square kilometres. Actually it is not 58 square kilometres; it is about two or three acres. By the time the bill actually receives royal assent, it will still be two or three acres and the negotiations will have yet to be completed.
Why is this a concern? First of all, the Government of Canada can unilaterally transfer from the Department of Transport the lands under its control, but for whatever reason, it has not included those lands in this bill or in the schedule that would be attached to the bill. In addition, there are other airport lands that apparently might possibly be under negotiations and that are not included in the bill. Instead of 58 square kilometres, some people would like to see 100 square kilometres, going all the way up to the Oak Ridges Moraine, in order to protect a corridor for wildlife, et cetera.
It is in some respects, as far as a presentation of a piece of land is concerned, much less than what it appears. Take note of the contrast between the bill for the park in the Northwest Territories, whose name I dare not pronounce for fear of offending someone, and this bill. Half the bill, six or seven pages, actually goes to a metes and bounds description of the park itself. That is normally the way a park bill is presented. Bill S-5 is a proper presentation.
In terms of the schedule of the land being presented, the actual amounts are far less, and there is no guarantee that the lands in the presentation by the parliamentary secretary are in fact the lands that will be transferred.
There are two reasons for this. First, negotiations are negotiations and they may go somewhere differently than the government hopes they will. Second, there is no presentation of a plan for ecological protection. That is worth drawing attention to, because in normal park bills we have a specific clause in each and every bill. The specific clause says:
...a set of ecological integrity objectives and indicators and provisions for resource protection and restoration, zoning, visitor use, public awareness and performance evaluation, which shall be tabled in each House of Parliament.
There is no such inclusion in the clause. When I asked the officials yesterday why it was not in there, their reason was that this was a unique park. The reasoning actually does have some sense to it. As others have pointed out, Highway 401 goes over the park, as does Highway 2, and so do Steeles Avenue and Taunton Road, and there is also a huge hydro corridor through the park. Therefore, we cannot set up ecological metrics to evaluate the ecological performance of the park. What we are left with is a very vague clause in paragraph 6 of the bill. It states:
The Minister must, in the management of the Park, take into consideration the protection of its natural ecosystems and cultural landscapes and the maintenance of its native wildlife and of the health of those ecosystems.
“Take into consideration” is not a plan. Let me just sketch a scenario. The minister goes to the Province of Ontario and says, “We would like your thousand acres, or two thousand acres”—or whatever the number is—“and we want to know how you're going to manage this plan and this park.” The minister says, “Trust me.“ Well, “trust me” does not cut it.
As far as I and anyone else in the House know, including the parliamentary secretary or the minister, we do not actually know how this park is going to be managed. If I am the Province of Ontario, or the Town of Markham, or the City of Toronto, I am going to be asking that rather fundamental question. I would say' “No plan, no transfer.” I rather hope that it does not get held up on that. I hope there is a plan. I hope the ecological and cultural integrity of the park would be protected. However, “trust me” is not exactly a great answer when one is asking for thousands and thousands of acres to be transferred, which according to the government's numbers are supposed to amount to 58 square kilometres.
If in fact the government had some ecological or environmental integrity, one might actually say, “Okay, trust us. We will have a plan and we will fulfill this.” However, as we know, the government's environmental credibility is as about as rock bottom as rock bottom can be, so “trust me” is not exactly an answer when we are asking other levels of government to transfer thousands of acres to the park for what would otherwise be a very supportable proposition.
Again, why is this of greater concern? As others have alluded to, in the park there is what is called mono-cultural or industrial farming, and some of those farming practices are in clear contradistinction to proper park management functions. One might say “Well, let's not worry about that, because we'll make sure, as we renew each lease and try to move it up to market value, that in fact we will assure the best farming practices.” When I raised that question yesterday, one of the members of the Conservative Party dismissed the concerns about neonicatoids. Frankly, that stuff is of concern. Here we have Environment Canada and Parks Canada managing farms in the park, which should be held to the highest possible standards, to the best science we have available for farming practices.
The member just dismissed it: “I do not give a hoot about the bees. I do not give a hoot about the watershed. I do not give a hoot about the hiring practices. Just get my constituents the cheapest possible land for the longest period of time.” It does not inspire—
I must interrupt the hon. member for Scarborough—Guildwood at this point. The time for government orders has expired. The hon. member will have 10 minutes remaining when this matter returns before the House.
[Royal Assent]
I have the honour to inform the House that a communication has been received as follows:
Rideau Hall
Mr. Speaker:
I have the honour to inform you that the Right Honourable David Johnston, Governor General of Canada, will proceed to the Senate chamber today, the 19th day of June, 2014, at 5:30 p.m., for the purpose of giving Royal Assent to certain bills of law.
Patricia Jaton
Deputy Secretary
[Statements by Members]
Mr. Mark Adler (York Centre, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, yesterday my wife and 10-year-old twins tied a blue-and-white ribbon to our maple tree on the front yard of our home. They did this as a symbol of solidarity with the three Israeli boys, Eyal Yifrah, 19, Gil-Ad Shaer, 16, and Naftali Fraenkel, 16, who were kidnapped by the terrorist group Hamas. This ribbon will remain until the terrorists release the boys and they are returned safely to their homes. The young boys were abducted last Thursday as they were trying to get rides home from their religious seminary for the Sabbath.
Although not claiming responsibility, the terrorist group Hamas has praised the kidnapping. In fact, it and its supporters have been calling for the kidnapping of Israelis for some time now. Meanwhile, those who call for the boys' safe return are holding prayer vigils.
I call on all people of good conscience who support freedom, democracy, human rights, and the rule of law to condemn this reprehensible and deplorable act in the strongest possible terms. The Palestinian authorities must find and apprehend the perpetrators and bring them to justice.
Until the three young boys are returned safely to their homes, I urge all people, wherever they may live, to tie a blue-and-white ribbon to their home, office, or car in solidarity, just like my family has done.
Mr. Wayne Marston (Hamilton East—Stoney Creek, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, today as we mark World Refugee Day, it is a time of growing concern in the international community as the number of displaced persons around the world soars to a dramatic new high. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees places the number of worldwide displaced people at more than 46 million.
We simply cannot begin to quantify the human suffering, the broken families, and the destroyed childhoods and livelihoods that come with fleeing a war zone. To date, over two million people have fled the Syrian conflict since its beginning in 2011, making it one of the largest refugee exoduses in history. Syria is only part of the problem, with millions also displaced in Sudan, Colombia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and others.
Canada has a great tradition of providing assistance to refugees in need, and the determination to overcome adversity of those who come to Canada overwhelmingly leads them to make a significant contribution to the new homeland.
On World Refugee Day, let us not forget that those living in relative comfort today may tomorrow find themselves knocking on a stranger's door looking for safety and shelter.
Mr. Dave MacKenzie (Oxford, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I rise in the House today to congratulate Country 107.3 in Tillsonburg on winning the radio station of the year for a secondary market award at the 2014 Country Music Association of Ontario Awards.
The awards night was held in Markham on May 26 to recognize artists, producers, songs, and radio stations that encourage and promote Canadian country music. The winners were selected by members of the Country Music Association of Ontario, who voted for their top three choices in each category.
Country 107.3 beat some tough competition and came out winning due to its great promotion of Canadian talent through its music selections, community involvement, promotions, leadership, and recognition.
Country 107.3 is not only an asset for Oxford but also for all Canadians who love to see Canadian talent being displayed and recognized. I would like to once again congratulate everyone at Country 107.3 on their win and tell them to keep on being champions of Canadian country music.
Hon. Mauril Bélanger (Ottawa—Vanier, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, it is with great pleasure that I extend my congratulations to Ottawa's own René Rodriguez, who was recently crowned Canada's top chef.
Following 10 weeks of televised culinary competition, this chef bested 13 other competitors, and amazed judges with his creations. His dishes, inspired by his Mexican roots and his love of the Basque region of Spain, involved a range of ingredients and highlighted his creativity. He calls the experience of competing in Top Chef Canada an incredible journey. He also said it has helped him to grow not only as a chef but as a person.
After studying at Le Cordon Bleu in Ottawa and honing his skills at a range of restaurants, Mr. Rodriguez is now the owner and chef at Navarra restaurant in the ByWard Market in Ottawa—Vanier. At Navarra, both European and Mexican influences merge to create the unique and contemporary cuisine.
Ottawa is proud to offer some of the best and most diverse dining options in the country, with chefs like Mr. Rodriguez. Congratulations once again, and bon appétit.
Canadian Forces Health Services
Mr. Royal Galipeau (Ottawa—Orléans, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, five years ago today, the Canadian Forces Health Services Centre Ottawa, which serves 10,000 Canadian Forces members in the national capital region, moved to the Montfort Hospital.
It was all made possible by the Government of Canada's investment of nearly $200 million over 20 years.
Our government has helped the Montfort Hospital shine and survive. It is a beacon for the Ontario francophonie.
More than 98% of all wounded taken to the Kandahar airfield hospital survived their wounds. This is a rate of success unmatched by our allies or our enemies in any war in history. Those health professionals are now here at the Montfort Hospital.
The relocation of Canadian Forces health care personnel to Montfort Hospital is yet more tangible evidence of the incremental approach adopted by the Canadian Forces Health Services with a goal of choosing projects that enable it to work closely with its community partners.
Happy anniversary to the Montfort and the Canadian Forces Health Services Centre Ottawa.
Ms. Jean Crowder (Nanaimo—Cowichan, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I rise in the House today on behalf of all New Democrats across the country to recognize National Aboriginal Day on June 21.
Over the past year, the Métis Nation won recognition as Indians under the Constitution; the Inuit fought for a Nunavut food security strategy and action plan, and first nations won specific land claims.
However, the UN Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples wrote a scathing report on how successive federal governments have not lived up to our obligations.
It has been a year when legislation was rammed through Parliament and ignored the rights of first nations. Resource projects are stalled across the country because of a lack of a coherent plan for consultation. There is a better way.
Consultation is not a roadblock to economic development. The government must sit down and negotiate a protocol that puts consultation at the beginning of resource development projects, not at the end.
Industry is creating successful partnerships with aboriginal peoples who want resource development on their territories, and they want their own citizens to reap the benefits through jobs and business opportunities.
Government needs to drop its colonial attitude and join the 21st century.
Mr. Wladyslaw Lizon (Mississauga East—Cooksville, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, this time of year is a very special time for the young women and men graduating from secondary schools as well as grade schools.
Tomorrow morning I have the special privilege of participating in the commencement ceremony for T.L. Kennedy Secondary School in my riding of Mississauga East—Cooksville, which will be honouring 170 students who are graduating.
I would like to acknowledge T.L. Kennedy's principal, Mr. Paul Freier, and vice-principals Rosemary Stiglic, Mark Botnick, and Brent Serebrin, along with the entire staff for their roles in the lives of these young people. We should also congratulate the students' parents, grandparents, caregivers, and relatives, who all share in these special moments.
To all who will be graduating as part of the class of 2014, my very best wishes on this special occasion.
Finally, I would like to ask my colleagues in the House to join me in thanking and congratulating all teachers and faculty members across our country for their hard work and success this school year.
Mr. Larry Maguire (Brandon—Souris, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I rise today to highlight the International Peace Garden, which lies on the Canada-U.S. border south of Boissevain and Brandon in southwestern Manitoba.
The International Peace Garden was officially opened in 1932 and continues to welcome visitors from across the continent and around the world. It represents the incredible relationship we hold with our southern neighbours and has flourished as a centre for students to share their ideas and to participate in international music or the Royal Canadian Legion athletic camps.
The Peace Garden spans over 2,300 acres and now has over 75,000 perennials that continue to grow and develop each and every year. The sheer beauty of the Peace Tower surrounded by the natural prairie landscape is a sight to behold. Visitors will feel a sense of calm and welcome. While they walk the garden grounds, they will in fact be in the United States and Canada at the same time.
I welcome all members and Canadians from across the country to visit the International Peace Garden if they are ever in friendly Manitoba. It will be a visit that will be long remembered.
Mr. Randall Garrison (Esquimalt—Juan de Fuca, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, next week members of the LGBTQ community from across the world will assemble in Toronto for WorldPride. Hundreds of LGBTQ leaders and activists will come together for the WorldPride Human Rights Conference, ranging from the world's first openly gay head of government, former Icelandic prime minister Johanna Sigurdardottir, to activists who bravely struggle against homophobia every day on the front lines. Hundreds of thousands more will attend the WorldPride parade on June 29.
New Democrats want to recognize today the tremendous work of the organizers in putting together WorldPride, and in particular the work of Brenda Cossman and Doug Kerr as co-chairs of the Human Rights Conference.
Today we also acknowledge the willingness of the government to work with us and conference organizers to secure visas for participants whose applications were initially denied. I want to recognize in particular the effective behind-the-scenes work by my colleague from Toronto—Danforth on these files.
While Canada has moved a long way down the road to full equality for the LGBTQ community, there is more Canada can do both at home and abroad. However, for today, I would like to ask all hon. members to join me in welcoming WorldPride to Canada.
Agreement on Internal Trade
Mr. Dan Albas (Okanagan—Coquihalla, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, Canada is, has been, and always will be a free-trading country. However, the frustrating reality is that it is often easier to trade internationally than it is to trade within Canada. That is why the Agreement on Internal Trade was created 20 years ago. It was to work toward breaking down the crippling barriers that hinder our economy and hurt Canadian businesses.
Progress on internal trade has been too slow and unambitious to prepare Canada for the reality of today's global economy. That is why the Minister of Industry is in Halifax today, starting his cross-country tour so that he can hear first-hand from businesses and community leaders how the federal government can better work with provinces and territories to break down these barriers.
It should not be easier to trade with other countries than within our own borders. The Agreement on Internal Trade must be updated to reflect our new economic reality. The time for action is now, and there has never been a better time to start than today.
Mr. Speaker, this year the Festival Âges et Culture is celebrating its 20th anniversary. This festival is taking place from June 6 to 23 in my riding, La Pointe-de-l'Île. It has two commendable objectives: to promote the many facets of Québécois culture and to use art to bring generations together. Over the years, the festival's organizers have created a vibrant, inter-generational event that unifies our community.
With diverse cultural programming, Mercier-Est is the place to be in eastern Montreal for these three weeks. There are participatory activities, exhibits that showcase local talent, and indoor and outdoor shows featuring both well-known and up-and-coming artists.
I would like to congratulate the organizers, the many volunteers, and all of the local businesses that are involved in the 20th annual Festival Âges et Culture. Thank you to all of those who have been contributing to this successful event for decades and who are making La Pointe-de-l'Île even more vibrant.
Mrs. Stella Ambler (Mississauga South, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, yesterday the leader of the Liberal Party tried to say that Canadians just could not understand his nuanced position on marijuana. He tried to say that he will not put illegal narcotics in convenience stores and that this was all just a big misunderstanding.
However, the very same day, the so-called “queen of pot”, Jodie Emery, announced that she had been approached by the Liberal Party to run as a candidate in Vancouver East. She explained that the reason she wanted to run as a Liberal candidate was to show that the Liberals are serious about smoking marijuana as a normal, everyday Canadian activity. In her own words, “It would basically be to say, ‘The Liberals support legalization’.”
As a mother, I am shocked by the reckless plan being put forward by the leader of the Liberal Party. Our Conservative government will continue to crack down on criminals and drug dealers, unlike the leader of the Liberal Party, who continues to try to push dangerous and illegal drugs on our children.
Hon. Mark Eyking (Sydney—Victoria, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, today I rise to recognize the importance of our dairy farmers. Our 12,000 dairy farms produce wholesome and affordable products and create hundreds of thousands of jobs for Canadians. One of the reasons they are successful is our supply management system. Canadian dairy farmers sell almost eight billion litres of milk annually through processors and contribute over $16 billion to our GDP.
Many of my colleagues in the House know me as a vegetable farmer, but I can milk a cow. Last summer the Cape Breton farmers exhibition featured the dairy industry and held a milking competition, which I participated in. The MacIntyre Farm in my riding helped me improve my skills.
Members of the House, and all Canadians, should visit a dairy farm this summer and see not only how milk is produced but also the love and care provided to the cows that produce the milk. Most importantly, we should keep the fridge full of milk, yogourt, and cheese, and of course enjoy the best treat of summer with some real Canadian ice cream.
Mr. Randy Hoback (Prince Albert, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, our government continues to advance the most ambitious pro-trade plan in Canadian history. It is a plan that will create jobs and economic opportunities for hard-working Canadians.
Last week the Minister of International Trade tabled the text of the Canada-Korea Free Trade Agreement in the House. It is a landmark agreement that gives Canadian businesses access to an important Asian market.
This evening we will also see Bill C-20, the Canada-Honduras economic growth and prosperity act, receive royal assent. The NDP voted against this free trade agreement every step of the way. That is no surprise. It has voted against all free trade agreements and there is no sign that it will be stopping that trend any time soon.
I am proud of our government's record on trade. We have reached agreements with 38 countries; over 13 years, the Liberals reached agreements with just three countries. Maybe they think that trade agreements just sign themselves.
Mr. Murray Rankin (Victoria, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, the 21 Conservative MPs from British Columbia have disappeared from the face of the earth. They are hiding from their constituents because of the Conservatives' disastrous approval of the northern gateway pipeline. Not a single Conservative minister from B.C. will explain the decision. The natural resources minister's spokesperson even went so far as to say the government had not actually approved it; it was just a “maybe”.
An approval by the cabinet is an approval by the cabinet. Approving this pipeline puts 45,000 British Columbia coastal jobs at risk.
How did we get here? Well, the Prime Minister removed all of the real barriers to the project by gutting environmental bills in one of his earlier omnibus budget bills.
How can the Prime Minister possibly deny that he stacked the deck in favour of the pipeline? More than 35 years after the Berger report, more than 25 years after Exxon Valdez, Conservatives still do not understand the basics of pipelines and tankers.
In 2015, an NDP government will set aside this grotesque decision.
Mr. Robert Goguen (Moncton—Riverview—Dieppe, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, today in the town of Elliston, Newfoundland and Labrador, the unveiling of the Home From the Sea Sealers Memorial Statue will take place. My colleague, the member for Miramichi, is there today.
This year is the 100th anniversary of the 1914 Newfoundland sealing disaster in which we lost over 250 sealers in the North Atlantic from the SS Newfoundland and from the sinking of the SS Southern Cross.
It is important that we take the time to remember the lives lost on that day, including Reuben Crewe and his son Albert John, who passed away together on the ice and whose memorial statue will stand as a testament to the hardy and dangerous work done by sealers on the ice every spring.
[Oral Questions]
Mr. Speaker, the Conservatives have always been in favour of the northern gateway pipeline, but ever since they announced that they will allow Enbridge to destroy the fragile ecosystem along the northern coast of British Columbia, they have been doing everything they can to distance themselves from the pipeline project they just approved. A spokesperson for the minister even said that the government did not say “yes”; it said “maybe”.
Will the Conservatives respect those British Columbians who have said no to Enbridge? Will Conservative Party members represent their constituents, yes, no or maybe?
Mrs. Kelly Block (Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Natural Resources, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, we have been clear that projects will only move forward if they are safe for Canadians and safe for the environment.
Our decision is based on the conclusions of an independent science-based review panel. We have imposed 209 stringent conditions to ensure this project meets the highest safety standards. The panel heard from nearly 1,500 participants in 21 communities and reviewed over 175,000 pages of evidence.
The proponent clearly has more work to do with communities along the route.
Mr. Speaker, there is only one thorough thing about this whole process, and it is that the Conservatives have thoroughly bungled it.
From environmental protection to first nations consultation to community involvement, in every sector the government has failed, and each time it turns around and blames the company.
The minister said, “The proponent clearly has more work to do in order to fulfill the public commitment it has made to engage with Aboriginal groups and local communities along the route”, but who is responsible for this? The government is. Does the government really not understand that consulting with the public and first nations is the government's responsibility?
Mr. Speaker, aboriginal consultation is part of the review process. There were 72 days of hearings for aboriginal groups to share their knowledge, including traditional knowledge, and their views on this issue. In fact, 41 first nations were financed to enhance their participation in the review, and there were a range of views among those groups.
Mr. Speaker, it is continual disrespect for B.C.
The Prime Minister keeps saying that Enbridge will carry out thorough consultations with first nations. That is not Enbridge's job; that is the crown's job. In other words, it is the government's job. The Conservatives will alienate aboriginal people across the country and will end up preventing other energy-related projects that depend on good relations with first nations from ever seeing the light of day.
Why is this government not listening to British Columbia first nations? Why?
Mr. Speaker, our government is working to build a stronger relationship with Canada's first nations. Our response to the Eyford report is a first step to building stronger relationships with first nations.
The natural resources sector is the largest private employer of first nations people in Canada. First nations have benefited and will continue to benefit and contribute as full partners in the development of our natural resources.
Mr. Nathan Cullen (Skeena—Bulkley Valley, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, mistrust for this government is already so profound.
First nations in Canada, particularly those on Canada's west coast, have deep animosity toward the government, and it will only be made worse by the government trying to force Enbridge northern gateway down their throats. So determined are Conservatives to poison this already fragile relationship that they are willing to sacrifice tens of billions of dollars of other development in mining and in LNG for the sake of one bad oil pipeline.
Twenty-one B.C. Conservatives have shamefully allowed their government to ram through Enbridge northern gateway against the wishes of British Columbia. However, maybe they found their courage overnight. Will one Conservative B.C. MP stand up and defend Enbridge northern gateway?
Mr. Speaker, as I have said, our decision is based on the conclusions of an independent science-based review panel. After carefully reviewing the report, the government is accepting the recommendation to impose 209 conditions on the project.
Our government has always been clear that projects will only be approved if they are safe for Canadians and safe for the environment.
Mr. Speaker, B.C. Conservative MPs' silence on Enbridge as speaking volumes to their lack of courage and their lack of faith in their own government's decision. Perhaps they know that this toxic project is toxic politics in British Columbia.
I remember the days when Conservatives insisted that Ottawa should never impose energy projects on western Canada without the agreement of western Canadians. Then along came northern gateway. These guys could not rubber-stamp it fast enough, while completely ignoring the people of British Columbia.
The Conservatives promised to change Ottawa, but I guess it was Ottawa that ended up changing Conservatives.
Last chance: does any B.C. Conservative MP, any of them, want to stand up and defend this pipeline publicly for once?
Mr. Speaker, our decision is based on the conclusions of an independent science-based review panel.
We have imposed 209 stringent conditions to ensure this project meets the highest safety standards. The panel heard from nearly 1,500 participants in 21 communities, and reviewed over 175,000 pages of evidence. The proponent clearly has more work to do with communities along the route.
Ms. Chrystia Freeland (Toronto Centre, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, the Minister of Justice recently made remarks to the Ontario Bar Association that were so strikingly sexist that lawyers there described them as offensive.
As one of the many mothers of young children in this House, I wonder whether the minister believes that we, too, should be intimidated by the old boys' network. Does the minister think that we, too, should stay at home because of our special maternal bond with our young children?
Will the minister apologize for his blatant chauvinism?
Hon. Peter MacKay (Minister of Justice and Attorney General of Canada, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, that, of course, is a complete mischaracterization of what I said, what I think, how I act, and who I am.
In fact, with respect to judicial appointments, they are based on one criterion and one criterion only, and that is merit and judicial excellence.
With respect to minorities and women being promoted to the judiciary, I think we can all agree that government of course plays an important role in that, but so too do law schools, so too do law societies. That is exactly the message I was bringing to the Ontario Bar Association.
Hon. Carolyn Bennett (St. Paul's, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, members of the Ontario Bar Association described the Minister of Justice's recent fifties rant as disappointing, bizarre, frustrating, and offensive.
As a parent, daughter, and granddaughter of women who worked full time, and as the critic for aboriginal affairs, I ask the minister to apologize to all Canadians for blaming motherhood for his abject failure to ensure that the Federal Court reflects the diversity of the society it is entrusted to judge.
Mr. Speaker, all I can say is what I have already indicated, that that is of course a complete misrepresentation of what I said.
As a son, as a father, that is the last thing I would ever do. What I was doing was completely the opposite, in encouraging women to apply more readily to our judiciary.
That, of course, is done through a process, as the member knows. Appointments are made at the recommendation of the 17 judicial advisory committees across the country. Since 2006, I am extremely proud to inform the House that we have appointed 182 excellent women to the superior and appeal courts of this country.
Hon. Scott Brison (Kings—Hants, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, the Minister of Justice's comments are the latest salvo in the Conservatives' war on modernity.
This is more than just their attitude. It is their Archie Bunker-inspired policies. Whether it is killing national early learning and child care or their regressive income-splitting policy, the Conservatives just do not get the modern family.
When will the government realize that Ward and June Cleaver are dead? When will they stop trying to drag Canada back to the 1950s?
Hon. K. Kellie Leitch (Minister of Labour and Minister of Status of Women, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I want to be very clear that this government has demonstrated leadership on this file outstandingly; in fact, our Prime Minister has.
We know that whether it be GIC appointments or whether it be the public service, our numbers have escalated since we became government. Whether it be 31% of our GIC appointments and growing are women, or 37% of the leadership roles in the public service in this government and growing are women, we have taken action on this. Our Prime Minister has been a leader on this. I encourage the others to get on board.
Ms. Rosane Doré Lefebvre (Alfred-Pellan, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, the Minister of Justice has resorted to making up facts to justify his badly written, unconstitutional bill on cyberbullying.
The Supreme Court clearly said no to access to personal information without a warrant. The Privacy Commissioner, whom the Conservatives say is an authority on the subject, has stated that this ruling invalidates the principles underlying Bill C-13. The bill must be split to stop cyberbullying and maintain the right to privacy.
Will the minister abide by the Supreme Court's ruling or not?
Mr. Speaker, we always do. We always respect the Supreme Court. We always respect the decisions. The reality here is the Supreme Court's decision clearly stated that the Criminal Code provisions dealing with voluntary disclosure and immunity do not provide legal authority for access to information without a warrant. As our government has continually said, those provisions regarding voluntary disclosure and immunity do not provide legal authority for access to information without a warrant. This is nothing new.
We respect the decision. It reinforces the position of the government and we will move forward with Bill C-13.
Mr. Speaker, he said, “I always respect the decision of the Supreme Court.” When the government gets a decision that it does not like from the court, the Conservatives ignore it altogether, they make stuff up, or they attack the courts.
The Supreme Court was clear. Collecting personal data without a warrant, something the minister has defended, is in fact unconstitutional. Instead of respecting that decision, he turned around and misled the House and claimed it as a victory. Well, he is wrong.
Will the minister now accept that the only legal way to protect our children and respect legitimate privacy rights is to split Bill C-13?
Mr. Speaker, I disagree and of course that is not what the Supreme Court said. The Supreme Court has stated and has supported the government's position that provisions regarding voluntary disclosure and immunity do not provide legal authority for access to information without a warrant.
While I am on my feet, I want to congratulate the police in Halifax, who today announced the results of Operation Snapshot III, which led to the rescue of five children from sexual exploitation and 150 people charged. Since 2012, the national child exploitation coordination centre has identified more than 45,000 instances of child exploitation.
Mr. Speaker, dinosaurs still walk among us.
According to the Minister of Justice, there are not enough women and visible minorities in the top jobs in our courts because they do not apply for those positions. Instead they stay home with their children because they have a greater bond with them.
Why does the president of the old boys' club not try to achieve gender equality in our courts instead of talking nonsense?
Mr. Speaker, that is exactly what we are doing. We are encouraging more women to apply. We are encouraging more women to go through the judicial advisory council, which I am proud to say has resulted in 182 women at the superior court and appeal court level.
Further to that, I am extremely proud that our government appointed the first female Chief Justice of the Court of Appeal of Quebec and the first Haitian Canadian woman of the Quebec court. We are going to continue to appoint able women to the bench because they deserve to be there.
Mr. Speaker, earlier today the minister doubled down on his comments, saying that women have a greater bond with their children. Well, women have babies. This is not news. What is news is the minister's disrespectful attitude, his government's failure to accept responsibility for the appointment of women and minorities to the courts. The Minister of Justice is blaming them for not applying. I am not looking for an apology here. Can the minister outline what actions he is taking and has already taken to ensure our courts are more representative of our communities?
Mr. Speaker, that is what I have just said. We are in fact seeing more qualified, capable women based on merit appointed to our courts. For example, four vacancies were just filled in Alberta by four highly qualified women. Two vacancies were filled by two highly qualified women in Ontario. In British Columbia, there were two out of four recently appointed in November, qualified excellent judicial appointments. Two from Quebec, highly qualified, merit based appointments and one, just one that was available last week in the member's home province of Nova Scotia, filled by a highly qualified excellent judicial appointment.
Mr. Alexandre Boulerice (Rosemont—La Petite-Patrie, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, it looks like the Minister of Justice is an extra on the TV show Father Knows Best.
The hon. member for York Centre, who is a member of the Standing Committee on Finance, holds a partisan fundraiser and invites bankers and lobbyists who are looking for favours from the Department of Finance.
To entice them, he uses the Leader of the Government in the House of Commons and the Minister of Industry. Personally, I do not see the appeal.
It is not surprising to later see the Conservatives support projects like northern gateway in order to help their lobbyist friends and make them happy, instead of standing up for the public interest.
When will the Conservatives stop making backroom deals with lobbyists?
Mr. Paul Calandra (Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister and for Intergovernmental Affairs, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, it was this government that brought in the Federal Accountability Act, which removed the influence of big unions and big corporate donations from the political process. We know, of course, that the NDP did break that when it accepted some $350,000 worth of union donations.
Of course, we expect that all members will follow the rules when it comes to fundraising events. I do note that the member for Rosemont—La Petite-Patrie is probably among those 21 members of the NDP who owe a significant amount of money to the taxpayers of Canada. I hope that he and his other 20 colleagues will do the right thing and pay back the $1.17 million.
Order. These types of interruptions do take away time and I would hate to have to make that up further down the list.
The hon. member for Timmins—James Bay has the floor.
Mr. Charlie Angus (Timmins—James Bay, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, while the member for York Centre was launching a full-out assault on the independence of the offices of the ethics and lobbying commissioners, he was using his presence on the finance committee to fill his electoral war chest by hitting up lobbyists who were trying to influence him. He cannot do that. Section 14(1) of the Conflict of Interest Code is clear. Members cannot accept financial gifts in the form of tickets to fundraisers from lobbyists when they knock on their doors.
The member was paid by lobbyists for the petroleum, financial, and car industries. Did he recuse himself from any of the meetings in the finance committee that dealt with these interests?
Again, Mr. Speaker, this is the government that brought in the Federal Accountability Act as one of our first measures, which removed the influence of big unions and corporate donations from the political process, something we are very proud of. Of course, we expect that all members of the House of Commons will host events and follow the rules.
At the same time, we know that the NDP accepted $350,000 worth of illegal campaign donations to their big union friends. It is also ironic to hear this member talk about ethics when it was he who was singled out by the boundary redistribution commission as trying to gerrymander his riding. I think he should think about that and encourage his friends to repay the—
The hon. member for Timmins—James Bay.
Mr. Speaker, watching the government stand up for ethics is like watching a wrestling promoter stand up for good, clean, honest fun.
We know what the oil lobby bought when the government gave it northern gateway. Let us look at what the member for York Centre's tickets bought for these lobbyists: access to the government House leader, the Minister of State for Democratic Reform, and the Minister of International Development.
My question is to the government House leader, who attended this event. Does he stand behind these kinds of secret deals with lobbyists? Does he stand behind that?
Mr. Speaker, as I just mentioned, it was this government that brought in the Federal Accountability Act to remove the influence of big money and big unions from the political process. As I said, we expect that all members will follow the rules when hosting fundraisers and other activities.
We know, of course, that the members for Welland, Pierrefonds—Dollard, Gatineau, Rosemont—La Petite-Patrie, Hochelaga, Dartmouth—Cole Harbour, St. John's South—Mount Pearl, Chambly—Borduas, Sherbrooke, Nickel Belt, Saint-Lambert, Halifax, Abitibi—Témiscamingue, Outremont, Vaudreuil-Soulanges, Laval, Scarborough—Rouge River, Toronto—Danforth, Gaspésie—Îles-de-la-Madeleine are among the NDP who owe taxpayers more than $1.17 million.
Ms. Irene Mathyssen (London—Fanshawe, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, the Minister of Veterans Affairs is once again insulting Canada's veterans. As Sean Bruyea said, he is now making our wounded veterans out to be greedy whiners and complainers. It is just despicable. The minister bragged they get up to $10,000 per month, but no one knows where that number comes from or how anyone would qualify for it.
Why does the minister insist on disrespecting our veterans? Will he at least now, finally, apologize?
Mr. Speaker, clearly, that member did not read the article and if she did, obviously relied on certain facts that are not complete.
In fact, the average, and I stress “average”, monthly financial benefits available to an injured veteran may be anywhere in the area from $4,000 to $6,000 a month and, indeed, veterans are receiving in excess of $10,000 a month in total income and support from the Government of Canada. The member should know her facts because she and her party voted against all these benefits.
Mr. Speaker, the minister would have Canadians believe that our veterans are rolling in money when he says that some veterans can receive as much as $10,000 a month.
The fact is that only four seriously wounded veterans are getting those types of benefits. The minister's half-truths are outrageous. Many of our veterans are living in poverty. Most of them are constantly fighting with Veterans Affairs, and most of the time they have to wait.
Will the minister have the decency to apologize?
Mr. Speaker, that is quite an ironic scenario. The complaint is totally unfounded, especially so when we look at the consistent voting record of the NDP, voting against operational stress injury clinics, voting against the establishment of the Veterans Ombudsman and the veterans bill of rights, voting against independence housekeeping and grounds maintenance for veterans, and voting against funding for the provision of home care for veterans.
New Democrats voted against all of those, and I have another list. I could go on and on.
Intergovernmental Relations
Mr. Speaker, last week we were treated to the sad and sorry spectacle of the Minister of Finance traipsing through Ontario, criticizing the premier during the election campaign. The premier won; the meddling minister lost.
Specifically, he gave free lectures on balancing budgets, neatly ignoring the fact that he and his government know nothing about balancing budgets. To add to the hypocrisy, the PBO estimates that the Government of Canada shortchanged the people of Ontario by $1.2 billion.
Why does the Government of Canada not skip the lectures, write the cheque, and concentrate on getting its own house in order?
Hon. Kevin Sorenson (Minister of State (Finance), CPC):
Mr. Speaker, that member knows that federal support to Ontario has increased by 76% since our government took office. Federal support to Ontario will total over $19.1 billion in 2014-15, a whopping $8.3 billion increase since the Liberal government was in power.
We are also helping Ontario on the road back to becoming a “have” province, by making key investments in Ontario's auto sector, manufacturing sector, and much more.
Mr. Speaker, the most efficient way to create jobs is through infrastructure investment. David Dodge, the World Economic Forum, the Australians, and the British, they all get this.
The FCM says the Building Canada fund is rife with red tape. It will cost property taxpayers way more money.
Now provincial ministers of finance are unanimous, blasting the minister for confusion, delays, and misinformation. No contribution agreements have been signed, not one. No shovels are in the ground. Projects are delayed.
It is June 19. Jobs are on the line. What are the Conservatives waiting for?
Mr. Peter Braid (Parliamentary Secretary for Infrastructure and Communities, CPC):
I will begin by suggesting, Mr. Speaker, that this Conservative government has no lessons to take from Liberals with respect to infrastructure investments.
Since 2006, our investments in infrastructure have nearly tripled. Moving forward, those record investments will continue: over $53 billion in stable, predictable funding.
There are no framework agreements. Yes, that is correct. There are no framework agreements because none are required. Let us get the job done.
Ms. Joyce Murray (Vancouver Quadra, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, B.C.'s Premier Christy Clark is clear that the northern gateway pipeline does not meet her five conditions.
Despite that, the Conservatives have given the thumbs up to this risky proposal to run a pipeline clear through the heart of the province's wilderness and send massive supertankers along our treacherous coast.
B.C.'s Conservative MPs can run, but they cannot hide from their own government's bad decision. How could the Minister of Industry, the regional minister for B.C., possibly support this Conservative cabinet's approval of this dangerous project, dangerous for the environment, dangerous for the economy, and contrary to the wishes of British Columbians?
Mr. Speaker, our decision is based on the conclusions of an independent, science-based review panel. We have imposed 209 stringent conditions to ensure this project meets the highest safety standards.
The panel heard from nearly 1,500 participants in 21 communities and reviewed more than 175,000 pages of evidence.
Ms. Linda Duncan (Edmonton—Strathcona, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, the Blood Tribe is already suing the government for its failure to provide safe drinking water for the reserve. On top of that, the tribe is now suffering under yet another catastrophic flood, issuing a state of emergency with warnings not to use water from cisterns that may be contaminated.
The past two auditors general have chastised the government for failure to resolve federal roles or to allocate adequate funding for natural disasters in first nations.
Alberta's Siksika felt abandoned after last year's flood. How many more first nations will be left stranded until the government finally takes real action?
Hon. Bernard Valcourt (Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, the truth and the facts do not bear out the statements made by that hon. member.
We are working in close co-operation with the Government of Alberta and with the affected first nations to address the issues that have arisen because of this flooding, for which the government is not responsible, by the way. I have checked with Environment Canada and it cannot do anything about it.
Therefore, we will keep working with the province and the first nations to ensure that the health and safety of those inhabitants is protected.
Mr. Speaker, talking about facts, the fact is that a year after the flood, more than 100 people are still living in hotels. The temporary neighbourhoods that were supposed to be in place 60 days after the flood are still not ready. That simply is not good enough.
The government would never tolerate these kinds of delays in neighbouring communities, so why are families in Siksika still waiting for homes? It is the minister's responsibility. Why does he not get the job done?
Mr. Speaker, again, we are working in close co-operation with the Province of Alberta and the first nations that are affected by these floods. Everything is being done to ensure the health and safety of those inhabitants.
Mr. Speaker, the Minister of Employment and Social Development has been promising to fix the temporary foreign worker program for months, but the mess drags on. No penalties are being applied, no employers are being blacklisted, there is no independent review, and there is no fix to the mess the Conservatives have made of this program.
While businesses from various sectors complain about the uncertainty the Conservatives' mismanagement has created, why are they still leaving it to the media, the workers, and the unions to investigate abuses and problems with this program?
Hon. Jason Kenney (Minister of Employment and Social Development and Minister for Multiculturalism, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I congratulate the member for her consistency, because every single assertion in her question was wrong. She did not have a single fact correct.
For example, this government has added several employers to the new strengthened blacklist. We have referred several cases to the Border Services Agency for criminal investigation.
Let us peel back the onion here. When the member said that businesses are complaining about uncertainty, that is the way that the opposition parties are narrowcasting a different message to constituents who are employers who want more and faster access to the program. Here they pretend they are against it; with their constituents they pretend they are for the program.
This government will fix the program. We will mend it, not end it.
Mr. Speaker, the Conservative government, which has cut labour market research and prefers to google data, would have us believe that it can correct the problems with the temporary foreign worker program even though it has lost all credibility.
After ignoring the abuses by some employers and allowing Canadian workers to be replaced with cheap labour, how can the Conservative government believe that we will trust it to fix the temporary foreign worker program, a program that it botched?
Mr. Speaker, once again, the member has it all wrong. In fact, it was the Conservative government that created the blacklist and added the names of bad employers. That was the first time that was done. It was the Conservative government that initiated criminal investigations of employer fraud. It was also this government that added new powers in a bill, resulting in sanctions for bad employers. In the near future, we will add other sanctions for bad employers who abuse the program.
Mr. Ted Opitz (Etobicoke Centre, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, with Russia's ongoing military interference in Ukraine as well as new NATO reports confirming additional troop buildup near the Ukrainian border, the eyes of the world are focused squarely on Russian military activity. Our government has been clear that we stand in solidarity with the people of Ukraine. At the same time, there is no greater priority than defending Canadian borders and our sovereignty.
My question is for the Minister of National Defence. Can he update the House regarding Russian activity in the Arctic and what measures the government is taking to protect Canadian sovereignty?
Hon. Rob Nicholson (Minister of National Defence, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I cannot comment specifically on operational matters, but I can confirm to the House that, yes, we continue to see Russian military activity in the Arctic. The Canadian Armed Forces remain ready and able to respond. In fact, the Royal Canadian Air Force CF-18s were dispatched in recent days in response to Russian aircraft movements.
NORAD has intercepted in excess of 50 Russian military aircraft over the last five years. This clearly demonstrates both our capacity to respond and the need for ongoing vigilance. We will continue to work with our allies to defend Canadian sovereignty.
Mr. Speaker, the sad state of infrastructure and the road congestion in urban centres like Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver cost billions of dollars in economic losses.
It has been over a year since the Conservatives made their Building Canada fund announcement, but the provinces and municipalities are saying that the process to apply for funds is still unclear.
How does the minister explain this lack of clarity and these delays?
Mr. Speaker, the new Building Canada fund is open for business. The new Building Canada fund includes the provincial and territorial infrastructure component. This is where municipalities can apply for projects. They initially apply to provinces. Provinces establish these processes. Why? It is so that the provinces can identify their own infrastructure priorities. Applications are being received. One has already been approved. It is a major transit project in Edmonton. We are getting the job done.
Mr. Speaker, au contraire. Infrastructure is crumbling in Toronto, and all we get from this Conservative red tape brigade is more uncertainty and delay.
Thanks to the PBO, we finally do have some certainty on Conservative cuts to equalization payments. The Conservatives pulled the rug out from under Ontario. They changed the rules and are now shortchanging the province by $1.2 billion. These cuts will hurt Ontario families and will make us less competitive. Why is the minister undermining the fiscal stability of our biggest province?
Mr. Speaker, Ontario will receive over $19.1 billion in federal transfers this year, a whopping increase of 76% from under the old Liberal government.
I want to read a quote. It says:
...[the Prime Minister] made a deliberate effort to bring a principle-based approach to...equalization and federal transfers.... We are very much in agreement with that kind of approach....
Who said that? It was former Liberal Ontario premier Dalton McGuinty.
Mr. Hoang Mai (Brossard—La Prairie, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, the recall of vehicles with unsafe ignition switches continues to grow. Over three million cars were added this week. U.S. Congressional hearings are seeking answers about why GM failed to act sooner and how the problem slipped past regulators.
However, in Canada, the minister is not getting to the bottom of things and the Conservatives have even blocked attempts to study the issue. Does the minister really think Canadians do not deserve more answers on a safety defect that cost at least 13 lives?
Hon. Lisa Raitt (Minister of Transport, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, car companies in our country are required to notify Transport Canada of any defects and process the recall as soon as they are aware of them. We have no information that would seem to make us have a conclusion other than the one that GM issued its recall here in Canada when it received its information.
That being said, we continue to monitor the situation in the United States, and if we do see that GM Canada had information prior to the recall we, of course, would take the appropriate steps.
Mr. Speaker, yesterday the United States Congress grilled GM over its lax approach to safety and recalls.
American legislators want to know what happened and what measures have been taken to prevent this from happening again. Canadians also want answers.
Why are the Conservatives refusing to examine this problem in parliamentary committee?
Mr. Speaker, as I said before, GM Canada learned of the defect and the recall exactly when it issued its recall in accordance with our act.
That being said, we continue to monitor what is happening in the United States. If there is any information that would lead us to believe that GM Canada knew prior to that, of course, we would investigate and continue to ensure that we would prosecute to the fullest extent of the law.
Hon. Stéphane Dion (Saint-Laurent—Cartierville, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, the so-called roadmap for official languages is a sham. No new money has been allocated to this plan. The government even cut $120 million from assistance to communities.
Nevertheless, the government could at least deliver the existing programs. Complaints are coming in from all over. Literacy, training, and social partnerships are all stalled, and communities cannot wait any longer.
What is the Minister of Canadian Heritage and Official Languages doing? It is her responsibility to wake this government up and get it moving.
Hon. Shelly Glover (Minister of Canadian Heritage and Official Languages, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I said the same thing yesterday. I will say it again so the member understands.
The road map for official languages is the most complete fund that we have ever had in our country. It is $1.1 billion. This is a fund that will provide to our official language communities in a way that has never been done before, including under that member's government.
We continue to push forward with getting these funds out of the door. My colleagues are doing everything in their power to do so, because they care about these communities.
I would ask the member to please assist us in ensuring that if he has information regarding some funds that are lapsing, then let us know.
Mr. Speaker, last week, the minister tried to justify spending tens of millions of dollars more on advertisements and commemorations, instead of programs and services, by telling Canadians about all of the veterans who received $10,000 a month in benefits. There are four who receive that amount. That is less than 1% of seriously injured veterans. Most get much less.
It is insulting to veterans to justify wasteful advertising spending by trying to make it sound like, somehow, they just won the lottery.
When will he stop running away from our veterans and finally provide them with the care they desperately need and deserve?
Mr. Speaker, that does not make it true. I will say again. The average monthly financial benefit an injured veteran may be eligible for is between $4,000 and $6,000 a month. As I said at committee, some injured veterans are receiving a total income that exceeds $10,000 a month. This is in addition to rehabilitation and other supports from our government to help them transition to civilian life. That is the truth.
Mrs. Carol Hughes (Algoma—Manitoulin—Kapuskasing, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, the Conservatives proclaim loud and clear that Canada is a leader in maternal health, but in reality, aboriginal women in Canada do not have access to the support they need.
We recently learned that a maternal health program managed by the first nations and set up on 14 Manitoba reserves will soon lose all of its funding, even though assessments show that the program is effective.
Could the minister explain why she wants to put an end to the funding for this essential program?
Hon. Rona Ambrose (Minister of Health, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, the government has committed over $2.4 billion every year to programs and services aimed at improving aboriginal health, including 24/7 access to essential nursing services in 77 remote communities and home and community care in 686 first nations and Inuit communities.
We have also committed to excellent projects on the ground every year. These are things like the teddy bear fairs on reserve, which provide cognitive and development screening for children 0-6 years of age and the head start on reserve program, which nurtures the health growth of children from birth to 6 years.
Mr. Speaker, we are talking about maternal health here. The NDP fully supports maternal health overseas, but women in Canada need support too.
According to Statistics Canada, the infant mortality rate among first nations in Manitoba is approximately twice that of the general population. That is completely unacceptable.
Will the minister reverse the decision and maintain funding for this vital maternal health program, yes or no?
Mr. Speaker, first, the member knows that we transfer over to $30 billion a year to the provinces and territories to deliver health. On top of that, we are delivering an additional $2.5 billion directly to first nations for programs and services aimed specifically at exactly what she is talking about.
Let me tell her about the brighter futures program, which involves activities supporting improved mental health, child development, parenting skills and healthy babies. A very successful program across the country, the aboriginal head start on reserve program, nurtures the healthy growth and development of children from birth to 6 years of age by meeting their social, health, nutritional, cultural and psychological needs.
We will continue to work on this issue.
Mr. Speaker, the recent launch of the national conservation plan by our Prime Minister makes a commitment to connect Canadians to nature, particularly people living in urban areas. The problem is there are no national urban parks in Canada. What is our government doing to make this a reality?
Hon. Leona Aglukkaq (Minister of the Environment, Minister of the Canadian Northern Economic Development Agency and Minister for the Arctic Council, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, I am very pleased to say that we have tabled a bill in the House recently that would create the Rouge national urban park in the greater Toronto area. The park is near 20% of Canada's population, enabling Canadians to connect with nature, culture and agriculture, without having to travel far from their homes. This park would be 16 times larger than Central Park in New York City. This action has been taken by our Conservative government to make this happen.
Ms. Kirsty Duncan (Etobicoke North, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, instability continues in the Central African Republic. Over 140,000 people have been killed, and fighting has left 2.5 million in need of humanitarian aid.
On Monday, the Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Foreign Affairs told the House that while Canada would not be sending troops to CAR, “there are other ways” Canada would support the UN mission. Our allies have made specific commitments.
Exactly in what other ways will the government support the UN mission?
Mr. David Anderson (Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Foreign Affairs, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, Canada is the ninth largest contributor to the UN's peacekeeping budget and supports the UN, French and African Union efforts in this crisis.
In the last two years, as well, we have provided over $23 million in assistance to help meet the widespread humanitarian needs and over $5 million to the efforts by the African Union and France to restore security in the area. That includes $6.5 million for humanitarian assistance, $5 million for security and another $16 million for humanitarian assistance later in the year.
Ms. Libby Davies (Vancouver East, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, the Royal Society expert panel on the review of Safety Code 6 released its report a month ago and recommended that more research was needed into the health risks of radio frequency fields. Consumers and health advocates are demanding more information and safeguards to reduce exposure to harmful radiation and to investigate radiation hypersensitivity.
How does the Minister of Health plan to follow up on the concerns coming from the public and the Royal Society's recommendations?
Mr. Speaker, first, we have already committed to hosting public consultations on any revised safety standards. We do appreciate the work of the Royal Society and we thank it for its report.
The member should know that Canada's limits are similar to those of other countries around the world, such as the United States, Australia, the European Union and Japan. Canadians should be confident that our limits are some of the strongest science-based standards in the world.
However, we will continue to review the Royal Society's recommendations and we will take all necessary actions to protect Canadians and their families.
Mr. Joe Preston (Elgin—Middlesex—London, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, today the Governor General will grant royal assent to the fair elections act, which will require all voters to present a physical copy of their ID proving who they are before they vote. Identity vouching is gone and so is the use of unpaid loans to get around donation limits.
Could the minister comment on how the fair elections act will keep everyday Canadians in charge of democracy?
Hon. Pierre Poilievre (Minister of State (Democratic Reform), CPC):
Mr. Speaker, with royal assent, the fair elections act will be enacted today. Identification will now be mandatory in order to vote.
With today's royal sanction, we have finally and happily achieved the fair elections act, and it will be passed into law.
We will have royal assent. We will have a requirement for physical ID every time someone votes. No longer will politicians be able to use loans to get around donation limits. We will have independent investigations. It is fair, it is reasonable and, as of today, it will be the law.
Mr. Mathieu Ravignat (Pontiac, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, federal employees are boycotting National Public Service Week once again this year.
The week, which is intended to recognize the importance of the public service, no longer has any meaning, since the Conservatives have cut 19,000 public service jobs and are promising to cut even more. Public servants lament the contemptuous attitude of this government, which prefers to govern based on its own ideology.
When will the Conservatives stop turning their noses up at the excellent work done by the 400,000 federal public servants?
Mr. Dan Albas (Parliamentary Secretary to the President of the Treasury Board, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, we are committed to a modern and high-performing public service that gets results for Canadian taxpayers. In fact, our government is getting results while making the public service more effective and efficient.
For example, there is $3,400 less in taxes per year for the average Canadian family and a balanced budget in 2015.
If the member opposite would like to ask a follow-up question, I have a whole list of things that are good for Canadians.
Mr. Speaker, this is a question for the Prime Minister of critical importance for federal-provincial relations and jurisdiction.
If the Premier of British Columbia continues to maintain that British Columbians and the Government of British Columbia reject Enbridge's twin toxic pipelines, will the Prime Minister agree to rescind approval and respect the province of British Columbia's jurisdiction and the collective will of British Columbians, or does he intend to force it down our throats?
Mr. Speaker, we have been clear that projects will only move forward if they are safe for Canadians and safe for the environment. After carefully reviewing the independent regulator's report, the government accepts the recommendation to impose 209 conditions on the project. It will be up to the proponent to show the regulator and Canadians that those conditions have been met.
The House resumed from June 18 consideration of the motion that Bill C-2, An Act to amend the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, be read the second time and referred to a committee.
Pursuant to an order made on Tuesday, May 27, the House will now proceed to the taking of the deferred recorded division on the motion at the second reading stage of Bill C-2.
Call in the members.
The vote is on the motion.
Kenney (Calgary Southeast)
Christopherson
Dusseault
Genest
Laverdière
Morin (Chicoutimi—Le Fjord)
Morin (Notre-Dame-de-Grâce—Lachine)
Raynault
Scarpaleggia
I declare the motion carried. Accordingly, the bill stands referred to the Standing Committee on Public Safety and National Security.
The House resumed consideration of the motion that Bill C-6, An Act to implement the Convention on Cluster Munitions, be read the third time and passed.
The House will now proceed to the taking of the deferred recorded division on the motion at third reading stage of Bill C-6.
[Business of the House]
Mr. Speaker, since this is the last Thursday statement before we break tomorrow for the summer, I would first like to pay tribute to the NDP caucus. For the past four weeks, we have been having evening sittings. The Conservatives and the Liberals missed about 200 opportunities to speak. However, the NDP members were always there for their shifts. What is more, they did the job of the Conservatives and the Liberals. The NDP has a strong and extraordinary caucus. I want to recognize the hardest working caucus that Parliament has ever seen.
I am not finished because I also want to say that I really appreciate the work of the Leader of the Government in the House of Commons. He is very knowledgeable and has a lot of energy. I hope he has a good summer. I would also like to thank the House Leader of the Liberal Party, the member for Beauséjour, who has a lot of experience as an MP and as the House leader of the Liberal Party. I wish both of them a good summer.
As my colleague from Hamilton Mountain did two years ago, I would also like to recognize all those who keep the House running. Canadians watching at home might not realize it, but there is a huge network of talented and professional staff who work tirelessly to make this place run like clockwork.
First, there is you, Mr. Speaker, and your staff, along with the procedural experts in the clerks' offices, the table, the journals branch, the committee directorate staff, the Library of Parliament staff and, of course, all of our incredible pages, who do a wonderful job.
There is the Sergeant-at-Arms and everyone from security, as well as traffic operations, the drivers of our green buses, dispatch operators, mail room staff and messengers.
There is the cafeteria staff and the food services and catering team.
There is the maintenance staff, the tradespeople in the Parliamentary precinct, materiel management and room allocation.
There is everyone in information services, including telecom, ISSI, printing services and the broadcasting team.
There are the people who deal with HR, finance, travel and pay and benefits.
There are the folks at Hansard who transcribe and edit all of our words and those who translate and interpret them from one official language to the other. Given that the NDP is a bilingual caucus, we really appreciate all the work that is done by the interpreters and translators.
The official opposition wishes to one and all a happy summer with lots of door-knocking.
Hon. Peter Van Loan (Leader of the Government in the House of Commons, CPC):
Mr. Speaker, after this proceeding, we will start the second reading debate on Bill C-21, the Red Tape Reduction Act. I know that my hon. friend, the President of the Treasury Board—a man with firm views on paper documents—is very keen to get this debate started.
Tonight, after private members' hour, the House will resume the third reading debate on Bill C-8, the Combating Counterfeit Products Act. Once that is done, I look forward to picking up where we left off this morning with second reading of two bills to create new parks: Bill C-40, An Act respecting the Rouge National Urban Park, in the greater Toronto area, and Bill S-5, which will establish a new national park reserve in the Northwest Territories.
If we have time left before midnight, we will continue debating Bill C-35, the justice for animals in service act, or Quanto's law); Bill C-26, the tougher penalties for child predators act; Bill C3, the safeguarding Canada's seas and skies act; and Bill C-21 if we do not finish that by 5:30 today.
Tomorrow will be the sixth and final day of second reading debate on Bill C-32, the victims bill of rights act, a bill that, despite lengthy debate, all parties agree should be studied by our hard-working justice committee.
However, the highlight of this week will of course come later this afternoon. The Usher of the Black Rod will knock on the door and summon us to attend the Governor General in the Senate chamber where, with the three constituent elements of Parliament assembled, we will participate in the ancient ceremony of royal assent.
Based on messages read from the other place, and messages I anticipate later this afternoon, 14 new laws will be made upon His Excellency's imperceptible, or barely perceptible, nod. This will mark a total of 25 bills passing through the entire legislative process since October's Speech from the Throne. Of these, 20% are private members' bills, further underscoring the unprecedented empowerment of members of Parliament under this Prime Minister's government.
Speaking of the time passing since October, we are also marking the end of the academic year. This means the end of the time with this year's fine class of pages. Here I know that some in the chattering classes have concerns about the length of my weekly business statements, but I hope they will forgive mine today.
As we all know, the pages work extremely hard and do some incredible work, both in the chamber and in the lobbies. They perform many important duties, which in some cases go unnoticed, or at least so they think. They show up before the House opens each morning and stay until after it closes at night. We all know that over the past few weeks, it has meant much longer days than usual, but even then, the pages have remained professional, respectful, and have started each day with a smile, and ended it with one too, although that occasionally required a bit of encouragement on my part.
I would first off like to thank them for their service. Without them and their support, members of Parliament would not be nearly as effective and efficient in performing the duties that Canadians sent us to Ottawa to undertake.
I do have some insight from being married to a former page, from the class of '87 actually, and she often refers to her year as a page as the best year of her life. Here I can say that the experiences the pages have had at the House of Commons is something they will remember for the rest of their lives.
In addition, I know that in my wife's case, some of the friends she made in the page program are still good friends to this day, including, in fact, the chief of staff to the current leader of the Liberal Party. I hope that will be the same for all of you, that is being friends for life—not that other thing.
I am sure that the pages are looking forward to the summer break so they can all take their minds off of school and visit with friends and family to share their many stories and experiences, some of which are even funny, with us here in the House. I will not be surprised one day if we find some of them occupying seats in this chamber, something that happened for the first time in this Parliament with the hon. members for Etobicoke—Lakeshore and Mississauga—Brampton South, both having been elected to sit here in this Parliament.
Some of the pages may also find employment on Parliament Hill working for members, and I know that I have, without fail, been impressed by the high calibre of ambitious young people who have worked in my office during stints as page.
Over the past three years, the House has worked in a productive, orderly, and hard-working manner, and this has not been possible without the help of the pages. I believe it is safe to say that I speak on behalf of all members of the House when I thank them for their dedication and service, and finally, give them our best wishes for success in all their future endeavours.
Some hon. members: Hear, hear!
Hon. Peter Van Loan:
Of course, Mr. Speaker, I would be remiss if I did not join my counterpart in giving thanks to your fellow chair occupants, the clerks at the table, and the countless staff behind the scenes who support all that we do here, especially all that we did during the four weeks of extended sitting hours. On behalf of the government and the Conservative caucus, I thank them.
With respect to the schedule of business before the House during the week of September 15, I will ensure that we will, through the usual channels, advise my counterparts of what that will be.
In closing, I want to wish all hon. members and everybody in this place all the best for a happy and restful summer, and I regret that I have no motion to present at this time.
I would like to thank both the opposition House leader and the government House leader, and of course our hard-working pages to whom I extend my own words of thanks. I have got to know quite a few of them over the course of the year and they are, as both House leaders indicated, a very professional and dedicated group of young individuals who, I am sure, have bright futures ahead of them.
The hon. member for Saint-Léonard—Saint-Michel on a point of order.
Mr. Massimo Pacetti (Saint-Léonard—Saint-Michel, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, I also want to thank the pages on behalf of the Liberal Party. I thank the staff, the personnel, and my colleagues as well. I know it has been tough sitting until midnight, and sometimes later. I thank everybody involved in making this place run, including you, Mr. Speaker, and all your personnel, and obviously our personnel.
On behalf of the Liberal Party, I would like to wish everybody, not a merry Christmas, but a good summer.
Hon. Michelle Rempel (for the President of the Treasury Board)
moved that Bill C-21, An Act to control the administrative burden that regulations impose on businesses, be read the second time and referred to a committee.
Mr. Speaker, I am honoured to rise in the House today to speak in support of this ground-breaking legislation to reduce red tape, one of the first of its kind in the world.
The legislation before us would put strict controls on the growth of regulatory red tape by enshrining the one-for-one rule in law, which means that in order to change it, the government of the day would have to go to Parliament.
The one-for-one rule is the centrepiece of our package of regulatory reforms aimed at cutting red tape that can stifle businesses' productivity and their overall success. Under the rule, regulators must offset any administrative burden that increases from regulatory changes with equal reductions in existing regulation. That is not all. When a brand new regulation is introduced that adds to the administrative burden, an existing regulation must also be repealed. We have been implementing the one-for-one rule since April 1, 2012 through the cabinet directive on regulatory management. However, we are definitely not stopping there.
With the bill before us today, Canada would be the first country in the world to give the one-for-one rule the added muscle of legislation. This would make it one of the most aggressive red tape reduction measures in the world. The health, safety, and security of Canadians would still be protected. In fact, the preamble of this bill is very clear that the one-for-one rule must not compromise health, public safety, or the Canadian economy.
After more than two years of experience, we know that the rule is working. Before we look at the success of this measure and of our entire package of regulatory reforms, I want to talk first about why reducing red tape is so important.
Red tape impacts the livelihoods of all Canadians. It directly affects our ability as a country to create jobs, to grow, to innovate, and to compete. There is a direct connection between red tape and our long-term prosperity. Unnecessary red tape puts a wrench in the smooth flow of trade and bogs down the dynamic exchange of goods and services that is the lifeblood of a healthy economy. It also costs. A 2008 study by Statistics Canada reported that the cost to comply with the information obligations of 12 of the most common federal, provincial, and municipal regulations in five sectors of the economy worked out to a stunning $1.1 billion per year. In that same year, the Canada Revenue Agency calculated that the average annual time spent per establishment to comply with legislative tax requirements was 15 hours, at an annual average cost of $1,724.
As the Prime Minister has stated, red tape is a hidden tax and a silent killer of jobs. It is a cost business owners, who are already competing tooth and nail, simply cannot afford. We know this because our Prime Minister had the foresight to launch the Red Tape Reduction Commission in January 2011. The Prime Minister asked the commission to identify irritants to business that have clear detrimental effects on growth, competitiveness, and innovation. The commission was also asked to recommend ways to address those irritants and to reduce the compliance burden on a lasting basis, without compromising the environment or the health, safety, and security of Canadians.
For a year, the commission criss-crossed the country, talking to companies, small-business owners, and associations like the Canadian Federation of Independent Business about what most frustrated them and what they would like to see changed. It hosted a total of 15 round-table sessions in 13 cities, attracting some 200 participants. There was also an online consultation and a dedicated website. Hundreds of ideas were shared, and our red tape reduction action plan, with the one-for-one rule as its cornerstone, is the result.
It is my honour today to share with the House how successful the implementation of the rule has been. During its first year of implementation, the one-for-one rule provided successful system-wide control of regulatory red tape impacting business. As of June 1, 2014, under the rule we had reduced the administrative burden by over $20 million and had achieved a net reduction of 19 regulations.
Allow me to demonstrate by way of a few examples.
Statistics Canada has amended regulations under the Corporations Returns Act used to collect financial and ownership information on corporations conducting business in Canada. With these changes, only corporations with revenues of more than $200 million, assets worth more than $600 million, or foreign debt and equity of more than $1 million will have to report financial and ownership information. As a result, more than 32,000 businesses will no longer be required to fill out a complex government return. We expect that this will reduce the administrative burden by about $1.2 million a year.
Here is another example. Employment and Social Development Canada is reducing the red tape burden and the cost to business by repealing a set of regulations that imposed unnecessary administrative requirements on construction companies awarded federal government contracts. With these changes, the estimated annual savings for business is more than $900,000.
We are also seeing savings at Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, which has undertaken a project to modernize the Northwest Territories and Nunavut Mining Regulations. The proposal was recently pre-published in The Canada Gazette part I and will result in estimated annual savings for business of more than $600,000.
It is estimated that to date, the application of the one-for-one rule has saved businesses well in excess of 100,000 hours per year in time spent dealing with regulatory red tape.
Treasury Board enforces compliance with the rule, and I am pleased to report that compliance has been strong.
With these kind of results and more than two years of experience under our belts, it is time to make the rule a permanent feature of the federal regulatory system.
The Prime Minister has endorsed the one-for-one rule. The 2013 Speech from the Throne committed our government to putting the rule into law, and with the bill before us, we are delivering on that commitment. With this legislation, we are sending a clear signal that our government has an unmatched resolve to cut regulatory red tape for business while continuing to ensure the protection of Canadians and our environment. What is more, this legislation would backstop the one-for-one rule with a strong commitment to transparency and accountability through annual public reporting on its implementation.
We are not the only ones who think enshrining the one-for-one rule in law is a good idea. Here is a quote from Laura Jones, the executive vice-president of the Canadian Federation of Independent Business, “The government implemented the one-for-one rule last year. Legislating it shows they are really serious about regulatory reform. It's important because it makes it much harder to undo.”
Cutting red tape and making regulatory processes as pain-free as possible is one of the most important things government can do to help Canadian businesses thrive, particularly in this time of global economic uncertainty. That is why the red tape reduction action plan gets rid of business irritants in areas such as payroll, labour, and trade and introduces time-saving measures like a single window and electronic submissions.
The red tape reduction action plan, which is being rolled out over three years, is one of the most far-reaching and ambitious red-tape-cutting initiatives in the world today. It encompasses a half-dozen fundamental systemic reforms in the way government regulates as well as some 90 specific changes individual departments will undertake.
Allow me to highlight the systemic reforms that are truly game changers for doing business in Canada. I have already spoken about the one-for-one rule, which has successfully controlled and even reduced the administrative burden in Canada, but I am pleased to add that our action plan also ensures that the needs and concerns of small businesses are considered when we regulate.
We are talking about businesses with fewer than 100 employees or with between $30,000 and $5 million in annual gross revenues. These businesses represent over 40% of Canada's private sector GDP and almost 50% of all the jobs in the private sector.
Small businesses are at the heart of Canada's entrepreneurial drive, yet because of their more limited resources, small businesses often feel the weight of the regulatory burden more acutely than others. We are tackling that reality by requiring regulators to use the small business lens for regulations that have a significant impact on small business. That will happen when a regulatory change imposes over $1 million in annual nationwide costs and has an impact on at least one small business.
Regulators now have to put themselves in the place of small business when they regulate. They have to ask themselves these questions: Is the information we are asking them for already being collected by another government department? Is there another way to regulate that is less burdensome? Most important, are we communicating in plain and understandable language?
I also want to emphasize that the burden of proof is not on business. It is up to the regulators to prove that they have done everything they can to minimize the costs for small business. All in all, there are 20 small business checklists that regulators have to fill out, publish, and have signed by their ministers as part of the submission package. This ensures that the impacts of new regulations on small businesses are considered in the earliest stages of design, and, if need be, are mitigated.
Because departments will have to post these completed checklists online, small-business owners will be able to judge for themselves how effectively the government is minimizing the regulatory burden. The one-for-one rule and the small business lens will bring a new discipline to how government regulates and how it is creating a more predictable environment for businesses.
This is part of our broader commitment under the red tape reduction action plan to improve service and become more accountable. We are introducing service standards for high-volume regulatory licensing, permitting, and certification processes. Businesses will now know how long they have to wait to receive these decisions.
As a former business owner, I have to interject that certainty is crucial to business potential. If entrepreneurs see opportunity, they must have certainty when they strike out. Specific timelines will help small businesses the most. Departments will publish these timeframes on their websites, and they will have to report on their website whether these targets are being met or not. For all these authorizations, businesses will also have access to a feedback mechanism they can use to register a complaint.
I am pleased to report that so far regulators have created service standards for 24 of these high-volume regulatory licensing, permitting, and certification processes, which cover more than 60,000 transactions with business each year.
One of the things that businesses often complain about is being surprised by unexpected changes to regulations that impact their investment plans. As part of the action plan, we are addressing that by requiring regulators to publish forward regulatory plans. These plans would identify anticipated regulatory changes over the next 24-month period. Business and consumers would be given an early warning of the government's intention to regulate. It gives that all-important predictability that they need to plan. It also allows businesses and consumers to provide their input into the design of new regulations.
Again, regulators are delivering, and so far, 32 forward regulatory plans from departments have been posted. In these plans, regulators have to identify if they expect the one-for-one rule and the small business lens to apply.
Treasury Board Secretariat is making it easy for business to find these plans through its government-wide roll-up page. That is to ensure that Canadians and Canadian businesses have a heads-up on regulatory changes that are of interest to them. I encourage all businesses to stay abreast of these anticipated regulatory changes and to get involved in these consultations to make sure they are designed with their input.
None of these commitments are worth anything and an action plan is only a pile of paper unless we can prove we are fulfilling our promises, which is why we are keeping scrupulous track of just how much red tape we are cutting.
In January, the President of the Treasury Board had the honour of releasing the first annual scorecard on the red tape reduction action plan, so Canadians can know just how much progress we are making. The scorecard reports on system-wide changes to the regulatory system, particularly on the implementation of the one-for-one rule, service standards, forward planning and, of course, the small business lens. The scorecard is vetted by a regulatory advisory committee, and yearly results are provided to the Auditor General. These external business and consumer experts have reviewed the report, provided their unvarnished advice on its fairness and reliability, and endorsed it as a reasonable account of the progress made.
These are some of the top regulatory reforms in our action plan. Taken together, our government's red tape reduction action plan ensures that cutting red tape is part of the government's DNA. It goes further than we have ever gone before to meet the needs of business and to be accountable when we regulate, and it cements Canada's reputation as one of the best places in the world to do business and invest.
Tackling regulation is just one of the many fronts we are working on to create the conditions for businesses to succeed. From fiscal to tax policy, from regulation to immigration, we are empowering businesses to make the most of what they can be, but most importantly, collectively, to make the most of what Canada can be.
Our government understands that the way to create jobs and growth is to reduce barriers for businesses, not raise them. The bill before us today does that. It frees businesses to do what they do best: innovate, invest, grow and, of course, create jobs, which means it is a bill that would benefit all Canadians. That is why I strongly encourage all members to support the bill moving forward.
Mr. Jamie Nicholls (Vaudreuil—Soulanges, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I appreciate the speech from my colleague; however, I have a question for him.
We regularly speak to people across Canada. I know that many of the small businesses in British Columbia are in the fishing and tourism sectors. I know from reading a letter from a gentleman from Penticton, Lloyd Creech, they are worried about the menace to the small businesses in fishing and tourism due to the approval of the northern gateway pipeline.
The government waited until the eleventh hour to do something for small and medium businesses. It spent the past two years concentrating on helping the oil lobby approve this terrible pipeline through British Columbia, against the interests of British Columbians.
Even though we are supporting this bill at second reading, I would like the member to comment on the worries that small businesses have because of the approval of the northern gateway pipeline in British Columbia.
Mr. Dan Albas:
Mr. Speaker, what I would start with first is I think it behooves this country and all Canadians to have a process in place to take advantage, the best advantage for everyone, of the estimated $650 billion of potential investment that can come through responsible resource development.
We need to have a process to separate the wheat from the chaff so that we know what projects can go ahead that are safe for Canadians and safe for the environment.
I have heard from people in my riding, some who advocate for the pipeline, some who advocate for its denial. Ultimately, we want to see jobs and the economy grow. When I talked to Mayor Litke at Penticton City Hall, he spoke of the need for infrastructure. Councillor Jakubeit has said that small businesses need to have a strong environment for them to grow.
The Red Tape Reduction Commission that travelled all across this country, 15 cities, 200 people, all those round tables, actually heard from British Columbia that we need to see interprovincial barriers to wine removed. Bill C-311 actually opened up that interprovincial transit of wine. This comes back to our strong steps on regulatory red tape.
We are supporting Canadians. We are making sure that good things happen for Canadian businesses.
Hon. John McCallum (Markham—Unionville, Lib.):
Mr. Speaker, I congratulate the member on his speech, but given the somewhat self-satisfied tone, one would think the Conservatives had created heaven on earth in this area, when in fact, for each carefully selected example of reduced red tape, we can come up with one or two of increased red tape. I will name two quickly, both in immigration.
In terms of waiting time for citizenship, the bureaucracy is such that the waiting time has doubled to two and a half years. If anyone has the misfortune of filling out this huge residency questionnaire, it goes up years and years more.
Perhaps even more telling, Mexican officials say that Canada is the hardest country in the western world for Mexicans to come into given the enormous amount of red tape surrounding the government's visa system.
Canadian officials take away passports when other countries do not. Canadian officials, by the department's own admission, have a stack of documents they have to fill in, way worse than other countries and with questions that are totally irrelevant. It has cost the tourism industry hundreds of millions of dollars. It has damaged business and diplomatic relations with Mexico simply because the government is drowning the Mexican tourist and individual entry system in red tape.
How can the member talk about reducing red tape when he is doing exactly the opposite in a very important area of public policy?
Mr. Speaker, the approach the government is taking is to acknowledge the impact of red tape on all Canadians, particularly Canadian businesses, and that when government seeks to regulate, it should find the level of regulation that has the least amount of burden on businesses.
When a new regulation goes in, one of equal value has to come out, and this is done by a monetizing system to make sure that compliance is not onerous.
The member is part of a party which, when it had power, put the immigration system in such a state that Canadian businesses could not count on it and the backlogs were quite huge.
I think all Canadians want to ensure that when government puts things in place it recognizes that the Canadian taxpayer cannot end up paying for it.
We are recognizing that red tape has a cost. We are trying to take the burden off as much as possible. We are also making sure that we are accountable to taxpayers.
If the member had listened to my speech, he would see how the accountability mechanisms are very clear and even he could find them on the website.
Hon. Michelle Rempel (Minister of State (Western Economic Diversification), CPC):
Mr. Speaker, a couple of weeks ago I had the opportunity to speak at a utilities forum in Washington, DC. Prior to my speech, there was an entire panel devoted to lamenting the regulatory state in the United States because of some of the issues that my colleagues brought up, including non-predictability, such as new regulations affecting capital investments, because it becomes a new determinant to capital investment. Also, there is the cost of not reviewing regulations on a regular basis, because there can actually be overlapping regulations which increase the compliance burden to industry.
I am wondering if my colleague could speak specifically to how this particular bill could actually provide a competitive advantage for foreign direct investment into this country, because we will have a predictable regulatory review system. As well, perhaps he could speak to how the ongoing review of regulations can actually provide a better economy, because we have a clearer system by which industry can see that regulations are reviewed for efficacy on an ongoing basis.
Mr. Speaker, I certainly appreciate the minister for her work in making sure that our economy in the west is diversified and strong.
First of all, as I mentioned in my speech, the passage of this particular piece of legislation would send a signal that Canada is open for business and that we recognize there are legitimate costs that are borne by small and large businesses when the federal government regulates.
Again, I would go back to the three questions that the small business lens will ask.
Is the information we are asking for already being collected by another government department? This would reduce red tape.
Is there another way to regulate that is less burdensome? There are many ways to skin a cat, and I think this bill acknowledges that we should be looking at other options.
Are we communicating in plain language? Small business owners do not have time to research every rule. They need common-sense language so that they can know what they are doing.
Last, for foreign direct investment, nothing says opportunity than having low taxes and having an educated, strong workforce, but they also need to have regulatory certainty.
In British Columbia we have developed a number of coal mines. I have heard that Australian companies are looking at Canada because of our low taxes, because we have coal that they can mine, but also because of our regulatory certainty. They know that this government understands their needs and will regulate so that they and Canadians benefit, that their health and safety is protected, and that there are jobs and economic growth in British Columbia.
Mr. Speaker, the preamble to the bill suggests that the only exceptions to this rule would be in cases where public health and safety or the Canadian economy are affected. Which one would win when it is both? If we are making a regulation for public health and safety, but to make that regulation would hurt, say, a railway company, which in turn would hurt the Canadian economy, do we then abandon the regulation? Which one would win?
Mr. Speaker, first of all, the one-for-one rule does not apply to areas of the Minister of Finance, so they can make sure that our regulations are strong in regard to the economy and on health and safety. Let us just take a step back. This is not the actual regulation of those areas. This is the compliance. For example, one could have a piece of paper with 20 pieces of information on it, some of which are not actually necessary in order to show compliance. By adding the small business lens, by adding the one-for-one, we are trying to make sure that when our regulators do regulate, it is done in as convenient and efficient process as possible, such as going to the single window for service or email submissions, which reduce costs. Again, this is not in dealing with health and safety like the member has said.
Ms. Annick Papillon (Québec, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, before getting to the substance of my speech, I would like to say a few words about the fact that the NDP is the only party that takes advantage of all possible speaking opportunities in the House. As we know, we are sitting until midnight on weekdays to debate various issues.
The Conservatives must have missed about 200 opportunities to speak. The Liberals have also missed a lot. They are absent from the debates. I find that deplorable. It is really too bad that we are not using all the speaking and debate time we have to discuss and duly represent our ridings, voters, constituents and people.
As you know, I am the small business deputy critic. I therefore have the pleasure of speaking to Bill C-21, An Act to control the administrative burden that regulations impose on businesses.
Bill C-21 includes the one-for-one rule. This rule requires the government to eliminate a regulation every time it adopts a new one. The government must also offset any new burden on small businesses, that is, time and money spent by businesses to demonstrate compliance with amendments to existing regulations, in order to ease the burden for businesses.
In addition, Bill C-21 stipulates that the president of the Treasury Board may establish policies or issue directives respecting the manner in which the rule is to be applied. He may also make regulations respecting the period within which measures must be taken to comply with the regulations, the manner of calculating the cost of an administrative burden, how the law will apply to regulations changed when the one-for-one rule came into effect, and the power to grant exceptions.
Although Bill C-21 claims to reduce red tape for businesses, it will actually make the president of the Treasury Board the arbiter of eliminating regulations. A very important point here is that the government claims to deal with something that is actually not that simple. When we meet with small and medium-sized businesses, we know that they would really like to be able to reduce red tape. However, we must be careful because this bill claims to reduce red tape, but, in fact, it is giving yet another discretionary power to the president of the Treasury Board.
Personally, I remember seeing other similar bills whose intent is often to provide greater authority and greater flexibility. For instance, Bill C-31 was meant to give greater discretionary authority to the Minister of Citizenship and Immigration. However, when a minister is given greater discretionary authority, this means that the rules may be good for some, and not so much for others. That is when things begin to fall apart and then, ultimately, things begin to get far more complicated and a lot harder to track. The minister has the authority to say yes in some cases and no in others, when in reality, the situations are identical. We cannot clearly rely on the rules.
Unfortunately, we cannot trust the Conservatives; we have seen this in the past. They have a habit of deregulating without any regard for the health and safety of Canadians. These are vital issues; there is no denying that. The Conservatives, and the Liberals before them, did not manage to defend the regulations protecting the health and safety of Canadians.
I must refer to the events that allow me to say today that the Conservatives are not there when it comes time to regulate appropriately. I will now bring them up. It is not easy to talk about these tragic events, but I need to.
The Lac-Mégantic tragedy put the important issue of rail safety in Canada back on the agenda following decades of Liberal and Conservative deregulation.
Let us look at other issues such as the maritime search and rescue centre in Quebec City, which was ultimately kept open. For over two and a half years, the Conservatives wanted to close it down. After they threatened the centre with closure, they realized that what mattered was saving lives and that by looking to close the centre, they were endangering the lives of Canadians. In the next election, I will be sure to remind voters that the Conservatives hesitated for two and a half years. That is unacceptable. We cannot take shortcuts when people’s health and safety are at stake.
Let’s talk about another issue, again in Quebec City. As we know, the Port of Québec went through periods when the city’s air was contaminated with nickel dust. Once again, we need to ensure that there are regulations to protect the public. Normally, businesses are proud to be involved in making and enforcing regulations that benefit the public.
XL Foods was another big one. If the government cuts the number of food inspectors, such incidents should come as no surprise. There are fewer people on the ground doing inspections. When it comes to regulations, the government needs to think twice and make sure it is doing the right thing because it cannot make mistakes that could have a direct impact on the health and safety of Canadians.
In Bill C-21, only the preamble states that regulations affecting the health and safety of Canadians will not be affected. No mention is made of the environment. It is not in the bill at all.
The same thing happened with the free trade agreements the government signed. Human rights and the environment were relegated to the sidelines even though we expected the federal government to sign free trade agreements containing clear measures. Now human rights and the environment are an afterthought. I think we can have economic development that prioritizes people's health and safety as well as their environment.
If the Conservatives really care about the health and safety of Canadians, why did they not specifically guarantee the application of the bill and the regulations that protect people's health and safety? That could have been done. The government should make it a priority to implement regulations that protect the health and safety of Canadians and their environment. This bill seems to completely disregard that obligation. We need more than the government's promises and the preamble of a bill because that could leave room for interpretation in the years ahead.
We want a guarantee that deregulation will not apply to those provisions, and we want it now. We have not been given that guarantee yet. Regulations that are in the public interest should be preserved. The idea is not just to limit, in theory, the number of regulations and determine which are good for Canadians and which are not. There has to be a reasonable way to undertake public administration. Giving more powers to the president of the Treasury Board is definitely not the way to ensure good public administration.
The many small business owners I have talked to agree that there should be less useless red tape.
The Canadian Federation of Independent Business, an organization that I have met with on a number of occasions, estimates that business owners pay $30 billion in hidden taxes in the form of the time and money they spend completing forms and following government rules, and it believes that this needs to change.
I am proud to tell this organization that the NDP is always open to helping small businesses by eliminating useless red tape and letting them focus on what they do best: growing their business and creating jobs. The NDP remains a partner to SMEs.
Red tape is not the only thing that small business owners come to me about. They also regularly tell me that the Conservatives boast about helping small businesses by eliminating red tape, but that they did not renew the hiring credit for small business. It was not in budget 2014. However, businesses have been clear: this hiring credit is important. It gives them some breathing room. Even though it had the means to do so, the government deliberately decided to ignore SMEs and eliminate the credit. That is not surprising, coming from the Conservatives. This is a very important measure to help SMEs grow and to create more good jobs.
SME owners are unanimous in asking me when this government will finally take serious action to regulate the anti-competitive credit card fees that merchants must pay to card issuers. If the Conservatives truly wanted to help SMEs, they would support the NDP's proposal to regulate the fees that credit card companies charge to merchants.
I meet with SME representatives and they show me their bills. They have been crippled by banking fees this year and their profits have decreased considerably. They sometimes even have to reconsider their decision to go into business. This goes for SMEs that have been in business for several years and those that are just getting started. Banking fees have gotten so high that SMEs have no choice but to take them into account. These fees cut into their profits and wages so much that owners start to wonder if they have made the right choice. That is not insignificant.
The Conservatives did diddly-squat. While small businesses are the ones creating most of Canada’s new jobs, they get very little attention from the Conservative government. In fact, this government preferred to give away billions of dollars in corporate tax breaks, starting with the oil companies, obviously. Even though they produce oil, they apparently need tax breaks. I have always thought that oil producers do not need any public money.
They gave away billions of dollars instead of supporting small businesses, the real job creators. This is why the NDP decided to support small business. There is nothing better than small businesses to turn around the economy of a region or a community. Profits made by a small business generally go toward developing the region. This money flows through the town or community where the small business is located. That also means local jobs. There is a lot less of a chance of outsourcing as well. This is why supporting small businesses pays off.
The Conservatives say they want to cut red tape, but they did quite the opposite with the Building Canada fund.
Rather than helping municipalities and small businesses start their infrastructure projects within an acceptable time, the Conservatives created a long and cumbersome bureaucratic system for any project over $100 million. That will result in delays of 6 to 18 months, holding back major projects. Furthermore, this government has done nothing to make it easier for small businesses to secure government contracts. We saw it in committee; this should be made easier. Several associations have done their job and tried to make the government aware of this, but contracts should be broken up so that small businesses can access them. It would be worthwhile to make improvements in this area. It is practically impossible for our small businesses in Canada to compete with big corporations when bidding on government contracts, which are so long and complicated.
Over the coming months, the member for Sudbury and I intend to continue taking part in consultations with small businesses. Young entrepreneurs and family businesses are the key to a prosperous economy in Canada. That is why New Democrats will continue to work toward a pragmatic, common-sense solution in order to contribute to their success.
If the Conservatives sincerely wanted to help small businesses, they would not drag their feet and would take action against the excessive fees that credit card companies are charging merchants. Neither would they have, as I previously mentioned, eliminated the small business hiring tax credit in the 2014 budget. In this respect, I encourage all small business owners to write their MPs to let them know how important this tax credit was to them. The NDP intends to contact small businesses in all ridings and encourage them to help us make sure that the government understands once and for all that this tax credit helped create and maintain a lot of jobs. These are not unstable part-time jobs that will end in three months, but good solid jobs.
Again, the NDP believes in common-sense solutions for cutting red tape for small businesses. Allow me to mention something that the government should bear in mind: when we meet with SMEs they often tell us about the lack of collaboration between the different government bodies. We know that this Conservative majority government has a hard time getting along with its provincial and municipal counterparts. That is a serious problem. SMEs sometimes have to fill out forms at both the federal and provincial levels. There needs to be an agreement to make it easier and ensure that SMEs do not have to fill out the same form 10 times, send them to a number of different places and follow different criteria. Those who work 80 hours a week for their SME might not have the time in the evening to figure out how each body operates and so forth. To make things easier for the SMEs, we need a government that listens, that does not say that it does not care and then goes ahead without listening to a word anyone else has to say. We need a government that will listen.
When various situations came up in Quebec, I would have liked the federal government to listen more closely. Listening closely can pay off and make life easier. Today, we are all saying we would like to improve things. I think that the current approach is not exactly the one that should be used and I hope that the government will understand that. We will not approve the additional discretionary powers for the ministers. That is not what is needed here. We need to simplify the process.
If we get rid of one approach and replace it with another then the rule of “one plus one plus one minus one plus one” might further confuse the SMEs. They want us to decide on one way of doing things and keep it that way for 10 years so that they do not have to read a new instruction manual every time they have to fill out a form.
I will now take questions.
Mr. Denis Blanchette (Louis-Hébert, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I would like to thank my colleague for her speech. We could talk about it for a long time. She clearly outlined the problem of government support for SMEs. She rightly mentioned that one of the major problems brought to our attention was credit card fees, which directly reduce SMEs' liquidity.
I would like to know whether my colleague believes that the one-for-one rule is the ultimate panacea, as we heard in the previous speech. Are there not better ways to promote small business development?
Ms. Annick Papillon:
Mr. Speaker, I would first like to thank my colleague for his comments. I know that the member for Louis-Hébert is very interested in the challenges facing businesses. He has also looked at important issues such as how businesses can use the Internet to increase their exports. He has done great work on that issue in recent years. I would like to congratulate him because he has some good ideas regarding SMEs that could be included in the NDP's new platform.
His question was about the one-for-one rule. I believe that there are better approaches. For every regulation that is eliminated, another is added. That is very confusing for people and SMEs that have to apply the rule. In my opinion, the government has not properly addressed the desired objective of cutting red tape. The Conservatives have missed the mark. This rule could be revisited because I believe that it does not take into account the health and safety of Canadians, as I mentioned several times. We are concerned about the fact that this is barely mentioned in the bill's preamble, which also does not mention the environment.
Ms. Marjolaine Boutin-Sweet (Hochelaga, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I would like to talk credit cards with my colleague. When I meet store owners or people in my riding who have small businesses, they also talk to me about red tape. However, most of the time they talk about credit card fees and not much else. Some of them have even decided not to accept credit cards because it costs too much. It is hurting businesses. Fewer people are paying with cash these days, meaning that fewer people will do business with those companies. It is harming consumers and businesses.
I am imagine that it is the same in my colleague's riding. Does she see that as a problem? The NDP already suggested that an ombudsman regulate credit card fees. Could that be a solution?
Mr. Speaker, the issue of banking fees is important, and it unites all Canadians, small and medium-sized businesses, consumers—basically, anyone with a credit card.
Here is a little known fact: when someone eats out at a restaurant, a large portion of our money goes to the banks, depending on the credit card used. It even comes out of the restaurant owner's pocket. That is the reality. It may be a small percentage here and there, but when you add up all those transactions, it comes out to a huge amount. It has become a serious problem.
Moreover, points cards are increasingly popular. Companies such as American Express take a significant percentage. When businesses decide to accept a certain kind of credit card, they cannot get rid of it just because it costs too much or because they prefer another card. It is a package deal. That reality is causing a lot of problems.
However, in 2009, the House of Commons passed a motion calling on the government to adopt legislation to put an end to excessive credit card interest rates. Five years later, the government still has not introduced a bill addressing this issue. I find it odd that the Conservatives have not taken action when they must realize that bank fees are a serious problem. It is shameful.
Mr. Tarik Brahmi (Saint-Jean, NDP):
Mr. Speaker, I listened carefully to my colleague's speech, and I commend her for her passion. She spoke about the issue of red tape for small businesses.
There are two dairy farmers and cheese producers in my riding. When the government announced the Canada-EU agreement on various products, including dairy products, a problem emerged for dairy farmers. Most of the cases involve small family businesses, since the property values sometimes get so out of hand that it is very difficult to transfer small businesses unless it is from one generation to another.
One aspect of the dairy industry, in my riding in particular, and in many regions in Quebec, is that dairy farmers are required to keep producing higher quality milk. When I visited farms in my riding, I was overwhelmed to see how much time farmers spent filling out forms because a cow seemed to be faltering, instead of milking the cows and taking care of the animals' health. They have to make a report every time the dairy animals seem to have a health problem.
On the one hand, the government is requiring better quality dairy products in order to compete with products from the outside, but on the other hand, it is claiming that it will cut the red tape.
I would like my colleague to talk about this persistent contradiction, namely that the government is claiming to cut red tape but then requires more paperwork to ensure we are more or as competitive as the new markets opening up outside Canada.
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https://www.ourmidland.com/news/article/SVSU-names-Roberts-Fellows-program-participants-6955445.php
SVSU names Roberts Fellows program participants
Published 10:15 am EDT, Wednesday, May 30, 2012
Twelve students will learn what it takes to become exceptional leaders after being selected for one of Saginaw Valley State University’s most prestigious undergraduate programs. The students will add a concentrated focus on leadership to their studies after being selected to participate in the Roberts Fellows program for the 2012-13 academic year.
The Roberts fellowships support a select group of students who have demonstrated both scholarship and leadership potential. These students will be supported through a two-semester program of both academic course work and extracurricular activities that is designed to further develop their potential as future political, economic and civic leaders. The program culminates in a trip to Asia to provide the Fellows with an international perspective on leadership.
To qualify, students must have completed between 48 and 100 credit hours with a minimum grade point average of 3.40 and pass a rigorous selection process. Students are chosen based upon their academic accomplishment, a record of university and community service, and other evidence of leadership potential.
The 2012-13 class of Roberts Fellows are:
• Justin Brouckaert, a creative writing and English literature major from Harbor Springs
• Danielle Burelle, an elementary education major from Sterling Heights
• Douglas Eck, an exercise science major from Ada
• Rehana Khan-Brown, a history major from Bay City
• Jordan Killop, a biology major from Armada
• Veronica Kirk, a political science major from Merrill
• Marlin Jenkins, a creative writing major from Woodhaven
• Rebecca Lamey, a double major in criminal justice and sociology from Ithaca
• Andrew Northrop, a social work major from St. Clair
• Jesse Place, a chemistry education major from Boyne City
• Emily Sullivan, a double major in political science and criminal justice from Cass City
• Kristen Tomczyk, an athletic training major from Lapeer
Students selected to be Roberts Fellows will be required to complete a three-credit “Leadership Seminar” in the fall and winter semesters within one or more academic departments. During the year, the Fellows will also meet for informal seminars and discussions with various political, business and civic leaders from throughout the Great Lakes Bay region. Drew Hinderer, SVSU professor of philosophy, serves as the group’s faculty advisor.
Established in 1999, the program is named in honor of Donna Roberts of Midland, who has demonstrated an outstanding commitment to SVSU through her personal generosity and prior service on the Board of Control and the Board of Fellows. A respected attorney, business leader and philanthropist, Roberts retired from The Dow Chemical Co., where she was secretary and assistant general counsel. She is an honorary director of the SVSU Foundation Board.
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15 Healthy Teas You Should Be Drinking
by Brianna Diorio
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Tea is the most consumed beverage in the world after water and with over 3,000 varieties of teas to choose from, the possibilities are endless. Whether you are looking to curl up on a cool night with a warm cup of tea, need an extra boost of energy, or are simply looking to improve your health, be sure to take advantage of the soul warming benefits from your favorite teas, one sip at a time.
Whether you are stressed from busy schedules or battling the sniffles, the following teas can be used to warm the body and soul! For an added bonus, reuse your tea bags for an instant do-it-yourself eye treatment.
It’s hydrating, it’s social, it warms the soul; tea is something that can benefit you, your health, and those who you share it with.
1. Digestive Support
It is no coincidence that our parents brought us a warm cup of tea when we weren’t feeling our best, to soothe upset tummies and bring comfort. Whether due to stress or the flu, tea can bring comfort to a stomach that is upset.
A warming cup of tea to start the day can also have other benefits. Warm water at the first part of the day lubricates the digestive system and can help prepare the body for breaking down food more effectively. Water in general also stimulates peristalsis, which is what moves food through the digestive tract. (1)
2. Antioxidant support
Many of the health benefits associated with tea can be attributed to their polyphenol and phytochemical properties. Polyphenols are plant compounds that act as antioxidants, helping to prevent cellular damage. Tea leaves also contain polyphenol oxidase enzymes, tannins, anthocyanins, and catechins, all of which are part of a larger class of antioxidant compounds. Tea is high in oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), which is a posh way of saying it helps to destroy and fight free radicals. (2)
3. Cardiovascular Health
Tea has many cardioprotective properties, such as its antioxidant, polyphenolic, and phytochemical compounds. These plant compounds can help protect against cardiovascular disease through their ability to promote endothelial function. This is important because the endothelium refers to a layer of cells that line the inside of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. The health of the endothelium cells is vital as they deal with circulation and blood flow throughout the body.
Research has suggested that drinking as little as one cup of tea per day can support healthy arterial function. (3) Drinking tea can be beneficial due to improved vasodilator function of the arteries, specifically the coronary arteries. (4)
4. Cognitive Support
Recent research from the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition found that drinking tea not only improved attention, but also allowed individuals to be more focused. The role of tea in strengthening attention and providing mood support lies in the combination of theanine and caffeine. Specifically, the amino acid theanine, combined with the caffeine found in black, green, and white tea, contributes to many of its benefits. (5)
While there are hundreds are varieties of teas available, these 15 stand out from the crowd for having exceptional health and wellness benefits.
1. Black Tea
Black tea comes from a shrub called Camellia Sinesis and is made through a process of rolling, heating, and fermenting the leaves. Black tea is abundant in antioxidants, such as flavonoids and polyphenols, as well as tannins that have beneficial effects on digestive and intestinal health.
The tannins found in black tea can also provide immune support. The amino acid l-theanine, which can be found in black tea, promotes relaxation and focus.
A compound in black tea called TF-2 causes certain cancer cells in the stomach, prostate, and breast to go into apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Polyphenols in black tea have also been shown to prevent the formation of potential carcinogens in the body, particularly in certain types of cancer, such as ovarian, lung, prostate, colorectal, and bladder.
The tannins in black tea have a therapeutic effect on gastric and intestinal illnesses, making it a great digestive aid. These tannins act as natural antibiotics, preventing bacteria that lead to tooth decay.
To get the maximum benefits from black tea, let it steep for a full 15 minutes. This releases a good amount of tannins and ensures you’re getting the most out of your tea. (6) Get creative with black tea and add a dash of cinnamon or some stevia for an extra sweet treat without the additional calories.
2. Matcha
Matcha is a concentrated form of green tea which takes the tea leaves and grinds them into an ultra-fine powder. Matcha contains a higher concentrations of vitamins such as C, B, E, and K as well as chlorophyll, a very effective detoxifier that can aid in the elimination of unwanted toxins, chemicals, and heavy metals.
Matcha also contains l-theanine, an amino acid which can lead to a state of relaxed alertness and increased levels of dopamine and GABA. Matcha contains up to five times as much L-theanine as regular green tea.
Matcha also contains a specific antioxidant known as catechin. The catechins in matcha have been shown to promote phases 1 and 2 detoxification in the liver by activating enzymes, such as glutathione S-transferase and quinone reductase. Matcha is more catechin-dense than other green teas, containing as much as 137 times more than plain green tea. (7,8)
3. White Tea
The history of white tea dates back to the Chinese empire where white tea leaves were presented as a tribute to the emperor. White tea originates from China from the Camellia Sinensis plant. Its leaves and buds are left to dry out in the sun while the plant grows, and then are prematurely harvested to prevent oxidation, which preserves the subtle flavor and aroma.
White tea inhibits the growth of pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and fungi in the body, specifically with bacteria that cause staph infections, strep throat, and pneumonia. Antioxidants in white tea have also been found to fight free radical damage, and naturally support detoxification pathways in the body. (9)
4. Green Tea
Since ancient times, green tea has been considered by Traditional Chinese Medicine as a healthful beverage. It is known for its role in increasing fat oxidation, inhibiting fat cell development, and boosting metabolism. The active compound found in green tea, EGCG, supports the production of the hormone noradrenaline, which increases fat-burning and modulates fat absorption and metabolism.
Green tea is also loaded with antioxidants and plant compounds such as polyphenols, catechins, and flavonoids, which are known for their anti-aging and immune supporting benefits. This low caffeine tea is a great option for those looking to get a mellow energy lifeline, without the addictive jitters that coffee provides. Drinking green tea may also contribute to a reduction in the risk of cardiovascular disease and some forms of cancer, as well as the provide neuroprotective and bone-mineral density properties. (10)
5. Herbal Tea
Herbal teas are a group of their own with many wonderful health benefits. Herbal teas are great for supporting mental, physical, and emotional health, and can provide support to the immune system, the digestive tract, and lymphatic system, while also promoting feelings of tranquility and calmness. Certain herbal teas, like raspberry, can even tone the uterus in late pregnancy to prepare for labor, as well as ease symptoms of PMS or hormone imbalance.
Herbal teas are actually an infusion of leaves, seeds, roots, and/or bark that have been extracted to form a tea blend. Some common favorites include spearmint, raspberry, honeysuckle, ginger, elderberry, rooibos, lemon balm, and milk thistle. Many herbal teas have overlapping health benefits with the individual teas listed here, or can be found in tea blends.
6. Chamomile
Chamomile, which means “ground apple,” has been used for centuries as an herbal sleep aid. It is most popular in tea form and has a mild soothing effect, which can help induce sleepiness and reduces restlessness. It also has a positive effect on digestion.
One study found that drinking chamomile tea raised urine levels of glycine, a calming neurotransmitter used in the body. Chamomile has also been used to treat stomach ailments, as it can help to soothe and relax the muscles and lining of the intestines. (11)
Peppermint tea is one of the classics, known for its soothing taste and ability to settle the stomach. Peppermint isn’t only good for nausea, but can also be used to help support digestive issues. This is because it promotes bile flow and helps to relax the stomach and intestinal muscles. Peppermint tea is also contains trace amounts of calcium, vitamin B, and potassium. (12)
As with all teas, it’s best to choose an organic version, so that the nutrients are left in tact and not contaminated with extra pesticides.
8. Gotu Kola Leaf
Popular in Ayurvedic medicine, gotu kola tea is used to keep the mind and senses alert. This tropical plant is a member of the parsley family, and is often referred to as a brain tonic.
Gotu kola tea can be used to support memory, combat mental fatigue, and promote restful sleep. It has also been used to support the adrenal glands, helping to combat stress and energize the central nervous system. It can even reportedly increase libido. (13)
9. Tulsi Holy Basil
A member of the mint family, holy basil, also known as Tulsi, is one of the most revered plants in India. Its dual ability to act as an adaptogen herb and antioxidant tea allows holy basil to offer a host of benefits to the entire body.
Extremely popular in Ayurveda, holy basil does a great job of helping the body adapt to stressors, provide immune support, and bring balance to the central nervous system. Tulsi’s adaptogenic properties also help to balance hormones, especially the stress hormone cortisol, by supporting the adrenal glands. (14)
Popular in Chinese and Japanese traditional medicine, chrysanthemum is a flower that offers more than just beauty for the eye. Chrysanthemums are rich in flavonoids and contain many vitamins and minerals including vitamins C and A, niacin, folic acid, magnesium, iron, potassium, and phosphorus.
Chrysanthemum tea helps promote healthy circulation and has a calming effect on the body. It can also help support normal immunity, and can have a cooling effect on the body, which is great for times of illness or hormone chaos. (15)
11. Lavender
Lavender is widely used for aromatherapy stress relief and is known for its relaxation properties. Lavender tea taken internally can provide mood support and have a calming effect on the mind and body, helping ease into a relaxed state.
Lavender tea is also a great bedtime tea as an alternative to chamomile. While some may not prefer its distinctive taste, it can be combined with lemon for a fruity blend that, when paired with a little raw honey, has a pleasing taste. (16)
12. Fennel
Fennel tea has a celery-like taste that has been said to help with stomach and intestinal issues, primarily those associated with digestive discomfort.
Fennel tea is made from crushed or ground fennel seeds, which contain essential oil compounds that are responsible for their muscle soothing and immune supporting properties. Fennel tea can be used to help to relax the muscles of the gastrointestinal tract and reduces intestinal cramping and pain. (17)
Because of its potent taste, sometimes compared to the distinct flavor of licorice, it’s best paired with peppermint or another strongly flavored tea to help temper the flavor.
13. Valerian
A popular Ayurvedic herb, Valerian root has traditionally been used to help people with insomnia and is even referred to as “nature’s valium.” Valerian is useful for easing nervous tension, muscle tension, and even anxiety.
Stronger than chamomile and not to be combined with other sleep aids, valerian tea is best used for difficulty falling asleep. It can also reduce night time wake-ups. (18)
14. Yerba Mate
Upgrade your Monday and caffeine game with this energy swap. Yerba mate was called “the drink of the gods” by indigenous South Americans and is said to have the strength of coffee, the health benefits of tea, and the euphoria of chocolate. In fact, yerba mate has about 90 percent more antioxidants than green tea.
Yerba mate contains xanthines, which are plant compounds that act as natural stimulants. They are also found in coffee and chocolate, and are known for their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.
Yerba mate also offers digestive benefits and can increase the production of bile and gastric acids. It is also full of health-promoting phytonutrients such as tannins, trace minerals, chlorophyll, flavonoids, and even 15 different amino acids! (19)
15. California Poppy
You don’t have to live on the west coast to sip on this calming tea! While it is native to California, California poppy is known for promoting sleep, inducing relaxation, and easing mild anxiety.
Due to its antispasmodic properties, California poppy has also been found useful in relieving acute nerve and muscular pain. It can also naturally calm anxiety, reduce insomnia, and ease overall nervous energy. (20)
Teas of all kinds can have wide-reaching health benefits that go well beyond drinking for enjoyment. Whatever your taste preferences, there’s a tea for you, and exploring the health benefits can take your natural Paleo diet to the next level.
Brianna Diorio
Brianna Diorio is a Clinical Nutritionist who graduated with a Master’s of Science in Human Nutrition from the University of Bridgeport. She specializes in alternative health, natural products, and dietary supplements. She is also a certified holistic lifestyle health coach and a certified functional diagnostic nutrition practitioner. Brianna is passionate about fitness and is a Level 1 CrossFit Certified Personal Trainer. She is also currently the Director of Education and Training at Vitamer Laboratories
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Cowes Week
Charter a Private Jet to Cowes Week
Imagine the majestic sight of sailing yachts, some more than 70 feet long, cutting through the waters in a race in the Solent, a waterway of tricky double tides between southern England and the Isle of Wight.
Now, imagine all the history behind this oldest and foremost sailing regatta in the world, which has been run every August – except during the two world wars – since 1926.
It’s Cowes Week, a thrilling event that draws more than 100,000 people to watch 8,500 sailors from all over the world race in 1,000 boats over eight days.
It’s evolved considerably since the first race in which seven royal yachts competed for the “Gold Cup of the Value of 100 Pounds.”
Traditionally, the race had always been held the week before the Glorious Twelfth, the first day of grouse hunting season, but now fluctuates to take advantage of the tides.
If you’re interested in seeing some 40 races a day off the picturesque coast of England, Paramount Business Jets can arrange a flight to take you there.
There are no bridges across the Solent strait. The Isle of Wight is accessible only by ferry – or small plane.
Paramount can arrange a flight to any of the main UK airports or even one of the two small airports located on the eastern coast of the Isle itself - Sandown (EGHN) and Bembridge (BBP):
Isle Of Wight/Sandown Airport, EGHN, Isle Of Wight, United Kingdom (8 miles)
Bembridge Airport, EGHJ, BBP, Bembridge, United Kingdom (11 miles)
Southampton Airport, EGHI, SOU, Southampton, United Kingdom (12 miles)
Bournemouth Airport, EGHH, BOH, Bournemouth, United Kingdom (24 miles)
Lasham Airport, EGHL, QLA, Lasham, United Kingdom (30 miles)
Boscombe Down Airport, EGDM, Boscombe Down, United Kingdom (32 miles)
Thruxton, EGHO, Thruxton, United Kingdom (32 miles)
Odiham Airport, EGVO, ODH, Farnborough, United Kingdom (35 miles)
Farnborough Airport, EGLF, FAB, Farnborough, United Kingdom (41 miles)
Blackbushe Airport, EGLK, BBS, Blackbushe, United Kingdom (42 miles)
Get a Quick Quote Online and Book Your Jet Early!
Booking early has many advantages. Enter a few details below to start planning your private jet flight to the Cowes Week.
Cowes Harbour during Cowes Week 2007. Picture Source.
There is much to see in the area when the boats are done racing.
The Isle of Wight, which is 24 miles wide and 12 miles long, is separated from the mainland by the Solent, a strait ranging from one to four miles wide. If you don’t fly into one of the Isle’s small airports, it takes about an hour to get there on a ferry.
Once there, you can:
Explore some 165 miles of bridleways and 500 miles of footpaths on foot, horseback or bicycle.
Romp in the surf along miles of sandy beaches.
Go fossil hunting. You can see dinosaur bones and footprints in the rocks along the beaches, especially near the bays. Because of this, the Isle is often called Dinosaur Island. 30 million-year-old bones of crocodiles, turtles, mammals and shellfish have been found along the northern coast.
Look for wildlife like a dormouse or a rare bat and natural wonders like St. Boniface Down, the highest point (800 feet) on the island.
Visit Osborne House, the castle built by Queen Victoria in 1845.
Check out Carisbrooke Castle, which was home to Charles I before his execution.
Take an architectural tour of historic churches, medieval buildings and ancient ruins.
See Roman archaeology, coins, pottery and tools in Brading Roman Villa.
Down a glass of Nyetimber English sparkling wine, the traditional drink quaffed in celebration of a race.
One last thing: take a sweater. The Isle is located on the 50 degree north latitude (roughly the same as Vancouver, British Columbia; Prague, Czechoslovakia; and Brussels, Belgium) where, in August, the average high temperature is 70 degrees F and the average low is 57.
Related Events in Sailing
Festival of Sails
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Home » News » Indian Education: A Colonial Idea
Indian Education: A Colonial Idea
5/02/2016 Diya Mehra 0 News
The developing countries are fighting with the evils of illiteracy but did not know the exact tools to fight this non availability of education. Education does not need only school building & some teachers but also the idea behind education is the preparation of educator and the curriculum that prepares a nation.
The old teaching methods still can be found in education system and don’t know why the governments in the past decades did not care to replace them with the new ones. We even don’t see that those who had given us the teaching system changed their own.
On this issue, former vice chancellor of Karnataka state law universality share his ideas on the 10th anniversary of Government First grade Degree College and Postgraduate Centre.
He said that colonial influence still can be seen in the Indian education system and the system needs immediate and fast changes. In the functions- he also said that even after the six decades, India did not free itself from the British colonial setup and education is also still suffering.
He took a dig at the system and said that this system has detached us from the social cultural traditions and this system just education us to copy the things from the west.
He emphasized that we need reform in our system on immediate basis from primary to higher education level, the changes that could reflect our local culture and issues of the land. He added that only this kind of system can put the development on fast track basis.
On the issue of universities and institutes, he said that educational institutes in Bidar and Raichur must be disaffiliated from Gulbarga University so that the burden on it would be lowered.
He gave the idea to of two universities each in Bidar and Raichur. A large majority of notable government officials and member of law making institution also participated in the ceremony.
PM Modi some month before had said that government will change the laws that are still in the system but are of colonial era. Shining India or make in India campaign can’t get the excellence and required progress will remain a dream until the education system did not qualify both in terms of quantity and quality.
The schools and colleges still lacks the required number and government in the last budget decided to fund ten universities so that they could become the centres of excellence in their field. The government must provide the basic facilities in millions of schools around the states after those, these luxury ideas are affordable. Will making only ten universities centres of excellence affect the lives of children in villages? We need to invest in our total education system and from the grass root level.
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September 6, 2016 / 5:45 PM / in 3 years
Pressure for G20 deadline on fossil fuel subsidies shifts to Germany
Megan Rowling
BARCELONA (Thomson Reuters Foundation) - After this week’s G20 summit in China failed to set a target year to phase out hundreds of billions of dollars in state subsidies for polluting fossil fuels, green groups and experts are urging Germany to finish the job as host of next year’s summit.
Ahead of the Sept. 4-5 meeting in Hangzhou, leaders of the world’s most powerful economies had faced growing pressure to declare a date to end the subsidies.
In June more than 200 civil society organizations called on the G20 to phase out fossil fuel subsidies by 2020, while insurers managing $1.2 trillion followed suit last month.
But despite a commitment by G7 nations in May to end government financial support for oil, gas and coal by 2025, the wider G20 group was unable to agree on a deadline.
Instead, the summit communique reaffirmed a commitment, first made in 2009, “to rationalize and phase-out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption over the medium term, recognizing the need to support the poor”.
Subsidies from G20 governments to fossil fuel production alone - excluding subsidies to consumers - averaged $444 billion annually in 2013 and 2014, according to a report by Oil Change International and the London-based Overseas Development Institute (ODI).
“Time is running out. Every dollar wasted on fossil fuel subsidies pushes us closer to climate disaster and makes the transition to clean energy more difficult,” said Alex Doukas, a senior campaigner with Oil Change International.
“As more governments take the important step of ratifying the Paris Agreement on climate change, they must stop giving handouts to big polluters, which undermine the spirit and the letter of the Paris deal,” he said.
Right before the summit, China and the United States jointly announced they had ratified the Paris climate change agreement, a significant step for the world’s two biggest emitters of greenhouse gases. That is set to boost momentum for the deal to take effect early, perhaps as soon as this year.
But the broader G20 took a more cautious stance. It merely welcomed “efforts to enable the Paris Agreement to enter into force by the end of 2016” and looked forward “to its timely implementation”.
India was seen as blocking a more pro-active G20 stance on climate action. The Indian press reported comments by Indian officials that New Delhi would not be ready to ratify the Paris deal in 2016, nor was it prepared to agree to a U.S. proposal for a deadline to phase out fossil fuel subsidies.
An Indian negotiator told The Indian Express before the summit that India had already cut subsidies on petrol and diesel, which are “taxed significantly”.
“Subsidies on cooking gas for the poor and supply of free electricity to farmers cannot be done away with,” the negotiator told the newspaper.
Andrew Light, a senior fellow at the World Resources Institute and a former U.S. State Department climate adviser, said before the summit that the United States was seeking a 2021 phase-out deadline for the G20, but India appeared to favor 2031.
‘CLIMATE CHAMPION’
Groups working to drive forward climate action will now focus on lobbying behind the scenes and speaking out in public to push Germany to make a time limit for ending fossil fuel subsidies a priority at the G20 summit in July 2017, said ODI research fellow Shelagh Whitley.
“We see that Germany is a champion on climate, and that they may be able to take a stronger role than other G20 countries in ensuring that this happens,” she told the Thomson Reuters Foundation.
Whitley said more countries are acting to reduce subsidies, and becoming comfortable with the idea of setting a deadline.
Getting more businesses to join the call for a phase-out date would be important to build motivation for G20 governments to agree to one in Germany, she added.
Wendel Trio, director of the Climate Action Network (CAN) Europe, said that with the G20 presidency moving to Europe next year, the European Union should show leadership and “urgently reform its policies and tools that both directly and indirectly allow for financial support to the fossil fuel industry”.
Célia Gautier, policy advisor at CAN’s French arm, said France should join the United States, China, Germany and Mexico in agreeing to a peer review of its public support for fossil fuels, and phase out its subsidies by 2020.
The China and the United States were the first G20 countries to have their fossil fuel subsidies reviewed in a process chaired by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
The reviews, made public this weekend, highlighted inefficient fossil fuel support policies that could be reformed.
OECD Secretary-General Angel Gurría described the reviews as “critically important”.
“Reforming policies that support the production or consumption of fossil fuels is a vital step in the global effort to substantially reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases,” he said on the sidelines of the Hangzhou summit.
Reporting by Megan Rowling @meganrowling; editing by Laurie Goering. Please credit the Thomson Reuters Foundation, the charitable arm of Thomson Reuters, that covers humanitarian news, women's rights, trafficking, property rights and climate change. Visit news.trust.org
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January 3, 2018 / 6:07 PM / 2 years ago
How alcohol damages stem cell DNA and increases cancer risk
Kate Kelland
LONDON (Reuters) - Drinking alcohol produces a harmful chemical in the body which can lead to permanent genetic damage in the DNA of stem cells, increasing the risk of cancer developing, according to research published on Wednesday.
Working with mice in a laboratory, British scientists used chromosome analysis and DNA sequencing to examine the genetic damage caused by acetaldehyde, a harmful chemical produced when the body processes alcohol.
Their findings offered more detail about how alcohol increases the risk of developing 7 types of cancer, including common forms such as breast and bowel cancer. It also showed how the body seeks to defend against the damage alcohol can do.
“Some cancers develop due to DNA damage in stem cells. While some damage occurs by chance, our findings suggest that drinking alcohol can increase the risk of this damage,” said Ketan Patel, a professor at the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, who co-led the study.
The World Health Organization’s International Agency for Research on Cancer classifies alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen, citing “convincing evidence” it causes cancer in humans.
A study published in 2011 found that alcohol is responsible for around 4 percent of all cancer in Britain - equating to around 12,800 cases a year.
In Wednesday’s study, published in the journal Nature, Patel’s team gave diluted alcohol to mice and then analyzed the effect on the animals’ DNA. They found that acetaldehyde can break and damage DNA within blood stem cells, permanently altering the DNA sequences within these cells.
This is important, Patel said, because when healthy stem cells become faulty, they can give rise to cancerous cells.
The researchers also looked at how the body tries to protect itself against damage caused by alcohol. The first line of defense is a group of enzymes called aldehyde dehydrogenases or ALDHs, Patel explained. These break down the acetaldehyde into acetate, which cells can then use as a source of energy.
In the study, when mice lacking a critical ALDH enzyme were given alcohol, their DNA suffered four times as damage compared with mice with a properly functioning version of the enzyme.
Patel said cells also have a second line of defense in the form of a range of DNA repair systems which, most of the time, allow them to fix and reverse different types of DNA damage.
But in some instances and in some people - particularly people from South East Asia - the repair systems fail to work, meaning their cells are unable to repair effectively.
“It’s important to remember that alcohol clearance and DNA repair systems are not perfect, and alcohol can still cause cancer in different ways - even in people whose defense mechanisms are intact,” Patel said.
Reporting by Kate Kelland Editing by Jeremy Gaunt
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Special Report: Is America the sick man of the globe?
Nick Carey
SAGINAW, Michigan (Reuters) - Not long ago, if you wanted steak for lunch at the Texan Restaurant, less than two minutes drive from the Nexteer Automotive assembly plant, you had to be in the door by 11 o’clock in the morning. If you arrived any later, you joined a long line with other laggards and waited for a table to open up.
Auto parts manufacturing plant Nexteer Automotive, formerly the steering unit of General Motors, is seen in the Buena Vista township of Saginaw, Michigan November 18, 2010. REUTERS/Rebecca Cook
With noon fast approaching on a recent day, however, only a handful of customers sat in one of the restaurant’s two sections and the other was closed.
Asked how the decline in the U.S. auto industry has affected the local economy, Tammy Maynard, a waitress here since 1988, waved a hand around at the empty tables and said: “You’re looking at it, sugar.”
Regulars and retirees keep the restaurant in business, while workers at the nearby auto supplier plant buy steak at the beginning of the month when they get paid — if they come at all — and then dine on specials over the next four weeks.
“I just keep praying every day that we’ve hit the bottom and that things are going to get better,” Maynard said, “because it doesn’t seem like it could get any worse.”
The U.S. government may have bailed out General Motors, the country’s largest automaker, but it hasn’t begun to tackle the broader problems that led to the city’s implosion. Doing so, experts say, would require the kind of political will that has not been in great evidence in the country recently.
To the few remaining auto workers left in a city half the size it was in 1960, the America they knew growing up is long gone and things can only get worse.
“We have made concession after concession on wages and benefits and there is no end in sight,” said Dean Parm, a worker and union committeeman at Nexteer Automotive, whose hourly wages have been cut to around $17 an hour from $28. “It feels like we’re dinosaurs. And we’re on the verge of extinction.”
This is the point of the story where many Americans typically glaze over because they see Michigan as a long-standing financial basket case of a state thanks to the shrinking U.S. auto industry. But the problem is that the broad decline of the manufacturing sector that has been underway in this country for decades now may threaten not just the long-term health of the economy but also the living standards of all but the wealthiest Americans.
“The whole country is now seeing the story that Michigan has been living with for a long time,” said Diane Swonk, chief economist at Mesirow Financial. “We have kicked the can so far down the road that now all we have is a cliff to fall off.”
“The recession merely revealed a reality that has been with us for a long time. We faced a growing gap in education and skills that we tried to fill with debt and credit, which gave us the illusion of growth.”
After World War Two, unskilled blue-collar jobs in manufacturing — typified and in many ways defined by the auto sector — became America’s easy path to the middle class. As U.S. manufacturing declined, starting in the 1980s Congress and successive administrations focused instead on the financial sector and relied on debt — its own and that of the U.S. consumer — to foster economic growth.
At the same time, U.S. companies faced a growing competitive challenge, largely from Asia — both in terms of manufacturing prowess and lower wages and legacy costs — that hastened the nation’s exodus from the sector.
That in turn created lop-sided trade imbalances, with the U.S. invariably in the red. The U.S. trade deficit with China, for instance — a nation that tightly controls its imports — hit a record of $268 billion in 2008 and could reach $270 billion this year.
At the other end of the spectrum, deregulation and a laissez-faire attitude toward financial institutions culminated in the housing “boom” that former Ohio Attorney General Richard Cordray (who failed to win reelection in November) has aptly described as a “Roman orgy” of debt.
The subsequent downturn, the deepest and longest since the 1930s, merely exposed the extent of the hollowing out of America’s manufacturing sector. By one estimate, since 2003 up to 20,000 manufacturing plants have shut down. The trend is leaving the country with a legion of unskilled workers stuck on long-term unemployment benefits.
“Over the past 20 years we have simply borrowed more money in order to prosper,” said Bill Gross, co-chief investment officer of the world’s biggest bond fund manager PIMCO. “We forgot that the more stable and safe way to go is to make things.”
“Now we’re paying the price.”
TURNING A BIG SHIP
America now faces “structural” unemployment. Which means unless the world’s largest economy changes in a fundamental way, millions of unskilled workers will remain jobless and economic growth will be sluggish, at best
“The financial sector and America’s wealthiest classes can help grow the economy, but not enough to bring down unemployment,” said Harm Bandholz, chief U.S. economist at UniCredit Research in New York.
None of this means a death spiral is inevitable. A growing number of economists and investors like PIMCO’s Gross say a fix exists: a comprehensive overhaul of America’s education system and retraining programs for the unskilled.
Some point to the example of how Germany’s manufacturing has rebounded a decade after the country was derided as the “sick man of Europe,” though they add the German experience shows reform is a long, hard road.
America is now the “sick man of the globe,” says John Silvia, chief economist at Wells Fargo. “The good news is the illness is not terminal.”
But fixing America’s education system for jobs of the future plus retraining unskilled workers would require bipartisan consensus, a long-term commitment by America’s political class and funding to make it happen. In today’s bitterly divided Washington, that is a tough sell.
In the recent midterm elections Democrats were pummeled less than two years after President Barack Obama’s triumphal arrival in Washington and American voters remain in a volatile mood. Steven Schier, a politics professor at Carleton College in Minnesota, said unless the job mess is repaired more wild swings lie ahead.
“It’s entirely possible we’re going to see voters flip the switch every two years until both Republicans and Democrats get the message,” he said.
Besides ensuring national paralysis, such swings would be bad for investors and financial markets, which abhor political risk. Peter Schiff of Euro Pacific Capital, who predicted the housing-fueled crash (and made an unsuccessful bid for the U.S. Senate this year), is among the skeptics who fear that Washington isn’t owning up to the problem.
Schiff said he favors ending long-term unemployment benefits because he says they prevent Americans from taking low-paid jobs. “Nobody wants to tell the truth and say that lower paying jobs are here to stay,” he said. “One way or another, America is going to be poorer. Basically, we’re doomed.”
“WE BUILT THE MIDDLE CLASS”
Olen Ham lived through the rise of organized labor alongside American manufacturing and has witnessed its painful decline. Born in rural Arkansas in 1917, his family moved to Michigan, where the auto industry beckoned.
“They were hiring every hick and hillbilly they could find, so off we went,” said Ham, now 93 and living at his daughter’s house in Grand Blanc, Michigan.
In 1914 Ford Motor Co founder Henry Ford had instituted a daily wage of $5 for workers — more than doubling their wages — to reduce turnover and enable workers to afford the cars they made.
In his 1922 book “My Life and Work” Ford, who was staunchly anti-union, dismissed the notion this was an act of charity. “We wanted to pay these wages so that the business would be on a lasting foundation,” he wrote. “A low wage business is always insecure.”
In 1936 Ham found work at a General Motors plant in Flint straight out of high school, where he started out “pushing a broom” in the foundry at 52 cents an hour. “It was hotter than Hades with no ventilation,” Ham said. “You had to use the bathroom quick because if you were away from your spot too long you’d be fired.”
Paid holidays, pensions, healthcare and other benefits were nonexistent. Amid the Great Depression’s high unemployment and declining standards of living, the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 made it easier for private sector unions to exist.
Founded in 1935, the United Auto Workers union targeted GM first, arguing that if the biggest automaker had to accept a union, the others would follow suit.
In December 1936 the “sitdown” strike began in two plants in Flint then spread to others. The strike got its name because workers occupying the plants sat on seats destined for the cars they made. Ham is one of the last surviving “sitdowners.”
Events took a violent turn when the police attempted to storm one plant with tear gas and guns. Eventually Michigan Governor Frank Murphy called in the National Guard to keep the peace. He ordered GM and the UAW to negotiate and the strike ended in February 1937, resulting in the union’s first, one-page contract with GM.
Within weeks, Olen Ham’s hourly wage doubled to $1.04. “The other automakers were forced to follow suit on pay and benefits, as was the rest of the manufacturing sector,” he said. “We built the middle class in this country.”
Ham retired more than 30 years ago and in his lifetime has owned more than 25 GM cars (the latest is a 2008 Chevy HHR). He looks hurt when asked if he ever bought a used car, responding “I only buy new cars.”
He owns an RV, which he still drives, and he and one of his sons (who retired from Boeing) bought a small airplane between them. Like millions of other Americans, Ham made it into the middle class with a high school education and few skills.
DECLINE AND FREEFALL
Manufacturing as a percentage of U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) peaked in 1953 at 28.3 percent. By 2009 it was 11 percent. Employment in manufacturing continued a roller coaster ride for a couple more decades, peaking in 1979 at just over 14.5 million workers. But by 1979 the oil shocks began to threaten the middle-class status of manufacturing workers.
The 1970s stand as a “bookend to the New Deal era: that which was built in the thirties and forties — politically, economically and culturally — was beginning to crumble,” writes Jefferson Cowie in his book “Stayin’ Alive: The 1970s and the Last Days of the Working Class.”
From the 1980s onward, manufacturing jobs and the sector’s contribution to U.S. GDP declined, a process accelerated by productivity enhancements and increasing competition from lower-cost markets. Now there are just over 8 million manufacturing workers in a population of 300 million.
“The post-World War Two paradigm that allowed unskilled workers to go straight from high school into the middle class died in the 1980s,” Mesirow’s Swonk said.
Instead of seeking a solution to the sector’s woes America’s political class sought a different way out, she added. “We decided as a nation to issue debt and focus on the financial sector to counter what was becoming a major structural issue in the 1980s,” Swonk said.
That decision would have far-reaching implications for the structure of the U.S. economy.
While manufacturing’s contribution to U.S. GDP had declined since 1953, the financial sector’s steadily increased. The two sectors crossed paths but once — in 1986 during President Ronald Reagan’s second term in office — with finance on its way up and American manufacturing on history’s down escalator.
“This mess has been a long, long time coming,” PIMCO’s Bill Gross said. “We should have been getting people out of the unemployment line, re-educating and retraining them for the future. We failed to do that.”
WHILE CONSUMERS FIDDLED
The consequences of what happened when, as Swonk says, credit in America went “from being a privilege to a right” are well documented.
Thanks to low interest rates and the spurious promise that property prices could only go up, U.S. consumers in the first decade of the 21st century bought into the property market hook, line and sinker in order to profit and afford a better lifestyle.
They also drew down home equity in order to fund that lifestyle, spending money they did not have.
This is a phenomenon John Hoffecker of restructuring advisory firm AlixPartners LP refers to as “pulling forward” purchases. In just one example, Hoffecker said his firm estimated that U.S. consumers pulled forward 17 million car purchases from 2001 to 2007.
Based on average vehicle transaction prices over the past year provided by automotive information web site Edmunds.com, that gives a ballpark figure of around half a trillion dollars ($504 billion).
When the real estate boom began to show signs of unraveling in 2006, lenders used ever more exotic products to get people into homes they could not afford, such as stated-income or “liar” loans where the borrower merely stated how much they earned without verification.
It is interesting to note that on the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission’s web site the definition of a Ponzi scheme (a type of fraud also known as a pyramid scheme) includes the following line: “Ponzi scheme organizers often solicit new investors by promising to invest funds in opportunities claimed to generate high returns with little or no risk.”
“With little or no legitimate earnings, the schemes require a consistent flow of money from new investors to continue,” the web site says. “Ponzi schemes tend to collapse when it becomes difficult to recruit new investors or when a large number of investors ask to cash out.”
The crumbling housing market brought the U.S. financial system to the brink of collapse in 2008, requiring an unpopular bailout by the government and emergency action by the U.S. Federal Reserve to prop it up.
“Obviously the last two years have made it clear that finance has its limits,” PIMCO’s Gross said. “We have seen the end of the magic era of finance as opposed to making things.”
ROME WAS BURNING
For more than two decades, Jon Clark has been buying and selling machinery, primarily generators, from defunct American manufacturing plants.
When a manufacturing plant dies, for a while it becomes a hive of activity as a “multibillion dollar industry” strips it of equipment to be “rebuilt, recycle and reused elsewhere.”
Based in Texas, the 63-year-old originally hails from Liberal, Kansas (“I’m the most conservative thing ever to come out of Liberal”) and says after years of seeing a consistent number of plants shutting down, he was urged in 2003 to open a bimonthly publication that would document those closures in the United States and Canada.
“We figured we could have maybe anywhere up to 25 plant closings around the country per issue,” Clark said. “It turns out we grossly underestimated the scale of the closures.”
Since then Plant Closing News (PCN), as the publication was named, has regularly featured 75 or more plant closings per issue, or 150 per month. Clark said PCN has seen around 10,000 plant closings since 2003, which is “probably not even half the real total.”
The machinery that comes out of those plants often ends up being shipped to developing countries, representing a gradual hollowing out of America’s manufacturing capacity.
“The only thing that doesn’t get recycled or reused is the people,” Clark said. “What do you do with someone who is 50 years old who has been doing the same thing for 30 years? We treat people now like disposable resources and just like that we throw them away.”
“All of a sudden we decided that it was more economically viable to shut all these plants down,” he added. “I’m sorry, but I think we’ve taken this too far.”
“The golden rule used to be do unto others as you would have them do unto you,” said the born-again Christian. “Now the rule is he who has the gold, makes the rules.”
In downtown Saginaw, a few miles from the fading sign in the Texan Restaurant’s parking lot there is a handful of architecturally impressive but mostly dead high-rise buildings, a reminder of the high tide of manufacturing-based prosperity that crested here in the 1960s and has receded ever since.
Spray-painted on one building are the words “All gone to look for America,” a riff on Paul Simon’s song “America”: “Michigan seems like a dream to me now, it took me four days to hitchhike from Saginaw, I’ve gone to look for America.”
The Great Recession took a chunk out of America that is unlikely to come back.
Manufacturing generates just over a tenth of America’s economic output and employs less than 9 percent of the workforce. Yet it accounted for more than 26 percent of the 8.4 million layoffs in the downturn, according to the U.S. Department of Labor.
There are pockets of strength in the sector, including construction and mining equipment makers like Caterpillar Inc or the world’s largest farm equipment maker Deere & Co.
But executives in those areas have been candid about the fact that fresh improvements in productivity during the downturn mean many of the 2.2 million manufacturing workers who lost their jobs will not be rehired. And much of the hiring they plan to do will be overseas to serve developing markets.
For instance, construction, quarrying and shipping machinery maker Terex Corp laid off 35 percent of its global workforce during the recession. Back in May Terex CEO Ron DeFeo said frankly, “we’re trying not to hire anyone back.”
During the real estate bonanza of the past decade construction, primarily residential, provided a temporary safe haven for unskilled workers as homebuilders fell over themselves to meet the demand for new housing stock.
The foreclosure mess brought most residential construction to a halt. Employment in the sector has fallen to 5.6 million from a high of 7.7 million in 2006.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, there are 6.3 million vacant homes on the market for sale or rent. David Crowe, chief economist at the National Association of Home Builders, said that the “more normal” level should be around 4 million.
Ken Simonson, chief economist at the Associated General Contractors of America, says apart from a few potential bright spots such as North Dakota and the Appalachians where natural resource stories may fuel residential housing projects, the housing glut means little job creation can be expected.
“It does seem like we have enough housing stock to last us quite a while,” he said.
Incidentally, the housing mess also hurt labor mobility. According to real estate website Zillow.com, in the third quarter nearly 1 in 4 single-family homes in America had negative equity, with the home worth less than the mortgage.
“Labor mobility has always been a difference between America and Europe, and has worked in America’s favor,” said David Rosenberg, chief economist at Gluskin Sheff & Associates. “The housing market has now become a constraint on the labor market.”
Despite government stimulus, the U.S. unemployment rate has not been below 9 percent since April 2009 and now stands at 9.8 percent. A review of U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics conducted for Reuters by the Center for Labor Market Studies at Northeastern University found the rate of blue-collar workers who are unemployed or underemployed hit 19.5 percent in the third quarter (compared with 15.1 percent for all occupations), up from 7.2 percent in the same period in the year 2000.
“For blue collar workers it is a depression,” said Andrew Sum, the center’s director. “Why are people having such a hard time? The answer is their jobs don’t exist any more, they have nowhere to go.”
Though Wall Street has posted hefty profits this year and the economy officially grew at 2.5 percent in the third quarter, that has not created many jobs.
“We’re not very far from the level where the economy is not self-sustaining,” Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke said in a rare television interview on CBS’s “60 Minutes” on Dec 5. “It’s very close to the border. It takes about 2.5 percent growth just to keep unemployment stable and that’s about what we’re getting.”
In November the long-term unemployed (jobless for 27 weeks or more) hit 6.3 million, or 41.9 percent of the total of 15.1 million. As part of a deal to extend tax cuts implemented by President George W. Bush, President Obama and the resurgent Republican Party agreed on a 13-month extension of unemployment benefits. According to the U.S. Department of Labor, without that extension more than 6 million people would have lost their benefits by the end of 2011.
Gluskin Sheff’s Rosenberg says the problem is extending unemployment benefits alone means in 13 months those same workers will merely need them extended again.
“The last thing America needs is a class of permanently unemployed people,” he said. “They will lose their drive and lose their ability to gain and maintain future employment.”
“THEY’VE TAKEN US BACK 30 YEARS”
Brian Bovee used to make $28 an hour back when auto steering supplier Nexteer Automotive was part of GM — before it was spun off to Delphi Corp in 1999.
Bovee, 42, saw his wage cut to $17.55 well before the company was returned to GM’s ownership in 2009 as part of Delphi’s restructuring. “I’ve looked back through old UAW contracts and I’m now making what I would have made in the 1980s,” he said. “Once you give up pay or benefits, they never come back. They’ve sent us back 30 years.”
Bovee is at Dean Parm’s house in Saginaw along with co-workers Steven Deets and Jeannie Castell. They have agreed to talk despite expressing concerns about retribution by the UAW or Nexteer, which was recently sold to a Chinese investment group backed by Beijing’s municipal government.
Prior to the sale, workers at the plant rejected a new contract that would have new workers starting at $12 an hour, then approved it 10 days later under what workers describe as scare tactics by the UAW (a shareholder in GM since its bankruptcy) and Nexteer.
Deets makes $16.28 an hour working by the plant’s furnace which reaches temperatures of 1,600 degree Fahrenheit (870 degrees Celsius) and he takes as much overtime as he can.
“Overtime is the only way to get by,” he said, with barely contained frustration. “But it gets very tiring very quickly.”
A widely accepted definition holds that wages of about $20 an hour — $41,600 a year — is the minimum needed for a family of four to obtain middle-class rank in America.
UAW members have traditionally bought the cars they made thanks to their middle-class wages. Now there are many small, used Asian brand cars in the parking lot at Nexteer because they are more fuel efficient and low-paid workers can afford them.
Unlike during the Great Depression, the latest downturn has weakened America’s manufacturing sector unions. A sign of that weakness has been the growth of the two-tier wage system, whereby newer workers make far less than their more senior co-workers.
That two-tier system is already firmly entrenched at manufacturers like Caterpillar and has recently been adopted at others such as Harley Davidson. It has also become part of the landscape at the Big Three automakers. The number of lower-wage workers has grown in the wake of the government-led bankruptcy and restructuring of GM and Chrysler during the downturn.
The UAW is down to about 400,000 members from its glory days of nearly 1.5 million workers in 1979. Despite the decline, union president Bob King insists the two-tier system had been necessary to help U.S. automakers survive and he was bullish ahead of contract talks with the automakers in 2011.
“We are obviously in a really positive environment,” he said. “There is a lot more stability in the industry and... the relationships — the UAW and the employers — I think is excellent.”
It is difficult to find rank-and-file UAW members who share King’s enthusiasm.
Janet Townsend has worked at GM for 34 years and has been through 21 plant closings. Employees at the plant where she works in Indianapolis recently rejected a contract that they say the UAW negotiated without their consent which would have halved their wages to $14 an hour as part of a deal to sell the facility to an investor. The plant will close in 2012.
“I am beginning to think I don’t need a union,” Townsend said. “Why do I need a union to get me a job paying $14 an hour? I can find a job like that myself.”
Her colleague Rondo Jabbar described the attempted deal as class warfare. “All I have left is my pay and my benefits,” he said. “I’m the one who’s worried about gas at $3. Not the rich executives at GM.”
Up in Grand Rapids, Michigan, Marc Amante, 61, is just holding on for retirement. As a journeyman and machine repairman at GM Component Holdings LLC (like Nexteer, formerly part of Delphi), he is a skilled tradesman and still commands a wage of $34 an hour.
He owns nine cars, has paid for his two children’s university education and bought his daughter a house. But he says those days are over and he is glad he will retire before skilled trades workers have their wages slashed.
“I’m really happy I’ve made it to the end of my career and I feel really sorry for those behind me,” he said. “Because I don’t see any way for them to make it into the middle class.” Even more, he laments the fact that GM has apparently abandoned the old practice of attaching apprentices to old hands like him.
“They have never taken my skillset and transferred my 40 years of experience to the next generation,” he said. “When I walk out the door all that experience goes with me.”
Although Bob King says he hopes the UAW can address the two-tier wage system at contract talks in 2015, retired activist Gregg Shotwell describes it as a “prepaid funeral arrangement” for the union because it has pitted workers against each other.
“To have solidarity and a functioning union everyone has to be in the same boat,” he said. “But if one group has first-class tickets and the other is sitting in steerage, you’re doomed.”
Thomas Stallkamp, an industrial partner at private equity firm Ripplewood Holdings, says the two-tier system has enabled U.S. automakers to become globally competitive and is here to stay. But he frets about the long-term implications.
“If it benefits employment and manufacturing comes back, it’s a very positive benefit,” he said. “If it doesn’t result in a resurgence in U.S. manufacturing that will be very bad because all we will have done is lowered the standard of living for lots of people.”
“I don’t see any other answer than wage reduction because we’re in a global market,” he added. “But I also feel very strongly that we need to make things in this country.”
“We can’t all flip hamburgers at McDonald’s.”
According to the Census Bureau, income inequality has reached the highest level since it began tracking household income in 1967.
“The aggregate (GDP) numbers are biased by a relatively small number of immensely wealthy people making unbelievable amounts of money,” UniCredit’s Bandholz said. “When you build a house if you don’t place enough emphasis on solid foundations, the result is a structure that is unstable.”
“Unless this structural problem is fixed we will continue to see sluggish economic growth of around 2 to 2.5 percent,” he added.
(For a special report on income inequality see: link.reuters.com/qen69p )
GERMAN LESSONS
Economists like Bandholz say America could learn from the experience of Germany over the past decade.
By the time Germany passed its Agenda 2010 reform package in 2003, the country had been suffering from double-digit unemployment and mostly anemic growth for a decade. The reforms included draconian cuts in pensions and unemployment benefits, increased labor flexibility and wage cuts.
Harm Bandholz’s Munich-based colleague Andreas Rees is UniCredit’s chief German economist and says that the country’s road to recovery from being the “sick man of Europe” has been anything but easy.
“The road to higher GDP growth was long and hard,” he said. “It involved cutting wage costs for about 10 years and consumer expenditures have simply been a disaster.”
“We’ve been through massive uncertainty and for many Germans it was a really painful period.”
The reforms also resulted in the formation of the new Left socialist party, altering Germany’s political landscape.
But thanks to the country’s more flexible work force and “also partly good luck” in the form of demand from China for quality manufactured products, Rees said the “reforms have clearly paid off.”
Driven by its manufacturing sector, the German economy is expected to grow by anywhere up to 3.7 percent in 2010, while unemployment fell to an 18-year low of 7.5 percent in October. Rees said he is upbeat about future consumer spending. But even seven years after reforms began, Rees said they are not over.
“The next step that the government was supposed to take was to improve the qualifications of the work force,” he said. “We have a serious lack of skilled workers, but now that things are looking alright German politicians do not appear to be in a hurry to follow through on this.”
“This is not a positive development. But we have come a long way.”
“HEARTACHE AND HUNGER LIE AHEAD”
America is now seen at a similar crossroads to Germany a decade ago.
Wells Fargo’s Silvia said the first thing the country needs is an “honest conversation” about the fact that unskilled manufacturing work will be done wherever labor is cheapest.
“America cannot compete when it comes to low-skilled, low-cost labor,” he said. “Those jobs are few and far between and the idea that we can bring back those American jobs that have gone is not realistic.”
Silvia argues America needs to retrain and retool its unskilled, unemployed workers for jobs of the future.
“The type of workers that are needed in manufacturing has changed dramatically, where workers frequently operate laptops,” he said. “The people who run American companies are smart. If we provide workers with skills, the jobs will come.”
Gluskin Sheff’s Rosenberg says that if he were in charge “I’d have a shovel in the hands of the long-term unemployed from 8am to noon and from 1pm to 5pm I’d have them studying algebra, physics and geometry.”
In the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’s latest Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) survey released Dec 7, American 15-year-olds performed below the OECD average in mathematics (Chinese students in Shanghai topped the rankings) and just average in science and reading.
One third of American college students require remedial mathematics classes because they have not taken those classes at the high school level. A sound knowledge of mathematics is apparently exactly what America’s children need.
Achieve, a Washington-based bipartisan education reform organization, says math-intensive science and engineering jobs are growing three times faster than overall job growth. Through 2016, professional occupations will add more new jobs — at least five million — than any other sector, and within that category, computer and mathematical occupations will grow the fastest.
But education reform and retraining jobless workers for skilled jobs of the future will be painful, last many years and require long-term thinking that PIMCO’s Bill Gross says is lacking thanks to America’s unending election cycle.
“The problem we have is that our politicians are focused only on the next 12 to 24 months.”
Another factor that does not favor reform is that it would cost money. Christopher Koch, state superintendent of Education at the Illinois Board of Education, says school districts are not keen on having the federal government leading the charge on education reform. But the government could play a supporting role by providing research into best practices and funding to help cash-strapped states overhaul their school districts systems.
“I confess I am not optimistic that funding will be forthcoming from Washington given the current political environment,” he said.
America’s fiscal mess was a major focus of conservatives during the midterm elections. Cutting the size of the government, reducing spending and lower taxes were rallying cries of the Tea Party movement, which helped Republicans win the House of Representatives.
The new conservative members of Congress rail against increases in spending of any variety and some even advocate defunding the Department of Education.
Mesirow’s Swonk says rather than acknowledge the depths of the country’s problems or the cost of fixing them, Democrats and Republicans have retreated into “faith-based ideological views of economics that do not reflect reality.”
“We’re still a nation in denial,” she said. “If we had a 10-year deficit reduction plan we could include spending on necessary reforms. But America’s political class is not willing to do that because the incoming Congress has decided gridlock is good and our politicians keep lying to us by telling us we can get out of this without pain.”
“So we’re going to get a double whammy of adding insult to injury by not focusing on a pro-growth fiscal policy and creating a very wealthy class of people,” she added.
“What we’ve chosen as a country is the hard way, which means more heartache and hunger lie ahead.”
“I’LL BE STUCK MAKING $14 AN HOUR FOREVER”
After serving a tour in Iraq from 2004 to 2005, Nick Waun struggled to find work back home in Michigan, in part because he said many private firms are reluctant to hire Reservists who can be called up for duty.
But then an aunt who worked at the GM plant in Lake Orion managed to get him a job in the body shop there.
“I was extremely, ex-treme-ly lucky,” he said, with heavy emphasis on every syllable, “to get hired at the plant.”
Waun’s luck continued when he was bumped up from a second-tier wage to $28 an hour, enabling him to pay for part-time college tuition in combination with GI Bill funding (he is studying economics and pre-law).
His luck ran out when the plant closed down in 2009 during the recession. He managed to hold onto his small car, but “lost about everything else from a year of being unemployed” and had to move in with his father in Lapeer, Michigan, when he lost his apartment.
In October the UAW and GM negotiated a deal whereby the automaker would make a small car, the Chevrolet Aveo, at the plant. But 40 percent of the workers would have to work for $14 an hour, including Waun because he has no seniority, a plan that angered many workers because they did not get to vote on the new contract.
The only option for Waun to keep making $28 an hour was to take a job at a GM plant in Lordstown, Ohio, a four-and-a-half hour drive away from home. At first he slept in his car there until he could get an apartment.
Speaking during a visit home to Lapeer, he said he hopes to study law and get out of the auto industry because he has no doubt the second-tier wage will continue to spread and will catch up with him eventually if he does not.
“I’m just trying to stay one step ahead of the decline,” he said. “I’ll keep moving if it means I can hang onto a job paying $28 an hour. It’s the only way I’ll be able to pay for a law degree and get out.”
“If I end up being shoved down to a $14 an hour job, I’ll be stuck there for the rest of my life,” he added. (Additional reporting by David Bailey, James Kelleher, Ed Stoddard, Emily Kaiser and Rebecca Cook; Editing by Jim Impoco and Claudia Parsons)
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Where am I? > Home > Overview of the Work
A Brief Overview of the Work
Mr. Sennett’s work belongs to “cultural studies” – but not quite in the usual sense of that phrase. Rather than focus on popular culture, he has explored how individuals and groups make sense of material facts about where they live and the work they do. He focuses on how people can become competent interpreters of their own experience, despite the obstacles society may put in their way. His research thus involves interviewing and ethnography; he also draws on the historical record to set these first-person accounts in context. As a social analyst, Mr. Sennett stands at the end of a long line of pragmatist thought, stretching from Richard Rorty back to William James. As a writer, Mr. Sennett has sought to reach a general, intelligent audience.
His first book, The Uses of Disorder, [1970] looked at how personal identity takes form in the modern city. He then studied how working-class identities are shaped in modern society, in The Hidden Injuries of Class, written with Jonathan Cobb. [1972] A study of the public realm of cities, The Fall of Public Man, appeared in 1977; at the end of this decade of writing, Mr. Sennett tried to take account of its philosophic implication in Authority [1980].
At this point the writer needed a break from sociology, a refuge he found in composing three novels: The Frog who Dared to Croak [1982], An Evening of Brahms [1984] and Palais Royal [1987]. He returned to urban studies with two books, The Conscience of the Eye, [1990], a work focusing on urban design, and Flesh and Stone [1992], a general historical study of how bodily experience has been shaped by the evolution of cities.
In the mid 1990s, as the work world of modern capitalism began to alter quickly and radically, Mr. Sennett began a project charting its personal consequences for workers, a project which has carried him up to the present day. The first of these studies, The Corrosion of Character, [1998] is an ethnographic account of how middle-level employees make sense of the “new economy.” The second in the series, Respect in a World of Inequality, [2002} charts the effects of new ways of working on the welfare state; a third, The Culture of the New Capitalism, [2006] provides an over-view of change. Most recently, Mr. Sennett has explored more positive aspects of labor in The Craftsman [2008], and in Together: The Rituals, Pleasures and Politics of Cooperation [2012]. The third volume in this trilogy, The Open City, will appear in 2016.
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Epic fail: French comic apologizes after mocking conspiracy theories
Published time: 10 Feb, 2016 15:44
© Kevin Razy © Facebook
French comedian Kevin Razy landed in hot water after he appeared in a government-sponsored video against conspiracy theories that have mushroomed on the web since the Paris attacks. Another video quickly resurfaced, showing Razy chatting with those who believed in an official cover-up.
In the Education Ministry’s campaign video, titled “You're being manipulated” and posted online on the French government website, Razy makes fun of a wide-eyed youngster, who is reading an article “explaining that the secret service organized the Paris attacks.” After it turns out that the article is published on a conspiracy website, Razy tells the teen: “You should always verify your sources.”
Number of Islamist radicals in France doubles in 2015 rising to over 8,000 – report
But it turns out Razy may have actually failed to properly verify his own sources just recently. A video emerged showing him at a dinner discussion last month with the Cercle des Volontaires, a website for anti-government conspiracy buffs. Among other guests present there was a YouTube vlogger known as Le Débrancheur who had once invited college students to ask questions to their teachers on the relationship between the rise of Hitler and the Rothschilds, according to Street Press.
Razy rushed to apologize. “I didn't know that this website was relaying conspiracy theories,” he wrote on Facebook. “I had previously seen one or two links from this site, and I thought it was a small independent media that featured investigative information. I should have checked better, that'll teach me.”
One in five French citizens believes in conspiracy theories, according to an Ipsos research company poll, conducted in 2014.
One conspiracy theory that emerged after the November 13, 2015 attacks accuses the French government of orchestrating the attacks that claimed 130 lives. The government allegedly wants to justify the declaration of the state of emergency and carry out a series of anti-Islamic measures. The second theory is based on the idea, as old as the hills, that the world is controlled by a group of elitist Jewish patricians, running the entire world. This mighty "Judeo-Masonic" group allegedly organized the Paris attacks.
Thousands march to protest state of emergency in France
The comedian, popular with young French people, added: "I'm not a conspirer, even less so racist or antisemitic... and I obviously condemn conspiracy, racism and antisemitism.”
Some of Razy's fans said they felt “disappointed,” however.
“I find it disappointing that you have lowered yourself to that point,” Jérémy Boulle wrote on Facebook. “I watched the famous discussion of the Cercle des Volontaires. I only saw guys talking quietly and reasonably, so I do not understand this obligation that you feel to denigrate the latter. We are in France, one is supposed to advocate dialogue among all... I could be wrong but I have an impression that you gave in a little to the pressure to deny your basic ideas. It would be a shame.”
“You condemn conspiracy?” another commenter, Thomas Grandremy, wrote. “In short you condemn people who are interested in non-official information. High class. You've done it, respect, I reckon you have a big future ahead on TV.”
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Hope Stalin doesn’t hear it! Last German emperor’s heirs demand Potsdam Conference palace for living
FILE PHOTO: (L-R) British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, American President Harry Truman, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin at the Potsdam Conference, in July 1945. © Global Look Press
In a bizarre property dispute, the heirs of the last German emperor are said to have claimed ownership over the palace where Stalin, Truman, and Churchill once decided the fate of the world back in 1945.
Georg Friedrich, the great-great grandson of the last German Kaiser, Wilhelm II, still carries the title of prince of the long-gone kingdom of Prussia, but what he lacks is a royal palace. So, according to the local media, he wants to get his hands on the Cecilienhof Palace – a UNESCO world heritage site and location of the 1945 Potsdam Conference, which largely defined the post-WWII world order. Two other villas at the Palace are also considered as an alternative.
The descendant of the emperor has a truly regal appetite as he has demanded no less than a “permanent free-of-charge residence” in the former royal palace and iconic landmark, which was recently renovated at the expense of German taxpayers. The claim, as Tagespiegel has learned, is part of a dispute between the Prussian royals and the German authorities over the property of their ancestors, which was nationalized when Germany moved from monarchy to republic after World War I.
FILE PHOTO: The Palace of Cecilienhof, Potsdam, Germany. © Global Look Press / Christoph Soeder
Besides the place, the Prince of Prussia wants other real estate objects and hundreds of paintings, sculptures, and other pieces of art, which are currently in the collections of several German museums.
Their claims, if met, would spell an end to at least two museums, which would be literally left with almost nothing to show, Spiegel reports. Apart from that, Georg Friedrich’s family also wants at least one of the buildings to serve as a “venue used to host private, public or social events,” as well as to have their say on how their ancestors are portrayed at the museums.
FILE PHOTO: Georg Friedrich, Prince of Prussia. © Global Look Press / Patrick van Katwijk
The imperial clan has been bargaining with the local authorities of Berlin, the German state of Brandenburg, as well as the Federal Culture Ministry since 2014 behind closed doors, but details of the litigation were leaked to German media only this week.
So far, the sides have stayed conspicuously mum on the matter, with Wilhelm II’s descendants being particularly tight-lipped as they refuse to comment on the issue even now, saying instead through their lawyer that “negotiations are ongoing.”
Berlin is apparently not ready to bow to their demands. In a letter sent to Georg Friedrich in mid-June, the Culture Ministry said the authorities “do not see a sufficient basis for promising negotiations.”
Also on rt.com Spain, struggling to rebury dictator Franco, hands ultimatum to his family
Earlier, the state reportedly offered the aristocratic house 10 paintings out of those they requested as a sign of compromise.However, the Hohenzollern dynasty seems to be unrelenting. They refused the compromise and issued new demands that involved claims for things ranging from the Prussian kings’ library to real estate objects, including Cecilienhof.
While stating their case, the family referred to a 1926 agreement between the former royal family and the then-German authorities that settled property matters at the time. The modern Hohenzollerns say the document contained “legal ambiguities” that leave the dispute open.
Also on rt.com Treasure unearthed: Items owned by disgraced Russian princeling found in Uzbekistan (PHOTOS)
Eventually, they even pulled out the trump card of modern Western politics and… blamed the Russians.They claimed that some provisions of the agreement “have changed as a result… of the actions of the Soviet occupying powers” and the government of East Germany.
Neither side seems ready to give up, and the dispute is bound to last for quite some time. It has reached such proportions that the Hohenzollerns terminated the leasing agreements with the public museums for those pieces of art they do legally own. Another round of negotiations is scheduled for July 24, according to Tagesspiegel.
The House of Hohenzollern might, however, want to think twice before raking up the past. If the German authorities find tangible proof of the family supporting the Nazi regime in any way, their claims are likely to be dismissed.
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Russia, India discuss ‘futuristic’ tech & space cooperation ahead of New Delhi’s lunar mission
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Thank you for your interest in the U.S. Senate Page Program. The Page Program exposes students to many interesting and challenging experiences. Living away from home and attending school with students from across the country allows Pages to experience a myriad of new ideas, perspectives, and issues. Pages meet some of the Nation's most prominent leaders and witness firsthand the political debates of the United States Senate, often referred to as the "greatest deliberative body in the world."
Page duties consist primarily of delivery of correspondence and legislative material within the Congressional Complex. Other duties include taking messages for Members, calling them to the phone, preparing the Chamber for Senate sessions, and carrying bills and amendments to the desk.
Pages are paid on the basis of an annual salary of $26,503.
There are four established page sessions. The academic year consists of two semesters which run from early September through mid-January and from mid-January through mid-June. The summer program consists of two sessions which are three or four weeks duration depending on the legislative calendar. Following classes at the Senate Page School, which extend until 9:45 a.m. or one hour prior to the commencement of the Senate, Pages report for duty to their respective cloakrooms and work until 4:00 p.m. or until the Senate adjourns for the day, whichever is later.
The Senate Page School
The Senate Page School is accredited by the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools. Due to the varying lengths of service that Pages may be appointed for, the Page School seeks to provide as smooth a transition as possible between Washington and the home school. In addition to providing the necessary requisites for a junior year course of study including mathematics, English, social studies, and science, the Page School offers a Washington Seminar Program to assure each pupil's participation and exposure to the unique educational and cultural opportunities which exist in the nation's Capital. Foreign language study may be accomplished with the assistance of the Page's home school. Tutors will be provided, but all work must be completed outside the scheduled school and work hours. Pages must submit a home school transcript and a certification of immunization to qualify for attendance at the school.
Daniel Webster Senate Page Residence
Pages are required to live in the Daniel Webster Senate Page Residence during the school year. The cost of living in the residence hall is $780 per month and includes breakfast and dinner each day. Payment is made through payroll deduction. An initial security deposit of $250 is required before checking in and is refundable when it has been determined that no damage has occurred to the residence.
Webster Hall is located on Capitol Hill. Staff includes the Page Program Director, Administrative Specialist and five proctors. Four proctors reside full-time in Webster Hall. The living quarters include two floors, one of which is designated for young women, the other for young men. Each floor has a community day room for social activity.
Pages must share rooms with each other. Each room is designed for four to six occupants and is furnished with twin size bunk or loft style beds, desks, chairs, and bureaus. Roommates share closet space, a bathroom, and a telephone. Laundry and kitchen facilities are located on the basement level of Webster Hall.
United States Capitol Police maintain a 24-hour security desk and a provision that requires all individuals to present identification and all visitors and guests to sign in. Capitol Police patrol the area by car and foot regularly throughout the day and night. Webster Hall is monitored by a security alarm system and all emergency and safety measures required by the District of Columbia for community life structures are present and enforced. Pages selected for the Summer Page Program may live with their parents or a relative in the area; alternate housing arrangements must be submitted in writing by a parent or legal guardian for approval by the Page Program Director.
Requirements for Selection
Senate Pages must be sponsored by a Senator. Pages must be citizens of the United States or subject to agreements of the Department of State, and must have a social security number. Page eligibility is limited to juniors in high school who will be 16 or 17 years old on or before the date of appointment. Summer Page eligibility is limited to students who have completed the sophomore year and have not begun the senior year of high school and who will be 16 or 17 years old on or before the date of appointment.
Pages must verify a minimum grade point average of 3.0 on a home school transcript and a certification of immunization to qualify for attendance at the school. A general health assessment completed by a licensed physician is required, in addition to certification of immunization. Pages play an important role in the day-to-day operation of the Senate. Their schedule can be long and tedious, and requires tremendous endurance; good health and stamina are requirements that cannot be waived. Pages are required to be covered by health insurance; if not covered, they will be required to enroll in the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program.
If you wish to apply for the Senate Page program through Senator Shelby’s office, you must be an Alabama resident, a high school junior, have a minimum 3.0 grade point average, and be 16 or 17 years of age. If you are not from Alabama, you may find your Senators' contact information by clicking here.
Alabama applicants will need to complete the online application below and submit the following to the address below: cover letter, resume, current academic transcript, PSAT or PLAN standardized test scores and 3 letters of recommendation.
Senate Page Coordinator
Office of Senator Richard Shelby
Fax: (202) 202-224-3416
U.S. Senate Page Application
Note: Fields marked with an * are required.
The US Senate Page Program requires that a Page be 16 or 17 years of age, either entering or leaving their junior year of high school, and must have a minimum of a 3.0 GPA. By submitting this application you certify that you meet these requirements.
Part I: Applicant Information
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Which session are you applying to? *
Part II: Parent/Guardian Information
Name of Parent or Guardian *
Address if different than above
Part III: Academic Institution Information
Name of Institution *
Expected Graduation *
GPA *
School/Community Activities or Honors
Part IV: References for Applicant
You will be expected to submit three letters of recommendation (not family members) who have knowledge of your academic & extracurricular accomplishments. Please List their names below:
Please write a brief paragraph about yourself, including the reasons why you would like to serve as a Senate Page for Senator Richard Shelby:
Part VI: On-line Application Submission
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Home / News / Middle East /
Egypt’s former president Morsi quietly buried in Cairo
Posted by Sameer Published: June 18, 2019, 8:49 pm IST
Courtesy "twitter/ajplus"
Cairo: Egypt’s first democratically elected president Mohamed Morsi was buried Tuesday, as the UN backed calls for an independent investigation into the causes of his death after he collapsed in a Cairo courtroom.
The Islamist leader, who was overthrown in 2013 after a year of divisive rule and later charged with espionage, was buried at a cemetery in eastern Cairo’s Medinat Nasr, one of his lawyers said.
Abdel Moneim Abdel Maksoud said family members had washed Morsi’s body and prayed the last rites early Tuesday morning at the Leeman Tora Hospital.
That lies near the prison where Egypt’s first civilian president, a prominent Muslim Brotherhood member, had been held for six years in solitary confinement and deteriorating health.
The prosecutor general’s office said the 67-year-old leader had collapsed and “died as he attended a hearing” Monday over alleged collaboration with foreign powers and militant groups.
Abdel Maksoud told AFP that only around 10 family members and close Morsi confidants were present at the funeral, including himself.
An AFP reporter saw a handful of mourners entering the cemetery complex, accompanied by police officers, but journalists were prevented from entering the site.
The graveyard is in the same suburb as the largest massacre in Egypt’s modern history, the August 2013 crackdown on Islamist sit-ins at two Cairo squares, weeks after Morsi’s ouster by the military.
Over 800 people were killed in a single day as security forces moved against protesters demanding Morsi’s reinstatement.
The attorney general’s office said Morsi, who appeared “animated”, had addressed the court Monday for five minutes before falling to the ground inside the defendants’ glass cage.
Another of Morsi’s lawyers, Osama El Helw, said other defendants had started banging on the glass, “screaming loudly that Morsi had died”.
The attorney general said Morsi had been “transported immediately to the hospital”, where medics pronounced him dead — a version of events backed up by a judicial source.
– ‘Killing him slowly’ –
Since Morsi’s overthrow on July 3, 2013, his former defence minister, now President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi, has waged an ongoing crackdown that has seen thousands of Muslim Brotherhood supporters jailed and hundreds facing death sentences.
The United Nations human rights office called Tuesday for an independent probe into Morsi’s death while in state custody.
“Any sudden death in custody must be followed by a prompt, impartial, thorough and transparent investigation carried out by an independent body to clarify the cause of death,” said Rupert Colville, spokesman for the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.
He said Morsi “also appears to have been held in prolonged solitary confinement”, and that the investigation must “encompass all aspects of the authorities’ treatment of Mr. Morsi to examine whether the conditions of his detention had an impact on his death”.
The Brotherhood’s political wing — the Freedom and Justice Party — accused Egyptian authorities of “deliberately killing him slowly” in solitary confinement.
“They withheld medication,” it said in a statement. “They did not grant him the most basic human rights.”
The Egyptian government has not officially commented on his death.
Morsi’s death was barely mentioned in local press, which referred to him by his full name but not his position as former president.
Morsi last saw his family in September 2018. A month later, one of his sons, Abdallah, was arrested.
Abdel Maksoud was the last member of his defence team to see him, in November 2017.
Rights group Amnesty International also urged Egyptian authorities to open “an impartial, thorough and transparent investigation” into his death, while Human Rights Watch said Morsi had suffered years of “insufficient access to medical care”.
– ‘Premature death’ –
A group of British parliamentarians in March 2018 warned that his detention conditions, particularly inadequate treatment for his diabetes and liver disease, could trigger his “premature death”.
“Sadly, we have been proved right,” said Crispin Blunt, the MP who chaired the committee, in a statement Tuesday.
Allies such as Qatar and Turkey, widely seen as backing the Muslim Brotherhood, paid tribute to Morsi, as well as the Syrian opposition which he supported against President Bashar al-Assad.
In Turkey, thousands joined in prayers for him in Istanbul’s Fatih mosque on Tuesday.
President Recep Tayyip Erdogan called Morsi a “martyr” and blamed Egypt’s “tyrants” for his death.
But in his homeland, Morsi has a chequered legacy.
He spent a turbulent year in office before being toppled by the military following millions-strong protests demanding his resignation.
He has been in prison since his ouster, facing trial on charges including spying for Iran, Qatar and militant groups such as Hamas.
Morsi was sentenced to death in May 2015 for his role in jailbreaks during the uprising four years earlier that ousted longtime president Hosni Mubarak. He appealed and was being retried.
His death comes days before Egypt hosts the Africa Cup of Nations football tournament, starting Friday.
An official from the Confederation of African Football said the security situation had not been affected by Morsi’s death, and that the tournament would go ahead as planned.
(Stay up to date on all the latest Middle East news with The Siasat Daily App. Download now for iOS & Android)
Related Topics: Cairo Egypt Erdogan Hosni Mubarak Morsi
Salah says Egypt must learn from Cup of Nations failure
Erdogan sacks Turkey central bank governor amid rate tensions
Erdogan says ‘out of question’ to support US Palestinian plan
Egypt’s former presidential candidate suffers heart attacks in prison, claims son
Siasat ki khabrein 30th June 2019
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New Visual Identity Introduced as Part of SFMOMA Transformation
New Logo Featured on Exterior of New SFMOMA, Opening May 14, 2016
Released: April 12, 2016 · Download (254 KB PDF)
Photo: © Henrik Kam, courtesy SFMOMA. Photo: courtesy SFMOMA
SAN FRANCISCO (April 5, 2016)—The San Francisco Museum of Modern Art (SFMOMA) has created a new visual identity as part of its preparations for opening of its new museum on May 14, 2016. Similar to its Snøhetta-designed expansion, the new visual identity is designed to be porous, open and welcoming, providing multiple points of access. Like the design of its expansion, the museum’s new visual identity was inspired by the surrounding hills and the water and fog of the San Francisco Bay.
The museum elected to have its own Design Studio, led by SFMOMA Design Director Jennifer Sonderby, create the new identity. “SFMOMA has a long history of excellence in design,” said Neal Benezra, Helen and Charles Schwab Director at SFMOMA. “We feel it is important for the museum to be an active participant in the community of creatives we collect and exhibit, so we handed the assignment to the designers who know us best. The results beautifully reflect a deep knowledge of our organization and its goals.”
SFMOMA’s former logo—developed in-house by Catherine Mills in 1995—was informed by the geometry and solidity of the Mario Botta–designed building. The transformed museum now anchors a vibrant cultural district in the heart of the city. SFMOMA felt it was the right time to redesign the logo to better reflect the expanded institution, its new brand, and its relationship to its surroundings.
“SFMOMA’s goal to offer more access to modern and contemporary art was a catalyst for change throughout the institution,” explains Sonderby. “This translated into a new visual identity that literally opens up just as our building now does to the city, welcoming visitors for a wide variety of experiences.”
Logo and Color Palette
The letters of the new logo contract and expand, and their positioning and versatility aims to reflect diverse perspectives on and within the institution. On a functional level, the new logo is more space-efficient, allowing greater scale and legibility on everything from small digital screens to large street pole banners to the exterior of the museum. Echoing the contrast between the Botta-designed brick and the cool white façade of the Snøhetta expansion, the primary color palette of the new visual identity includes warm red, white and black.
Two variations of typeface were custom designed to dialogue with the new logo: SFMOMA Display and SFMOMA Text. SFMOMA Display mimics the open shapes and curves of the letters within the new logo, distinguished by the splayed legs of its “M,” the lower counter of the “A,” a sleekly modern “Q” and the curvature of its capital “S.” SFMOMA Text elongates the letters, eliminating perfectly round circles to enhance readability, and provide the functional range necessary in order for the two typefaces to cover the wide range of needs of the institution.
To celebrate the architectural joining of the original building and the new expansion, SFMOMA created graphic patterns combining the horizontal stripes of the Botta building’s iconic oculus and marble floors with the rippling lines of the Snøhetta building’s façade.
“This ever-changing pattern has become a metaphor for the way we see SFMOMA’s new visual identity, and a reflection of the museum itself. It is contemporary yet evocative of the past, dynamic yet easily legible, familiar but also surprising,” said Sonderby. “And this is only the beginning; we look forward to experimenting with and evolving this new graphic language as the museum grows and changes over time.”
Learn more about SFMOMA’s new visual identity:
https://www.sfmoma.org/read/story-new-visual-identity/
https://www.sfmoma.org/read/expand-contract-design…
https://openspace.sfmoma.org/2015/10/design-of-the-new-open-space/
https://www.sfmoma.org/watch/sfmomas-new-visual-id…
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Tomoya Hara
The Melissa Morgan Quartet
Melissa Morgan (Vocalist) // Tomoya Hara (Guitar) // Mark Tourian (Bass) // Brian Floody (Drums)
Tomoya Hara was born in 1958 in Yokohama, Japan. Being inspired by Carlos Santana at age twelve he began to play guitar, learning to play rock as well as taking classical guitar lessons. Then he spent the most of his time listening to rock music like Jimi Hendrix,Cream, Led Zeppelin, Chicago,Mountain and so on. By high school his interests were shifting to blues and jazz. He started taking lessons with Ikuo Shiozaki, a reknowned jazz guitarist and educator and teacher of many successful jazz guitarists in Japan. Deciding to continue his studies abroad, he spent one semester at the Music Education Department of New York University, then transferred to Humber College in Toronto, Canada and received a degree in 1983.
Hara returned to Japan in 1984 and began his professional career by joining the most popular big band in Japan, the Sharps & Flats, led by his father Nobuo Hara. In the 9 years he was a member Tomoya was busy day and night giving concerts throughout Japan, recording, doing television and radio broadcasts, often performing alongside stars such as Nancy Wilson, Peggy Lee, Julie Andrews, Billy Eckstine, Benny Golson, Lee Konitz, Ron Carter, Art Blakey, and Elvin Jones.
In 1993 Hara left the big band to pursue his career as a a free-lance guitarist and leader of his own group. His performances continue to take him all over Japan as well as overseas, including frequent NHK broadcasts as a leader, the Hawaii Jazz Festival, and in the orchestras of many famous musicals such as Miss Saigon, Les Miserables, Sugar, Me and My Girl, and Lion King.
He has released three CDs as coleader, highlighting his talents as a composer and improviser: Intimations with saxman Bob Kenmotsu and percussionist Babatunde was released in 1999, and Window with bassist Mark Tourian was released in 2004, and also recorded for the sound track of Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater, 3.6 million worldwide sold video game for Play Station 2.
Hamon with Mark Tourian and drummer Brian Floody was released in 2007
Recorded with saxphonist Seiich Nakamura's new group, "Blue Sunglass" in 2007
Performed with trumpeter Tom Harrell in Tokyo, 2008
Japan Tour in Tohoku, Hokuriku, Kyushu, Tokyo with "Window Trio" featuring Melissa Morgan
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Girls rule - if they want to
December 14, 2003 — 11.00am
An email from a reader about a recent column was full of praise - of sorts. "This article is simply the best," he wrote. "Are you sure you're not a man? How can a woman have such clear and analytical perception?"
It wasn't intended as an insult, but the idea that women are automatically intellectually inferior to men is such an anachronism that it came as a shock to see it so guilelessly expressed.
But when it comes to playing up gender differences, women can be their own worst enemy.
Just observe the reaction last week to sensible comments by NSW Bar Association president Ian Harrison, SC.
In the current edition of the Bar News (www.nswbar.asn.au), he wrote: "Some proponents of the interests of women barristers enthusiastically promote the differences [between men and women] at the expense of what I consider to be the far more important similarities between all who are called.
"Advocacy is at its purest an intellectual exercise where hormones and chromosomes have no relevance. I continue to be troubled by the notion that the fight to equalise the opportunities for women at the Bar so often starts with the proposition that they are a separate group."
He also told The Sydney Morning Herald that some efforts of lobby groups on behalf of female lawyers had been "unfortunately counterproductive". Harrison was booed good-naturedly at a Christmas gathering of the Australian Women Lawyers on Thursday night and by Friday was refusing to be interviewed on the topic.
Still, he was brave to try to resist the growing push by feminist lawyers for affirmative action.
Gender "difference" is the justification and drives the fantasy that women have some unique virtue that will save the world, will succeed where men have made a mess. Marilyn Warren, the first woman Chief Justice of Victoria, mapped out the "difference" argument in a speech to women lawyers in May.
"Women bring a combination of typically feminine characteristics to the law: energy, patience, humour and insight. [They] identify an issue quickly, focus on it and persuade rather than dictate. [They] are goal-oriented . . . provide perspective . . . search out the resolutions . . . have finely honed organisational skills . . . are adaptive and flexible . . ." What about disorganised women with a tendency to dictate?
Deification of the girly swot seems more an argument for mediocrity and homogeneity than female empowerment.
Gender warriors always cite statistics as proof of discrimination by men: women comprise more than half the ranks of new solicitors but just 14 per cent of the NSW bar; women, in general, are paid just 84 per cent of male wages.
Anne Summers, in her new book The End Of Equality, bemoans the fact, "more Australian women work part-time than at any time in our past, and more than in any other country in the industrialised world". She is dismayed that: "The top ranks of the powerful public and commercial institutions of this country remain closed to all but a tiny fraction of women."
But maybe women, in general, earn less than men because they work part-time. And maybe women who work part-time do so because they want to. Maybe they don't define success as the pound-of-flesh partnership at the big law firm. Maybe they don't feel the need to "conquer the world". Maybe they don't feel bound by what Justice Warren calls "a duty to gender".
I would venture that if women continue to be under-represented at the top of the most powerful professions, it will be because they have more choices than men.
But gender warriors take no account of choice, being as paternalistic as the men they desire to replace.
For many women it's not a "glass ceiling" that stops their career ascent but what The New York Times Magazine this year called the "maternal wall".
The article, titled The Opt-Out Revolution, read: "Q: Why Don't More Women Get to the Top? A: They Choose Not To . . . It's not just that the workplace has failed women. It is also that women are rejecting the workplace."
The world needs people of boundless ambition willing to make enormous personal sacrifices for the sake of ego, money and power. But it's not every woman's choice. Nor is it every man's.
The real challenge for employers is to create rewarding and productive part-time careers for women as well as for the increasing numbers of men who want the same choices.
Equality for both sexes is when men who want to take paternity leave feel as comfortable with their choice as women.
devinemiranda@hotmail.com
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Organic and GM Agriculture: Can They Co-exist?
View Authors June 2014
The Implications of the Marsh v Baxter Decision on the uses of farming land and property rights
The Supreme Court’s decision in Marsh v Baxter [2014] WASC 187 on 28 May 2014 has revisited the issue of pure economic loss and the duty of care one neighbour owes to the other.
In 2010, Mr Baxter planted and harvested a new variety of genetically modified (GM) canola crops on his farm in Kojonup, Western Australia. His neighbour and close friend, Mr Marsh, brought an action against Mr Baxter, alleging that he had unreasonably failed to contain the GM crops, which contaminated Marsh’s adjoining organic farm. This contamination, it was alleged, caused it to lose organic certification from the National Association of Sustainable Agriculture (Australia) Ltd (NASAA).
70% of the Marsh farm was de-certified, meaning that the crops had to be sold at a lower mainstream price. Marsh sought compensatory damages of $85,000 and a permanent injunction against Baxter, to restrain him from planting and swathing GM canola in proximity to his land, claiming pure economic loss and private nuisance.
Interestingly, this case did not give rise to any physical damage to the people or animals on Marsh’s property or the property itself. There was no change to the physical nature or the quality of the crops Marsh produced, nor was there a change to the physical nature or quality of the neighbour’s produce. There was no evidence of any genetic transference risks posed by the GM canola swathes which blew onto Marsh’s property, and Marsh had never grown Canola in the particular paddocks in question. The damage was purely financial.
The claim was dismissed, and Marsh is considering an appeal.
What Was the Rationale?
The loss in this case was determined to have arisen when NASAA withdrew its certification of the crops, not when the crops infiltrated Marsh’s land. Marsh, the Court determined, exposed himself to “self-inflicted contractual vulnerability” and had failed to mitigate it at various staged. The decision by NASAA to de-certify the organic status was a decision made pursuant to a private contract, for which Baxter could not be held responsible.
Growing GM canola crops is a legitimate activity, and harvesting by swathing has agricultural justification. Neither method was novel, and the decision to swathe was considered informed. Further, Baxter had complied with all rules and regulations in relation to the planting and harvesting of GM crops. As a result, the planting and harvesting of GM crops was not considered unreasonable.
The Court was critical of the role and assessment method of NASAA in applying its organic standard. As noted above, this was what was considered to cause the damage and it will be interesting to see how the industry responds.
In the meantime, land owners must continue to take reasonable precautions to avoid interference to their neighbour’s quiet enjoyment of their land. The Court has maintained that it is physical damage to person, animal or land which will be considered unreasonable.
If a land owner is seeking economic benefit from a contract to receive any sort of accreditation according to a premium standard, it is that land owner’s responsibility to understand the nature of the standard and what must occur in order to achieve it.
In the alternative, landowners should put reasonable measures in place to ensure that activities undertaken on their land do not adversely affect their neighbours.
Margie M. Tannock Perth
Environmental, Safety & Health
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Songwriters Hall of Fame 50th Anniversary Celebrates the Best of Songwriting Legends
Inductees:
* Dallas Austin * Missy Elliott * Tom T. Hall * John Prine * Jack Tempchin * Yusuf / Cat Stevens
Special Awards Recipients:
* Carole Bayer Sager * Martin Bandier * Halsey * Justin Timberlake
Presenters/Performers:
* Jack Antonoff * Sara Bareilles * Benny Blanco * Peter Cook * Da Brat * Clive Davis * Jermaine Dupri * Jason Isbell * Patti Labelle * Queen Latifah * Lizzo * Dave Matthews * Lukas Nelson * Bonnie Raitt * Timbaland * Nile Rodgers
JUNE 14, 2019 – NEW YORK – The 2019 Songwriters Hall of Fame 50th Annual Induction and Awards Dinner was a sparkling success, as SHOF Chairman Nile Rodgers, President/CEO Linda Moran and co-chairs, Mike O’Neill and Paul Williams recognized and celebrated some of the best songwriting legends of our time. Last night, musical titans Dallas Austin, Missy Elliott, Tom T. Hall, John Prine, Jack Tempchin & Yusuf / Cat Stevens were inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. Honored with special awards were Carole Bayer Sager with the Johnny Mercer Award; Martin Bandier with the Visionary Leadership Award, multi-Platinum singer/songwriter Halsey with the Hal David Starlight Award, and Grammy Award-winning superstar Justin Timberlake with the Contemporary Icon Award.
The Songwriters Hall of Fame Induction and Awards Dinner, year after year, is a night full of unforgettable moments celebrating the art of songwriting. The evening kicked off with a DJ set by Jermaine Dupri who brought the crowd to their feet with hits including three TLC classics: “Creep,” “What About Your Friend” and “Ain’t 2 Proud 2 Beg,” as well as Blu Cantrell’s “Hit ‘Em Up Style (Oops!),” Monica’s “Like This And Like That,” Madonna’s “Secret,” and Boyz II Men’s “Motownphilly.” Dupri’s performance led to thunderous applause before he inducted Dallas Austin.
Lukas Nelson performed “Peaceful Easy Feeling” before inducting Jack Tempchin. Following Tempchin’s acceptance, he performed The Eagles’ “Already Gone.” Last year’s award recipient, Sara Bareilles performed her single “Brave,” alongside Jack Antonoff on guitar before honoring Martin Bandier with the Visionary Leadership Award.
Prior to inducting Yusuf Islam / Cat Stevens into the Songwriters Hall of Fame, Dave Matthews performed his own rendition of “Father and Son.” Dave Matthews praised Yusuf Islam / Cat Stevens by stating, “His music remains a testament to the growth and revolution he has committed to.” Yusuf / Cat Stevens was greeted with a standing ovation prior to performing this classic hit, “Roadsinger.”
Songwriter and producer, Benny Blanco took to the stage to honor close friend, singer/songwriter Halsey with the Hal David Starlight Award, which is presented to young songwriters who are making a significant impact in the music industry with their original songs. Benny Blanco stated, “[Halsey] is a superhuman in everything she does.” After receiving her award, Halsey beautifully performed an acoustic rendition of “Without Me” accompanied by guitarist Arianna Powell.
The evening continued as Bonnie Raitt took to the stage to induct John Prine. Following his induction, Bonnie joined him for a special performance of their song “Angel From Montgomery.” During Prine’s acceptance speech he stated, “There is no better feeling in the world than having a killer song in your pocket.” He later performed a solo acoustic version of “Hello In There.”
Queen Latifah had the honor of introducing inductee and longtime friend, Missy Elliott when the room was surprised with a video message from former First Lady Michelle Obama who stated, “Missy shows us that your voice is more than just the words you say, it’s about where they come from – it’s about owning your truth.” Following the video message, Lizzo performed an electrifying rendition of “Sock It To Me” with a surprise appearance by Da Brat.
Jason Isbell enchanted the audience with his solo acoustic performance of Tom T. Hall’s “Mama Bake A Pie (Daddy Kill A Chicken).” Peter Cooper inducted Tom T. Hall who accepted the award via video message where he read a self-written poem entitled “Inanimate Love.”
Shortly thereafter, President and CEO of Songwriters Hall of Fame, Linda Moran was surprised with the first-ever Songwriters Hall of Fame Champion Award in honor of the 50th anniversary. Evan Lamberg SHOF board member and show co-chair presented the award.
Clive Davis awarded Carol Bayer Sager with the highest honor bestowed by Songwriters Hall Of Fame, the Johnny Mercer Award. Carol Bayer Sager went on to perform a stunning rendition of the iconic hit “That’s What Friends Are For,” with guest appearances by Patti LaBelle, Jonas Myrin, Desmond Child and Jordan Smith.
The celebratory evening concluded when renowned producer Timbaland presented Justin Timberlake with the Contemporary Icon Award. During his acceptance, Justin stated, “There is no feeling like finishing a song, the only thing that can measure up is when you hear someone sing it back to you.” Justin went on to perform a medley of a number of his greatest hits including, “My Love,” “Cry Me A River,” “Say Something,” “What Goes Around,” “Mirrors,” and “Can’t Stop The Feeling.” The audience jumped out of their seats, dancing and singing along throughout his entire performance. Before ending the night, Timbaland rejoined Justin on the stage for a spectacularly memorable performance of their smash single “SexyBack.”
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Treaty overhaul aims to speed up talks
New federal minister Carolyn Bennett agrees to work with B.C. on 'stepping stones' approach to aboriginal land claims
Jun. 7, 2016 2:00 p.m.
Aboriginal Relations Minister John Rustad
The B.C. government’s demand for a new approach to treaty negotiations has been heard by the new federal government, Aboriginal Relations Minister John Rustad says.
The province signalled its discontent with the slow progress in settling treaties last year, when it abruptly refused to appoint former B.C. cabinet minister George Abbott to lead the B.C. Treaty Commission. Rustad noted that at the current pace, it would take 600 years to negotiate all the agreements B.C. still lacks.
Federal, provincial and B.C. First Nations Summit representatives have been meeting since then to seek improvements to a system that has completed only four treaties in two decades. They released a report Tuesday that Rustad says adopts a key change pioneered in B.C. – “stepping stones” to agreement.
The report also proposes negotiating “core treaties” with the main elements, then adding side agreements later on, he said.
“It’s the idea of trying to advance and complete components of treaties and implement them, rather than trying to get it all done at once, so that nations can start seeing the benefits and help to build support and momentum towards completing the negotiations,” Rustad said.
In a joint statement, federal Minister of Indigenous and Northern Affairs Carolyn Bennett promised to work to implement the changes. The federal government has been repeatedly blamed by aboriginal and B.C. representatives for slow progress, in offering cash settlements for historic resource extraction and assigning shares of federally regulated salmon harvests.
First Nations Summit representative Cheryl Casimer agreed with Rustad that adopting the changes clears the way to the three partners appointing a new chief commissioner, a position left vacant for the past year.
B.C. began its “stepping stones” strategy a decade ago with forest agreements, transferring Crown forest lands to aboriginal communities. It then introduced mine royalty sharing agreements.
Rustad said the previous federal government resisted the incremental approach to settling aboriginal land claims and expected final agreements to be complete before they were endorsed by Parliament.
Since the Nisga’a treaty was established in 2000 outside the B.C. process, the B.C. Treaty Commission has produced treaties with five communities negotiating jointly as the Maa-Nulth First Nations on Vancouver Island, the Tsawwassen First Nation in the Lower Mainland, the Yale First Nation in the Fraser Canyon and the Tla’amin First Nation in the Powell River area.
Chamber ‘car lot’ open for business
Training funds offered to B.C. small businesses
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Statehood Day (25.6.)
What has changed in Slovenia since it won independence?
At the Statehood Day, 25 June, we prepared a longer release describing economic, environmental and demographic changes experienced by Slovenia in the last almost 30 years.
Irena Svetin
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25 June is the Statehood Day in Slovenia. On this day in 1991 Slovenia became formally independent by adopting the Declaration of Independence and the Basic Constitutional Charter on the Sovereignty and Independence of the Republic of Slovenia. Two days later, on 27 June 1991, the Yugoslav People’s Army attacked and the ten-day independence war started.
Twenty-eight years later we can examine what changed in the meantime. At the very start Slovenia was faced with great economic problems, which were successfully overcome. Of course, they were not solved forever; in 2008 the great economic crisis started, but it, too, was successfully overcome.
In 1991 the Slovenian economy was faced with the loss of the Yugoslav market and the introduction of the market economy. In the first years of independence Slovenia was battling high inflation: in 1991 it was almost 250% and did not fall below 10% until 1995. In 2015 Slovenia recorded a deflation (–0.5%), while in 2018 inflation stood at 1.4%. Economic activity slowed down: in 1991 real GDP dropped by 8.9% and in 1992 by another 5.5%.
After a relatively peaceful longer period of growth, the Slovenian economy again experienced more turbulent years just when it “became of age”. The global economic and financial crisis devastated all its sectors. In 2009 GDP dropped by 7.8% and after a brief upward movement in 2010 and 2011 again declined in 2012 and 2013. The economic crisis exposed a strong interdependence of economic sectors, since enterprises, banks, general government, and public finance were all affected. In the past five years the Slovenian economy recovered with annual growth rates between 3% and 5%. The large integration of the Slovenian economy in foreign markets is even more pronounced.
Since 1991 the structure of economy has changed significantly. The share of value added from agricultural activity in total GDP declined by more than a half, i.e. from 5.7% (1991) to 2.2% (2018). The share of industry and construction also declined significantly; in 1991 these two activities generated 44% of GDP and in 2018 33.2%. On the other hand, the share of services jumped from 50.3% (1991) to 64.6% (2018). Similar changes were experienced by other countries.
In 2018, Slovenia was 16th in the EU-28 in terms of GDP per capita, which was the highest in Luxembourg (EUR 96,000) and the lowest in Bulgaria (EUR 7,800).
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Exports and imports
Changes in the economy reflect in Slovenia’s external trade. In 1992 the main export goods were road vehicles (11% of exports), followed by articles of apparel and clothing accessories (10%) and electric machinery and apparatus (9%). In 2018 the largest share of export was generated by road vehicles (16%), followed by electric machinery and apparatus (10%) and medicinal and pharmaceutical products (also 10%).
In all these years Slovenia’s most important trading partner was Germany. As regards other EU Member States, trading increased the most with Austria. As regards EU non-member countries, Slovenia exported most goods to countries established on the territory of former Yugoslavia. After 1991 Slovenia’s exports to the Russian Federation increased, more significantly after the onset of the economic and financial crisis in 2008. Imports from China increased significantly; in 1992 they represented 0.3% and in 2018 3.3% of total Slovenia’s imports. In 2017 over a fifth of importers were trading with China. More companies in Slovenia are trading only with Italy, Germany and Austria.
In 1991, 1.4 million and in 2018 almost 5.7 million tourist arrivals were recorded in Slovenia. However, direct comparison with the latest data is not possible due to changes in the methodology of data collection.
In 2018 the average number of nights per tourist was 2.6. Even though due to methodological changes the 1991 and 2018 data cannot be compared directly, it is interesting that in 1991 a tourist spent on average 3.4 nights.
Most overnight stays of foreign tourists in Slovenia in 2018 were generated by tourists from Germany and Italy (12% each), followed by Austria (9%), the Netherlands and Croatia (5% each), the United Kingdom and Hungary (4% each).
As regards tourists from non-European countries, the most numerous were tourists from the United States, who generated 3% of all foreign overnight stays in Slovenia, which is 24% more than in 2017. They were followed by tourists from other Asian countries and by tourists from Israel, Republic of Korea and China.
An important aspect of the quality of life is the environment in which one lives. Unfortunately, not all environmental indicators are available since 1991, but recent trends show that environmental management in Slovenia is improving. In 2017, 478 kg of municipal waste per capita was generated in Slovenia. The share of separately collected waste is rapidly increasing. In 2002 only 8.6% of waste was collected separately, while according to the latest data 70% of waste is collected separately.
Gross fixed capital formation and current expenditure for environmental protection also show that our attitude towards the environment is improving; their shares in GDP were increasing for 15 years (capital formation to 1.15% of GDP and current expenditure to 1.30% of GDP in 2015), while in 2017 they decreased compared to 2015 (capital formation to 0.54% of GDP and current expenditure to 1.24% of GDP).
Changes are also observed in food production: in 2000 there were 115 organic farms and in 2017 almost 3.200.
Slovenia is getting older. On 1 January 1991 the mean age of Slovenia’s population was 35.9 years and on 1 January 2019 43.4 years. In 1991 almost 21% of the population was younger than 15, while at the beginning of 2019 the share was almost 6 percentage points lower at 15%. The situation regarding people aged 65+ is the opposite: in 1991 the share was almost 11% and in 2019 almost 20%. What does that mean?
Fewer pupils, more retired people
The result of the changed demographic situation is smaller enrolment in elementary schools. In the school year 2018/19 there were almost 39,000 fewer elementary school pupils than in the school year 1991/92. The number of children enrolled in elementary school has been slightly increasing since 2011, which is a result of the increased number of births between 2004 and 2010.
On the other hand, the number of retired persons is increasing, the ratio between insured persons and retired persons is changing and the difference between earnings and pensions is increasing. In 1991 there were fewer than 400,000 retired persons (persons receiving old age, disability, survivor’s or widow(er)’s pensions); by 2018 the number increased to 617,000. In 1991 the ratio between insured persons and retired persons was 2.0 and in 2018 1.52. In other words, in 2018 there was just over one and a half insured person (included in compulsory or voluntary pension insurance) per one retired person. The ratio between earnings and pensions is also getting worse. In 1992 average net pensions were 78.4% of average net earnings; in 2018 only 58.5%.
Most people immigrated to Slovenia in 2007, 2008 and 2009 (about 30,000 per year). At that time many work permits for foreign nationals were issued. Since 2010 between 14,000 and 17,000 people per year have immigrated to Slovenia.
From 2006 on between 12,000 and 16,000 people per year have emigrated from Slovenia, most in 2009 (19,000), followed by 2017, when almost 18,000 people emigrated from Slovenia.
Among emigrants 54% were citizens of Slovenia and 46% were foreign nationals. Most of the citizens of Slovenia (44%) emigrated to Austria or Germany. Half of citizens of Slovenia who emigrated in 2017 had upper secondary education, a third had tertiary education and others had basic education or less.
There are no accurate data on the health status of the population, but we have data on the self-assessment of the health status. In the survey people aged 16+ were asked about their overall health status, i.e. physical, social and emotional. In 2005–2018 self-assessment improved. In 2018 almost two thirds of respondents assessed their health status as good or very good.
Compared to 1991 people are living longer. In 1991 the mean age at death was 70 years and in 2017 almost 8 years more. Girls born in Slovenia in 2017 can expect to live 83.7 years and boys just over 78 years.
In 2018 the average duration of one sick leave was 16.5 calendar days (for men 13.2 days and for women 20.4 days). In 2005–2018 the average duration of one sick leave was the longest in 2005 (17.2 days) and the shortest in 2014 (13.7 days). At the level of statistical regions, in 2018 the average duration of one sick leave was the longest in the Koroška statistical region (23.8 days) and the shortest in the Osrednjeslovenska statistical region (13.8 days).
Persons in employment and unemployed persons
There were 1,034,000 working age people in Slovenia in 2018, 981,000 of them in employment and 53,000 unemployed. The LFS unemployment rate was 5.1%, for men 4.6% and for women 5.7%. The employment rate was 55.8%, for men 61.0% and for women 50.7%.
The unemployment rate in 2018 was lower than in 2017 in all statistical regions except in Primorsko-notranjska, where it increased by 1.5 percentage points. It was the lowest in Koroška and Posavska (3.2%) and the highest in Pomurska (9.2%) and Primorsko-notranjska (7.0%). In the same comparison the activity rate increased in all statistical regions except in three: Koroška, Posavska and Primorsko-notranjska. In 2018 it was the highest in Osrednjeslovenska (57.4%) and the lowest in Pomurska (51.8%).
A resident of Slovenia born at the end of the 1980s had to change three currencies and four types of banknotes before completing their 18th birthday. With independence in 1991 Yugoslav dinars were replaced by Slovenian tolars, which were first printed as provisional payment notes and only later replaced by real banknotes. In 2007 tolars (SIT) were replaced by euros (EUR). A comparison of average earnings in the past twenty years is therefore hardly possible. We can see, however, that since 1991 the prices have increased less than the earnings.
One can learn more from the data on how much time one had to work to buy a certain good or service in 1991 and in 2018. To buy a kilo of brown bread, in 2018 one had to work almost a third less than in 1991. For a kilo of sugar one had to work three times less, for a kilo of coffee four times less and for a new Renault Clio two times less than 27 years ago.
What is the outlook?
The population of Slovenia is expected to be increasing by about 2025 (to around 2,083,000), mostly on account of positive net migration. Natural increase in 2017 was negative for the first time after 2005. After 2025 the population is expected to slowly decline. On 1 January 2080 Slovenia is expected to have 1,938,000 residents, 6% fewer than in the starting year of projections, i.e. in 2015.
In the next 65 years the age structure of Slovenia’s population is expected to change drastically. In 2018, 19.4% of the population is aged 65+. By 2057 the share is expected to increase to almost 31%. Life expectancy at birth will increase; boys born in Slovenia in 2080 could expect to live 87 years and girls more than 91 years.
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81% of fathers who acknowledged paternity in 2018 did so before the child was born
In 2018, too, turnover from the sale of goods higher than a year earlier
In 2018, every week 126 Slovenian citizens and 133 foreigners emigrated from Slovenia
In the last five years employment in education up by almost 11%
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'Art Attack' promotes students' creativity
Ileana Morales
Alex Zastera is a painter. That's obvious since half his wardrobe is usually marked with smidges of paint.
But on Saturday, Alex, 16, stood in paint-free clothes next to a mostly black-and-white self-portrait, which he calls his most successful piece so far.
His portrait, with geometric shapes and a streak of rainbow colors for "Pink Floyd-esque" flair, was on display along with artwork by students from 28 county schools for the St. Johns County Education Foundation's first "Art Attack" at the St. Augustine Amphitheatre.
Most art wasn't for sale, which is a good thing for Alex, who doesn't want to sell his paintings anyway.
"That's one of my downfalls," said Alex, a Nease High School sophomore. "When I'm finished, it's like my baby."
Saturday's "Art Attack" was Donna Lueders' baby. She is the foundation's executive director and organized the event for dancers, singers, artists, musicians and actors from 16 schools throughout the county. She hopes the show will become a yearly event to promote the arts in schools and raise money for the participating county schools.
On display were paintings and ceramics and on stage were performers, including the class of Carole Dickens, an R.J. Murray Middle School dance teacher.
"They loved it because the stage is so huge," Dickens said of her students who have practiced their African and contemporary dance routine for a couple months. "It's the biggest stage they've ever been on."
Stirring up a passion in students for the arts is vital at an early age, said Laura Van Cleave, a Durbin Creek Elementary School art teacher lingering near the arts and crafts table.
Van Cleave said art is an area with no wrong answers or pressure from standardized exams.
"I've never seen anything more exciting than to see them light up when I say we're done we can hang their work up on the board," Van Cleave said.
One of her first-grade students, Kate Blum, proved her teacher's observation when she beamed an ice-cream-covered smile to tell the tale of her royal blue butterfly made of clay.
"I wanted it to match my Hannah Montana room," Kate, 7, said. "It looks like cool stuff."
St. Johns County School Superintendent Joseph Joyner said despite tighter budgets in schools students deserve a chance to showcase their work.
"At an early age they're so impressionable," Joyner said. "It stays with them all their life."
For Alex, the painter, that may be the case. He said he plans to make art his career. He also uses his art to make a mess at home -- he paints on his mother's kitchen table -- as well as to give to his friends as presents. They make more personal gifts, he said, and are a way to spread his love for art.
That love for art extended to the stage for dancers and other performers, but for Jamal Wright, a St. Augustine High School junior and member of the drum line, the smaller-than-usual gig was "just another thing."
Jamal, like Alex, said it's good to see other students with similar passions for art. He said it's especially encouraging to see the younger ones who look up to people like him.
"They love it. They compare us to the movie 'Drumline' all time," Jamal, 17, said. "But I think we're better than that."
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Deputies arrest man after meth found in tent, report says
Mar 5, 2019 at 6:27 AM Mar 5, 2019 at 6:27 AM
Deputies with the St. Johns County Sheriff’s Office arrested a man Saturday after they said they found evidence that he was cooking methamphetamine in the woods along U.S. 1 South.
William Michael Burks is facing single counts each of production of methamphetamine, possession of methamphetamine, trafficking in methamphetamine and possession of drug equipment, according to an arrest report from the Sheriff’s Office.
Deputies first made contact with Burks, 40, on Saturday morning after receiving a call from a man who said Burks was seen riding a bike that had been stolen from him.
That man told deputies that he saw Burks and a woman duck into the woods in the 5000 block of U.S. 1 South.
When the deputies arrived, according to the report, they verified that the bike was the one the man had described and then noticed a substance believed to be methamphetamine sitting in a tent nearby.
One of the deputies also “observed two active one pot meth labs,” the report says.
The Sheriff’s Office’s Clandestine Lab Team was subsequently called in to document the scene and collect evidence.
As of Monday evening, Burks remained in the St. Johns County jail in lieu of bonds totaling $23,000.
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On ASL Classes
April 29, 2014 by Steven in Miscellaneous
Libby Nelson, writing for Vox:
The fastest-growing foreign language class in the past 20 years isn't foreign at all. Nor is it spoken. It's American Sign Language.
More college students are now studying American Sign Language than Chinese and Russian combined. In 2009, ASL was the fourth-most popular language for college students to study, falling behind only Spanish, French, and German.
True story: When I was in high school, my guidance counselor waived the foreign language graduation requirement because of my fluency in American Sign Language. It's my first language, and deeply ingrained into who I am as a person.
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Rainhill care home sizzles at Hawaiian themed open day
Open day at Sherdley Court
Rachel Howarth
A Rainhill residential care home for people living with mental health conditions held an open day as part of a national day of celebrations.
Sherdley Court, in Rainhill, took part in National Care Home Open Day, which encourages homes to open up to the public once a year.
Visitors and residents took part in arts and crafts activities, including decorating and attaching personalised wishes to a Manzanita wishing tree, clay modelling and jewellery making.
After enjoying games such as hook a duck, tin can alley and giant dominoes, food and drink was shared at a Hawaiian beach party and barbecue with residents and visitors dressed in grass skirts, garlands and headdresses.
Each year, the celebrations take on a different theme, and for the seventh annual open day, it was the role of arts in care.
Hayley Rowson de Vares, a former teacher and lecturer in art and design who has been registered manager of Sherdley Court for 14 years,organised the event.
She said: "National Care Home Open Day allows residents to mix with a wider group of people and enjoy a lively, party atmosphere. It offered the opportunity for our residents to show pride in their home and to feel a sense of ownership whilst demonstrating their skills and enjoyment of arts and crafts."
"Our guests were able to get a better idea of what residential care looks like and to experience how support workers can empower people to live as fully and as independently as possible. We were also able to showcase the opportunities available to people living in residential care to participate in creative activities.
"This year the event has helped us to strengthen links between ourselves and local schools and other health and social care schemes in the area’’.
Sherdley Court resident Diane Lawton said: "This has been a brilliant day. I’ve really enjoyed splashing in the pool. I’ve never had such a good time".
Fellow resident Teresa Wright said: "I’ve loved every minute of this; we’ve all had a great laugh."
Sherdley Court is operated by the national adult health and social care charity Making Space and provides support for up to 25 adults who have mental health conditions. It is rated 'good' by the CQC, the health and social care watchdog, and ‘outstanding’ for its leadership.
MPs to debate petition for Violet-Grace's Law to impose life sentences for death by dangerous driving
Visit hospice's beautiful gardens for open day
Saints captain set for career milestone against Wigan Warriors
Competition launched as Pacer trains retire from passenger service
Appeal to find man wanted in connection with an alleged assault
St Helens cabinet members have highest allowances in region
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High-level committee looking to strengthen support for NSmen holds seventh meeting
The Committee to Strengthen National Service (CSNS) chaired by Defence Minister Ng Eng Hen held its seventh meeting at the Safra Mount Faber on Friday morning. -- PHOTO: MINDEF
May 2, 2014, 2:31 pm SGT
http://str.sg/jZn
Amelia Teng
Education Correspondent
ateng@sph.com.sg
The Committee to Strengthen National Service (CSNS) chaired by Defence Minister Ng Eng Hen held its seventh meeting at the Safra Mount Faber on Friday morning.
Groups looking into greater support for NS, as well as recognition and benefits, submitted their final reports to the steering committee.
Members at the meeting discussed several recommendations, which follow the latest round of public feedback. These include suggestions to improve the way the Individual Physical Proficiency Test is managed, and boosting measures to support national servicemen in areas of housing, healthcare and education. Another idea is to expand the roles of the Advisory Council on Community Relations in Defence and the SAF Veterans' League to deepen engagement with key stakeholders.
Mr Gerald Singham, a member of the committee, said: "I am happy with the process and outcome of the CSNS. We met with a wide range of stakeholders so a lot of the recommendations are a reflection of what our NSmen would like to see. In terms of the actual recommendations, I think that they are meaningful and at the same time, it does not make NS into something that is too transactional. I personally feel that defence of our country is a sacred duty and it should not be reduced into something that is transactional."
The committee has reached out to more than 40,000 people since last year, and will announce its recommendations by June. Those interested may visit www.strengthenNS.sg to find out more.
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Dinosaur fossil on auction in Britain could fetch $1 billion
A diplodocus skeleton named Misty is seen at Summers Place Auctions in Billingshurst, southern England on Nov 25, 2013. The almost-complete fossil will be up for auction in Britain on Wednesday, the BBC has reported. -- FILE PHOTO: REUTERS
Nov 27, 2013, 11:21 am SGT
http://str.sg/ZZti
Jeremy Lee
jerlee@sph.com.sg
THE almost-complete fossil of diplodocus dinosaur will be up for auction in Britain on Wednesday, the BBC has reported.
The diplodocus is a large, long-necked dinosaur from the late Jurassic period. The fossil was unearthed by palaeontologists in the United States state of Wyoming.
Mr Errol Fuller, curator at Summers Place Auctions in West Sussex, was quoted by the BBC as saying: "To my knowledge it's the first time a large dinosaur skeleton has been auctioned in this country."
The fossil is expected to fetch more than £500,000 (S$1 billion) at the auction. It has an estimated value of between £400,000 and £600,000.
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Al Jazeera Deploys TVUPack 3G/4G Cellular Uplink Solutions for Live Mobile Broadcast in Middle East
Leading Broadcast Network Uses TVUPack to Expand ENG Capabilities and Deliver Live Coverage of Breaking News and Events
Mountain View, CA(08 Oct 2013)
TVU Networks, the global technology leader in IP video and portable live electronic news gathering (ENG) broadcast solutions, announced today that Al Jazeera has deployed TVUPack to extend its live newsgathering operations in Egypt and other locations throughout the Middle East.
After evaluating a number of live cellular uplink products, Al Jazeera selected TVUPack as its solution of choice to deliver live HD video over 3G/4G cellular networks. With TVUPack, Al Jazeera has been able to expand its live broadcast capabilities in a cost effective manner, delivering coverage of live events, press conferences, demonstrations, and important breaking news such as the 2012 presidential elections and recent civil unrest in Egypt.
Al Jazeera selected TVUPack because of its ability to deliver superior picture quality over 3G and 4G wireless networks and TVUPack’s unique dual encoder capabilities that enable the solution to simultaneously record and transmit video in HD. Additionally, TVUPack’s simple one button operation enables Al Jazeera camera operators to focus on capturing the shot rather than configuring the transmission in the field. TVU Networks pioneered the use of one button operation without the need for manual configuration in the field.
“TVUPack has revolutionized our approach to live broadcast, said Mohammad Al Sharaan, head of newsgathering and operations, Al Jazeera. “After a thorough evaluation of other products, we determined that the TVUPack delivers superior performance and resiliency in crowded areas where cellular network congestion may impact the ability to send a stable picture. We use TVUPack on a daily basis to deliver the important news that Al Jazeera viewers have come to expect.”
United Broadcast & Media Solutions (UBMS) in Dubai, an official TVU Networks reseller partner, provided on-location support in implementing TVU solutions into Al Jazeera’s broadcast workflow. “The UBMS team was instrumental in helping us get the most out of our TVUPack. We see both companies as valuable partners as we expand our ENG operations,” said Al Sharaan.
Already in use by hundreds of leading broadcast organizations around the world, the TVUPack family of products gives broadcasters satellite and microwave TV truck functionality in a lightweight, portable and untethered form. TVUPack is simple to use and provides broadcasters with low-latency, HD-quality signal that enables them to broadcast live at any time and from any location. The TVUPack family of products has been used to deliver professional-quality live HD footage of a number of important events around the world including the World Cup, the London Olympics, U.S. presidential elections, FIFA Confederations Cup and the 2013 Papal conclave.
For more information about TVUPack and other TVU broadcast solutions, please visit www.tvupack.com.
About TVU Networks
TVU Networks provides broadcast organizations around the globe with innovative wireless electronic newsgathering (ENG) and Internet broadcasting solutions. Since its founding in 2005, TVU has provided solutions that enable any size broadcaster to overcome the limitations of traditional broadcasting infrastructure, expand distribution to a wider audience and capture and broadcast live video content in a cost effective way. TVU Networks is privately held and is headquartered in Mountain View, Calif. with offices in New York, Boston, Raleigh, North Carolina and Shanghai, China. More information about TVU Networks can be found at www.tvupack.com.
About UBMS
United Broadcast & Media Solutions (UBMS) is a UAE-based company offering a variety of cutting edge products and services for the Broadcast & Pro-Video field. UBMS stocks and distributes an extensive range of products for professionals within the Audio/Video, Media and Broadcasting Industry, as well as provides turnkey solutions from complete system design to installation and consultation. For more information about UBMS, please visit www.unitedbroadcast.com.
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Meet the TAP Founders
The TAP wearable keyboard— a revolutionary device that converts finger taps into text, is the brainchild of prominent inventor and entrepreneur Dovid Schick, who later recruited his wife, distinguished engineer Sabrina Kemeny, to help him make Tap a reality.
Dovid and Sabrina first met as businesses associates when they were leading their own ventures: Dovid as CEO of Schick Technologies Inc. and Sabrina as CEO of Photobit Corporation. Although their families and companies were on opposite coasts, their commitment to each other carried them through the distance over many years. It is with this same fortitude, gratitude and perseverance that they approach this new chapter of their lives: To bring a new input paradigm to life.
As co-founders of Tap Systems, their vision doesn’t end with typing. They foresee a near-future where Tap technology is being used in a broader and more varied set of circumstances: an artist digitally composing music on a folded knee, or an avid gamer using Tap to navigate complex systems while on-the-go. Tap is defining the standard for the new input modality that will be used in virtual reality, mixed reality and augmented reality.
Sabrina and David each bring with them unique experiences that are transforming the world of data input in the wearable space:
Dr. Sabrina Kemeny, Co-founder
While working for Nasa’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Dr. Kemeny co-invented the camera-on-a-chip technology which revolutionized digital imaging and is at the core of every cell phone camera. The United States Space Foundation later inducted her into the Space Technology Hall of Fame for this pioneering work. Subsequently, she served as co-founder and CEO of Photobit Corporation, the company that successfully commercialized the fledgling CMOS sensor technology. After managing several rounds of equity financing and negotiating strategic alliances with players like Kodak, Intel and Hitachi, she oversaw the acquisition of Photobit to Micron Technology Inc.
Earlier in her career, while working for Ford Aerospace & Communications, she designed the linear CCD sensor flown on the 1990 Mars Observer mission. She is a recipient of the Helena Rubinstein “Outstanding Women in Science” award, has published more than 20 technical papers and holds nine patents. Sabrina is a graduate of Columbia University, where she received her Ph.D. in electrical engineering. A native New Yorker, she began her career as a registered nurse and now lives in Los Angeles.
Dovid Schick, CEO & Co-founder
Dovid Schick is an Electrical Engineer and Entrepreneur. He is the founder and former CEO of Schick Technologies, Inc., the first company to commercialize a real-time digital radiology system for dentists.
Mr. Schick took the company public in 1997, and it merged with Sirona Dental Systems in 2005. Since retiring from Schick Technologies, Dovid has advised numerous technology companies in the areas of semiconductors, digital imaging, medical devices and software. Originally from Maryland, he now resides in Los Angeles.
As pioneers in a growing industry, Tap Systems and its founders welcome your thoughts and feedback with regards to future development. We invite you to join the conversation on our Facebook page or contact us directly on our website.
Dovid Schick Founders Sabrina Kemeny
November 14, 2016 - No Comments
TapMapper
Tap Size Guide
Account Affiliates Tap QSG
We accept all populaR payment methods:
© 2018 Tap Systems Inc. All rights reserved.
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Life Mantras
Think With Me
About Subrata Roy
Subrata Roy is the Chairman and Managing Worker of Sahara Group of companies. He was born on 10 June 1948, to Chhavi and Sudhir Chandra Roy in Araria, Bihar. A bright student right from his childhood, Subrata Roy earned a diploma in Mechanical Engineering from the Government Technical Institute, Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh.
While shaping what we know today as ‘Sahara India Pariwar’, Subrata Roy spent three decades in business development, along with gathering an experience of 18 years in real estate business. He started his entrepreneurial journey in 1978, when he opened a small office for his business of deposits and para-banking in Gorakhpur.
Sahara India Pariwar grew from 42 depositors in a single establishment to a family of 6.1 crore depoistors through 1,707 establishments across the nations. The Sahara Group is worth over $10 billion, and is the largest first generation conglomerate of India. The Group was termed by the Time magazine as ‘the second largest employer in India after the Indian Railways’. It is successfully diversified into Infrastructure and Housing (real state), Media (news channels and newspaper), Entertainment (TV channels and film production) and Aviation.
Due to his unprecedented contribution to the country’s various industries, Subrata Roy has been awarded with several accolades, that includes ITA – TV Icon of the Year (2007), Global Leadership Award (2004), the Businessman of the Year Award (2002), the Best Industrialist Award (2002) and the National Citizen Award (2001), Karmaveer Samman (1995), Udyamshree (1994), Baba-ERozgar (1992) and Noble Citizen Award (1986).
In spite of being featured in the prestigious list of 50 Most Powerful People of India in the reputed India Today magazine since 2003, Subrata Roy never let success limit his dream. He considers it his life’s aim to create not just a company, but a family. He has always considered himself as the Chief Guardian of the world’s largest family, Sahara India Pariwar.
In founding the Sahara India group, Subrata Roy has always attempted to form a bond of kinship with all those who work in his companies. Time and again, he has instilled the feeling of oneness, integrity and solidarity in the company. Keeping principles above profit, he has repeatedly cheered his workers with statements like, “We are a family, not just a business organization. We don’t work for a company, we work for ourselves, for the growth of our Pariwar.”
When he is not busy administering his business, Subrata Roy keeps himself busy with writing. He is the author of motivational books that include Sahara: , Life Mantras (2016), and Think With Me: Fundamentals for Making Our Country Ideal (2017).
Apart from writing, he has also undertaken a large number of philanthropic endeavors. Sahara India Pariwar is involved in activities like monthly financial assistance to the families of the Martyrs of the Mumbai Nov ’08 terror attack and to the families of Kargil War Martyrs, and projects in the field of rehabilitation of a million victims of natural disasters.
Subrata Roy Sahara
Contact us: +91-522-23498000209
Write us: info@subrataroysahara.com
Sahara India Pariwar,
Lucknow - 226 010, U.P. India
© 2019 Subrata Roy Sahara. All Rights Reserved.
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Our Products >> Traders, Travelers, and Tomahawks
Traders, Travelers, and Tomahawks
Frontier Pennsylvania Series
As he traveled across the Pennsylvania Frontier in 1743, naturalist John Bartram didn’t know what to expect when he accepted an invitation to spend the night in the cabin of a white man who traded goods for furs with the Indians. The cabin was near the native town of Shamokin (present-day Sunbury) along the Susquehanna River. “About midnight, the Indians came and called up him and his squaw,” Bartram wrote later. “She sold the Indians rum. ... Being quickly intoxicated, men and women began first to sing and then dance round the fire.”
Bartram is one of many early Pennsylvanians that people this colorful non-fiction work. Others include Conrad Weiser, the Pennsylvania Colony’s Indian agent; William Penn, the colony’s visionary founder; Madame Montour, an interpreter who was the daughter of an Algonquin mother and French father; and Major General Edward Braddock, who led British troops against the French army in the Ohio River Valley.
Author John L. Moore raises and answers many questions about who the frontiersmen and natives were and what they did. What was William Penn’s colony like in its early days? How did the Lenni Lenape Indians living in Penn’s colony obtain their food? What did they eat? How did they get along with Penn, and how did Penn get along with them? Why did Penn’s sons recruit athletic young men to walk the boundary of land the Lenape weren’t especially interested in selling?
These true stories are set mainly in the valleys of the Delaware, Juniata, Lehigh, Ohio and Susquehanna rivers. They chronicle many aspects of a nearly forgotten past.
The Iroquois, for example, claimed the land along the Susquehanna and its tributaries by right of conquest of the Susquehannocks. They regarded the Juniata River Valley as prime hunting land. During the late 1740s they became distressed to see white settlers cross the Susquehanna and begin to build homesteads in territory they hadn’t sold and had intended to reserve for themselves.
In May 1750 a posse of magistrates and lawmen sent by Gov. James Hamilton rode up the Juniata and began evicting the squatters. Iroquois representatives accompanied them and forced the Pennsylvanians to set fire to the cabins of the homesteaders.
Eventually, the Indians left the Susquehanna Valley. White settlers who subsequently ventured into the upper Susquehanna during the 1780s came into a region that was still remote and desolate. The forests and fields of Pennsylvania still teemed with game, and one of these whites, Philip Tome, became a professional hunter. He let his dogs chase deer, used torchlight to hunt at night, and kept written records. One year, “every time I saw a bear, I marked it down, and in a month I counted 43,” Tome said.
John L. Moore, a veteran newspaperman, said he employed a journalist’s eye for detail and ear for quotes in order to write about long-dead people in a lively way. He said his books are based on 18th and 19th century letters, journals, memoirs and transcripts of official proceedings such as interrogations, depositions and treaties.
The author is also a professional storyteller who specializes in dramatic episodes from Pennsylvania’s colonial history. Dressed in 18th century clothing, he does storytelling in the persona of “Susquehanna Jack,” a frontier ruffian. Moore is available weekdays, weekends and evenings for audiences and organizations of all types and sizes.
Moore has participated in several archaeological excavations of Native American sites. These include the Village of Nain, Bethlehem; the City Island project in Harrisburg, conducted by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission during the 1990s; and a Bloomsburg University dig in 1999 at a Native American site near Nescopeck. He also took part in a 1963 excavation conducted by the New Jersey State Museum along the Delaware River north of Worthington State Forest.
Moore’s 45-year career in journalism included stints as a reporter for The Wall Street Journal; as a Harrisburg-based legislative correspondent for Ottaway News Service; as managing editor of The Sentinel at Lewistown; as editorial page editor and managing editor at The Daily Item in Sunbury; and as editor of the Eastern Pennsylvania Business Journal in Bethlehem.
by John L. Moore
cover art by Andrew Knez, Jr.
110 Pages w/illustrations and maps
HISTORY / United States / State & Local / Middle Atlantic
HISTORY / United States / Colonial Period (1600-1775)
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THE TRADITIONS AND FLAVORS OF ROMAN CUISINE
About Italy - From $3,256.00 USD
Live like a local with a 6-night stay just on Alban Hills overlooking Rome in a town called Frascati, a summer stay favorite of the city’s nobility through the centuriesSavor the flavors of Rome with included meals in authentic Italian restaurants including the acclaimed, “Osteria di San Cesario”Delve into the remains of ancient Tusculum, destroyed by the Roman Empire in 1191Learn the secrets of Roman cuisine participating in a cooking class lead by a renowned Frascati culinary proExplore the two volcanic lakes areas of Nemi and Albano – historic vacation spots of Caligula and Nero and home to the Pope's summer residenceVisit the oldest historic winery in the region, learn how the wine is produced and enjoy a tasting experienceDiscover Slow Food Movement techniques visiting local farms that produce honey, herbs, and cheese and sample these homegrown treats
ROME I FRASCATI
Arrive in Rome and transfer to your hotel in Frascati. Just south of Rome, in the Alban Hills, lies a string of hill towns nestled among vineyards called “Castelli Romani” - "Roman Castles". Frascati, a summer haunt for the Roman elite through the centuries, offers good food, fresh white wines and captivating views of Rome at a distance. This afternoon get acquainted with this lovely town during a guided walking tour. See the magnificent 16th century Villa Aldobrandini with its impressive flat-fronted façade and gardens, a fine example of an early Italian Baroque garden, the beautiful Cathedral, and the many restaurants and cantinas that line the streets and alleys before heading back to the hotel to enjoy a delicious meal. (D)
FRASCATI I GROTTAFERRATA I FRASCATI
Today's tour starts with a visit of the Abbey of San Nilo in Grottaferrata. Founded in 1004 by St. Nilus himself and completed a few years later by St. Bartholomew the Younger, it remains one of Italy's most important centers of Byzantine culture. From here, a panoramic road winds its way uphill through beautiful scenery to the remains of ancient Tusculum. A favorite resort of Cicero, Tusculum was the birthplace of Cato the Elder. Destroyed by Rome in 1191, its ruins are overgrown and include an amphitheater, a theater, the forum, a wellhouse, and a stretch of the old town walls. Enjoy a picnic (weather permitting) or lunch at a local restaurant. Tonight dinner is at the renowned “Osteria di San Cesario”, a restaurant that specializes in the deepest-rooted culinary traditions of the Roman countryside. (B,L,D)
This morning you will learn the secrets of Roman cuisine during a cooking class held by Frascati’s very own resident, culinary coach and food blogger, Mrs. Josephine (Jo) Donghi. Jo will guide you in making your own authentic Italian lunch in a creative and fun way. The rest of the day is yours to explore Frascati's alleys and browse the many artisans, goldsmiths, antique shops and boutiques. A feature of Frascati is its "cantine", or as they are known locally, “fraschette”. They’re essentially places where you can buy and drink wine, and can bring your own food. During summer nights the fraschette put their tables outside on the paved roads, and it seems like the whole town sits on these benches drinking, talking and laughing beneath the stars. (B,L)
FRASCATI I NEMI I ARICCIA I CASTEL GANDOLFO I FRASCATI
Start your day with a visit of Nemi. Perched high above Lago di Nemi, the smaller of the two volcanic lakes in the area, Nemi was the center of a cult to the goddess Diana in ancient times, and the favorite holiday spot of the emperors Caligula and Nero, who used to orchestrate refined sumptuous banquets and feasts on luxuriously rigged rafts. Today it’s a popular getaway from Rome, and famous for its wild strawberries that grow in the nearby woods. Next you will visit the Chigi Palace in Ariccia, a masterpiece by Bernini. Planned in the 1600s as the official residence for Cardinal Flavio Chigi, it is remarkable not only because of the artworks hosted there, but because of the unique preservation of its paintings, sculptures and furnishings. Ariccia is also known for its “porchetta”, a whole spit roast pork. Enjoy a light lunch accompanied by local wine before continuing on to Castel Gandolfo. The summer residence of the pope, Castel Gandolfo is a peaceful little town built on the shores of Lake Albano, the largest volcanic lake in the area. Enjoy some time to stroll around the town before heading back to your hotel. (B,L)
FRASCATI I MONTE PORZIO CATONE I FRASCATI
This morning’s tour starts with a visit to the “Scattered Museum of Wine”, a quaint little museum in Monte Porzio Catone, a town named after Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder, Roman Consul, born in Tusculum and author of the treatise De Agri Cultura, (circa 160 BC). The museum was opened in 2000 and houses a collection of wine-making utensils and equipment. You will then proceed off the beaten track to visit the oldest historic winery in the Region. Here you will meet with people who are passionate about the wine they produce, learn about the history of wine, get to know more about the importance of "terroir" and discover how to taste wine. Return to Frascati and the rest of the afternoon is at leisure. Tonight dinner at a local restaurant is included. (B,D)
This morning’s tour will take you to three agribusinesses that belong to the Slow Food movement, and will introduce you to the different techniques used by these local farmers. Our first stop will be a hill-top honey bee farm where you will learn about honeybees and the wonderful world of honey. From there, we will go to the Erba Regina country estate, specializing in cultivating a wide variety of herbs and whose farming techniques are closely monitored by the Botanical Department of a Roman university. Last, we will visit a cheese farm where you will be given a demonstration in cheese making and sample some of the cheeses. Rest of the afternoon is at leisure for independent activities. Tonight enjoy dinner at a typical restaurant. (B,D)
FRASCATI I ROME TO USA (OR EXTEND YOUR STAY)
Morning transfer to the airport for your return flight home. (B)
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NASA says destructive asteroid may hit Earth in October
The FT3 possesses has a power equivalent to 2,700,000,000 tons of TNT and can end human life
An asteroid with the destructive power of 2,700 megatons of TNT explosives has the potential to hit Earth later this year. NASA trackers have revealed that the asteroid identified as "FT3" will approach our planet on October 3. The agency expects the overflight to be only the first of 165 approaches between 2019 and 2116.
Although the risk of cataclysm, that is, large-scale transformation of the earth's crust, being low, scientists warn us to be smart. The FT3 is a monstrous rocky object that measures 340 meters in diameter and weighs 55,000,000,000 kg. If it hit our planet, it would reach the surface at a speed of 20.37 km per second, the equivalent of more than 45,500 km / h.
The impact force would be equal to 2,700 megatons of TNT or 2,700,000,000 tons of TNT. By comparison, the nuclear bomb launched against Hiroshima in Japan in 1945 ranged from 13 to 18 kilotons – 13,000 to 18,000 tons of TNT.
The asteroid FT3 is a space rock of the Apollo type, which means that it follows an orbit similar to the Apollo 1862 asteroid, and circulates the Sun within the boundary of the belt between Mars and Jupiter. NASA first spotted the rock on March 20, 2007 and has since confirmed its orbit based on a total of 14 observations.
The space agency said that "in the unlikely event that a potential impact event persists until the orbit is relatively well defined, the probability of impact and associated risk tends to increase as observations are added."
Fortunately, so far the probability of impact, although existing, is low: for the approach of October 3 this year it is one in 11 million, that is, there is 99.9999908% chance of it miss the target, for our luck . After that, NASA estimates other possibilities for impact on October 2, 2024 and October 3, 2025.
The agency posted on its website that "an asteroid on a trajectory impacting Earth could not be shot in the last minutes or even hours before impact." Therefore, it is important to continuously monitor space for potential threats.
Via: Express
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Home Trilateral Commission
Trilateral Commission Member Inducted Into The Canadian Business Hall Of Fame
ATCO, PR Photo
Posted By: Spencer Forgo, ATCO May 19, 2017
Canadian Nancy Southern is the CEO of Canadian Utilities Ltd. However, like Henry Kissinger, she is also a member of the Trilateral Commission. ⁃ TN Editor
Today, after leading her company through unprecedented global growth over more than a decade, ATCO’s Chair, President & Chief Executive Officer, Nancy Southern, will be inducted as a Companion into the Canadian Business Hall of Fame. Ms. Southern follows in the footsteps of her father and ATCO’s founder, R.D. Southern, an international business pioneer who was inducted into the Canadian Business Hall of Fame 22 years ago.
“It is a singular honour for me to accept this recognition on behalf of the people of ATCO, for it is truly their collective commitment that has allowed ATCO to excel,” said Ms. Southern. “I am humbled by the legendary accomplishments of the leaders of industry who are past and present recipients of this award and I feel truly privileged to be named alongside them.”
Ms. Southern was appointed Chair of ATCO and its subsidiary, Canadian Utilities, in December 2012 and has been President & Chief Executive Officer of ATCO since January 2003. Over the course of her career, she has served with some of the world’s most prestigious and influential organizations. She is a member of The U.S. Business Council, a member of the American Society of Corporate Executives, and a Canadian member of The Trilateral Commission. She is also a member of the Premier of Alberta’s Advisory Committee on the Economy, the Business Council of Canada, and the Rideau Hall Foundation Board of Directors.
In addition to her exceptional business leadership, Ms. Southern has long played a leading role in advocating on a range of social issues – most notably, the rights of Canada’s Indigenous peoples and the role of women in business. She is an Honorary Chief of the Kainai (Blood Tribe of Alberta) and was given the name Aksistoowa’paakii, or Brave Woman in 2012. In 2015, at the request of German Chancellor Angela Merkel, Ms. Southern joined 100 other global leaders for the G7 Forum for Dialogue with Women in Berlin.
With approximately 7,000 employees and assets of $20 billion, ATCO is a diversified global corporation delivering service excellence and innovative business solutions in Structures & Logistics (workforce housing, innovative modular facilities, construction, site support services, and logistics and operations management); Electricity (electricity generation, transmission, and distribution); Pipelines & Liquids (natural gas transmission, distribution and infrastructure development, energy storage, and industrial water solutions); and Retail Energy (electricity and natural gas retail sales). More information can be found at www.ATCO.com.
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Trump DOJ Backs Down From Adding Census Citizenship Question That Would Devastate Minority Communities
Allegra Kirkland
Where Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump Stand on Foreign Policy
Who will run the world?
Joshua Eaton
Beyonce may run the world, but the next U.S. president will play an important role in solving big problems around the globe, from the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) to the Syrian refugee crisis to U.S. relations with Russia and Israel.
Democratic presidential nominee Hillary Clinton has made foreign policy a cornerstone of her campaign. She’s argued that her time as secretary of state — the country’s chief diplomat — makes her uniquely qualified to handle our relationship with other countries.
“As secretary of state, senator, and first lady, I had the honor of representing America abroad and helping shape our foreign policy at home,” Clinton said in a foreign policy speech last month. “As a candidate for president, there’s nothing I take more seriously than our national security.”
Her Republican rival, Donald Trump, has made the case that his skills as a businessman — he literally wrote a book on business negotiations — will help him cut better deals with other countries for the United States.
“We never win. We lose on trade. We lose militarily. Look at ISIS. Can you believe this situation?” Trump told Fox News in October. “We lose at every single thing we do as a country.”
Many Republican foreign policy experts who are critical of Trump have flocked to Clinton, according to Politico. Meanwhile, many progressives have criticized Clinton's push for U.S. intervention in Libya, Syria, and the South China Sea while she was secretary of state — where Clinton often found herself to the right of President Obama.
But where does each candidate stand? Let's take a look at three key foreign policy issues.
Syria, Iraq, and ISIS
Iraqi government forces after retaking the town of Zankura, northwest of Ramadi, from ISIS in 2016.
The ongoing civil war in Syria has displaced thousands of people and given rise to the terrorist group ISIS, which has taken over large sections of both Syria and neighboring Iraq.
Clinton argued for the Obama administration to take a more aggressive approach on Syria while she was secretary of state, according to The New York Times. Since leaving office and starting her presidential campaign, she has called for a no-fly zone over parts of Syria and the increased U.S. training of Iraqi security forces.
Throughout the Republican primary, Trump criticized Clinton’s vote for the 2003 U.S. invasion or Iraq. But he also made repeated calls for the U.S. to bomb oil wells in Iraq and Syria that ISIS has used to fund itself. Trump said he would be willing to commit between 20,000 and 30,000 U.S. ground troops to defeat ISIS in Iraq and Syria during a Republican debate in March. He has also said that as president, he would order the U.S. military to torture terrorists and bomb their families — both crimes under international law. Trump recently praised former Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein — who used torture and chemical weapons, among other means, to maintain his grip on power — for being tough on terrorists.
The U.S. committed torture against some suspected terrorists captured abroad during George W. Bush's presidency. President Obama has repudiated that policy. Trump says he would return to it.
Hillary Clinton with Russian President Vladimir Putin in 2012.
Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2014 strained relations between Russia and the U.S. so badly that Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev recently said the countries are in “a new Cold War.”
Clinton promises to go “toe-to-toe” with Russian President Vladimir Putin, her website says, by partnering with traditional U.S. allies in Europe to counter and contain what she calls “Russian aggressions.” The animosity between Putin and Clinton is mutual — in 2014, Putin called her “weak” before saying, “But maybe weakness is not the worst quality for a woman.”
Meanwhile, Putin and Trump have expressed mutual respect for one another. Trump told reporters last year that he’d “get along very well” with Putin. The Republican candidate has also shown support for Russia’s controversial bombing campaign in Syria. Still, that didn’t stop the Trump campaign from releasing an ad that featured Putin alongside the Islamic State in a list of the U.S.’s “toughest opponents.”
Israel (and Iran)
Dome of the Rock and the Wailing Wall in Jerusalem, Israel.
Both Clinton and Trump have taken a hard pro-Israel stance. “Israel is a very, very important ally of the United States, and we are going to protect them 100%,” Trump said at a campaign stop earlier this month. Trump has called an Obama administration deal to prevent Iran from acquiring nuclear weapons “disastrous” and said it will harm Israel. If elected, Trump has said that he will scrap that deal for a new, better, one.
Clinton has similarly strong words about Israel. “If anyone challenges Israel’s security, they challenge America’s security,” her website says. Clinton also promises on her website to stop Iran from obtaining a nuclear weapons. However, the former secretary of state has taken partial credit for Obama’s nuclear deal with Iran — even if she did not want to negotiate with the country at first, as The New York Times reported.
Whoever is elected, one thing's clear, we're in for a change from the Obama administration's stance on foreign policy.
Related: [Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump Reacted to the Orlando Terrorist Attack in REALLY Different Ways] (http://www.teenvogue.com/story/clinton-trump-reactions-orlando-shooting)
Keywordshillary clintondonald trump2016 electionforeign policyisisrussiairanisraelsyriairaqpolitics
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Foreign investors back Brexit Britain
The figures showed the UK drove the bulk of the 17pc increase in FDI inflows to the European Union. Credit: Telegraph
Szu Ping Chan
Britain is the number one destination in Europe for foreign direct investment, according to figures that revealed a surge in inflows to levels not seen since before the financial crisis.
In a vote of confidence in Brexit Britain, UK FDI inflows soared to $253.7bn (£197bn) in 2016, up from £33bn the previous year, according to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
This represents the highest level of inflows since 2005.
The figures also showed the UK drove the bulk of the 17pc increase in FDI inflows to the European Union.
Britain also climbed above Ireland, Switzerland, the Netherlands and France to become the top destination for inward FDI across Europe and second...
Volvo blames US-China trade tensions for plunging profits
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About the University of Surrey
Graduate employability
Student satisfaction
The University of Surrey was established on 9 September 1966 with the grant of its Royal Charter, but its roots go back to a late 19th-century concern to provide greater access to further and higher education for the poorer inhabitants of London.
Battersea Polytechnic Institute
The forerunner of the University, the Battersea Polytechnic Institute was founded in 1891 and began concentrating on science and technology from around 1920, teaching day and evening students for degrees of the University of London.
Its academic reputation steadily grew to the point where, in 1956, it was one of the first institutions to be designated a 'college of advanced technology'. It was renamed Battersea College of Technology in 1957.
The move to Guildford
By the beginning of the 1960s, the College had outgrown its main building in Battersea Park Road and in 1962 it was decided to move the institution to Guildford.
Shortly afterwards, in 1963, the Robbins Report proposed that Battersea College should expand and become a university awarding its own degrees.
Surrey Research Park
One of the most significant site developments by the University has been the Surrey Research Park, which was opened by HRH The Duke of Kent in 1985.
The Park currently accommodates more than 100 companies, which employ 2,500 staff engaged in research and development activities – many of which relate closely to the work of the University's own faculties.
Developing Manor Park
Given the space constraints on Surrey’s main Stag Hill campus, in the 2000s the University expanded to a new campus at Manor Park.
A little over a mile from Stag Hill and connected to it by a network of footpaths and cycle paths, Manor Park is now home to a large area of student accommodation, as well as Surrey Sports Park and the School of Veterinary Medicine.
Strengthening connections at home and abroad
In 2006, Surrey International Institute-DUFE (SII-DUFE) was established as a joint academic partnership institution between the University of Surrey and Dongbei University of Finance and Economics in Dalian, China.
SII-DUFE offers top-quality programmes in subjects aligned with Business Management and Tourism Management, combining high academic standards and employment success in a pleasant coastal city in the north-east of the country.
Our long-standing relationship with the Guildford School of Acting (GSA) became even closer in 2009, as the conservatoire – which specialises in acting and musical theatre – signed a merger agreement with the University.
£400m in campus investment
Since 2000, our estate has been transformed through a £400 million building development and improvement programme – including £130 million on student accommodation, £36 million on Surrey Sports Park, £16 million on the Library and Learning Centre and £4.5 million on the Ivy Arts Centre.
On top of this has come further investment in the form of a new £45 million School of Veterinary Medicine and £70 million support for the 5G Innovation Centre, one of the world’s first research centres dedicated to mobile communications and future internet technologies.
125 years of shaping the future
In 2016, Surrey celebrated the 125th anniversary of its foundation. While the institution has evolved significantly in that time, our commitment to first-rate academic activity and real-world solutions has remained constant.
With our growing expertise in fields such as sustainable energy, telecommunications, space, disease control and health, we are passionate about turning the new knowledge we generate into practical innovations that improve people’s lives.
We were delighted to have been named University of the Year in The Times and The Sunday Times Good University Guide 2016. Read more.
The University Archives provide information about our history and organisation, conveying evidence of its policies and decisions, showing what the University has done and why, how it is organised and operates, and its effect on the wider community.
The University Archive collections
Established in accordance with a resolution of the University Senate of 7 February 1984, the University Archive collections is the official repository for the historical records of the University of Surrey.
Records go back to the founding of Battersea Polytechnic in 1891. We collect copies of current publications, as well as minutes and other documents once they are no longer required for day-to-day business purposes.
The archives include:
Minutes of Senate, the University Council and their committees, and the Polytechnic Governing Body
Records of academic and administrative departments
Financial records, including annual accounts and balance sheets
Records of relations with external bodies and associated institutions
Publications, including annual reports, calendars, magazines, prospectuses, newsletters, student magazines and handbooks
Student enrolment records
Staff records
Examination papers
Records of University and Polytechnic land, estates and facilities
Photographs and items of historic interest, such as badges, clothes and trophies.
The University Archive Collections are managed by Archives and Special Collections who also hold a large number of other archive collections.
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JERROD NIEMANN PAIRS WHISKEY WITH SONGWRITING IN LATEST EPISODE OF “AROUND THE BARREL WITH JACK DANIEL’S” PODCAST
Curb Records hitmaker JERROD NIEMANN took a break from his TALLBOYS AND SHORT STORIES TOUR to make a special appearance on the latest episode of the “Around the Barrel with Jack Daniel’s” podcast.
A little bit of Lynchburg, TN, came up to Nashville for a visit with Niemann in his home studio. While there, host Lucas Hendrickson chatted with the Country star about everything from how he fell in love with music and scoring his first #1 hit to learning about the sacrifices our service members make every day and how that realization served as the inspiration for his latest song, “Old Glory.”
“Jerrod’s the real deal, and I know our friends will enjoy hearing his insights into the art of songwriting, and certainly about his unwavering support for our nation’s service members and their families,” said Jeff Arnett, Jack Daniel’s Master Distiller.
“Around the Barrel with Jack Daniel’s,” which launched in February, 2018, is currently in its second season and features makers, ambassadors and friends of the iconic whiskey brand. On top of Niemann's appearance, this season also takes listeners behind-the-scenes at events like the Jack Daniel’s World Championship Invitational Barbeque and around the barrel for in-depth conversations with whiskey expert and writer Noah Rothbaum, Assistant Master Distiller Chris Fletcher and more.
You can check out the new episode of “Around the Barrel” featuring Jerrod Niemann now on Apple Podcasts, Google Podcasts, Overcast, Spotify, Stitcher and other on-demand audio platforms. For more information and to listen, visit: www.jackdaniels.com/podcast.
Niemann will continue to fuel his TALLBOYS AND SHORT STORIES TOUR through May before making an appearance on Budweiser’s Forever Country Stage at CMA Fest in Nashville this June.
For additional information on JERROD NIEMANN, please visit https://jerrodniemannofficial.com/ and reach out to him on Facebook, Twitter and Instagram.
ABOUT JERROD NIEMANN:
After nearly a decade as a major label artist, prolific hitmaker Jerrod Niemann is taking it back to his roots and kicking off his LIVE IN CONCERT: JERROD NIEMANN TALLBOYS AND SHORT STORIES headlining tour this spring. His latest song, “Old Glory,” was penned as a patriotic anthem and inspired by Niemann’s multiple USO Tours. Continuing to dig deep in his journey, the Curb Records star released THIS RIDE (2017), which includes the feel-good jam, “I Got This,” an uplifting duet “A Little More Love” (with Lee Brice), and the classy romance of “God Made a Woman.” The tunesmith last topped Country charts with his PLATINUM-certified anthem “Drink to That All Night,” a multi-week #1 from the 2014 album HIGH NOON. Niemann first burst onto the scene in 2010 with his critically-acclaimed major label debut, JUDGE JERROD & THE HUNG JURY, which skyrocketed on the strength of his PLATINUM-certified #1, smash “Lover, Lover” and GOLD-certified, Top 5 “What Do You Want.” From ACM, CMA, and CMT Award nominations, to headlining and touring with some of Country’s hottest acts – Dierks Bentley, Brad Paisley, and Keith Urban – Niemann continues to make his mark by creatively pushing boundaries while still offering a sincere nod to the legends before him.
About Jack Daniel’s
Officially registered by the U.S. Government in 1866 and based in Lynchburg, Tenn., the Jack Daniel Distillery, Lem Motlow, proprietor, is the first registered distillery in the United States and is on the National Register of Historic Places. Jack Daniel’s is the maker of the world-famous Jack Daniel’s Old No. 7 Tennessee Whiskey, Gentleman Jack Rare Tennessee Whiskey, Jack Daniel’s Single Barrel Tennessee Whiskey, Jack Daniel’s Tennessee Honey, Jack Daniel’s Tennessee Fire, Jack Daniel’s Sinatra Select and Jack Daniel’s Country Cocktails. Today, Jack Daniel’s is a true global icon found in more than 170 countries around the world and is the most valuable spirits brand in the world as recognized by Interbrand.
Your friends at Jack Daniel’s remind you to drink responsibly. JACK DANIEL’S and OLD NO. 7 are registered trademarks. ©2018 Jack Daniel’s. Tennessee Whiskey 40% Alcohol by Volume (80 Proof). Distilled & Bottled by Jack Daniel Distillery, Lynchburg, Tennessee.
JackDaniels.com
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Column | New York’s Amazon HQ deal is fundamentally flawed
Almost $3 billion. That’s what New York state and NYC will be giving in tax breaks to Amazon as it plants half of its second headquarters in the Big Apple.
Demonstrators protest against the coming of Amazon's second headquarters, at an Amazon store in Manhattan, Nov. 26, 2018. (Jeenah Moon/The New York Times)
Almost $3 billion. That’s what New York state and New York City will be giving in tax breaks to Amazon as it plants half of its second headquarters in the Big Apple. The state alone will be granting $1.53 billion in tax credits and grants. That will help fund, among other things, a new helipad for CEO Jeff Bezos.
After more than a year of fierce competition, Amazon recently announced it will split its second headquarters between Arlington, Virginia, and the neighborhood of Long Island City in Queens. The online retail giant promises to create 25,000 jobs in New York City, most of them new.
Gov. Andrew Cuomo has been giddy about the prize, calling it “one of the largest, most competitive economic development investments in U.S. history.” Yet the same governor who has spent the last year railing against the new federal tax law — calling it a tax break for corporations and the rich — is now fine with giving tax breaks to a trillion-dollar corporation whose CEO is the richest man in the world.
The same governor who calls himself a champion of labor and livable wage is fine with giving tax breaks to a company that just weeks ago was pressured to raise its minimum wage to $15 an hour because thousands of people who work for one of the richest companies in history are living on food stamps.
Despite the image of an open competition that flooded Amazon with 238 proposals from cities across the United States with pitches on what makes them the best location for its second headquarters, we always knew that New York City was on the company’s shortlist.
Related: Column | ‘Up yours’ to Upstate NY in 2018 statewide elections
The city has all the things the company wants: a huge metropolitan area with direct access to major highways, international airports and a mass transit system, as well as close proximity to prestigious colleges and universities that can provide the career talent in the technology sector that Amazon requires.
Amazon played the nation for suckers. Many hoped that this would be the opportunity of a lifetime for a small city in the Midwest or the South that has been left behind by a changing economy fueled by companies like Amazon. Yet the king of online retail is instead taking billions of dollars to move into the corporate capital city of the world.
The economic irony is already being played in upstate New York. On the same day that Cuomo and downstate lawmakers were celebrating Amazon’s announcement, Major League Baseball cap manufacturer New Era Cap Co. announced it would be closing its Buffalo-area factory, putting 200 people out of work, and legal services firm Thomson Reuters announced the shuttering of its Rochester office, cutting 304 jobs. Where is their gigantic tax break?
Cuomo and city officials say that the income taxes Amazon will pay, along with its investments, will eventually result in billions of dollars in new state revenue that will dwarf the billions of dollars in incentives we are providing. We’ve heard this story before: New York is the king of using sweeteners to drive business development. The state spends approximately $8 billion a year on job-creation programs — more than any other state — and yet a lot of that money continuously goes to initiatives that in many cases fall far short of expectations.
The Empire Zones program gave big benefits to companies but many of them didn’t return the favor by providing new jobs or investments. The Start-Up NY program, which provides 10-year tax breaks for companies and their employees, cost $53 million just in advertising and has only created a handful of jobs. And the Las Vegas-style casinos that were supposed to revitalize upstate New York are seeking bailouts because they aren’t making the mountains of revenue that the government boasted they would.
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Cuomo predicted Amazon would generate $27.5 billion in new state revenue over the next 25 years, but that figure relies on Amazon creating 40,000 new jobs in New York City — far more than the initial 25,000 that it has promised. That calculation also factors in the number of employees that other businesses will have to hire to fill the needs of Amazon’s new second home, which also may be way overestimated.
That very well represents the fundamental flaw in this Amazon deal. We really have no idea what we’re getting, we only know how much we’re paying for it. Maybe that doesn’t mean too much to our state leaders or Jeff Bezos and his helipad, but when billions of dollars in taxpayer money is involved, we are right to be concerned.
Luke Parsnow is a digital producer at CNY Central (WSTM NBC 3/ WTVH CBS 5/ WSTM CW6) and an award-winning columnist at The Syracuse New Times in Syracuse, New York. You can follow his blog “Things That Matter” online and follow his updates on Twitter.
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Rapper Tech N9ne gets ready to rock Westcott nation
By Sifet Ramic
Tech N9ne: “I was born to be a rapper. I don’t think I was destined for any other path.” (Photo provided by Strange Music)
Having issued more than 20 albums and made more than 400 guest appearances since the early 1990s, Tech N9ne’s status as hip-hop royalty has long been cemented.
Often referred to as the “No. 1 independent rapper in the world,” Tech N9ne will make his Central New York debut on Saturday, Nov. 24, 8 p.m., at the Westcott Theater, 524 Westcott St. Also on the bill will be Dizzy Wright, Futuristic, Lil Viv and Apache Chief. Tickets are $35; visit thewestctotttheater.com for information.
Having released his latest album, Planet, last March, Tech N9ne is still doing things his way. In an age where hip-hop albums are 10 songs or less, Planet features 20 throbbing tracks. The album’s rollout also included a vinyl release, something that has seemingly been lost in the age of streaming and digital downloads.
Tech N9ne, born Nov. 8, 1971, in Kansas City, Missouri, chatted with the Syracuse New Times about his career, his goals, and his Syracuse plans when he’s not performing.
From skipping high school graduation to open up for EPMD to releasing 20 albums, when was the first time you realized that you’d made it?
I’ve had so many moments that I cherish, but I still don’t know if I’ve made it. I’ve done music with legends like Tupac and Eminem, but I still want more, so much more. I’ve made the Forbes list (of wealthy people), but I’m just so focused on building this empire. When I find whatever it is that I’m looking for, I think that’s when I’ll know that I’ve made it.
You’ve collaborated with everyone from Eminem to Kendrick Lamar. Is there any artist that you still want to work with?
I’d love to work with Outkast, Denzel Curry and 21 Pilots, I’m such a fan of music and production, I’d love to get a beat from Kanye West. That guy’s a genius.
As controversial as Kanye West is right now, do you think it is important to separate the artist from the art?
Definitely. I think you have to. I don’t like to portray my political views or anything because I don’t want to alienate anyone or make them feel as though they’re not welcome. I love my fans and supporters.
You and MF Doom could really be considered the Mount Rushmore figures of underground rap and independence in hip-hop. How does it feel to know you’ve created such a legacy of “do-ityourself” entrepreneurship?
I think someone had to do it, so why not us? I feel as though we took the sacrificial lane and did what we had to do in order to succeed and open up new doors for younger artists. I want to share the inspiration, and I want the newer artists to take it even further than I did. I think it’s a beautiful thing.
Are there any new artists that you’re looking at? And do they remind you of yourself?
I like a lot of newer artists, like Hopsin and Denzel Curry, but I don’t think any rapper can do what I do. I’m not saying that to be cocky or braggadocious, but I truly don’t think we’ve seen anyone like me before.
Who are your top five rappers of all time? And yes, you can say “Dylan, Dylan, Dylan, Dylan, Dylan” for your answer.
(After laughing hysterically at The Chappelle Show reference) Oh man, I think I’d have to say, in no particular order, it would be Tupac, Biggie Smalls, Rakim, KRS-One and Eminem.
As someone who tours so frequently, what still motivates you to tour as much as you do after 25 years?
I just love this. I was born to be a rapper. I don’t think I was destined for any other path. I love the art so much and am so committed to everything. I’ve sacrificed relationships and missed time with my family and my kids, I want to slow down on touring eventually, but right now, I don’t think I can.
I don’t think I’ve ever been to Syracuse. Is there any places that I need to go?
Wegmans.
It’s the greatest grocery store you will ever go to.
(Laughing hysterically) All right, man, I’ll definitely check it out.
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Mid-Career Fellowship Competition 2013 Awards
The British Academy was able to confirm 46 awards in this round of the Mid-Career Fellowship competition to be taken up from autumn 2013.
Basu, Dr Paul
Reader in Material Culture and Museum Studies, University College London, Institute of Archaeology
Archaeology / Colonial and world archaeology
Archives, Histories, Landscapes: Surveying Sierra Leone's Cultural Memoryscape
This project marks the culmination of an interdisciplinary investigation into cultural heritage and historical consciousness in Sierra Leone. Pursuing the spatial frameworks that have dominated memory and heritage studies, the research explores what is conceptualised as the Sierra Leonean "memoryscape". This memoryscape is dispersed in multiple locations within and beyond Sierra Leone and encompasses a plurality of forms of mnemonic trace. Using multisited methods, the research explores the "logics of relationship, translation and association" between these sites. The main objectives of the Fellowship are to complete a monograph on this work, conduct a short period of fieldwork (following the trace of specific defensive settlement features from the colonial archive into the Sierra Leonean landscape, where oral history collection and archaeological survey will be carried out), and engage with different publics in Sierra Leone and the UK through exhibition, preparation of a heritage management plan, and contributions to the National Archives' "Africa Through a Lens" online resource.
Bullard, Dr Paddy
Lecturer in Eighteenth-Century Studies, University of Kent, School of English
English Language and Literature / Intellectual history - English Language and Literature
Personal Knowledge, Enlightenment and the Printed Word, 1640-1815.
The enlightenment (c.1650 - c.1815) is commonly characterized as a period of "open knowledge" and free inquiry. This project investigates how writers of the age dealt with knowledge that cannot be disseminated freely in print (the conventional technology of enlightenment) because it is tacit, and can only be reproduced by practical example and personal habituation. During the seventeenth century scientists and practical authors dwelt increasingly on the resistance of personal knowledge to emerging codes of denotative description. In the course of the eighteenth century this technical problem took on an increasingly broad cultural significance. First satirists of the new science, then novelists, then cultural critics explored its implications. By the end of the century the tacit, passive component of human understanding preoccupied educationalists, moralists and political philosophers. The project investigates whether this narrative of broadening, deepening significance is borne out by detailed historical research.
Caplan, Professor Richard
Professor of International Relations, University of Oxford, Dept of Politics and International Relations
Politics / International Relations
Measuring Peace Consolidation
This is a proposal for an investigation into how the principal peacebuilding actors within the United Nations system differ in their understandings of the characteristics of and requirements for a consolidated peace, and the implications that these differences have for the formulation and implementation of coherent peacebuilding strategies. It will focus on the technical, organizational and political challenges of devising operational measures of effectiveness, in particular measures of progress towards the achievement of a consolidated peace. The project will consider the wide range of UN peacebuilding experience since the end of the Cold War with particular attention to Burundi, one of the six countries currently on the agenda of the UN Peacebuilding Commission (PBC). It will promote more effective integration of knowledge with practice in the fields of conflict analysis and conflict management by communicating its findings directly to practitioners within governments, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs).
Charlwood, Professor Andy
Professor of Human Resource Management, Loughborough University, School of Business and Economics
Sociology / Sociology of other, e.g. work, media etc
Happiness at work: the role of social norms
Interest in the study of subjective well-being (SWB) at work is high amongst both academics and policy makers, as it is seen increasingly as a compliment to economic measures of living standards. However, making sense of survey results on SWB at work is not straightforward. SWB evaluations are made by combining an imperfect assessment of how people feel about their working lives with an assessment of how well work measures up against aspirations and goals. This makes it difficult to know if positive responses are evidence of a fulfilling job or of having learnt to cope with objectively poor quality working conditions through low aspirations. There is scant British evidence with which to address this question. The purpose of this project is to fill this gap by uncovering the taken for granted and often unarticulated norms and aspirations that people hold about work and life, to trace how these norms and aspirations influence SWB at work, and to communicate the findings to academics, policy makers and the wider public.
Chevalier, Dr Arnaud
Reader in Economics, Royal Holloway, University of London, Department of Economics
Economics / Applied Economics
Children of the Wall: Parental Selection and Children Outcome
Parental characteristics, such as education, income or unobservable skills differ between cohorts. These variations may be driven by variations in the costs of having children over time by family type. For example, a worsening of the economic conditions cuts household budgets but also reduces the costs of being out of the labour market. Economic depressions may thus reduce the probability of giving birth for richer (or more future focused) parents but increase it for poorer (or more impatient) parents, affecting cohort composition. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 triggered economic turmoil in former East Germany. Fertility rate halved between 1990 and 1993, before returning to trend. Comparing parental characteristics and children's outcomes (education, crime) for those born around 1990, this proposal highlights parental selection and its consequences. Parental selection is of interest to academics but also public planners since it affects the demand for public services. Public investments should then be adjusted for parental type.
Chwieroth, Dr Jeffrey
Reader, London School of Economics, Department of International Relations
Politics / Int'l Political Economy/Foreign Policy Analysis
The Political Aftermaths of Financial Crises: A Panoramic Investigation
This project explores the political consequences of financial crises. It provides a systematic long-run comparative historical analysis of the political aftermaths of financial crises that stretches from the early 19th century to the present. Through this panoramic analysis, this project contributes new and unexpected insights about how financial crises affect polities and their institutions, and how these effects feedback into the economic and policy aftermaths of crises. By taking a long-run comparative historical approach, it provides a more systematic and comprehensive analysis than the current literature that uses narrow time windows and regional experiences, and thus generate novel and important political economy lessons for scholars and policymakers. Incorporating insights from politics, economics, sociology, and public policy, this project substantively contributes to the emerging study of the political economy of financial crises and to improving the overall quality of policymaking.
Dale, Dr Gareth
Senior Lecturer in Politics and International Relations, Brunel University, School of Social Sciences
Politics / History of Political Thought
Economic growth as ideology: The origins, evolution and current travails of the "growth paradigm"
The contradictions of growth appear intractable. If it creates jobs we rejoice, if it raises carbon emissions we agonise. An ostensible solution is "green growth," but doubts surround its viability. Hence it is vital to study not only the causes of growth, on which an ample literature exists, but also its ideological aspect, the "growth paradigm." This project charts the growth paradigm's social construction, analysing the work of key thinkers who have shaped it. It reveals its origins to be coeval with the consolidation of capitalism in C17-C18 Europe, trace its evolution, and propose two theses: it is an ideological affiliate of capital accumulation; and it has systematically inhibited consideration of alternative policies. The project will produce a history of the "growth paradigm," an account of why growth is taken as a "given" in policymaking circles, and materials to assist scholars and NGOs who are developing critiques of "green growth." Findings will be communicated to scholars and the public via a book, plus papers/workshops at universities and think tanks in Britain and abroad.
D'Angour, Dr Armand
Lecturer in Classical Languages and Literature, University of Oxford, Faculty of Classics and Jesus College
Classics and Ancient History / Ancient Greek music
Greek Music and Poetry: Integrating sound and sense in ancient Greek song
Greek poetry from Homer to Euripides was sung music. Intensive study has been devoted to various aspects of this music - metre, melody, instrumental resources, performance conditions, chorality. Yet ancient Greek poems - epic, lyric, and drama - are still studied and written about almost exclusively as literary texts, and few know or learn much about the music of which they were a part. The traditional treatment of Greek metre abstracts it from its musical context, and the complexity of interpreting the fragments of Greek musical notation has allowed few to attempt to appreciate Greek music as an auditory reality. Trained as both a classical philologist and a professional musician, Dr D'Angour has published a series of scholarly articles on Greek musical and metrical matters. This fellowship will result in a wholly original monograph arising from this research, which will fulfil the pressing need to integrate scholarly knowledge and understanding of the sound and performance of ancient Greek music with the interpretation and appreciation of the Greek texts from which music was once inseparable.
Das, Dr Santanu
Reader, King's College London, Department of English
English Language and Literature / Colonial and postcolonial literature
Colonial Experience and Literature of the First World War
The project aims to recover and analyse the colonial and multiracial aspects of First World War experience and literature. The intention is to complete two major pieces of research 1. In Jan-April 2014, work on the "Introduction" to the anthology His Majesty's Subjects: Colonial Voices of the First World War, to be published by Penguin for Nov 2014. This pioneering sourcebook will include archival, historical and literary material from different parts of the former British Empire. 2. In May-Dec 2014, work on the last two chapters of the monograph India, Empire and the First World War: Objects, Images and Literature: "The Indian Soldier in European Visual and Literary Imagination, 1914-1918" and "The Great War, India and Modern Memory". The rest of the book is complete. The research has already attracted media attention and it is planned to communicate to a wide audience through newspaper, radio, podcasts and talks in schools and the Imperial War Museum.
Dauncey, Dr Sarah
Lecturer in Chinese Studies, University of Sheffield, School of East Asian Studies
Oriental and African Studies / Chinese language and literature
'Disabled but not useless': Disability and identity in modern Chinese literature and culture
The evolution of disability representation has been one of the most dramatic, but also most overlooked, features of recent Chinese history. From a near absence of disabled people from film, documentary, fiction, and life writing by the end of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), transformations since have resulted in a growing number of works incorporating an increasingly diverse range of impairments that have drawn on changing conceptions of disability and, in turn, contributed to the re-imagining of disabled identities. This interdisciplinary project, which aims to inform scholars, policy makers in China, and the broader public in the UK and beyond, will provide the first comprehensive study of changing literary and cultural representations of disability in China. Through analysis of literary, cultural, and socio-historical materials, it will explore how narratives of disability are created, employed, negotiated and challenged by disabled people and others, and demonstrate how cultural representations mediate the identity of their subject(s) in relation to dominant discourse.
Eynon, Dr Rebecca
Lecturer and Research Fellow, University of Oxford, Oxford Internet Institute and Dept of Education
Sociology / Social Divisions and Inequalities
Social inequalities in the networked era: exploring the links between Internet use and social mobility in Britain
The British government views the provision of Internet access as a way to support social mobility. However, for decades research has shown that those individuals (of all ages) from better off, better educated backgrounds tend to use the Internet more often and for a wider range of "capital enhancing" activities: for learning, job searching, to join in politically, to build social networks, to compare goods and services etc. As more and more of everyday life moves online we urgently need a new way to look at this problem. I propose to achieve this goal by researching a largely ignored segment of the population, the "unexpectedly digitally included", who despite being from less well off backgrounds seem to be benefiting from being online. Through analysis of nationally representative survey data, in-depth interviews and online engagement with the public and other stakeholders, the aim is to find out what the contexts and processes are that lead these individuals to use the Internet "against the odds" and if this use has contributed to their social mobility.
Fabre, Professor Cecile
Professor of Political Philosophy, University of Oxford, Faculty of Philosophy/Tutor and Fellow in Philosophy, Lincoln College, Oxford
Politics / Political Theory
Cosmopolitan Peace
Contemporary just war theorists have only just begun to tackle the normative issues raised by war's aftermath; none has done so systematically from a cosmopolitan perspective. The aim is to fill that gap. Cosmopolitanism holds that our most important general obligations to distant strangers (e.g. the duty not to kill, or the duty to provide assistance) can outweigh special obligations which we may have to compatriots; it is generally sceptical of the value of political sovereignty. This project attends to four questions, via a monograph (OUP, under contract): 1. When and how must a belligerent cease hostilities, given its general obligations to distant strangers? 2. Once war has stopped, may the victor occupy its enemy's territory and exercise jurisdiction over it - in apparent breach of its sovereignty? 3. Are belligerents' mutual obligations with respect to regime change, compensation and restitution compatible with their duties to humanity at large? 4. By whom should war crimes be tried? The project thus offers the first comprehensive account of cosmopolitan post-war justice.
Fairclough, Dr Pauline
Senior Lecturer in Music, University of Bristol, Department of Music
Music / History & Criticism of Music: Art Music since 1900
Classics for the Masses: socialist realism and the Western canon in Soviet music, 1917-1964
Following an AHRC Early Career Fellowship on the reception and selection of the Western concert canon in Soviet musical culture under Lenin, Stalin and Khrushchev, this project will develop four major research questions: first, analysing the cultural background to the evolution of a Soviet canon in concert repertoire that focused on Western classical and romantic repertoire; second, assessing the extent to which that classics-dominated market fed into the creation of the Soviet socialist realist style in music; third, questioning the notion that the "insularity" of Soviet music under Stalin kept Soviet music in a state of suspended evolution until Khrushchev's reforms and fourth, considering socialist realism in its international context, finding patterns of development in contemporaneous art movements across Europe and North America. All these will be covered in a monograph, while the third and fourth questions will feed into two conference papers (2013), an inter-disciplinary conference (2014) and three public lectures in Bristol between 2013-2015 on aspects of Socialist Realism.
Fruehwirth, Dr Jane
University Lecturer, University of Cambridge, Faculty of Economics
Economics / Economic Policy
The Effect of Parental and Peer Influences on the Achievement Gap as Students Age
This project explores why disadvantaged students fall behind their more advantaged peers as they progress through school. The focus is on two key contributors to student outcomes: (1) parents and (2) peers. The project will build on previous work to make several novel contributions, including how peer influences vary as children age, along with how parents can moderate their children's responses to peers, through channels such as time investment, resources and home environment. It will apply economic models and statistical tools to quantify the contribution of these channels to the achievement gap, using two major national surveys of a birth cohort and young adults in the UK, along with detailed administrative data from the US. This research will inform policies related to improving disadvantaged student outcomes through the structure of peer groups and parental involvement. The plan is to disseminate these findings by publishing several journal articles and presenting results at major conferences in the UK and abroad, targeted to both policy makers and researchers in various fields.
Guyatt, Dr Nicholas
Lecturer, University of York, Department of History
History / Modern History
The Scale of Beings: Race, colonization and the prehistory of 'Separate but Equal'
This project argues that, in the decades after the American Revolution, liberal whites in the United States struggled to exile blacks and Indians from the promise of the Declaration of Independence that "all men are created equal". The book describes how intellectuals, politicians and philanthropists erected a series of sociological (rather than racial) obstacles to immediate equality for non-whites, and later developed plans to send blacks and Indians out of the United States under the rubric of securing equality. It studies the reactions of non-whites to these proposals, and follows the human consequences of colonization to the American West, Liberia, and the Caribbean. Finally, it considers the troubling legacy of this 'separate but equal' rhetoric for U.S. race relations after 1865. Beyond writing in an accessible style for a trade publisher, it will explore the place of colonization in popular memory via a series of public events involving academics, representatives from the heritage/museum sector (in the UK, US and Liberia), and experts on contemporary Liberian politics and society.
Hart, Dr Jason
Lecturer in International Development, University of Bath, Dept of Social and Policy Sciences
Anthropology / Development Anthropology
The Moral Economy of Children's Rights: the UNCRC and International Development
This Fellowship is timed to influence debates about future directions for international development prompted by the 25th anniversary of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child in 2014 and the 2015 target date for achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. After many years in which child rights-based development work focussed on cultural change at the local level, the relationship between the actions of political/economic elites and the realisation of children's rights is now emerging. The Fellowship will support this initiative in two ways. (1)Through research intended to inform creation of a moral-economy framework for analysing the state of children's rights across diverse contexts. As part of this a case study of non-citizen children in Jordan and the extent of realisation of their rights to basic services and civil participation will be undertaken. (2)Through dissemination activities entailing, inter alia, production of a 15 minute video on the moral-economy approach and a training module for development practitioners created in collaboration with Save the Children.
Heal, Dr Bridget
Senior Lecturer in History and Director of the Institute for Reformation Studies, University of St Andrews
History / Early Modern History
Lutheran Visual Culture during the Age of the Renaissance and Baroque
The evangelical reform movements that transformed European religious life during the sixteenth century have generally been associated with iconoclasm. Protestant ecclesiastical art, where it existed, has been described as didactic: it may have helped to spread and consolidate the reformers' message, but did not play an important role in creating confessional identity. Yet when, from the 1560s onwards, Calvinists in the Holy Roman Empire tried to complete what they saw as Luther's half-finished Reformation by cleansing churches of images, Germany's Lutherans protested. Despite their restricted spiritual significance images were central to Lutheran identity. We have only to look at the flourishing of baroque church art in territories such as Saxony to realize that images had become, by the eighteenth century, a central part of Lutheran ecclesiastical culture. This study aims to investigate this phenomenon, using concrete case studies to explain how and why a confession that derived its significance from the promulgation of the Word came to value the visual so highly.
Hempel, Dr Charlotte
Senior Lecturer in Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism, University of Birmingham, Dept of Theology and Religion
Religious Studies / Judaism
The Development of Complex Literary Traditions in the Second Temple Period
This project offers a fresh evaluation of the Community Rule from Qumran alongside a series of compositions most of which have only been rudimentarily researched to date. The latter comprise six works of communal rules and five legal texts that lack references to a particular community. Issues raised in the legal material such as suitable marriages were prominently debated in the Second Temple period and beyond from the reforms attributed to Ezra to the New Testament and rabbinic literature. The Qumran manuscripts will be read against the background of Second Temple Jewish literary creativity and legal debate. The production, transmission and interpretation of texts and legal debate characterised a formative period in Jewish history and eventually gave rise to Christianity and rabbinic Judaism. Close analysis of texts alongside a reassessment of the material as products of complex scribal activity rather than snapshots of communal life illustrate the significance of this project for our understanding of a time and place seminal for the formation of western culture.
Hermens, Dr Erma
Senior Lecturer, University of Glasgow, School for Culture and Creative Arts
History of Art / Conservation and Technical Art History
A synergy of skills: collaborative art production at the Medici Court as a model for artistic enterprise
This project examines Italian workshop organisations started in the 1580s, at the Medici (Florence) and Della Rovere (Pesaro) courts that employed a wide range of artists, artisans and alchemists. The innovative organisational structure of these workshop clusters as artistic enterprises fostered a synergy of disciplines and technical skills, unleashing unprecedented creativity and experimentation. Both clusters are documented by extensive unpublished archive material providing a unique research opportunity. Links will be examined with so-called Books of Secrets, compilations of recipes ranging from preserves to alchemy and artistic techniques; a microcosm of the arts, crafts, and science present in the workshops. The project will look into innovation models for so-called fablabs and workshop clusters for city regeneration projects. The project will also pilot an "Art of Making" online resource on historical artistic techniques, presenting "recipes", images, films of reconstructions, and informing conservators, art historians, artists, students, general public.
Heuer, Dr Ulrike
Associate Professor, University of Leeds, School of Philosophy, Religion and History of Science
Philosophy / Ethics including applied ethics
The moral significance of intentions
When morally assessing a person's actions, we often consider the intention with which the agent acted. But what is its significance? According to one prominent philosophical tradition - often called "the doctrine of double effect" - an action which would be permissible if a certain bad result were merely foreseen by the agent is impermissible if the result is intended. Thus, according to this view, intentions are crucial for the moral assessment of an action. According to an alternative Kantian approach, intentions determine not the wrongness or rightness of actions, but only their laudability of blameworthiness. Each of these traditional theories is problematic. There are many reasons to be skeptical about the doctrine of double effect. But it has a considerable advantage over its traditional rival: it can explain important moral distinctions that we ordinarily take for granted. This project will draw on interdisciplinary resources from political and legal theory to develop a novel theory of the significance of intentions that avoids the problems with the traditional views.
Hills, Dr Thomas
Associate Professor, University of Warwick, Department of Psychology
Linguistics / Language Acquisition
Comparative Network Analyses of Early Word Learning in Monolingual and Bilingual Children
Bilingualism is of critical national and global importance, yet the number of bilingual speakers in the UK is declining. A principle challenge to resolving this problem is enhancing our understanding of how people learn more than one language. Bilingual first language acquisition-one of the most effective means of becoming proficient in two languages-is poorly understood, with a near absence of large-scale comparative studies. The proposed research combines state of the art techniques in network analyses with the largest available longitudinal database of mono- and bilingual children, providing a record of early word learning for 600 individuals. This work will characterize how children's word knowledge develops in mono- and bilingual children-using both semantic and phonetic analyses-with an aim to understand differences in the network structure of early-learned words known to influence word learning. This work will have implications for bilingualism and language acquisition more generally, and provide an important foundation for future research on second language acquisition.
Houlbrook, Dr Matt
Senior Lecturer in Modern British History, University of Birmingham, Department of History
The Prince of Tricksters: Cultures of Confidence in Interwar Britain
How can we be confident in something? This is a philosophical and historical question, shaped by social relations and cultural forms that are time and place-specific. It became a compelling question in interwar Britain. The war's legacies and pace of peacetime change made confidence and authenticity prominent yet precarious values. I show how the lies and lives of the conman and discredited journalist and royal biographer Netley Lucas revealed recurrent crises of confidence in the identity of individuals and "truth" of popular publishing. Tracing how authenticity was constructed and confidence sought in social encounters and print, I contribute to interdisciplinary work on trust. The aim is to rethink interwar Britain. Highlighting resonances between crime, consumerism and monarchy, the project integrates discrete historiographies and shows how confidence abraded boundaries between society, culture and politics. The aim is to write an intellectually rigorous and accessible book and share these ideas through press and radio, and to continue to engage the public through the blog The Trickster Prince.
Janes, Dr Dominic
Senior Lecturer, Birkbeck, University of London, Dept of History of Art and Screen Media
History of Art / Cultural Studies - History of Art
Picturing the closet: queer (In)visibility after the trials of Oscar Wilde
This research project explores the visual culture of the 'spectacle of the closet' outlined in relation to literature - and specifically with reference to Proust's character, the Baron de Charlus - by Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick in her pioneering work 'Epistemology of the Closet' (1990). This project will look at the ways in which 'homosexuals' were depicted and visually presented themselves in the wake of the trials of Oscar Wilde in 1895. It will also explore the wider potential for the application of Sedgwick's insights in the field of literature to the histories of British art and culture.
Kavada, Dr Anastasia
Senior Lecturer, University of Westminster, Dept of Journalism and Mass Communication
Communications and Media Studies / Film and Media Studies
Digital Communications Technologies and Protest Movements: The Case of Occupy
The proposed programme will explore the relationship between new forms of protest movements and digital communication technologies by focusing on the Occupy movement. It will investigate the role of digital media technologies, such as social media platforms, websites, wikis, live-streaming applications, and discussion lists, in processes of organizing, mobilizing and decision-making. It will also examine the activists' relationship with the media, their interaction with opponents and targets, and their attempts to build solidarity and construct a collective narative for the movement. Methods will include in-depth interviews with activists, content analysis of Twitter hashtags and the press coverage of main Occupy events, social network analysis of the links between different Occupy groups, an analysis of the records of mass assemblies, and features analysis of the main digital spaces used by the movement. The proposed programme will thus critically evaluate the role of digital media technologies in the Occupy movement and in its capacity for social change.
Kelly, Dr Gavin
Senior Lecturer in Classics, University of Edinburgh, School of History, Classics and Archaeology
Classics and Ancient History / Latin language and literature
Studies in the Text and Language of Ammianus Marcellinus
The historian Ammianus Marcellinus is both a literary giant and an immensely important source for fourth-century AD political, military, administrative and religious history. But there are major hindrances to widespread appreciation of his work in his extremely challenging Latin, his tenuous manuscript tradition, and the fact that he has been ill served by translators in English. The programme of close textual work here proposed is a discrete and vital part of a larger project, which includes communication with a wide public in the form of a new complete translation and will lead ultimately to a new edition of the text. Given the state in which the work has been transmitted, any translation requires constant reconsideration of the text; but certain issues in the language need to be studied not case by case but systematically, above all his exceptionally regular system of prose rhythm at the end of phrases, and various oddities of syntax, vocabulary, and style, which scholars have variously defended as authentic late Latin or have emended.
Knight, Dr Sarah
Senior Lecturer in Shakespeare and Renaissance Literature, University of Leicester, School of English
English Language and Literature / Renaissance literature
A new critical edition of Fulke Greville's plays: 'Alaham' and 'Mustapha'
Fulke Greville (1554-1628) worked as author and politician during the reigns of Elizabeth I and James VI & I. His philosophically complex plays Mustapha and Alaham (c. 1595-1600), intended by their author "for the use of life", are a Renaissance courtier's challenging dramatisations of near Eastern politics. Greville plunges us into key ideological debates of his turbulent times, posing perennially difficult questions: "is it ever right to kill an unjust ruler?", "how should we face death?", "what can near Eastern politics teach us about English political life?" My edition (contracted with Oxford University Press) will offer new texts and commentary on these plays, considering Greville's Latin, French, Italian and English influences, and showing how he interwove varied sources - classical and continental tragedy, contemporary travel narratives and Italian humanist historiography of the Ottoman world, Reformation anti-tyrant treatises, revivals of ancient Stoicism, Calvinist doctrine - to create an original form of tragedy which should now be more widely read and understood.
Lane, Dr George
Senior Teaching Fellow, SOAS, Dept of History
History / Medieval History - History
The Phoenix Mosque, the Ju-jing Yuan Cemetery, and the Persian Community of Mediaeval Hangzhou.
The unearthing circa 1921 of twenty-one Persian tombstones by the shores of Hangzhou's Westlake, has allowed unique insight into the nature of mediaeval Hangzhou's Muslim community. Unlike the Muslim communities of other east coast Chinese port cities such as Guangzhou and Quanzhou, the Muslims of pre-Yuan Hangzhou left little evidence of their presence. The Muslims of Hangzhou arrived in the wake of the 1274 conquest of the Song capital by the Chinggisid conqueror, Bayan Noyan. They formed a powerful and very influential community and established themselves in the heart of Yuan Hangzhou, constructing their imposing mosque on Imperial Street beneath the former Song palace and their cemetery in the grounds of the former royal gardens on the shores of Westlake. From the inscriptions found on the 21 tombstones and on a number of steles, written in Chinese, Persian, and Arabic, from local Chinese gazetteers, Persian chronicles, European travelogues and other literary and archaeological sources, a vivid image of this Persian community has emerged questioning former assumptions on its nature.
McLoughlin, Dr Seán
Senior Lecturer in Islamic Studies (Religion, Anthropology and Islam), University of Leeds, School of Philosophy, Religion and the History of Science
Religious Studies / Anthropology and Sociology of Religion
The Hajj and British Muslims: An Anthropology and Sociology of Islam in the UK
25,000 Muslims travel from Britain to Saudi Arabia annually, joining millions of co-religionists to perform the Hajj. This programme of research and wide-ranging public communication would be the first to properly illuminate the changing face of Hajj-going from the UK, both in terms of its sacred and more secular elements. Topics of interest include not only the experiences of pilgrims before, during and after their journey but also the role of tour operators, pilgrim welfare organisations and government in organising pilgrimage from a non-Muslim society. The fellowship would focus upon writing up and communicating the results of interview and online survey data already collected by the applicant for the British Museum's 2012 Hajj exhibition and during subsequent research leave granted by the University of Leeds in 2013. The project's academic output would be a monograph, while public communication would include media work, an online resource, a short industry report and seminar, a popular book aimed at British Muslims, and 3 community-based talks accompanied by a mini exhibition.
Mookherjee, Dr Nayanika
Reader in Socio-Cultural Anthropology, Durham University, Dept of Anthropology
Anthropology / Political Anthropology
"Boundaries of Blood": Bangladesh war and its trans-national returnee adoptees
This ethnographic research aims to contribute to the interdisciplinary scholarship on the well-being of children affected by warfare. It focuses on adoptees who have returned to Bangladesh since the 1990s from Western countries where they had been adopted. Comparing the accounts of "war-babies" (children born as a result of rape during the Bangladesh war of 1971) with children orphaned as a result of the war, it contributes to the understanding of a contemporary issue - of forced pregnancy during wars - which has global resonances with the conflicts in Rwanda and Bosnia. It sets out to examine the impact of transnational and transracial adoption which has been the focus of recent debates within United Kingdom. It includes communication and public engagements (by means of public lectures, publications in blogs, open access popular social science journals and newspapers) in collaboration with Ain-O-Shalish Kendra (ASK), a Bangladeshi human rights NGO and the South Asian adoptee networks, in Bangladesh, Europe and North America.
Moran, Dr James
Associate Professor, University of Nottingham, Department of English
English Language and Literature / Theatre History - English Language and Literature
The Drama of D.H. Lawrence: Regional Identity and Space
D.H. Lawrence's life and novels have increasingly appeared onstage in theatres in the East Midlands during the past decade. His recurring presence has made Lawrence central to a regional sense of cultural and literary identity. Yet Lawrence's own plays remain little known to theatre audiences and have not been the subject of a book-length study for almost four decades, and, as Dollimore puts it, Lawrence is "increasingly disregarded" in the wider academy. This project seeks to understand these tensions, and to show that the French and Irish dimensions in Lawrence's plays shed light on the transnational turn in 'new' modernist studies. This project will reacquaint audiences in the East Midlands with Lawrence's own playwriting, through a rehearsed reading of his "The Daughter in Law"; a set of interactive discussions on BBC Radio Nottingham; and a series of public lectures. The research will produce a new monograph on Lawrence's drama, combining original historical research and analysis of the unique manuscript holdings in the Lawrence collection at the University of Nottingham.
Murphy, Dr Rachel
University Lecturer in the Sociology of China, University of Oxford, School of Interdisciplinary Area Studies
Geography / Area Studies
The Children of China's Great Migration and Urbanisation
In an era of unprecedented globalisation and urbanisation, migration and education have become principal strategies through which rural Chinese families pursue socio-economic mobility. Millions of rural adults now work in China's cities, and increasingly too in countries in Africa and the Middle East, while their children stay with grandparents and other relatives and at boarding schools. Whereas in the 1990s parents sought to earn money to secure their families' futures in the village, in the past decade, increasingly, their main objective has been to secure their children's off-farm futures. They do this largely by investing in their children's education, but also, especially when they have sons, by purchasing property in nearby industrialising towns. By analysing children's testimonies, family members' accounts, observations of daily life, and documentary and statistical evidence that maps background patterns, this project will produce a book that casts light on children's experiences of radically changing childhoods.
O'Connell, Dr Paul
Reader in Law, SOAS, School of Law
Law / International Law (Public)
Masking Barbarism: Human Rights in the Contemporary Global Order
The last two decades have seen a profusion of human rights instruments, specialist bodies and NGOs, as well as increased affirmation of commitment to human rights from virtually all states and dominant global actors. Ours, then, is truly the 'age of human rights'. However, recent decades (the era of globalisation) have also seen increasing levels of poverty and inequality, which in turn contribute, in myriad ways, to the undermining and denial of human rights for billions of people around the world. There is, therefore, a major disjuncture between the promise of globalisation for human rights, and the concrete realisation of such rights. This research will explore the reasons for this. It will examine the extent to which the dominant economic and ideological paradigms of our age are inconsistent with the enjoyment of human rights. And, in light of this, asses what alternative strategies can contribute to the concrete realisation of human rights in the contemporary global order.
Pratt, Dr Nicola
Associate Professor, International Politics of the Middle East, University of Warwick, Dept of Politics and International Studies
Politics / Politics of a specific area or region (specified by regional interest on the classification tab)
Middle East Women: The Personal and the Geopolitical
The "Arab spring" presents a paradox for women. Commentators have noted the substantial presence of women and their diverse roles in the uprisings. Yet the transition away from nominally secular dictatorships towards Islamist-dominated elected governments presents a threat to women's rights. This project challenges three tendencies within much public discussion of women in the Arab world: first, the resort to Islam or "Arab culture" to explain women's experiences; second, the tendency for women to be represented as either "victims" or "heroines"; third, the absence of historical contextualisation of women's activism. Based on new research inspired by the emergent findings of Dr Pratt's previous BA-funded work, this project assesses the significance of geopolitical events in shaping women's rights and participation in complex and often contradictory ways. The fellowship will be used to achieve a step-change in this research, to write a monograph exploring the interplay between women and geopolitics in the Arab world and to contribute to public debates over Middle East women.
Radick, Professor Gregory
Professor of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Leeds, School of Philosophy, Religion and the History of Science
History / History of Science
The Mendelian Turn in Biology: Why It Happened and What Might Have Been
Following the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's work in 1900, the biological science of inheritance came to be reorganized around Mendelian concepts. Ever since, instruction in genetics at all levels has begun with Mendel and his peas. Yet biologists are increasingly aware that inheritance in reality little resembles the textbook image of it, and recent commentators have begun to wonder whether the pedagogic persistance of Mendelism may be counterproductive, in making it harder for students to absorb recent biology's lessons about how little genes "determine", and how fundamental are gene-environment interactions. Professor Radick's research over the last decade into the debates surrounding the introduction of the Mendelian perspective has revealed that its most powerful critic, W. F. R. Weldon, deprecated it precisely for ignoring the pervasive influence of environment. This proposal is to write a large-scale book that, drawing extensively on archival materials, will reconstruct that debate comprehensively to show why Mendelism really triumphed and what might have been had Weldon won instead.
Rees, Dr Amanda
Senior Lecturer, University of York, Department of Sociology
Excavating Deep History: historiography, methodology and narratives of human nature
Stories about the biological origins of human society and culture are consumed enthusiastically by the public, but while natural scientists have been happy to contribute to the development of such accounts, the human sciences have tended to remain aloof from such endeavours. Recently, however, some scholars have argued that the Deep History of humanity - more commonly known as "pre-history" - should be subsumed within the discipline of "history", the purview of which would then become the whole span of time from the emergence of anatomically modern human beings to the present day. Such a project throws up numerous methodological problems, on which this proposed programme of research will focus. It will analyse the ways in which conceptions of the deep human past have changed over time by examining the methodological development of archaeology and palaeoanthropology. As such, it will not only make a contribution to the history of science and historiography, but also to the public understanding of history and its wider political significance.
Roberts, Dr Stewart Craig
Senior Lecturer, University of Stirling, Division of Psychology, School of Natural Sciences
Psychology / Evolutionary and Comparative Psychology
Is there ill in the pill? Exploring social consequences of partner choice while using hormonal contraception
Romantic love and marriage are universal features of human societies, directly affecting the lives of almost every individual. Recent research by the applicant suggests that widely-used hormonal contraception has disruptive effects on genetically-mediated mate preferences, influencing the outcome of long-term relationships, family wellbeing and, potentially, child health. This proposal addresses an urgent need to confirm these disruptive effects experimentally and with two further critical tests. In addition, the Fellowship will enable exploration and reflection on the implications of this body of research to determine how it might best be communicated to inform policy, practice and public debate.
Ruehl, Dr Martin
University Lecturer in German Thought, University of Cambridge, Department of German and Dutch
History / Intellectual history - History
Europa - A German Question, 1790-2000
German philosophers and writers - from Herder and Goethe via Nietzsche and Thomas Mann to Carl Schmitt and Ulrich Beck - have provided some of the most influential formulations of the European idea. For almost all of these thinkers, the question of Europe was closely intertwined with the "German question". My research project is a rigorously historical analysis of the changing ways in which German intellectuals conceived of this special relationship in the two hundred-odd years between the end of the Enlightenment and the EU's first constitutional crisis. Using published as well as unpublished sources, the aim is to reconstruct the specific German debates in which "Europa" was imagined first as a guarantor for peace and civilization, then as a vehicle for social and political emancipation, and finally as a means for empire-building and the conquest of new markets. The goal is to show that despite these transformations, the German idea of Europe was defined by certain key features which remained constant, notably the belief in Germany's elevated role and special mission.
Ryan, Professor Michelle
Professor of Social and Organisational Psychology, University of Exeter, College of Life and Environmental Sciences
Psychology / Social Psychology and Organisational Psychology
Understanding work-life balance: Identity and compatibility
Work-life balance, traditionally conceptualised as conflicting time demands, is a key determinant of women's underrepresentation in organizational life. This project proposes a novel approach to work-life balance - one based on identity. Key potential explanatory identity mechanisms, include (a) identity compatibility (the compatibility of who you are at home and at work?), (b) identity strength (does a strong organizational identity make extra work time more acceptable?), and (c) identity blurring (does high identification blur the line between work and non-work?). Funding is sought for an innovative program of to demonstrate the interplay between identification and work-life balance, and the way in such an interplay might be gendered. At least 4 studies will be conducted in collaboration with industry and employing innovative methodology informed by psychology and management. The studies will triangulate (a) surveys of male and female employees, (b) archival analyses of existing organisational data, and (c) experimental studies that systematically manipulate key variables of interest.
Sarris, Dr Peter
University Senior Lecturer in History, University of Cambridge, Faculty of History
The Novels of The Emperor Justinian
The 'Novels' of the Emperor Justinian represent one of our most important sources for the development and operation of Roman law, and provide vivid insights into late antique social and economic realities. Yet no complete English translation of this source has ever been published. In conjunction with David Miller, Dr Sarris has been involved in producing a full translation based on the original Greek text. The aim is to use the Fellowship to write an Historical and Legal commentary to accompany the English translation, as well as an Introduction setting out the significance, history and transmission of the Novels. Cambridge University Press is committed to publishing the end product.
Schleiter, Dr Petra
University Lecturer in Politics, University of Oxford, Dept of Politics and International Relations
Politics / Comparative Politics
Surviving busts and exploiting booms: the economy, constitutional variation and cabinet survival in Europe
This project examines the effect of the economy on government survival in Europe. The vulnerability of cabinets to the current economic crisis and indeed responses to booms differ tremendously, even when we account for the features of cabinets and their political context. Why? I argue that the varying constitutional powers of cabinets to manage their own demise condition the risks of cabinet termination in response to busts and booms. Constitutional rules determine who can trigger cabinet terminations and under what conditions they may do so. They therefore shape how susceptible cabinets are to shocks, their propensity to terminate in early elections or replacements, and their vulnerability to uncontrolled failure. The timing and management of cabinet terminations is an important matter on which policy choices and even civic peace may hang. Combining large-n controlled analyses of cabinets in 30 European democracies (1970s-2011) with in-depth case studies, this project promises major advances in understanding cabinet survival that will be of interest to academics and policy-makers.
Serneels, Dr Pieter
Reader, University of East Anglia, Dept of International Development
Economics / Overseas Economics
Malaria, Productivity and Income. Experimental Evidence from Agricultural Workers in Nigeria.
The consequences of ill health for economic development are presumed to be severe yet rigorous evidence is scarce. Vector borne diseases like malaria have direct impacts on health and indirect impacts on productivity and income of workers. In on-going work we find substantial average treatment effects of curative malaria treatment on earnings, labour supply and productivity with workers at a sugarcane plantation in Nigeria using a randomized design. Funding was obtained for field work in 2012-13 that builds on these insights in two ways. First, to identify the causal mechanism more precisely we investigate the effect of malaria treatment on physical activity. Second, to analyse private demand we offer access to treatment at exogenously varied prices to estimate its effect on health care use, worker productivity and income, and also analyse the determinants of demand including worker perceptions and experiences. This field work generates rich and complex data that requires considerable time for analysis and dissemination, which is the subject of this proposal.
Simms, Professor Melanie
Professor of Work and Employment, University of Leicester, School of Management
Business and Management Studies / Management Studies
Employer experiences of hiring young workers during the crisis
The impact of the recent financial and economic crisis has been most profound for young people's chances of finding work. Whilst the experiences of young people have been well documented, less is known about employers' engagement with initiatives to boost youth employment. It is argued that the success of such initiatives, and consequently for young people's employment opportunities, hinges on the propensity of employers to engage. This Fellowship therefore addresses this gap through a study of employers' practices. Professor Simms' previous research has focused on a set of employers who are engaged with such initiatives to and the aim is now to extend this to employers who are more reluctant. To do this, fieldwork will be undertaken gathering data from two main sources: Employer Engagement Officers within JobCentre Plus and employers. What will emerge is a thorough and theoretically grounded study providing insights into employers' attitudes and behaviours towards employment opportunities for young people which make a significant contribution to public debate around youth (un)employment.
Taylor, Professor Yvette
Professor of Social and Policy Studies and Head of the Weeks Centre for Social and Policy Research, London South Bank University
Critical Terrain, Dividing Lines & Lives: Re-Placing North-South Regionalism
North-South UK terrain is represented and felt as a critical dividing line as policies ("Big Society") summon "community" as cure, claim and contestation in everyday lives. This project explores processes which shape and (re)make younger people's regional maps. Using two sites, Ovalhouse (London) and Theatre Pie (Newcastle), I ask how regionalised identities, communities and geographies are produced. Connecting lines - online and offline - and lives has implications for service provision and social well-being, culturally and economically. Encounters across the North-South geographical line involve innovative theoretical and methodological efforts: The purpose will be to "re-place regionalism" within a broader understanding of how dividing lines and lives can be shared and re-shaped beyond a static North-versus-South economy of belonging. It will establish inter-linked exhibitions in Newcastle and London titled "Walking The Lines: The North by the South, The South by the North", a cross-institutional seminar series and a policy document (Mapping Regional Relations: Resilient Inequalities?).
Tyrer, Dr David
Senior Lecturer in Sociology and Political Theory, Liverpool John Moores University, School of Humanities and Social Sciences
Sociology / Social Theory
The ethics and aesthetics of phobia
What is phobia, and why does it matter? The relevance of phobia is indicated in the social sciences by its invocation as a metaphor for discrimination (e.g. xenophobia, homophobia) and by its influence on literature and visual culture. However, relatively little attention has been paid to phobia, and it is either used descriptively or collapsed under a broader rubric of fear that elides proper consideration of its distinctiveness. Phobia is implied, though rarely explicitly engaged, in the extensive literatures on closely related concepts, such as trauma, emotion and affect. This project will identify the limits of social sciences understandings of phobia, tracing its genealogy, and examining the ways in which this underexamined fear is imbricated in wider concepts though often unnamed. It will synthesise an ethical framework with which the challenges posed by the social and political work of this most elusive, yet distinct of modes of fear can be engaged. The project will produce a monograph, two journal articles, and electronic resources.
Tyszczuk, Dr Renata Anna
Senior Lecturer, University of Sheffield, Dept of Architecture
History of Art / History of architecture
Provisional City: Revising the role of architecture in responding to environmental change
Climate change establishes humans as a disruptive geological force and reminds us of collective vulnerability, responsibility and uncertainty. However, science and policy debates have tended to overshadow accounts that address the historical, philosophical and ethical dimensions of living with environmental change. In the midst of this architects are charged with redefining how we create, shape and maintain our cities in order to limit environmental impacts and risks. This project consolidates and extends Dr Tyszczuk's previous work on architecture and provisional thinking to bring into a single volume a set of arguments about how to re-position architectural practice in relation to wider intellectual, environmental, political and cultural shifts. Central to this project is the proposition that living with uncertainty requires that architecture is reframed as a provisional practice. The project includes a historiographic survey of architectural responses to environmental change and the piloting of a programme of professional and public engagement with this research.
Uskul, Dr Ayse
Senior Lecturer in Psychology, University of Kent, School of Psychology
Ostracism in Micro Cultures: Evidence from Farmers and Herders
This Mid-Career Fellowship has a goal to a) complete a research programme on social exclusion, b) prepare three high-impact journal articles for submission, and c) organize a workshop that will bring together academics and practitioners to discuss most recent research on different forms of social exclusion and real life implications. The project examines two important factors that are hypothesized to shape social exclusion experiences in samples of adults and children: economic/cultural background (farming vs. herding) and source of ostracism (close other- vs. stranger-led ostracism) and aims to identify factors accounting for group differences (e.g., interaction with strangers). This way, the project will explore cultural differences, mechanisms, and developmental processes in social exclusion experiences. The workshop aims to bring together academics working on different forms of social exclusion (e.g., bullying) and governmental (e.g., European Social Inclusion Team) and nongovernmental (e.g., BullyingUK) organizations.
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The Good Guys: Re-writing the retail rulebook
The Good Guys aims to delight its customers — instore and online — and do good in the communities it operates in.
Founded with the aim of delighting customers and doing good, The Good Guys started its journey as Ian Muir’s Radio and Electrical Centre in Melbourne, Australia, during the 1950s. Before becoming The Good Guys in 1998 — and eventually an Australian household name — the company made several small acquisitions, which built a strong foundation for national expansion.
Selling an extensive range of recognisable brands, The Good Guys stocks products across the key categories of fridges and freezers, kitchen appliances, kitchenware and cooking, laundry, vacuums, coffee machines, personal care, heating and air conditioning, TVs, computers, tablets, and other technology products.
The Good Guys’ reputation is built on its promise to customers that they will pay the lowest prices. In November last year, The Good Guys launched its new brand promise: ‘PAY LESS, PAY LESS’. CEO Michael Ford says this promise “is intended to help customers trust that they will always pay less: before they buy and after they buy.”
“Our online bargain buys are the best Australian prices online and they are checked every morning. Our price beat promise means that we will beat a major competitors advertised price if they are in stock on the day of the enquiry. Our 30-day price guarantee provides customers with assurance that they always get the best price when shopping at The Good Guys, and is easily claimable online,” he says.
A fully connected retail experience
In driving business forward, The Good Guys, has kept pace with the rapid transformation and change of the retail industry.
“Essentially we have had to throw out the old rule book and re-write it with the customer of the future very much in mind. Many customers have not known a world without instant access to information through a mobile device,” says Ford.
In the eleven years I have been CEO of The Good Guys, I have seen our customers dramatically change the way they purchase household goods. The fast-evolving digital marketplace has really given rise to a digitally-empowered consumer, who has more choice — and ultimately more control — than ever before.
Doing good is integral to being a ‘Good Guy’
This year, The Good Guys opened its 101st store, which is a great success in itself. But at the same time, it helped Orange Sky Laundry to expand its laundry for the homeless service across Australia, Jamie’s Ministry of Food Australia to empower and encourage people to make positive changes for better nutrition through cooking classes, and Youth Projects to launch a state-of-the-art facility to address the needs of Melbourne’s growing homeless population.
“Doing good in the communities in which we operate is an important part of what it means to be a Good Guy,” says Ford.
Orange Sky Laundry, Ministry of Food Australia and Youth Projects are just a few of many community projects the company lends a hand to. In 2006, The Good Guys’ Local Giving Program was introduced, which sees a percentage of every transaction donated to local community partners. Since the Local Giving Program started, The Good Guys has donated more than $9 million to more than 200 local charities.
The Good Guys key facts:
Company name: The Good Guys
CEO: Michael Ford
Headquarter: Melbourne, Australia
Number of employees: 4,000
Annual turnover: Approx. $2 billion
Industry: Retail & Wholesale
https://www.thegoodguys.com.au/
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if it's in an e-mail it must be true July 11, 2013
How to Get Advice From Lena Dunham and Rodarte’s Sisters
By Allison P. Davis
Photo: Stefanie Keenan/Getty Images
Lena Dunham, Kirsten Dunst, the Mulleavy sisters (of Rodarte), and even Kareem Abdul-Jabbar have given the performance artist Miranda July access to their personal e-mails. As part of her new interactive work, We Think Alone, July forwards e-mails from the eclectic group to selected subscribers, and each week has a different theme. As she tells WWD, “Why create something when there is already so much ready-made material with all the e-mails out there?” Over the next ten weeks, e-mails will reveal private celebrity lives, with the Rodarte designers of particular note: “Anyone who knows them will know how very ‘them’ their choices were,” July explains. “But people who don’t know them won’t get to know them much better. But their sense of humor really comes through.”
Last Monday, the theme was money, and Dunham revealed that she wouldn’t spend $24,000 on a Liljevalch Sofa; Kirsten Dunst sold her car for a cool $7,000. This week, subscribers received e-mails that gave advice. Kareem Abdul-Jabbar gave a young NBA hopeful solid advice about staying in school and playing for love of the game. Still, the most revealing dirt came from Dunham, the Mulleavys, and Dunst:
———- Forwarded message ———-
From: Rodarte
Sent: Thursday, April 21, 2011 3:03 PM
To: V
Subject: RE:!
whiskey sours!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
From: Lena Dunham
Date: Sun, Feb 12, 2012 at 7:42 PM
Subject: Re: facebook
To: K
Listen to me. I am a woman who loves and adores and, I believe, understands you. You did nothing wrong. He is NOT NICE. He says not nice things in a nice voice so they seem nice but they are not. He isn’t kind or careful with you, he wants to suck the kindness out of you, and if he’s like this after 10 years of group therapy then G-d help us all. He’s not for you bc he’s not for anyone. Do you hear me? Good. I understand SO much the appeal, but he’s not worth your energy and someone like art guy may not be perfect or right but he’s starting on a good foot by offering some of himself to you and wanting to give you pleasureful times
Ok my lecture is done
———- Note ———-
Kirsten Dunst was unable to locate an e-mail that gives advice.
if it's in an e-mail it must be true
Get Advice From Lena Dunham & Rodarte’s Sisters
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10 Craziest Media Hoaxes
As young Falcon Heene’s would-be balloon flight has proved to be an orchestrated hoax, we look back at other instances of stories the media flubbed.
The Daily Beast Video
Updated 04.25.17 12:09PM ET / Published 10.17.09 8:02AM ET
Rick Wilking / Reuters
As authorities say young Falcon Heene’s would-be balloon flight has proved to be an orchestrated hoax, we look back at other instances of stories the media flubbed.
Falcon Never Took Off
The world seemed to grind to a halt Thursday afternoon as cable news stations ran live footage of a large, flying saucer-like object floating across the Colorado sky, with alarming reports that a six-year-old named Falcon Heene was trapped inside. When the balloon landed, it was revealed to be empty. Authorities later announced that the little boy was hiding in an attic crawl space throughout the entire saga. Now that authorities have decided the incident was a hoax, charges may be filed against Falcon’s parents.
Geraldo's Empty Vault
In 1996, Geraldo Rivera hosted a special called The Mystery of Al Capone's Vault, in which the contents of a vault once owned by the infamous mobster would be revealed on live television. Thirty million people tuned in hoping to see money, valuables, maybe bodies of Capone’s enemies. Instead they got nothing but a lot of dust and debris, making Geraldo a national punchline for years to come.
Susan Smith, Child Killer
One of the biggest media hoaxes of the 1990s was also one of the saddest. In 1994, South Carolina mother Susan Smith filed a report saying an African-American man had stolen her car with her two sons still inside. A nationwide manhunt for the carjacker ensued, followed aggressively by the press, but a week later Smith confessed she had rolled her car into a lake, leaving her two young sons to drown.
Mark Sanford's Trip to Argentina
Last June, South Carolina Governor Mark Sanford concerned the nation when he mysteriously disappeared for six days, spanning Father’s Day weekend. Eventually, his staff announced he’d been “hiking in the Appalachians” to clear his mind. But shortly thereafter, Sanford revealed he'd actually been in South America with his Argentinean lover. He would later describe María Belén Chapur as his “soulmate.”
In the spring of 2005, wide-eyed Jennifer Wilbanks—aka, the “runaway bride”—captivated the country when she disappeared from her hometown of Duluth, Georgia, days before she was supposed to get married. After a nationwide manhunt, Wilbanks called her fiancé from New Mexico, claiming she’d been kidnapped and sexually assaulted by a Hispanic man and a white woman, a story she later repeated to the cops. Turns out she’d simply skipped town on a bus, thanks to a case of cold feet. In this clip, Georgia residents pay homage their hometown antihero.
Aliens Invade New Jersey
He might not have intended it to be a hoax, but Orson Welles’ famed War of the Worlds radio broadcast successfully deceived—and terrified—the nation. On October 30, 1938, in a special Halloween episode, the well-known host read from H.G. Wells’ novel about a Martian invasion on the CBS radio drama Mercury Theatre on the Air, convincing listeners that New Jersey was being attacked by aliens. Mass hysteria ensued.
The Roswell Surgery
In 1995—better known as the dark days before YouTube—Londoner Ray Santilli distributed a video that he claimed was footage from an alien autopsy near Roswell, New Mexico, in 1947. Even without help from the Internet, the video went viral, but alas, it was soon proven to be little more than movie magic, complete with a latex dummy.
The Frozen Bigfoot
Many have claimed to have spotted the great American mythical beast, Bigfoot, but a pair of men took it a step further in 2008 when they claimed to have Bigfoot’s corpse stashed in their freezer. Much to the dismay of cryptozoologists everywhere, it turned out to be nothing more than a gorilla suit.
The Backward B
Right before the 2008 presidential election, a young campaign volunteer for John McCain named Ashley Todd claimed that she was mugged at an ATM by an Obama supporter who assaulted her and carved a backward B into her cheek. The hoax was quickly uncovered and Todd admitted to carving up her own face (in the mirror, hence the backward B). The whole incident was a PR nightmare for McCain, rivaled only by the shenanigans of his own running mate.
The Real JT LeRoy
James Frey gets a lot of flack for embellishing his "memoir," A Million Little Pieces, but what do you do when an author turns out not to exist at all? That’s what happened with JT LeRoy, a supposed transgendered addict/prostitute-turned-author, turned out to be the imaginary brainchild of Laura Albert, who sent her boyfriend’s half-sister, Savannah Knoop, to public events to pose as LeRoy. The literary elite who’d admired LeRoy’s grit eventually turned their back on him. (Her. Them. Whatever.) In this video, legendary club kid James St. James weighs in on the debacle.
The Daily Beast Video curates the most essential and entertaining video, and brings you original and exclusive productions from our talented contributors.
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Cost of Smoking
Which Tobacco Products Are Safe? Answers to E-cigarette Questions
06/17/2019 Megan Jacobs | Product Manager, Innovations
Over 1,000 HR benefit leaders have now tuned in to our “5 Things Employers Need to Know Now about E-cigarettes” webinar.
In case you missed it (or as a refresher if it’s been a few months), during our webinar, we shared what we know about e-cigarettes, what we’re learning… AND what we don’t know. We talked about:
What e-cigarettes are (and aren’t)
Effects of e-cigarettes on adults and children
Can e-cigarettes serve as a cessation aid?
Why e-cigarette users need tailored support to quit
Workplace smoking policy issues related to e-cigarettes
Want to check out the webinar? You can listen to it free on-demand on the Society for Human Resource Management site.
We fielded many great questions from HR professionals and benefits managers, who wanted to understand the science of e-cigarettes and which tobacco products are safe. Many also wanted to make sure they’re putting the right tobacco-free workplace policies in place for their employees.
Several questions asked during our webinar related to the intersection of nicotine and addiction when it comes to e-cigarettes. Let’s tackle 3 big themes:
What makes nicotine so dangerous?
Nicotine is addictive, and that’s true of both cigarettes and e-cigarettes.
It is particularly harmful for adolescent brain development, which continues until around age 25.
Exposure to nicotine in young people can impact learning, memory, and attention, and lead to increased impulsivity, mood disorders , and addiction to other drugs.
Simply put, young people should not use nicotine (whether they’re your employees, or your employees’ children).
What makes nicotine use among young people dangerous?
I’ve heard many hopeful HR folks ask, “But what about nicotine-free e-cigarettes? What if my employees are using those?” The reality: 99% of e-cigarettes sold in convenience and similar stores contain nicotine, including all JUUL products (the market leader of e-cigs).
What’s more, e-cigarettes are not currently regulated the same way other tobacco products are, making it hard for consumers to know exactly what they are getting. A product may be marketed as being nicotine-free, but may actually contain nicotine, or contain varying amounts of nicotine each time a consumer buys it.
Bottom line: Odds are good that the e-cigarettes around your workplace contain nicotine, despite the hope that nicotine-free products exist as a benign hobby.
If e-cigarettes help smokers quit, shouldn’t it be OK for smokers to keep using them?
During our webinar, we discussed that for some smokers, sometimes, e-cigarettes might be an option. We also discussed that for more smokers, more of the time, a combination of skill-building tools and coping strategies, social support, and FDA-approved medication is the winning combination.
Recent research of a nationally-representative sample of adult e-cigarette users found that most e-cigarette users want to quit: 62% of e-cigarette users reported plans to quit e-cigarettes for good. You can support everyone at your workplace with a cessation program that meets all their unique needs.
Interested in seeing a demo of tailored support provided through the EX Program to help smokers, e-cigarette users, and parents of kids who vape? Connect with us and let’s start a conversation.
See additional responses to questions asked during our webinar:
Your 6 Questions about E-cigs and Vaping in the Workplace
Solving Secondhand Vapors in the Workplace—and at Home
Megan Jacobs, MPH
Product Manager, Innovations
Megan Jacobs is responsible for the design, delivery, and evaluation of the EX Program. Most recently, Jacobs led the EX Program team responsible for the first evidence-based text messaging program to help e-cigarette users of all ages quit. She formed her expertise in mHealth interventions and public health campaigns with her work at the University of Michigan Health Service, DC Department of Health, and the National Vaccine Program Office. Her public health work over the past 15 years has applied technology to behavior change ranging from adolescent sexual health to vaccinations. Jacobs received her Master of Public Health from the Milken Institute School of Public Health at George Washington University and is also a graduate of the University of Michigan.
Enter your email to receive updates on the EX Program blog.
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©2019 Truth Initiative
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The Death of Grass
Alfred Hickling
Fri 3 Apr 2009 19.01 EDT First published on Fri 3 Apr 2009 19.01 EDT
John Christopher's mid-1950s vision of worldwide eco-disaster was recently named among the top 10 out-of-print books in Britain. It has now been reissued as a modern classic, and it's hard to understand why it has been ignored for so long. A virus that attacks all species of grass, including wheat and rice, has caused mass starvation in China and is heading this way. John Custance and his family flee London, though the journey becomes increasingly treacherous due to the rapid breakdown of civil and moral law. You could argue it is too convenient that the hero has a friend in the Ministry of the Environment with access to classified information, as well as a family farm to escape to in Cumbria. The prospect of atomic bombs being dropped to reduce the population may also have seemed more imminent in 1956 than it does now. But the swiftness with which society reverts to savagery is remarkable, and the evocation of man's culpability for the disaster - "For years now we've treated the land like a piggy bank, to be raided" - could hardly be more prescient.
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Karl Marlantes's top 10 war stories
From Homer to Norman Mailer, the novelist and Vietnam veteran chooses books that tell the 'numbing, confusing, occasionally thrilling' truth about combat
Karl Marlantes
Wed 11 Aug 2010 07.43 EDT First published on Wed 11 Aug 2010 07.43 EDT
A still from Terrence Malick's film version of The Thin Red Line
After studying at Yale, Karl Marlantes served as a marine in Vietnam and was awarded numerous medals including two Purple Hearts. In 1977 he began writing Matterhorn, a novel about his experience of combat in the jungle. The book ended up taking Marlantes 30 years to write while raising a family of five children and working full-time in energy consultancy.
Buy Matterhorn at the Guardian bookshop
"It seems to me that a great war book must speak the truth about war; that it is mostly tedious, numbing, confusing, occasionally thrilling, filled with love for your comrades, and ultimately leaves you sad. Then, of course, there is the constant authorial challenge to keep the reader turning the pages – a challenge fully met by all of these tales."
1. The Iliad by Homer
I have to confess I first read this in a Classics Comic Book version. What struck me then – I was about eight or nine – was that the author actually thought that the Trojans weren't morally any better or worse than the Greeks. Maybe a little better, in fact, but I'm half-Greek so that was hard to swallow. It was only after I'd been in a war myself that I read the actual epic, and I did it in both Robert Fitzgerald's and Richmond Lattimore's translations. On those readings I was struck by the changelessness of the experience, no matter the technology, and the utter randomness of it all, in Homer personified by the intervention of the gods.
2. The Red Badge of Courage by Steven Crane
This one I read because it was required in school. I suspect it got on the required list in part because our teachers thought it was short enough to at least encourage us not to reach for the Classic Comic Book. It is of course notable for the understanding of fear, cowardice, and slaughter from a man who wasn't in combat. This is rare, and I have to admit that I'm highly suspicious of any novel about war that is written by someone who hasn't experienced it.
3. Egil's Saga
I was taken by this ancient tale's authentic celebration of the dark joy of being on the winning side. It's also just a very good adventure that takes place in a time that tends to get romanticised. Here, by contrast, you get the feeling that it's a pretty tough way to make a living. Full disclosure, my grandfather was a Norwegian and I was fairly predisposed to overlook some of Egil's more pathological mental states.
4. War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy
I've read this twice and am going through it for the third right now with the new Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky translation. This man's genius is to handle a huge cast of characters and points of view, from an Olympian historical analysis, to the minds of dictators and generals, to the minds of individual soldiers. When I read how Prince Andre felt when he went down mortally wounded, seeing the concrete nothingness of the sky, I actually had to stand up and take a walk it hit me so profoundly.
5. The Penguin Book of First World War Poetry
Here we get the true feeling of senseless mechanised slaughter, the terror of artillery shellings and poison gas that, supported by rail systems and industrial economies, could go on and on until minds broke, and the numbing degradation of life in the trenches. These poems also made it clear that the day of the individual warrior who could significantly influence his odds of survival through skill of arms had truly come to an end.
6. Goodbye to All That by Robert Graves
Graves expressed so clearly the aftermath of combat, the wounds to the mind and soul. And he told of the actual experience in chilling understatement.
7. All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque
This is the first novel I read where "the con" of patriotism was fully revealed. I have nothing against patriotism; it's a good thing. It's just that sometimes you can have too much of a good thing.
8. In Parenthesis by David Jones
This small novel is very close to poetry in its spare and beautiful use of language and its use of symbols. Being a mythology nut, I relished the inclusion of the old Welsh epics and myths in the text. He also captures, as does his title, the way the intensity of combat is bracketed between versions of "normal life".
9. The Thin Red Line by James Jones
Here is a book written by a soldier with a soldier's eye and sensibility. I think Jones captured jungle warfare brilliantly. He also captured the nerve-shredding anxiety of nothing happening.
10. The Naked and the Dead by Norman Mailer
Here is war writing that focuses on a group and the interaction within that group. It is the small unit of friends that provides the meaning of war to most veterans, not the sweeping generalisations of the politicians. This is not to say that some sweeping generalisations aren't true – it's fairly easy, for example, to agree that destroying fascism was a good cause. But when my uncles and father and their friends could be persuaded to talk about their experience of the second world war, to a man said they never thought once about "the cause" when they were actually fighting. They thought about their friends.
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Popular Sumter Artists Guild Show opens Thursday
PHOTOS PROVIDED
Laura Cardello's horsehair pot is her entry into the Sumter Artists Guild Show opening Thursday at the Sumter County Gallery of Art.
Lightworkers by Constance Brennan is her imagining of those who live their lives so as to be a bright light in the world. Brennan's work can be viewed at the Sumter Artists Guild Show at the Sumter County Gallery of Art beginning Thursday night with a 5:30 to 7:30 p.m. reception.
David Brown's three gourds painting is also part of the Sumter Artists Guild Show.
Bananas by Rhonda Simons
Posted Tuesday, June 25, 2019 6:00 am
BY IVY MOORE
Special to The Sumter Item
The most popular annual exhibition at the Sumter County Gallery of Art opens Thursday, when many of the Sumter Artists Guild's 120 members will show their work. A reception accompanies the opening from 5:30 to 7:30 p.m. The Guild show is a competition for spots in the Guild Winners' Show in January.
SCGA Executive Director Karen Watson said that "Sumter is fortunate to be home to many talented artists working in all mediums," created by both professionals and amateurs.
Since its founding more than a half-century ago, the guild has been true to its mission "to promote, support and foster interest in art and to create an opportunity for our community of artists to engage in cooperative artistic enterprises and to be further active in supporting a variety of activities associated with art education, art instruction and art appreciation ."
Watson noted that "the guild was instrumental in founding the Sumter County Gallery of Art 50 years ago."
Guild president Laura Cardello, whose primary medium is clay, said members of the guild do not have to live in Sumter County. The current membership includes artists from Clarendon, Kershaw, Florence, Lee and several other counties.
Cardello will show a horsehair pot in the guild show. She said the horsehair, which she obtained (with permission) from the tail of a friend's horse, is applied to the exterior of the pot, which has reached a temperature of 1600 degrees in the kiln.
"The horsehair burns away, leaving a carbon trail on the pot," she said.
The Sumter Artists Guild holds monthly meetings upstairs at the Sumter County Gallery of Art, September through May, with two meetings held in conjunction with exhibitions at the University of South Carolina Sumter. Guild meetings often feature artist demonstrations, classes, "show and tell" and fellowship. Membership is open to artists and art enthusiasts; dues are $20 a month.
Watson said the level of talent in the guild is evident: " during the past year Thomas Blackmon was juried into ArtFields 2019, Deane Ackerman was the featured artist at the inaugural Inspire! Festival, Michael Duffy was the featured artist at the 2019 Iris Festival, and Eric Burress, Cara-lin Getty, Richard Dinkins and Josh Hatfield all had solo exhibitions in the USC Sumter galleries. These are just a few examples of the high level of talent in the Sumter Artists' Guild that will be on display in the exhibition."
The guild show, Watson explained, "is a 'judged show, not a juried show, so every piece of artwork entered will be displayed."
The winner of the show, second- and third-place and honorable mention winners will have a joint show at the SCGA in January, at which they will each show several artworks, Cardello said. Visitors to the show are asked to vote for their favorite piece of art, with the piece with the most votes winning the People's Choice Award.
Watson noted that the guild show offers an excellent opportunity to purchase quality art at reasonable prices and to talk with the artists about their work.
Judge for the show will be Eileen Blyth, a mixed-media artist living in Columbia. A College of Charleston alumna, she studied under William Halsey, who influenced her greatly. In addition to her paintings, Blyth makes mixed-media sculpture, often with found objects that might be overlooked by other artists. Her work has been exhibited in galleries around the Carolinas and in Tokyo, Germany and other overseas locations. In 2007, the Sumter County Gallery of Art featured a solo exhibition of her work.
Of her art, Blyth said, "There are times when I have an idea in my head of how a painting or sculpture will go. Most always, as I work, a completely different thing happens, as if the paint or object had a plan of its own. Somewhere between building a structure or making and erasing marks there is a shift. It is that moment of knowing, of seeing that shape or line, of finding the composition that is the exciting thing for me."
Watson said, "The Sumter Artists' Guild Exhibition - more than any other - is a true community effort. It would not be possible to showcase our local talent without the generous support of Judy Tyl, in loving memory of Charles "Chuck" Tyl; FTC; The Heart of Sumter Neighborhood Association; and Black River Electric Cooperative. Flowers are courtesy of Azalea Garden Club & The Council of Garden Clubs of Sumter."
The 2019 Sumter Artists Guild Show opens Thursday with a 5:30 to 7:30 p.m. reception at the Sumter County Gallery of Art, 200 Hasel St. in the Sumter County Cultural Center, 135 Haynsworth St. The exhibition will remain on view in the gallery through Aug. 29.
The Sumter County Gallery of Art is open Tuesday through Saturday from 11 a.m. until 5 p.m. For more information, contact the gallery at (803) 775-0543 or visit the website https://sumtergallery.com.
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Hindi Films: Look Into ‘How Female Actors Look Then And Now?’
EntertainmentBollywoodEditors Blog
By Rutuja Nagwekar Last updated Jun 15, 2018
Indian films have been screened in markets around the world since the early 20th century. We are presenting the look of famous female actors in Hindi films:
When it comes to the performance, every actor tries to give his or her best to the character they are playing in a film. Irrespective of the medium, all the actors are bound to perform and there job is tough than it appears.
Formerly, in some societies, only men could become actors, and women’s roles were generally played by men or boys. But in later stage of 21st century the scenario took a revolution in the performing arts where even woman started taking active participation which created their own space in every field they perceived. Of course the personalities who made this revolution to happen deserves all its attributes with respect to the milestone they completed.
Indian films have been screened in markets around the world since the early 20th century. Right from its infancy, the Hindi film industry in India has been known for its unique songs and dance routines in films. The black and white era had numerous Hindi films that featured classical dance set to the tunes of songs. A fresh wave was experienced in 60s and then 70s grew significantly.
We are presenting the look of famous female actors in Hindi film industry, then and now:
1. Waheeda Rehman
Waheeda Rehman is an Indian actress who has appeared in mainly Hindi films, as well as Telugu, Tamil and Bengali films.
her career carried through 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s.
2. Saira Banu
Saira Banu, is one of the most popular Indian Hindi film actresses and the wife of the film actor Dilip Kumar. She acted in many Bollywood films between 1961 and 1988.
Saira Banu was 16 years old in 1960, the year she made her debut to Hindi films.
3. Tanuja Samarth
She is an Indian film actress, who predominantly works in the Hindi film industry and part of the Mukherjee-Samarth family.
Tanuja was born in a Marathi family to filmmaker Kumarsen Samarth and actress Shobhna Samarth.
4. Asha Parekh
Asha Parekh is an Indian film actress, director, and producer who was one of the top actresses in Hindi cinema from 1959 to 1973.
Parekh started her career as a child artist under the screen name Baby Asha Parekh.
5. Sharmila Tagore
Sharmila Tagore is an Indian film actress known for her works in Hindi cinema as well as Bengali cinema.
Tagore began her career as an actress in Satyajit Ray’s 1959 Bengali film Apur Sansar.
6. Hema Malini
Hema Malini is an Indian actress, director, producer, dancer and politician.
She made her acting debut in the Tamil film “Ithu Sathiyam” as a dancer and supporting actress.
7. Jaya Bachchan
Making her film debut as a teenager in Satyajit Ray’s Mahanagar (1963), Bachchan’s first screen role as an adult was in Guddi (1971), directed by Hrishikesh Mukherjee, with whom she would collaborate in several films.
She first acted with her future husband Amitabh Bachchan in the film Bansi Birju (1972)
8. Shabana Azmi
She is an Indian actress of film, television and theatre.
Azmi graduated from the FTII in 1973 and signed on to Khwaja Ahmad Abbas’ Faasla and began work on Kanti Lal Rathod’s Parinay as well.
9. Rekha
Bhanurekha Ganesan is an Indian film actres, noted for her versatility and acknowledged as one of the finest actresses in Indian cinema.
Rekha made her debut as heroine in the successful Kannada film Operation Jackpot Nalli C.I.D 999 with Rajkumar in 1969.
10. Neetu Singh
Neetu Singh made her debut as a child actress with the film Suraj in 1966, with Rajendra Kumar and Vyjanthimala as the lead pair.
She made a comeback to films after 26 years, appearing opposite her husband in Love Aaj Kal (2009)
A smile is an inexpensive way to change your looks and these female actors have been successful in maintaining their beautiful smile.
Asha ParekhHema MaliniJaya BachchanNeetu SinghRekhaSaira BanuShabana AzmiSharmila Tagore
Rutuja Nagwekar
Rutuja Nagwekar is a Post graduate to be with the experience in marketing for Zee Media and Web content. A disciplined and pragmatic individual which believes in ‘We’ rather than ‘I’ and is an excellent team worker. Enhanced communication and inter personal skills which she have acquired through her long period of association with the performing theatre group and experimental films which have given her the adaptability and flexibility skills to work in any environment.
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Source: Channel News Asia.
Minister of Transport Khaw Boon Wan assures Singaporeans that 50-year-old HDB Flats will continue to appreciate
Kathleen.F 2018-09-03 Current Affairs, Housing
Minister for Transport Khaw Boon Wan assures the young people of Singapore that 50-year-old Housing Board (HDB) flats will continue to appreciate over the next 10 years.
On 2 September, Mr Khaw addressed claims that the limited 99-year lease on HDB flats means that the properties are not assets, which is a serious concern with the youth and young adults looking to buy a home in Singapore.
He was speaking to an audience of over 200 young people from Sembawang GRC on issues that were raised at the National Day Rally speech last month like housing, healthcare and cost of living.
“If you buy a 70-year-old flat, there is still appreciation potential especially because this Government is prepared to continue to invest in it through Home Improvement Programme (HIP) II and the Voluntary Early Redevelopment Scheme (Vers),” Mr Khaw said.
The HIP II and Vers are some of the new schemes that Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong announced in this National Day Rally speech last month in an effort to retain the value of HDB flats for longer. Mr Lee noted that HIP will be expanded to cover more HDB flat while the HIP II scheme will see flats being upgraded twice more during its lease with the second round of upgrades taking place when the properties are about 60-70 years old.
Additionally, Vers will afford HDB flat owners a chance to vote for the government to buy back their flats before their lease runs out, which the Minister Mr Khaw says will ‘prop up’ the value of their old flats.
At this audience with the young people last weekend, a question was posed by Sembawang grassroots leader Geralding Yoong, 22, on the compensation terms for the Vers scheme, specifically on the valuation criteria.
In his answer, Mr Khaw said that it is inevitable that an appreciating asset such as flats will begin to depreciate at some point. He did however emphasise that he cannot be sure when that point might be.
Subsequently, Mr Khaw explained that while assets used to appreciate at a much higher rate for the past generations, the same cannot be expected for the current or future generations. Back when Singapore was a developing country, the strong economic growth brought with it significant appreciation value for HDB flats. However, now that the economic growth is steady at about 2-3% per year, the appreciation rate will be much lower as well.
This illuminated PM Lee’s comments on the less generous compensation terms for Vers as compared to the Selective En Block Redevelopment Scheme (Sers). Essentially, Mr Khaw seems to be reiterating the government’s resolve to take appropriate steps to preserve the people’s investments in property, specifically HDB flats.
Editor’s note – Khaw seems to forget that one of the issues is that the loan offered by HDB and the banks is only avaliable for flats that are 40 years and less. Even if the flat were to appreciate, say at 20% of original value, would anyone have that amount of cash on hand?
This is coupled with the realisation that the hdb is worth zero at end of the lease. So would you pay an additional 20% over the original price of a 70 year old flat with cash only to see the value dropping to zero at 99 years?
The sham is up.
Singapore’s deepest female freediver: Anqi Lim represents her island in the Freediving World Championships in August
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EPA Awards Environmental Science Fellowships to Oregon Grad Students
SEATTLE - The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has awarded Science to Achieve Results or STAR fellowships for environmental and public health research to three graduate students at Oregon State University, Portland State University, and Oregon Health and Science University. STAR graduate fellows are selected from a large number of applications in a highly competitive review process. Master’s students are awarded up to $88,000 over two years and PhD students are awarded up to $132,000 over three years to support their graduate research.
Christina Murphy, PhD research: Managing Hydropower Reservoir Levels to Protect Salmon
The majority of Pacific Northwest hydropower dams form large reservoirs on rivers that support threatened and endangered Salmon. However, these habitats and the effects of reservoir management also have tradeoffs for hydropower and aquatic ecology. This research will use field data and models of reservoir ecology to explore how managing reservoir water levels and volume changes may affect food webs, reservoir productivity, salmon growth and survival, and water quality.
James Powell, PhD research: Studying Endocrine Disrupting Chemical Effects on Dolphins and Humans
This research uses data from dolphins to develop a model for assessing adverse human health impacts of exposures to endocrine disrupting compounds. Because the rate and pattern of bone formation is affected by environmental exposures, bone density could provide a record of an animal’s chronic exposure to environmental contaminants and serve as a model for similar effects that would be expected in humans under similar exposure conditions. This research will use custom-designed ultrasound devices to assess coastal ecosystem health and establish the bone density of live, free-ranging, and stranded or beachcast dolphins.
Oregon Health and Science University - Portland State University School of Public Health
Kathryn Fankhauser, master’s research: Using Drones to Study Environmental and Public Health
Environmental monitoring in remote areas can be constrained by resource-intensive fieldwork. Drone technology, however, can offer rapid, reliable data collection and processing. This research will develop an unmanned aerial system to assess the environmental impact of a public health program in Rwanda. This research will increase the capacity of a disadvantaged country to monitor development projects and evaluate environmental outcomes. This technology can then be customized for different areas and applications.
Since the STAR Fellowship Program began more than 20 years ago, graduate fellows have engaged in innovative research opportunities leading some to become prominent leaders in environmental science. The program has awarded nearly 2000 students a total of more than $65 million in funding since 1995. This year’s STAR Fellows are poised to become the next generation of environmental professionals who can make significant impacts in environmental science and beyond.
Learn more about the STAR fellows at: https://www.epa.gov/research-fellowships/graduate-research-internship-program-grip-opportunities-epa.
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Kam's Kapsules: Previews for Movies Opening May 1
Kam's Kapsules: Weekly Movie Previews that Make Choosing a Film Fun
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The many voices of Sunday Muse: Toronto actress voices heroine in a Survivor parody
By Tony WongTechnology Reporter
Thu., Sept. 4, 2014timer3 min. read
Sunday Muse’s first real fan was her grandmother.
At the age of 6, the comedian would spend time at her Italian grandmother’s Toronto home. Her nonna’s favourite soap opera was The Young And The Restless. And it seems Muse developed a taste for melodrama.
“I would hide in the bathroom and literally taught myself how to put on somebody else’s mask. To contort my face. I was obsessed.”
Muse would imitate Y & R characters such as Victor Newman (played by Eric Braeden) — “You could never understand anything he said, he was always mumbling something” — or Nicki Newman (Melody Thomas Scott). “She was always such a whiner and complainer,” says Muse, switching voices effortlessly.
Her grandmother laughed so hard that she ended up needing her asthma machine hooked up. She would beg Muse to stop. It was the peal of Nonna’s laughter that would eventually propel Muse into a showbiz career, where she would become a player in the world of animation.
Muse’s work looms large in the cartoon universe, where she has been the voice for dozens of characters, including Cheer Bear from the Care Bears, Safffi from Jimmy Two Shoes and Wally from Arthur. On Sept. 4, she is featured as Ella, a parody of an animated heroine, on Total Drama Phakitew Island on Canada’s Teletoon channel.
The Canadian-produced series is a parody of the reality show Survivor and is the number -ne rated show on the Cartoon Network in the United States.
Muse’s character, in particular, has been a big hit with viewers. In the series she plays Ella as full-on Disney princess, filled with optimism and naïvete and the ability to break out in unexpected and delightful song.
“Ella connected because I think everything she did was heartfelt and sensitive, and she always had a smile on her face. No matter what went down. She always had a sense of humour, she always had a song for every situation,” says Muse.
In addition to her animated voice work, Muse is also a musician, a theatre actress, and has worked in film and television. She is also the author of the book You Can Do Cartoon Voices Too! And she’s a voice coach.
She is also working with actor Rick Howland (Trick on Lost Girls) on an online video series.
The shorts are a series of one- to two-minute vignettes lampooning prepubescent teenage life. The entire series is shot in the back seat of a car, where Muse plays the manic and moody Precious Stemming, while Howland plays Jake, a happy-go-lucky kid with a hormonal imbalance.
“It’s sort of a Trailer Park Boys meets Degrassi Junior High in the early years,” says Muse.
Muse says the root of all her animated work is that she is essentially a character actress.
“I love comedy. I love characters. The ability to be able to step into another person and create a different voice is incredible,” she says. “Animation is incredibly freeing as an actor. It isn’t based on what you look like. It’s what you sound like.”
Her first role, more than a decade ago, was in Disney’s Emmy Award winning Rolie Polie Olie, where she played a baby.
She had no lines. Just gurgling sounds.
She killed the audition by sticking her fingers in her mouth and literally slobbering over herself.
“I just jabbered and made weird baby noises and it worked,” laughs Muse.
That first role would eventually land Muse on the short list of top animated performers.
Muse’s influences growing up included the work of the late Robin Williams, and Gilda Radner.
“Robin Williams was my inspiration from the very start, as someone who could not only do characters on film and TV, but drama as well. He could do phenomenal cartoon voices. His range was incredible.”
Like Williams, Muse has been inspired to try out various artistic muscles, moving over the years from the field of animation to live action, music and theatre.
But no matter what the stage, the one question that Muse always gets is whether her free-spirited name is a stage persona she made up.
“I was born on a Sunday. And my parents were hardcore hippies,” says Muse. “ My mom is from Italy, and one of the names they had for me was Domenica, which is Sunday in Italian. They thought: Wow, what a beautiful name, especially since I was born on a Sunday. Although it may have had a lot to do with all the pot they were smoking,” she adds, laughing.
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Woman arrested after allegedly stomping on sea turtle nest at Florida beach
A woman found herself behind bars after she allegedly stomped on a sea turtle nest found at a Florida Beach.
People magazine reports that Yaqun Lu, 41, was seen “jabbing at the sea turtle nest” and then “stomping all over the nest with her bare feet.”
Lu, a Chinese citizen who is currently living in Michigan, was taken into custody by Miami Beach police officers and charged with marine turtle or egg molestation or harassment. Her bond was set at $5,000.
While the situation certainly looked bad to bystanders, police say that, fortunately, the nest sustained only minimal damage. It has since been roped off to keep people away.
“Thankfully, it appears the eggs were not damaged,” Miami Beach police spokesman Ernesto Rodriguez told the Miami Herald.
Many species of sea turtles are endangered and there are strict state and federal laws protecting them.
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Passion Pit entertains fans despite dull performance | The Triangle
Passion Pit entertains fans despite dull performance
By nick.stropko
A challenge that many bands are facing as of late is how to translate electronic music into an entertaining live display. While an energetic light show certainly does not hurt, I have personally witnessed a great number of electronic acts hampered by their reliance on keyboards, which keep the audience hopelessly in the dark on how music is being made and keep musicians tethered to their instruments. Electro pop band Passion Pit attempted to conquer this problem Nov. 29, coupling the obligatory light show with an impassioned performance by lead singer Michael Angelakos. While they were successful to a degree, their performance was not without some problems.
The show opened with a performance by indie rock outfit Ra Ra Riot, which proved to be an excellent, if not entirely musically congruent, opening act. Combining a superb rhythm section (particular kudos to bassist Mathieu Santos, who nearly stole the show for me with his inventive and technically adept playing), charming strings, a charismatic frontman and a stalwart guitar player keeping things together, the band brought a significant amount of energy to its performance. The crowd responded very positively to the opening act; the volume of applause they received seemed to be too great for that of the warm-up band. However, the set was hindered to some degree by the poor sound of the Electric Factory — oftentimes I couldn’t even be sure that the guitar was plugged in. Regardless, Ra Ra Riot exceeded any expectations as an opening act, possibly even upstaging the main act.
However, once Ra Ra Riot concluded its set, the venue became extremely crowded. Between the dubstep blaring as Passion Pit’s gear was set up; the almost exclusively teenage crowd; and the combined smell of alcohol, perfume and sweat, the atmosphere began to resemble that of a fraternity party. After some time, the lights went down, and the crowd absolutely roared as Angelakos and company took the stage. While the frontman wandered about the stage, interacted with the audience and showed off his impressive range, his backing band formed a semicircle behind him, playing their parts with little vigor or emotion. Indeed, while most of the band members have been together since 2008, it certainly did not come across in their performance. While the instrumentalists played their parts to perfection, they barely seemed to acknowledge each other — they largely stood in place and provided music for Angelakos to sing over. Watching Passion Pit after Ra Ra Riot was a study in contrasts. Ra Ra Riot seemed like a bunch of friends having a great deal of fun onstage together, trading off instruments and joking around. Passion Pit seemed to be all business, with the possible exception of the lead singer, who genuinely did seem very happy to be there.
Despite this, the crowd didn’t seem to really notice or care about the band’s dynamic or figuring out how the musicians onstage created the sounds that emanated from the speakers (a problem I have with live electronic music that I alluded to earlier). Instead, the audience seemed to treat the occasion as simply a big party, responding very well to the massive choruses, the very impressive light show and the endless amount of hooks and booming basslines that Passion Pit provided for them. Despite my curmudgeonly attitude toward their performance, they did seem to provide those in attendance very effectively with what they came to see. Energy abounded in the Electric Factory throughout their performance, proving Passion Pit to be talented entertainers — at least for those who go to Passion Pit concerts.
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The Nuclear Blast of Russian Collusion.
When President Donald Trump tweeted “Firm involved with discredited and Fake Dossier takes the 5th. Who paid for it, Russia, FBI, the Dems, or all?” people assumed it was one of Trump’s midnight rants. But, he exposed what looks likely to become the greatest political scandal in America’s history.
For a year, the Democrats, aided and abetted by a Hillary Clinton supporting media and a Deep State Establishment which includes Obama hangovers in the new Trump Administration as well as ‘Never Trump’ Republicans, have been searching under every rock and stone for evidence of a Trump collusion with the Russians. Before leaving office, FBI head, James Comey contrived to appoint his friend, Robert Mueller, to be the Special Counsel to investigate links between the incoming president and the Russians, portrayed as the greatest evil on the face of the planet.
Now, it seems, the nuclear storm they unleashed of Russian collusion has suddenly changed direction and is blasting the Democrats and the Establishment fully in their own faces. In a two-pronged attack their demons have turned against them in what Trump calls “the Washington swamp.”
Christopher Steele, a former British spy, offered the anti-Trump opposition information that could sink the Trump Campaign. The information came out of the Kremlin. This fake Russian intel was offered through a Russian-infected NGO named Fusion GPS. It was designed to help the Clinton Campaign defeat Donald Trump. There was a price to be paid for this dossier. James Comey, the head of the FBI considered paying for it but, despite denials, it was revealed that the price was paid by the Hillary Clinton Campaign and the DNC. Millions of dollars were paid in several payments to through law firms as cut-outs to cloak where the money was ending up.
The dossier was shared with the FBI, and it was the basis for James Comey to appoint his friend, Mueller, as Special Counsel to investigate Donald Trump’s collusion with the Russians. When it became clear that the Clinton camp was ready to pay the price, the FBI and the DOJ decided to sit on it and allow the Democrats to run with it. It turned out to be fake news, nothing more than Kremlin disinformation.
The FBI and the DOJ had a duty to bring this Russian interference to the attention of Congress. They didn’t.
An FBI informer wanted to bring the details of the dossier and name those involved in the scandal to Congress, but he was threatened by the FBI and by Loretta Lynch’s Depart of Justice with criminal, not civil, charges including serving jail time. The whistle-blower’s lawyer has been campaigning that it was the FBI and the Attorney-General’s duty to bring this matter to Congress, and that they had no jurisdiction to threaten this employee with criminal charges and incarceration.
Congress Oversight and Government Reform Committee member, Ron DeSantis, pressed the current Attorney-General, Jeff Sessions, to release this FBI agent and allow him to testify before Congress. The Attorney-General has now authorized this agent to speak with Congress. DeSantis said on the Lou Dobbs Show on Fox News TV that he is confident that the agent will not only give them details and names, but also offer supporting documents.
The affair is likely to include the breaking news of a huge multi-million-dollar scandal involving the Obama Administration, the FBI, the Department of Justice under the Obama presidency, Hillary and Bill Clinton and their Clinton Foundation.
Democrat Adam Schiff once said, without one iota of evidence, of a fake Trump collusion that it was “one of the most shocking betrayals in history.” Now he is going to witness what will truly be the most shocking betrayals in American history but, to his dismay, it will be Democrat-induced betrayals.
Under the Obama and Clintons, the United States sold 20% of its vital uranium reserves to America’s evilest enemy, Putin in the Kremlin. Uranium is the prime ingredient for a nuclear bomb. Today, the United States has to import uranium to power its nuclear power plants – from Russia. Part of the agreement stated that none of this uranium could leave the United States but there is evidence that much of it has left America for Europe and, almost certainly to Russia. Russia also supplies Iran with much of their uranium for their nuclear projects.
That is why this issue has important security connotations for Israel.
And, in a pay to play quid pro quo, $145 Million made its way from the Russian actors in this deal (acting for the Kremlin) into the coffers of the Clinton Foundation while Hillary Clinton was acting Secretary of State. Her husband, Bill, travelled to Moscow to give a $500,000 speech before having a private chat with Putin himself in his Moscow mansion. This, after Obama was recorded on an open mic in 2012 telling Russian Prime Minister, Dmitry Medvedev, “tell Vladimir that after my election I have more flexibility.” This was matched by Hillary Clinton pantomiming with Russian Foreign Minister, Sergey Lavrov, that they could press a plastic ‘Reset’ button.
This was the jovial atmosphere that accompanied the Obama Administration’s collusion with Russia which is now being revealed to have sold off one of America’s most vital strategic and security assets to “the greatest threat to any nation” according to FBI’s James Comey, or “Russia is at the top of America’s threat list,” according to Obama’s Defense secretary, Ash Carter, in 2016, or to a country that “engages in hostile acts,” according to Hillary Clinton.
Either way, the Democrats unleashed a nuclear storm when they went after Trump on trumped up charges of Russian collusion. Now they are about to reap the storm they created. It is likely to burn and destroy several Establishment figures. Watch out for the names Comey, Rosenstein, Wiseman, Mueller, Lynch, maybe Holder, two Clintons, and Obama.
If this is part of draining the swamp, so be it.
Barry Shaw is a Senior Associate at the Israel Institute for Strategic Studies.
1917 and the Battle of Beer Sheba.
The united Jerusalem Delusion by Barry Shaw.
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Reds bring up top prospect Nick Senzel for debut
With an offense that's last in the NL, the Reds decided to bring up top prospect Nick Senzel and let him continue learning a new position at the major league level. The Reds called up Senzel for the start of their series against the Giants
Reds bring up top prospect Nick Senzel for debut With an offense that's last in the NL, the Reds decided to bring up top prospect Nick Senzel and let him continue learning a new position at the major league level. The Reds called up Senzel for the start of their series against the Giants Check out this story on USATODAY.com: https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/mlb/2019/05/03/reds-bring-up-top-prospect-nick-senzel-for-debut/39440713/
AP Published 12:33 p.m. ET May 3, 2019 | Updated 7:24 p.m. ET May 3, 2019
CINCINNATI (AP) — With an offense that's last in the NL, the Reds decided to bring up top prospect Nick Senzel and let him continue learning a new position at the major league level.
The Reds brought up Senzel for his major league debut at the start of their series against the San Francisco Giants on Friday. The 23-year-old outfielder was batting second and playing center, the spot they've been aiming him toward since the offseason.
"We don't bring guys up to put them on the sidelines," said Dick Williams, the president of baseball operations. "We expect him to inject some energy and help the outfield defense. Nick is ready to do that."
He got the loudest ovation during pregame introductions and hit a flyout to center field in his first at-bat against Tyler Beede, another former first-round pick.
Senzel was taken second overall in the 2016 amateur draft out of Tennessee. He signed for a $6.2 million bonus, but his ascent was slowed by bouts of vertigo and a broken right index finger last season.
The Reds decided to turn the career infielder into a center fielder after Billy Hamilton was let go and nobody else on the roster had significant experience at the position.
Senzel played center during spring training and started the season at Triple-A Louisville to get more experience at the spot. A sprained right ankle sidelined him until April 23. He batted .257 with one double one homer and two RBIs in eight games and 35 at-bats.
Cincinnati's .207 team batting average is last in the majors, the main reason the Reds have gotten off to a 13-18 start that left them last in the NL Central. The Reds decided they might as well bring up Senzel even though he's only played eight games at Louisville this season.
"It's an art, not a science," Williams said. "I wish they taught you in GM school how to know what the day is."
Senzel was informed of the team's intentions after Louisville's last game.
"That gave me a day to get settled down," Senzel said. "Now, I'm here and ready to help this team win some games."
The Reds optioned right-hander Matt Bowman to Louisville and moved second baseman Scooter Gennett to the 60-day injured list to create a spot for Senzel. Gennett sustained a major groin injury late in spring training.
Senzel was sidelined by vertigo in 2017 and early last year, as well. He batted .310 in 44 games for Louisville with six homers and 25 RBIs before breaking his right index finger. He played in the instructional league, making the switch to outfield, before surgery on Oct. 16 for bone spurs in his left, non-throwing elbow.
Manager David Bell decided to use him right away.
"It's a big day," Bell said. "It's nice. It's a special day. I hope he enjoys every minute of it. He should feel proud of everything he's done to get here.
"I do remember my first day. It moves pretty fast. You try to slow it down. It's like a dream come true because it is."
AP freelance writer Mark Schmetzer contributed to this report.
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U.S. Chamber of Commerce Foundation / The Resilience Revolution: How 100 Resilient Cities is Partnering with Business to Increase their Reach
The Resilience Revolution: How 100 Resilient Cities is Partnering with Business to Increase their Reach
Jennifer Herman
2046885994_4cc74f146f_o.jpg
What do Boston, Massachusetts; Phnom Penh, Cambodia; Amman, Jordan; and Athens, Greece all have in common? At first, it may not seem like much, but in December 2014, they, along with 31 other cities around the globe, were added to the Rockefeller Foundation’s 100 Resilient Cities program, 100RC for short. These recent additions are following in the footsteps of the first 32 cities pioneered by the program in December of 2013, bringing the total cities involved to 67.
So what exactly is a “Resilient City” you may ask?
100RC defines a resilient city through four dimensions:
Economy and Society
Leadership and Strategy
Infrastructure and Environment
Each selected city receives support to hire a Chief Resilience Officer, develop a resilience plan, access a platform of services to implement their strategy, and connect with other Network members to “advance the larger discussion of urban resilience.”
“The 100 Resilient Cities Network will now impact more than 700 million people across the globe: that means one-fifth of the world's urban population now lives in a city that is a part of 100 Resilient Cities Network,” explains Dr. Judith Rodin, President of the Rockefeller Foundation.
Adding onto the incredible work completed to date, on January 15th, 100 Resilient Cities announced a new “Platform Partner” partnership with Microsoft Corporation to establish cybersecurity strategies throughout the 100RC city network. Microsoft is introducing Microsoft CityNext to 100RC with an aim to increase cities’ productivity and efficiency with the use of their premiere cybersecurity technology. Not only will CityNext help city leaders to identify vulnerabilities, but it will also help to plan against cyber threats in the future.
“By partnering with an industry leader such as Microsoft, we are helping our cities build resilience so they can serve their citizens better in both good times and bad, and more ably address the challenges they face in a 21st century world,” said Michael Berkowitz, CEO of 100 Resilient Cities.
The business community will no doubt play an important role in the development of resiliency—we’ll stay tuned to see the progress anticipated in these 35 new cities!
https://www.uschamberfoundation.org/blog/post/resilience-revolution-how-100-resilient-cities-partnering-business-increase-their-reach
Behind Boeing’s Fight to End Veteran Homelessness in the Nation’s Capital
Max Nelson
Corporate Social Responsibility: Being a Force for Good in an Era of Employee Activism
Jim Starr
Announcing the 2018 Revitalize America Award Honorees!
Bailey Jacobs
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The Sport Clubs Council (SCC) is a student organization that works in conjunction with the Sport Clubs Office to administer the Sport Clubs Program. Each sport club at USF is a member of the Sport Clubs Council. For more information on the Sport Clubs Council, please visit their BullSync page.
Members of the Sport Clubs Council Executive Board provide insight on sport club issues, represent sport club athletes at University functions, and allocate funding to all sport clubs.
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Crowley Thoth Tarot Deck Small features 78 cards painted by Lady Frieda Harris according to instructions from the occult scholar, Aleister Crowley, in a handy small size. The magnificent art deco work contains kabalistic and astrological attributions described in Aleister Crowley’s Book of Thoth. The art deco artwork of the Thoth is rich in Egyptian symbolism. To each of the twenty-two Major Trumps of the tarot is assigned, by tradition, a Hebrew letter and a path on the Tree of Life, as well as an astrological sign, element, or planet. The deck also reflects Crowley’s interest in alchemy and magic. The original Crowley Thoth Tarot has attracted a worldwide following, both for its striking beauty and for its complex depiction of occult knowledge. Since its initial publication in 1969, the deck has never been out of print. Included with the deck is a booklet of instruction, which contains two essays by Lady Frieda Harris and a commentary by Stuart R. Kaplan.
Cards measure 2.75" x 4.375"
Lady Frieda Harris
Also by the Same Author
Crowley Thoth Tarot Deck Large,
Spanish Crowley Thoth Tarot Deck Small,
Pocket Swiss Crowley Thoth Tarot Deck,
Crowley Thoth Tarot Deck — Premier Edition
Also by the Same Artist
Kabbalistic
Morgan-Greer Tarot Deck
Morgan-Greer Tarot has remained one of the most popular tarot decks for decades.
What Customers Are Saying About Crowley Thoth Tarot Deck Small
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POWER is the ability to achieve purpose. — from a 1967 sermon by the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
AUTHORITY is conferred power to perform a service. This definition is a reminder of two facts. First, authority is given and can be taken away. Second, authority is conferred as part of an exchange. Failure to meet the terms of the exchange means losing one's authority: it can be taken back or given to another who promises to fulfill the bargain.
AUTHORITY can be conferred in two forms: formal and informal. With FORMAL authority come the various powers of the office, role, or position. With INFORMAL authority comes the power to influence attitude and behavior beyond compliance.
FORMAL authority is granted because the officeholder promises to meet a set of explicit expectations (job description, legislated mandates).
INFORMAL authority comes from promising to meet expectations that are often left implicit (expectations of trustworthiness, ability, civility). — adapted from Leadership Without Easy Answers, by Ronald A. Heifetz (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1994), pp. 57 and 101.
Instructions for mapping power and authority in your congregation
Your group is invited to draw a road map that reflects the "Road to Power and Authority" in your congregation. Begin by placing the positions/groups with "power" in a dominant position on your map and draw a representation of the route taken to achieving power. Use all the elements of a road map in your design. For example, some roads are rural routes, others are six-lane superhighways. Some questions you might want to explore include: What obstacles, roadblocks, or detours (ideas, policies, practices, and so on) are there in the road? Is there an unpaved road to power? Who takes which paths? Where are the yield signs? Stop signs? Do some roads charge emotional tolls? Do conscious or unconscious stereotypes affect how your congregation has constructed its Road to Power?
PREVIOUS: Taking It Home
NEXT: Handout 2: Casting List
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Local media report a 70-year-old Canadian man was found dead in an apartment in the city of Progreso in Yucatan state. (The Yucatan Times/Twitter)
Canadian killed in Mexico, consular officials assisting family: Global Affairs
Local media report that a 70-year-old Canadian man was found dead in an apartment
Global Affairs Canada says a Canadian citizen has been killed in Mexico, and consular officials are providing assistance to the victim’s family.
A spokeswoman for the department says their thoughts are with the victim’s family, but no further details can be disclosed.
Local media report that a 70-year-old Canadian man was found dead in an apartment in the city of Progreso, in Yucatan state, on Friday morning.
Citing police officials, The Yucatan Times reports that the man was found with at least five stab wounds to his chest and neck.
READ MORE: B.C. man, 25, dies after falling from zipline in Thailand, reports say
Person airlifted to hospital after avalanche in Yoho National Park has died
Waste not: Trail brewery leftovers feed the local food chain
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Increasing Digitization across MNOs Spurring Global Telecom API Platform Market to Expand at 19.10% CAGR 2015-2022
Published: Apr, 2016
Transparency Market Research, in a report titled “Telecom API Platform Market - Global Industry Analysis, Size, Share, Growth, Trends and Forecast 2015 - 2022,” states that the global telecom API platform market is forecast to expand at an impressive CAGR of 19.10% from 2015 to 2022, with the value of the market expected to rise from US$1.3 bn in 2014 to US$5.2 bn by 2022. Stiff competition between multinational organizations and the surge in digitization have greatly boosted the adoption of API platforms.
Browse the full Telecom API Platform Market (By Telecom Operators - T1 Players, T2 Players, T3 Players; By Module - Set-Up, Monetization and Pricing Model) - Global Industry Analysis, Size, Share, Growth, Trends and Forecast 2015 - 2022 report at https://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/telecom-api-platform-market.html?
Application programming interface (API) technology allows the exchange of information between two companies at an unprecedented scale. Telecom API platforms allow telecom operators to establish their own API and offer their services to a larger number of external developers. API platforms have emerged as one of the major sources of revenue for telecom operators and as a result, the demand for the same has increased in recent times.
Based on telecom operator, the telecom API platform market is segmented into T1, T2, and T3 players. T1 players are telecom operators who already possess telecom API management platforms and have been offering API services to developers for the past few years. T2 players are those who have started offering API services via telecom API management platforms and wish to externally expose the APIs to enterprises in the coming years. T3 players are operators who do not, at the moment, possess the capabilities to offer API services as they have no tie-ups with telecom API management providers. Among these, T1 players are the largest contributors to the global telecom API platform market.
Based on module, the telecom API platform market is categorized into monetization and pricing model and set-up. The segment of monetization and pricing model is further broken down into vendor share and operator share and in 2014, this segment held the largest share in the telecom API platform market owing to rising investments from T1 players. Set-up services, on the other hand, are anticipated to expand at a 19.20% CAGR from 2015 to 2022 thanks to the surge in the number of T3 players.
The global telecom API platform market is geographically divided into Europe, Asia Pacific, Latin America, North America, and the Middle East and Africa. In 2014, Europe dominated the overall telecom API platform market, accounting for one-third of the global market. The surge in smartphone penetration, the prolific rise in the internet user base in the region, and the rapid growth of e-commerce are some of the key factors driving the Europe telecom API platform market. Regions such as Latin America, Asia Pacific, and the Middle East and Africa are projected to pick up pace in the coming years, according to the research report.
Apigee Corporation, Oracle Corporation, Hewlett Packard Company, Axway Software S.A., Tropo, Inc., ZTE Corporation, Huawei Technologies Co. Ltd., Aepona Ltd., Ericsson, and Alcatel Lucent are some of the most prominent names in the global telecom API platform market. These players have been profiled in the research report based on aspects such as company and financial overview, product portfolio, business strategies, and recent developments.
Telecom API Platform Market, by Telecom Operator
T1 Player
Telecom API Platform Market, by Module
Monetization and Pricing Model
Operator Share
Vendor Share
Telecom API Platform Market, by Geography
The U.S.
Rest of North America
EU7 Countries
Rest of APAC
Rest of MEA
Transparency Market Research (TMR) is a global market intelligence company providing business information reports and services. The company’s exclusive blend of quantitative forecasting and trend analysis provides forward-looking insight for thousands of decision makers. TMR’s experienced team of analysts, researchers, and consultants use proprietary data sources and various tools and techniques to gather and analyze information.
TMR’s data repository is continuously updated and revised by a team of research experts so that it always reflects the latest trends and information. With extensive research and analysis capabilities, Transparency Market Research employs rigorous primary and secondary research techniques to develop distinctive data sets and research material for business reports.
Mr.Sudip S
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Stewart To Receive Peck Award
Cast & Crew August 30, 2017
Sir Patrick Stewart will be receiving an award from the San Diego Film Foundation.
On October 5, Stewart will be presented with the Gregory Peck Award for Excellence in Cinema at The VARIETY Night of the Stars Tribute which will be held at the Pendry Hotel San Diego in San Diego, California.
The Gregory Peck Award for Excellence in Cinema was created “in honor of famed actor and San Diego area native Gregory Peck” and is given “to an individual whose work has made a profound impact on the art of cinema.”
“Patrick Stewart has captivated audiences for years,” said Tonya Mantooth, Executive and Artistic Director of the San Diego International Film Festival; “With spectacular performances, from Star Trek to his career defining performance in Logan earlier this year, as well as his Emmy and Golden Globe-nominated performance as Captain Ahab in Moby Dick, a role which Mr. Peck made famous more than forty years earlier. We couldn’t be more excited to honor him this year with the Gregory Peck Award.”
Topics: Award, San Diego. Gregory Peck, Stewart
Another New Discovery Video!
New Star Trek: Discovery Video
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Cynthia D. Parker, 38, Sullivan
SULLIVAN -- Cynthia D. Parker, 38, of Sullivan went to be with the Lord on Friday, Aug. 24, 2012.
Born April 24, 1974, Cindy will be remembered for her wild and free spirit, her love of the Steelers and her great sense of humor, shared with her closest family, friends and the people who came in to her life every day at the Holland Oil Co. (Circle K), where she had worked for many years.
Surviving are her children, Jessica Cale (Mike Morgan) of Orrville and Thomas "T.J." Parker of Sullivan; her children's father, Tom Parker of Massillon; her loving mother, Betty (ne Chesmar) (Denny) Haas of Sullivan; father, John A. Chesmar of southern Ohio; sister, Jennifer (ne Chesmar) (Aaron) Rowland of Portage Lakes; grandchildren, Derek and Autumn Morgan; and grandmother, Marion Chesmar of Barberton; along with her lifelong childhood friend, Jackie Henderson-Drake; many nieces, nephews, family and friends.
She was preceded in death by her grandfather, John Chesmar.
The family suggests memorials, if desired, be given to the family in honor of Cynthia.
A memorial service will take place 2 to 4 p.m. Saturday, Sept. 1, 2012, at Cox Funeral Home, 222 Norton Ave., Barberton.
For those unable to attend, condolences may be sent by email to the family at cox3311@aol.com. Sympathy cards may be sent online at www.coxfuneralhomeinc.com. (T-G 08/29/12)
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Listed below are the amazing opportunities available to all UCFB on-campus students in addition to the UCFB degree programmes and UCFB Global Insight Series.
UCFB empowers its students to build on their personal, professional and academic journey at UCFB and ultimately build towards their career upon graduation. Students will be awarded a gold, silver or bronze award depending how many sessions and enrichment programmes they attend during their time at UCFB. Each of a student’s three academic years carry a different level of engagement requirements to attain the award. Click here for a full list of criteria for each level.
The Award is available for UCFB on-campus postgraduate students, but is dependent on availability and each student’s commitments.
View the full list of opportunities available to you.
The Award in Football & Sports Leadership is available to on-campus students only. For career development opportunities available for all students, please visit the UCFB Global Insight Series page.
As part of our Executive Guest Speaker Series leading figures from the sports industry visit UCFB to deliver lectures to students on an area of their expertise and to answer questions.
This challenge provides a range of adventurous leadership activities delivered by Waktu, the experts also used by the Premier League, Manchester United and Burnley FC.
The UCFB Sports Agent Programme aims to provide UCFB students with bespoke insight into the process of becoming a sports agent or intermediary.
Figureheads from the world of football management, media and business gather for one day at the epicentre of the national game to deliver a series of talks, seminars and practical sessions to UCFB students.
The UCFB Sports Entrepreneur Award is a ‘Dragon’s Den’ style competition for ambitious UCFB students to pitch their innovative ideas for sports companies to a panel of successful business leaders.
UCFB students are placed in the context of a Director or Senior Management Team member and are required to assess football and sports situations to make real-life judgements in real time and decide on a course of action.
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Welcome to the United Nations.
About UNODA
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36 GA FC
A/C.1/36/1
Add.1 Allocation of agenda items to the First Committee: Letter dated 19 September 1981 from the President of the General Assembly addressed to the Chairman of the First Committee
Document from the Secretariat
A/C.1/36/2 Programme of work and time-table as adopted by the Committee at its 2nd meeting on 7 October 1981
Add.1
Add.2 Membership of the First Committee
Communication from Member States
A/C.1/36/17 Complementary set of conclusions and recommendations on the study on the relationship between disarmament and international security by Ambassador Zenon Rossides, member of the Group of Experts
A/C.1/36/11* Letter dated 11 November 1981 from the Permanent Representative of Bulgaria to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General
A/C.1/36/6 Letter dated 16 October 1981 from the Permanent Representative of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania to the United Nations addressed to the President of the General Assembly
A/C.1/36/9 Letter dated 2 November 1981 from the Permanent Representative of Guyana to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General
A/C.1/36/7 Letter dated 21 October 1981 from the Permanent Representative of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General
A/C.1/36/14 Letter dated 23 November 1981 from the Permanent Representative of Austria to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General
A/C.1/36/12 Letter dated 23 November 1981 from the Permanent Representative of Venezuela to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General
A/C.1/36/16 Letter dated 3 December 1981 from the Permanent Representative of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General
A/C.1/36/15 Letter dated 30 November 1981 from the Permanent Representative of Romania to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General
A/C.1/36/8 Letter dated 4 November 1981 from the Permanent Representative of Romania to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General
A/C.1/36/3 Letter dated 6 October 1981 from the Permanent Representative of the Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya to the United Nations addressed to the President of the General Assembly
A/C.1/36/5 Letter dated 9 October 1981 from the Permanent Representative of the Socialist Republic of Viet Nam to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General
A/C.1/36/10 Note verbale dated 12 November 1981 from the Permanent Representative of the United States of America to the United Nations addressed to the Secretary-General
Official Records of the First Committee
A/C.1/36/PV.1 1st Plenary Meeting of the First Committee
A/C.1/36/PV.2 2nd Plenary Meeting of the First Committee
A/C.1/36/PV.3 3rd Plenary Meeting of the First Committee
A/C.1/36/PV.4 4th Plenary Meeting of the First Committee
A/C.1/36/PV.10 10th Plenary Meeting of the First Committee
A/C.1/36/PV.21 21st Plenary Meeting of the First Committee
A/C.1/36/PV.22 22nd Plenary Meeting of the First Committee
A/C.1/36/PV.23 23rd Plenary Meeting of the First Committee
Report of the First Committee
A/36/744 Cessation of all test explosions of nuclear weapons
A/36/743 Chemical and bacteriological (biological) weapons
A/36/755 Conclusion of effective international arrangements to assure non-nuclear-weapon States against the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons
A/36/748 Establishment of a nuclear-weapon-free zone in South Asia
A/36/747 Establishment of a nuclear-weapon-free zone in the region of the Middle East
A/36/756 General and complete disarmament
A/36/742 Implementation of General Assembly resolution 35/143 concerning the signature and ratification of Additional Protocol I of the Treaty for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America (Treaty of Tlatelolco)
A/36/745 Implementation of General Assembly resolution 35/145 B
A/36/750 Implementation of the Declaration of the Indian Ocean as a Zone of Peace
A/36/746 Implementation of the Declaration on the Denuclearization of Africa
A/36/759 Prevention of nuclear catastrophe: Declaration of the General Assembly
A/36/749 Prohibition of the development and manufacture of new types of weapons of mass destruction and new systems of such weapons
A/36/741 Reduction of military budgets
A/36/761 Review of the implementation of the Declaration on the Strengthening of International Security
A/36/752 Review of the implementation of the recommendations and decisions adopted by the General Assembly at its Tenth Special Session
A/36/740
Corr.1 Second Special Session of the General Assembly Devoted to Disarmament
A/36/753 United Nations Conference on Prohibitions or Restrictions of Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects
A/36/751 World Disarmament Conference
UNODA Offices
30+ officials working on #armstrade issues convened in Nur-Sultan to discuss means to build capabilities to implement the Arms Trade Treaty. Workshop organized by the UN Regional Centre for Peace & Disarmament in Asia & the Pacific & the Gov. of Kazakhstan bit.ly/32nnBAd pic.twitter.com/YgnExosJoI
About 3 days ago from ODA's Twitter · reply · retweet · favorite
Paola Sanchez, 24 years old and one of the few female deminers in Colombia, one of the world's most mined countries. @UNMAS twitter.com/bbcworldservic…
On 8 July, Mr. Markram, Director and Deputy to the High Representative for Disarmament Affairs, addressed the Security Council on Challenges and Opportunities of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) for International Peace and Security. Remarks: bit.ly/2XDOelr
Last week from ODA's Twitter · reply · retweet · favorite
The @OSCE - UNODA Scholarship Initiative for Peace and Security took place 8 April-10 May 2019. It consisted of online courses and in-person lectures that were held in Vienna. 90 women and 10 men received scholarships through the initiative. Link to video: bit.ly/2NKnewl pic.twitter.com/IleUZboXog
Follow the link below to watch High Representative @INakamitsu's full interview with @nhk_news on artificial intelligence (AI) and impact on weapons technology Full interview=> bit.ly/2xuFw9K pic.twitter.com/ITVVMKsb0O
About 2 weeks ago from ODA's Twitter · reply · retweet · favorite
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Erasing Memory
What I am about to tell you about the Greeks, their Jews and the Nazis has nothing to do with any of these three groups. But it’s instructive.
Salonika is the second largest city in Greece. This was the Thessalonica of the New Testament, where St Paul preached, and wrote two of his most important letters to the Greeks. In his time (c50 AD) Jews made up a small portion of this Greek city, and this remained the case until 1492, when Spanish Jews were expelled from Spain and made their way to Salonika. By this time, Salonika and Greece had come under the dominion of the Ottoman empire in nearby Byzantium, and the Jews grew to make up a sizeable plurality of the city’s population, and the principle engine of its economy.
It remained this way until World War I, when the Ottoman Empire was defeated and Greece regained her independence after 400 years of subjugation. Immediately upon regaining control of the city in 1916, the Greeks began removing most of the signs that the Jews were the economic nucleus of the city. Many streets had Jewish names, as well as most of the notable businesses and plazas. These were all changed. Jewish holidays were observed and on the Jewish Sabbath most businesses were closed. Then the Greeks ordered to remain open. The Jewish cemetery contained over 50,000 headstones. In the 1940s the occupying Nazis built an Olympic sized swimming pool from those 50,000 headstones in the cemetery. Then after the war the Greeks built a fairgrounds over the cemetery, without so much as laying a plaque or a marker about the people who had been interred there for over 400 years. (In Virginia we have slave cemeteries of less than 50 with federal protection, where people come weekly to tend to the graves.) In 1916, the Greeks began to burn the synagogues, hoping the Jews would leave. But they didn’t. It would be 1941, when the Nazis would finally move them out, first into concentration camps outside of the city, where, over a period of two years, 54,050 of the 56,000 of Salonika’s Jews, 96.5%, were loaded onto cattle cars and killed in Auschwitz, Birkenau and Bergen-Belsen. This was how Adolph Eichmann won his Iron Cross.
When the Jews were carried off in 1942, 12,000 houses were owned by Jews. After the war surviving family members made 6000 claims but only 30 of those claims were honored and cash settlement made. No Jews returned to Salonika.There was never a street sign honoring the “Jewish martyrs” despite dozens of petitions. Book stores refused to carry any books describing Jewish history in Salonika. Likewise, no school, high school or college, mentioned they had ever existed in Salonika.
So by 1990, it was a fait accompli. It took only 45 years, a little more than a generation, to erase all public memory that Jews had once walked those city streets for over 400 years. To the minds of new generations of Greeks, Salonika was and always had been a purely Greek city, and no one (that matters) has been left alive to say otherwise. All cultural memory of the Jews in Salonika had been erased in fewer years than most of us have been alive.
So, think about how easy erasing memory can be. All it needs is to be married to a political mythology.
Political Mythology
For what it’s worth, it’s the killing part of ethnic cleansing that most Westerners find objectionable. Erasing memory is really quite ordinary. Salonika is just a variation of ethnic cleansing, since the Nazis did all the killing and the Greeks did all the erasing. In Kosovo, the Serbs attempted to do both against Muslims not that long ago. Throughout the Balkans, into the 1990s, national identity did trump all other considerations, i.e., Bulgarians and Macedonians are identical ethnically, including language, yet hate one another, while Greece claims the name “Macedonia” as its exclusive property even though no Greeks have lived there in over 1000 years. “Political mythology” rules all other considerations, as you also can see in the Holy Land where Israelis claim a 4000 year-old deed, while Arabs claim a 1500 year adverse possession, or squatter’s right, even the law of conquest to counter that ancient deed. No court on this earth can settle this.
America was born poly-ethnic, so the last thing we worry about is this sort of ethnic hatred and the extreme measures people have gone to correct the history books. I have yet to meet, and have known some really hard-bitten Jim Crow racists in the Appalachians, any American who could even come close to the visceral, drooling from the corners of the mouth hatred I’ve seen from Russians when they see a Jew. And don’t ask me how they can spot them, for I’ve asked. Asking a Russian at JFK one time, “How do you know that is a Jew? He looks like everyone else to me.” “Oh, you can tell feelthy Jew when you see one.” Outside of Congress, where all memory of the Constitution seems to have been erased, the only places where the cultural memory of previous inhabitants has been erased seems to be our inner cities, where no one in 40 years knows anything of the white people and their businesses that once thrived there. Modern occupants of Highland Park in Detroit can never know that little white kids, the children and grandchildren of Ford and Chrysler auto workers, once upon a time could walk down to the end of the street and take a ride on the trolley down to the Ford plant.
Did you know that 50% of all Russians, give or take, cannot trace their families past the 1920s, thanks to Stalin mostly? An equal number, in the millions, but smaller percentage in China also have had their family histories erased thanks to Mao.
Take note, fifty years after having killed almost all of the Jews off, a whole new generation of Europeans are learning to hate Jews…without even knowing how to pick them out of a crowd. They know them only by their neighorhoods and the signs on their storefronts. In Hitler’s day it was easy, his Jew-baiter, Jules Streicher, posting weekly caricatures of them in his tabloid so Germans would know how to direct their hatred. They were a stereotype then. Outside those inner cities, point out a house owned by blacks which you can tell just from its appearance, or the way the grass it cut, or the name on the mailbox? Ask an African-American if he can understand that kind of racism…and he can’t…when you can hate simply because of a word or a name, and can no longer picture in your mind what it is you hate.
A Greek writer named Caratzas wrote “Mythology is what never was, but always is.” A thing that exists totally in the mind.
In America today, we have these kinds of mythologists among us, who live totally in another universe, and their myths are entirely in their minds. Other than eating, texting and Android, they are no more a part of our world than E.T. Do they have souls or are their souls in tune with a totally different universe?. I can’t say. But I do know, because they have said it themselves, they wish to erase from all human memory the things they find objectional in their universe. Christians come to mind first, as they wish to erase the memory of any competitive god. But if you pay close attention, you can list many others.
We’ve always struggled to understand the underlying psychology of this Marxist world view, but it was certainly true about Marx himself, all the way forward to the current generation, headed by Obama and the Clintons. Mythologists of a non-existent world all.
In shorthand, they want us to a conform to a reality that only exists in their minds, where babies aren’t babies until they leave the hospital with their moms. And God never existed.
abortion, Clintons, Democrats, Greeks, holocaust, Jews, leftists, Marx, Narcissim Obama, Nazis, Salonika
Another great example or erasing memory is what the Roman did to Carthage. One can travel to Tunisia and look long and hard and not see any evidence of Carthage.
Cato was persistent and ended every fiery speech he gave with “Carthago delenda est”
This is what they have been doing in the education realm in America the last few decades, and are accelerating now with the Common Core. And also why what Nikki Haley did was neither noble nor beneficial to black Americans, or to race relations or anything else.
I refuse to let them have abortion as part of the mythology anymore; it is murder; it is state sanctioned murder and it is beyond that human experimentation; when I tweet about I will include that in my tweets, when I speak about it I will include it in my talk. This is one word we should eradicate within in a generation if we are persistent.
For education among all kinds of men always has had, and always will have, an element of danger and revolution, of dissatisfaction and discontent.~W.E.B. Du Bois
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Home Topics Tunde Kelani
Tunde Kelani
Oscars: Tunde Kelani, two other Nigerians make Academy’s members list
Three Nigerians have made The Academy of Motion Picture, Arts and Sciences newly released a diverse list of 842 members.
Actor: Don’t mistake me for cultist because of “Oleku” movie
Yemi Shodimu, a veteran actor and lead character in the timeless movie “Oleku”, on Friday said many Nigerians took him for a cultist, a role r he acted in the movie.
Tunde Kelani: Why I cannot continue as NFVCB chairman
Ace Cinematographer and director, Tunde Kelani, has resigned as the chairman of the National Film and Video Censors Board (NFVCB).
AMVCA 2018: Full list of winners
The 6th annual AMVCA, which was held on Saturday at the Eko Hotel and Suites, Victoria Island, Lagos began with a red carpet at 4 p.m.
Tunde Kelani, Falz, Bisola, Omotola win at AMVCA 2018
Veteran cinematographer, Tunde Kelani, has emerged the winner of the 2018 Africa Magic Viewers Choice Awards’ Industry Merit Award.
Renowned playwright Akinwunmi Isola passes on at 79
One of Nigeria most renowned playwright, screenwriter, poet and actor, Akinwunmi Isola, is dead.
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VDZ Congress 2018: Climate protection and digitisation are key challenges for the cement industry
More than 600 representatives from the international cement industry and associated suppliers, as well as from scientific and research institutes around the world, gathered at the International VDZ Congress 2018 in Duesseldorf at the end of September. Steeped in tradition, the VDZ Congress is one of the world's most important events in the industry. The 40 talks held at this year's congress focused on particularly pressing topics such as climate protection and digitisation. The participants also discussed current technical challenges and the general situation with regard to cement production. A further highlight was an evening ceremony at which the winners of the VDZ Industrial Safety Prize 2017 received their awards.
VDZ President Christian Knell opening the congress
In his opening address, VDZ President Christian Knell stressed the significance of the congress as a unique platform for shaping future aspects of cement production. With particular reference to the subject of climate protection, appropriate policy decisions would also be required to avoid jeopardising the competitiveness of the cement manufacturers. This includes research policy backing for investments in progressive technologies and the associated demonstration projects, for instance.
VDZ Chief Executive Dr Martin Schneider 40 talks on the most important topics for the industry
Central topics at the VDZ Congress were the development of innovative technologies to reduce CO2 emissions and the impact of digitisation on production processes in the cement industry. The various subjects were discussed in a number of plenary and parallel sessions. The "keynotes" outlined innovations and technical trends in cement production and the building sector, as well as ways of achieving decarbonisation through the development of new technologies to reduce CO2 emissions. The challenges and opportunities for the cement industry presented by Big Data and digital transformation processes were examined under the heading "Digital Measures and Projects". Other parallel sessions dealt with further progressive emission reduction methods, the latest trends in cement grinding, kiln technology and the development of innovative cements.
Winners of the VDZ Industrial Safety Prize 2017 VDZ organisation team at the Hospitality Desk
An evening ceremony took place at the end of the second day of the congress. During this ceremony, the VDZ Industrial Safety Prize 2017 was awarded to 11 clinker and 10 grinding works in recognition of their systematic and successful safety work.
As an internationally recognised forum for the cement industry, suppliers and science, the VDZ Congress has been held since 1971 and provides delegates from around the world with an opportunity to discuss the most important topics relating to the future of the cement industry with renowned scientists and experts.
Sybille Matthaei
Information on the programme of the 8th International VDZ Congress 2018 is available here.
Here you can download the congress proceedings (login required).
Proceedings (login required)
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interiors & fashion
Verosimile - Ellen Scobie
© 2019 Verosimile – Ellen Scobie.
I have provided definitions for most terms I use on my website. For a more comprehensive resource, I recommend the Art Glossary on AskArt.com
Assemblage An artwork created by combining disparate materials, usually used in reference to sculptural objects.
Robert Rauschenberg Combines (1953-1964)
Calcium Carbonate Compound added to paper to make it alkaline. The cellulose in acidic papers causes them to degrade and deteriorate over time. By coating a sheet with calcium carbonate, atmospheric acidity will be absorbed serving to further prolong the stability of the sheet.
Collage A composition made by gluing bits of paper or other material which have been drawn, painted or printed and are adhered to a substrate. From the French, coller , to glue.
Collage History:
One of the first examples of collage occured in the eighteenth century when “…the flower artist Mrs Mary Delany (1700-88) invented a medium known as ‘paper mosaic’ or ‘plant collage’. Her method was to cut the petals and leaves from coloured paper, and paste them on a background of black paper.” (Goldman) Read a spirited description of her art in Ethel Rolt Wheeler’s Famous Blue-Stockings (2007).
In contrast to Delany’s precisely composed and botanically correct creations, artists such as Braque, Picasso and Jean Arp, major Cubist figures, experimented in the twentieth-century with the element of chance, as well as incorporating a wider range of collage materials. For example, Arp’s 1916 work held in the Museum of Modern Art in New York was created by scattering torn pieces of paper onto a canvas to form a geometric collage.
The American artist, Romare Bearden, turned to collage to realize some of his politically charged narratives. The Woodshed, in the collection of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, depicts the poignant reality of a family struggling in reduced economic and social circumstances. The Romare Bearden Foundation website has an extensive collection of more of his collages to view.
More recently, British artist Chila Kumari Burman has exuberantly expressed herself through combining the energized colours and images of Bollywood, advertising, and pop culture with ephemera of her own life. She explains,. “I include things from my past like my cycling proficiency badge, or photos of the family or Bollywood stars like Shilpa Shetty – and then I photograph the montage and make it into a print.” ( Inside Out , BBC).
Video Collage:
Animated collaged images in seminal music video by Scottish rock band Franz Ferdinand reveal clever references to Bauhaus collage work and steampunk.
The Museum of Modern Art has an excellent overview of the use of collage by preeminent artists written by Lewis Kachur of Grove Art Online © 2009 Oxford University Press.
SEE ALSO Dadaist collages of Kurt Schwitters
Digital Photomontage A composition made by digitally combining photographs. See photomontage.
Digital Print When artists use computers to create and manipulate their works, a large-scale ink jet printer can be used to print the works. These complex printers use a sophisticated print head to disperse the ink on the paper in a fine mist in order to deliver a consistently toned image. A digital print is only considered to be an “original print” if it was created by the artist to be realized specifically as a print. (International Fine Print Dealers Association). NB: All of my digital prints are original prints.
Edition The name given to a set number of prints of the same image. In the early days of printmaking, the number of prints pulled from a plate was not limited; as long as there was demand and the plate had not worn out, prints were made. See Limited Edition and Open Edition. Can also be used as a verb, to edition, i.e. to create an edition of prints.
Ephemera Something of no lasting significance or of short-lived usefulness; Paper items (as posters, broadsheets, and tickets) that were originally meant to be discarded after use but have since become collectibles (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary).
Etching A print in which the lines of the drawing are incised into a metal plate and bitten or “etched” in acid.
Fine art print This is a print term without a specific definition but rather a general term that could mean any number of things: a print of a “fine art” image; a print by a “fine artist”; a print on a “fine art” paper; a print made by a “fine art” print studio; etc. When establishing the value of a print, a description that it is a “fine art print” does not give any specific information. In order to properly identify a print, the print method must be indicated as well as whether it is an open edition print or a limited edition print.
Found objects An object that is found and then incorporated into an artwork or displayed on its own. By being seen outside of its normal context, new meanings can be infered. Developed out of Surrealism and the notion that art can be made from anything. From the French, objet trouvé.
Giclee Print A term coined for use in the art world to refer to a very high resolution inkjet print made with archival inks. Derived from the French word, giclée , loosely translates as sprayed, squirted or spurted, to describe the way an inkjet printer applies a fine mist of ink droplets onto the substrate in printing the image. In my work I use only pigmented inks which have far superior lightfastness than dye-based inks. Giclees have been widely adopted by artists in the last few years as a reliable method of producing archival quality prints. Although first introduced at least ten years ago, materials and methods have vastly improved in recent years to the level that giclees can be found in major museums around the world.
It is important to note that a giclee print is not necessarily a reproduction print. A reproduction is a copy of an artwork that exists in another form. For example, if a high resolution scan or photograph was taken of an oil painting which was then used to make a print, the resulting print would be a “reproduction.” If, on the other hand, a print was made from an original digital artwork that did not exist in any other form, then the resulting print would be an “original”.
Hors de Commerce This French term literally translated as “outside of commerce” or, as we would say in English, “not for sale”, is sometimes designated on a print in a limited edition as “H.C.”
Inkjet Print A print made by an inkjet printer. Inkjet printers are the most common type of consumer printers. Due to vast improvements in recent years to the quality of the printed image and the increased lightfastness of the inks, inkjet prints have been widely adopted by fine artists to print their work. Inkjet technology involves spraying very fine drops of ink onto a sheet of paper, canvas or other substrate. These droplets are “ionized” which allows them to be directed by magnetic plates in the ink’s path. As the paper is fed through the printer, the print head moves back and forth, spraying thousands of these small droplets onto the page. See Giclee.
Lightfastness Resistance to light and especially, sunlight.
Wilhelm Imaging Research, Inc. (WIR) conducts research into the stability and preservation of digital color photographs and prints made with digital technologies. Widely considered to be the global leader in this field, it has a number of articles published on its website. The company’s comprehensive test methods have become the de facto industry standard.
Lignin A glue-like binding substance used in paper manufacturing that weakens the paper over time and causes it to discolour when exposed to light. It is removed from the pulp used in the manufacture of papers for conservation and archival uses to prolong their longevity.
Limited Edition Print In the late nineteenth-century, the practice of limiting an edition became commonplace as a marketing tool to create exclusivity for a given image. A total number of prints in an edition would be decided on and the artist would sign and number the prints accordingly: 7/50 denotes the seventh print in an edition of fifty. The plate or block would be destroyed after the edition was complete, an act known as ‘cancelling’. This would assure the collector that no further copies of the image could be made.
Many prints are still created today using traditional printmaking methods that employ the above conventions. However, there are also many artists who produce digital prints where no plate or block exists to be cancelled and there is no physical reason, such as the deterioration of the plate, to stop pulling prints of the image. Conceivably, the computer file used to produce the print could be deleted and efforts could be made to destroy all known copies of the file. Ultimately, however, it is the reputation of the artist and their printer who will guarantee adherence to a limited edition.
In today’s contemporary art market, it is not uncommon for artists and photographers to produce as few as three to five images in an edition.
A limited edition print is typically signed by the artist, dated and numbered. Sometimes a portion of the total number of prints is set aside for the artist’s use — more than ten percent of the total would be irregular. These are called Artist’s Proofs and are labelled A/P. Historically these were the first prints pulled as test prints for the artist to approve with several “good ones” reserved for the artist. When the artist was satisfied with the ink colour, density and so on, the print displaying the correct characteristics was labelled “B.A.T.” from the French bon à tirer, meaning “ready to pull” (print). This provided the printshop with a control print that each subsequent print needed to match. One or two prints were often given to the printshop as well, if the artist had contracted a printers to do their printing for them, and these prints were labelled “P.P.”, Printer’s Proofs. See Open edition.
Lithography Printmaking technique that begins with the artist drawing or painting an image with a grease crayon or ink onto a lith or stone. Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in 1798 who wrote a treatise on the subject in his books The Invention of Lithography and A Complete Course in Lithography.
A description of the process is found in the book, Three Decades of American Printmaking: The Brandywine Collection: “A lithography does not have a raised or recessed surface, but a flat ‘planographic’ surface. Drawing is done on a lithographic stone (limestone) or metal plate (zinc or aluminum). It is a process based on the chemical principle that oil and water do not mix resulting in certain parts of the semi-absorbent surface being receptive to the printer’s ink, while other parts – those which will remain blank in the printed image – reject it. Images are made with grease pencils (litho crayons) or a greasy liquid called tusche. The procedure requires several steps from drawing on the stone, wetting the stone, and treating the stone with chemicals to affix the image to it. Lithographs usually have two distinct “looks.” One is like a crayon drawing, the other looks more painterly. The surface of a lithograph is very durable because the ink bonds with the paper.” (Edmunds)
The above process describes how original lithographic art prints are made. Offset lithography is a commercial printing process based on the same principles that oil and water do not mix but that is where the similarity ends . An artwork printed by offset lithography is essentially a poster and not to be confused with a hand-pulled (‘hand-made’) original lithographic print.
Montage A composition made by combining pictures or parts of pictures. Also used to describe motion picture effects produced by superimposing images or showing them in rapid sequence. From the French, monter , to mount. See collage.
Offset Lithography A commercial planographic printing method based on the principle that water and grease do not mix. Widely used to produce posters.
Open Edition Print An print edition that is not limited in quantity. Many posters and giclee reproduction prints are offered as open editions. See Edition.
Original Print An original print has been created from a matrix, usually in limited edition, and does not exist in any other form, such as being a painting or drawing. The term original print is used in contrast to Reproduction Print.
pH Value Degree of acidity or alkalinity measured on a scale from 0 to 14 with 7 the neutral point. Measurement of pH is important to quality control in making paper and pigments and in the preparation of platemaking chemicals. pH control of press fountain solutions is also essential to assure maximum plate-life and uniform ink drying. From 0 to 7 is acid; from 7 to 14 is alkaline. (http://www.desertpaper.com/Glossary.html)
Photomontage A composition made by combining parts of photographs to form a new composite image. In digital photomontage the process occurs digitally using software designed for manipulating and editing photographs. Also known as photocollage.
Dada Companion – Raoul Hausmann – Photocollages and Montages
Reproduction Print A reproduction print is a copy of an artwork that exists in another form. For example, if a high resolution scan or photograph was taken of an oil painting which was then used to make a print, the resulting print would be a “reproduction.” If, on the other hand, a print was made from an original digital artwork that did not exist in any other form, then the resulting print would be an “original” print. See Original Print.
Substrate The surface which receives the printed image, i.e. paper, canvas, or any variety of materials that can be printed on. The supporting surface for an artwork.
Tusche A greasy ink used in drawing on a lithographic plate or stone. From the German word for “ink”.
Art Book, The, Phaidon Press Limited, London, 2001.
Art Glossary on AskArt.com
Desert Paper and Envelope Company, Inc. (http://www.desertpaper.com), March 16, 2009.
Edmunds, Allan L. and Halima Taha, Three decades of American printmaking: the Brandywine Workshop collection, Hudson Hills, 2004, pp. 19-20.
Goldman, Paul, Looking at Prints, Drawings and Watercolours, A Guide to Technical Terms , British Museum Publications in association with the J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, 1988.
International Fine Print Dealers Assocation. www.ifpda.org/glossary.
Inveresk PLC is a specialist manufacturer of quality mould made fine art paper at St Cuthberts Mill, in the south west of England. www.inveresk.co.uk/glossary/
Reeve, John, The British Museum Visitor’s Guide, The British Museum Press, 2003, pp. 82-85.
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Week Ending 5/9/14: Jones v. City of Boston
Alan Schorrs Employment Case of The Week ending May 9, 2014
Jones v. City of Boston, 2014 U.S. App. LEXIS 8560 (1st Cir., May 7, 2014)
Mark Twain was once famously quoted as saying, There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics." That quote was referenced in the First Circuits decision in Jones v. City of Boston. In this case, the Appellate Court reversed summary in a disparate impact case, finding that a 1% difference in hair follicle drug testing created a disparate impact between black and white police applicants. Because of the way statistics were used to create a finding of disparate impact where such a seemingly small differential existed makes this case very notable and worth storing away. The opinion uses the terms white and black to differentiate the races, and I will do the same in analyzing the case.
A very small percentage of officers and cadets, either white or black, tested positive for cocaine during the period covered by this lawsuit. Of those who did test positive, however, there were more black employees than white employees even though over two-thirds of the officers and cadets tested were white. As an example, in 2003, an average year during the period: 6 of 529 black officers and cadets tested positive, or 1.1% of that group, while 3 of 1260 white officers and cadets tested positive, or 0.2% of that group. While the difference is less than 1%, the statisticians established that the failure rate for blacks was more than 5 times that of whites. Calculating the standard deviations, the statistics looked like this:
Year # Tested / # Positive Standard Deviation
1999 521/15 1491/10 3.43
2000 537/4 1467/3 1.35
2002 532/15 1375/4 4.41
Total 4222/55 10,835/30 7.14
In analyzing this chart, the Court stated:
This evidence does not establish that the differences in outcomes were large. It shows, instead, the extent to which we can be confident that the differences in outcomes, whether large or small, were not random. To the extent the facts make it appropriate to consider the eight-year aggregate data as a single sample, we can be almost certain that the difference in outcomes associated with race over that period cannot be attributed to chance alone. Nor can randomness be viewed as other than a very unlikely explanation for results in at least three of the years viewed in isolation.
The Court also noted testimony from experts that hair treatments more common in the black community and the existence of more melanin in the hair of black applicants could cause the difference in positive tests. But the defendants pointed out that Asians also have high melanin levels, yet no Asian had ever tested positive. The Court then conducted a very thorough review of different methods of establishing disparate impact, which is a textbook on how to prove disparate impact and should be carefully read by any practitioner who is involved in disparate impact litigation. Ultimately, the Court reversed and held that disparate impact had been conclusively proven.
The Court remanded for further litigation on the issues of whether the drug testing program was job-related and consistent with business necessity, and whether plaintiffs offered an adequate alternative.
Drug-testing continues to be a source of continuing litigation and ever-changing legal standards. Likewise, the use of statistics in disparate impact cases continues to make this one of the most interesting and challenging aspects of employment law.
Plaintiff/Appellants Counsel: John F. Adkins, with whom Laura Maslow-Armand, Lawyers' Committee for Civil Rights and Economic Justice, Doreen M. Rachal, and Bingham McCutchen LLP were on brief, for appellants.
Defendant/Appellees Counsel: Helen G. Litsas, with whom Nicole I. Taub, Staff Attorney, Office of the Legal Advisor, was on brief, for appellees.
Joel Z. Eigerman on brief for Jewish Alliance for Law & Social Action, Boston Society of Vulcans, Community Change, Inc., Massachusetts Law Reform Institute, Union of Minority Neighborhoods, Justice at Work, Inc., The National Workrights Institute, Blacks in Law Enforcement of America, and NAACP Boston, amici curiae in support of appellants.
Stephen Churchill and Lichten & Liss-Riordan, P.C., on brief for Massachusetts Employment Lawyers Association, Fair Employment Project, American Civil Liberties Union of Massachusetts, Union of Minority Neighborhoods, Charles Hamilton Houston Institute for Race and Justice at Harvard Law School, Civil Rights Clinic at Howard University School of Law, Fair Housing Center of Greater Boston, Massachusetts Law Reform Institute, Justice [2] at Work, Inc., The National Workrights Institute, Blacks in Law Enforcement of America, and NAACP Boston, amici curiae in support of appellants.
Richard Pianka, ATA Litigation Center, and Prasad Sharma on brief for American Trucking Associations, Inc., amicus curiae in support of appellees.
Mark A. de Bernardo, Joseph E. Schuler, and Jackson Lewis LLP on brief for The Council for Employment Law Equity, amicus curiae in support of appellees.
Mark A. de Bernardo, Matthew F. Nieman, and Jackson Lewis LLP on brief for The Institute for a Drug-Free Workplace, amicus curiae in support of appellees.
Peter A. Biagetti and Mintz, Levin, Cohn, Ferris, Glovsky and Popeo, P.C., on brief for Psychemedics Corporation, amicus curiae in support of appellees.
Judges: Before Torruella, Howard, and Kayatta (Opinion), Circuit Judges.
Trial Judge: George A. OToole, Jr., U.S.D.J.
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Altered States of Consciousnes - Charles Tart
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Jacques Vallee - Messengers of Deception
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Thought Symbols
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Charles Tart, Puthoff, Targ - Mind at Large
Secrets of Higher Contact - Michael X Barton(1959)
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How to Grow Magic Mushrooms. a Simple Psilocybe Cubensis Growing Technique
Robert Masters - Psychophysical Method Exercises Vol I
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A Book of Readings Edited by C H A R L E S T. TART
A BOOK OF READINGS
CHARLES T. TART Editor University of California, Davis
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York London Sydney Toronto
Copyright 1969 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced by any means, nor transmitted, nor translated into a machine language without the written permission of the publisher. 10 9 8 7 6 5
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number. 69-16040 SBN 471 84560 4 Printed in the United States of America
INTRODUCTION 1.
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 1. S O M E GENERAL VIEWS ON ALTERED STATES O F C O N S C I O U S N E S S
Altered States of Consciousness, Arnold M. Ludwig Deautomatization and the Mystic Experience, Arthur J. Deikman 23
A Special Inquiry with Aldous Huxley into the Nature and Character of Various States of Consciousness, Milton H. Erickson 45
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 2 . BETWEEN WAKING AND SLEEPING: THE HYPNAGOGIC STATE 73
Ego Functions and Dreaming during Sleep Onset, Gerald Vogel, David Foulkes and Harry Trosman 75 Some Preliminary Observations with an Experimental Procedure for the Study of Hypnagogic and Related Phenomena, M. Bertini, Helen B. Lewis and Herman A. Witkin 93
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 3 . CONSCIOUSNESS 113
Theories of Dream Formation and Recent Studies of Sleep Consciousness, David Foulkes 117 Toward the Experimental Control of Dreaming: A Review of the Literature, Charles T. Tart 133 A Study of Dreams, Frederik van Eeden Dream Theory in Malaya, Kilton Stewart 145 159
The "High" Dream: A New State of Consciousness, Charles T. Tart 169
MEDITATION 175
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 4 .
On Meditation, Edward W. Maupin
Individual Differences in Response to a Zen Meditation Exercise, Edward W. Maupin 187 Experimental Meditation, Arthur J. Deikman 199 Meditative Techniques in Psychotherapy, Wolfgang Kretschmer 219
HYPNOSIS 229
Hypnosis and the Concept of the Generalized Reality-Orientation, Ronald E. Shor 233 Three Dimensions of Hypnotic Depth, Ronald E. Shor 251 Hypnosis, Depth Perception, and the Psychedelic Experience, Bernard S. Aaronson 263 The Psychedelic State, the Hypnotic Trance, and the Creative Act, Stanley Krippner 271 Psychedelic Experiences Associated with a Novel Hypnotic Procedure, Mutual Hypnosis, Charles T. Tart 291 Autogenic Training: Method, Research and Application in Medicine, Wolfgang Luthe 309
MINOR PSYCHEDELIC
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 6 . DRUGS 321
Marijuana (Cannabis) Fact Sheet, Bruin Humanist Forum 325 The Effects of Marijuana on Consciousness, Anonymous 335 Psychedelic Properties of Genista Canadensis, James Fadiman 357 Subjective Effects of Nitrous Oxide, William James 359
Inhalation Psychosis and Related States, Frederick B. Glaser 363
MAJOR PSYCHEDELIC
Current Status and Future Trends in Psychedelic (LSD) Research, Robert E. Mogar 381 Implications of LSD and Experimental Mysticism, Walter N. Pahnke and William A. Richards 399 Attitude and Behavior Change through Psychedelic Drug Use, Joseph Downing 429 Ipomoea Purpurea: A Naturally Occurring Psychedelic, Charles Savage, Willis W. Harman and James Fadiman 441 Psychedelic Agents in Creative Problem Solving, Willis Harman, Robert McKim, Robert Mogar, James Fadiman and Myron J. Stolaroff 445 "Psychedelic" Experiences in Acute Psychoses, Malcolm B. Bowers Jr. and Daniel Freedman Guide to the Literature on Psychedelic Drugs, Charles T. Tart 477 463
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION B. THE PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF S O M E ALTERED STATES CONSCIOUSNESS 485
An Electroencephalographic Study on the Zen Meditation (Zazen), Akira Kasamatsu and Tomio Hirai 489 Some Aspects of Electroencephalographic Studies in Yogis, B. K. Anand, G. S. Chhina and Baldev Singh 503 Operant Control of the EEG Alpha Rhythm and some of Its Reported Effects on Consciousness, Joe Kamiya 507
REFERENCES AUTHOR INDEX S U B J E C T INDEX
CHARLES T. TART
Whenever 1 speak on the topic of dreams, I mention a very unusual sort of dream, the "lucid" dream (see Chapter 8) in which the dreamer knows he is dreaming and feels fully conscious in the dream itself. After discussing some of the philosophical and semantic difficulties in defining states of consciousness, I always ask whether anyone has the slightest doubt that he is awake, that is, in a "normal" state of consciousness at that moment; I have never found anyone who had difficulty in making this distinction. In introducing a book of readings on altered states of consciousness, I find myself in a similar position: there is a multitude of philosophical and semantic problems in defining just what "normal" consciousness and "altered" states of consciousness are, yet at this instant I have not the slightest doubt that I am in my normal state of consciousness. Yet there have been a number of occasions in my life when I have not had the slightest difficulty in realizing that 1 was in an altered state of consciousness (ASC). Thus I shall give only the simplest sort of definition of what an ASC is here and let the articles in this book flesh it out: our knowledge of ASCs is too incomplete at this time for a tight conceptualization. For any given individual, his normal state of consciousness is the one in which he spends the major part of his waking hours. That your normal state of consciousness and mine are quite similar and are similar to that of all other normal men is an almost universal assumption, albeit one of questionable validity. An altered state of consciousness for a given
individual is one in which he clearly feels a qualitative shift in his pattern of mental functioning,* that is, he feels not just a quantitative shift (more or less alert, more or less visual imagery, sharper or duller, etc.), but also that some quality or qualities of his mental processes are different. Mental functions operate that do not operate at all ordinarily, perceptual qualities appear that have no normal counterparts, and so forth. There are numerous borderline cases in which the individual cannot clearly distinguish just how his state of consciousness is different from normal, where quantitative changes in mental functioning are very marked, etc., but the existence of borderline states and difficult-to-describe effects does not negate the existence of feelings of clear, qualitative changes in mental functioning that are the criterion of ASCs. This book is concerned with those states of consciousness in which the individual feels one or more qualitative (and possibly one or more quantitative) shifts in mental functioning, so that he believes himself to be in an ASC. Within Western culture we have strong negative attitudes toward ASCs: there is the normal (good) state of consciousness and there are pathological changes in consciousness. Most people make no further distinctions. We have available a great deal of scientific and clinical material on ASCs associated with psychopathological states, such as schizophrenia: by comparison, our scientific knowledge about ASCs which could be considered "desirable" is extremely limited and generally unknown to scientists. One of the purposes of these articles is to begin to provide some balance; therefore almost all the ASCs treated here have positive qualities in that they are ASCs that many people will go to considerable trouble and effort to induce in themselves because they feel that experiencing a particular ASC is rewarding. Our understanding of mental processes has been greatly facilitated by focusing on psychopathology, but it cannot be complete without looking at the other side of the coin. Further, we need to drop the "good" or " b a d " judgments about various ASCs and concentrate on the question: What are the characteristics of a given ASC and what consequences do these characteristics have on behavior in various settings? A normal state of consciousness can be considered a resultant of living in a particular environment, both physical and psychosocial. Thus the normal state of consciousness for any individual is one that has adaptive value within his particular culture and environment; we would expect the normal state of consciousness to show qualitatively and/or quantitatively
* F o r t h o s e w h o p r e f e r a b e h a v i o r i s t i c a p p r o a c h an A S C is a h y p o t h e t i c a l construct invoked w h e n an S ' s b e h a v i o r (including t h e b e h a v i o r of verbal r e p o r t ) is radically d i f f e r e n t f r o m his o r d i n a r y b e h a v i o r .
different aspects from one culture to another. But one of the most common cognitive errors made is what Carl Jung has called the fallacy of the psychologist projecting his own psychology upon the patient, that is, we almost always make the implicit assumption that everybody else thinks and experiences about the same way as we do, with the exception of "crazy" people. In a broader perspective it is clear that man has functioned in a multitude of states of consciousness and that different cultures have varied enormously in recognition and utilization of, and attitudes toward, ASCs. Many "primitive" peoples, for example, believe that almost every normal adult has the ability to go into a trance state and be possessed by a god; the adult who cannot do this is a psychological cripple. How deficient Americans would seem to a person from such a culture. In many Eastern civilizations, elaborate techniques have been developed for inducing and utilizing ASCs, such as the Yoga and Zen systems.* In some cases vocabularies have been developed for talking about these ASCs more adequately. I recall Fredrick Spiegelberg, the noted Indian scholar, pointing out that Sanskrit has about 20 nouns which we translate into "consciousness" or "mind" in English because we do not have the vocabulary to specify the different shades of meaning in these words. (Spiegelberg, Fadiman & Tart, 1964). Within our Western culture we have several commonly used words for naming some ASCs, such as trance, hypnosis, dream, and ecstasy, but none of them are very clearly defined. It could be expected that within psychology and psychiatry there would be far more exact terms for describing various ASCs and their components, but except for a rich (but often not precise) vocabularly dealing with psychopathological states, this is not true. A few years ago, for example, 1 tried to find a clear definition of the word "trance," a very common psychological term, used in an explanatory as well as a descriptive sense. To my surprise, for every defining characteristic of a trance mentioned by one authority, another authority would use the opposite characteristic. Formal psychology in this century simply has not dealt with ASCs, especially positive ASCs, to any reasonable extent, considering their potential importance. If one (perhaps naively) assumes that the distribution of expended energies in the psychological sciences should show some relation to what is important in affecting people's behavior rather than just being related to what is methodologically convenient to investigate, then this neglect of ASCs by the psychological sciences is strange and has become increasingly
* M a n y t e c h n i q u e s f o r inducing A S C s w e r e d e v e l o p e d in C h r i s t i a n mysticism, b u t these w e r e n o t as e l a b o r a t e as t h e Eastern t e c h n i q u e s and n o l o n g e r r e p r e s e n t an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n c u l t u r e .
incongruent with what has happened in American society in the past decade of the "psychedelic revolution." The discrepancies will almost certainly become even greater over the next decade as the present trends continue. I shall not attempt to describe the whole "hippie" movement since it is too diverse, but judging by the more conservative writers in the mass media, there are tens of thousands of people who are obviously hippies in their life style and hundreds of thousands (perhaps millions) of "respectable" middleclass people who are experimenting with drug trips, meditation, sensory awareness, encounter groups, intentional communities, dream interpretation, and so forth (see, e.g., Rosenfeld & Farrel, 1966). I see these trends primarily in terms of the interests and activities of psychologists, undergraduate psychology majors, and psychology graduate students in my everyday life; the change over the past few years has been remarkable. When I was a graduate student a few years ago, I found almost no one who shared my interest in ASCs: today it is commonplace for graduate students to discuss their meditation experiences, their drug experiences, and their plans to work in these areas as psychologists. Five years ago a person who mentioned at a party that he had taken LSD-25 became the center of attention: now descriptions of psychedelic experiences are too commonplace to attract special attention. As further illustration, in the last month two graduate students in physics have come to talk to me about their experiences of their "souls leaving their bodies"; a sociology graduate student told me about a group of students he meets with regularly to discuss what to do with your state of consciousness and style of life after exhausting the LSD-25 experience; a mathematics graduate student asked for a guide to the scientific literature on marijuana so he may compare these findings ta his own experiences. These are not hippie students and they are no longer unusual. They are representatives of a whole new generation entering the conventional social power structure who spend much effort in exploring their own consciousness. This upsurge of serious interest in and personal exploration of ASCs is likely to cause an important change in psychology as a discipline. Students come to talk with me in my role as a psychologist because they believe that the science which treats the mind or behavior will help clarify their ASC experiences. I must tell them we have very little to offer. Undergraduates begin to major in psychology and find that we concentrate our research efforts of "methodologically sophisticated" approaches on what seem to them trivial problems. They can meditate for a month or take a psychedelic drug and have overwhelming psychological effects in their minds: if psychologists largely ignore this whole area, the students then dismiss psychology as an academic word game of no importance. And, in my experience, these are some of the very brightest students. Among graduate
students 1 have talked to, particularly in West Coast universities, the same trend is evident: a great dissatisfaction with the conventional areas of psychology and a questioning of whether training in psychology is worth while in terms of their interests, I suspect that within a few years the psychology graduate school that does not offer course work and research opportunities in ASCs simply will not attract many bright students. Nonacademic centers such as Esalen Institute, in Big Sur, California, are arising to fill some of this need. This is not to denigrate the valuable research that has been done in psychology these many years: it is simply saying that the profession must pay adequate attention to these areas of such importance to students if we want to avoid losing some good, potential psychologists. The need for a shift in emphasis in psychology is based on more important considerations than attracting bright students in the future, however. The actual behavior of an important segment of our population, the students and the middle-class intellectuals, is increasingly involved with producing and using ASCs. Yet our scientific knowledge of the nature and effects of these ASCs is so limited that we can offer little sound guidance on public policy with respect to such practices as psychedelic drug use. We cannot give much advice to individuals who wish to experience ASCs, nor can we adequately understand this significant portion of people's behavior. This collection of articles is an attempt to begin to correct the situation by, hopefully, stimulating research on ASCs in the course of presenting material on them. To many people who are not involved in scientific research, valid knowledge about ASCs is to be obtained by experiencing them; they are somehow beyond the reach of scientific research. The most important obligation of any science is that its descriptive and theoretical language embrace all the phenomena of its subject matter; the data from ASCs cannot be ignored if we are to develop a comprehensive psychology. Psychology has often failed to meet this obligation because of premature conceptualizations, that is, investing in simplified and elegant theoretical systems that exclude the data of ASCs, but this has been more a matter of the cultural climate than any inherent shortcoming of scientific method. Man is a theorizing and conceptualizing animal and does not accept experience in and of itself: he always develops beliefs and theories about his experience. The difficulty with studying ASCs by simply experiencing them is that we run as much risk of systematizing our delusions as of discovering "truth." When we complement personal experience with scientific method the risk of simply systematizing our delusions is considerably reduced. Thus the hope of stimulating research on ASCs is the prime reason for assemhling these articles. The readings in this collection cover a wide range of ASCs; they are
presented in groups, beginning with some ASCs available to almost everyone (the hypnagogic state and the dream state), continuing with more specialized and powerful ASCs (meditation, hypnosis, minor and major psychedelic drugs), and ending with the psychophysiology of some ASCs (including the most modern technique for producing an ASCelectroencephalographic feedback). More than 1,000 references to scientific literature relating to ASCs are contained in the articles and they should serve to guide the serious researcher to a vast amount of background literature. The papers range from relatively "hard-headed" experimental articles to very speculative ones. This variability occurs because our knowledge of ASCs is highly variable. My primary criterion for selecting papers is that they be provocative as well as sound: many of the phenomena reported will seem preposterous, impossible, and "unscientific." This simply reflects the limitations of our knowledge. I hope that those readers who are incensed by various articles will sublimate your anger into research. ASCs are going to become increasingly important in modern life. With proper research our knowledge of them can be immensely enriched very quickly and it is my hope that this book will stimulate research in this area.
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 1. GENERAL VIEWS ON ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
The number of discrete states of consciousness subsumed under the general heading ASCs is very large: exactly how large is unknown. This set of readings begins with Arnold Ludwig's "Altered States of Consciousness," one of the most comprehensive overviews available. Ludwig surveys the range of phenomena covered by ASCs and discusses their means of production and their various sociocultural functions. The latter are of particular interest: our Western culture makes virtually no use of ASCs and tends to regard all of them as pathological states. Ludwig's article provides a wide ranging perspective of the variety of positive functions that ASCs can serve, both for the individuals experiencing them and for the cultures the individuals live in. Ludwig's article is primarily a survey of what happens, with little theorizing. His is followed by Arthur Deikman's "Deautomatization and the Mystic Experience " in which he looks at the types of ASC often reported by mystics and attempts an analysis of these states from a psychoanalytic point of view. Although our over-all knowledge of ASCs is so meager at this time that no theoretical explanation can be completely comprehensive and accurate, Deikman's article is an excellent illustration of the sort of firstclass theorizing that can be done currently. In order to add human relevance and richness to this survey of ASCs, the article by Milton Erickson that completes this section, a "Special Inquiry
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 1
with Aldous Huxley into the Nature and Character of Various States of Consciousness," is a remarkable study of the ASCs experienced by one of the greatest minds of our generation. It was Huxley's lucid little book, "The Doors of Perception" (1954), that greatly stimulated my own interest in ASCs years ago: as a description of the psychedelic experience, this book has yet to be surpassed. Erickson's paper further illustrates the creative potentials of some ASCs, for he describes how Huxley did much of his writing in an ASC. For further general readings on ASC the reader should see Belo(1960), Bucke (1961), Devereaux (1966), Gill & Brenman (1961), James (1958), King (1963), and Ludwig (1967).
ARNOLD M. LUDWIG
Beneath man's thin veneer of consciousness lies a relatively uncharted realm of mental activity, the nature and function of which have been neither systematically explored nor adequately conceptualized. Despite numerous clinical and research reports on daydreaming, sleep and dream states, hypnosis, sensory deprivation, hysterical states of dissociation and depersonalization, pharmacologically induced mental aberrations, and so on, there has been little attempt made to organize this scattered information into a consistent theoretical system. It is my present intention to integrate and discuss current knowledge regarding various altered states of consciousness in an effort to determine (a) the conditions necessary for their emergence, (b) the factors that influence their outward manifestations, (c) their relatedness and/or common denominators, and (d) the adaptive or maladaptive functions which these states may serve for man. For the purpose of discussion I shall regard altered state(s) of consciousness [hereafter referred to as ASC(s)] as any mental state(s), induced by various physiological, psychological, or pharmacological maneuvers or agents, which can be recognized subjectively by the individual himself (or by an objective observer of the individual) as representing a sufficient deviation in subjective experience or psychological functioning from certain
Reprinted by permission from Arch. Gen. PsychiatVol.
15, 1966, pp. 225-234.
general norms for that individual during alert, waking consciousness. This sufficient deviation may be represented by a greater preoccupation than usual with internal sensations or mental processes, changes in the formal characteristics of thought, and impairment of reality testing to various degrees. Although there will be some conceptual pitfalls in such a general definition, these pitfalls will be more than compensated for by the wide range of clinical phenomena which can now be considered and hence studied as presumably related phenomena.
OF A S C
ASCs may be produced in any setting by a wide variety of agents or maneuvers which interfere with the normal inflow of sensory or proprioceptive stimuli, the normal outflowofmotor impulses, the normal "emotional tone," or the normal flow and organization of cognitive processes. There seems to be an optimal range of exteroceptive stimulation necessary for the maintenance of normal, waking consciousness, and levels of stimulation either above or below this range appear conducive to the production of ASCs (Lindsey, 1961). Moreover, by adopting Hebb's views (1958), we also find that varied and diversified environmental stimulation appears necessary for the maintenance of normal cognitive, perceptual, and emotional experience, and that when such stimulation is lacking, mental aberrations are likely to occur. Although experimental evidence is sparse concerning the manipulation of motor, cognitive, and emotional processes, there seems to be ample clinical and anecdotal evidence to suggest that gross interference with these processes may likewise produce alterations in consciousness.* In specifying the general methods employed to produce ASCs, I should like to emphasize that there may be much overlap among the various methods and that many factors may be operating other than those listed. Nevertheless, for the sake of classification (albeit artificial), 1 have categorized the various methods on the basis of certain variables or combinations of variables which appear to play a major role in the production of these ASCs. A. Reduction of exteroceptive stimulation and!or motor activity. Under this category are included mental states resulting primarily from the absolute reduction of sensory input, the change in patterning of sensory data, or constant exposure to repetitive, monotonousstimulation. A drastic reduction of motor activity also may prove an important contributing factor.
S e e R. Shor's excellent article (Chapters 15 & 16) concerning the conditions necessary for ihe emergence of trance, a term roughly similar to my usage of ASC.
Such ASCs may be associated with solitary confinement (Burney, 1952; Meltzer, 1956) or prolonged social and stimulus deprivation while at sea (Anderson, 1942; Gibson, 1953; Slocum, 1948), in the arctic (Byrd, 1938; Ritter, 1954), or on the desert; highway hypnosis (Moseley, 1953); "breako f f phenomena in high altitude jet pilots (Bennett, 1961); extreme boredom (Heron, 1957); hypnogogic and hypnopompic states; sleep and related phenomena, such as dreaming and somnambulism; or experimental sensory deprivation states (Heron, 1961; Lilly, 1956; Ziskind, 1958). In clinical settings, alterations in consciousness may occur following bilateral cataract operations (Boyd & Norris, 1941) or profound immobilization in a body cast or by traction (Leiderman et al., 1958). They may also occur in patients with poliomyelitis placed in a tank-type respirator (Mendelson et al., 1958), in patients with polyneuritis which is causing sensory anesthesias and motor paralyses (Leiderman et al., 1958), and in elderly patients with cataracts (Bartlett, 1951). Descriptions of more esoteric forms of ASCs can be found in references to the healing and revelatory states during "incubation" or "temple sleep" as practiced by the early Egyptians and Greeks (Ludwig, 1964) and "kayak disease," occurring in Greenlanders forced to spend several days in a kayak while hunting seals (Williams, 1958). B. Increase of exteroceptive stimulation ond/or motor activity and!or emotion. Under this category are included excitatory mental states resulting primarily from sensory overload or bombardment, which may or may not be accompanied by strenuous physical activity or exertion. Profound emotional arousal and mental fatigue may be major contributing factors. Instances of ASCs induced through such maneuvers are as follows: suggestible mental states produced by grilling or "third degree" tactics (Sargant, 1957); brainwashing states (Sargant, 1957); hyperkinetic trance associated with emotional contagion encountered in a group or mob setting (LaBarre, 1962; Marks, 1947); religious conversion and healing trance experiences during revivalistic meetings (Sargant, 1957; LaBarre, 1962; Coe, 1916; Kirkpatrick, 1929); mental aberrations associated with certain rites de passage (Sargant, 1957); spirit possession states (Sargant, 1957; LaBarre, 1962; Belo, 1960; Ravenscroft, 1965); shamanistic and prophetic trance states during tribal ceremonies (Field, 1960; Murphy, 1964); fire walker's trance (Thomas, 1934); orgiastic trance, such as experienced by Bacchanalians or Satanists during certain religious rites (Dodds, 1963; Mischelet, 1939); ecstatic trance, such as experienced by the "howling" or "whirling" dervishes during their famous devr dance (Williams, 1958); trance states experienced during prolonged masturbation; and experimental hyperalert trance states (Ludwig & Lyle, 1964). Alterations in consciousness may also arise from inner emotional turbulence or conflict or secondary to external conditions conducive to heightened emotional arousal. Examples
of these states would include fugues, amnesias, traumatic neuroses, depersonalization, panic states, rage reactions, hysterical conversion reactions (i.e., dreamy and dissociative possession states), berzerk, latah, and whitico psychoses (Arieti, & Meth, 1959), bewitchment and demoniacal possession states (Mischelet, 1939; Galvin & Ludwig, 1961; Jones, 1959; Ludwig, 1965a), and acute psychotic states, such as schizophrenic reactions. C. Increased alertness or mental involvement. Included under this category are mental states which appear to result primarily from focused or selective hyperalertness with resultant peripheral hypoalertness over a sustained period of time. Such ASCs may arise from the following activities: prolonged vigilance during sentry duty or crow's watch; prolonged observation of a radar screen (Heron, 1957); fervent praying (Bowers, 1959; Rund, 1957); intense mental absorption in a task, such as reading, writing, or problem solving; total mental involvement in listening to a dynamic or charismatic speaker (Ludwig, 1965b); and even from attending to one's amplified breath sounds (Margolin & Kubie, 1944), or the prolonged watching of a revolving drum, metronome, or stroboscope. D. Decreased alertness or relaxation of critical faculties. Grouped under this category are mental states which appear to occur mainly as a result of what might best be described as a "passive state of mind," in which active goal-directed thinking is minimal. Examples of such states are as follows: mystical, transcendental, or revelatory states (e.g., satori, samadhi, nirvana, cosmic-consciousness) attained through passive meditation or occurring spontaneously during the relaxation of one's critical faculties (Bucke, 1951; Ludwig, 1966); daydreaming, drowsiness, "Brown study" or reverie; mediumistic and autohypnotic trances (e.g., among Indian fakirs, mystics, Pythian priestesses, etc.); profound aesthetic experiences; creative, illuminatory, and insightful states (Ludwig, 1966, Koestler, 1964); free associative states during psychoanalytic therapy; reading-trance, especially with poetry (Snyder, 1930); nostalgia; musictrance resulting from absorption in soothing lullabies or musical scores; and mental states associated with profound cognitive and muscular relaxation, such as during floating on the water or sun-bathing. E. Presence of somatopsychologicalfactors. Included under this heading are mental states primarily resulting from alterations in body chemistry or neurophysiology (Hinkle, 1961). These alterations may be deliberately induced or may result from conditions over which the individual has little or no control. Examples of physiological disturbances producing such ASCs are as follows: hypoglycemia, either spontaneous or subsequent to fasting; hyperglycemia (e.g., postprandial lethargy); dehydration (often partially
responsible for the mental aberrations encountered on the desert or at sea); thyroid and adrenal gland dysfunctions; sleep deprivation (West et al., 1962; Tyler, 1956; Katz & Landis, 1935); hyperventilation; narcolepsy; temporal lobe seizures (e.g., dreamy states and deja vu phenomena); and auras preceding migraine or epileptic seizures. Toxic deleria may be produced by fever, the ingestion of toxic agents, or the abrupt withdrawal from addicting drugs, such as alcohol and barbiturates. In addition, ASCs may be induced through the administration of numerous pharmacological agents, such as anesthetics and psychedelic, narcotic, sedative, and stimulant drugs.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS O F A S C s
Although ASCs share many features in common, there are certain general molding influences which appear to account for much of their apparent differences in outward manifestation and subjective experience. Even though similar basic processes may operate in the production of certain ASCs (e.g., trance), such influences as cultural expectations (Wallace, 1959), role-playing (Sarbin, 1950; White, 1941), demand characteristics (Orne, 1959; 1962), communication factors, transference feelings (Kubie & Margolin, 1944), personal motivation and expectations (mental set), and the specific procedure employed to induce the ASC all work in concert to shape and mold a mental state with a unique flavor of its own. Despite the apparent differences among ASCs, we shall find that there are a number of common denominators or features which allow us to conceptualize these ASCs as somewhat related phenomena. 1 n previous research (Levine et al., 1963; Levine & Ludwig, 1965a, 1965b; Ludwig & Levine, 1966), Dr. Levine and 1 were able to demonstrate the presence of many of these features in alterations of consciousness induced by hypnosis, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25), and combination of these variables. Similar features (described below), in greater or lesser degree, tend to be characteristic of most ASCs. A. Alterations in thinking. Subjective disturbances in concentration, attention, memory, and judgment represent common findings. Archaic modes of thought (primary process thought) predominate, and reality testing seems impaired to varying degrees. The distinction between cause and effect becomes blurred, and ambivalence may be pronounced whereby incongruities or opposites may coexist without any (psycho)logical conflict. Moreover, as Rapaport (1951) and Brenman (1950) have commented, many of these states are associated with a decrease in reflective awareness. B. Disturbed time sense. Sense of time and chronology become greatly
altered. Subjective feelings of timelessness, time coming to a standstill, the acceleration or slowing of time, and so on, are common. Time may also seem of infinite or infinitesimal duration. C. Loss of control. As a person enters or is in an ASC, he often experiences fears of losing his grip on reality and losing his self-control. During the induction phase, he may actively try to resist experiencing the ASCs (e.g., sleep, hypnosis, anesthesia), while in other instances he may actually welcome relinquishing his volition and giving in to the experience (e.g., narcotic drugs, alcohol, LSD, mystical states). The experience of "loss of control" is a complicated phenomenon. Relinquishing conscious control may arouse feelings of impotency and helplessness, or, paradoxically, may represent the gaining of greater control and power through the loss of control. This latter experience may be found in hypnotized persons (Kubie & Margolin, 1944; Gill & Brenman, 1959) or in audiences who vicariously identify with the power and omnipotence which they attribute to the hypnotist or demagogue. This is also the case in mystical, revelatory, or spirit possession states whereby the person relinquishes conscious control in the hope of experiencing divine truths, clairvoyance, "cosmic consciousness," communion with the spirits or supernatural powers, or serving as a temporary abode or mouthpiece for the gods. D. Change in emotional expression. With the diminution of conscious control or inhibitions, there is often a marked change in emotional expression. Sudden and unexpected displays of more primitive and intense emotion than shown during normal, waking consciousness may appear. Emotional extremes, from ecstasy and orgiastic equivalents to profound fear and depression, commonly occur. There is another pattern of emotional expression which may characterize these states. The individual may become detached, uninvolved, or relate intense feelings without any emotional display. The capacity for humor may also diminish. E. Body image change. A wide array of distortions in body image frequently occur in ASCs. There is also a common propensity for individuals to experience a profound sense of depersonalization, a schism between body and mind, feelings of derealization, or a dissolution of boundaries between self and others, the world, or universe. When these subjective experiences arise from toxic or delerious states, auras preceding seizures, or the ingestion of certain drugs, etc., they are often regarded by the individual as strange and even frightening. However, when they appear in a mystical or religious setting, they may be interpreted as transcendental or mystical experiences of "oneness," "expansion of consciousness," "oceanic feelings," or "oblivion." There are also some other common features which might be grouped
under this heading. Not only may various parts of the body appear or feel shrunken, enlarged, distorted, heavy, weightless, disconnected, strange, or funny, but spontaneous experiences of dizziness, blurring of vision, weakness, numbness, tingling, and analgesia are likewise encountered. F. Perceptual distortions. Common to most ASCs is the presence of perceptual aberrations, including hallucinations, pseudohallucinations, increased visual imagery, subjectively felt hyperacuteness of perception, and illusions of every variety. The content of these perceptual aberrations may be determined by cultural, group, individual, or neurophysiological factors and represent either wish-fulfillment fantasies, the expression of basic fears or conflicts, or simply phenomena of little dynamic import, such as hallucinations of light, color, geometrical patterns, or shapes. In some ASCs, such as those produced by psychedelic drugs, marihuana, or mystical contemplation, synesthesias may appear whereby one form of sensory experience is translated into other form. For example, persons may report seeing or feeling sounds or being able to taste what they see. G. Change in meaning or significance. At this point I should like to dwell somewhat on one of the most intriguing features of almost all ASCs, the understanding of which will help us account for a number of seemingly unrelated phenomena. After observing and reading descriptions of a wide variety of ASCs induced by different agents or maneuvers, I have become very impressed with the predilection of persons in these states to attach an increased meaning or significance to their subjective experiences, ideas, or perceptions. At times, it appears as though the person is undergoing an attenuated "eureka" experience during which feelings of profound insight, illumination, and truth frequently occur. In toxic or psychotic states, this increased sense of significance may manifest itself in the attributing of false significance to external cues, ideas of reference, and the numerous instances of "psychotic insight." I should like to emphasize that this sense of increased significance, which is primarily an emotional or affectual experience, bears little relationship to the objective "truth" of the content of this experience (Ludwig, 1966). To illustrate the ridiculousness of some of the "insights" attained during ASCs, I should like to cite a personal experience when I once took LSD for experimental purposes. Sometimes during the height of the reaction, I remember experiencing an intense desire to urinate. Standing by the urinal, I noticed a sign above it which read "Please Flush After Using!" As I weighted these words in my mind, 1 suddenly realized their profound meaning. Thrilled by this startling revelation, I rushed back to my colleague to share this universal truth with him. Unfortunately, being a mere mortal, he could not appreciate the world-shaking import of my communication and responded by laughing!
William James (1950, p. 284) describes subjective experiences associated with other alterations of consciousness. "One of the charms of drunkenness," he writes, "unquestionably lies in the deepening sense of reality and truth which is gained therein. In whatever light things may then appear to us, they seem more utterly what they are, more 'utterly utter' than when we are sober." In his Varieties of Religious Experience, he adds:
Nitrous oxide and ether, especially nitrous oxide, when sufficiently diluted with air, stimulate the mystical consciousness in an extraordinary degree. Depth upon depth of truth seems revealed to the inhaler. This truth fades out, however, or escapes, at a moment of coming to; and if the words remain over in which it seemed to clothe itself they prove to be the veriest nonsense. Nevertheless, the sense of a profound meaning having been there persists; and t know more than one person who is persuaded that in the nitrous oxide trance we have a genuine metaphysical revelation. (James, 1929, p. 378)
H. Sense of the ineffable. Most often, because of the uniqueness of the subjective experience associated with certain ASCs (e.g., transcendental, aesthetic, creative, psychotic, and mystical states), persons claim a certain ineptness or inability to communicate the nature or essence of the experience to someone who has not undergone a similar experience. Contributing to the sense of the ineffable is the tendency of persons to develop varying degrees of amnesias for their experiences during profound alterations of consciousness, such as the hypnotic trance, somnambulistic trance, possession fits, dreaming, mystical experiences, delirious states, drug intoxications, auras, orgiastic and ecstatic states, and the like. By no means is amnesia always the case, as witnessed by the lucid memory following the psychedelic experience, marihuana smoking, or certain revelatory or illuminatory states. I. Feelings of rejuvenation. Although the characteristic of "rejuvenation" only has limited application to the vast panoply of ASCs, I have included this characteristic as a common denominator since it does appear in a sufficient number of these states to warrant attention. Thus, on emerging from certain profound alterations of consciousness (e.g., psychedelic experiences, abreactive states secondary to the administration of carbon dioxide, methamphetamine (Methedrine), ether or amytal, hypnosis, religious conversion, transcendental and mystical states, insulin coma therapy, spirit possession fits, primitive puberty rites, and even, on some occasions, deep sleep), many persons claim to experience a new sense of hope, rejuvenation, renaissance, or rebirth (LaBarre, 1962; Coe, 1916; Bucke, 1961; Ludwig & Levine, 1966; James, 1929; Blood, 1874; Ebin, 1961; Huxley, 1954; LaBarre, 1964; Pahnke, 1967). J. Hypersuggestibility. Employing a broad view, 1 shall regard as manifestations of hypersuggestibility in ASCs not only the numerous
instances of "primary" and "secondary" suggestibility but also the increased susceptibility and propensity of persons uncritically to accept and/or automatically to respond to specific statements (i.e., commands or instructions of a leader, shaman, demagogue, or hypnotist) or nonspecific cues (i.e., cultural or group expectations for certain types of behavior or subjective feelings). Hypersuggestibility will also refer to the increased tendency of a person to misperceive or misinterpret various stimuli or situations based either on his inner fears or wishes. It is becoming increasingly apparent that the phenomenon of suggestibility associated with ASCs can be best understood by analysis of the subjective state itself. Recently, theoreticians seem to have become much more aware of the importance of the subjective state to account for many of the phenomena observed in hypnotized persons. Orne, for example, stated that "an important attribute of hypnosis is a potentiality for the subject to experience as subjectively real suggested alterations in his environment that do not conform with reality." (Meltzer, 1956, p. 237) Sutcliffe adds that "the distinguishing feature of this state is the hypnotized subject's emotional conviction that the world is as suggested by the hypnotist, rather than a pseudoperception of the suggested world." (1961, p. 200) In attempting to account for the dramatic feature of hypersuggestibility, I believe that a better understanding of this phenomenon can be gained through an analysis of some of the subjective features associated with ASCs in general. With the recession of a person's critical faculties there is an attendant decrease in his capacity for reality testing or his ability to distinguish between subjective and objective reality. This, in turn, would tend to create the compensatory need to bolster up his failing faculties by seeking out certain props, support, or guidance in an effort to relieve some of the anxiety associated with the loss of control. In his attempt to compensate for his failing critical faculties, the person comes to rely more on the suggestions of the hypnotist, shaman, demagogue, interrogator, religious healer, preacher, or doctor, all representing omnipotent authoritative figures. With the "dissolution of self boundaries," which represents another important feature of ASCs, there would also be the tendency for the person to identify vicariously with the authoritarian figure whose wishes and commands are accepted as the person's own. Contradictions, doubts, inconsistencies, and inhibitions tend to diminish (all characteristics of "primary process" thinking), and the suggestions of the person endowed with authority tend to be accepted as concrete reality. These suggestions become imbued with even more importance and urgency owing to the increased significance and meaning attributed both to internal and external stimuli during alterations in consciousness.
With all these factors operating, a monomotivational or "supramotivational" state is achieved in which the person strives to realize in behavior the thoughts or ideas which he experiences as subjective reality. The subjective reality may be determined by a number of influences working individually or in concert, such as the expectations of the authority figure, the group, culture, or even by the "silent inner voice" (e.g., during autohypnotic states, prayer, auditory hallucinations, guiding spirits) expressing the person's own wishes or fears. When a person lapses into certain other ASCs, such as panic, acute psychosis, toxic delirium, etc., where external direction or structure is ambiguous and ill-defined, the person's internal mental productions tend to become his major guide for reality and play a large role in determining behavior. In these instances, he is much more susceptible to the dictates of his emotions and the fantasies and thoughts associated with them than to the direction of others.
FUNCTIONS OF ASCs
Now that we have considered certain characteristics associated with ASCs, we might raise the question whether they serve any useful biological, psychological, or social functions for man. It is my thesis that the very presence and prevalence of these states in man (Shor, I960) attests to their importance in his everyday functioning. I find it difficult to accept, for example, that man's ability to lapse into trance has been evolved just so he can be hypnotized on stage or in a clinical or laboratory setting. Moreover, the widespread occurrence and use of mystical and possession states or aesthetic and creative experiences indicates that these ASCs satisfy many needs both for man and society. Although my thesis may prove teleological, I feel that this approach will shed some further light on the nature and function of these states. My viewpoint, then, is that ASCs might be regarded (to use Sherrington's terminology) as "final common pathways" for many different forms of human expression and experience, both adaptive and maladaptive. In some instances the psychological regression found in ASCs will prove to be atavistic and harmful to the individual or society, while in other instances the regression will be "in the service of the ego" (Kris, 1952) and enable man to transcend the bounds of logic and formality or express repressed needs and desires in a socially sanctioned and constructive way. A. Maladaptive expressions. The maladaptive expressions or uses of ASCs are numerous and manifold. The emergence of these ASCs may represent (a) attempts at resolution of emotional conflict (e.g., fugues,
amnesias, traumatic neuroses, depersonalization, and dissociation); (b) defensive functions in certain threatening situations conducive to the arousal of anxiety [e.g., lapsing into hypnoidal states during psychotherapy (Dickes, 1965)]; (c) a breakthrough of forbidden impulses (e.g., acute psychotic and panic reactions); (d) escape from responsibilities and inner tensions (e.g., narcotics, marihuana, alcohol); (e) the symbolic acting-out of unconscious conflicts [e.g., demoniacal possession, bewitchment (Galvin, 1961; Jones, 1959; Ludwig, 1965a)]; (f) the manifestation of organic lesions or neurophysiological disturbances (e.g., auras, toxic conditions); and (g) an inadvertent and potentially dangerous response to certain stimuli (e.g., highway hypnosis, radar screen and sentry duty trance). B. Adaptive expressions. Man has employed a variety of ASCs in an effort to acquire new knowledge or experience, express psychic tensions or relieve conflict without danger to himself or others, and to function more adequately and constructively in society. 1. Healing: Throughout history, the production of ASCs has played a major role in the various healing arts and practices. The induction of these states has been employed for almost every conceivable aspect of psychological therapy. Thus, shamans may lapse into trance or possession states in order to diagnose the etiology of their patients' ailments or to learn of specific remedies or healing practices (Murphy, 1964). Moreover, during the actual treatment or healing ceremony, the shaman, hungan, medicine man, priest, preacher, physician, or psychiatrist may view the production of an ASC in the patient as a crucial prerequisite for healing. There are countless instances of healing practices designed to take advantage of the suggestibility, increased meaning, propensity for emotional catharsis, and the feelings of rejuvenation associated with ASCs. The early Egyptian and Greek practices of "incubation" in their sleep temples, the faith cures at Lourdes and other religious shrines, the healing through prayer and meditation, cures by the "healing touch," the laying on of hands, encounters with religious relics, spiritual healing, spirit possession cures, exorcism, mesmeric or magnetic treatment, and modern day hypnotherapy are all obvious instances of the role of ASCs in treatment (Ludwig, 1964). Pharmacologically induced ASCs have also played a major role in the healing arts. Abreactive or cathartic techniques, employing peyote, ether, C0 2 , amytal, methamphetamine, and LSD-25 have all had wide use in psychiatry (Sargant, 1957; Freeman, 1952). Kubie and Margolin (Kubie, 1945; Margolin & Kubie, 1945) have also commented on the therapeutic value of certain drugs to induce temporary dissociation and relieve repression. Perhaps unrelated to the specific effects of ASCs in treatment are the
nonspecific effects of certain other alterations in consciousness which aid in maintaining psychic equilibrium and health. For example, sleep, traditionally regarded as The Great Healer, and dreaming seem to serve important biological and psychological functions for man (Snyder, 1963). The ASC associated with sexual orgasm might be considered as another beneficial mental alteration which not only has biological survival value as a positive reinforcement for the sexual drive but also serves as an outlet for numerous human desires and frustrations. 2. Avenues of new knowledge or experience: Man often has sought to induce ASCs in an effort to gain new knowledge, inspiration, or experience. In the realm of religion, intense prayer, passive meditation, revelatory and prophetic states, mystical and transcendental experiences, religious conversion, and divination states have served man in opening new realms of experience, reaffirming moral values, resolving emotional conflicts, and often enabling him to cope better with his human predicament and the world about him. It is also interesting to note that among many primitive groups, spirit possession is believed to impart a superhuman knowledge which could not possibly be gained during waking consciousness. Such paranormal faculties as superlative wisdom, the "gift of tongues," and clairvoyance are supposedly demonstrated during the possession fit (Field, 1960). ASCs appear to enrich man's experiences in many other areas of life. The intense esthetic experience gained while absorbed in some majestic scene, a work of art, or music may broaden' man's subjective experiences and serve as a source of creative inspiration. There are also numerous instances of sudden illumination, creative insights, and problem solving occurring while man has lapsed into such ASCs as trance, drowsiness, sleep, passive meditation or drug intoxication (Koestler, 1964). 3. Social function: ASCs occurring in a group setting seem to serve many individual and social needs. Although a brief discussion cannot do justice to the wide variety of functions which ASCs serve for various cultures, we can at least mention a few. If we may employ spirit possession as a paradigm for the potential value of ASCs, we find that its social import and ramifications are considerable. From the individual's vantage point, possession by one of the tribal or local deities or Holy Spirit during a religious ceremony would allow him to attain high status through fulfilling his cult role, gain a temporary freedom of responsibility from his actions and pronouncements, or enable him to act out in a socially sanctioned way his aggressive and sexual conflicts or desires (Mischel & Mischel, 1958). Tensions and fears are dissipated, and a new sense of spiritual security and confidence may supplant the despair and hopelessness of a marginal existence (Davidson, 1965).
From society's standpoint, the needs of the tribe or group are met through its vicarious identification with the entranced person who not only derives individual satisfaction from divine possession but also acts out certain ritualized group conflicts and aspirations, such as the theme of death and resurrection, cultural taboos, and so on (LaBarre, 1962; Belo, 1960; Field, 1960; Ravenscroft, 1965; Davidson, 1965; Deren, 1952). Moreover, the dramatic behavioral manifestations of spirit possession serve to convince the participants of the continued personal interest of their gods, reaffirm their local beliefs, allow them to exert some control over the unknown, enhance group cohesion and identification, and endow the utterances of the entranced person, shaman, or priest with an importance they might otherwise not have if spoken in an ordinary setting. In general, the existence of such practices represents an excellent example of how society creates modes of reducing frustration, stress and loneliness through group action. In conclusion, then, it appears the ASCs play a very significant role in man's experience and behavior. It is also apparent that these states may serve as adaptive or maladaptive outlets for the expression of a multitude of man's passions, needs and desires. Moreover, there is little question that we have hardly scratched the surface in understanding fully the facets and functions of ASCs. As a final note, I should like to quote the very pertinent remarks of William James (1929, pp. 378-379).
. . . Our normal waking consciousness . . . is but one special type of consciousness, whilst all about it, parted from it by the filmiest of screens, there lie potential forms of conscious entirely different. We may go through life without suspecting their existence; but apply the requisite stimulus, and at a touch they are all there in all their completeness, definite types of mentality which probably somewhere have their field of application and adaptation. No account of the universe in its totality can be final which leaves these other forms of consciousness quite disregarded. How to regard them is the questionfor they are so discontinuous with ordinary consciousness. Yet they may determine attitudes though they cannot furnish formulas, and open a region though they fail to give a map. At any rale, they forbid a premature closing of our accounts with reality.
Despite numerous clinical and research reports on certain altered states of consciousness, there has been little attempt to conceptualize the relationship among these states and the conditions necessary for their emergence. To this end, the author has tried to integrate and discuss pertinent findings from many diverse areas in an effort to gain a better understanding of these states and the functions they serve for man and society.
As one views the many altered states of consciousness experienced by man, it soon becomes apparent that there are a number of essential conditions which contribute to their emergence. Moreover, although the outward manifestations and subjective experiences associated with various alterations in consciousness may differ, there are a number of basic features which most of these states share in common. From a functional viewpoint, it also becomes clear that many altered states of consciousness serve as "final common pathways" for many different forms of human expression, both maladaptive and adaptive.
DEAUTOMATIZATION AND THE MYSTIC EXPERIENCE
ARTHUR J . DE1KMAN
To study the mystic experience one must turn initially to material that appears unscientific, is couched in religious terms, and seems completely subjective. Yet these religious writings are data and not to be dismissed as something divorced from the reality with which psychological science is concerned. The following passage from The Cloud of Unknowing, a fourteenth-century religious treatise, describes a procedure to be followed in order to attain an intuitive knowledge of God. Such an intuitive experience is called mystical because it is considered beyond the scope of language to convey. However, a careful reading will show that these instructions contain within their religious idiom psychological ideas pertinent to the study and understanding of a wide range of phenomena not necessarily connected with theological issues:
. . . forget all the creatures that ever God made and the works of them, so that thy thought or thy desire be not directed or stretched to any of them, neither in general nor in special. . . . At the first time when thou dost it, thou findst but a darkness and as it were a kind of unknowing, thou knowest not what, saving that thou feelest in thy will a naked intent unto God . . . thou mayest neither see him clearly by light of understanding in thy reason, nor feel him in sweetness of love Reprinted by permission from Psychiatry, Vol. 29 1966, pp. 324-338. This research was supported by Research Grant MH-07683, from the National Institute of Mental Health, USPHS; and by the Austen Riggs Center.
DEAUTOMATIZATI0N AND THE MYSTIC EXPERIENCE
in thy affection . . . if ever thou shalt see him or feel him as it may be here, it must always be in this cloud and in this darkness Smite upon that thick cloud of unknowing with a sharp dart of longing love (Knowles, 1961, p. 77).
Specific questions are raised by this subjective account: What constitutes a state of consciousness whose content is not rational thought ("understanding in thy reason"), affective ("sweetness of love"), or sensate ("darkness", "cloud of unknowing")? By what means do both an active "forgetting" and an objectless "longing" bring about such a state? A comparison of this passage with others in the classical mystic literature indicates that the author is referring to the activities of renunciation and contemplative meditation. This paper will present a psychological model o f t h e mystic experience based on the assumptions that meditation and renunciation are primary techniques for producing it, and that the process can be conceptualized as one of de-automatization.
P H E N O M E N A OF THE MYSTIC EXPERIENCE
Accounts of mystic experiences can be categorized as (a) untrainedsensate, (b) trained-sensate, and (c) trained-transcendent. "Untrainedsensate" refers to phenomena occurring in persons not regularly engaged in meditation, prayer, or other exercises aimed at achieving a religious experience. These persons come from all occupations and classes. The mystic state they report is one of intense affective, perceptual, and cognitive phenomena that appear to be extensions of familiar psychological processes. Nature and drugs are the most frequent precipitating factors. James cites the account of Trevor to illustrate a nature experience:
For nearly an hour I walked along the road to the "Cat and Fiddle," and then returned. On the way back, suddenly, without warning, I felt that I was in heaven an inward state of peace and joy and assurance indescribably intense, accompanied with a sense of being bathed in a warm glow of light, as though the external condition had brought about the internal effecta feeling of having passed, beyond the body, though the scene around me stood out more clearly and as if nearer to me than before, by reason of the illumination in the midst of which I seemed to be placed. This deep emotion lasted, though with decreasing strength, until I reached home, and for some time after, only gradually passing away. (James, 1929, p. 388).
For an example of a drug experience James cites Symonds* description of undergoing chloroform anesthesia:
. . . I thought that I was near death; when suddenly, my soul became aware of
ARTHUR J. DEIKMAN
God, who was manifestly dealing with me, handling me, so to speak, in an intense, persona] present reality. I felt him streaming in like light upon me I cannot describe the ecstasy I fell. Then, as 1 gradually awoke from the influence of the anesthetics, the old sense of my relation to the world began to return, the new sense of my relation to God began to fade (James, 1929, p. 382).
More recent accounts of experiences with LSD-25 and related drugs fall into the same group (Watts, 1962). The "trained-sensate" category refers to essentially the same phenomena occurring in religious persons in the West and in the East who have deliberately sought "grace," "enlightenment," or "union" by means of long practice in concentration and renunciation (contemplative meditation, Yoga, and so forth). One example of this group is Richard Rolle, who wrote:
. . . 1 was silting in a certain chapel, and while ] was taking pleasure in the delight of some prayer or meditation, I suddenly felt within me an unwanted and pleasant fire. When I had for long doubted from whence it came, I learned by experience that it camc from the Creator and not from creature, since 1 found it ever more pleasing and full of heat.. . . (Knowles, 1961, p. 57).
A more elaborate experience is recorded by Julian of Norwich:
In this [moment] suddenly 1 saw the red blood trickle down from under the garland hot and freshly and right plenteously And in the same shewing suddenly the Trinity fulfilled my heart most of joy. And so I understood it shall be in heaven without end to all that shall come there (Warrack, 1952, p. 8).
Visions, feelings of "fire," "sweetness," "song," and joy are various accompaniments of this type of experience. The untrained-sensate and the trained-sensate states are phenomenologically indistinguishable, with the qualification that the trained mystics report experiences conforming more closely to the specific religious cosmology to which they are accustomed. As one might expect, an experience occurring as the result of training, with the support of a formal social structure, and capable of being repeated, tends to have a more significant and persisting psychological effect. However, spontaneous conversion experiences are also noteworthy for their influence on a person's life. Typical of all mystic experience is a more or less gradual fading away of the state, leaving only a memory and a longing for that which was experienced. Mystics such as St. John of the Cross and St. Teresa of Avila, commentators such as Poulain, and Eastern mystic literature in general, divide the effects and stages through which mystics progress into a lesser experience of strong emotion and ideation (sensate) and a higher, ultimate
e x p e r i e n c e t h a t g o e s b e y o n d a f f e c t o r i d e a t i o n . It is t h e latter experience, o c c u r i n g a l m o s t always in association with long training, t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e " t r a i n e d - t r a n s c e n d e n t " g r o u p . T h e t r a n s - s e n s a t e aspect is stated specifically by a n u m b e r of a u t h o r s , such as W a l t e r H i l t o n a n d St.. J o h n of t h e Cross: From what I have said you may understand that visions of revelations by spirits, whether seen in bodily form or in the imagination, and whether in sleeping or waking, do not constitute true contemplation. This applies equally to any other sensible experiences of seemingly spiritual origin, whether of sound, taste, smell or of warmth felt like a glowing fire in the breast or in other parts of the body, anything, indeed, that can be experienced by the physical senses (Hilton, 1953, pp. 14-15). . . . that inward wisdom is so simple, so general and so spiritual that it has not entered into the understanding enwrapped or clad in any form or image subject to sense, it follows that sense and imagination (as it has not entered through them nor has taken their form and color) cannot account for it or imagine it, so as to say anything concerning it, although the soul be clearly aware that it is experiencing and partaking of that rare and delectable wisdom (St. John of the Cross, 1953, Vol. l , p . 457). A similar distinction b e t w e e n lower (sensate) and higher ( t r a n s c e n d e n t ) c o n t e m p l a t i v e states m a y be f o u n d in Y o g a texts, " C o n s c i o u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n " is a p r e l i m i n a r y s t e p t o " c o n c e n t r a t i o n w h i c h is not c o n s c i o u s (of objects)." For practice when directed towards any supporting-object is not capable of serving as an instrument to this [concentration not conscious of an o b j e c t ] . . . . Mind-stuff, when engaged in the practice of this [imperceptible object], seems as if it were itself non-existent and without any supporting-object. Thus [arises] that concentration [called] seedless, [without sensational stimulus], which is not conscious of objects (Woods, 1914, p. 42). In t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t state, multiplicity d i s a p p e a r s and a sense of u n i o n with t h e O n e or with All o c c u r s . " W h e n all lesser things a n d ideas a r e t r a n s c e n d e d and f o r g o t t e n , a n d t h e r e r e m a i n s only a p e r f e c t state of imagelessness w h e r e T a t h a g a t a and T a t h a t a a r e m e r g e d into p e r f e c t O n e n e s s . . . . " ( G o d d a r d , 1938, p . 322). Then the spirit is transported high above all the faculties into a void of immense solitude whereof no mortal can adequately speak. It is the mysterious darkness wherein is concealed the limitless Good. To such an extent are we admitted and absorbed into something that is one, simple, divine, and illimitable, that we seem no longer distinguishable from it. . . .In this unity, the feeling of multiplicity disappears. When, afterwards, these persons come to themselves again, they find
themselves possessed of a distinct knowledge of things, more luminous and more perfect than that of o t h e r s . . . . This obscurity is a light lo which no created intelligence can arrive by its own nature (Poulain, 1950, p. 272).
This state is described in all the literatures as one in which the mystic is passive in that he has abandoned striving. He sees "grace" to be the action of God on himself and feels himself to be receptive. In addition, some descriptions indicate that the senses and faculties of thought feel suspended, a state described in Catholic literature as the "ligature." Human variety is reflected in the superficial differences between the various mystic records. However, perusal of these accounts leads one to agree with Marechal when he writes,
A very delicate psychologicol problem is thus raised: the consensus of the testimonies we have educed is too unanimous to be rejected. It compels us to recognize the existence in certain subjects of a special psychological state, which generally results from a very close interior concentration, sustained by an intense affective movement but which, on the other hand, no longer presents any trace of "discursiveness," spatial imagination, or reflex consciousness. And the disconcerting question arises: after images and concepts and the conscious Ego have been abolished, what subsists of the intellectual life? Multiplicity will have disappeared, true, but to the advantage of what kind of unity? (Marechal, 1964, p. 185).
In summary, mystic literature suggests that various kinds of people have attained what they considered to be exalted states of mind and feeling, states that may be grouped in three divisions: untrained-sensate, trained-sensate, and trained-transcendent. The most important distinction would appear to be between an experience grounded in customary affect, sensations, and ideations, and an experience that is said to transcend such modalities.
BASIC MYSTIC T E C H N I Q U E S
How is the mystic experience produced? To answer this question I will examine the two basic techniques involved in mystical exercises: contemplation and renunciation. Contemplation is, ideally, a nonanalytic apprehension of an object or ideanonanalytic because discursive thought is banished and the attempt is made to empty the mind of everything except the percept of the object in question. Thought is conceived of as an interference with the direct contact that yields essential knowledge through perception alone. The renunciation of worldly, goals and pleasures, both physical and psychological, is an extension of the same principle of freeing oneself from distractions that interfere with the perception of higher realisms or more beautiful aspects of
existence. The renunciation prescribed is most thorough and quite explicit in all texts. The passage that begins this paper instructs, "Forget all the creatures that ever God made . . . so that thy t h o u g h t . . . be not directed . . . to any of them . . . " In the Lankavatra Scripture one r e a d s , " . . . he must seek to annihilate all vagrant thoughts and notions belonging to the externality of things, and all ideas of individuality and generality, of suffering and impermanence, and cultivate the noblest ideas of egolessness and emptiness and imagelessness . . . " (Goddard, 1938, p. 323). Meister Eckhart promises: "If we keep ourselves free from the things that are outside us, God will give us in exchange everything that is in h e a v e n , . . . itself with all its powers ..." (Clark & Skinner, 1958, p. 104). In Hilton one reads, "Therefore if you desire to discover your soul, withdraw your thoughts from outward and material things, forgetting if possible your own body and its five senses . . . " (Hilton, 1953, p.205). St. John calls for the explicit banishment of memory:
Of all these forms and manners of knowledge the soul must strip and void itself, and it must strive to lose the imaginary apprehension of them, so that there may be left in it no kind of impression of knowledge, nor trace of aught soever, but rather the soul must remain barren and bare, as if these forms had never passed through it and in total oblivion and suspension. And this cannot happen unless the memory be annihilated as to all its forms, if it is to be united with God (St. John of the Cross, 1953, p. 227).
In most Western and Eastern mystic practice, renunciation also extends to the actual life situation of the mystic. Poverty, chastity, and the solitary way are regarded as essential to the attainment of mystic union. Zen Buddhism, however, sees the ordinary life as a proper vehicle for "satori" as long as the "worldly" passions and desires are given up, and with them the intellectual approach to experience. "When 1 am in my isness, thoroughly purged of all intellectual sediments, 1 have my freedom in its primary sense . . . free from intellectual complexities and moralistic a t t a c h m e n t s . . . " (Suzuki, 1959, p. 19). Instructions for performing contemplative meditation indicate that a very active effort is made to exclude outer and inner stimuli, to devalue and banish them, and at the same time to focus attention on the meditative object. In this active phase of contemplation the concentration of attention upon particular objects, ideas, physical movements, or breathing exercises is advised as an aid to diverting attention from its usual channels and restricting it to a monotonous focus.* Patanjali comments,
*Breathing exercises can also affect the carbon dioxide content of the blood and thus alter the state of consciousness chemically.
Binding the mind-stuff to a place is fixed-attention.... Focusedness of the presented idea on that place is contemplation This same [contemplation! shining fonh [in consciousness] as the intended object and nothing more, and, as it were, emptied of itself, is concentration... . T h e three in one are c o n s t r a i n t . . . . Even these [three] are indirect aids to seedless [concentration] (Woods, 1914, pp. 203208).
Elaborate instructions are found in Yoga for the selection of objects for contemplation and for the proper utilization of posture and breathing to create optimal conditions for concentration. Such techniques are not usually found in the Western religious literature except in the form of the injunction to keep the self oriented toward God and to fight the distractions which are seen as coming from the devil. {The spiritual exercises of St. Ignatius (Puhl, 1962) is a possible exception.) The active phase of contemplative meditation is a preliminary to the stage of full contemplation, in which the subject is caught up and absorbed in a process he initiated but which now seems autonomous, requiring no effort. Instead, passivityself-surrenderis called for, an open receptivity amidst the "darkness" resulting from the banishment of thoughts and sensations and the renunciation of goals and desires directed toward the world.
When this active effort of mental concentration is successful, it is followed by a more passive, receptive state of samadhi in which the earnest disciple will enter into the blissful abode of noble wisdom . . . (Goddard, 1938, p. 323). For if such a soul should desire to make any effort of its own with its interior faculties, this means that it will hinder and lose the blessings which . . . God is instilling into it and impressing upon it (Hilton, 1953, p. 380).
It should not be forgotten that the techniques of contemplation and renunciation are exercised within the structure of some sort of theological schema. This schema is used to interpret and organize the experiences that occur. However, mere doctrine is usually not enough. The Eastern texts insist on the necessity for being guided by a guru (an experienced teacher), for safety's sake as well as in order to attain the spiritual goal. In Western religion, a "spiritual advisor" serves as guide and teacher. The presence of a motivating and organizing conceptual structure and the support and encouragement of a teacher are undoubtedly important in helping a person to persist in the meditation exercises and to achieve the marked personality changes that can occur through success in this endeavor. Enduring personality change is made more likely by the emphasis on adapting behavior to .the values and insights associated both with the doctrinal structure and with the stages of mystical experience. How can one explain the phenomena and their relation to these
techniques? Most explanations in the psychological and psychoanalytic literature have been general statements emphasizing a regression to the early infant-mother symbiotic relationship. These statements range from an extreme position, such as Alexander's (1931), where Buddhist training is described as a withdrawal of libido from the world to be reinvested in the ego until an intra-uterine narcissism is achieved"the pure narcissism of the sperm"to the basic statement of Freud's (1961, Vol. 21, pp. 64-73) that "oceanic feeling" is a memory of a relatively undifferentiated infantile ego state. Lewin (1950, pp. 149-155) in particular has developed this concept. In recent years hypotheses have been advanced uniting the concepts of regression and of active adaptation. The works of Kris (1952, p. 302). Fingarette (1963), and Prince and Savage (1965) illustrate this approach to the mystic experience. This paper will attempt an explanation of mystic phenomena from a different point of view, that of attentional mechanisms in perception and cognition.
DEAUTOMATIZATION
In earlier studies of experimental meditation, I hypothesized that mystic phenomena were a consequence of a deautomatization of the psychological structures that organize, limit, select, and interpret perceptual stimuli. I suggested the hypotheses of sensory translation, reality transfer, and perceptual expansion to explain certain unusual perceptions of the meditation subjects(Deikman,1966b). At this point I will try to present an integrated formulation that relates these concepts to the classical mystic techniques of renunciation and contemplation. Deautomatization is a concept stemming from Hartmann's (1958, pp. 88-91) discussion of the automatization of motor behavior:
In well-established achievements they [motor apparatuses] function automatically: the integration of the somatic systems involved in the action is automatized, and so is the integration of the individual mental acts involved in it. With increasing exercise of the action its intermediate steps disappear from consciousness . . . not only motor behavior but perception and thinking, loo, show automatization It is obvious that automatization may have economic advantages, in saving attention cathexis in particular and simple cathexis of consciousness in g e n e r a l . . . . Here, as in most adaptation processes, we have a purposive provision for the average expectable range of tasks.
Gill and Brenman(1959,p. 178)developed the concept of deautomatization:
Deautomatization is an undoing of the automatizations of apparatusesboth
means and goal structuresdirected toward the environment. Deautomatization is, as it were, a shake-up which can be followed by an advance or a retreat in the level of organization.... Some manipulation of the attention directed toward the functioning of an apparatus is necessary if it is to be deautomatized.
Thus, deautomatization may be conceptualized as the undoing of automatization, presumably by reinvesting actions and percepts with attention. The concept of psychological structures follows the definition by Rapaport and Gill (1959, pp. 157-158):
Structures are configurations of a slow rate of change.. . within which, between which, and by means of which mental processes take place.... Structures are hierarchically ordered.... This assumption . . . is significant because it is the foundation for the psycho-analytic propositions concerning differentiation (whether resulting in discrete structures which are then co-ordinated, or in the increased internal articulation of structures), and because it implies that the quality of a process depends upon the level of the structural hierarchy on which it takes place.
The deautomatization of a structure may result in a shift to a structure lower in the hierarchy, rather than a complete cessation of the particular function involved.
Contemplative Meditation
In reflecting on the technique of contemplative meditation, one can see that it seems to constitute just such a manipulation of attention as is required to produce deautomatization. The percept receives intense attention while the use of attention for abstract categorization and thought is explicitly prohibited. Since automatization normally accomplishes the transfer of attention from a percept or action to abstract thought activity, the meditation procedure exerts a force in the reverse direction. Cognition is inhibited in favor of perception; the active intellectual style is replaced by a receptive perceptual mode. Automatization is a hierarchically organized developmental process, so one would expect deautomatization to result in a shift toward a perceptual and cognitive organization characterized as "primitive," that is, an organization preceding the analytic, abstract, intellectual mode typical of present-day adult thought. The perceptual and cognitive functioning of children and of people of primitive cultures have been studied by Werner, who described primitive imagery and thought as (a) relatively more vivid and sensuous, (b) syncretic, (c) physiognomic and animated, (d) dedifferentiated with respect to the distinctions between self and object and between objects, and (e) characterized by a dedifferentiation and fusion of sense modalities. In a statement based on studies of eidetic imagery in
children as well as on broader studies of perceptual development, Werner (1957, p. 152) states:
. . . The image . . . gradually changed in functional character. It becomes essentially subject to the exigencies of abstract thought. Once the image changes in function and becomes an instrument in reflcctive thought, its structure will also change. It is only through such structural change that the image can serve as an instrument of expression in abstract mental activity. This is why, of necessity, the sensuousness, fullness of detail, the color and vivacity of the image must fade.
Theoretically, deautomatization should reverse this development in the direction of primitive thought, and it is striking to note that classical accounts of mystic experience emphasize the phenomenon of Unity. Unity can be viewed as a dedifferentiation that merges all boundaries until the self is no longer experienced as a separate object and customary perceptual and cognitive distinctions are no longer applicable. In this respect, the mystic literature is consistent with the deautomatization hypothesis. If one searches for evidence of changes in the mystic's experience of the external world, the classical literature is of less help, because the mystic's orientation is inward rather than outward and he tends to write about God rather than nature. However, in certain accounts of untrained-sensate experience there is evidence of a gain in sensory richness and vividness. James (1929, pp. 243-244), in describing the conversion experience, states: "A third peculiarity of the assurance stale is the objective change which the world often appears to undergo, 'An appearance of newness beautifies every object' " He quotes Billy Bray: " . . . I shouted for joy, I praised God with my whole heart . . . I remember this, that everything looked new to me, the people, the fields, the cattle, the trees. I was like a new man in a new world." Another example, this one from a woman, "I pled for mercy and had a vivid realization of forgiveness and renewal of my nature. When rising from my knees I exclaimed, 'Old things have passed away, all things have become new'. It was like entering another world, a new state of existence. Natural objects were glorified. My spiritual vision was so clarified that I saw beauty in every material object in the u n i v e r s e . . . . " Again, "The appearance of everything was altered, there seemed to be as it were a calm, a sweet cast or appearance of divine glory in almost everything." Such a change in a person's perception of the world has been called by Underhill (1955, p. 235), "clarity of vision, a heightening of physical perception," and she quotes Blake's phrase, "cleanse the doors of perception." It is hard to document this perceptual alteration because the autobiographical accounts that Underhill, James, and others cite are a blend of the mystic's spiritual feeling and his actual perception, with the result that the spiritual content dominates the description the mystic gives
of the physical world. However, these accounts do suggest that a "new vision" takes place, colored by an inner exaltation. Their authors report perceiving a new brilliance to the world, of seeing everything as if for the first time, of noticing beauty which for the most part they may have previously passed by without seeing. Although such descriptions do not prove a change in sensory perception, they strongly imply it. These particular phenomena appear quite variable and are not mentioned in many mystic accounts. However, direct evidence was obtained on this point in the meditation experiments already cited(Deikman, 1963,1966b). There, it was possible to ask questions and to analyze the subjects' reports to obtain information on their perceptual experiences. The phenomena the subjects reported fulfilled Werner's criteria completely, although the extent of change varied from one subject to the next. They described their reactions to the percept, a blue vase, as follows: (a) an increased vividness and richness of the percept"more vivid," "luminous"; (b) animation in the vase, which seemed to move with a life of its own; (c) a marked decrease in self-object distinction, occurring in those subjects who continued longest in the experiments: " . . . I really began to feel, you know, almost as though the blue and I were perhaps merging, or that vase and I were It was as though everything was sort of merging . . . " ; (d) syncretic thought and a fusing and alteration of normal perceptual modes: "I began to feel this light going back and forth," "When the vase changes shape I feel this in my body," "I'm still not sure, though, whether it's the motion in the rings or if it's the rings [concentric rings of light between the subject and the vase]. But in a certain way it is r e a l . . . it's not real in the sense that you can see it, touch it, taste it, smell it or anything but it certainly is real in the sense that you can experience it happening." The perceptual and cognitive changes that did occur in the subjects were consistently in the direction of a more "primitive" organization.* Thus, the available evidence supports the hypothesis that a deautomatization is produced by contemplative meditation. One might be tempted to call this deautomatization a regression to the perceptual and cognitive state of the child or infant. However, such a concept rests on assumptions as to the child's experience of the world that cannot yet be verified. In an oftquoted passage, Wordsworth (1904, p. 353) writes:
There was a time when meadow, grove, and stream, The earth, and every common sight, To me did seem *See Chapter 33. As dediffereniiaiion of the vase progressed, however, a fusion of background and object tended to occur with a concomitant loss of color and vividness.
A p p a r e l l e d in celestial light, T h e glory a n d t h e f r e s h n e s s of a d r e a m .
However, he may be confusing childhood with what is actually a reconstruction based on an interaction of adult associative capacities with the memory of the more direct sensory contact of the child. "Glory" is probably an adult product. Rather than speaking of a return to childhood, it is more accurate to say that the undoing of automatic perceptual and cognitive structures permits a gain in sensory intensity and richness at the expense of abstract categorization and differentiation. One might call the direction regressive in a developmental sense, but the actual experience is probably not within the psychological scope of any child. It is a deautomatization occurring in an adult mind, and the experience gains its richness from adult memories and functions now subject to a different mode of consciousness.
Renunciation
The deautomatization produced by contemplative meditation is enhanced and aided by the adoption of renunciation as a goal and a life style, a renunciation not confined to the brief meditative period alone. Poverty, chastity, isolation, and silence are traditional techniques prescribed for pursuing the mystic path: To experience God, keep your thoughts turned to God and away from the world and the body that binds one to the world. The meditative strategy is carried over into all segments of the subject's life. The mystic strives to banish from awareness the objects of the world and the desires directed toward them. To the extent that perceptual and cognitive structures require the "nutriment" of their accustomed stimuli for adequate functioning, renunciation would be expected to weaken and even disrupt these structures, thus tending to produce an unusual experience (Rapaport, 1951). Such an isolation from nutritive stimuli probably occurs internally as well. The subjects of the meditation experiment quoted earlier reported that a decrease in responsiveness to distracting stimuli took place as they became more practiced. They became more effective, with less effort, in barring unwanted stimuli from awareness. These reports suggest that psychological barrier structures were established as the subjects became more adept (Deikman, 1963, p. 338). EEG studies of Zen monks yielded similar results. The effect of a distracting stimulus, as measured by the disappearance of alpha rhythm, was most prominent in the novices, less prominent in those of intermediate training, and almost absent in the master (Kasamatsu & Hirai, 1963). It may be that the intensive, long-term practice of meditation creates temporary stimulus barriers
producing a functional state of sensory isolation.* On the basis of sensory isolation experiments it would be expected that long-term deprivation (or decreased variability) of a particular class of stimulus "nutriment" would cause an alteration in those functions previously established to deal with that class of stimuli (Schultz, 1965, pp. 95-97; Solomon et al., 1961, pp. 226-237). These alterations seem to be a type of deautomatization, as defined earlierfor example, the reported increased brightness of colors and the impairment of perceptual skills such as color discrimination (Zubek et al., 1961). Thus, renunciation alone can be viewed as producing deautomatization. When combined with contemplative meditation, it produces a very powerful effect. Finally, the more renunciation is achieved, the more the mystic is committed to his goal of Union or Enlightenment. His motivation necessarily increases, for having abandoned the world, he has no other hope of sustenance.
PRINCIPAL FEATURES O F THE MYSTIC
Granted that deautomatization takes place, it is necessary to explain five principal features of the mystic experience: (a) intense realness, (b) unusual sensations, (c) unity, (d) ineffability, and (e) trans-sensate phenomena.
It is assumed by those who have had a mystic experience, whether induced by years of meditation or by a single dose of LSD, that the truthfulness of the experience is attested to by its sense of realness. The criticism of skeptics is often met with the statement, "You have to experience it yourself and then you will understand." This means that if one has the actual experience he will be convinced by its intense feeling of reality. "I know it was real because it was more real than my talking to you now." But "realness" is not evidence. Indeed, there are many clinical examples of variability in the intensity of the feeling of realness that is not correlated with corresponding variability in the reality. A dream may be so "real" as to carry conviction into the waking state, although its content may be bizarre beyond correspondence to this world or to any other. Psychosis is often preceded or accompanied by a sense that the world is less real than normally, sometimes that it is more real, or has a different reality. The phenomenon
*It has been postulated by McReynolds (1960, p. 269) that a related stimulus barrier system may be operative in schizophrenia.
of depersonalization demonstrates the potential for an alteration in the sense of the realness of one's own person, although one's evidential self undergoes no change whatsoever. However, in the case of depersonalization, or of derealization, the distinction between what is external and what is interna] is still clear. What changes is the quality of realness attached to those object representations. Thus it appears that (a) the feeling of realness represents a function distinct from that of reality judgment, although they usually operate in synchrony; (b) the feeling of realness is not inherent in sensations, per se; and (c) realness can be considered a quantity function capable of displacement and therefore, of intensification, reduction, and transfer affecting all varieties of ideational and sensorial contents.* From a developmental point of view, it is clear that biological survival depends on a clear sense of what is palpable and what is not. The sense of reality necessarily becomes fused with the object world. When one considers that meditation combined with renunciation brings about a profound disruption of the subject's normal psychological relationship to the world, it becomes plausible that the practice of such mystic techniques would be associated with a significant alteration of the feeling of reality. The quality of reality formerly attached to objects becomes attached to the particular sensations and ideas that enter awareness during periods of perceptual and cognitive deautomatization. Stimuli of the inner world become invested with the feeling of reality ordinarily bestowed on objects. Through what might be termed "reality transfer," thoughts and images become real (Deikman, 1966b, pp. 109-111).
Unusual percepts
The sensations and ideation occurring during mystic deautomatization are often very unusual; they do not seem part of the continuum of everyday consciousness. "All at once, without warning of any kind, he found himself wrapped around as it were by a flame colored cloud" (Bucke, 1961, p. 8). Perceptions of encompassing light, infinite energy, ineffable visions, and incommunicable knowledge are remarkable in their seeming distinction from perceptions of the phenomena of the "natural world." According to mystics, these experiences are different because they pertain to a higher transcendent reality. What is perceived is said to come from another world, or at least another dimension. Although such a possibility cannot be ruled
*Paul Federn's (1955, pp. 241-260) idea that the normal feeling of reality requires an adequate investment of energy (libido) in the ego boundary, points toward the notion of a quantity of "realness." Avery Weisman (1958) has developed and extended this idea, but prefers the more encompassing concept of "libidinal fields" to that of ego boundaries.
out, many of the phenomena can be understood as representing an unusual mode of perception, rather than an unusual external stimulus. In the studies of experimental meditation already mentioned, two longterm subjects reported vivid experiences of light and force. For example:
. . . shortly I began to sense motion and shifting of light and dark as this became stronger and stronger. Now when this happens it's happening not only in my vision but it's happening or it feels like a physical kind of thing. It's connected with feelings of attraction, expansion, absorption and suddenly my vision pinpointed on a particular place a n d . . . 1 was in the grip of a very powerful sensation and this became the center [Deikman, 1966b, p. 1091.
This report suggests that the perception of motion and shifting light and darkness may have been the perception of the movement of attention among various psychic contents (whatever such "movement" might actually be). "Attraction," "expansion," "absorption," would thus reflect the dynamics of the effort to focus attentionsuccessful focusing is experienced as being "in the grip o f ' a powerful force. Another example: " . . . when the vase changes shape . . . 1 feel this in my body and particularly in my eyes . . . there is an actual kind of physical sensation as though something is moving there which recreates the shape of the vase" (Deikman, 1966b, p.109). In this instance, the subject might have experienced the perception of a resynthesis taking place following deautomatization of the normal percept; that is, the percept of the vase was being reconstructed outside of normal awareness and the process of reconstruction was perceived as a physical sensation. I have termed this hypothetical perceptual mode " sensory translation," defining it as the perception of psychic action (conflict, repression, problem solving, attentiveness, and so forth) via the relatively unstructured sensations of light, color, movement, force, sound, smell, or taste (Kris, 1952; Deikman, 1966b, pp. 108-109). This concept is related to Silberer's (1951) concept of hypnagogic phenomena but differs in its referents and genesis. In the hypnagogic state and in dreaming, a symbolic translation of psychic activity and ideas occurs. Although light, force, and movement may play a part in hypnagogic and dream constructions, the predominant percepts are complex visual, verbal, conceptual, and activity images. "Sensory translation" refers to the experience of nonverbal, simple, concrete perceptual equivalents of psychic action.*
Somewhat related concepts, although extreme in scope, are those advanced by Michaux (1963, pp. 7-9), who suggests that the frequent experience of waves or vibrations in hallucinogenic drug states is the result of direct perception of the "brain waves" measured by the EEG; and by Leary (1964, pp. 330-339), who suggests that hallucinogenic drugs permit a "direct awareness of the processes which physicists and biochemists and neurologists measure," for example, electrons in orbit or the interaction of cells.
The concept of sensory translation offers an intriguing explanation for the ubiquitous use of light as a metaphor for mystic experience. It may not be just a metaphor. "Illumination" may be derived from an actual sensory experience occurring when in the cognitive act of unification, a liberation of energy takes place, or when a resolution of unconscious conflict occurs, permitting the experience of "peace," "presence," and the like. Liberated energy experienced as light may be the core sensory experience of mysticism. If the hypothesis of sensory translation is correct, it presents the problem of why sensory translation comes into operation in any particular instance. In general, it appears that sensory translation may occur when (a) heightened attention is directed to the sensory pathways, (b) controlled analytic thought is absent, and (c) the subject's attitude is one of receptivity to stimuli (openness instead of defensiveness or suspiciousness). Training in contemplative meditation is specifically directed toward attaining a state with those characteristics. Laski (1961) reports that spontaneous mystic experiences may occur during such diverse activities as childbirth, viewing landscapes, listening to music, or having sexual intercourse. Although her subjects gave little description of their thought processes preceding the ecstasies, they were all involved at the time in intense sensory activities in which the three conditions listed above would tend to prevail. Those conditions seem also to apply to the mystical experiences associated with LSD. The state of mind induced by hallucinogenic drugs is reported to be one of increased sensory attention accompanied by an impairment or loss of different intellectual functions (Crocket et al., 1963; Watts, 1962; Michaux, 1963), With regard to the criterion of receptivity, if paranoid reactions occur during the drug state they are inimical to an ecstatic experience. On the other hand, when drug subjects lose their defensiveness and suspiciousness so that they "accept" rather than fight their situation, the "transcendent" experience often ensues (Sherwood et al., 1962). Thus, the general psychological context may be described as perceptual concentration. In this special state of consciousness the subject becomes aware of certain intra-psychic processes ordinarily excluded from or beyond the scope of awareness. The vehicle for this perception appears to be amorphous sensation, made real by a displacement of reality feeling ("reality transfer") and thus misinterpreted as being of external origin.
Unily
Experiencing one's self as one with the universe or with God is the hallmark of the mystic experience, regardless of its cultural context. As James (1929, p. 410) puts it,
This overcoming of all the usual barriers between the individual and the Absolute is the great mystic achievement. In mystic states we both become one with the Absolute and we become aware of our oneness. This is the everlasting and triumphant mystical tradition, hardly altered by differences of clime or creed. In Hinduism, in Neoplatonism, in Sufism, in Christian mysticism, in Whitmanism, we find the same recurring note, so that there is about mystical utterance an eternal unanimity which ought to make a critic stop and think, and which brings it about that (he mystical classics have, as has been said, neither birthday nor native land. Perpetually telling of the unity of man with God, their speech antedates languages, and they do not grow old.
I have already referred to explanations of this phenomenon in terms of regression. Two additional hypotheses should be considered: On the one hand, the perception of unity may be the perception of one's own psychic structure; on the other hand, the experience may be a perception of the real structure of the world. It is a commonplace that we do not experience the world directly. Instead, we have an experience of sensation and associated memories from which we infer the nature of the stimulating object. As far as anyone can tell, the actual substance of the perception is the electrochemical activity that constitutes perception and thinking. From this point of view, the contents of awareness are homogeneous. They are variations of the same substance. If awareness were turned back upon itself, as postulated for sensory translation, this fundamental homogeneity (unity) of perceived realitythe electrochemical activitymight itself be experienced as a truth about the outer world, rather than the inner one. Unity, the idea and the experience that we are one with the world and with God, would thus constitute a valid perception insofar as it pertained to the nature of the thought process, but need not in itself be a correct perception of the external world. Logically, there is also the possibility that the perception of unity does correctly evaluate the external world. As described earlier, deautomatization is an undoing of a psychic structure permitting the experience of increased detail and sensation at the price of requiring more attention. With such attention, it is possible that deautomatization may permit the awareness of new dimensions of the total stimulus arraya process of "perceptual expansion " The studies of Werner (1957), Von Senden(l960), and Shapiro (1960) suggest that development from infancy to adulthood is accompanied by an organization of the perceptual and cognitive world that has as its price the selection of some stimuli and stimulus qualities to the exclusion of others. If the automatization underlying that organization is reversed, or temporarily suspended, aspects of reality that were formerly unavailable might then enter awareness. Unity may in fact be a property of
the real world that becomes perceptible via the techniques of meditation and renunciation, or under the special conditions, as yet unknown, that create the spontaneous, brief mystic experience of untrained persons.
Ineffability
Mystic experiences are ineffable, incapable of being expressed to another person. Although mystics sometimes write long accounts, they maintain that the experience cannot be communicated by words or by reference to similar experiences from ordinary life. They feel at a loss for appropriate words to communicate the intense realness, the unusual sensations, and the unity cognition already mentioned. However, a careful examination of mystic phenomena indicates that there are at least several types of experiences, all of which are "indescribable" but each of which differs substantially in content and formal characteristics. Error and confusion result when these several states of consciousness are lumped together as "the mystic experience" on the basis of their common characteristic of ineffability. To begin with, one type of mystic experience cannot be communicated in words because it is probably based on primitive memories and related to fantasies of a preverbal (infantile) or nonverbal sensory experience.* Certain mystical reports that speak of being blissfully enfolded, comforted and bathed in the love of God are very suggestive of the prototypical "undifferentiated state," the union of infant and breast, emphasized by psychoanalytic explanations of mystical phenomena. Indeed, it seems highly plausible that such early memories and fantasies might be reexperienced as a consequence of (a) the regression in thought processes brought about by renunciation and contemplative meditation, and (b) the activation of infantile longings by the guiding religious promisethat is, "that a benign deity would reward childlike surrender with permanent euphoria" (Moller, 1965, p. 127). In addition, the conditions of functional sensory isolation associated with mystic training may contribute to an increase in recall and vividness of such memories (Suraci, 1964).
*Schachtel (1959, p. 284) regards early childhood, beyond infancy, as unrememberable for structural reasons: "It is not merely the repression of a specific content, such as early sexual experience, that accounts for the general childhood amnesia; the biologically, culturally, and socially influenced process of memory organization results in the formation of categories (schemata) of memory which are not suitable vehicles to receive and reproduce experiences of the quality and intensity typical of early childhood." It would follow that verbal structures would likewise be "unsuitable."
A second type of mystical experience is equally ineffable but strikingly differentnamely, a revelation too complex to be verbalized. Such experiences are reported frequently by those who have drug-induced mystical experiences. In such states the subject has a revelation of the significance and interrelationships of many dimensions of life; he becomes aware of many levels of meaning simultaneously and "understands" the totality of existence. The question of whether such knowledge is actual or an illusion remains unanswered; however, if such a multileveled comprehension were to occur, it would be difficultperhaps impossibleto express verbally. Ordinary language is structured to follow the logical development of one idea at a time and it might be quite inadequate to express an experience encompassing a large number of concepts simultaneously. William James suggested that "states of mystical intuition maybe only very sudden and great extensions of the ordinary 'field of consciousness'." He used the image of the vast reaches of a tidal flat exposed by the lowering of the water level (James, 1920, pp. 500-513). However, mystic revelation may be ineffable, not only because of the sudden broadening of consciousness that James suggests, but also because of a new "vertical" organization of concepts.* For example, for a short while after reading The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, one may be aware of the immense vista of a civilization's history as Gibbon recreated it. That experience can hardly be conveyed except through the medium of the book itself, and to that extent it is ineffable, and a minor version of James's widened consciousness. Suppose one then read War and Peace and acquired Tolstoy's perspective of historical events and their determination by chance factors. Again, this is an experience hard to express without returning to the novel. Now suppose one could "see" not only each of these world views individually but also their parallel relationships to each other, and the cross connections between the individual conceptual structures. And then suppose one added to these conceptual strata the biochemical perspective expressed by The Fitness of the Environment (Henderson, 1958), a work which deals, among other things, with the unique and vital properties of the water molecule. Then the vertical interrelationships of all these extensive schemata might, indeed, be beyond verbal expression, beyond ordinary conceptual capacitiesin other words, they would approach the ineffable.
Trans-sensate Phenomena
A third type of ineffable experience is that which 1 have described earlier as the "trained-transcendent" mystical experience. The author of The Cloud
*A similar distinction concerning "vertical" listening to music is made by Ehrenzweig (1964, pp. 385-387).
of Unknowing, St. John of the Cross, Walter Hilton, and others are very specific in describing a new perceptual experience that does not include feelings of warmth, sweetness, visions, or any other elements of familiar sensory or intellectual experience. They emphasize that the experience goes beyond the customary sensory pathways, ideas, and memories. As I have shown, they describe the state as definitely not blank or empty but as filled with intense, profound, vivid perception which they regard as the ultimate goal of the mystic path.* If one accepts their descriptions as phenomenologically accurate, one is presented with the problem of explaining the nature of such a state and the process by which it occurs. Following the hypotheses presented earlier in this paper, I would like to suggest that such experiences are the result of the operation of a new perceptual capacity responsive to dimensions of the stimulus array previously ignored or blocked from awareness. For such mystics, renunciation has weakened and temporarily removed the ordinary objects of consciousness as a focus of awareness. Contemplative meditation has undone the logical organization of consciousness. At the same time, the mystic is intensely motivated to perceive something. If undeveloped or unutilized perceptual capacities do exist, it seems likely that they would be mobilized and come into operation under such conditions. The perceptual experience that would then take place would be one outside of customary verbal or sensory reference. It would be unidentifiable, hence indescribable. The high value, the meaningfulness, and the intensity reported of such experiences suggest that the perception has a different scope from that of normal consciousness. The loss of "self" characteristic of the trans-sensate experience indicates that the new perceptual mode is not associated with reflective awarenessthe " I " of normal consciousness is in abeyance.
CONCLUSION A mystic experience is the production of an unusual state of consciousness. This state is brought about by a deautomatization of hierarchically ordered structures that ordinarily conserve attentional energy for maximum efficiency in achieving the basic goals of the individual: biological survival
*Ehrenzweig (1964, p. 382) proposes that mystic "blankness" is due to a structural limitation: " . . . the true mystic orison becomes empty yet filled with intense e x p e r i e n c e . . . . This full e m p t i n e s s . . . . It is the direct result of our conscious failure to grasp imagery formed on more primitive levels of differentiation Owing to their incompatible shapes, [these images] cancelled each other out on the way up to consciousness and so produce in our surface experience a blank 'abstract' image still replete with unconscious fantasy."
as an organism and psychological survival as a personality. Perceptual selection and cognitive patterning are in the service of these goals. Under special conditions of dysfunction, such as in acute psychosis or in LSD states, or under special goal conditions such as exist in religious mystics, the pragmatic systems of automatic selection are set aside or break down, in favor of alternate modes of consciousness whose stimulus processing may be less efficient from a biological point of view but whose very inefficiency may permit the experience of aspects of the real world formerly excluded or ignored. The extent to which such a shift takes place is a function of the motivation of the individual, his particular neurophysiological state, and the environmental conditions encouraging or discouraging such a change. A final comment should be made. The content of the mystic experience reflects not only its unusual mode of consciousness but also the particular stimuli being processed through that mode. The mystic experience can be beatific, satanic, revelatory, or psychotic, depending on the stimuli predominant in each case. Such an explanation says nothing conclusive about the source of "transcendent" stimuli. God or the Unconscious share equal possibilities here and one's interpretation will reflect one's presuppositions and beliefs. The mystic vision is one of unity, and modern physics lends some support to this perception when it asserts that the world and its living forms are variations of the same elements. However, there is no evidence that separateness and differences are illusions (as affirmed by Vedanta) or that God or a transcendent reality exists (as affirmed by Western religions). The available scientific evidence tends to support the view that the mystic experience is one of internal perception, an experience that can be ecstatic, profound, or therapeutic for purely internal reasons. Yet for psychological science, the problem of understanding such internal processes is hardly less complex than the theological problem of understanding God. Indeed, regardless of one's direction in the search to know what reality is, a feeling of awe, beauty, reverence, and humility seems to be the product of one's efforts. Since these emotions are characteristic of the mystic experience, itself, the question of the epistemological validity of that experience may have less importance than was initially supposed.
A SPECIAL INQUIRY WITH ALDOUS HUXLEY INTO THE NATURE AND CHARACTER OF VARIOUS STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
MILTON H. ERICKSON
INTRODUCTION Over a period of nearly a year much time was spent by Aldous Huxley and by the author, each planning separately for joint inquiry into various states of psychological awareness. Special inquiries, possible methods of experimental approach and investigations and various questions to be propounded were listed by each of us in our respective loose-leaf notebooks. The purpose was to prepare a general background for the proposed joint study with this general background reflecting the thinking of both of us uninfluenced by the other. It was hoped in this way to secure the widest possible coverage of ideas by such separate outlines prepared from the markedly different backgrounds of understanding that the two of us possessed. Early in 1950 we met in Huxley's home in Los Angeles, there to spend an intensive day appraising the ideas recorded in our separate notebooks and to engage in any experimental inquiries that seemed feasible. I was particularly interested in Huxley's approach to psychological problems, his
Reprinted by permission from Amer. J. Clin. Hypnos., Vol. 8, 1965, pp. 17-33. 45
SPECIAL INOUIRY WITH ALDOUS HUXLEY
method of thinking and his own unique use of his unconscious mind which we had discussed only briefly sometime previously. Huxley was particularly interested in hypnosis and previous exceedingly brief work with him had demonstrated his excellent competence as a deep somnambulistic subject. It was realized that this meeting would be a preliminary or pilot study, and this was discussed by both of us. Hence we planned to make it as comprehensive and inclusive as possible without undue emphasis upon completion of any one particular item. Once the day's work had been evaluated, plans could then be made for future meetings and specific studies. Additionally, we each had our individual purposes, Aldous having in mind future literary work, while my interest related to future psychological experimentation in the field of hypnosis. The day's work began at 8:00 A.M. and remained uninterrupted until 6:00 P.M. with some considerable review of our notebooks the next day to establish their general agreement, to remove any lack of clarity of meaning caused by the abbreviated notations we had entered into them during the previous day's work and to correct any oversights. On the whole we found that our notebooks were reasonably in agreement but that naturally certain of our entries were reflective of our special interests and of the fact that each of us had, by the nature of the situation, made separate notations bearing upon each other. Our plan was to leave these notebooks with Huxley since his phenomenal memory, often appearing to be total recall, and his superior literary ability would permit a more satisfactory writing of a joint article based upon our discussions and experimentations of that day's work. However, I did abstract from my notebook certain pages bearing notations upon Huxley's behavior at times when he, as an experimental subject, was unable to make comprehensive notations on himself, although post-experimentally he could and did do so, though less completely than I had. It was proposed that, from these certain special pages, I was to endeavor to develop an article which could be incorporated later in the longer study that Huxley was to write. Accordingly, I abstracted a certain number of pages intending to secure still more at a later date. These pages that 1 did remove Huxley rapidly copied into his own notebook to be sure of the completeness of his own data. Unfortunately, a California brush fire sometime later destroyed Huxley's home, his extensive library containing many rare volumes and manuscripts, besides numerous other treasures to say nothing of the manuscripts upon which Huxley was currently working as well as the respective notebooks of our special joint study. As a result, the entire subject matter of our project was dropped as a topic too painful to discuss, but Huxley's recent death led to my perusal of these relatively few pages I had abstracted from my notebook. Examination of them suggested the possibility of presenting to the
reader a small but informative part of that day's work. In this regard, the reader must bear in mind that the quotations attributed to Huxley are not necessarily verbatim, since his more extensive utterances were noted in abbreviated form. However, in the essence of their meaning, they are correct and they are expressive of Huxley as I knew him. It is also to be borne in mind that Huxley had read my notations on the occasion of our joint study and had approved them.
The project began with Huxley reviewing concepts and definitions of conscious awareness, primarily his and in part those of others, followed by a discussion with me of his understandings of hypnotic states of awareness. The purpose was to insure that we were both in accord or clear in our divergences of understanding, thus to make possible a more reliable inquiry into the subject matter of our interest. There followed then a review in extensive detail of various of his psychedelic experiences with mescaline, later to be recorded in his book. (Huxley, 1954). Huxley then proceeded with a detailed description of his very special practice of what he, for want of a better and less awkward term which he had not yet settled upon, called "Deep Reflection." He described this state (the author's description is not complete since there seemed to be no good reason except interest for making full notations of his description) of Deep Reflection as one marked by physical relaxation with bowed head and closed eyes, a profound progressive psychological withdrawal from externalities but without any actual loss of physical realities nor any amnesias or loss of orientation, a "setting aside" of everything not pertinent, and then a state of complete mental absorption in matters of interest to him. Yet, in that state of complete withdrawal and mental absorption, Huxley stated that he was free to pick up a fresh pencil to replace a dulled one to make "automatically" notations on his thoughts and to do all this without a recognizable realization on his part of what physical act he was performing. It was as if the physical act were "not an integral part of my thinking." In no way did such physical activity seem to impinge upon, to slow, or to impede "the train of thought so exclusively occupying my interest. It is associated but completely peripheral activity . . . I might say activity barely contiguous to the periphery." To illustrate further, Huxley cited an instance of another type of physical activity. He recalled having been in a state of Deep Reflection one day when his wife was shopping. He did not recall what thoughts or ideas he was examining but he did recall that, when his wife returned that
day, she had asked him if he had made a note of the special message she had given him over the telephone. He had been bewildered by her inquiry, could not recall anything about answering the telephone as his wife asserted, but together they found the special message recorded on a pad beside the telephone which was placed within comfortable reaching distance from the chair in which he liked to develop Deep Reflection. Both he and his wife reached the conclusion that he had been in a state of Deep Reflection at the time of the telephone call, had lifted the receiver and had said to her as usual, "I say there, hello," had listened to the message, had recorded it, all without any subsequent recollections of the experience. He recalled merely that he had been working on a manuscript that afternoon, one that had been absorbing all of his interest. He explained that it was quite common for him to initiate a day's work by entering a state of Deep Reflection as a preliminary process of marshalling his thoughts and putting into order the thinking that would enter into his writing later that day. As still another illustrative incident, Huxley cited an occasion when his wife returned home from a brief absence, found the door locked as was customary, had entered the house and discovered in plain view a special delivery letter on a hallway table reserved for mail, special messages, etc. She had found Huxley sitting quietly in his special chair, obviously in a state of deep thought. Later that day she had inquired about the time of arrival of the special delivery letter only to learn that he had obviously no recollection of receiving any letter. Yet both knew that the mailman had undoubtedly rung the doorbell, that Huxley had heard the bell, had interrupted whatever he was doing, had gone to the door, opened it, received the letter, closed the door, placed the letter in its proper place and returned to the chair where she had found him. Both of these two special events had occurred fairly recently. He recalled them only as incidents related to him by his wife but with no feeling that those accounts constituted a description of actual meaningful physical behavior on his part. So far as he knew, he could only deduce that he must have been in a state of Deep Reflection when they occurred. His wife subsequently confirmed the assumption that his behavior had been completely "automatic, like a machine moving precisely and accurately. It is a delightful pleasure to see him get a book out of the bookcase, sit down again, open the book slowly, pick up his reading glass, read a little, and then lay the book and glass aside. Then some time later, maybe a few days, he will notice the book and ask about it. The man just never remembers what he does nor what he thinks about when he sits in that chair. All of a sudden, you just find him in his study working very hard." In other words, while in a state of Deep Reflection and seemingly totally withdrawn from external realities, the integrity of the task being done in
that mental state was touched by external stimuli, but some peripheral part of awareness made it possible for him to receive external stimuli, to respond meaningfully to them but with no apparent recording of any memory of either the stimulus or his meaningful and adequate response. Inquiry ofhis wife later had disclosed that when she was at home, Aldous in a state of Deep Reflection paid no attention to the telephone which might be beside him or the doorbell. " H e simply depends completely on me, but I can call out to him that I'll be away and he never fails to hear the telephone or the doorbell." Huxley explained that he believed he could develop a state of Deep Reflection in about five minutes but that in doing so he "simply cast aside all anchors" of any type of awareness. Just what he meant and sensed he could not describe. "It is a subjective experience quite" in which he apparently achieved a state of "orderly mental arrangement" permitting an orderly free flowing of his thoughts as he wrote. This was his final explanation. He had never considered any analysis of exactly what his "Deep Reflection" was nor did he feel that he could analyze it, but he offered to attempt it as an experimental investigation for the day. It was promptly learned that, as he began to absorb himself in his thoughts to achieve a state of Deep Reflection, he did indeed "cast off all anchors" and appeared to be completely out of touch with everything. On this attempt to experience subjectively and to remember the processes of entering into Deep Reflection, he developed the state within five minutes and emerged from it within two as closely as I could determine. His comment was, "I say, I'm deucedly sorry. 1 suddenly found myself all prepared to work with nothing to do and 1 realized 1 had better come out of it." That was all the information he could offer. For the next attempt, a signal to be given by me was agreed upon as a signal for him to "come out of it." A second attempt was made as easily as the first. Huxley sat quietly for some minutes and the agreed upon signal was given. Huxley's account was, "I found myselfjust waiting for something. 1 did not know what. It was just a 'something' that I seemed to feel would come in what seemed to be a timeless spaceless void. 1 say, that's the first time I noted that feeling. Always I've had some thinking to do. But this time 1 seemed to have no work in hand. I was just completely disinterested, indifferent, just waiting for something and then I felt a need to come out of it. 1 say, did you give me the signal?" Inquiry disclosed that he had no apparent memory of the stimulus being given. He had had only the "feeling" that it was time to "come out of it." Several more repetitions yielded similar results. A sense of a timeless spaceless void, a placid comfortable awaiting for an undefined "something" and a comfortable need to return to ordinary conscious awareness constituted the understandings achieved. Huxley summarized his findings briefly as
" a total absence of everything on the way there and on the way back and an expected meaningless something for which one awaits in a state of Nirvana since there is nothing more to do." He asserted his intention to make a later intensive study of this practice he found so useful in his writing. Further experiments were done after Huxley had explained that he could enter the state of deep reflection with the simple undefined understanding that he would respond to any "significant stimulus." Without informing him of my intentions, 1 asked him to "arouse" (this term is my own) when three taps of a pencil on a chair were given in close succession. He entered the state of reflection readily and, after a brief wait, I tapped the table with a pencil in varying fashions at distinct but irregular intervals. Thus, I tapped once, paused, then twice in rapid succession, paused, tapped once, paused, tapped four times in rapid succession, paused, then five times in rapid succession. Numerous variations were tried but with an avoidance of the agreed upon signal. A chair was knocked over with a crash while four taps were given. Not until the specified three taps were given did he make any response. His arousal occurred slowly with almost an immediate response to the signal. Huxley was questioned about his subjective experiences. He explained simply that they had been the same as previously with one exception, namely that several times he had a vague sensation that "something was coming," but he knew not what. He had no awareness of what had been done. Further experimentation was done in which he was asked to enter Deep Reflection and to sense color, a prearranged signal for arousing being that of a handshake of his right hand. He complied readily and when I judged that he was fully absorbed in his state of reflection, I shook his left hand vigorously, then followed this with a hard pinching of the back of both hands that left deep fingernail markings. Huxley made no response to this physical stimulus, although his eyes were watched for possible eyeball movements under the lids and his respiratory and pulse rates were checked for any changes. However, after about a minute he slowly drew his arms back along the arms of the chair where he had placed them before beginning his reflection state. They moved slowly about an inch and then all movement ceased. He was aroused easily and comfortably at the designated signal. His subjective report was simply that he had "lost" himself in a "sea of color," of "sensing," "feeling," "being" color, of being "quite utterly involved in it with no identity of your own, you know." Then suddenly he had experienced a process of losing that color in a "meaningless void," only to open his eyes and to realize that he had "come out of it." He remembered the agreed upon stimulus but did not recall if it had been given. "I can only deduce it was given from the fact that I'm out of it," and indirect questioning disclosed no memories of the other physical stimuli
administered. Neither was there an absent-minded looking at nor rubbing of the backs of his hands. This same procedure in relation to color was repeated but to it was added, as he seemed to be reaching the state of Deep Reflection, a repeated insistent urging that, upon arousal, he discuss a certain book which was carefully placed in full view. The results were comparable to the preceding findings. He became " l o s t " , . . . "quite utterly involved in i t " , . . . "one can sense it but not describe i t " , . . . "1 say, its an utterly amazing, fascinating state of finding yourself a pleasant part of an endless vista of color that is soft and gentle and yielding and all-absorbing. Utterly extraordinary, most extraordinary". He had no recollection of my verbal insistences nor of the other physical stimuli. He remembered the agreed upon signal but did not know if it had been given. He found himself only in a position of assuming that it had been given since he was again in a state of ordinary awareness. The presence of the book meant nothing to him. One added statement was that entering a state of Deep Reflection by absorbing himself in a sense of color was, in a fashion, comparable to but not identical with his psychedelic experiences. As a final inquiry, Huxley was asked to enter the reflection state for the purpose of recalling the telephone call and the special delivery letter incidents. His comment was that such a project should be "quite fruitful." Despite repeated efforts, he would "come out of it" explaining, "There 1 found myself without anything to do so I came out of it." His memories were limited to the accounts given to him by his wife and all details were associated with her and not with any inner feelings of experience on his part. A final effort was made to discover whether or not Huxley could include another person in his state of Deep Reflection. This idea interested him at once and it was suggested that he enter the reflection state to review some of his psychedelic experiences. This he did in a most intriguing fashion. As the reflection state developed, Huxley in an utterly detached dissociated fashion began making fragmentary remarks, chiefly in the form of selfaddressed comments. Thus he would say, making fragmentary notes with a pencil and paper quickly supplied to him, "most extraordinary . . . I overlooked t h a t . . . How? . . . Strange I should have forgotten that (making a n o t a t i o n ) . . . fascinating how different it appears . . . I must look When he aroused, he had a vague recollection of having reviewed a previous psychedelic experience but what he had experienced then or on the immediate occasion he could not recall. Nor did he recall speaking aloud nor making notations. When shown these, he found that they were so poorly written that they could not be read. I read mine to him without eliciting any memory traces. A repetition yielded similar results with one exception. This was an amazed expression of complete astonishment by Huxley suddenly declaring, "I say,
Milton, this is quite utterly amazing, most extraordinary. 1 use Deep Reflection to summon my memories, to put into order all of my thinking, to explore the range, the extent of my mental existence, but 1 do it solely to let those realizations, the thinking, the understandings, the memories seep into the work I'm planning to do without my conscious awareness of them. Fascinating . . . never stopped to realize that my deep reflection always preceded a period of intensive work wherein I was completely absorbed . . . I say, no wonder 1 have an amnesia." Later when we were examining each other's notebook, Huxley manifested intense amazement and bewilderment at what 1 had recorded about the physical stimuli and for which he had no memory of any sort. He knew that he had gone into Deep Reflection repeatedly at my request, had been both pleased and amazed at his subjective feelings of being lost in an allabsorbing sea of color, had sensed a certain timelessness-spacelessness and had experienced a comfortable feeling of something meaningful about to happen. He reread my notations repeatedly in an endeavor to develop some kind of a feeling of at least a vague memory of subjective awareness of the various physical stimuli I had given him. He also looked at the backs ofhis hands to see the pinch marks but they had vanished. His final comment was, " . . . extraordinary, most extraordinary, I say, utterly fascinating." When we agreed that, at least for the while, further inquiry into Deep Reflection might be postponed until later, Huxley declared again that his sudden realization of how much he had used it and how little he knew about it made him resolve to investigate much further into his "Deep Reflection." The manner and means by which he achieved it, how it constituted a form of preparation for absorbing himself in his writing and in what way it caused him to lose unnecessary contact with reality were all problems of much interest to him. Huxley then suggested that an investigation be made of hypnotic states of awareness by employing him as a subject. He asked permission to be allowed to interrupt his trance states at will for purposes of discussion. This was in full accord with my own wishes. He asked that first a light trance be induced, perhaps repeatedly, to permit an exploration of his subjective experiences. Since he had briefly been a somnambulistic subject previously, he was carefully assured that this fact could serve to make him feel confident in arresting his trance states at any level he wished. He did not recognize this as a simple direct hypnotic suggestion. In reading my notebook later he was much amused at how easily he had accepted an obvious suggestion without recognizing its character at the time. He found several repetitions of the light trance interesting, but "too easily conceptualized." It is, he explained, "A simple withdrawal of interest from
the outside to the inside." That is, one gives less and less attention to externalities and directs more and more attention to inner subjective sensations. Externalities become increasingly fainter and more obscure, inner subjective feelings more satisfying until a state of balance exists. In this state of balance, he had the feeling that, with motivation, he could "reach out and seize upon reality," that there is a definite retention of a grasp upon external reality but with no motivation to deal with it. Neither did he feel a desire to deepen the trance. No particular change in this state of balance seemed necessary and he noted that a feeling of contentment and relaxation accompanied it. He wondered if others experienced the same subjective reactions. Huxley requested that the light trance be induced by a great variety of techniques, some of them non-verbal. The results in each instance, Huxley felt strongly, were dependent entirely upon his mental set. He found that he could accept "drifting along" (my phrase) in a light trance, receptive of suggestions involving primarily responses at a subjective level only. He found that an effort to behave in direct relationship to the physical environment taxed his efforts and made him desire either to arouse from the trance or to go still deeper. He also, on his own initiative, set up his own problems to test his trance states. Thus, before entering the light trance he would privately resolve to discuss a certain topic, relevant or irrelevant, with me at the earliest possible time or even at a fairly remote time. In such instances, Huxley found such unexpressed desires deleterious to the maintenance of the trance. Similarly any effort to include an item of reality not pertinent to his sense of subjective satisfaction lessened the trance. At all times there persisted a "dim but ready" awareness that one could alter the state of awareness at will. Huxley, like others with whom 1 have done similar studies, felt an intense desire to explore his sense of subjective comfort and satisfaction but immediately realized that this would lead to a deeper trance state. When Huxley was asked to formulate understandings of the means he could employ by which he could avoid going into more than a light trance, he stated that he did this by setting a given length of time during which he would remain in a light trance. This had the effect of making him more strongly aware that at any moment he could "reach out and seize external reality" and that his sense of subjective comfort and ease decreased. Discussion of this and repeated experimentation disclosed that carefully worded suggestions served to emphasize the availability of external reality and to enhance subjective comfort though Huxley was fully cognizant of what was being said and why. Similar results have been obtained with other highly intelligent subjects. In experimenting with medium deep trances, Huxley, like other subjects with whom I have worked, experienced much more difficulty in reacting to
and maintaining a fairly constant trance level. He found that he had a subjective need to go deeper in the trance and an intellectual need to stay at the medium level. The result was that he found himself repeatedly "reaching out for awareness" of his environment and this would initiate a light trance. He would then direct his attention to subjective comfort and find himself developing a deep trance. Finally, after repeated experiments, he was given both posthypnotic and direct hypnotic suggestion to remain in a medium deep trance. This he found he could do with very little concern then. He described the medium trance as primarily characterized by a most pleasing subjective sense of comfort and a vague dim faulty awareness that there was an external reality for which he felt a need for considerable motivation to be able to examine it. However, if he attempted to examine even a single item of reality for its intrinsic value, the trance would immediately become increasingly lighter. On the other hand, when he examined an item of external reality for subjective values, for example, the soft comfort of the chair cushions as contrasted to the intrinsic quiet of the room, the trance became deeper. But both light and deep trances were characterized by a need to sense external reality in some manner, not necessarily clearly but nevertheless to retain some recognizable awareness of it. For both types of trance, experiments were carried out to discover what hypnotic phenomena could be elicited in both light and medium deep trances. This same experiment has been done with other good subjects and also with subjects who consistently developed only a light trance and with those who consistently did not seem to be able to go further than the medium trance. In all such studies, the findings were the same, the most important seeming to be the need of light and medium deep hypnotic subjects to retain at least some grasp upon external reality and to orient their trance state as a state apart from external reality but with the orientation to such reality, however tenuous in character, sensed as available for immediate utilization by the subject. Another item which Huxley discovered by his own efforts unguided by me and of which I was fully aware through work with other subjects, was that the phenomena of deep hypnosis can be developed in both the light and the medium deep trance. Huxley, having observed deep hypnosis, wondered about the possibility of developing hallucinatory phenomena in the light trance. He attempted this by the measure of enjoying his subjective state of physical comfort and adding to it an additional subjective quality, namely, a pleasant gustatory sensation. He found it quite easy to hallucinate vividly various taste sensations while wondering vaguely what 1 would think if I knew what he were doing. He was not aware of his increased swallowing when he did this. From gustatory sensations he branched out to olfactory hallucinations both pleasant and unpleasant. He did not realize that he
betrayed this by the flaring of his nostrils. His thinking at the time, so he subsequently explained, was that he had the "feeling" that hallucination of a completely "inner type of process," that is, occurring within the body itself, would be easier than those in which the hallucination appeared to be external to the body. From olfactory hallucinations he progressed to kinesthetic, proprioceptive and Anally tactile sensations. In the kinesthetic hallucinatory sensation experience he hallucinated taking a long walk but remaining constantly aware that 1 was present in some vaguely sensed room. Momentarily he would forget about me and his hallucinated walking would become most vivid. He recognized this as an indication of the momentary development of a deeper trance state which he felt obligated to remember to report to me during the discussion after his arousal. He was not aware of respiratory and pulse changes during the hallucinatory walk. When he first tried for visual and auditory hallucinations, he found them much more difficult and the effort tended to lighten and to abolish his trance state. He finally reasoned that if he could hallucinate rhythmical movements of his body, he could then "attach" an auditory hallucination to this hallucinated body sensation. The measure proved most successful and again he caught himself wondering if I could hear the music. His breathing rate changed and slight movements of his head were observed. From simple music he proceeded to an hallucination of opera singing and then finally a mumbling of words which eventually seemed to become my voice questioning him about Deep Reflection. I could not recognize what was occurring. From this he proceeded to visual hallucinations. An attempt to open his eyes nearly aroused him from his trance state. Thereafter he kept his eyes closed for both light and medium deep trance activities. His first visual hallucination was a vivid flooding of his mind with an intense sense of pastel colors of changing hues and with a wavelike motion. He related this experience to his Deep Reflection experiences with me and also to his previous psychedelic experiences. He did not consider this experience sufficiently valid for his purposes of the moment because he felt that vivid memories were playing too large a part. Hence he deliberately decided to visualize a flower but the thought occurred to him that, even as a sense of movement played a part in auditory hallucinations, he might employ a similar measure to develop a visual hallucination. At the moment, so he recalled after arousing from the trance and while discussing his experience, he wondered if I had ever built up hallucinations in my subjects by combining various sensory fields of experience. 1 told him that that was a standard procedure for me. He proceeded with this visual hallucination by "feeling" his head turn from side, to side and up and down to follow a barely visible, questionably visible, rhythmically moving object. Very shortly the object became increasingly more visible until he saw a giant rose, possibly three feet in diameter.
This he did not expect and thus he was certain at once that it was not a vivified memory but a satisfactory hallucination. With this realization came the realization that he might very well add to the hallucination by adding olfactory hallucinations of an intense "unroselike" sickeningly sweet odor. This effort was also most successful. After experimenting with various hallucinations, Huxley aroused from his trance and discussed extensively what he had accomplished. He was pleased to learn that his experimental findings without any coaching or suggestions from me were in good accord with planned experimental findings with other subjects. This discussion raised the question of anesthesia, amnesia, dissociation, depersonalization, regression, time distortion, hypermnesia(an item difficult to test with Huxley because ofhis phenomenal memory) and an exploration of past repressed events. Of these, Huxley found that anesthesia, amnesia, time distortion, and hypermnesia were possible in the light trance. The other phenomena were conducive to the development of a deep trance with any earnest effort to achieve them. The anesthesia he developed in the light trance was most effective for selected parts of the body. When generalized anesthesia from the neck down was attempted, Huxley found himself "slipping" into a deep trance. The amnesia, like the anesthesia, was effective when selective in character. Any effort to have a total amnesia resulted in a progression toward a deep trance. Time distortion was easily possible and Huxley offered the statement that he was not certain but that he felt strongly that he had long employed time distortion in Deep Reflection, although his first formal introduction to the concept had been through me. Hypermnesia, so difficult to test because of his extreme capacity to recall past events, was tested upon my suggestion by asking him in the light trance state to state promptly upon request on what page of various o f h i s books certain paragraphs could be found. At the first request, Huxley aroused from the light trance and explained, "Really now, Milton, I can't do that. lean with effort recite most of that book, but the page number for a paragraph is not exactly cricket." Nevertheless, he went back into a light trance, the name of the volume was given, a few lines of a paragraph were read aloud to him whereupon he was to give the page number on which it appeared. He succeeded in definitely better than 65 per cent in an amazingly prompt fashion. Upon awakening from the light trance, he was instructed to remain in the state of conscious awareness and to execute the same task. To his immense astonishment he found that, while the page number "flashed" into his mind in the light trance state, in the waking state he had to follow a methodical procedure of completing the paragraph mentally, beginning the next, then
turning back mentally to the preceding paragraph and then "making a guess." When restricted to the same length of time he had employed in the light trance, he failed in each instance. When allowed to take whatever length of time he wished, he could reach an accuracy of about 40 per cent, but the books had to be ones more recently read than those used for the light trance state. Huxley then proceeded to duplicate in the medium trance all that he had done in the light trance. He accomplished similar tasks much more easily but constantly experienced a feeling of "slipping" into a deeper trance. Huxley and 1 discussed this hypnotic behavior of his at very considerable length with Huxley making most of the notations since only he could record his own subjective experience in relation to the topics discussed. For this reason the discussion here is limited. We then turned to the question of deep hypnosis. Huxley developed easily a profound somnambulistic trance in which he was completely disoriented spontaneously for time and place. He was able to open his eyes but described his field of vision as being a "well of light" which included me, the chair in which I sat, himself and his chair. He remarked at once upon the remarkable spontaneous restriction of his vision, and disclosed an awareness that, for some reason unknown to him, he was obligated to "explain things" to me. Careful questioning disclosed him to have an amnesia about what had been done previously, nor did he have any awareness of our joint venture. His feeling that he must explain things became a casual willingness as soon as he verbalized it. One of his first statements was, "Really, you know, I can't understand my situation or why you are here wherever that may be but I must explain things to you." He was assured that I understood the situation and that 1 was interested in receiving any explanation he wished to give me and told that I might make requests of him. Most casually, indifferently he acceded, but it was obvious that he was enjoying a state of physical comfort in a contented passive manner. He answered questions simply and briefly, giving literally and precisely no more and no less than the literal significance of the question implied. In other words, he showed the same precise literalness found in other subjects, perhaps more so because of his knowledge of semantics. He was asked, "What is to my right?" His answer was simply, "I don't know." "Why?" "I haven't looked." "Will you do so?" "Yes." "Now!" "How far do you want me to look?" This was not an unexpected inquiry since I have encountered it innumerable times. Huxley was simply manifesting a characteristic phenomenon of the deep somnambulistic trance in which visual awareness is restricted in some inexplicable manner to those items pertinent to the trance situation. For each chair, couch, footstool I wished him to see specific instructions were required. As Huxley explained later,
"I had to look around until gradually it (the specified object) slowly came into view, not all at once, but slowly as if it were materializing. I really believe that 1 felt completely at ease without a trace of wonderment as I watched things materialize. I accepted everything as a matter of course." Similar explanations have been received from hundreds of subjects. Yet experience has taught me the importance of my assumption of the role of a purely passive inquirer, one who asks a question solely to receive an answer regardless of its content. An intonation of interest in the meaning of the answer is likely to induce the subject to respond as if he had been given instructions concerning what answer to give. In therapeutic work 1 use intonations to influence more adequate personal responses by the patient. With Huxley I tested this by enthusiastically asking, "What, tell me now, is that which is just about 15 feet in front of you?" The correct answer should have been, "A table." Instead, the answer received was, "A table with a book and a vase on it." Both the book and the vase were on the table but on the far side of the table and hence more than 15 feet away. Later the same inquiry was made in a casual indifferent fashion, "Tell me now what is that just about 15 feet in front of you?" He replied, despite his previous answer, "A table." "Anything else?" "Yes." "What else?" "A book." (This was nearer to him than was the vase.) "Anything else?" "Yes." "Tell me now." "A vase." "Anything else?" "Yes." "Tell me now." "A spot." "Anything else?" "No." This literalness and this peculiar restriction of awareness to those items of reality constituting the precise hypnotic situation is highly definitive of a satisfactory somnambulistic hypnotic trance. Along with the visual restriction, there is also an auditory restriction of such character that sounds, even those originating between the operator and the subject, seem to be totally outside the hypnotic situation. Since there was no assistant present, this auditory restriction could not be tested. However, by means of a black thread not visible to the eye, a book was toppled from the table behind him against his back. Slowly, as if he had experienced an itch, Huxley raised his hand and scratched his shoulder. There was no startle reaction. This, too, is characteristic of the response made to many unexpected physical stimuli. They are interpreted in terms of past body experience. Quite frequently as a part of developing a deep somnambulistic trance, subjects will concomitantly develop a selective general anesthesia for physical stimuli not constituting a part of the hypnotic situation, physical stimuli in particular that do not permit interpretation in terms of past experience. This could not be tested in the situation with Huxley since an assistant is necessary to make adequate tests without distorting the hypnotic situation. One illustrative measure I have used is to pass a threaded needle through the coat sleeve while positioning the arms and then having an assistant saw back and forth
on the thread from a place of concealment. Often a spontaneous anesthesia would keep the subject unaware of the stimulus. Various simple measures are easily devised. Huxley was then gently indirectly awakened from the trance by the simple suggestion that he adjust himself in his chair to resume the exact physical and mental state he had had at the decision to discontinue until later any further experimental study of Deep Reflection. Huxley's response was an immediate arousal and he promptly stated that he was all set to enter deep hypnosis. While this statement in itself indicated profound posthypnotic amnesia, delaying tactics were employed inthe guise of discussion of what might possibly be done. In this way it became possible to mention various items of his deep trance behavior. Such mention evoked no memories and Huxley's discussion of the points raised showed no sophistication resulting from his deep trance behavior. He was as uninformed about the details of his deep trance behavior as he had been before the deep trance had been induced. There followed more deep trances by Huxley in which, avoiding all personal significances, he was asked to develop partial, selective, and total posthypnotic amnesias (by partial is meant apart of the total experience, by selective amnesia is meant an amnesia for selected, perhaps interrelated items of experience), a recovery of the amnestic material and a loss of the recovered material. He developed also catalepsy tested by "arranging" him comfortably in a chair and then creating a situation constituting a direct command to rise from the chair ("take the book on that table there and place it on the desk over there and do it now"). By this means Huxley found himself, unexplicably to him, unable to arise from the chair and unable to understand why this was so. [The "comfortable arrangement" of his body had resulted in a positioning that would have to be corrected before he could arise from the chair and no implied suggestions for such correction were to be found in the instructions given. Hence, he sat helplessly unable to stand, unable to recognize why. This same measure has been employed to demonstrate a saddle block anesthesia before medical groups. The subject in the deep trance is carefully positioned, a casual conversation is then conducted, the subject is then placed in rapport with another subject who is asked to exchange seats with the first subject. The second subject steps over only to stand helplessly while the first subject discovers that she is (a) unable to move, and (b) that shortly the loss of ability to stand results in a loss of orientation to the lower part of her body and a resulting total anesthesia without anesthesia having been mentioned even in the preliminary discussion of hypnosis. This unnoticed use of catalepsy not recognized by the subject is a most effective measure in deepening trance states.] Huxley was amazed at his loss of mobility and became even more so when
he discovered a loss of orientation to the lower part of his body and he was most astonished when I demonstrated for him the presence of a profound anesthesia. He was much at loss to understand the entire sequence of events. He did not relate the comfortable positioning of his body to the unobtrusively induced catalepsy with its consequent anesthesia. He was aroused from the trance state with persistent catalepsy, anesthesia and a total amnesia for all deep trance experiences. He spontaneously enlarged the instruction to include all trance experiences, possibly because he did not hear my instructions sufficiently clearly. I mmediately he reoriented himself to the time at which we had been working with Deep Reflection. He was much at a loss to explain his immobile state, and he expressed curious wonderment about what he had done in the Deep Reflection state, from which he assumed he had just emerged, and what had led to such inexplicable manifestations for the first time in all of his experience. He became greatly interested, kept murmuring such comments as "Most extraordinary" while he explored the lower part of his body with his hands and eyes. He noted that he could tell the position of his feet only with his eyes, that there was a profound immobility from the waist down, and he discovered, while attempting futilely because of the catalepsy to move his leg with his hands that a state of anesthesia existed. This he tested variously, asking me to furnish him with various things in order to make his test. For example, he asked that ice be applied to his bare ankle by me since he could not bend sufficiently to do so. Finally, after much study he turned to me, remarking, "I say, you look cool and most comfortable while I am in a most extraordinary predicament. I deduce that in some subtle way you have distracted and disturbed my sense of body awareness. I say, is this state anything like hypnosis?" Restoration of his memory delighted him, but he remained entirely at loss concerning the genesis of his catalepsy and his anesthesia. He realized, however, that some technique of communication had been employed to effect the results achieved but he did not succeed in the association of the positioning of his body with the final results. Further experimentation in the deep trance investigated visual, auditory and other types of ideosensory hallucinations. One ofthe measures employed was to pantomime hearing a door open and then to appear to see someone entering the room, to arise in courtesy and to indicate a chair, then to turn to Huxley to express the hope that he was comfortable. He replied that he was and he expressed surprise at his wife's unexpected return since he had expected her to be absent the entire day. (The chair I had indicated was one I knew his wife liked to occupy.) He conversed with her and apparently hallucinated replies.He was interrupted with the question of how he knew that it was his wife and not an hypnotic hallucination. He examined the question thoughtfully, then explained that I had not given him any sugges-
tion to hallucinate his wife, that 1 had been as much surprised by her arrival as he had been, and that she was dressed as she had been just before her departure and not as I had seen her earlier. Hence, it was reasonable to assume that she was a reality. After a brief thoughtful pause, he returned to his "conversation" with her apparently continuing to hallucinate replies. Finally 1 attracted his attention and made a hand gesture suggestive of a disappearance toward the chair in which he "saw" his wife. To his complete astonishment he saw her slowly fade away. Then he turned to me and asked that I awaken him with a full memory of the experience. This I did and he discussed the experience at some length making many special notations in his notebook elaborating them with the answers to questions he put to me. He was amazed to discover that when I asked him to awaken with a retention of the immobility and anesthesia, he thought he had awakened but that the trance state had, to him, unrecognizably persisted. He then urged further work on hypnotic hallucinatory experiences and a great variety (positive and negative visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile, kinesthetic, temperature, hunger, satiety, fatigue, weakness, profound excited expectation, etc.) were explored. He proved to be most competent in all regards and it was noted that his pulse rate would change as much as twenty points when he was asked to hallucinate the experience of mountain climbing in a profound state of weariness. He volunteered in his discussion of these varied experiences the information that while a negative hallucination could be achieved readily in a deep trance, it would be most difficult in a light or medium trance because negative hallucinations were most destructive of reality values, even those o f t h e hypnotic situation. That is, with induced negative hallucinations, he found that I was blurred in outline even though he could develop a deep trance with a negative hallucination inherent in that deep trance for all external reality except the realities of the hypnotic situation which would remain clear and well defined unless suggestions to the contrary were offered. Subsequent work with other subjects confirmed this finding by Huxley. I had not previously explored this matter of negative hallucinations in light and medium trances. At this point, Huxley recalled his page number identification in the lighter trance states during the inquiry into hypermnesia and he asked that he be subjected to similar tests in deep hypnosis. Together we searched the library shelves, finally selecting several books that Huxley was certain he must have read many years previously but which he had not touched for twenty or more years. (One, apparently, he had never read, the other five he had.) In a deep trance with his eyes closed, Huxley listened intently, as I opened the book at random and read a half dozen lines from a selected paragraph. For some, he identified the page number almost at once and then he would
hallucinate the page, and "read" it from the point where I had stopped. Additionally, he identified the occasion on which he read the book. Two of the books he recalled consulting fifteen years previously. Another two he found it difficult to give the correct page number and then only approximating the page number. He could not hallucinate the printing and could only give little more than a summary of the thought content; but this, in essence, was correct. He could not identify when he had read them but he was certain it was more than twenty-five years previously. Huxley in the post-trance discussion was most amazed by his performance as a memory feat but commented upon the experience as primarily intellectual with the recovered memories lacking in any emotional significances of belonging to him as a person. This led to a general discussion of hypnosis and Deep Reflection with a general feeling of inadequacy on Huxley's part concerning proper conceptualization of his experiences for comparison of values. While Huxley was most delighted with his hypnotic experiences for their interest and the new understandings they offered him, he was also somewhat at a loss. He felt that, as a purely personal experience he derived certain unidentifiable subjective values from Deep Reflection not actually obtainable from hypnosis which offered only a wealth of new points of view. Deep Reflection, he declared, gave him certain inner enduring feelings that seemed to play some significant part in his pattern of living. During this discussion he suddenly asked if hypnosis could be employed to permit him to explore his psychedelic experiences. His request was met but upon arousal from the trance he expressed the feeling that the hypnotic experience was quite different than was a comparable "feeling through" by means of Deep Reflection. He explained that the hypnotic exploration did not give him an inner feeling, that is, a continuing subjective feeling, of just being in the midst of his psychedelic experience, that there was an ordered intellectual content paralleling the "feeling content" while Deep Reflection established a profound emotional background of a stable character upon which he could "consciously lay effortlessly an intellectual display of ideas" to which the reader would make full response. This discussion Huxley brought to a close by the thoughtful comment that his brief intensive experience with hypnosis had not yet begun to digest and that he could not expect to offer an intelligent comment without much more thought. He asked urgently that further deep hypnosis be done with him in which more complex phenomena would be induced to permit him to explore himself more adequately as a person. After a rapid mental review of what had been done and what might yet be done, 1 decided upon the desirability of a deep trance state with the possibility of a two-stage dissociative regression, that is, of the procedure of regressing him by dissociating him from a selected recent area of his life experience so that he could view it as an onlooker from
the orientation of another relatively recent area of life experience. The best way to do this I felt would be by a confusion technique (Erickson, 1964). This decision to employ a confusion technique was influenced in large part by the author's awareness of Huxley's unlimited intellectual capacity and curiosity which would aid greatly by leading Huxley to add to the confusion technique verbalizations other possible elaborate meanings and significances and associations, thereby actually supplementing in effect my own efforts. Unfortunately, there was no tape recorder present to preserve the details of the actual suggestions which were to the effect that Huxley go ever deeper and deeper into a trance until "the depth was a part and apart" from him, that before him would appear in "utter clarity, in living reality, in impossible actuality, that which once was, but which now in the depths o f t h e trance, will, in bewildering confrontation challenge all of your memories and understandings." This was a purposely vague yet permissively comprehensive suggestion and I simply relied upon Huxley's intelligence to elaborate it with an extensive meaningfulness for himself which I could not even attempt to guess. There were, of course, other suggestions but they centered in effect upon the suggestion enclosed in the quotation above. What I had in mind was not a defined situation but a setting of the stage so that Huxley himself would be led to define the task. I did not even attempt to speculate upon what my suggestions might mean to Huxley. It became obvious that Huxley was making an intensive hypnotic response during the prolonged repetitious suggestion I was offering when suddenly he raised his hand and said rather loudly and most urgently, "I say, Milton, do you mind hushing up there. This is most extraordinarily interesting down here and your constant talking is frightfully distracting and annoying." For more than two hours, Huxley sat with his eyes open, gazing intently before him. The play of expression on his face was most rapid and bewildering. His heart rate and respiratory rate were observed to change suddenly and inexplicably and repeatedly at irregular intervals. Each time that the author attempted to speak to him, Huxley would raise his hand, perhaps lift his head, and speak as if the author were at some height above him, and frequently he would annoyedly request silence. After well over two hours he suddenly looked up toward the ceiling and remarked with puzzled emphasis, "I say, Milton, this is an extraordinary contretemps. We don't know you. You do not belong here. You are sitting on the edge of a ravine watching both of us and neither of us knows which one is talking to you; and we are in the vestibule looking at each other with most extraordinary interest. We know that you are someone who can determine our identity and most extraordinarily we are both sure we know it and that the other is not really so, but merely a mental image of the past or of the future. But you must resolve it despite time and distances and even though
we do not know you, I say, this is an extraordinarily fascinating predicament, and am I he or is he me? Come, Milton, whoever you are." There were other similar remarks of comparable meaning which could not be recorded, and Huxley's tone of voice suddenly became most urgent. The whole situation was most confusing to me, but temporal and other types of dissociation seemed to be definitely involved in the situation. Wonderingly, but with outward calm, I undertook to arouse Huxley from the trance state by accepting the partial clues given and by saying in essence, "Wherever you are, whatever you are doing, listen closely to what is being said, and slowly, gradually, comfortably begin to act upon it. Feel rested and comfortable, feel a need to establish an increasing contact with my voice, with me, with the situation I represent, a need of returning to matters in hand with me not so long ago, in the not so long ago belonging to me, and leave behind but A VAILABLE UPON REQUEST practically everything af importance. KNOWING BUT NOT KNOWING that it is AVAILABLE UPON REQUEST. And now, let us see, that's right, you are sitting there, wide awake, rested, comfortable, and ready for discussion of what little there is" Huxley aroused, rubbed his eyes, and remarked, "I have a most extraordinary feeling that I have been in a profound trance, but it has been a most sterile experience. 1 recall you suggesting that I go deeper in a trance, and I felt myself to be most compliant, and though I feel much time has elapsed, 1 truly believe a state of Deep Reflection would have been more fruitful." Since he did not specifically ask the time, a desultory conversation was conducted in which Huxley compared the definite but vague appreciation of external realties of the light trance with the more definitely decreased awareness of externalities in the medium trance which is accompanied by a peculiar sense of minor comfort that those external realities can become secure actualities at any given moment. He was then asked about realities in the deep trance from which he had just recently aroused. He replied thoughtfully that he could recall vaguely feeling that he was developing a deep trance but that no memories came to mind associated with it. After some discussion of hypnotic amnesia and the possibility that he might be manifesting such a phenomenon, he laughed with amusement and stated that such a topic would be most intriguing to discuss. After still further desultory conversation, he was asked a prapos of nothing, "In what vestibule would you place that chair?" (indicating a nearby armchair.) His reply was remarkable. "Really, Milton, that is a most extraordinary question. Frightfully so! It is quite without meaning, but that word 'vestibule' has a strange feeling of immense anxious warmth about it. Most extraordinarily fascinating!" He lapsed into a puzzled thought for some minutes and finally stated that if there were any significance, it was undoubtedly some fleeting esoteric association. After further casual conversation,
I remarked, "As for the edge where I was sitting, I wonder how deep the ravine was." To this Huxley replied. "Really Milton, you can be most frightfully cryptic. Those words 'vestibule,' 'edge,' 'ravine,' have an extraordinary effect upon me. It is most indescribable. Let me see if I can associate some meaning with them." For nearly 15 minutes Huxley struggled vainly to secure some meaningful associations with those words, now and then stating that my apparently purposive but unrevealing use of them constituted a full assurance that there was a meaningful significance which should be apparent to him. Finally he disclosed with elation, "I have it now. Most extraordinary how it escaped me. I'm fully aware that you had me in a trance and unquestionably those words had something to do with the deep trance which seemed to be so sterile to me. I wonder if I can recover my associations." After about 20 minutes of silent, obviously intense thought on his part, Huxley remarked, "1 f those words do have a significance, I can truly say that 1 have a most profound hypnotic amnesia. I have attempted Deep Reflection, but I have found my thought centering around my mescaline experiences. It was indeed difficult to tear myself away from those thoughts. I had a feeling that I was employing them to preserve my amnesia. Shall we go on for another half hour on other matters to see if there is any spontaneous recall in association with 'vestibule,' 'edge' and 'ravine'?" Various topics were discussed until finally Huxley said, "It is a most extraordinary feeling of meaningful warmth those words have for me, but I am utterly, I might say frightfully, helpless. I suppose I will have to depend upon you for something, whatever that may be. It's extraordinary, most extraordinary." This comment I deliberately by passed but during the ensuing conversation Huxley was observed to have a most thoughtful puzzled expression on his face, though he made no effort to press me for assistance. After sometime, I commented with quiet emphasis, "Well, perhaps now matters will become available." From his lounging comfortable position in his chair, Huxley straightened up in a startled amazed fashion and then poured forth a torrent of words too rapid to record except for occasional notes. In essence, his account was that the word "available" had the effect of drawing back an amnestic curtain, laying bare a most astonishing subjective experience that had miraculously been "wiped out" by the words "leave behind" and had been recovered in toto by virtue of the cue words of "become available." He explained that he now realized that he had developed a "deep trance," a psychological state far different from his state of Deep Reflection, that in Deep Reflection there was an attenuated but unconcerned and unimportant awareness of external reality, a feeling of being in a known sensed state of subjective awareness, a feeling of control and a desire to utilize capabilities
and in which past memories, learnings, and experiences flowed freely and easily. Along with this flow there would be a continuing sense in the self that these memories, learnings, experiences, and understandings, however vivid, were no more than just such an orderly meaningful alignment of psychological experiences out of which to form a foundation for a profound pleasing subjective emotional state from which would flow comprehensive understandings to be utilized immediately and with little conscious effort. The deep trance state, he asserted, he now knew to be another and entirely different category of experience. External reality could enter but it acquired a new kind of subjective reality, a special reality of a new and different significance entirely. For example, while 1 had been included in part in his deep trance state, it was not as a specific person with a specific identity. Instead, 1 was known only as someone whom he (Huxley) knew in some vague and unimportant and completely unidentified relationship. Aside from my "reality," there existed the type of reality that one encounters in vivid dreams, a reality that one does not question. Instead, one accepts such reality completely without intellectual questioning and there are no conflicting contrasts nor judgmental comparisons nor contradictions so that whatever is subjectively experienced is unquestioningly accepted as both subjectively and objectively genuine and in keeping with all else. In his deep trance, Huxley found himself in a deep wide ravine, high up on the steep side of which, on the very edge, 1 sat, identifiable only byname and as annoyingly verbose. Before him, in a wide expanse of soft dry sand was a nude infant lying an its stomach. Acceptingly, unquestioning of its actuality, Huxley gazed at the infant, vastly curious about its behavior, vastly intent on trying to understand its flailing movements with its hands and the creeping movements of its legs. To his amazement, he felt himself experiencing a vague curious sense of wonderment as if he himself were the infant and looking at the soft sand and trying to understand what it was. As he watched, he became annoyed with me since 1 was apparently trying to talk to him, and he experienced a wave of impatience and requested that I be silent. He turned back and noted that the infant was growing before his eyes, was creeping, sitting, standing, toddling, walking, playing, talking. In utter fascination he watched this growing child, sensed its subjective experiences of learning, of wanting, of feeling. He followed it in distorted time through a multitude of experiences as it passed from infancy to childhood to school days to early youth to teenage. He watched the child's physical development, sensed its physical and subjective mental experiences, sympathized with it, empathized with it, rejoiced with it, thought and wondered and learned with it. He felt as one with it, as if it were he himself, and he continued to watch it until finally he realized that he had watched that
infant grow to the maturity of 23 years. He stepped closer to see what the young man was looking at, and suddenly realized that the young man was Aldous Huxley himself, and that this Aldous Huxley was looking at another Aldous Huxley, obviously in his early fifties, just across the vestibule in which they both were standing; and that he, aged 52, was looking at himself, Aldous, aged 23. Then Aldous, aged 23 and Aldous aged 52, apparently realized simultaneously that they were looking at each other and the curious questions at once arose in the mind of each of them. For one the question was, "Is that my idea of what I'll be like when 1 am 52?" and, "Is that really the way I appeared when I was 23?" Each was aware of the question in the other's mind. Each found the question of "Extraordinarily fascinating interest" and each tried to determine which was the "actual reality" and which was the "mere subjective experience outwardly projected in hallucinatory form." To each the past 23 years was an open book, all memories and events were clear, and they recognized that they shared those memories in common, and to each only wondering speculation offered a possible explanation of any of the years between 23 and 52. They looked across the vestibule (this "vestibule" was not defined) and up at the edge of the ravine where I was sitting. Both knew that that person sitting there had some undefined significance, was named Milton, and could be spoken to by both. The thought came to both, could he hear both of them, but the test failed because they found that they spoke simultaneously, nor could they speak separately. Slowly, thoughtfully, they studied each other. One had to be real. One had to be a memory image or a projection of a self-image. Should not Aldous, aged 52, have all the memories of the years from 23 to 42? But if he did, how could he then see Aldous, aged 23, without the shadings and colorations of the years that had passed since that youthful age? If he were to view Aldous, aged 23, clearly, he would have to blot out all subsequent memories in order to see that youthful Aldous clearly and as he then was. But if he were actually Aldous, aged 23, why could he not speculatively fabricate memories for the years between 23 and 52 instead of merely seeing Aldous as 52 and nothing more? What manner of psychological blocking could exist to effect this peculiar state of affairs? Each found himself fully cognizant of the thinking and the reasoning of the "other." Each doubted "the reality of the other" and each found reasonable explanations for such contrasting subjective experiences. The questions rose repeatedly, by what measure could the truth be established and of how did that unidentifiable person possessing only a name sitting on the edge of the ravine on the other side of the vestibule fit into the total situation? Could that vague person have an answer? Why not answer? Why not call to him and see?
With much pleasure and interest, Huxley detailed his total subjective experience, speculating upon the years of time distortion experienced and the memory blockages creating the insoluble problem of actual identity. Experimentally, I remarked casually, "Of course, all that could be left behind to become A VAILABLE at some later time." Immediately there occurred a re-establishment of the original post hypnotic amnesia. Efforts were made to disrupt this reinduced hypnotic amnesia by veiled remarks, frank open statements, by a narration of what had occurred. H uxley found my narrative statements about an infant on the sand, adeep ravine, a vestibule "curiously interesting," simply cryptic remarks for which Huxley judged I had a purpose. But they were not evocative of anything more. Each statement I made was, in itself, actually uninformative and intended only to arouse associations. Yet no results were forthcoming until again the word "AVAILABLE" resulted in the same effect as previously. The whole account was related by Huxley a second time but without his realization that he was repeating his account. Appropriate suggestions when he had finished his second narration resulted in a full recollection of his first account. His reaction, after his immediate astonishment, was to compare the two accounts item by item. Their identity amazed him, and he noted only minor changes in the order of narration and the choice of words. Again, as before, a posthypnotic amnesia was induced, and a third recollection was then elicited, followed by an induced realization by Huxley that this was his third recollection. Extensive detailed notations were made o f t h e whole sequence of events, and comparisons were made of the individual notations, with interspersed comments regarding significances. The many items were systematically discussed for their meanings and brief trances were induced to vivify various items. However, only a relatively few notations were made by me of the content of Huxley's experience since he would properly be the one to develop them fully. My notations concerned primarily the sequence of events and a fairly good summary of the total development. This discussion was continued until preparations for scheduled activities for that evening intervened, but not before an agreement on a subsequent preparation of the material for publication. Huxley planned to use both Deep Reflection and additional self-induced trances to aid in writing the article but the unfortunate holocaust precluded this.
It is unfortunate that the above account is only a fragment of an extensive inquiry into the nature of various states of consciousness. Huxley's state of
Deep Reflection did not appear to be hypnotic in character. Instead, it seemed to be a state of utterly intense concentration with much dissociation from external realities but with a full capacity to respond with varying degrees of readiness to externalities. It was entirely a personal experience serving apparently as an unrecognized foundation for conscious work activity enabling him to utilize freely all that had passed through his mind in Deep Reflection. His hypnotic behavior was in full accord with hypnotic behavior elicited from other subjects. He was capable of all the phenomena of the deep trance and he could respond readily to posthypnotic suggestions and to exceedingly minimal cues. He was emphatic in declaring that the hypnotic state was quite different from the Deep Reflection state. While some comparison may be made with dream activity, and certainly the ready inclusion of the "vestibule" and the "ravine" in the same subjective situation is suggestive of dream-like activity, such peculiar inclusions are somewhat frequently found as a spontaneous development of profound hypnotic activity in highly intellectual subjects. His somnambulistic behavior, his open eyes, his responsiveness to me, his extensive posthypnotic behavior all indicate that hypnosis was unquestionably definitive of the total situation in that specific situation. Huxley's remarkable development of a dissociated state, even bearing in mind his original request for a permissive technique, to view hypnotically his own growth and development in distorted time relationships, while indicative of Huxley's all-encompassing intellectual curiosity, is suggestive of most interesting and informative research possibilities. Questioning postexperimentally disclosed that Huxley had no conscious thoughts or plans for review of his life experience nor did he at the time of the trance induction make any such interpretation of the suggestions given him. This was verified by a trance induction and making this special inquiry. His explanation was that when he felt himself "deep in the trance" he began to search for something to do and "suddenly then 1 found myselfmost extraordinary." While this experience with Huxley was most notable, it was not my first encounter with such developments in the regression of highly intelligent subjects. One such experimental subject asked that he be hypnotized and informed when in the trance that he was to develop a profoundly interesting type of regression. This was primarily to be done for his own interest while he was waiting for me to complete some work. His request was met and he was left to his own devices while sitting in a comfortable chair on the other side of the laboratory. About two hours later he requested that I awaken him. He gave an account of suddenly finding himself on an unfamiliar hillside and, in looking around, he saw a small boy whom he immediately "knew" was six years old. Curious about this conviction about a strange little bay,
he walked over to the child only to discover that that child was himself. He immediately recognized the hillside and set about trying to discover how he could be himself at 26 years of age watching himself at the age of 6 years. He soon learned that he could not only see, hear, and feel his child-self, but that he knew the innermost thoughts and feelings. At the moment of realizing this, he felt the child's feeling of hunger and his wish for "brown cookies". This brought a flood of memories to his 26-year-old self, but he noticed that the boy's thoughts were still centering on cookies and that the boy remained totally unaware of him. He was an invisible man, in some way regressed in time so that he could see and sense completely his childhood self. My subject reported that he "lived" with that boy for years, watched his successes and his failures, knew all of his innermost life, wondered about the next day's events with the child, and, like the child, he found to his amazement that even though he was 26 years old, a total amnesia existed for all events subsequent to the child's immediate age at the moment, that he could not forsee the future any more than could the child. He went to school with the child, vacationed with him, always watching the continuing physical growth and development. As each new day arrived, he found that he had a wealth of associations about the actual happenings of the past up to the immediate moment of life for the child-self. He went through grade school, high school, and then through a long process of deciding whether or not to go to college and what course of studies he should follow. He suffered the same agonies of indecision that his thenself did. He felt his other self's elation and relief when the decision was finally reached and his own feeling of elation and relief was identical with that of his other self. My subject explained that the experience was literally a moment by moment reliving of his life with only the same awareness he had then and that the highly limited restricted awareness of himself at 26 was that of being an invisible man watching his own growth and development from childhood on, with no more knowledge of the child's future than the child possessed at any particular age. He had enjoyed each completed event with a vast and vivid panorama of the past memories as each event reached completion. At the point of entrance to college the experience terminated. He then realized that he was in a deep trance and that he wanted to awaken and to take with him into conscious awareness the memory of what he had been subjectively experiencing. This same type of experience has been encountered with other experimental subjects, both male and female, but each account varies in the manner in which the experience is achieved. For example, a girl who had identical twin sisters three years younger than herself, found herself to be "a pair of identical twins growing up together but always knowing every-
thing about the other." In her account there was nothing about her actual twin sisters, all such memories and associations were excluded. Another subject, highly inclined mechanically, constructed a robot which he endowed with life only to discover that it was his own life with which he endowed it. He then watched that robot throughout many years of experiential events and learnings, always himself achieving them also because he had an amnesia for his past. Repeated efforts to set up as an orderly experiment have to date failed. Usually the subject objects or refuses for some not too comprehensible a reason. In all of my experiences with this kind of development in hypnotic trances, this type of "reliving" of one's life has always been a spontaneous occurrence and with highly intelligent well-adjusted experimental subjects. Huxley's experience was the one most adequately recorded and it is most unfortunate that the greater number of details, having been left with him, were destroyed before he had the opportunity to write them up in full. Huxley's remarkable memory, his capacity to use Deep Reflection and his ability to develop a deep hypnotic state to achieve specific purposes and to arouse himself at will with full conscious awareness of what he had accomplished (Huxley required very little instruction the next day to become skilled in autohypnosis) augured exceedingly well for a most informative study. Unfortunately the destruction of both notebooks precluded him from any effort to reconstruct them from memory because my notebook contained so many notations of items of procedure and observation for which he had no memories and which were vital to any satisfactory elaboration. However, it is hoped that the report given here may serve, despite its deficiencies, as an initial pilot study for the development of a more adequate and comprehensive study of various states of consciousness.
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 2. BETWEEN WAKING AND SLEEPING: THE HYPNAGOGIC STATE
When we lie down to sleep at night, there is a period of time in which it would be difficult to say with any certainty whether we are awake or asleep. This borderline period has been termed the hypnagogic period. The transitional state that occurs when we wake/rom sleep is called the hypnopompic period. One of the few things we can say with certainty about the hypnagogic period is that it is highly variable, both physiologically and psychologically, among individuals. For some people this is an experientially nonexistent period, with no conscious recollection of any experience at all. For others this may be a period of enchantment, with beautiful visions, sweet music, and insights into themselves. Despite the tremendous increase in reseach on nocturnal dreaming over the past 15 years, little has been done about studying the hypnagogic period: the prevailing scientific opinion has lightly dismissed this as an unimportant "transitional" period. Yet it seems clear that this period can be prolonged and yield material as rich as any noctural dream for at least some individuals. It can be studied easily, even at home.* What its potentials are is unknown
*The problem in studying the hypnagogic state in oneself or others is that the materia] experienced is generally forgotten rapidly, especially as subsequent sleep intervenes between experience and reporting. A simple method to overcome this in studying hypnagogic phenomena is to lie flat on your back in bed, as in going to sleep, but keep your arm in a vertical position, balanced on the elbow, so that it stays up with a minimum of effort. You can slip fairly far into the hypnagogic state this way, getting material, but as you go further muscle tonus suddenly decreases, your arm falls, and you awaken immediately. Some practice with holding the material in memory right after such awakenings will produce good recall for hypnagogic material.
BETWEEN WAKING AND SLEEPING
at this point, but it should be noted that many of the comments in Chapter 7 on the experimental control of dreaming apply equally well to the hypnagogic period: indeed, control over this period may be much easier because it is so much closer in time to the waking state than nocturnal dreams are. Further, a number of occult magical procedures (see, e .g., Ophiel, 1961; Carrington, 1958) involved gaining conscious control over the events ofthe magician's hypnagogic state, using the state as a "doorway" to step through into another world of experience. The hypnagogic state is by no means confined to the beginnings of nocturnal sleep: I would speculate that there are many times when we believe we are just "thinking deeply" or "concentrating" in which we momentarily slip into a hypnagogic state and perhaps utilize this ASC for enhanced creativity. In the past few years there have been two major studies ofthe hypnagogic state using the new electrophysiological techniques for studying dreaming. The first of these (Chapter 4), "Ego Functions and Dreaming during Sleep Onset," by Gerald Vogel, David Foulkes, and Harry Trosman, studies the phenomenology of the hypnagogic state in laboratory Ss as they spontaneously fall asleep. The second article (Chapter 5), "Some Preliminary Observations with an Experimental Procedure for the Study of Hypnagogic and Related Phenomena," by M. Bertini, Helen Lewis, and Herman Witkin, uses similar methodology but employs an active approach, deliberately stimulating the Ss with emotionally significant material before they go into the hypnagogic state. Important data are gathered by this method on the effects of such presleep stimulation not only on the hypnagogic period itself but on subsequent nocturnal dreaming. Further information on this work maybe found in the original paper (Bertini, Lewis, & Witkin, 1964) from which Chapter 5 has been condensed, and in Tart (1967), Witkin (1967), and Witkin & Lewis (1967). It is a straightforward step from the Bertini et al. research to attempt to control the hypnagogic state itself and explore the possible use of such control. Chapters 6 and 8 also contain material pertaining to the hypnagogic state. Besides the references presented in this section, further studies of the hypnagogic state can be found in Buck & Geers (1967), Fiss (1966), Foulkes, Spear, & Symonds (1966), Goodenough, Lewis, Shapiro, Jaret,& Sleser (1965), Green (1967), Hollingworth (1911), Ladd (1892), Leaning (1925), Liberson & Liberson (1966), McKellar (1959), Rechtschaffen & Dement (1967), Saul (1965), Wooley (1914), and Zuckerman & Hopkins (1966). Leaning's article in particularly is a very thorough study of the phenomenology o f t h e hypnagogic state but is virtually unknown today.
EGO FUNCTIONS AND DREAMING DURING SLEEP ONSET
GERALD VOGEL, DAVID FOULKES, AND HARRY T R O S M A N
In the past ten years the work of Aserinsky, Kleitman, and Dement (Aserinsky & Kleitman, 1955; Dement & Kleitman, 1957a, 1957b) has shown that by the EEG/EOG (electrooculogram) there are two different kinds of sleep, which, under ordinary circumstances, cyclically alternate throughout the night. One of these is emergent stage 1 EEG (a low-voltage, fast, random pattern) accompanied by intermittent bursts of rapid eye movements (REM). The second kind of sleep has no rapid eye movements (NREM) and is characterized electroencephalographically by 12-14 cps spindles without 5-waves (stage 2) or with 3-6 cps 5-waves (stage 3 and 4). In an ordinary night's sleep subjects begin with hours of NREM sleep which then gives way to about 10-15 minutes of REM sleep. A total of 3-7 cycles of alternating NREM and REM sleep compose a night's sleep, with REM sleep taking up progressively more of each cycle. In terms of mental activity during sleep, REM periods are an indicator of dreaming because 80%-90% of REM awakenings produce dream reports (Dement & Kleitman, 1957b). Foulkes (1962) and Rechtschaffen et al. (Rechtschaffen, Verdone &. Wheaton, 1963) have shown that NREM sleep also has a characteristic kind of mentation, which, compared with REM reports, is more plausible and less bizarre, more conceptual and less perceptual, more concerned with contemporary waking life, and in general more like
Reprinted by permission from Arch. Gen. Psychiat., Vol. 14, 1966, pp. 238-248.
waking thought (Monroe, et al., 1965). Thus, these findings demonstrate that there is a regular variation of the EEG/EOG pattern during the night and that each of the two kinds of EEG/EOG patterns is associated with a different kind of mentation. Recently Foulkes and Vogel (1965) extended these EEG/EOG mentation studies to the sleep onset (hypnagogic) period. Physiologically, they found a regular sequence of four successive EEG/EOG stages marking the period from relaxed wakefulness to unequivocal sleep. These were: a-EEG with waking REMs; a - E E G with slow eye movements (SEM); descending stage 1, usually with SEM*; and descending stage 2, occasionally with SEM*. Subjects were awakened at each of these four EEG/EOG stages and information was gathered about the subjects' preawakening mental activity. In terms of sleep-onset mentation the following findings of the Foulkes and Vogel study are relevant to the present investigation. 1. A specific item of content was found in 95.3% of awakenings. 2. At the time of each awakening three questions about control over mentation and loss of contact with the external world were asked, (a) "Did you feel that you were controlling the course of your thoughts in the sense that you felt you were conjuring them up and could stop them if you wanted to?" (b) "Were you, while this experience was occurring, aware that you were here, in the lab, lying in your bed?" (c)" Were you during the experience aware that you were observing the contents of your own mind, or did you feel that you were observing or participating in events out in the real world?" Tabulation of the replies by EEG/EOG stage showed that loss of volitional control over mentation tended to occur first; then loss of awareness of surroundings; and finally, loss of reality testing (hallucination) occurred. In the present study these replies are taken to indicate increasing degrees of loss of contact with the external world (withdrawal). The first indicates
*The similarities and differences between descending stage 1 and ascending (emergent) stage 1 are as follows: Both have a low-voltage, fast, random EEG and so both are called EEG stage I. However, the distinctions between them are important. Descending stage 1 occurs at sleep onset, usually lasts one-half to five minutes, is not accompanied by REMs, and has not been thought to be associated with dreaming. It is called descending stage I because the subject is "descending" from wakefulness to sleep. On the other hand, ascending stage 1 occurs after 60 to 90 minutes of NREM sleep, lasts 10 to 40 minutes, is accompanied by intermittent bursts of REMs, and is simultaneous with the experience of dreaming. It is called ascending stage I because at one time it was thought the sleeper "ascended" from deeper to lighter sleep as he passed from NREM to REM sleep. *Stage 2 sleep at sleep onset is herein taken to be the electroencephalographicend point of the hypnagogic period and the electroencephalographic beginning of N R E M sleep.
GERALD VOGEL. DAVID FOULKES & HARRY TROSMAN
that the subject is so focused on internal events that he is carried along by them and is uninterested in the external world. The second indicates further withdrawal because the subject is not only uninterested in the external world but has lost awareness of his immediate surroundings. The third indicates a, complete break with reality because the subject believes that his internal experience is actually happening in the external world, 1.e., the subject is hallucinating. 3. As indicated above, the recent EEG literature contains many claims that dreaming does not occur at sleep onset and is limited to REM periods during emergent stage I (Aserinsky & Kleitman 1955; Dement &. Kleitman, 1957; Dement & Kleitman, 1957). The only exception to the latter has been the finding of Vogel(Vogel,1960) and of Rechtschaffen etal.(Rechtschaffen, 1963) that in narcolepsy there is a sleep onset REM period with dreaming. Foulkes and Vogel (Foulkes & Vogel, 1965), however, found that dreams, which they defined as hallucinated dramatic episodes, do occur with considerable frequency at sleep onset. The pooled frequencies of dream reports by stage were as follows: a - R E M , 31%; a-SEM, 43%; stage 1,76%; and stage 2, 71%. Though occasional hypnagogic dream reports appeared indistinguishable from typical REM reports, differences between typical hypnagogic and REM dreams were noticed. Compared with the latter, sleeponset dreams were usually shorter, had less effect, and were more discontinuous; that is, more like a succession of slides than like a movie. Also, there appear to be no substantial individual differences in the incidence and EEG stage of hypnagogic dreams. With regard to the manifest content of hypnagogic dreams, some contained distorted, regressive content so typical of REM reports, while others had undistorted, nonregressive content similar to some NREM reports. The finding of dreaming in all EEG/EOG stages o f t h e hypnagogic period, and particularly in the absence of stage 1 and in the absence of REM, raises a question about the previous generalization in sleep research which related each kind of mentation to a different EEG/EOG pattern. It is possible however, that this generalization may still be preserved if an investigation of the differences among hypnagogic reports shows the differences to be related to specific EEG/EOG patterns. The present work is such an investigation. Our preliminary view of this problem suggested that a useful approach to the issue of stage specific mentation would be studying the relationship of EEG/EOG stages to sleep-onset changes in ego functions. In order to do this we pursued further two findings of Foulkes and Vogel. The finding of regressive and nonregressive content in dreams centered out attention on the fact that the content of both dream (hallucinated) and nondream (nonhallucinated) reports varied from nonregressive thinking or remembering to more regressive images such as bizarre, implausible
scenes. Thus, gauged by the kind of content reported, the ego function of maintaining nonregressive content was sometimes intact and sometimes impaired during sleep onset. The finding that withdrawal from the external world tended to occur in three degrees focused our attention on the fact that the ego function of maintaining contact with the external world changed in specific ways during sleep onset. These considerations about the sleep-onset change in two ego functions, viz., maintenance of nonregressive content and the maintenance of contact with the external world, raised the following specific questions which this study was designed to investigate. 1. During the hypnagogic period is there a relationship between the EEG/EOG sequence and each kind of content as there is after sleep onset? For example, do dreams with regressive content occur in one and not in another? 2. During the hypnagogic period what is the temporal relationship between withdrawal and regressive content? For example, does regressive content occur before any withdrawal, or at the same time as withdrawal, or after complete withdrawal? 3. During the hypnagogic period, is it possible to dream, i.e., to hallucinate, while there isstill some awareness of one's surroundings? This question was not answered by Foulkes and Vogel, who only showed that there is a statistical tendency for hallucination to occur after loss of awareness of surroundings but who did not indicate whether there were exceptional reversals of this sequence. 4. Psychologically, Freud's clinical data (Freud, 1954), and, physiologically, Dement's (Dement, 1960) laboratory finding ofthe dream deprivation effect have supported the notion that there is a need for night (REM) dreaming; that, in Freud's words, dreaming "discharges excitation and serves as a safety valve (Freud, 1954)." Is there any evidence to suggest a need or function for the hypnagogic dream?
The data reported in the present paper were taken from the same hypnagogic reports which were the data for the Foulkes and Vogel (Foulkes and Vogel, 1965) paper. The method of collecting the reports is described in detail in that paper and summarized here. Nine young-adult subjects (eight male and one female) who had "normal" MMPI profiles and who were students or worked at the University of Chicago were studied. Each subject reported to the laboratory at his bedtime, had the EEG/EOG electrodes attached to his scalp in the usual manner (Dement & Kleitman, 1957), went to bed in a dark, quiet room, and was
encouraged to go to sleep. The scalp leads were connected from the sleeper to a separate EEG control room. Subjects were "awakened" according to an unsystematic schedule from one of the four EEG/EOG patterns of the sleep-onset period. When the EEG/EOG indicated a preselected one o f t h e sleep-onset patterns, the subject was called over an intercom and asked to report his "preawakening" experience and then to answer verbally a standard set of questions about his preawakening mental activity. The entire interview was taperecorded. Upon completion of the interview, the subject was encouraged to return to sleep. When during this next sleep-onset period the EEG/EOG indicated an appropriate pattern, the subject was called and the same questioning process was repeated. This procedure was repeated six times each night and usually took about three hours. Each subject came to the laboratory on four nights which were usually spaced one week apart. With six "awakenings" per subject night, there were 24 hypnagogic awakenings per subject, or a planned schedule of 216 awakenings for all nine subjects. In the present study each transcribed report, unlabeled for EEG/EOG stage, was assessed for the performance of each ego function. Criteria for the assessment were as follows: 1. In rating the function of maintaining nonregressive content we used the content of each report and classified it as either nonregressive or regressive. Content was rated as nonregressive if the mentation was plausible, realistic, coherent, and undistorted, whether it consisted of verbal thoughts or visual images. Content was rated as regressive only by the presence of one or more of six categories (which were suggested by pilot data): (a) Single, isolated images, such as the number 2,081 hanging in midair; or a meaningless pattern, such as oblique lines as seen on a poorly tuned TV screen, (b) An incomplete scene or bits and pieces of a scene, e.g., one subject reported that he was in the process of constructing a lab scene, but it was incomplete, i.e., people and objects not yet in their proper places, (c) Bizarre, inappropriate, or distorted images, e.g., the image of tiny, hairy, people sitting inside the chest cavity, (d) Bizarre sequence or superimposition of images, e.g., one subject reported seeing a train station on which was superimosed an image of strawberries, (e) Dissociation of thought and image, e .g., one subject reported he was driving a car and simultaneously thinking about a problem in linguistics, (f) Magical, omnipotent thinking, e.g., one subject reported that he was a giant waving his hand over an entire town, and with each wave o f h i s hand the lights of the town became dimmer. 2. 1 n tabulating the function of maintaining contact with external reality, we used subjects' replies to the three questions about the abilities to maintain volitional control, orientation to time and place, and discrimination between
an internal and an external event. Contact with reality was classified intact if all these abilities were unimpaired; partially lost if some but not all of these abilities were impaired; and completely lost if all of these abilities were impaired.* Two judges independently rated each transcribed report, unlabeled as to EEG/EOG stage, for the performance of each ego function. One of these judges was an experimenter (G. V.) and the other, not formally educated in psychology, was trained to do ratings on pilot data and was, of course, unaware of any hypothesis under consideration. Interrater reliability was very high and is defined more precisely and quantitatively in the next section. Of the scheduled 216 reports which were available, 203 were usable for classification according to kind of content and degree of contact with the external world.
A. Ego Function and EEG Stages. During a-EEG it was found that both ego functions were usually intact, or, at most, one function was impaired. (If the impaired ego function was contact with reality, this function was partially, not completely, lost.) Reports with this combination of ego functions (both unimpaired or only one unimpaired) accounted for 68.8% of a awakenings. The frequencies of such reports in all EEG stages were: a-REM, 75%; a-SEM, 63%; stage 1, 20%; and stage 2, 15.4%. If the combined incidence of such reports during all EEG/EOG stages is taken as the expected frequency in any EEG/EOG stage, than, as evaluated by the binomial probability distribution function, the difference between the observed of-EEG frequency and the expected frequency is significant at the 0.001 level. Furthermore, on /-tests for correlated means, the a-EEGstage 1 and a-EEGstage 2 differences in frequency of such reports are significant at less than the 0.001 level. During descending stage 1 both ego functions were usually impaired, i.e., there was regressive content and there was partial or complete loss of reality contact. This combination of ego functions accounted for 51.2% of descending stage 1 reports, whereas in other EEG stages, it was 19.2% of a - R E M , 27.8% of a-SEM, and 26.9% of descending stage 2. If the combined incidence of such reports during all EEG/EOG stages is taken as the expect*At times subjects were unable to give an unequivocal answer to one or more of the three questions. This was usually because the ability under question changed during the reported experience or because the subject was simply unable to decide. In either case, because there was not unequivocal complete loss, we classified contact with external reality as partially lost.
ed frequency in any EEG/EOG stage, then, as evaluated by the binomial probability distribution function, the difference between the observed stage 1 frequency and the expected frequency is significant at less than the 0.002 level. Furthermore, on Mests for correlated means, the stage 1 and a-REM difference in frequency of such reports is significant at the 0.09 level; the stage 1 and a-SEM difference was not significant; the stage 1 and descending stage 2 difference was significant at the 0.07 level. During descending stage 2 there was usually a paradoxical return to nonregressive content, and a complete loss of contact with external reality. This combination of ego functions accounted for 57.7% of all descending stage 2 reports, whereas it represented 3% of a - R E M reports, 5% of a-SEM reports, and 28.8% of descending stage 1 reports. If the combined incidence of such reports during all EEG/EOG stages is taken as the expected frequency in any EEG/EOG stage, then, as evaluated by the binomial probability distribution function, the difference between the observed stage 2 frequency and the expected frequency is significant at less than the 0.001 level. Furthermore, on Mests for correlated means, the stage 2 a - R E M and stage 2 a-SEM differences in frequency of such reports are significant at less then the 0.001 level; the stage 2 and stage 1 difference is significant at less than the 0.005 level. There is, then, a statistically significant tendency for each EEG stage (alpha, stage 1, and stage 2) to be associated with a different combination of ego functioning, which we call a different ego state. Each of these states is reviewed here and given a name so that we can easily refer to it later. In the first state, usually during a-EEG, the ego maintains both functions, or, at most, shows an impairment of only one function. (If the impaired ego function is contact with reality, this function is partially, not completely lost.) We call this state a relatively intact ego (I). In the second state, usually during descending stage 1, both ego functions are impaired, and we call this a relatively destructuralized ego (D).* In the third, or terminal, state of the hypnagogic period, usually during descending stage 2, the mentation returns from regressive content to more plausible, realistic mentation, but the contact with reality is completely lost. Because of the return of content to the secondary process patterns, we call this a relatively restructuralized ego
*The term destructuralized is used in the sense that Rapaport and Gill give to the notion of psychic structure, viz., an abiding configuration of functions (Rapaport and Gill, 1959). Since the ego temporarily loses its abiding functions of contact with reality and of secondary process mentation, it has, in this definition, temporarily lost "its abiding configuration of functions." One of us (H. T.), however, believes the transient shifts in ego functioning do not represent structural changes within the ego, and he would prefer a nonspecific designation to label the hypnagogic changes, such as early, middle, or late.
Alpha REM
Alpha SEM
EEG/EOG stage Figure 1. Relationship of ego state to E E G / E O G stage.
(R). The frequency of these ego states at each EEG stage is plotted in Figure 1. Reliability measures for the I-D-R ratings were made by an analysis of variance (Winer, 1962, pp. 124-128). The procedure was as follows: Each judge independently rated each transcribed report for regressive or nonregressive content and for degree of withdrawal. The ego function ratings of each judge were then used by the above criteria to assign an ego state I, D, and R judgments by assigning the numbers 1, 2, and 3 respectively to the three ego states. By this measure the reliability coefficient for the I-D-R judgments was 0.96. Illustrative examples of the I-D-R sequence from two subjects follow. The impairment of contact with external reality in each report is not discernible from the content per se, but was determined from the subject's replies to the questions about this function.
Subject 8 a-SEM: Intact Ego (I)
1 was thinking of sending clippings to a Russian pianist and I saw an envelope with 15<t postage. (The subject is a concert pianist. The content is not regressive. The subject had lost volitional control over content, was unaware of his surroundings, but knew that the image was in his mind and not in the external world.)
GERALD VOGEL, DAVID FOULKES & HARRY T R O S M A N STAGE 1: O E S T R U C T U R A L I Z E D EGO (D)
I was observing the inside of a pleural cavity. There were small people in it, like in a room. The people were hairy, like monkeys. The walls of the pleural cavity are made of ice and slippery. In the midpart there is an ivory bench with people sitting on it. Some people are throwing balls of cheese against the inner side of the chest wall. (The report contains bizarre, implausibly associated elements, distortions, etc. There was a complete loss of contact with external reality during the reported experience.)
STAGE 2 : R E S T R U C T U R A L I Z E D EGO (R)
I was driving a car, telling other people you shoudn't go over a certain speed limit. (In this report it will be noted that the content is again plausible and realistic. There was a complete loss of contact with external reality during the reported experience.)
Subject 7 a -REM: Intact Ego (I)
I was thinking about the lab secretary typing out my transcripts. (This report is realistically oriented and an anticipation. There was loss of control and loss of awareness of surroundings during the experience, but the subject knew that the experience was mental.)
STAGE 1: D E S T R U C T U R A L I Z E D EGO (D)
I was making Jello or pudding, following a recipe and putting powder in a pan, and then the "Communist" was in front of the pan. (The report exemplifies a sequence of bizarrely associated images. There was a complete loss of contact with reality during the experience.)
STAGE 2 : R E S T R U C T U R A L I Z E O EGO (R)
I was writing an exam, probably in histology, and felt frustrated because I couldn't express myself clearly. (The report indicates a plausible activity. There was a complete loss of contact with reality.) B. Relationship of kinds of content to loss of contact with the external world. 1. An attempt was made to determine if some withdrawal from the external world was necessary for the appearance of regressive content.
Almost all regressive content reports(94%) occurred when there was some withdrawal from the external reality. The positive Pearson product moment correlation between regressive content and withdrawal was 0.944. This correlation is significantly greater than zero at less than the 0.001.level. Further, in the category of regressive content reports, 6% have no impairment of reality contact, 12% have only loss of control, 31.3% have loss of control and disorientation, and 50.7% have loss of control, disorientation, and hallucination. Thus, it appears that greater withdrawal from the external world increases the probability for regressive content. A more precise test of this probability was made by using Mests for correlated means. It was found that the difference in frequency between regressive content reports with no withdrawal and regressive content reports with disorientation is significant at less than the 0.05 level; the difference in frequency between such regressive content reports with no withdrawal and such reports with hallucination is significant at less than the 0.01 level. These data indicate a correlation between withdrawal and regressive content. They also raise the question of whether early in the hypnagogic period one of these processes precedes the other, i.e., does withdrawal tend to begin before the appearance of regressive content, or does regressive content tend to appear before evidence of withdrawal? In order to provide data on this question, we tabulated for the early hypnagogic period, i.e., a-EEG, the number of reports with withdrawal and no regressive content (35) and the number of reports with regressive content and no withdrawal (2). Based on an equal probability for each, on the f-test for correlated means, this difference is significant at less than 0.001 level. 2. No reports ol hallucination without loss of control and loss of awareness of surroundings were observed. A priori, there is no reason why one should expect that hypnagogic hallucinations cannot occur before "total" withdrawal from the external world. For example, it is theoretically conceivable that subjects could, during sleep onset, hallucinate some event or object and still be oriented to time and place. But in no instance was this observed. Hence, hypnagogic hallucinations are indistinguishable from REM reports (night dreams) on the basis of loss of contact with the external world. For this reason an hypnagogic hallucination is called a dream in this paper. 3. The statistically significant 1-D-R sequence signifies that, following some withdrawal and regressive contents (D), there is return of the nonregressive contents and a further withdrawal indicated by a loss of reality testing or hallucination (R). This raises the question of whether at the end of the hypnagogic period hallucination tends to precede the return to nonregressive content or whetherthe reappearance of nonregressive content tends to precede hallucination. In other words, we are asking about the
comparative frequencies of two kinds of reports during the period immediately preceding R: (a) hallucinated reports without return to nonregressive content and (b) nonregressive content reports without hallucination. An attempt was made to determine the incidence of each of these kinds of reports during the EEG stage immediately preceding the onset of R. For most subjects (eight out of nine) this is a relatively simple task, because R occurs almost exclusively during stage 2 and the incidence of each kind of report can be counted during stage 1. Hence, for subject 9 the frequency of each kind of report must be counted in a-SEM, and not in stage 1. A tubulation of the incidence of each kind of report during the period preceding R was made. It shows that in this period hallucination with regressive content occurs 16 times, and in the same period nonregressive content without hallucination occurs six times. Based on an equal probability for each kind of report, and as evaluated by the binomial probability distribution function, this difference in frequency is significant at less than the 0.01 level. Thus these results indicate that some withdrawal precedes or accompanies the appearance of regressive content; that, following the appearance of regressive content, loss of reality testing (hallucination) precedes or accompanies a return to non-regressive content; and, finally, that withdrawal from the external environment (disorientation to time and place) precedes the appearance of hallucination.
A. The relationship between EEG and ego state. The data indicate that I is most likely to occur with a-EEG, D during descending stage 1, and R during descending stage 2. This psychophysiological parallel is consistent with the findings that after sleep onset different EEG/EOG patterns tend to be associated with different kinds of mentation (Aserinsky & Kleitman, 1955; Dement & Kleitman, 1957a, 1957b; Foulkes, 1962; Monroe et al., 1965; Rechtschaffen, Verdone & Wheaton, 1963). Thus the a - E E G had traditionally been associated with the relaxed waking state, so it is not unexpected that unimpaired ego functions are present during thea-rhythms of the hypnagogic period. Stage 1 after sleep onset (ascending stage 1 REM period) is associated with dreaming, so it is consistent that during the hypnagogic period the most bizarre and unrealistic dream reports come from stage 1, even though it is descending stage 1. Finally, stage 2 after sleep onset is a NREM stage and is associated with more plausible, less bizarre mentation than dreaming mentation. Again, it is not surprising that during the hypnagogic period stage 2 is associated with the return to more secondary
process mentation than that reported from the previous descending stage I. Hence, findings of the hypnagogic period are consistent with the notion gathered from N R E M a n d REM periods that each variety of sleep mentation occurs with a unique EEG pattern. However, at least two empirical findings make such a notion of sleep mentation seem an oversimplification. First, in Foulkes and Vogel's earlier paper (1965), it was pointed out that the finding of nonstage I and non-REM hypnagogic dreams contradicts the notion that "dreaming" is limited to one EEG/EOG pattern. And second, as shown in figure 1, there are many exceptions to an ideal psychophysiological parallel during sleep onset, viz., i occurs during non-alpha-EEG, D outside of descending stage 1, and R outside of descending stage 2. Because of these exceptions to the ideal psychophysiological parallel during the hypnagogic period, an alternative hypothesis about the relationship between ego states and EEG stages is proposed. When viewed electroencephalographically, successful sleep onset is characterized by a sequence of patterns, a-REM, a-SEM, stage 1, and stage 2. When viewed psychologically, successful sleep onset is characterized by a sequence of ego states, I, D and R. In most instances of sleep onset, I occurs during a-EEG, D during stage I, and R during stage 2. However, occasionally an ego state will occur in an EEG/EOG stage other than the expected or ideal one. We hypothesize that in these exceptional instances sleep onset is still marked by the same order of psychological events and the same order of EEG events, though the match between the stages of each has changed. For example, the I-D-R sequence may be finished in stage 1, so that reports from both stage 1 and stage 2 are characterized by R; or, at the opposite extreme, the I-D-R sequence may not progress until stage 2 is reached, so that both a - E E G and stage 1 reports are characterized by 1. In short, from the psychological side, the hypothesis is that, with or without an ideal correlation between individual ego states and EEG stages, there is a sequence of ego states 1, D, and R which marks the period from relaxed wakefulness to unequivocal sleep. Evidence for this notion is as follows: (a) The usual correlations of I with alpha, D with stage 1, and R with stage 2 indicate the expected order of psychological events, (b) Subject 9 was an exceptional subject; alla-REM reports were D, almost all stage 1 and stage 2 reports were R. This illustrates a subject who regularly had an early onset of D and then maintained R throughout the remainder of the sleep-onset period, (c) Let us consider the exceptions to the ideal psychophysiological parallel during a-EEG,that is, D and R in a - E E G . The frequency of these ego states in a-EEG is such that D is greater than R (see Figure 1). This means that an R in a-EEG is more likely to be preceded by a D than an R. (d) Let us consider the excep-
tions to the ideal psychophysiological parallel during descending stage 2, that is, I and D during stage 2. The frequency of D in stage 2 is greater than the frequency of I. This means that an 1 in stage 2 is more likely to be followed by a D in stage 2 than by another I. Or, put in other terms, if an R in stage 2 is to be preceded by a different ego state during stage 2, it is more likely to be D than 1. Thus, from (c) and (d) the patterning o f t h e exceptions to the ideal psychophysiological parallel is consistent with the hypothesis of a particular psychological order relatively independent of EEG stage, (e). Finally, there is evidence that for each subject, as well as for all subjects, each EEG stage had, on the average, a later ego state than the preceding EEG stage. Let us assign to ego states I, D, and R the numbers 1, 2, and 3 respectively. Then the rated means of ego states for each subject for each EEG stage can be calculated. The pooled results for all subjects show a monotonically increasing curve across all EEG stages. O f t h e 27 comparisons of consecutive stages for individual subjects (nine subjects, three comparisons among four consecutive stages for each subject), 23 are in the expected direction. The four exceptions were in three subjects and three of these exceptions concerned minimal differences between a - R E M and a-SEM. Or, in other words, three of the four exceptions occured within a-EEG. In summary, although there is substantial correlation between each EEG/EOG stage and a corresponding ego state, there are numerous exceptions to this ideal psychophysiological parallel. This raises two possibilities: (a) The ego states often do not occur in the expected order; or (b) during successful sleep onset the 1-D-R sequence does occur and is an order of psychological events which exists independent of the linkage of ego states to an ordered EEG sequence. We have concluded that the data are more consistent with the latter possibility. B. The relationship between kind ofcontent and withdrawalfrom the external world. 1. The findings indicate that regressive content appears only with, or after, some loss of contact with the external world. This relationship seems so strong that we explain the rare empirical exceptions (5.9%) to this proposition by the notion that during these exceptional experiences there may have been some very early and minimal withdrawal which our questions were too gross or crude to detect. The inference that some impairment of contact with the external world is a necessary precursor or accompaniment of regressive content is consistent with the results of sensory deprivation experiments and very reminiscent of them. In fact, several investigators of sensory deprivation, including Heron (1961), Ruff et al. (Ruff, Levy, & Thaler, 1961), and Freedman etal. (Freedman, Grunebaum, & Greenblatt, 1961), have explicitly mentioned its similarity to sleep onset. For example, Freedman et al. (1961) state that
"visual illusions or hallucinations are very similar to those which have been described for . . . hypnagogic states . . . The significant a s p e c t . . . is that the images . . . [are] not under the subjects control" (p. 68). And, "subjects slip into a dream-like transitional state between sleeping and waking, which makes coherent thinking difficult, thoughts cannot be anchored in reality, and the free flow of fantasy is promoted" (p. 69). Hence, regressive content follows loss of contact with the external world in both sensory deprivation and sleep onset. We are led to wonder if the regressive phenomena resulting from sensory deprivation might actually be caused by the subject's entering the hypnagogic state. 2. The findings indicate that the return to nonregressive content at the end of the hypnagogic period occurs only with or after the loss of reality testing. Again, the temporal relationship seems so strong that we offer an explanation of the six exceptions to this sequence of events. Let us begin by noting that the six exceptions are late hypnagogic reports in which nonregressive content appeared without loss of reality testing. Further, this kind of report is an I state. On the basis of previous arguments about the regularity of the I-D-R sequence and its independence from the EEG/EOG sequence, we suggest that these six I reports come from l-D-R sequences which have not yet progressed to D state. In other words, had sleep onset not been interrupted, we suggest that these I states would have been followed by regressive content (D), and still later by loss of reality testing and a return to nonregressive content (R). The inference that loss of reality testing is a necessary precursor or accompaniment of a late hypnagogic return to nonregressive content is consistent with the effects o f t h e sensory deprivation experiments. In these experiments subjects know that their perceptual "hallucinations" are not real, i.e., subjects do not lose reality testing (Heron, 1961). And under continuing sensory deprivation there is no return from regressive to nonregressive mentation. Hence, given regressive changes due to continuing reduction in sensory input, when reality testing remains intact (sensory deprivation experiments), the regressive changes persist, and when reality testing is lost (sleep onset), the regressive changes tend to disappear. C. The psychodynamics of sleep onset. We have concluded that the I-D-R sequence occurs during successful sleep onset whether or not each ego state is linked to its usually corresponding EEG/EOG stage. As a consequence, we reject the notion that each ego state is a psychic manifestation of a specific EEG/EOG stage. The question then arises, What determines this regular sequence of psychological events during sleep onset?ln whatfollows we will use for this explanation a framework which has integrated the findings of sensory deprivation experiments into ego psychology. The major thesis of this integration is that "ego structures need [external] stimulus nutriment
for their autonomous effectiveness and even for their maintenance" (Rapaport, 1958). The evidence indicates that the desire for sleep produces a decathexis of the external world which occurs in three steps: first, a decathexis of perceptual information (indicated by a lack of interest in the external world); second, a decathexis of the perceptual apparatus (indicated by loss of awareness of the environment); and third, a decathexis of reality testing function (indicated by the belief that mental experience is really happening in the external world). The evidence also indicates that at some point in this withdrawal from the external world the reduction of meaningful sensory input induces regressive changes in the ego which are manifested by the D state. Accordingly, the regressive changes are not in themselves necessary for sleep onset; rather, they appear to be unavoidable "side effects" o f t h e reduced sensory input (withdrawal) which is essential for sleep onset. Furthermore, because the D state is so quickly and regularly followed by a restitution (R), it appears that the tendency toward regression, which is represented by D, threatens the ego and produces the need for defense. Thus, at this point in the hypnagogic period, the ego, in order to sleep, needs a defense which will allow it to continue to withdraw and yet will overcome the threatened chaos (D) induced by the withdrawal. The finding that loss of reality testing is necessary for the return to non-regressive contents suggests that the inactivation of reality testing is a part ofthe needed defense which will resolve the conflict and allow the restitution represented by R. This is consistent with the notion that in other situations the decathexis of reality testing can be a defense which allows restitution of other ego functions, e.g., in the restitutional phase of schizophrenia (Fenichel, 1945, p. 442). The fact that the subsequent R state contains only nonregressive content supports the notion that there is a successful defense against the regression represented by the D state. Further, the defense against regressioni.e., the loss of reality testingpersists for some time, because the entire subsequent NREM period contains mentation which is more thought-like than dream-like (Foulkes, 1962; Rechtschaffen, Verdone, & Wheaton, 1963; Monroe, et al., 1965), and which resembles a preconscious stream of thought (Rechtschaffen, Vogel & Shaikun, 1963). This psychodynamic view of sleep onset provides an understanding of an important distinguishing characteristic of hypnagogic dreaming, viz., there are significant individual variations in the length, frequency, and EEG stage of sleep-onset dreams (Foulkes & Vogel, 1965). No such variations exist for REM dreams. We suggest that during sleep onset individuals differ in their tolerance o f t h e potential threat of regression induced by the withdrawal and that these differences are responsible for the variations in the length,
frequency, and EEG stage of hypnagogic dreams. This notion is consistent with our clinical impression that the subjects who are free to experience and enjoy their own fantasies had earlier and richer hypnagogic dreams than more anxious and rigid subjects. It appears likely that the more rigid subjects were more threatened by an impending regression and so held on to external reality longer or withdrew in some special way so as to minimize the regression. This is compatible with the clinical phenomena of hypnagogic dream-like experiences which abruptly awaken anxious patients who are particularly prone to insomnia. D. Function of hypnagogic dreams. On the basis of association of manifest content of dreams (presumably REM reports), Freud (1954) found that night dreams are instigated by unconscious wishes. Since we did not elicit associations to hypnagogic dreams, we do not know if hypnagogic dreams express unconscious wishes. But even if they did, the inference is clear that the unconscious wishes do not instigate the hypnagogic dreams. In the case of D dreams the instigator is the reduced sensory input, or withdrawal, which produces a regressed state. Hence, unconscious wishes, if present, are only a secondary result of the regressed state which allows such everpresent wishes to emerge. Other investigators (Fenichel, 1945; Silberer, 1951) have also concluded, on the basis of different evidence, that hypnagogic dreams primarily represent a regressed ego state rather than unconscious wishes. Freud (1954) also concluded that dream instigators (unconscious wishes) are sleep disturbers and that dreams function to protect sleep by an hallucinatory abolishment (wish fulfillment) of the dream instigator. The present work indicates a variety of dreams for which this formulation does not hold. Thus for hypnagogic D dreams the instigator (withdrawal) tends to promote sleep and the dream itself represents a process which tends to disturb sleep, viz., the regressive loss of effectiveness of ego structures. However, with regard to hypnagogic R dreams, it appears that they are instigated by a potential sleep disturbance (the regression) and that R dreams are the manifest representatives of a defense against this potential disturbance. Thus we conclude that different kinds of dreams have different kinds of instigators, and that some dream instigators tend to disturb sleep and others to protect it.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The psychology of the sleep-onset period was studied by gathering reports from four sequential EEG/EOG stages which mark the period from relaxed wakefulness to unequivocal sleep. These reports were rated for the performance of two ego functions, viz., the maintenance of secondary process
mentation and the maintenance of contact with the external world. It was found that based on these two ego functions there is a sequence of three ego states during sleep onset. Thus, initially during sleep onset both functions are usually intact; somewhat later there is both regressive content and withdrawal from the external world; finally there is return to nonregressive content and a complete withdrawal indicated by a loss of reality testing. Though the correlation between each ego state and a corresponding EEG stage is substantial, there are numerous exceptions to this ideal psychophysiological parallel. However, the sequence of three ego states occurs during successful sleep onset whether or not the ideal psychophysiological parallel holds. This indicates that generalizations from previous sleep research which relate one kind of EEG/EOG pattern to one kind of mentation are an oversimplification, and, more specifically, that during sleep onset the sequence of ego states is not simply a psychological reflection of the sequence of EEG/EOG stages. The temporal relationship between loss of contact with the external world and presence of regressive or nonregressive mentation was studied. It was found that during the early hypnagogic period loss of contact with external reality precedes the appearance of regressive content. It was also found during the late hypnagogic period (after the appearance of regressive content) that loss of reality testing precedes the reappearance of nonregressive content. These findings were united to construct a psychodynamic explanation of the sequence of ego states during sleep onset. Thus the initial loss of contact with the external world induces regressive changes in the ego. Accordingly, thought regression is not, in itself, necessary for sleep onset, but appears as an unavoidable side effect of the reduced sensory input. However, the regression threatens the ego and produces the need for a defense. Because loss of reality testing precedes the reappearance of nonregressive content, it is suggested that loss of reality testing is a part of the needed defense which allows sleep to continue. Thus some hypnagogic dreams are instigated by withdrawal from the external world, and from a psychological point of view, they appear to reflect primarily a regressed ego state rather than the rise and disguised fulfillment of unconscious wishes which are expressed by night (REM) dreams.
SOME PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS WITH AN EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE FOR THE STUDY OF HYPNAGOGIC AND RELATED PHENOMENA
M . BERTINI, HELEN B. LEWIS AND HERMAN A. WITKIN
Although psychology and psychiatry have had a long-standing interest in altered states of consciousness (see lsakower, 1938; Kubie and Margolin, 1942; Kubie, 1943; Silberer, 1951; Federn, 1952), problems of technique have made systematic experimental study of such phenomena as dreams and hypnagogic reverie states difficult. In this paper we shall describe a special procedure for studying hypnagogic phenomena and present some preliminary observations obtained with the procedure which indicate that it may be useful for the study of a variety of problems. The procedure has three salient features: (1) it facilitates drowsiness, (2) it simultaneously encourages imagery and (3) it permits observation of the "stream of consciousness". White noise is fed into the subject's ears at the same time that he sees a homogeneous visual field. While the subject is lying down in this special situation, he is asked to keep on talking
*Condensed from Archivio di Psicologio Neurologio e Psychiatria, 1964, Vol. 6, 493-534. From the Psychology Laboratory and the Psychiatric Treatment Research Center of the Department of Psychiatry. This work was supported in part by grant M-628 and grant MH-05518 from the United Slates Public Health Service National Institutes of Health.
STUDY OF HYPNAGOGIC AND RELATED PHENOMENA
c o n t i n u o u s l y , d e s c r i b i n g any t h o u g h t s , feelings or images he may have. A t a p e r e c o r d i n g is m a d e of t h e s u b j e c t ' s s p e e c h .
White noise, which creates a continuous monotonous sound, has been generally known to facilitate drowsiness. It also reduces auditory feedback from the subject's own voice while he is speaking and distorts the quality of the voice. A homogeneous visual field has been shown to facilitate imagery and to make the imagery more plausible to the subject. To create a homogenous visual field, the subject's eyes are covered with halves of pingpong balls over which is placed a source of diffuse red illumination. The resulting experience is of a relatively unvarying (except for eye-blinks) field of homogeneous stimulation or "ganzfeld" (Hochberg, Triebel & Seaman, 1951). Our technique was originally developed for a study o f t h e relation between experimentally induced pre-sleep experience and subsequent dreams by Witkin and Lewis (1963). Its purpose was to help follow the way in which thoughts, feelings and images stirred during the waking state might find expression "on the way down" through the hypnagogic reverie and in subsequent dreams. For a variety of reasons it also seemed important to make a separate study o f t h e experimental hypnagogic induction and monitoring procedure apart from the context of sleep. The transitional nature o f t h e hypnagogic state makes it an especially fertile period for the production of primary process material. Loosened controls partly resulting from the drowsy state seem to make primary process thinking more accessible to observation. Reveries and fantasies, as well as dream-like images and experiences, are commonly reported. The reverie state is characteristically one in which fantasy life has freer expression in the stream of consciousness. A "freeassociation" period, which seeks to approximate the reverie state in its loosening of controls, is the foundation of many psychotherapeutic procedures, especially psychoanalytically based techniques. An experimental technique which could facilitate any of these states of drowsiness, reverie, or free association, while obtaining the content of consciousness, therefore seemed particularly valuable. Preliminary observations have indicated that it is possible to induce a hypnagogic state by our procedure, not only when subjects are at their regular sleep time, but at other times o f t h e day. Dreamlike transformations of elements from an exciting film may also occur during an experimentalhypnagogic interval in some subjects, again both at the regular sleep time and at other times. This report is divided into two parts. In the first part, we present some observations which demonstrate the usefulness of our experimentalhypnagogic procedure in the study of the relationship between pre-sleep
M. BERTINI, HELEN B. LEWIS 8. HERMAN A. WITKIN
experience and subsequent dreams. In the second part we present some observations derived from a separate study ofthe experimental-hypnagogic procedure with subjects not at their regular sleep time.
CONTENT OF HYPNAGOGIC INTERVAL IN RELATION TO PRE-SLEEP EXPERIENCE A N D S U B S E Q U E N T D R E A M S
The procedure used to study the content of the hypnagogic interval in relation to a pre-sleep event and subsequent dreams has been described by Witkin and Lewis (1963). In brief summary, in each of a series of five experimental sleep sessions subjects were exposed to a pre-sleep event which consisted, on some occasions, of the showing of an emotionally charged film, on other occasions of an encounter with another person through the medium of suggestion, and on still other occasions of a neutral film. In a sixth session, the subjects were shown an emotionally charged film of a mother monkey eating her dead baby and an attempt was made to retrieve the content of the ensuing hypnagogic interval and subsequent dreams. Study o f t h e hypnagogic interval was made in this final session only. To determine the occurrence of dreams in our subjects the recently developed method of monitoring the EEG and eye movements was used. It is now generally assumed from the work of Aserinsky and Kleitman (1953), Dement and Kleitman (1957) and the numerous other investigators that the coincidental occurrence of periods of rapid eye movements (REM) and Stage-1 EEG signifies the presence of dreaming. Subjects awakened at these Stage-1 EEG REM periods are very likely to report a dream experience. At the end of each sleep session an inquiry was made into the subject's dreams, and into his associations to each dream. Each subject had been studied in advance by means of a psychiatric screening interview, projective tests and tests of perceptual field dependence. After the entire series of six experimental sleep sessions, he was interviewed at length for details of his biography. At the end of the interview he was asked to associate again to elements from all his dreams and to the elements from his hypnagogic reverie. The use of the same subjects throughout the series of experimental sleep sessions, together with extensive clinical inquiries into the subjects' dreams and biography, made it possible to amass a fund of clinical information about each subject. We shall present observations based on study of transcripts of recordings of the experimental-hypnagogic interval of three subjects who participated in all six experimental sessions. These three subjects may be designated Mr. A, Mr. B and Mr. C. Mr. A is a clerical worker, 28 years old, married and the father of two children. Mr. B is an appliance repair man, 30 years old, married and the father of two children. Mr. C is 22 years old, single,
a clerical worker and part-time college student. All three subjects were naive with respect to psychological or psychoanalytic theory. The film which was used in the dream study as a prelude to the experimental-hypnagogic procedure was made in the Primate Laboratory ofthe Downstate Medical Center. It is a silent film, in black and white, and shows a mother monkey hauling her dead baby about by the arms and legs and nibbling at it. There are many scenes of the dangling legs of the dead baby.
A. During the experimental-hypnagogic period, which lasted for about an hour immediately following the showing of the film, a characteristic sequence could be observed in which relatively controlled ideation gave way to looser ideation and sluggish speech. As this latter period went on, visual and auditory imagery occurred which was quite dreamlike in quality. For example, the following is a transcript of the last portion of Mr. C's experimental-hypnagogic interval:
white . . .* crunchy . . . can't keep them too long they go bad on you. (Pvery long) (inaud sentence) (Humming) ( i n a u d ) . . . someone's gonna eat the pumpernickel. ( i n a u d ) . . . to the radio . . . to the phonograph . . . (sigh) 8 0 . . . . (Long P) Well, another Florida license p l a t e . . . n o t the only o n e . . .(P) Must have been funny . . . what a gorgeous day . . . look at the blue clouds . . . and the white . . . white and the blue intermixed in the distance. Pretty nice weekend. Except on Saturday. How come Monday's always nice? (P) What happened? Can you explain that? (P) Showed . . . one from them and one from us . . . one from them and one from us . . . s u p p l y . . . . (mumbling) I'd like to go soon. . . . They won't be doing this all the time. They can only be doing one thing at a time. The canary or the parakeet, or the monkey . . . (P) and add on two more and got six. I know him. What about him? 40 credits Taste soap? I just did Got cold in there again. Look at that t u n n e l . . . not t u n n e l . . . Long Island Expressway during the rush h o u r . . . . tt'sall lit u p . . . one big travelling advertisement for something or o t h e r . . . . You could have been used as hatchet m a n . . . not necessarily hitters, but to (inaud) the b a l l . . . to ( i n a u d ) . . . (inaud) like I said though . . . (snore).
It will be observed that Mr. C's ideation appears to be without any rational thread. The connections among his ideas cannot be followed by an outside observer. Mr. A fell asleep as he was talking, as have other subjects studied with this procedure. Another subject, Mr. B, had a brief dream (so labelled by him) during the first part of his experimental-hypnagogic interval. Mr. B, who was extremely
*tn transcripts, three dots indicate a very slight pause; " p " indicates a longer pause; and " P " a fairly long pause. Four dots indicate an omission.
sleepy, dozed and dreamed briefly that "this experiment was over and . . .1 was leaving . . . through a basement step with Mr. F (the assistant) and he was saying, 'Don't be discouraged'." It is interesting that during this brief dream the EEG showed a fully waking record. B. Elements from the film are apparent in transformation in the hypnagogic interval and in further transformation in subsequent dreams. An example of traceable sequence of imagery from the film to the hypnagogic interval and thence into the dream can be found in Mr. B's texts. During his hypnagogic period, Mr. B said: " . . . It's getting very dark. I . . . I see the mother monkey sitting in the corner of a dark cage and cuddling her dead baby. A feeling of motion is again returning. I feel like I'm in a coal m i n e . . . . It's very dark, and there's very fine pieces of coal lying about. The feeling of motion has stopped, and just piles of coal around me. I see dirty black water and someone walking in it with bare feet. I see green plants with little blue flowers on them." The mother "cuddling" her dead baby is seen in a "dark cage." Darkness is emphasized and the image of a coal mine appears, with "dirty black water." This image is followed by an "opposite" image of pleasant living things: "green plants with blue flowers." In a subsequent dream Mr. B reported the following:"... There were some men and women . . . they had fairly large, well-developed feet. Uh, I think this is all going back to uh . . . Italian . . . Uh . . . you know, to Italy, probably to the grape regions or farm regions of Italy, and I believe these people were wine makers . . . these people were crushing grapes in the grape barrel." In this part of the dream Mr. B said he had a "feeling of well-being." It is possible to interpret this pleasant dream image of Italians making wine with their "feet" as a fusion of "opposites," i.e., a transformed and condensed representation of the darkness and dirt of the coal mine together with the green plants with blue flowers which appeared in the hypnagogic interval. C. Images which appear in the hypnagogic interval can be shown to have uniquely personal meaning to the subject. Corresponding elements in the subsequent dreams can also be shown to refer to the film in a uniquely personal way. For example, a "frog" which appeared to Mr. A in the hypnagogic interval had a special connection for him to the theme of mother and baby. Mr. A remembered, in the course of associating to elements presented from the text of his reverie, that he used to be "cruel" to frogs. He would throw them across a brick-wall incinerator and kill them. "After a while frog hunting became a little scarce. I suppose they ran away when they saw me." The "frog" in the hypnagogic interval was thus connected with memories of his own cruelty. The first image reported from his first subsequent REM awakening is of "someone being chased" (our emphasis).
D. Thoughts and images from the hypnagogic interval itself also find their way into subsequent dreams. Following is an interesting example of imagery, in the hypnagogic interval, of being on a train, which was then followed by a dream about, a train. During the hypnagogic interval, Mr. B said: "I have a feeling of motion, like I would be on a train.. . . " "I can identify the noise now with the motion of a train traveling at very fast speed. I dozed off for a moment, then, I'm awake now." At his fourth and last REM awakening from subsequent sleep, B's dream report contained the following: "This is strange . . . now I remember. The instant that uh . . . you woke me up . . . you see, we were walking off the lawn, and we were approaching the subway, but the approach was like a . . . you know, you walk down a slope and you went underground, and as we were approaching the subway, uh . . . there was a subway train coming out of the t u n n e l . . . of the subway portion of t h i s . . . and it was ready to come up this high plane into the daylight. B u t . . . what I found very interesting is the way the s u b w a y . . . you see like the subway train would actually be uh . . . uh . . . there wasn't any station, but it would actually come right onto the lawn, and then go underground again. You know, right from this big expanse of lawn we could walk right over to the subway and there the train would be." The dream image of a train coming right onto the lawn and going underground again seems very similar to the hypnagogic image right before he dozed off of being on a train. The imagery of the train coming right onto the lawn and going underground could represent, without too many steps of inference, the experience of going under in sleep and coming out again. It is interesting, also, that another subject, who had unusually great difficulty staying awake during the experimental-hypnagogic interval, had images of himself traveling on a train and descending "stone steps" (cf. subject S. K., p. 101). E. The relation between the subject's method of handling feelings stirred by the film in full consciousness, in his reverie and in his dreams may also be explored by this experimental procedure. An example of handling the cannibalistic theme of the monkey film in different ways in the reverie and in the dream came from Mr. C. The cannibalistic theme in the monkey film apparently had considerable emotional impact on Mr. C. The figure drawing he made at the end of the session was of "Count Dracula." The following exchange took place between Mr. C and the experimenter on this point:
() Count Dracula? (S) Uh, a horror figure. () Uh hm, uh hm. (5) Huh, 1 don't know how it, how that eventually came out. I uh . . . (") Count Dracula? (5) I just decided to draw a hat this lime. () Oh, uh hm. (5) Then I just threw in a cape also.
() Uh hm. ( S ) And I said, "Well a hai and a cape." (E) Uh, hm. (S) "None other than Count Dracula." () Uh hm. What did Count Draculado particularly? What is he noted for? (S) He was a vampire. {E) Uh hm. ( S ) In uh . . . in horror fiction. () Uh hm. (5) He, uh, thrived on the blood of others. () Uh hm. (S) And the implication is obvious. I didn't, I didn't, uh, I didn't think o f . . . doing this originally, but then as it, as I started drawing I said, uh, "Oh boy. This movie had its effect."
Not only did the figure drawing carry a message about the fantasies evoked in Mr. C by the monkey film but the drawing provided a vehicle for Mr. C himself to see the connection, in the form of a sudden insight, between the drawing and the film. Toward the middle of his hypnagogic interval, before he made the Dracula drawing, Mr. C saw a crane with "jaws" helping to "build up the rock jetties again . . . to protect the shoreline against erosion. It's low tide now and you can see the moss which has been growing on the rocks, and the wooden poles are completely uncovered. The seagulls are standing on the poles There's a seagull that caught a piece of something yesterday . . . looked like wet cardboard from the distance and it was flying around with it, and there was a few others trying to take it away. And he had to maneuver them for this piece of whatever it was. Eventually they left him alone and he was . . . I think he went out on the jetties to eat it." In a very brief interval immediately following the end o f t h e experimentalhypnagogic interval, right after the ping-pong balls were removed and the white noise shut off, Mr. C dozed and then reported the following very brief dream. He dreamed of his mother telling him about friends who had come to dinner when she was younger. He then said that it didn't make any sense, "My mother and I being the same age." It is interesting to observe that in the hypnagogic interval, the cannibalistic theme is expressed in transformed images of a crane's jaws building up the shoreline against erosion, a seagull eating something and a tiger opening up his mouth. The figure drawing made after the session is of Count Dracula, a "vampire." In his brief hypnagogic dream, in contrast, there is a mundane eating scene: his mother is telling him about having some friends come for dinner. This is a very civilized, quiet image, in which all danger and all horror are gone. He and his mother are even the same age.
FURTHER OBSERVATIONS MADE WITH THE EXPERIMENTALHYPNAGOGIC PROCEDURES WITH SUBJECTS NOT AT THEIR REGULAR SLEEP TIME As indicated earlier, it seemed important to make a separate study of the experimental-hypnagogic procedure apart from the context of sleep.
The technique seemed a promising one not only for the study of transformations and representations of an exciting film experience in the reverie state, but for the study of a variety of other phenomena as well.
Transcripts of the experimental-hypnagogic interval* for 42 subjects, 36 men and 4 women, all normal young college or medical students, form the basis of this section of our report. These subjects, all paid volunteers, were seen during the day, i.e., not at their regular sleep time. Thirty-two subjects went through the experimental-hypnagogic procedure without any specific prior event. Twenty-two subjects were shown an exciting film before the experimental-hypnagogic procedure. Of these there were 12 subjects who went through both procedures. Included among the subjects studied were some selected as being extremely field dependent or field independent. Human figure drawings were obtained from each subject before and after the experimental-hypnagogic session. Because of the exploratory nature of this part of the study, no autonomic or EEG recordings were obtained. Instructions of the following kind were given to the subjects: This is a study of imagination. You will be in the bed here. These cut ping-pong balls will be placed over your eyes. You will also wear these earphones, through which you will hear a uniform, continuous sound. Please try to be as still as you can on the bed. It is also important that you keep your eyes open during the entire procedure. What I would like you to do, when we are ready, is to start talking and to keep on talking. Talk about anything you please. Talk about anything that you see, anything you hear. In other words, any images you may haveand anything you feel in your body. The important thing is that you keep on talking continuously. Are there any questions you have?
The observations we shall report in this section are entirely preliminary and are intended to demonstrate the usefulness of the procedure. The data
*The "state" observed in subjects A, B and C described in the preceding section, who were studied at their regular sleep time, may appropriately be designated as a "hypnagogic state". We have not yet studied enough subjects at their ordinary sleep time to know how commonly this state occurs with the experimentalhypnagogic procedure at such times. Of the subjects observed in the studies to be reported now, all of whom were not at their regular sleep time, some showed a state similar to that observed in subjects A, B and C, whereas others did not. (The variety of reactions observed will be described in a later section." We shall continue to use the term "experimental-hypnagogic interval" to refer to the period o f t h e subject's exposure to the experimental-hypnagogic procedure, without any implication, however, that in this interval the subject was necessarily in the kind ofhypnagogic state described for subjects A, B, and C.
M . BERTINI, HELEN B. LEWIS 8. HERMAN A. WITKIN
we have gathered touch on a variety of questions which point the direction for future research. We shall first consider some of the effects of the experimental-hypnagogic procedure itself, and of its several components. Next the variety of reactions to the procedure will be sampled. Then we will examine dreamlike transformations of elements from the films during the experimental-hypnagogic procedure. Sequences of imagery and ideation following increases of feeling will be described. Finally, some preliminary observations regarding more differentiated and less differentiated subjects will be presented. A. Drowsiness and its effects on imagery. A considerable number of subjects, though not at their regular sleep lime, nevertheless reported that they felt very sleepy. Following are some typical examples of the subject's verbatim remarks: "1 could fall asleep now if I wanted. Very easy." "Even with the noise, 1 conk right out now. Get to sleep very, very easily now." "Uh, 1 kept thinking. I would want to go to sleep." Although drowsiness was often reported by some subjects, others did not report it. Since we did not keep constant the point in the diurnal cycle at which we observed our subjects, we do not know how much this factor may have contributed to the observed differences in drowsiness. The drowsy state induced by the experimental-hypnagogic procedure seemed conducive to imagery and appeared to affect the kind of imagery produced. It is interesting to observe the imagery which appeared in one subject who was desperately trying to fight sleep during a good portion of his experimental-hypnagogic period. Following are excerpts from a middle portion and from an end portion of his transcript. Subject S.K., male, no film, middle portion of transcript.
"I'm falling asleep and talking, it's like I copied something that was (inaud m u m b l i n g ) . . . Anyway . . . uh . . . uh . . . wonder if I'm supposed to feel like I'm drowsing? It sounds like water smashing against rocks. Why did I say that? That was part of a dream I slipped into as I just closed my eyes, impossible . . . Uhu . . . oh the image I have before my head where did it come f r o m ? . . . It's a broad green field . . . (P) It's a bluish building with a thin bottom . . . bluish building . . . thin bottom. Fell asleep. That's r i g h t . . . 1 actually had just fallen asleep. I found my lips moving . . . an image, a dream I was d r e a m i n g . . . then I woke up and then my eyes closed again . . . so easy (P). Jcs, I'm almost going to sleep on you. Like I could fight it and fight it but it gets to be a pain." End portion of transcript: "Holy cow, 1 just fell asleep and then I woke up. Did somebody touch my elbow, or did I wake up by myself? (P) I don't even know I'll bet you I fell asleep . . . somebody sitting next to me . . . he realized I had stopped talking . . . he just very lightly tapped my elbow . . . And it was stimulus enough to wake up, to wake me up . . . 'Cause I don't care, I'll gladly go to sleep Gee, I'm having some nice little d r e a m s . . . . I seem to be . . . in this . . . uh . . . a . . . stone s t a i r c a s e . . . no, stone handrail . . . with a vertical uh . . . p i l l a r . . . and a . . . all of a sudden it's marble . . .
marble steps . . . and a . . . (P) But every lime I'm about to fall asleep . . . 1 realize it. You know, I can't fall asleep 'cause I know I'm not gonna sleep . . . In other words, I . . . uh'd like I'd like to fall asleep."
It is clear that brief, dreamlike images appeared to this subject as he was fighting his drowsiness. The auditory imagery involves "water smashing against the rocks"; the visual imagery is of a "broad green field... it's a bluish building." These images can be understood as transformations of the monotonous sound and homogeneous light which the subject is experiencing. The transformations themselves may be understood as involving condensations of wishes for freedom of actionas opposed to the confined situation in which the subject actually iswith the sensory stimuli. "Water smashing against the rocks," " a broad green field" fuse wishes for freedom with the auditory and visual stimuli. As the subject goes to sleep he also images "stone steps" which could be understood as visual imagery representing the experience of falling asleep. Again a condensation and fusion of many elements may be traced in the imagery. The "vertical pillar" is the opposite of the sinking sensation; the "stone steps" also represent hard surfaces. An image of a "hand-rail" occurs, perhaps to help the descent. In the inquiry at the end of the session, this subject gave a very clear account of this last image. He said: "When I was falling asleep, as I was talking about one thing, I was falling asleep, and I suddenly had other images before me. Now I started to talk about one, I think. It was on the left of me . . . descending. Um, stone and then it turned into a marble staircase . . . of a Victorian type. And, uh, I was not walking down the stairs, it was as if I were traveling on a train, because I was moving at about a 30 miles an hour. Asleep I had little images of things which I don't recall clearly. But as 1 began to fall asleep like t h a t . . . every time . . . I'd suddenly get images. If you want me to fall asleep again, I'll get another image for you." This account of the formation of imagery at the point of falling asleep is particularly interesting. In the first place, it resembles the account given by Mr. B of feeling "motion" and "being on a train," just as he was falling asleep (p. 98). Also, it seems to be an example of the "labile balance" which Silberer thought was the condition for the formation of hypnagogic hallucinations. As this subject says, "If you want me to fall asleep again, I'll get another image for you." Finally, as the first excerpt also indicates, the imagery which appears can be understood as condensed transformation of the many experiences which the subject has in our procedure. In this last image of "stone steps" a fusion of many "opposite" elements can be discerned, hard and soft images, vertical pillar, marble steps, and moving at "30 miles an hour."
The imagery of descent to represent falling asleep is an example of a phenomenon described by Federn (1952). The experience of loss of self or loss of "body-ego" seems to evoke imagery which expresses the descent into nothingness. At the same time, opposite images of hardness and verticality represent the struggle to stay awake, i.e., to maintain "body-ego." The appearance of "marble" in the imagery might also perhaps be understood as an example of the appearance of breast imagery during the hypnagogic period, as described by lsakower. B. Variety of general reactions to the experimental-hypnagogic procedure. A wide range of variation has been observed in the subjects' reactions to the conditions of the hypnagogic interval. Some subjects seem relatively unaffected by either the film or the experimental-hypnagogic situation. They talk quite doggedly about a series of personal themes, and make only brief, or tangential reference to the film or the experimental situation. Some subjects, in apparent reaction to the conditions of confinement in the situation, devote the entire period to thinking of recollections of travel and adventure. Other subjects seem to enjoy the experimental-hypnagogic procedure, finding it relaxing and pleasurable. In still other cases the subject's reaction shifted from feeling relaxed to feeling uneasy or even frightened by the experimental-hypnagogic procedure. There was also considerable variation among subjects in their reactions to the showing of an exciting film before the hypnagogic interval. Some subjects, particularly field-independent perceivers, appeared relatively unaffected by the film. In contrast, the transcripts of other subjects (mainly field-dependent perceivers) were quite permeated with imagery which could be related to the film (cf. p. 106 for the transcripts of N. F., a field-dependent subject). Other subjects appeared to use the experimental situation as a place for "free expression" of quite florid ideation after the film, at the same time observing themselves in this unusual procedure. The impression derived from these transcripts is that these subjects remained essentially in control of their ideational flow. We give below excerpts from a transcript which illustrates this pattern of reaction. This transcript came from Subject A. S., a male medical student who had seen the birth film which is divided between a description of the Malmstrom vacuum extractor and scenes of the delivery of a baby. . . . and I thought how nice it would be starting perhaps at the under the baby's feet and taking the chopper and making nice thin sections going up the entire length ofthe baby, and I just thought of uh . . . as I went... (maud) my slicing ofthe baby. I sort of winced or scrinched inside as my thoughts were directed towards chopping up the baby's genitals when I got to that a r e a . . . I like to think of the fact that there is nothing... no thought which I would really be afraid o f . . . becoming aware
of concerning myself. That is to say, uh . . . I'd like to think that I am not repressing anything in my consciousness what I'm thinking of presently I might as w e l l . . . uh . . . having a sexual relationship with my cat. My cat happens to be castrated . . . he's a male. . . . I've always referred to the cat as she or her in knowing that it was a male. . . . 1 realized a while ago, my calling it a she might be uh . . . an attempt to alleviate any feelings of committing a homosexual act with the cat in my petting with it and playing with it I noticed that well, I hadn't been aware that the cat had a penis previously. I hadn't seen it, but there was some sort of (inaud) apparatus that was . . . protruded from . . . sort of wet, thin, short, pink thing, and I was surprised. I said, well maybe this cat is experiencing erotic sensations as I pet it, rather than just r e l a x i n g . . . . I was thinking about this but I can't remember what it was. Aha . . . my inability to recall, 1 imagine, is some sort of unconscious repression of the things I wanted to say . . . So maybe by a process of association I can reclaim the things I was gonna talk about.
Still other subjects, after a period of relatively controlled ideation, went over into what seemed like a trance-state. In this state, quite dreamlike imagery appeared which seemed traceable to the films. We give below excerpts from a transcript which illustrates the trancelike state and the dreamlike transformations of film elements. This transcript came from subject B. T., a medical student who had seen an anthropological documentary film made by Geza Roheim showing an initiation rite practiced by an Australian tribe. (Each initiate lies across the backs of the other initiates, all naked, and an incision is made across the dorsal surface of the penis with a sharp stone. The bleeding penis is then seen being held over a fire. The faces of the initiates clearly reflect their anguish. A hairdressing ritual is also shown. The film ends with a rhythmic ritual dance.) After about an hour of quite ordinary, controlled ideation, the quality of B. T.'s speech changed rather suddenly and he apparently went into a trancelike state. The tape at this point sounds as if B. T. were speaking from a dream, describing an ongoing dream experience. Since there was no EEG monitoring, it is impossible to know what the EEG record was like during the dreamlike ideation. Whatever the EEG record, however, B. T. was apparently in some special or unusual state, apparently different from what hypnosis is like and from his own ordinary dream experience, but closer to the latter. B. T.'s transcript follows:
Green b o t t l e . . . interesting green b o t t l e . . . (P) I just fell inside. (P) I keep falling inside the bottle. I can't tell whether I have any clothes on or not. (P) What am I gonna do in the green bottle? 1 can't get out. I only keep scratching at the walls. (P) I keep scratching at the walls. That's silly. (P) Why don't I do something? I'm gonna go out of the bottle. Ridiculous. (P) Looks kind of like W's wine bottle. Say, what happened to that? Did he give that away? (P) I think he said he wanted it. (P) Maybe I'm trapped in his wine bottle. (P) Now I'm up on a pink cloud. (P) Just laying on a pink cloud. (P) Am I having sex with the pink cloud? That's silly. (P)
Yes, I'm having sex with the pink cloud. Well. I'm going away from the pink cloud. Thai's ridiculous. Just that green wine bottle at the corner o f t h e kitchen. (P) What's it doing hiding there for? 1 keep looking at the green bottle. Now that's silly too. (P) Here I am floating about the apartment. Kind of mysterious, but it's sort of pleasant. I just keep floating around from my room to the h a l l . . . . See, what painting was that? The Birthday Party? (P) Still remember when he showed that to me. That was pretty strange. Birthday party. . . . He floated around like that too. Peculiar head stuck out like that on his neck. And her neck stuck out. Gave him a little kiss. (P) He had flowers or something in his hand. She had something in her a r m s . . . . Seemed like it was gonna float right out the window. Kind of a funny painting actually. Seems to be floating, and yet it's so static. What an interesting technique. I wonder what B would have said, thought about it. He probably wouldn't like it; he doesn't like much. He's a kind of warped individual. (P) Looks all squeezed up in a little cave. He's just huddled there. Now I'm looking at him huddled there. He looks so pitiful. (P) He's just huddled there and I'm looking at him. Now he's moving a little. I think he's trying to dig himself in deeper. (P) There's snakes around. (P) A bird keeps passing over the sun. And the mountain has a mouth. (P) 1 don't like all these snakes around. (P) Perhaps I'll gel in the cave with Bob. (P) Oh, there's snakes in here too. (P) Grass sure is high. Why don't they go away? I'm going away . . . walking across the field . . . cross a stream . . . into the w o o d s . . . I'm looking around the woods. (P) Oh, there's a girl with blonde hair in the woods. She's got a big belly button. (P) Looks likeshe'stiedupbeLween two trees. (P) Seems strange, she's just, she's not moving. Very white skin . . . sure shows out in the woods. Kind of interesting to go over and touch her. (P) Looks rather inviting. (P) I guess I'm walking closer . . . I'm sticking my finger up her . . . and she isn'l doing anything . . . Well now she's squirming a little. (P) Now the ropes came loose. Now she gol down and we're walking out of the woods. (P)Now we're getting smaller there's sunshine . . . we're gone . . . (P) Well here comes a big dragon. (P) Now he's blotting out the sun . . . (P) The dragon keeps coming closer. I'm protecting the g i r l . . . throw her to the ground . . . Put my arm to shield off the dragon. (P) It's so big. Big as a four story house. It's ferocious. (P) Now I got a sword someplace and I knocked it down. It died. (P) Knocked off another head. And the girl got up and went off. T h e s u b j e c t ' s o w n a c c o u n t of w h a t t h e state was like is m o s t instructive. H e said he felt " s t r a n g e . " A s k e d t o c o m p a r e his ideation t o usual life, t h e subject said, " I w o u l d c o m p a r e t h e m t o t h o u g h t s b e f o r e going t o s l e e p . " A s k e d if he had this k i n d of t h o u g h t o f t e n b e f o r e going t o sleep, t h e s u b j e c t replied, " W e l l , n o t this last o n e . A b o u t going i n t o t h e w o o d s a n d so o n , killing t h e d r a g o n . I n e v e r had a n y t h i n g like t h a t . O r a green bottle, b e i n g in a green b o t t l e . I had t h a t o n e a long t i m e a g o w h e n 1 was a child. But I d o n ' t particularly have t h o u g h t s like t h a t any m o r e , o r very r a r e l y . " T h e subject is t h u s d e s c r i b i n g a very vivid d r e a m l i k e e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h he said is not, h o w e v e r , exactly the same as w h a t he e x p e r i e n c e s in d r e a m i n g . T h e relation of the d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t have b e e n d e s c r i b e d in g e n e r a l
reaction to the experimental-hypnagogic procedure to differences in personality remains a subject for further investigation. The observations in the last section of this report on reactions of field-dependent and field-independent people provide one promising lead to such an investigation, C. Symbols and imagery related to the immediate experimental situation. There are certain similarities among subjects in the visual and auditory imagery they reported under our experimental conditions. For example, images of "rushing water" or "waterfall," "trains" or "jet planes," "noisy crowd at a baseball game" were each observed in many records. These images are readily related to the monotonous white noise which does seem to vary in intensity. Along with these examples of a banal relationship between imagery and experience, there are many individual instances of original and poetic imagery which appeared in the transcripts. Both the uniformities and individual variations observed give promise that our procedure may be used to study the problems of imagery and symbol formation in relation to immediate sensory and social conditions. Images of motion, of spinning and floating, also occurred frequently in the records. These resemble the accounts of hypnagogic hallucinations given by Oswald (1962). Some subjects also commented on the unusual experience of difficulty in hearing their own voices. D. Dreamlike transformations of elements from the films during the experimental hypnagogic period. The films previously seen provide another important source of imagery during the experimental-hypnagogic period, in addition to the immediate conditions o f t h e experimental situation itself, considered in the preceding section. For example, B. T.'s imagery during the trancelike state (described in b just above), can be connected back to the film, elements of which seem to be represented in transformed style. For example, imagery of having sex with a pink cloud and later with a girl with "white skin" can be understood as derived from the film in the same way that one would interpret dream transformations. This imagery is the "opposite" o f t h e "filthy little people" B. T. saw in the film. In the reverie state, B. T. fights with a dragon to rescue the girl. The dragon is as big as a four story house; the number four can perhaps be derived from the groups of four shown in the film. Other subjects who did not appear to be in the same special trancelike state into which B. T. entered also showed dreamlike imagery traceable to the film. Following are excerpts from the transcript of the hypnagogic interval of N. F., an extremely field-dependent subject, following the birth film. His transcript was permeated with imagery which can be traced to the film. The excerpts below are given in the order in which they occurred:
t just bit into an apple, and there was a worm inside of it, and . . . and half of the worm . . . the head and the first was inside the piece that 1 ate. And just the
other hair is slicking outside the apple and i t ' s . . . 1 spit it out, and t goi very nauseous and t throw up.
N. F. reported that he had actually had a nausea reaction at the moment he first saw the exposed vagina in the film. The imagery of biting into an apple and finding a worm clearly expresses the nausea reaction. It can perhaps also be understood as a transformed oral representation of the exposed vagina and protrusions seen in the film.
I see a caterpillar . . . a green . . . larvae or a caterpillar . . . like you see in the Walt Disney science films... shedding its skin, getting uh . . . and turning into a butterfly.
This is imagery representing growth and reproduction after seeing the film about the childbirth.
See a volcano . . . or a Polynesian island . . . erupting . . . and the black smoke is billowing up from the moulh o f t h e volcano and the red lava in pouring down the sides on it, steaming and thick and jellylike. And it's just pouring down the sides.
Here is a classically transformed symbolic representation of the thighs of the woman with the blood gushing down them after the delivery.
See a loi of tourists leaving a country and the customs inspector wanls lo see this lady's suitcase. So he's suspicious and she's taking some jewelry or diamonds or liquor or perfume out of the country and she goes to open up the suitcase and the whole bag opens up. And all the contents fall out all on the floor.
Here we have a classic representation of the vagina as a "suitcase" and its precious contents, all opening out onto the floor, in other words, delivering the baby. It is apparent from these protocols that the mechanisms of symbolism, displacement and condensation which characterize the dream work may be studied effectively in the content o f t h e experimental-hypnagogic interval. E. The relation of feelings to imagery and ideation in the flow of free association. A sequence can be observed in the flow of imagery in some records which might be interpreted as restitutive or wish-fulfilling. There is a suggestion in a number of other records, as well as in B. T.'s, that an increase of feeling at confinement immediately precedes either an increase in dreamlike imagery or a slight change in the direction of a more trancelike state. A flurry of feeling, not quite grasped cognitively, but reflected in autonomic activity, might be an immediate precursor of a special hypnagogic state. This is another kind of lead which may be checked in future work. Still another possible regularity of sequence has been observed in a number of transcripts.. An indirectly expressed or muted expression of discomfort or irritation in the experiment may be followed by the appearance of anxious ideation or threatening imagery. One forms the impression that the throttled
irritation might somehow be the anxious ideation and imagery. Anxiety has often been interpreted in psychoanalytic theory as the transformed product of repressed hostility. The complicated process of transformation has, however, remained obscure. It is possible that a careful scrutiny in the hypnagogic transcripts of the sequence which issues in anxious ideation and imagery may help to throw light on the process of transformation. F. Usefulness af the experimental-hypnagogic procedure in study of freeassociation phenomena. It is apparent in the material already presented that having people in the experimental-hypnagogic procedure facilitates the flow of ideation and imagery and is evocative of feeling. Fantasies also frequently occur. Moreover, subjects often seem able to report a good deal of what they are experiencing. These characteristics of the experimentalhypnagogic productions make the procedure a useful one for the study of phenomena of free association. We summarize below several observations, some from material already presented, which reflect this. 1. Subjects in the course of their reverie recalled experiences, images and feelings from childhood, sometimes with the comment that these had not occurred to them in a very long time, in some cases even since childhood. These recollections from the past were woven in among thoughts about their current lives. 2. Some subjects specifically said that they had not talked like this in a long while, that they ordinarily keep their thoughts to themselves. 3. Subjects allowed themselves to have fantasies, sometimes quite lurid, and to report these fantasies to the experimenter. 4. Especially with subjects at their regular sleep time a sequence of thoughts, images and feelings typically occurred which, to an outsider, were disjointed and incoherent. We seem to be dealing here with an associational flow relatively removed from ordinary conscious control. 5. With regard to feelings evoked by the experimental situation, some subjects reported that they enjoyed the procedure, that it made them feel good. One subject commented that he could now see why psychiatrists are helpful, another said that he had gotten a lot off his chest. The basis of "feeling good" is not now clear, but the experimental-hypnagogic procedure may lend itself to further investigation of this kind of phenomenon. 6. Again with regard to feeling, some subjects showed open preoccupation with the experimenterwhat he is doing, what he is like as a person, what his purposes may be, suggesting a "budding" transference as an important source of feelings in the experimental situation. Such feelings may be explored by means of the experimental-hypnagogic procedure. 7. Restitutive or wish-fulfilling sequences of ideation and imagery were frequently observed. On occasion anxious imagery and ideation were found
to follow immediately after "throttled feelings." Sequence analyses o f t h e relation among feelings, thoughts and images thus seem possible in the productions obtained with the experimental-hypnagogic procedure. 8. Marked differences occurred among subjects in the associational flow. Whereas some generally showed a marked "loosening," others kept things very much in check. Identifying such differences may make possible explorations of their basis in differences in personality characteristics. This listing suggests that the product of the experimental-hypnagogic procedure may be used in the study of a variety of phenomena of free association. To the extent that free association is at the heart of some forms of therapy, this line of work may in time prove to be of particular value for problems of therapy. g. Some observations of reactions of more differentiated and less differentiated subjects to the experimental-hypnagogic procedure. As an approach to the study of individual differences in reaction to the experimental-hypnagogic procedure, we undertook to compare the reactions of relatively undifferentiated versus relatively differentiated personalities (Witkin, Lewis, Hertzman, Machover, Meissner, and Wapner, 1954; Witkin, Dyk, Faterson, Goodenough, and Karp, 1962). Our earliest studies of the differentiation dimension focused on individual differences in styles of perceiving. Specifically, we established through three specially devised perceptual tests that people differ in the ability to keep an item separate from the embedding context around it. In one test the subject must tease out a simple hidden geometrical figure from a large organized figure designed to obscure it (embedded-figures test). In another test the subject, in a completely darkened room, must determine the position of a luminous rod contained within a tilted luminous frame (rod-and-frame test). In a third perceptual test the subject's task is to determine the position of his own body in space, when the chair in which he is seated is surrounded by a tilted room (body-adjustment test). We have called people whose perception is much influenced by the surrounding framework "field-dependent" perceivers. In research over the past twenty years we have shown that clusters of such personal characteristics as a relatively undifferentiated body concept (reflected, for example, in unarticulated human figuredrawings), a relatively undeveloped sense of separate identity and the tendency to use global defenses occur in field-dependent perceivers. We have come to regard these interrelated personal characteristics and the preceptual style associated with them as manifestations of a more general dimension which we have conceptualized as extent of psychological differentiation. The field-dependence-independence dimension of perceptual performance, as measured by the special battery of perceptual tests, is used as an indicator of extent of psychological differentiation.
The differentiation dimension provides a specific basis for making predictions, which can be checked in research, about how people may differ in their reaction to the experimental-hypnagogic procedure. The results of several studies suggest additional grounds for predicting how more differentiated and less differentiated persons may react to this procedure. For example, it has been found by Holt and Goldberger (1959) that fielddependent subjects are more uncomfortable than field-independent subjects in sensory deprivation situations. Cohen, Silverman and Shmavonian (1962) have reported that field-dependent subjects were more prone to hallucinatory experiences during sensory deprivation procedure. Taylor (1956) and Powell (1964) have also observed that hallucinating psychotic patients tend to be field dependent. These findings may be interpreted to mean that less differentiated subjects have more difficulty localizing stimulation as deriving from the self. Our experimental-hypnagogic procedure resembles sensory deprivation procedures in its restriction of sensory input and in its isolation of the subject from the external world. It might therefore be expected that fielddependent subjects would be more uncomfortable in our experimentalhypnagogic procedure. It might also be expected that field-dependent subjects would be more influenced by the components of the experimental procedure: white noise, red light, continuous talking, the film. In an analysis we made of data from a recent study by Goodenough, Lewis, Shapiro and Sleser (1965), field-dependent perceivers were found to show more overt references to the laboratory in their dreams. A study o f t h e dreams o f t h e eight most differentiated and eight least differentiated subjects in this group showed that the dreams of undifferentiated subjects were more concerned with the relationship to the experimenter and represented him more often in his own "proper person". It might also therefore be expected that the laboratory situation and relationship to the experimenter might figure more prominently in the experimental-hypnagogic interval of fielddependent subjects. There are some examples of the ways in which the differentiation dimension may be used as a reference point in the study of individual differences in response to the hypnagogic-experimental procedure. Additional insight may be obtained with this reference point into differences in imagery formation, susceptibility to hypnagogic states and ways of reacting to "free association" procedures. As we predicted, preliminary observation suggests that field-dependent and field-independent subjects are quite different in their reactions to the experimental-hypnagogic procedure. Field-dependent subjects appear to be made more uneasy or even frightened by the experimental situation. They appear to be more often caught up in an ongoing scene with imagery
which, however bizarre, seems real to them. When they have been shown an exciting film, their imagery during the experimental-hypnagogic interval seems to be flooded with symbolic references to the film. In these specific ways they are more "influenced" by the experimental procedure, including the showing of an exciting film. We present below excerpts from the transcript, the entire short protocol of a field-dependent subject in the experimental-hypnagogic procedure, administered without a film preceding it. (This is subject N. F., whose transcript for the hypnagogic interval following a film was given on p. 106 to illustrate symbolic transformations of elements from the film). He became so uncomfortable that he asked the experimenter to terminate the session.
I'm sitting in an airplane high up in the sky . . . and all of a sudden the door to the cabin is sucked out. And all we can see is clouds as the air rushes in. (Long P) A fishing vessel is caught in a stormy sea and there's lightning all around her. And the waves are hitting against her and tossing her a b o u t . . . helplessly in the storm. (Long P). An air-raid siren goes off in a big metropolitan c i t y . . . mobbed with people in the streets, and there is chaos and everybody is running for shelter. And people are being trampled on. And there and everyone turns into animals, racing for l i f e . . . for protection. And destroying themselves . . . as they fight for life. (Long P) I see a man on top a lighthouse in the middle of the ocean during a hurricane. Wearing his rain slicker and looking out over the seas with his binoculars. (Long P) Lumberjacks are cutting down trees in the forest by a r i v e r . . . . And they're tossing the logs into the river and sending them downstream to the sawmills.
In contrast, after subject T. E., a field-independent perceiver, saw the birth film, he first gave a very detailed and precise account o f t h e film he had just seen and then proceeded on his own personal themes. Nothing like the dreamlike imagery which flooded N. F.'s record is apparent in T. E.'s transcript.
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 3. CONSCIOUSNESS
If there is one ASC that is universal in all normal humans, it is the nocturnal dream. Indeed, the research of the last 15 years strongly indicates that we have no "choice" about dreaming; it is only in the degree to which people recall their dreams that men differ. In spite of its being an ASC experienced by all men to various degrees, our knowledge of the nature o f t h e dream is far from complete, and men's attitudes toward it have covered every extreme imaginable. The dream has been treated as the real experience of the soul wandering during sleep, as an indication of an upset stomach, as the Royal Road to the Unconscious, as a prophecy of things to come, as an epiphenomenon of the inefficient working of the brain, and even as something whose reality is disproven by the skillful subtleties of logical positivism* (Malcolm, 1959). The attitude of the scientific community toward the "respectability" of studying dreams has similarly varied. As a result of the discovery of distinct physiological cycling through the night, associated with dream recall, by Aserinsky and Kleitman some 15 years ago (Aserinsky & Kleitman, 1953,1955), dreams are currently respectable. There are dozens of laboratories throughout the country engaged in the electrophysiological study of sleep and, to various degrees, the dreams that occur in sleep. The output of publications from these laboratories is currently reaching several hundreds per year. In spite of this immense amount of scientific activity, most ofthe emphasis is on the biology of sleep rather than its psychology.
*The force of this argument affected me so strongly on first reading thai I dreamed about it all night.
DREAM CONSCIOUSNESS
There is little doubt that our knowledge of the nature of dreaming has been and will continue to be vastly enriched by the use o f t h e electrophysiological techniques for detecting dream activity. The first article in this section, "Theories of Dream Formation and Recent Studies of Sleep Consciousness," by David Foulkes, is an excellent illustration of how the psychological aspects of dreaming are linked with the biology of dreaming, as well as a good review of the current status of findings about sleep from the electrophysiological point of view. The next article, one of my own, "Toward the Experimental Control of Dreaming: A Review of the Literature," indicates another way in which our methodology for studying dreaming may be expanded by moving toward an active approach to dreams. 1 have brought together a great deal of scattered evidence that indicates we may actively influence both the content and process of dreaming, rather than simply take dreams as they come along and, post hoc, try to correlate aspects of the dreams with other variables. Current research in my laboratory is designed to investigate the feasibility of some of these "active" approaches. Nevertheless I feel that research on the nature of the dream experience, the qualities of that ASC which we call dreaming, is still too scarce, and rather than include more articles using the electrophysiological approach (the reader can easily find enough of that material to overwhelm himself), I have included some very provocative articles which deal more directly with the experiential nature of dreaming and some of its intriguing variations and potentials. 1 believe that Chapter 8, the first article of this type is one of the most profound introspective studies ever made of dreaming, and because of its age (it was written in 1913) it is virtually unknown to modern dream researchers. This is a study of his own dreams by a Dutch physician, Frederik van Eeden. Through careful study of his recorded dreams, van Eeden was able to classify them into nine experientially distinct types (nine ASCs?). One of the distinctions he made sounds very much like that currently being made between the content of reports of mental activity reported from stage 1 EEG awakenings and nonstage 1 EEG awakenings. Of even more interest, however, is van Eeden's accounts of a particularly interesting type of dream he hadthe lucid dream. This was an ASC in which he knew while dreaming that he was actually dreaming, despite the immediate experiential reality of the dream environment, and felt that he possessed all of his normal intellectual faculties, in contrast to the usual (retrospective) feeling that our consciousness is quite "dull" and otherwise modified in ordinary dreams. When 1 discovered this article several years ago I was very skeptical about it; as most people do, I naively accept all sorts of miraculous happenings in my everyday life (miraculous in the sense of exceptionally complex happenings
about which we understand virtually nothing) but am overly skeptical about an unusual happening that is unfamiliar. Since then I have personally experienced the lucid dream for some brief moments and talked to others who have also experienced it. I am collecting detailed accounts now from several people who have had lucid dream experiences similar to van Eeden's. Further, there are other descriptions of lucid dreams scattered through the occult literature (Amold-Foster, I921; Fox, 1962). The lucid dreams reported by van Eeden, and the various techniques 1 had reviewed suggesting that active control of dreaming for various positive ends was possible, made me decide to try to produce these phenomena in my laboratory some day. You can imagine my amazement when I read that a whole tribe of primitive people, the Senoi of Malaya, had been practicing dream control techniques for centuries. Chapter 9, by Kilton Stewart, "Dream Theory in Malaya," describes the dream practices of the Senoi. The Senoi apparently have dreams that are rather lucid as a matter of course, which, they believe, accounts for their splendid mental health. I have not been able to locate any other literature on the Senoi other than Stewart's, but even if much of what he has reported is too optimistic, the implications for understanding ASCs and various psychotherapeutic practices are extremely important, I hope that this article will provoke a great deal of research effort. The reader should also see Stewart's three other articles on this topic (Stewart, 1953-54; 1954; 1962). Finally I have included a small article of my own, "The 'High' Dream: A New State of Consciousness," about the way in which some dreams undergo a distinct experiential shift toward a qualitatively different type of ASC, which I have tentatively called the "high dream" because of its experiential similarity to ASCs resulting from psychedelic drugs. Chapters 8, 9, and 10 should clearly illustrate that there are a number of intriguing and potentially useful shifts in the nature of dream consciousness about which we know almost nothing. The articles on the hypnagogic state (Chapters 4 and 5) are also relevant to the study of dream consciousness. For further reading I recommend the following books. All are relatively recent and, together with the many references in this section, should provide a comprehensive entry into the literature on sleep and dreams. They are Boss(1957), Foulkes(1966),Fromm(1957), Hall (1959), Hall & Vande Castle (1966), Kleitman (1963), Murray (1965), Oswald (1962), Witkin & Lewis (1967). Several other new books on the recent electrophysiological approach to the study of dreams are now in press.
THEORIES OF DREAM FORMATION AND RECENT STUDIES OF SLEEP CONSCIOUSNESS
DAVID FOULKES
Dement and Kleitman (1957b) reported data confirming earlier and more tentative findings by Aserinsky and Kleitman (1955) on the association of dreaming with the rapid eye movement (REM) periods of sleep. Studies of the undisturbed sleep of normal human subjects (Dement & Kleitman, 1957a) had revealed the cyclic recurrence during sleep of periods of low voltage, random EEG (Stage I) accompanied by intermittent, conjugate REMs. Dement and Kleitman (1957b) made awakenings during periods of non-REM (NREM) sleep. Their criterion of dream recall was that
Ss were considered to have been dreaming only if they could relate a coherent, fairly detailed description of dream content. Assertion that they had dreamed without recall of content, or vague, fragmentary impressions of content, were considered negative [p. 3 4 l l .
Their results were that dream recall, thus defined, was obtained on 80% of REM-period awakenings but on only 7% of NREM-period awakenings. It was further noted that awakenings made within more than a few minutes of
Reprinted by permission from Psychol. Bull., Vol 62, 1964, pp. 236-247.
THEORIES OF DREAM FORMATION
the termination of undisturbed REM periods produced almost no dream recall, a finding taken to indicate that the content of a REM-period dream is swiftly forgotten unless an awakening occurs during the REM period. The findings of this study have led to the widespread adoption of a new technique of dream retrievalthe interruption of REM periods by experimental awakenings. This technique seems to promise the dream researcher a more representative and complete sampling of the dreaming process than has been accessible previously and to provide an opportunity for the observation of dreams "in progress," that is, they may be interrupted at various points of their development and almost immediate recall obtained. Such a technique, therefore, also seems to present unique opportunities to test many of the formulations of psychoanalytic dream theory. One might theorize about many aspects of dreaming. Psychoanalytic dream theorists have been much concerned with the meaning of dream content. They attempt to provide guidelines for the explanation and interpretation of "manifest" dream content, feeling that such content conceals, but may be made to reveal, information about the dreamer and his conception of his world. Dream theories are also concerned with the functional significance of the dreaming process, with statements as to why we dream at all, what psychological functions are served by dreaming, and at least inferentially, what might happen to us were we unable to dream. Comprehensive dream theories have also been concerned with describing dream formation and development, that is, they purport to describe the processes of construction through which the dream becomes an organized psychological event. In this paper, we shall consider the implications of recent electrophysiological dream studies for the portions of two major dream theories, those of Freud (1956) and Adler (1958), which deal with dream formation and dream development. It is proposed, first, to present an outline of Freudian and Adlerian theories of dream formation and dream development, and then to examine these theories in the light of recent experimental data. In the presentation of Freudian theory, concentration will be focused upon those formulations which lend themselves to some kind of reasonably direct empirical verification.
T W O T H E O R I E S O F DREAM
The central proposition of Freud's (1956) theory of dream construction or dream formation are: I. Dream formation and early phases of the organization of the dream
will not be represented in the conscious experience of the dreamer. The typical condition of sleep is a state of unconsciousness, a state in which no mental activity is available to personal awareness or to report to others. In discussing the "psychical conditions during the period of sleep which precedes dreams," that is, the period in which the dream is being "formed," Freud (1956) says "that we are dealing with an unconscious process of thought . . . [p. 28l]." Much o f t h e groundwork which has gone into the construction of the dream as an intelligible perceptual event takes place before the dream, in Freud's term, "attracts" consciousness to itself. Freud suggests that the dream "is like a firework, which takes hours to prepare but goes off in a moment." This preparation is achieved outside the boundaries of consciousness. It is only when the intensity of these unconscious processes becomes sufficient to arouse mechanisms of consciousness, or when, "just before waking, attention becomes more mobile and comes to meet it," that we experience the dream as a conscious event (p. 576). 2. The unconscious process which instigates dream formation is affective in character, and in particular, it is some derivative of the primary motives of sex or destructive hostility. In sleep, unexpressed and unexpressible sexual drives or hostility are freed from external monitoring, and also from the kinds of internal monitoring which require a high degree of cerebral vigilance. These impulses, long active, now press for some kind of expression. The dream provides the occasion for such expression. In its final form, the dream is a distorted and symbolic rather than a manifest, direct expression of the impulses which instigate it. This reflects the fact that the forms of waking cortical inhibition exercised over primitive emotional processes are not entirely lacking during sleep. The dream is a fruit of compromise: on the one hand, it does provide an outlet for the expression of primitive emotional impulses; on the other hand, this expression is not (generally) so blatant that the dreamer's critical and inhibitory faculties will be extremely offended by its content. The manifest content of the dream, then, is not a direct reflection of the latent instigating "dream thoughts"; it is because of this disjunction that the manifest dream requires "interpretation." 3. If repressed affect provides the energy for dream construction, perceptual-memorial events provide the raw material. The impulses find their way to expression along sensory, rather than motor, pathways. The dreamer does not, with a patterned sequence of motor activities, inflict harm upon another person nor even go through all the appropriate motions (but, see Wolpert,-1960); he may, however, visually hallucinate that he is harming someone. The kind of thinking in which sensory hallucination of a goal serves as a substitute for its actual achievement Freud calls primary process
thinking. Dreams represent the most acute manifestation in the adult human of this developmentally primitive, perceptual-hallucinatory mode of thought. The raw materials used in dream construction must, therefore, be traces of prior perceptual experiences of the dreamer. In particular, Freud (1956) feels, very recent experiences, experiences from the day immediately preceding the dream serve as basic elements in dream construction. These elements Freud calls day residues. The day residues will often consist of memories of what appear to be rather inconsequential happenings. But it is not what these memories are that is important; it is the fact that they can represent, or serve as screens for, the repressed impulses. The more inconsequential the day residues are, the better (hey may fulfill their function of disguising socially unacceptable impulses. But Freud (1956) notes that dreams include much "infantile" perceptual material as well as the "recent and indifferent" material represented in day residues. Dreams, in fact,
. . . can select their material from any part o f t h e dreamer's life, provided only that there is a train of thought linking the experience of the dream-day (the "recent" impressions) with the earlier ones [p. 169J.
It is through their association, then, with day-residue material that older sensory memories are contacted, and, in turn, it is the ability to contact such memories that plays a roll in the determination of which day residues shall figure most prominently in the formation o f t h e dream. 4. The day residues, and their associated infantile memories, are the basic elements of the dream, but it would be misleading to conceive the dream as an orderly and logical sequence of such memories. Freud speaks, in particular, of day residues as being "worked over" so that the ultimate dream product is a complicated and bizarre patterning of the original elements. In fact, the elements may be so transformed in the dream that it will be difficult to establish precisely what they are. These transformations, which highly complicate the task of dream interpretation, appear for several reasons: so that the repressed impulses may be adequately expressed, that is, for purposes of dramatic representation; so that the repressed impulses may be successfully disguised, that is, for purposes of evading censorship; and so that the presentation will be as economical as possible, that is, for purposes of the conservation of psychic energy. These are the functions served by a series of processes to which Freud applies the term dream work. These processes include: condensation, displacement, and symbolization. The operations of these processes make the dream progressively less intelligible to waking consciousness and progressively detached from its moorings in unretouched sensory memory.
Let us now examine, briefly, one other theory of dream formation, that of Alfred Adler (1958). While Adler's theory of dreaming is by no means as comprehensive or detailed as is Freud's, it has gained much significance because it has formed a large part of the conceptual foundation of several recent and highly influential dream theories, those of Erich Fromm(l957) and Calvin Hall (1959). It is possible, moreover, to find some assertions about the processes of dream formation and dream development in Adler's (1958) own writings and in a recent restatement of the Adlerian position by Ullman (1962), assertions at considerable variance from those made by Freud. 1. Sleeping and waking thoughts are not totally incompatible with one another; we must recognize the essential continuity of all forms of thought. In particular, Adler objects to Freud's conception of dream thought as determined by a mechanism relatively inoperative in waking thoughtthe unconsciousand to the distinction of primary process and reality-centered thinking, with the former characterizing sleep and the latter wakefulness. There is, to be sure, some difference between dream thought and waking thought, but it is a relative, rather than an absolute, one. The dreamer maintains fewer relations with reality. Yet there is no complete break with reality; he is still in contact with it. 2. The instigation of dreams is not always, or even often, due to sexual or hostile motives, any more than waking thought is generally dominated by such motives. Again, Adler insists that the dream cannot be a contradiction of waking life; it is always consonant with one's waking style of life. In common with Freud, Adler feels that we dream when we are troubled by something. We dream only when unresolved problems from waking life, which Ullman (1962, p. 20) characterizes as the "sore spots" of one's existence, press upon us during sleep. It is the task of the dream to meet and to try to solve such problems. The troublesome "something" which instigates the dream is, then, a problem from conscious experience, not a problem which has been repressed and of whose existence the waking organism is totally unaware. Freud (1956), on the other hand, relegates such problems to a "secondary position" (p. 554) with respect to dream formation. 3. The raw material of the manifest dream content comes from memories of prior perceptual experience, particularly from day residues. But, in Adlerian theory, the day residues are important in themselves, as representations of waking concerns; they are not important simply as "screens" for something else. Adler does not share Freud's (1956) feeling that day residues are "some cheap material" [p. 2371 of little significance in determining the direction of the dream.
4. In the dream, these residues are transformed or worded over until the ultimate product becomes a deceitful working through of a waking problem. Adler (1958) speaks of the dream as being constructed "to fool us" (p. 107). As Ullman (1962, pp. 23-24) has pointed out, there is some contradiction here of Adler's basic theme of the continuity of waking and sleeping thought. The mechanisms of distortion which Adler seems to recognize include condensation, displacement of emphasis, and symbolization. There seems to be a greater stress in Adler than in Freud, however, upon the expressive nature of symbolic representation. In dreaming, we make use of those images and incidents which best agree with our style of life and which best express the present problem. This relatively strong emphasis on the symbol that expresses rather than the symbol which disguises is consistent with the notion of a continuity between waking and sleeping thought and becomes the keystone of Fromm's (1957) and Hall's (1959) theories of dreaming.
ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL S T U D I E S AND D R E A M - F O R M A T I O N THEORY
It is apparent from the Dement and Kleitman data that both Freud and Adler misjudged the conditions under which dreaming occurs. Both seem to feel that we dream as it is needed, that is, in proportion to the number and intensity of our personal problems. But the facts seem to be that most adult human beings spend approximately 20% (e.g., Dement &Kleitman's figure, 1957a, is 18%) of their sleep in REM periods, periods which produce the kinds of mental content with which both theories are concerned. These periods recur in all individuals studied in a highly predictable cyclic fashion. Individual variations from the 20% figure have been minimal and there is little evidence that they are related to the nature of extent of personal problems. We seem to dream as physiological cycling indicates, not as relative degree of latent psychological trauma dictates. It is still possible, of course, that emotional complexes take advantage of the dreaming process, but apparently they do not, at will, precipitate that process. The Dement and Kleitman (1957b) recall data were collected well after dream onset in the case of REM-period awakenings and other than immediately before REM onset in the case of N R E M awakenings. For these reasons they provide an insufficient base for further evaluation of theories concerning events occurring at dream onset. Several more recent studies, however, have arrived at basically similar data which seem highly relevant to the characterization of the processes of dream formation and dream development.
Studies of Pre-REM Mentation
Foulkes (1962) conceived his study as an objective study of dream formation. Eight subjects were run for 7 nights each. Awakenings were made at various points in the sleep cycle clustered around the onset of REM periods, those portions of the sleep cycle in which, according to Dement and Kleitman (1957b), dreams would be occurring. It was reasoned that such awakenings might provide an empirical basis for theorization about dream onset and the characteristic sequence of dream development. Foulkes found, however, that subjects produce reports of mental phenomena from NREM sleep almost as often as they did from REM sleep. Apparently no point of absolute dream onset exists, in the sense that there is no point in the sleep cycle at which consciousness suddenly appears. It seems to be there all along. There was, however, some indication of progressive changes in the quality of sleep consciousness around the point of REM onset. More generally, content from pre-REM and REM stages of sleep differed systematically along a number of dimensions. As assessed by direct questioning of the subject during the night and by responses to rating forms taken on the following morning, reports from the pre-REM periods were less likely than REM reports to be labeled as "dream," more likely to be called "thoughts"; less likely than REM reports to be vivid or highly elaborated; and more likely than REM reports to be intimately associated with recent and everydayish activities of the subject, sometimes to the point of consisting purely of memories of such events. The nature of these differences may be appreciated more fully perhaps with several examples of REM and NREM reports. The following reports were obtained from an adult male subject who was employed by the Internal Revenue Service:
1. He asked an acquaintance at work for a hammer, so that he could fix something in his apartment. (NREM) 2. He was thinking of a point made in his tax class, that you have to provide over half of a person's support to claim him as a dependent. (NREM) 3. He received a phone call in the middle of the night from a girt identifying herself as from the University of Chicago. She said that it was time for his "35-day evaluation." He chided her for calling so late at night. She replied that was the only time they could get him in. (REM, 3 minutes after onset of eye movements)
The first two reports, which are typical of this subject's N R E M reports, have an everydayish quality which the third one lacks. 1 n commenting on the 35day evaluation by the University of Chicago, with which his only connection was his service in the dream study, the subject noted that he was in a90-day probationary period in his new job. He was to receive $35.00 for his services
as a dream subject. It seems, then, that experimental and work experiences have been fused in the REM-period dream so that neither experience is portrayed with complete accuracy. In the second report, however, the subject is reexperiencing, in a completely undistorted manner, the recent experience of considering one of the details of his new job. The purely conceptual quality of this report was a fairly typical NREM characteristic for three o f t h e eight subjects in this study. The other subjects generally had somewhat more "dreamlike" NREM reports. The following examples come from such a subject, an undergraduate major in English literature.
1. He pictures Anna Karenina. She is sitting at a table, then gets up, turns to the left, and walks away (NREM) 2. He is in a sleep laboratory, filling out a pencil and paper form. Someone passes by, commenting that the task is a stupid one. (NREM) 3. In the first scene, he is standing on a street corner, holding his bicycle, and talking lo someone about a girl who wanted to be a striptease dancer. In the second scene, he is in a doctor's study with two women and the doctor. They are discussing two books. The heroine in the first book was a striptease dancer, but is no longer this, but a nurse. The women are discussing how much hardship she has as a nurse. A discussion then ensues of a second book, by John Steinbeck, in which the main character, also a nurse, did not, apparently, endure similar hardship. The women discuss this avidly, as if they were going lo go into "this sort of thing." (REM, 3 minutes after onset of eye movements)
The first two reports of this series seem to be tied much more clearly, and with much less distortion, to recent manifest behaviors or concerns ofthe subject. In the first, he brings to life a character of a novel which he is reading; in the second, he takes notice o f t h e questionnaire which he must fill out each evening at the laboratory, and makes, through a vaguely identified figure, a comment as to how he views this labor. Although these NREM reports are more detailed and dreamlike than those o f t h e previous subject, there is still a striking difference with REM content in terms of distortion and elaboration. Confirmation of the reliability of the differences found in the Foulkes (1962) study between REM and NREM material has been obtained by Rechtschaffen, Verdone, and Wheaton (1963). These authors studied the REM and N R E M mentation of 17 normal subjects for a total of 30 nights and report that:
In every instance where the variable being measured was comparable, i.e., recall, thinking-dreaming, vividness, visual-conceptual, volitional control, plausibility, time referent, and emotionality, Foulkes' results were in the same direction as ours. The two studies were done entirely independently, and neither investigator knew the variables the other was studying [p. 410-4111.
In the course of a study of the effects of presleep stimuli on dream content (24 subjects, 2 nights each), Foulkes and Rechtschaffen (1964) have reported still further confirmation of the reliability of the differences noted above between REM and NREM content. But can the NREM reports of these three studies be accepted as valid indicators of mental processes occurring during NREM sleep? Can we be sure that these reports are not awakening artifacts, representing material experienced after the onset of the awakening stimulus? Can we be sure that these reports are not recollections of material experienced in previous REM periods? The available evidence, discussed elsewhere (Foulkes, 1962; Rechtschaffen, Verdone, & Wheaton, 1963) would seem to indicate that most NREM content is just what it appears to be: it represents experiences which occur during NREM sleep. The failure of Dement and Kleitman (1957b) to uncover this kind of material, which failure is responsible for raising the question of validity with respect to later findings on NREM recall, appears to be attributable to their very stringent criterion of recall, quoted above, and to several features of their awakening procedure which probably served to depress recall outside REM periods (Foulkes, 1962).
Pre-REM Mentation and Dream Formation Theory
What, then, do these apparently consistent and valid findings on mentation occurring outside REM periods suggest about the validity of the two theories of dream formation which we are examining? I. Freud's characterization of the sleep in which full-fledged dreams are not occurring as periods of unconsciousness seems to be inaccurate. The typically bizarre and elaborate REM-period dream does not burst like sudden firework against a background of complete darkness; it develops in a context of already ongoing mental activity. Parenthetically, we may inquire whether someone of Freud's stature could have been totally unaware o f t h e existence o f t h e everydayish thinking which seems to take place during much of the sleep cycle. As we might suspect, the answer is no. In Freud's (1959) paper "Dreams and Telepathy," he notes that there are mental events during sleep without condensation, distortion, dramatization, and wish fulfillment. These unaltered repetitions of actual daily experiences he calls night phantasies (p. 421). That the admission of night phantasies has not played any major role in Freud's theory of the dream process may be seen, however, in their treatment in The Interpretation of Dreams (Freud, 1956). There (p. 331) Freud indicates that he once considered the possibility of such a class of sleep mentation, but later dropped that category. The net impact of his total theoretical
position, therefore, has been that we experience alternating periods of unconsciousness and consciousness during sleep, consciousness appearing when the dream is sufficiently well developed to "attract" it. This now seems to be a misleading characterization of sleep consciousness. 2. There is a strong resemblance between the NREM content which precedes dream periods and th.e Freudian concept of day residues from which dreams are presumed to develop. Insofar as the day-residue material reveals some of the "background thoughts" [Freud, 1956, p. 103] o f t h e dream, collection of NREM material could facilitate dream interpretation in a more direct manner, perhaps, than even the waking free associations upon which psychoanalytic interpretations have heretofore depended so heavily. The whole body of NREM material occurring between REM-period dreams might be considered the conscious
exploring of one path and another, a swinging o f t h e excitation now this way and now that, until at last it accumulates in the direction that is most opportune and one particular grouping becomes the permanent one [Freud, 1956, p. 5761.
3. The rather dramatic shifts from plausible content to implausible content, from the everydayish to the bizarre, which attend REM onset suggest the engagement at this point of the sleep cycle of processes much like those which Freud calls the dream work. For example, 23% of 26 contentproducing reports elicited by Foulkes (1962) from ascending EEG Stage 2 (Dement & Kleitman, 1957a), that portion of the sleep cycle immediately preceding REM periods, were undisguised memories or re-creations of recent events in the dreamer's life, while not a single one of 31 reports taken from awakenings made within 4-60 seconds of REM onset were of a comparable nature. Moreover, Verdone (1963) has shown that longer REM periods produce reports judged by subjects as more vivid and emotional, and Foulkes'(I960) data reveal that reports from longer REM periods (9-24 minutes of REMs) produced greater mean values in subject ratings for activity, emotionality, anxiety, unpleasantness, frighteningness, dramatic quality, violencehostility, and distortion than did reports elicited from within 4-60 seconds of REM onset. Whatever the processes are which become active at REM onset, they become increasingly predominant as the REM period progresses. And the highly organized (if often bizarre) drama they generally create supports Freud's attribution of dream distortion to active processes, to motivated condensation, displacement, and symbolization, rather than a conception that dream distortion is a sympton of general mental disorganization due to a sleepy, hence imperfectly functioning, cerebral cortex. 4. Strictly speaking, the fact that day-residue content is often experienced during pre-REM period EEG Stage 2 and that dreamlike experiences occur
in that stage of the sleep cycle which immediately follows, namely, EEG Stage 1 REM periods, does not establish that the first kind of material is dynamically transformed to produce the second kind of material. Is there any evidence that the day-residue content of Stage 2 forms the dynamic basis of the dream, thai such material is "worked over" as the REM period commences? The following example seems to suggest that this may be the case:
I was in the library and I was filing cards, and I came to some letter between " a " and "c." I was filing some, I think it was Burma, some country, and just as I put that in, there was this scene of some woman, who was sent to look for a little girl who was lost, and she was sent to Burma. They thought the little girl was going there, for some reason. This was sort of like a dramatization of what I was doing. I mean I was filing, and then this scene took place, right at the same time. In the setting it was sort of like you'd imagine it, but I had the feeling it was really happening.
In this dream, obtained 26 seconds after REM onset, a scene from the subject's daily work experienceshe had a filing job in the university libraryled to an elaboration which was far removed from her everyday experience. The daily-work element (filing), typical in Stage 2 content, preceded the unusual and somewhat unrealistic element (Burma), typical in REM-period content. The physiological recording shows a recent progression from Stage 2 lo a REM period. This one case is not, of course, in itself conclusive, but it does suggest that REM-period dreams may begin with the working over of day residues of a sort most often experienced during N R E M Stage 2. Rechtschaffen, Vogel, and Shaikun (1963) have recently demonstrated, moreover, that discrete manifest elements and themes found in N R E M reports are sometimes repeated in subsequent REM reports from the same night. Such finding led them to conclude that:
On those nights when themes and images persist through both N R E M and REM periods, the dreams do not arise sui generis as psychologically isolated mental productions, but emerge as the most vivid and memorable part of a large fabric of interwoven mental activity during sleep (p. 546).
5. Adler's assertion of a basic similarity of waking and sleeping thought finds support, at least when we consider NREM-period sleeping thought. Rechtschaffen, Verdone, and Wheaton (1963) have likened the content of NREM mentation to background mentation in waking experience. It is, in Stekel's (1951) image, a muted accompaniment rather than a melody. In NREM sleep the melody, or directive character of thought, seems less prominent and we become aware of this back-ground thought. Such an awareness is difficult to achieve in waking life; it is as if we might have direct
and immediate access to all those irrelevant things which passed along the borders of consciousness while we were more or less attentively engaged in some line of directed thought. Conditions of sensory deprivation or sensory monotony (Fiske, 1961) perhaps give us the best possible vantage point in waking life for viewing such phenomena. While the identification of NREM mentation with fringetype waking mentation may not be an apt characterization of all N R E M mentation, it does underline the degree of continuity of N R E M mentation and at least some forms of waking experience. In the context of Freudian theory, what we do not find in pre-REM sleep mentation is worthy of note. We do not find a seething, libidinous turmoil, sharply at variance with waking thought. Rather we see a generally "relaxed" kind of thinking and imaging whose prominence becomes possible in the absence of a strong external focus or challenge for thought processes and whose nature is essentially similar to certain classes of incidental waking mentation. 6. But, if we find little evidence of libido or hostility in the pre-REM thought from which dreams may be presumed to develop, neither do we find much evidence for the Adlerian assertion that representations of pressing personal problems of a more general character are active at, and responsible for, dream formation. Awakenings made at various points leading into REM-period onset and during the early seconds and minutes of REM periods do not corroborate, at least in any obvious manner, the position that dreams begin with affective or ideational "sore spots." Transformations are noted in the quality of mental experience: from conceptualizing or vaguely perceiving to vivid visual imaging, from kaleidoscopic flux to continuity and integration, and from plausible content to distorted and bizarre content. However, these changes do not seem to be associated with any perception of particularly pressing personal problems which cry for some resolution or exploration. Rather than being sources of personal anxiety or insecurity, N R E M contents of consciousness generally seem quite unconnected with basic psychodynamic concerns of the dreamer. Because this last point is a particularly crucial one for both theories, we will do well to consider it in further detail. Will the dream theorist be impressed with evidence that the class of events-in-consciousness at or around REM-period dream onset fails to meet his specifications of dream-instigating events? Most likely not. He might comment that the analysis has, up to this point, relied too heavily upon appearances, upon manifest consciousness. It might be suggested that the everydayish, relaxed kinds of mentation which precede REM-period dreaming serve as screens for affective elements, based in infantile experience, which present a threat, or pose a challenge, to the dreamer. Such a contention raises a basic methodological question, however: since neither physiological nor experiential evidence seems to
support the hypothesis that dream periods develop from or commence with such elements, with what kind of evidence does the dream theorist propose to confirm his theory of the affective instigation of dreams? At present, the assumption that pre-REM period contents are screens for something else seems entirely gratuitous. What we seem to have in NREM-period mentation is one level of cognitive functioning, a level which should at least tentatively be accepted for what it is, rather than be immediately interpreted as a disguised form of something else. At this point we should, perhaps, consider the observation base upon which both Freudian and Adlerian theory rest, clinical dream collection. Ian Oswald's (1962) comments upon the adequacy of clinical dream collection as a basis for characterization of the dream process cut right to the heart of the matter. He notes that the patient probably describes only a very small fraction of his total dreams to his therapist, and that his "recall" of these dreams is more a construction than a reconstruction. This constructed, waking fantasy-material may tell the clinician a great deal about the patient, but "is not to be relied upon as evidence of what really happens during dream periods' ' [p. 143]. Yet both Freud and Adler, in the absence of systematic observations made at various phases of the (REM) dream process, have given us theories of that process. Quite clearly, what they have done is to read back into the dreaming process those events which it seems must have transpired in its early stages, given a certain dream outcome and/or a certain functional interpretation of that outcome. Now no one who has had experience in collecting, examining, or interpreting dreams can doubt that dreams often do express a person's basic feelings and indicate his problems. And yet, the pre-REM and earlyREM recall data now available suggest that we err in assuming that since this may be the functional significance of the dream, the dream therefore must have started with the expression of such feelings or the posing of such problems. Rather it seems as if the dream allows the dreamer, eventually rather than immediately, to express himself in a rather profound way; it is not that the dream, by posing a basic challenge at its very onset, forces him to do this. It is being suggested, then, that both Freudian and Adlerian theory are incorrect in their characterization of the dream process, that is, dream formation and dream development. But what, we may now ask, are the implications of this position for those portions of their dream theories which deal with dream meaning or the functional significance of dreaming? We have already noted that Freud's and Adler's theories of the dream process are generalizations from, rather than the inductive basis of, their theories of dream interpretation. This suggests that dream process data can confirm or disconfirm a particular theory of dream meaning only to the extent that
that theory is compatible with one, and only one, characterization of the dream process. Dream theorists have tended to assume such a necessary correspondence between interpretation theory and process theory; that is, they have generalized in a relatively direct fashion from what the dream is to how it must have started. But this overlooks the possibility that how a dream begins and what a dream becomes may be two entirely different matters. Both Freudian and Adlerian theories of dream meaning and function, therefore, may be compatible with the description of the dream process provided by recent electrophysiological research. T o reject Freud's dreamprocess theory is not necessarily to reject his position that dreams serve the function of the fulfillment of repressed wishes. To reject Adler's dream-process theory is not necessarily to reject his position that dreams are attempts at problem solving which are consistent with the dreamer's life style. Although the present data on the dream process are ambiguous with respect to theories of dream meaning, it is likely that further studies o f t h e content of REM- and NREM-period dreams will provide some basis for choice among these theories. Dement's research on dream deprivation (1960) has already indicated the usefulness of electrophysiological studies in evaluating theories of the function significance of the dream. In conclusion, it is hoped that this discussion has indicated some o f t h e possibilities which the Aserinsky, Kleitman, and Dement dream-collection technique offers with respect to resolving or clarifying some of the major issues in classical, mainly psychoanalytic, dream theory. But the major contribution of this technique may well be the generation of altogether new theories of dreaming, theories solidly based upon experimentally derived dream-process data, and theories which articulate with modern neurophysiological evidence (e.g., Jouvet, 1962) upon the nature of the sleep phase in which dreaming occurs.
Some of the implications of recent electrophysiological studies of sleep for dream theory, especially the theory of dream formation, are considered. Studies showing a variety of mentation in all stages of sleep fail to confirm Freud's belief that mental activity suddenly attracts consciousness at dream onset. The nature of pre-dream mentation, however, supports Freud's concept of day residues, and there is also evidence to support his position that dream-work processes distort these day residues into sometimes barely recognizable components of bizarre dream episodes. Adler's insistence on
the continuity of waking and sleeping thought finds support in the nature and extent of nondreaming mentation in sleep. Both Freud and A d l e r a r e challenged on the alleged traumatic affective instigation of dreams; emotional complexes may take advantage o f t h e dreaming state, but they seem neither to precipitate that state nor to determine its initial perceptualideational content.
TOWARD THE EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL OF DREAMING: A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Scientific research is carried out with two basic kinds of procedures. One is the observational or correlational approach, where we observe "what happens naturally" and try to make sense of it by finding relations or correlations between various aspects of our observations. This approach leads to statements of the o r d e r , " . . . subjects classified as Sensitizers report recalling dreaming significantly more frequently than those classified as Repressors on the MMPI" (Tart, 1962). The other approach is the functional method, where we actively manipulate one factor or variable and observe the effect on some dependent variable. This approach leads to statements of the order, "A large dose of alcohol reduces the amount of EEG stage 1 -REM time and inferred dreaming in normal S s . . . " (Gresham, Webb, & Williams, 1963). Both approaches are used in most fields of science, as they are complementary. Research into the nature of dreaming, on the other hand, has been, by and large, a matter of correlational research [ignoring for the moment the last decade's research using the electroencephalogram (EEG) and rapid eye movement (REM) techniques]. Researchers asked Ss how often they dreamed in color, whether their dreams are mainly pleasant or unpleasant,
Reprinted by permission from Psychol. Bull., Vol. 64, 1965, pp. 81-91.
TOWARD THE EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL OF DREAMING
and the like, and then attempted to correlate these observed characteristics with personality characteristics, intelligence, sex, age, etc. Or the patient brought in a spontaneous dream and the therapist-researcher then attempted to "interpret" it in the light of what he knew about the patient. We have, of course, learned a great deal about the nature of dreaming as a result of these correlational studies, and undoubtedly we will continue to learn from them. When we can complement correlational studies with functional studies, however, we shall advance our understanding of dreaming much more rapidly. The purpose of the present paper is to review and bring together for the first time those studies in which an experimental attempt to influence either the content or the process of nocturnal dreaming was made, in order to assess what possibilities they suggest for functional research on dreaming. The past decade has seen an enormous increase in our knowledge of sleep and dreaming, resulting from application of EEG measures, and a brief summary of this body of results will be presented in order to provide an up-to-date background for assessing the studies to be reviewed herein. More detailed reviews and evaluations o f t h e more than 75 studies contributing to the past decade's new knowledge of dreaming have been published elsewhere (Kamiya, 1961; Kleitman, 1960, 1963; Oswald, 1962, 1964; Snyder, 1963). Sleep will be defined in this paper as a state of the organism indicated (in human Ss) by one of the four EEG stages (Dement & Kleitman, 1957a, 1957b). The stage I pattern consists of an irregular mixture of theta waves (4-S cps), alphoid activity (waves of one to two cps slower than the S's waking alpha), and occasional alpha waves (8-13 cps). Stage 2 contains spindle activity (14 cps) in addition to the above, and stages 3 and 4 contain increasingly larger proportions (up to 100%) of delta waves (1-3 cps, high amplitude) in addition to spindle activity. The exact divisions between stages 2, 3, and 4 are arbitrary, based on the percentage of delta waves in given epochs. The stage 1 pattern is readily distinguishable from the other stages by its total lack of spindles and delta waves. Stages 1 through 4 were initially conceived of as comprising continuum from "light" to "deep" sleep (Aserinsky & Kleitman, 1953, 1955; Dement, 1955), but as other measures of the "depth" of sleep contradict this conception (Berger, 1961; Hawkins, Puryear, Wallace, Deal, & Thomas, 1962; Kamiya, l96l;Snyder, 1963; Williams, Tepas, & Morlock, 1962), this paper will treat sleep as being of two qualitatively distinct types, viz., stage 1 as one type and stages 2, 3, and 4 as the other type. Distinctions between stages 2, 3, and 4 will not be made in this paper, and they will be collectively referred to as non-stage 1 sleep. If 5s are awakened from the two types of sleep and asked to report what they have been experiencing, the reports may be classified into two
rather distinct types. One type, awakenings from stage 1 sleep or shortly (within, roughly, 10-15 minutes) after stage 1 sleep has changed to non-stage 1 sleep, possesses, the characteristics traditionally associated with the experience of dreaming (Foulkes, 1962; Rechtschaffen, Verdone, & Wheaton, 1963). Reports from non-stage I sleep seem more like "thinking," and are generally called thinking by the Ss: these same Ss generally refer to their stage 1 experiences as dreams. The psychological differences reported so far are quantitative, rather than being completely dichotomous, but generally give the impression of distinct types of experiences. Stage 1 sleep is almost always accompanied by binocularly synchronous, rapid eye movements (REMs), and the evidence is very convincing that these are closely associated with the content of the dream, if not actual scanning movements of the dream imagery (Berger & Oswald, 1962a; Dement & Wolpert, 1958a; Roffwarg, Dement, Muzio, & Fisher, 1962). Such REMs have not been reported in non-stage 1 sleep, although there are some slow, rolling movements (Kamiya, 1961). In view of these findings, the following theoretical position will betaken in this paper as an aid in surveying the literature on functional studies of dreaming: that an experientially distinct type of phenomenon occurs concurrently with the presence of stage 1 sleep, which phenomenon will be called stage 1 dreaming, or just dreaming. The mental phenomena of nonstage 1 sleep will not be considered in this paper. Further, it is assumed that the experience of stage 1 dreaming is essentially continuous* during the presence of stage 1 EEG, whether the S can always recall this experience on waking or not. This position is, in the author's opinion, supported by all the studies using the EEG and REM technique, and directly refuted by none. The term "process" of stage 1 dreaming is used to indicate the ongoing psychophysiological activity which is observed on a physiological level as the stage 1 EEG pattern and on an experimental level as the experience of dreaming (observed directly by the S and indirectly via the dream report). The terms "dream content," "reported dream," or simply "dream" refer to the particulars o f t h e experience. For normal 5s, stage 1 dreaming and non-stage 1 sleep alternate in a regular, cyclic fashion, referred to as the sleep-dream cycle. As an S falls asleep there is generally a brief (a few seconds to a minute or two) period of stage 1, without REMs, but Ss' reports indicate that this is apparently a
* Within a continuous period of stage 1 EEG, the content of the experienced dream may be divided into several distinct episodes so that, in a sense, there were several distinct "dreams" within a continuous period of dreaming. Dement and Wolpert (1958) present some evidence that such changes of topic may be accompanied by a gross body movement on the part of the S.
period of hypnagogic imagery, rather than typical dreaming (Dement & Kleitman, 1957a; Oswald, 1962). At approximately 90 minute intervals through the night there are periods of stage 1 dreaming, each dream period generally being longer than the preceding one. The first stage I period may last for 10 minutes; the fourth or fifth one may last as long as 50 minutes. Altogether, stage 1 dreaming occupies between 20 and 30% ofthe total sleep time of most young adults, spread over three to six stage I periods. While the exact percentage of dream time and the number of cycles varies from S to S, for a given S the sleep-dream cycle is generally quite stable from night to night (Dement, 1960; Dement & Kleitman, 1957b; Kleitman, 1960; Wood, 1962). With this picture in mind of stage 1 dreaming occurring regularly through every night of sleep, let us now review those studies which have attempted to affect dreaming. Many of these studies were carried out before the discovery of the sleep-dream cycle and so lack precision, but do offer some data. The studies will be reviewed under three convenient, but not mutually exclusive headings, viz.; (a) variables affecting the content of dreaming; (b) variables affecting the process of dreaming; and (c) discrimination during sleep.
VARIABLES AFFECTING THE CONTENT O r
Variables affecting dreaming are of two types, viz., those applied before the onset of sleep, and those applied concurrently with sleep and dreaming. The latter type will be discussed first. Naturally occurring stimuli, both external and internal (e.g., thunder, breezes, stomach cramps, falling out of bed), are sometimes incorporated into the content of dreams, and the older literature contains many anecdotal accounts of this (Ellis, 1911; Hennings, 1874; Hoffbauer, 1796; Jessen, 1855; Lhermitte, 1931; Meier, 1758; Schatzman, 1925;Spitta, 1882; Sully, 1905; Thompson, 1914; Walsh, 1920). Such accounts tell us little about the effectiveness of stimuli in modifying dream content, however, as they provide no baseline of how many naturally occurring stimuli were not incorporated, nor do they provide any systematic data on the manner in which the incorporated stimuli were represented in the dream. A number of Es have experimentally presented stimuli to sleeping Ss (Claviere, 1897; De Sanctis & Neyroz, 1902; Hildebrandt, 1875; Maury, 1878; Max, 1935; Menuier, 1910; Stepanow, 1915; Straecke, 1953; Vaschide, 1902; Void, 1912), and have further demonstrated that stimuli are sometimes incorporated into dreams. Despite great variation in method from study to
study, there seems to be a general consensus in these studies that tactual stimuli are more effective in affecting dream content then stimuli in other sensory modalities. Both the anecdotal and early experimental studies were, in the light of what is now known about the sleep-dream cycle, beset with an inherent lack of precision, as data concerning stage 1 sleep and non-stage 1 sleep were indiscriminately mixed together. A recent study (Dement & Wolpert, 1958), using the EEG and REM technique, has greatly increased our knowledge here. Briefly, a pure tone was incorporated in 9% o f t h e trials, a bright light 23%, and drops of water 42%. As the water is a tactual stimulus, this is in agreement with the older studies. When these stimuli were presented during non-stage I sleep, stage I dreaming was not initiated, contrary to the old idea that dreaming was caused by stimulation, and when the 5s were awakened a few minutes later they had no recollection of the stimuli (or of dreaming). An important and methodologically sophisticated study of stimulus incorporation into stage 1 dreams is that of Berger (1963). Spoken first names were presented at randomly chosen times during stage 1 dreaming. Some of the names were of persons with whom the 5s had important, emotional relationships, while others were neutral in this respect. Incorporation was objectively judged by having both the Ss and an independent judge later try to match reported dream content with stimulus names. The stimulus names were matched with the correct dream reports with considerably better-than-chance accuracy by both the Ss and the independent judge. The emotionally meaningful and the neutral names were incorporated with equal frequency. Incorporation was not associated with detectable EEG changes, or GSR responses. Berger reported the incorporations as falling into several descriptive categories, in order of decreasing frequency, as follows: (a) assonance, where a dream element or word sounded like the stimulus name, a sort of "clang association;" (b) direct incorporation, where the dreamer reported hearing the stimulus name in the dream; (c) associational incorporation, where a relatively direct personal association to the stimulus name appeared in the dream; and (d) representational association, where the stimulus name was represented or symbolized by an object or action in the dream. There have been some studies ofthe incorporation of stimuli into hypnotic dreams (Benussi, 1927; Klein, 1930), but as there is strong evidence that hypnotic dreams may be quite different from stage 1 dreams (Barber, 1962; Tart, 1964a, 1965a), they will not be reviewed here. Some Es applied various stimuli to their 5s before the latter went to sleep (Cubberly, 1923; Fisher, 1954, 1960; Malamud & Under, 1931; Monroe, 1899; Poetzl, 1917; Renshaw, Miller, & Marquis, 1933; Void, 1912), and
found that the stimuli sometimes appeared in the content of dreams reported the following day, often in "distorted" or "disguised" form. Such studies are difficult to evaluate, as there is a contaminating factor of waking suggestion to dream about the stimuli implicit in the design of stimulating 5s and then asking them to record their dreams. More serious difficulties in evaluating these studies arise from the heavy demand characteristics (Orne, 1959, 1962a) undoubtedly operative as a result of the psychoanalytic orientation of many o f t h e experimenters. About the most that can be concluded from these studies is that 5s will bring in "dreams" which seem to incorporate the stimulus material in disguised or distorted form, but this fact does not necessarily prove the validity of psychoanalytic theories of dream formation. These studies are also subject to other criticisms, discussed below. A number of studies apparently demonstrated that posthypnotic suggestion could control the content of nocturnal dreaming to a high degree (Fisher, 1953; Nachmansohn, 1951; Newman, Katz, & Rubenstein, 1960; Schrotter, 1912), but as they did not use EEG monitoring of sleep, they were not controlled for the possibility that the dreams affected were hypnotic dreams interspersed with sleep, ratherthan ordinary nocturnal dreams. That such an event can happen, without the 5 being aware of it, has been shown in other studies (Barber, 1962; Schiff, Bunney, & Freedman, 1961; Tart, 1964a). These studies also are ambiguous in that effects on stage 1 dreaming and non-stage 1 mental activity would be indiscriminately mixed, and much o f t h e early stage 1 dreaming o f t h e night was undoubtedly forgotten by the time the 5s awoke in the morning. Stoyva (1961), using the EEG and REM technique, was the first to demonstrate convincingly that the content of stage 1 dreaming could be influenced and manipulated to a very high degree in some 5s by means of posthypnotic suggestion. The content of non-stage I mental activity was also affected, although not as markedly. Tart (1964a) independently confirmed Stoyva's finding. As with Stoyva's 5s, the stage I dreams of some 5s were not affected at all, while those of other 5s were almost totally controlled by the posthypnotically suggested content. Stoyva also found that explicit waking suggestion affected dream content, as had been reported earlier by Fisher (1953) and Titchener (1895), but not as strongly as posthypnotic suggestion. Wood (1962) found that social isolation for a period of one day affected the content of stage 1 dreaming occurring that night. The 5s seemed to be compensating for the isolation by increased "social intercourse" in their dreams. The laboratory situation itself seems to have some effect on stage 1 dreaming, especially when psychiatric patients are used as 5s (Whitman, Pierce, Maas, &. Baldridge, 1962). Feelings about the E and about being experimented on appeared in the reported dream content, often in "disguised"
form. 11 has been reported, however (Dement, Kahn, & Roffwarg, in press), that this effect diminishes rapidly after a few nights in the laboratory, with normal 5s. About 24% of first night dreams were concerned with the experimental situation directly, but this fell to 9% for later nights. Several studies have been carried out to investigate the effects of various drugs on dream content, e.g., chloropromazineand promazine (Lesse, 1959), meprobamate (Whitman, Pierce, & Maas, I960); imipramine and prochlorperazine (Whitman, Pierce, Maas, & Baldridge, 1961). While these studies indicate some general changes in content, this area is still in a very exploratory stage, and no definite conclusions can be drawn yet. At present, then, posthypnotic suggestion seems to be the most powerful and precise method for affecting dream content, although its use is restricted to a minority of 5s. The use of external stimuli presented to the dreaming5 offers promise of strongly affecting dream content, but much research remains to be done in this area, using the EEG-REM technique, todiscover the optimal types of stimuli and ways of presenting them.
VARIABLES AFFECTING THE P R O C E S S OF DREAMING
There are two powerful techniques which result in almost total disruption of the sleep-dream cycle. The first is total sleep deprivation, which has received considerable attention in recent years (Berger & Oswald, 1962b; Brauchi & West, 1959; Luby, Frohman, Grisell, Lenzo, & Gottlieb, 1960, Luby, Grisell, Frohman, Lees, Cohen, & Gottlieb, 1962; Mirsky, & Carson, 1962; Rodin, Luby, & Gottlieb, l962;Simon, 1961; West, Janszen, Lester, Comelisoon, 1962; Williams, Granda, Jones, Lubin, & Armington, 1962; Williams, Morris, & Lubin, 1962; Williams, Hammack, Daly, Dement, & Lubin, 1964). The second is selective deprivation of certain aspects of sleep, D e m e n f s (1960) "dream deprivation" technique where 5s are awakened whenever a stage 1 pattern appears, and stage 4 deprivation (Agnew, Webb, & Williams, 1964), carried out in basically the same manner. Dement found that if, on several consecutive nights, an 5 was awakened whenever stage 1 dreaming began, the 5 would have to be awakened more and more frequently to prevent stage 1 dreaming as the nights went on. Furthermore, if the 5 was allowed several undisturbed nights of sleep following this procedure, his stage I dream time was significantly increased for several nights. Control awakenings scattered randomly through non-stage 1 sleep produced no such effect. Dement concluded that there was a need for a given amount of stage 1 dreaming each night, although whetherthis is a need fqr the experience ofdreamingorthephysiologicalstaterepresented by stage 1 EEG is unknown. Agnew et. al. followed the same procedure for stage 4 of sleep, although the stimuli given their 5s whenever stage 4 sleep
started often served to have them shift to a different stage of sleep without awakening. They found results similar to Dement's, i.e., more and more need to stimulate the 5s to get them out of stage 4 as the deprivation nights went on, and an increase in stage4 sleep time on undisturbed nights following this procedure. As both the sleep deprivation and dream deprivation procedures represent a total disruption of the sleep-dream cycle, rather than a selective effect on dreaming per se, they will not be further discussed here. The laboratory situation itself has an effect on dream process, just as it does on dream content. On an 5's first night in the laboratory he is likely to miss his first stage 1 period of the night. This phenomenon has been called the "first night effect" (Dement, 1955; Dement, Kahn, & Roffwarg, 1965; Rechtschaffen & Verdone, in press; Snyder, 1963) and it is now customary among dream researchers to have an 5's first night count only as an adaptation night, rather than taking any precise measurements on it. Social isolation also affects the process of stage 1 dreaming. Wood (1962) found that a day of social isolation resulted in a 60% increase of stage 1 dream time for the first two dream cycles of the experimental night, while the number of REMs/minute during this dreaming was decreased. Gresham, Webb, & Williams (1963) studied the effect of alcohol and caffeine on stage I dream time, and found that alcohol produced a significant decrease in stage 1 dream time (a mean decrease of 22 minutes for the first 5 hours of sleep), while caffeine, in the dosage used, had no effect. Rechtschaffen and Maron (in press) found that a mixture of dextro amphetamine sulfate and pentobarbitol sodium may halve stage I dream time in many 5s. Dement (cited in Snyder, 1963) found that sodium amytal may also halve dream time. Heptabarbitone (Oswald, Berger, Jaramillo, Keddie, 01ley,& Plunkett, 1963) also reduces stage 1 dream time. Tactual stimuli, in the form of the hardness of the surface on which the 5 sleeps (a feather bed at one extreme and a board at the other) have been reported to affect sleep (Suckling, Koening, Hoffman, & Brooks, 1957), but the data are not presented in a form which allows careful assessment o f t h e effect on stage 1 dreaming. Stoyva (1961) found that posthypnotic suggestions intended to influence stage 1 dream content also affected the duration of stage 1 dreaming. In those of his 5s whose dream content was generally influenced by the suggestions in every dream of the night, Stoyva found a statistically significant decrease in stage I dream time for the early part ofthe night, what he termed the "shortening effect." For the first two stage 1 periods of the night, this effect was an average 7 minute decrease (21%), with a maximum decrease of 14 minutes. Offering 5s money if they can dream more or less on different nights also
has some effect (Rechtschaffen & Verdone, 1964), although the difference between the two conditions was only an average of 6.6 minutes per night (3% compared to baseline nights). A particularly interesting problem is that of exerting control over waking from sleep. Ladd (1892), speaking of whatever "mechanism" caused sleep, reported that "I 4 set' this mechanism so that it will dip down into sleep and dream-life, with a gradual curvature, as it were, and then come out of dreamlife in an instant, i.e., by a steep curve." He provides no other information as to the nature of thissleep "mechanism" or how he went about "setting" it, although one might guess that he used some form of autosuggestion. Nor does he report how successful this technique was, although he mentions that it was more successful for arousing himself shortly after going to sleep than for late in sleep. A very intriguing report on waking from sleep is that of Frobenius(1927), which shows that 5s can wake from sleep at a randomly preselected target time on most attempts. His 5s usually awoke within 10 minutes of the selected time, and felt rather disoriented. They had no idea as to how they had awoken, nor did the content of their dreams seem to reflect a waking process in any way on those occasions when they awoke from dreams. Elder (1941), in a brief abstract, reports that he had confirmed Frobenius' results, but provides no details. This material will soon be submitted for publication, however (Elder, personal communication, 1964). Ehrenwald (1923) also reports some anecdotal data on waking from sleep at a preset time. Other investigators (Calkins, 1893; Dittborn, 1963; Nelson, 1888) have reported that they woke up frequently during the night and recalled dreaming, apparently as a result of their interest in studying dreams. In all these reports, however, there is no information on how often the 5s normally woke up during the night, although the effect seems to have been of considerable magnitude in at least one case (Nelson, 1888). The author (who was his own 5) complained that his sleep was no longer refreshing as a result of waking too frequently, so that he dampened his interest in dreams in order to get more rest. Renneker (1952a, 1952b) reports on a patient who habitually awoke a few moments before the alarm was to go off, supposedly in order to prevent his dreams from becoming anxiety filled, and presents some psychoanalytic speculations about the nature of this behavior. Omwake and Lorenz (1933) and Brush (1930) also report data which leave little doubt that some 5s can awaken at a preset time. The most recent study in which the process of dreaming was affected was that of Tart( 1963a; 1966c). Using posthypnotic suggestion and working intensively with two 5s, it was found that the 5s could be made to awaken at either the beginnings or ends of their stage 1 dreams, although the accuracy of this behavior was difficult to judge due to difficulties in defining criteria for
"perfect" compliance with the suggestions. As in Frobenius' (1927) study, the 5s had no idea as to how they had awakened, and their dreams did not seem to reflect any processes of discrimination or waking. Tart also found that the stage 1 dream time of one of the 5s could be increased about 20% by means of posthypnotic suggestions to dream all night. At present, then, posthypnotic suggestion would seem to be the most powerful technique for affecting the process of dreaming which is selective in its effect (although it is applicable only to a minority of 5s). Total sleep deprivation or dream deprivation is more powerful, but nonselective as it disrupts the phenomena we are trying to manipulate. In general the psychological variables (suggestion, hypnosis, laboratory setting, etc.) seem to have only a small effect on the actual amount of time spent in stage I dreaming.
Simon and Emmons (1956) played recorded questions and answers to their 5s once every 5 minutes while they slept. The 5s were asked to call out their own name if they heard the question and answer. The 5s showed essentially no responses to the questions and answers and no evidence of having learned them (judged by questioning them in the morning) whenever they showed non-stage 1 sleep patterns. The results of this study are difficult to interpret in terms of stage 1 patterns, however, as they were mixed with arousal patterns. Granda and Hammack (1961) trained sleep-deprived 5s to press a microswitch on a certain schedule in order to avoid a noxious electrical shock. By avoiding the shock, the 5s could sleep. They found that their 5s could produce the required avoidance behavior in all stages of sleep, without showing signs of EEG arousal. Williams, Morlock, & Morlock( 1963) extended this work and found that the 5s could discriminate between several tones, but that they tended not to respond during stage 1 dreaming unless the negative reinforcement was quite strong. Li, Jasper, & Henderson (1952) report that a narcoleptic patient of theirs could sleep through the noise made by the E hitting a brass pail right beside her bed, but would awaken immediately if her name was softly spoken. Oswald (1962) carried out two studies of 5s' reactions to meaningful versus nonmeaningful stimuli during sleep. In one study, 5s showed more muscular responses to the sound of their own names and that of another designated name than to other, nonmeaningful names, although this response was usually accompanied by partial EEG arousal. In a second study, a series of first names was played repeatedly to 5s while they slept, but some ofthe
names had been tape recorded backwards, making them meaningless sounds. The 5s showed more EEG responses without waking (K-complexes) to the meaningful sounds. A similar finding for tones, one of which had been associated with a noxious stimulus, was reported in cats (Rowland, 1957). Berger (1963), however, did not find any difference in frequency of incorporation into the reported dream content of names of persons with whom the 5s had emotional bonds versus emotionally neutral names. Thus the literature indicates that the sleeping and dreaming 5 is not behaviorally inert, but may make, at least, some fairly simple discriminations and responses, sometimes accompanied by momentary awakening, but sometimes within the sleep or dream state itself.
There is little doubt that, in light of the past decade's discoveries, the conclusions of many of the earlier studies will be revised as the results of future research come in. And there are certain methodological problems to be solved even with the use of the EEG-REM technique.* In spite of these drawbacks, some conclusions may be drawn from the studies herein reviewed. Sleep is not a state of behavioral inertness (a tradition long given implicit support by the extreme paucity of psychological studies of it). On the contrary, not only is a sleeping person having vivid experiences, dreams, periodically through the night, but: (a) he is capable of incorporating some external stimuli into the content of his dreams; and (b) at least some 5s are capable of sometimes altering their state of consciousness from sleeping (or dreaming) to waking, either by means of a discriminative response to external stimuli or by using the occurrence of dreaming itself or a given time of night as a stimulus. Furthermore, at least some sleeping 5s are able to carry out some relatively simple motor acts in response to external stimuli. At present then, we know only that some 5s can make responses during sleep, make discriminations, incorporate stimuli, etc. But it should be emphasized that the exact percentages of 5s, the exact behaviors observed, or the methodological difficulties of these studies are not the most important things to be noted in this review. Rather, the fact that any 5s can carry out
*tn Tart's (1963) study where Ss were supposed to wake from either the beginnings or ends of their dreams in accordance with posthypnotic suggestions to that effect, difficulties arose in evaluating the results because of a number of responses in which the 5 s seemed to be complying on an experiential level with the suggestions, but could not meet strict criteria for the beginnings and ends of their dreams in terms o f t h e amount of time stage I sleep had lasted.
these sorts of behaviors during sleep and dreaming, no matter how imperfectly at present, is the important thing, for it is highly probable that what has been done imperfectly by some Ss, using crude, exploratory methods, can be done far better by other 5s once these techniques are refined and developed. The immediate research need is not to show simply that someSs can have their sleep and dreaming affected in these manners, but to investigate how well Ss can be trained to do these things, what the maximal level of performance and effect is. Then we shall possess a number of techniques for actively manipulating dreaming, leading to results which can only be speculated about now (Tart, 1964b), but which will almost certainly surprise us. The most immediate need in this area is for extensive studies of stimulus incorporation, and of the potentialities for discriminative responses to stimuli, including experiential discriminations within the dream, waking from sleep at a preset time, and overt motor responses. How do various sensory modalities differ in the way in which stimuli are incorporated into the dream? Are stimuli in some modalities more distorted than in others? Can the degree of direct incorporation, with distortion, be affected by various experimental techniques? Can 5s learn to incorporate some stimuli effectively enough so that one could use these stimuli as "signals" to indicate to the 5 that he should carry out a specific action, e.g., dream about a particular topic, or carry out some motor act? What sorts of motor acts can be carried out? There are simple ones, such as raising a finger to indicate that he is dreaming, or that he is experiencing anger within the dream, but what about the possibility of more complex motor acts, say automatic writing, or sleep talking? Ultimately, to what extent could a "two-way communication system" be developed, whereby the E could instruct the 5 to do such and such while he is dreaming, and the 5 could report on the events of the dream while they are occurring? If such a development were possible, dreams would lose their status as a purely subjective event that can only be reported in retrospect, and become a much more immediate sort of behavior. Besides these questions on what sorts of things can be made to happen, there are also many problems centering around the question of the best method or methods to bring these things about. Judging from the present status of the literature, posthypnotic suggestion seems to offer the most promise, but neither this method nor any of the others have really been adequately tested and explored. What potentialities are there in operant conditioning techniques, effects of increasing incentive, various combinations of drugs, etc.? What about combinations of these? The studies reviewed herein, then, do not sum up our state of knowledge about this area so much as they serve a far more important function, viz., raising questions and pointing out some fascinating possibilities for future research and development.
A STUDY OF DREAMS
FREDERIK VAN EEDEN
Since 1896 I have studied my own dreams, writing down the most interesting in my diary. In 1898 I began to keep a separate account for a particular kind of dream which seemed to me the most important, and I have continued it up to this day. Altogether I collected about 500 dreams, of which 352 are ofthe particular kind just mentioned. This material may form the basis of what I hope may become a scientific structure of some value, if leisure and strength to build it up carefully do not fail me. In the meantime, with a pardonable anxiety lest the ideas should not find expression in time, I condensed them into a work of arta novel called The Bride of Dreams (van Eeden, 1918). The fictitious form enabled me to deal freely with delicate matters, and had also the advantage that it expressed rather unusual ideas in a less aggressive wayesoterically, so to speak. Yet I want to express these ideas also in a form that will appeal more directly to the scientific mind, and I know I cannot find a better audience for this purpose than the members of the Society for Psychical Research, who are accustomed to treat investigations and ideas of an unusual sort in abroadminded and yet critical spirit. This paper is only a preliminary sketch, a short announcement of a greater work, which I hope to be able to complete in later years.*
Reprinted from Proc. Soc. Psych. Res., Vol. 26, 1913, pp. 431-461. Apparently van Eeden never completed this work Editor.
I will as much as possible avoid speculation, and limit myself to facts; yet these facts, as I have observed them, bring me in a general way to the firm conviction that the theories on dream-life, as brought forward up to today, within my knowledge, are unable to account for all the phenomena. Let me now give you an attempt at classification of the different forms of dreams, which I myself personally experienced and observed duringa period of sixteen years. I have been able to distinguish nine different kinds of dreams, each of which presents a well-defined type. There are of course intermediate forms and combinations, but the separate types can still be recognized in their intermingling. The first type of dreams I call initial dreams. This kind of dream is very rare; I know of only half-a-dozen instances occurring to myself, and have found no clear indication of them in other authors. Yet it is very characteristic and easily distinguishable. It occurs only in the very beginning of sleep, when the body is in a normal healthy condition, but very tired. Then the transition from waking to sleep takes place with hardly a moment of what is generally called unconsciousness, but what I would prefer to call discontinuity of memory. It is not what Maury (1878) calls a hypnagogic hallucination, which phenomenon I know well from my own experience, but which I do not consider to belong to the world of dreams. In hypnagogic hallucinations we have visions, but we have full bodily perception. In the initial dream type 1 see and feel as in any other dream. 1 have a nearly complete recollection of day-life, I know that I am asleep and where I am sleeping, but all perceptions o f t h e physical body, inner and outer, visceral or peripheral, are entirely absent. Usually I have the sensation of floating or flying, and I observe with perfect clearness that the feeling of fatigue, the discomfort of bodily overstrain, has vanished. 1 feel fresh and vigorous; I can move and float in all directions; yet 1 know that my body is at the same time dead tired and fast asleep. As the outcome of careful observations, I maintain my conviction that the bodily conditions of the sleeper have, as a rule, no influence on the character of dreams, with the exception of a few rare and abnormal cases, near the moment of waking up, or in those dreams of a second type which I have classified as pathological, in which fever, indigestion, or some poison, plays a rdle, and which form a small minority. For myself as the observer, I may state that I have been in good health all the time of observation. I had no important complaints of any nervous or visceral kind. My sleep and digestion both are usually good. Yet I have had the most terrible nightmares, while my body was as fresh and healthy as usual, and I have had delicious peaceful dreams on board ship in a heavy storm, or in a sleeping-car on the railway. 1 wish, therefore, to define the true dream as that state wherein bodily sensations, be they visceral, internal or peripheral, cannot penetrate to the mind
directly, but only in the physical, nonspatial form of a symbol or an image. 1 purposely avoid as much as possible the words "consciousness" and "unconsciousness." They may be convenient in colloquial language, b u t l am not able to attach any clear meaning to them. 1 have no idea what "unconsciousness," as a substantive, may stand for. And 1 found that I could do with the words memory and recollection and the word personality or person, in the primitive sense of persona (a mask, i.e., the mask worn by players). 1 do not think it accurate to call the body of a sleeper or a narcotized man unconscious. During my career as a psychotherapist, having by suggestion produced sleep in many people, 1 learned that the human body may act like a selfconscious person, without any participation of the recollecting mind. We know nowadays that a splitting-up of human personality is possible, not only into two, but into three or more. During my sittings with Mrs. Thompson (van Eeden, 1902) we observed that after a trance, in which Mrs. Thompson had been speaking as "Nelly," or as some other control, she herself remembered dreams, which had nothing whatever to do with the things of which she had been speaking to us. Her being could then be said to have been divided into three entitiesthe body in trance, apparently asleep; the "control," who spoke through her mouth; and Mrs. Thompson, who was dreaming in quite different spheres. All these persons or personalities were of course "conscious" in some way, as everything is probably conscious. The question is, where do the threads of recollection run that enable us to identify the persons? 1 know that Mr. Havelock Ellis (Ellis, 1911) and many other authors will not accept my definition, because they deny the possibility of complete recollection and free volition in a dream. They would say that what I call a dream is no dream, but a sort of trance, or hallucination, or ecstasy. The observations of the Marquis d'Herve, which were very much like mine, as related in his book, Les Reves et les moyens de les diriger (1867), were discarded in the same way. These dreams could not be dreams, said Maury (1878). Now this is simply a question of nomenclature. I can only say that I made my observations during normal deep and healthy sleep, and that in 352 cases I had a full recollection of my day-life, and could act voluntarily, though 1 was so fast asleep that no bodily sensations penetrated into my perception. If anybody refuses to call that state of mind a dream, he may suggest some other name. For my part, it was just this form of dream, which I call "lucid dreams," which aroused my keenest interest and which 1 noted down most carefully. 1 quite agree with Mr. Havelock Ellis, that during sleep the psychical functions enter into a condition of dissociation. My contention, however, is that it is not dissociation, but, on the contrary, reintegration, after the dissociation of sleep, that is the essential feature of dreams. The dream is a
more or less complete reintegration of the psyche, a reintegration in a different sphere, in a psychical, nonspatial mode of existence. This reintegration may go so far as to effect full recollection of day-life, reflection, and voluntary action on reflection. The third type, ordinary dreaming, is the usual well-known type to which the large majority of dreams conform; probably it is the only kind that occurs to many people. It is not particularly pleasant or unpleasant, though it may vary according to its contents. It may occur in any moment of sleep, in daytime or in the night, and it does not need any bodily disturbance to produce it. These dreams show dissociation, with very imperfect reintegration, and, as several authors have pointed out, they have in many respects a close likeness to insanity. The true conditions of day-life are not remembered; false remembranceparamnesiais very common in them; they are absurd and confused, and leave very faint traces after waking up. The fourth type, vivid dreaming, differs from ordinary dreaming principally in its vividness and the strong impression it makes, which lasts sometimes for hours and days after waking up, with a painfully clear remembrance of every detail. These dreams are generally considered to be the effect of some abnormal bodily condition. Yet 1 think they must undoubtedly be distinguished from the pathological dreams. I have had them during perfectly normal bodily conditions. I do not mean to say, however, that some nervous disturbance, some psychical unrest, or some unknown influence from the waking world may not have been present. It may have been, but it escaped my observation in most cases. These vivid dreams are generally extremely absurd, or untrue, though explicit and well remembered. The mind is entirely dissociated and reintegration is very defective. As a rule I find dreams of this kind unpleasant because of their absurdity, their insane character, and the strong lasting impression they make. Happily they are rare, at least with me. Sometimes they leave a strong conviction that they "mean something," that they have a premonitory, a prophetic character, and when we read of instances of prophetic dreams we find generally that they belong to this type. In my case I often found that they really could " m e a n " nothing; sometimes, however, 1 was not so certain. It depends in what direction we are looking for causes. One night, when I was on a lecturing tour, I was the guest of a family in a provincial town, and slept in what I supposed to be the guest-room. I had a night full o f t h e most horrid dreams, one long confused nightmare, with a strong sentiment that it "meant something." Yet 1 felt in perfect health, cheerful and comfortable. I could not refrain from saying next morning at the breakfast table what an unpleasant night 1 had had. Then the family told me 1 had slept in the room o f a daughter who was now in a sanatorium with a severe nervous disease, and who used to call that room her "den of torture."
It will be remarked that such vivid dreams are sometimes of a very pleasant laracter, filling whole days with an indescribable joy. This is true, but, wording to my experience, my vividly pleasant dreams are now always of lother and higher type. As a child I had these delicious vivid dreams. Now ey have changed their character altogether and are of the lucid type. In the fifth type, the symbolic or mocking dreams, the characteristic element one which I call demoniocol. 1 am afraid this word will arouse some mururs of disapproval, or at least some smiles or sneers. Yet I think 1 can iccessfully defend the use of the term. 1 will readily concede at once that ie real existence of beings whom we may call "demons" is problematic. But ie real existence of the interstellar ether is also problematic, and yet men i " science find the conception very useful and convenient. I hope to satisfy even the most skeptical of my audience by defining the cpression "demoniacal" thus: I coll demoniacal those phenomena which produce on us the impression of ring invented or arranged by intelligent beings of o very low morol order. To me it seems that the great majority of dreams reported by Freud and is adherents, and used for the building up of his elaborate theory, belong > this type. It may indeed be called a bold deed to introduce the symbolism of dreams ito the scientific world. This is Freud's (1954) great achievement. But now let us consider what the word "symbol" implies. A symbol is an nage or an imaginary event, standing for a real object or event whereto it as some distant resemblance. Now the invention of a symbol can only be n act of thoughtthe work of some intelligence. Symbols cannot invent lemselves; they must be thought out. And the question arises: who performs lis intelligent act; who thinks out the symbol? The answer given by the reudian school is: the subconscious. But here we have one of those words 'hich come in "wo die Begriffe fehlen." To me the word "subconscious," idicating a thinking entity, is just as mysterious, just as unscientific, just as occult" as the word "demon." 1 n my view it is accurate to say only that in ur dreams we see images and experience events, for which our own mind ur "person" as we remember itcannot be held responsible, and which lust therefore come from some unknown source. About the general charac5r of these sources, however, we may form some judgment and I feel justified i calling them in the dreams of this type "demoniacal"that is of low noral order. It is in this class also, that the erotic element, or rather the obscene element, Jays such an important part. And it is no wonder that some adherents of 'reud's school, studying only this kind of dream, come to the conclusion hat all dreams have a sexual origin. The sixth type, which I call general dream-sensations, is very remarkable
but not easy to describe. It is not an ordinary dream; there is no vision, no image, no event, not even a word or a name. But during a long time of deep sleep, the mind is continually occupied with one person, one place, one remarkable event, or even one abstract thought. At least that is the recollection on waking up. One night I was constantly occupied by the personality of an American gentleman, in whom I am not particularly interested. I did not see him, nor hear his name, but on waking up I felt as if he had been there the whole night. In another instance it was a rather deep thought, occupying me in the deepest sleep, with a clear recollection of it after waking up. The question was: Why can a period of our life be felt as very sad, and yet be sweet and beautiful in remembrance? And the answer was: because a human being knows only a very small part of what he is. Question and answer never left me; yet my sleep was very deep and unbroken.* These dream-sensations are not unpleasant and not absurd, so long as the body is in good health. They often have an elevating or consoling effect. In pathological dreams, however, they may be extremely strange and harassing. The sleeper may have a feeling as if he were a square or a circle, or other sensations of an utterly indescribable character. The seventh type of dreams, which I call lucid dreams, seems to me the most interesting and worthy of the most careful observation and study. Of this type I experienced and wrote down 352 cases in the period between January 20, 1898, and December 26, 1912. In these lucid dreams the reintegration of the psychic functions is so complete that the sleeper remembers day-life and his own condition, reaches a state of perfect awareness, and is able todirect his attention, and to attempt different acts of free volition. Yet the sleep, as I am able confidently to state, is undisturbed, deep and refreshing. I obtained my first glimpse of this lucidity during sleep in June, 1897, in the following way. I dreamt that 1 was floating through a landscape with bare trees, knowing that it was April, and I remarked that the perspective of the branches and twigs changed quite naturally. Then I made the reflection, during sleep, that my fancy would never be able to invent or to make an image as intricate as the perspective movement of little twigs seen in floating by. Many years later, in 1907,1 found a passage in a work by Prof. Ernst Mach (1903) in which the same observation is made with a little difference. Like me, Mach came to the conclusion that he was dreaming, but it was because he saw the movement of the twigs to be defective, while I had wondered at the naturalness which my fancy could never invent. Professor Mach has not pursued his observations in this direction, probably because he did not
*van Eeden may be describing non-stage 1 mental processes Edit or.
believe in their importance. 1 made up my mind to look out carefully for another opportunity. I prepared myself for careful observation, hoping to prolong and to intensify the lucidity. In January 1898 1 was able to repeat the observation. In the night of January 19-20, 1 dreamt that 1 was lying in the garden before the windows of my study, and saw the eyes of my dog through the glass pane. 1 was lying on my chest and observing the dog very keenly. At the same time, however, 1 knew with perfect certainty that I was dreaming and lying on my back in my bed. And then 1 resolved to wake up slowly and carefully and observe how my sensation of lying on my chest would change into the sensation of lying on my back. And so I did, slowly and deliberately, and the transition which I have since undergone many timesis most wonderful. It is like the feeling of slipping from one body into another, and there is distinctly a double recollection of the two bodies. 1 remembered what I felt in my dream, lying on my chest; but returning into the day-life, 1 remembered also that my physical body had been quietly lying on its back all the while. This observation of a double memory I have had many times since. It is so indubitable that it leads almost unavoidably to the conception of a dream-body. Mr. Havelock Ellis says with something of a sneer that some people " w h o dabble in the occult" speak of an astral body.* Yet if he had had only one of these experiences, he would feel that we can escape neither the dabbling nor the dream-body. In a lucid dream the sensation of having a bodyhaving eyes, hands, a mouth that speaks, and so onis perfectly distinct; yet I know at the same time that the physical body is sleeping and has quite a different position. In waking up the two sensations blend together, so to speak, and I remember as clearly the action of the dream-body as the restfulness of the physical body. In February 1899 1 had a lucid dream, in which 1 made the following experiment. I drew with my finger, moistened by saliva, a wet cross on the palm of my left hand, with the intention of seeing whether it would still be there after waking up. Then I dreamt that I woke up and felt the wet cross on my left hand by applying the palm to my cheek. And then a long time afterwards I woke up really and knew at once that the hand of my physical body had been lying in a closed position undisturbed on my chest all the while. The sensation of the voice during a lucid dream is most marvellous, and after many repetitions still a source of amazement. 1 use my voice as loudly as 1 can, and though I know quite well that my physical body is lying in profound sleep, I can hardly believe that this loud voice is inaudible in the
*For recent treatments of the phenomena of "astral projection," which seems phenomenologically similar to lucid dreams, see Broad, 1959; Eastman, 1962; Tart, 1967; 1968 Editor.
waking world. Yet, though I have sung, shouted, and spoken loudly in hundreds of dreams, my wife has never heard my voice, and in several cases was able to assure me that I had slept quite peacefully. I cannot in this paper give even a short and superficial account ofthe many interesting details of these dreams. I must reserve that for my larger work. And I fear that only a repeated personal acquaintance with the facts can convince one of their significance. I will relate a few more instances in order to give some idea of their character. On Sept. 9, 1904 I dreamt that I stood at a table before a window. On the table were different objects. I was perfectly well aware that I was dreaming and I considered what sorts of experiments I could make. 1 began by trying to break glass, by beating it with a stone. 1 put a small tablet of glass on two stones and struck it with another stone. Yet it would not break. Then 1 took a fine claret-glass from the table and struck it with my fist, with all my might, at the same time reflecting how dangerous it would be to do this in waking life; yet the glass remained whole. But lo! when 1 looked at it again after some time, it was broken.* It broke all right, but a little too late, like an actor who misses his cue. This gave me a very curious impression of being in a fake-world, cleverly imitated, but with small failures. I took the broken glass and threw it out of the window, in order to observe whether 1 could hear the tinkling. I heard the noise all right and I even saw two dogs run away from it quite naturally. I thought what a good imitation this comedy-world was. Then 1 saw a decanter with claret and tasted it, and noted with perfect clearness of mind: "Well, we can also have voluntary impressions of taste in this dream-world; this has quite the taste of wine." There is a saying by the German poet, Novalis, that when we dream that we dream, we are near waking up. This view, shared as it is by the majority of observers, I must decidedly reject. Lucid dreams occur in deep sleep and do not as a rule end in waking up, unless I wish it and do it by an act of volition. I prefer, however, in most cases to continue dreaming as long as possible, and then the lucidity vanishes and gives place to other forms of dream, andwhat seems remarkablethe form that follows is often the "demon-dream," of which I will speak presently. Then it often happens that 1 dream that 1 wake up and tell my lucid dream to some other person. This latter is then a dream of the ordinary form. From this dream I wake up in the real waking world, very much amazed at the curious wanderings of my mind. The impression is as if I had been rising through spheres of different depths, of which the lucid dream was the deepest.
*This corresponds with Mach's observation about the perspective o f t h e twigs.
I may state that without exception all my lucid dreams occurred in the hours between five and eight in the morning. The particular significance of these hours for our dreams has often been brought forwardamong others by Dante, Purg. IX., where he speaks of the hour when the swallows begin to warble and our mind is least clogged by the material body. Lucid dreams are also symbolicyet in quite a different way, I never remarked anything sexual or erotic in them. Their symbolism takes the form of beautiful landscapesdifferent luminous phenomena, sunlight, clouds, and especially a deep blue sky. In a perfect instance of the lucid dream 1 float through immensely wide landscapes, with a clear blue, sunny sky, and a feeling of deep bliss and gratitude, which I feel impelled to express by eloquent words of thankfulness and piety. Sometimes these words seem to me a little rhetorical, but I cannot help it, as it is very difficult in dreams to control emotional impulses. Sometimes I conceive of what appears as a symbol, warning, consoling, approving. A cloud gathers or the light brightens. Only once could I see the disc of the sun. Flying or floating may be observed in all forms of dreams, except perhaps the class of general dream sensations; yet it is generally an indication that lucid dreams are coming. When I have been flying in my dreams for two or three nights, then f know that a lucid dream is at hand. And the lucid dream itself is often initiated and accompanied all the time by the sensation of flying. Sometimes 1 feel myself floating swiftly through wide spaces; once I flew backwards, and once, dreaming that I was inside a cathedral, I flew upwards, with the immense building and all in it, at great speed. I cannot believe that the rhythm of our breath has anything to do with this sensation, as Havelock Ellis supposes, because it is generally continuous and very swift. Difficult, spasmodic floating belongs to dreaming of a lower class, and this may depend on morbid conditions ofthe body; but it may also be symbolic of some moral difficulty or distress. On Christmas Day 19111 had the following dream. It began with flying and floating. I felt wonderfully light and strong. I saw immense and beautiful prospectsfirst a town, then country-landscapes, fantastic and brightly colored. Then I saw my brother sittingthe same who died in 1906and 1 went up to him saying: "Now we are dreaming, both of us." He answered: "No, I am not!"And then I remembered that he was dead. We had a long conversation about the conditions of existence after death, and 1 inquired especially after the awareness, the clear, bright insight. But that he could not answer; he seemed to lack it. Then the lucid dream was interrupted by an ordinary dream in which 1 saw a lady standing on a bridge, who told me she had heard me talk in my sleep. And I supposed that my voice had been audible during the lucid dream.
Then a second period of lucidity followed in which I saw Prof, van't Hoff, the famous Dutch chemist, whom I had known as a student, standing in a sort of college-room, surrounded by a number of learned people. I went up to him, knowing very well that he was dead, and continued my inquiry about our condition after death. It was a long, quiet conversation, in which 1 was perfectly aware of the situation. 1 asked first why we, lacking our organs of sense, could arrive at any certainty that the person to whom we were talking was really that person and not a subjective illusion. Then van't Hoff said: "Just as in common life; by a general impression." "Yet," I said, "in common life there is stability of observation and there is consolidation by repeated observation." "Here also," said van't Hoff, "And the sensation o f c m a w r y i s t h e s a m e . " Then I had indeed a very strong feeling of certitude that it was really van't Hoff with whom I talked and no subjective illusion. Then 1 began to inquire again about the clearness, the lucidity, the stability of this life of shades, and then I got the same hesitating, dubious, unsatisfactory answer as from my brother. The whole atmosphere of the dream was happy, bright, elevated, and the persons around van't Hoff seemed sympathetic, though I did not know them. "It will be some time probably before I join you," 1 said. But I took myself then for younger than I was. After that I had several ordinary dreams and 1 awoke quite refreshed, knowing my voice had not been audible in the waking world. In May 1903 I dreamed that 1 was in a little provincial Dutch town and at once encountered my brother-in-law, who had died some time before. I was absolutely sure that it was he, and 1 knew that he was dead. He told me that he had much intercourse with my "controller," as he expressed it my guiding spirit. I was glad, and our conversation was very cordial, more intimate than ever in common life. He told me that a financial catastrophe was impending for me. Somebody was going to rob me of a sum of 10,000 guilders. I said that I understood him, though after waking up 1 was utterly puzzled by it and could make nothing of it. My brother-in-law said that my guiding spirit had told it to him. I told the story to somebody else in my dream. Then I asked my brother-in-law to tell me more o f t h e after-life, and just as he was going to answer me 1 woke upas if somebody cut off the communication. I was not then as much used to prolonging my dreams as I am now. I wish to point out that this was the only prediction I ever received in a lucid dream in such an impressive way. And it came only too true, with this difference, that the sum I lost was twenty times greater. At the time of the dream there seemed not to be the slightest probability of such a catastrophe.
I was not even in possession of the money I lost afterwards. Yet it was just the time when the first events took placethe railway strikes of 1903that ted up to my financial ruin. There may be deceit in the lucid dream. In March 19121 had a very complicated dream, in which 1 dreamt that Theodore Roosevelt wasdead, then that 1 woke up and told the dream, saying: "I was not sure in my dream whether he was really dead or still alive; now I know that he is really dead; but 1 was so struck by the news that I lost my memory. 1 ' And then came a false lucidity in which I said: "Now I know that I dream and where I am." But this was all wrong; I had no idea of my real condition, and only slowly, after waking up, I realized that it was all nonsense. This sort of mockery I call demoniacal. And there is a connection, which I observed so frequently that it must have some significancenamely, that a lucid dream is immediately followed by an eighth type of dream 1 call a demon-dream. I hope you allow me, if only for convenience sake, to speak as if these intelligences of a low moral order exist. Let me call it also a working hypothesis. Then I wish to point out to you the difference between the symbolic or mocking dreams described earlier and the demon-dreams. In the symbolic dreams the sleeper is teased or puzzled or harassed by various more or less weird, uncanny, obscene, lugubrious or diabolical inventions. He has to walk in slaughter-houses or among corpses; he finds everything besmeared with blood or excrement; he is drawn into obscene, erotic or horrible scenes, in which he even takes an active part. His moral condition is utterly depraved; he is a murderer, an adulterer, etc.; in a word, nothing is too low or too horrible for such dreams. After waking up the effect is, of course, unpleasant; he is more or less ashamed and shocked; he tries to shake off the memory as soon as possible. Now in the demon-dreamswhich are always very near, before or after, the lucid dreams1 undergo similar attacks; but I see the forms, the figures, the personalities of strange non-human beings, who are doing it. One night, for instance, 1 saw such a being, going before me and soiling everything he touched, such as door-handles and chairs. These beings are always obscene and lascivious, and try to draw me into their acts and doings. They have no sex and appear alternately as a man, or a woman. Their aspect is very various and variable, changing every moment, taking all the fantastic forms that the old painters of the Middle Ages tried to reproduce, but with a certain weird plasticity and variability, that no painting can express. I will describe one instance of these dreams (March 30, 1907, in Berlin), following, immediately after a lucid dream. The lucidity had not been very intense, and 1 had some doubts about my real condition. Then all at once 1 was in the middle of demons. Never before had 1 seen them so distinct, so
impertinent, so aggressive. One was slippery, shining, limp and cold, like a living corpse. Another changed its face repeatedly and made the most incredible grimaces. One flew underneath me shouting an obscenity with a curious slang-word. I defended myself energetically, but principally with invectives, which I felt to be a weakness. I saw the words written. The circle of demons was close to me and grinning like a mob of brutal street-boys. I was not afraid, however, and said: "Even if you conquer me, if God wills it I do not fear." Then they all cried together like a rabble, and one said: "Let God then speak first!" And then I thundered with all my might: "He HAS spoken long since!" And then I pointed at one of them, saying: "You I know for a long time!" and then pointing to another: "And you!" Then ] awoke at once, and I believe I made some audible sound in waking up in the middle of my apostrophe. And thenthis will astonish you mostafter this dispute 1 felt thoroughly refreshed, cheered up and entirely serene and calm. This is the principal difference from the symbolic dreams that in the demon-dreams when 1 see the demons and fight them, the effect is thoroughly pleasing, refreshing and uplifting. This is the principal point in these demon-dreamsthat, whether these beings have a real existence or whether they are only creations of my fancy, to see them and to fight them takes away all their terror, alltheuncanniness, the weirdness, of their tricks and pranks.* I have not yet spoken about the ninth dream type, which I call wrong waking upt occurring always near awakening. Of this sort of dream I found an excellent instance described by Mach (1903). He calls it "Phantasma." We have the sensation of waking up in our ordinary sleeping-room and then we begin to realize that there is something uncanny around us; we see inexplicable movements or hear strange noises, and then we know that we are still asleep. In my first experience of this dream I was rather afraid and wanted nervously to wake up really. 1 think this is the case that most people who have it. They become frightened and nervous and at last wake up with palpitations, a sweating brow and so on. To me now these wrong-waking-up-dreams have lost their terror. 1 consider them as demon-pranks, and they amuse me; they do not tell on my nerves any more. In July 1906 sleeping at Langen Schwalbach a deep sleep after a laborious day, I had two or three dreams of this type. I seemed to wake up and heard a big luggage-box being blown along the landing, with a tremendous bumping. Then I realized that I had awakened in the demon-sphere. The second time I saw that my sleeping-room had three windows, though I knew there were
C o m p a r e this with Stewart's article on the Senoi, chapter 9 Editor.
only two. Wishing to make sure, I woke up for a moment voluntarily and realized that my room had two windows and that stillness had reigned in the house all night. After that 1 had a succession of lucid dreams, very beautiful. At the end of them, while I was still singing loudly, I was suddenly surrounded by many demons, who joined in my singing, like a mob of vicious semi-savage creatures. Then 1 felt that I was losing my self-control. I began to act more and more extravagantly, to throw my bedclothes and my pillows about, and so on. 1 drew myself up and saw one demon who had a less vicious look than the others and he looked as if he were saying "you are going wrong." "Yes," I said, "but what shall 1 do?" Then he said, "Give them the whip, on their naked backs." And I thought of Dante's shades, who also feared the whip. I at once madecreateda whip of leathern strings, with leaden balls at the end. And 1 threatened them with it and also struck at them a few times. Then suddenly all grew perfectly quiet around me, and 1 saw the creatures sneaking away with hypocritical faces, as if they knew nothing about it at all. I had many more adventures that night, lucid and ordinary dreams, and 1 awoke fresh and cheerful, better in spirits than I had been for a longtime. This wrong-waking-up type is not to be confused with the dreams related on p. 152, in which 1 dreamt that 1 woke after a lucid dream and told that dream to some listener. Those dreams were o f t h e ordinary sort. There was nothing uncanny about them. Dreams of the wrong-waking-up class are undoubtedly demoniacal, uncanny, and very vivid and bright, with a sort of ominous sharpness and clearness, a strong diabolical light. Moreover the mind of the sleeper is aware that it is a dream, and a bad one, and he struggles to wake up. As I said just now, however, the terror ends as soon as the demons are seenas soon as the sleeper realizes that he must be the dupe of intelligences of a low moral order. 1 am prepared to hear myself accused of superstition, of reviving the dark errors of the Middle Ages. Well, 1 only try to tell the facts as clearly as possible and I cannot do it without using these terms and ideas. If anybody will replace them by others, 1 am open to any suggestion. Only I would maintain that it is not my mind that is responsible for all the horrors and errors of dream-life. To say \\\d\ nobody responsible for them will not do, for there is absolute evidence in them of some thought and intention, however depraved and low. A trick, a deceit, a symbol, cannot be without some sort of thought and intention. To put it all down to "unconsciousness" is very convenient; but then I say that it is just as scientific to use the names Beelzebub, or Belial. I, for one, do not believe in "unconsciousness" any more than in Santa Claus. The remark may be made that in introducing intelligent beings of alow order to explain these phenomena, an element of arbitrariness is brought
in, which excludes the possibility of finding a scientific order. It is, for instance, convenient to ascribe all the phenomena of insanity and of pathological dreams to demons, who make use ofthe weakness o f t h e body to play their tricks. This is, in fact, the opinion of no less a man than Alfred Russel Wallace, as he freely confessed to me in a personal conversation. I do not think, however, that even this idea, taken as a working hypothesis, will prevent us from trying to find a scientific order even in these apparently demoniacal tricks; the fact, for instance, that certain drugs bring about hallucinations of a well-defined kind; that cocaine produces delicious expectations and pleasant dreams, and alcohol causes visions of small white animals. This suggests that there must be some order behind it, which is not purely arbitrary. We are here, however, on the borders of a realm of mystery where we have to advance very carefully. To deny may be just as dangerous and misleading as to accept.
DREAM THEORY IN MALAYA
KILTON S T E W A R T
If you should hear that a flying saucer from another planet had landed on Gulangra, a lonely mountain peak in the Central Mountain Range of the Malay Peninsula a hundred years ago, you would want to know how the space ship was constructed and what kind of power propelled it, but most of all you would want to know about the people who navigated it and the society from which they came. If they lived in a world without crime and war and destructive conflict, and if they were comparatively free from chronic mental and physical ailments, you would want to know about their methods of healing and education, and whether these methods would work as well with the inhabitants of the earth. If you heard further that the navigators o f t h e ship had found a group of 12,000 people living as an isolated community among the mountains, and had demonstrated that these preliterate people could utilize their methods of healing and education, and reproduce the society from which the celestial navigators came, you would probably be more curious about these psychological and social methods that conquered space inside the individual, than you would about the mechanics of the ship which conquered outside space. As a member of a scientific expedition travelling through the unexplored equatorial rain forest o f t h e Central Range o f t h e Malay Peninsula in 1935, I was introduced to an isolated tribe of jungle folk, who employed methods of psychology and inter-personal relations so astonishing that they might have come from another planet. These people, the Senoi, lived in long community houses, skillfully constructed of bamboo, rattan, and thatch, and held away from the ground on poles. They maintained themselves by
By permission of Mrs. Kilton Stewart.
practising dry-land, shifting agriculture, and by hunting and fishing. Their language, partly Indonesian and partly Non-Kamian, relates them to the peoples of Indonesia to the south and west, and to the Highlanders of Indo-China and Burma, as do their physical characteristics. Study of their political and social organization indicates that the political authority in their communities was originally in the hands of the oldest members of patrilineal clans, somewhat as in the social structure of China and other parts of the world. But the major authority in all their communities is now held by their primitive psychologists whom they call halaks. The only honorary title in the society is that of Tohat, which is equivalent to a doctor who is both a healer and an educator, in our terms. The Senoi claim there has not been a violent crime or an intercommunal conflict for a space of two or three hundred years because o f t h e insight and inventiveness o f t h e Tohats of their various communities. The foothill tribes which surround the Central Mountain Range have such a firm belief in the magical powers of this Highland group that they give the territory a wide berth. From all we could learn, their psychological knowledge of strangers in their territory, the Senoi said they could very easily devise means of scaring them off. They did not practise black magic, but allowed the nomadic hill-folk surrounding them to think that they did if strangers invaded their territory. This fear of Senoi magic accounts for the fact that they have not, over a long period, had to fight with outsiders. But the absence of violent crime, armed conflict, and mental and physical diseases in their own society can only be explained on the basis of institutions which produce a high state of psychological integration and emotional maturity, along with social skills and attitudes which promote creative, rather than destructive, inter-personal relations. They are, perhaps, the most democratic group reported in anthropological literature. In the realms of family, economics, and politics, their society operates smoothly on the principle of contract, agreement, and democratic concensus, with no need of police force, jail, psychiatric hospital to reinforce the agreements or to confine those who are not willing or able to reach consensus. Study of their society seems to indicate that they have arrived at this high state of social and physical cooperation and intergration through the system of psychology which they discovered, invented, and developed, and that the principles of this system of psychology are understandable in terms of Western scientific thinking. It was the late H. D. Noone, the Government Ethnologist ofthe Federated Malay States, who introduced me to this astonishing group. He agreed with me that they have built a system of inter-personal relations which, in the field of psychology, is perhaps on a level with our attainments in such areas
KILTON STEWART
as television and nuclear physics. From a year's experience with these people working as a research psychologist, and another year with Noone in England integrating his seven years of anthropological research with my own findings, ! am able to make the following formulations of the principles of Senoi psychology. Being a pre-literate group, the principles of their psychology are simple and easy to learn, understand, and even employ. Fifteen years of experimentation with these Senoi principles have convinced me that all men, regardless of their actual cultural development, might profit by studying them. Senoi psychology falls into two categories. The first deals with dream interpretation; the second with dream expression in the agreement trance or cooperative reverie. The cooperative reverie is not participated in until adolescence and serves to initiate the child into the states of adulthood. After adolescence, if he spends a great deal of time in the trance state, a Senoi is considered a specialist in healing or in the use of extra-sensory powers. Dream interpretation, however, is a feature of child education and is the common knowledge of all Senoi adults. The average Senoi layman practises the psychotherapy of dream interpretation of his family and associates as a regular feature of education and daily social intercourse. Breakfast in the Senoi house is like a dream clinic, with the father and older brothers listening to and analyzing the dreams of all the children. At the end o f t h e family clinic the male population gathers in the council, at which the dreams o f t h e older children and all the men in the community are reported, discussed, and analyzed. While the Senoi do not of course employ our system of terminology, their psychology of dream interpretation might be summed up as follows: man creates features or images of the outside world in his own mind as part o f t h e adaptive process. Some of these features are in conflict with him and with each other. Once internalized, these hostile images turn man against himself and against his fellows. In dreams man has the power to see these facts of his psyche, which have been disguised in external forms, associated with his own fearful emotions, and turned against him and the internal images of other people. If the individual does not receive social aid through education and therapy, these hostile images, built up by man's normal receptivenessto the outside world, get tied together and associated with one another in a way which makes him physically, socially, and psychologically abnormal. Unaided, these dream beings, which man creates to reproduce inside himself the external socio-physical environment, tend to remain against him the way the environment was against him, or to become disassociated from his major personality and tied up in wasteful psychic, organic, and muscular
tensions. With the help of dream interpretations, these psychological replicas of the socio-physical environment can be redirected and reorganized and again become useful to the major personality. The Senoi believes that any human being, with the aid ofhis fellows, can outface, master, and actually utilize all beings and forces in the dream universe. His experience leads him to believe that, if you cooperate with your fellows or oppose them with good will in the day time, their images will help you in your dreams, and that every person should be the supreme ruler and master of his own dream or spiritual universe, and can demand and receive the help and cooperation of all the forces there. In order to evaluate these principles of dream interpretation and social action, I made a collection of the dreams of younger and older Senoi children, adolescents, and adults, and compared them with similar collections made in other societies where they had different social attitudes towards the dream and different methods of dream interpretation. I found through this larger study that the dream process evolved differently in the various societies, and that the evolution of the dream process seemed to be related to the adaptability and individual creative output of the various societies. It may be of interest to the readerto examine in detail the methods of Senoi dream interpretation: The simplest anxiety or terror dream 1 found among the Senoi was the falling dream. When the Senoi child reports a falling dream, the adult answers with enthusiasm, "That is a wonderful dream, one ofthe best dreams a man can have. Where did you fall to, and what did you discover?" He makes the same comment when the child reports a climbing, travelling, flying, or soaring dream. The child at first answers, as he would in our society, that it did not seem so wonderful, and that he was so frightened that he awoke before he had fallen anywhere. "That was a mistake," answers the adult-authority. "Everything you do in a dream has a purpose, beyond your understanding while you are asleep. You must relax and enjoy yourself when you fall in a dream. Falling is the quickest way to get in contact with the powers ofthe spirit world, the powers laid open to you through your dreams. Soon, when you have a falling dream, you will remember what I am saying, and as you do, you will feel that you are travelling to the source of the power which has caused you to fall. "The falling spirits love you. They are attracting you to their land, and you have but to relax and remain asleep in order to come to grips with them. When you meet them, you may be frightened of their terrific power, but go on. When you think you are dying in a dream, you are only receiving the powers of the other world, your own spiritual power which has been turned against you, and which now wishes to become one with you if you will accept it".
The astonishing thing is that over a period of time, with this type of social interaction, praise, or criticism, imperatives, and advice, the dream which starts out with fear of falling changes into the joy of flying. This happens to everyone in the Senoi society. That which was an indwelling fear or anxiety, becomes an indwelling joy or act of will; that which was ill esteem toward the forces which caused the child to fall in his dream, becomes good will towards the denizens of the dream world, because he relaxes in his dream and finds pleasureable adventures, rather than waking up with a clammy skin and a crawling scalp. The Senoi believe and teach that the dreamerthe " I " of the d r e a m should always advance and attack in the teeth of danger, calling on the dream images of his fellows if necessary, but fighting by himself until they arrive. In bad dreams the Senoi believe real friends will never attack the dreamer or refuse help. If any dream character who looks like a friend is hostile or uncooperative in a dream, he is only wearing the mask of a friend. If the dreamer attacks and kills the hostile dream character, the spirit or essence of this dream character will always emerge as a servant or ally. Dream characters are bad only as long as one is afraid and retreating from them, and will continue to seem bad and fearful as long as one refuses to come to grips with them. According to the Senoi, pleasurable dreams, such as of flying or sexual love, should be continued until they arrive at a resolution which, on awakening, leaves one with something of beauty or use to the group. For example, one should arrive somewhere when he flies, meet the beings there, hear their music, see their designs, their dances, and learn their useful knowledge. Dreams of sexual love should always move through orgasm, and the dreamer should then demand from his dream lover the poem, the song, the dance, the useful knowledge which will express the beauty of his spiritual lover to a group. If this is done, no dream man or woman can take the love which belongs to human beings. If the dream character demanding love looks like a brother or sister, with whom love would be abnormal or incestuous in reality, one need have no fear of expressing love in the dream, since these dream beings are not, in fact, brother or sister, but have only chosen these taboo images as a disguise. Such dream beings are only facets of one's own spiritual or psychic makeup, disguised as brother or sister, and useless until they are reclaimed or possessed through the free expression of love in the dream universe. If the dreamer demands and receives from his love partners a contribution which he can express to the group on awakening, he cannot express or receive too much love in dreams. A rich love life in dreams indicates the favor of the beings of the spiritual or emotional universe. If the dreamer injures the dream images of his fellows or refuses to cooperate with them
in dreams, he should go out of his way to express friendship and cooperation on awakening, since hostile dream characters can only use the image of people for whom his good will is running low. If the image of a friend hurts him in a dream, the friend should be advised of the fact, so he can repair his damaged or negative dream image by friendly social intercourse. Let us examine some of the elements of the social and psychological processes involved in this type of dream interpretation: First, the child receives social recognition and esteem for discovering and relating what might be called an anxiety-motivated psychic reaction. This is the first step among the Senoi toward convincing the child that he is acceptable to authority even when he reveals how he is inside. Second, it describes the working of his mind as rational, even when he is asleep. To the Senoi it is just as reasonable for the child to adjust his inner tension states for himself as it is for a Western child to do his homework for the teacher. Third, the interpretation characterizes the force which the child feels in the dream as a power which he can control through a process of relaxation and mental set, a force which is his as soon as he can reclaim it and learn to direct it. Fourth, the Senoi education indicates that anxiety is not only important in itself, but that it blocks the free play of imaginative thinking and creative activity to which dreams could otherwise give rise. Fifth, it establishes the principle that the child should make decisions and arrive at resolutions in his night-time thinking as well as in that of the day, and should assume a responsible attitude toward all his psychic reactions and forces. Sixth, it acquaints the child with the fact that he can better control his psychic reactions by expressing them and taking thought upon them, than by concealing and repressing them. Seventh, it initiates the Senoi child into a way of thinking which will be strengthened and developed throughout the rest of his life, and which assumes that a human being who retains good will for his fellows and communicates his psychic reactions to them for approval and criticism, is the supreme ruler of all the individual forces o f t h e spiritsubjectiveworld whatsoever. Man discovers his deepest self and reveals his greatest creative power at times when his psychic processes are most free from immediate involvement with the environment and most under the control ofhis indwelling balancing or homeostatic power. The freest type of psychic play occurs in sleep, and the social acceptance of the dream would, therefore, constitute the deepest possible acceptance of the individual.
Among the Senoi one accumulates good will for people because they encourage on every hand the free exercise and expression of that which is most basically himself, either directly or indirectly, through the acceptance o f t h e dream process. At the same time, the child is told that he must refuse to settle with the denizens of the dream world unless they make some contribution which is socially meaningful and constructive as determined by social consensus on awakening. Thus his dream reorganization is guided in a way which makes his adult aggressive action socially constructive. Among the Senoi where the authority tells the child that every dream force and character is real and important, and in essence permanent, that it can and must be outfaced, subdued, and forced to make a socially meaningful contribution, the wisdom of the body operating in sleep, seems in fact to reorganize the accumulating experience of the child in such a way that the natural tendency of the higher nervous system to perpetuate unpleasant experiences is first neutralized and then reversed. We could call this simple type of interpretation dream analysis. It says to the child that there is a manifest content ofthe dream, the root he stubbed his toe on, or the fire that burned him, or the composite individual that disciplined him. But there is also a latent content ofthe dream, a force which is potentially useful, but which will plague him until he outfacesthe manifest content in a future dream, and either persuades or forces it to make a contribution which will be judged useful or beautiful by the group, after he awakes. We could call this type of interpretation suggestion. The tendency to perpetuate in sleep the negative image of a personified evil, is neutralized in the dream by a similar tendency to perpetuate the positive image of a sympathetic social authority. Thus accumulating social experience supports the organizing wisdom o f t h e body in the dream, making the dreamer first unafraid o f t h e negative image and its accompanying painful tension states, and later enabling him to break up that tension state and transmute the accumulated energy from anxiety into a poem, a song, a dance, a new type of trap, or some other creative product, to which an individual or the whole group will react with approval (or criticize) the following day. The following further example from the Senoi will show how this process operates: A child dreams that he is attacked by a friend and, on awakening, is advised by his father to inform his friend of this fact. The friend's father tells his child that it is possible that he has offended the dreamer without wishing to do so, and allowed a malignant character to use his image as a disguise in the dream. Therefore, he should give a present to the dreamer and go out of his way to be friendly toward him, to prevent such an occurrence in the future.
The aggression building up around the image of the friend in the dreamer's mind thereby becomes the basis of a friendly exchange. The dreamer is also told to fight back in the future dreams, and to conquer any dream character using the friend's image as a disguise. Another example of what is probably a less direct tension state in the dreamer toward another person is dealt with in an equally skillful manner. The dreamer reports seeing a tiger attack another boy of the long house. Again, he is advised to tell the boy about the dream, to describe the place where the attack occurred and, if possible, to show it to him so that he can be on his guard, and in future dreams kill the tiger before it has a chance to attack him. The parents of the boy in the dream again tell the child to give the dreamer a present, and to consider him a special friend. Even a tendency toward unproductive fantasy is effectively dealt with in the Senoi dream education. If the child reports floating dreams, or a dream of finding food, he is told that he must float somewhere in his next dream and find something of value to his fellows, or that he must share the food he is eating; and if he has a dream of attacking someone he must apologize to them, share a delicacy with them, or make them some sort of toy. Thus, before aggression, selfishness, and jealousy can influence social behavior, the tensions expressed in the permissive dream state become the hub of social action in which they are discharged without being destructive. My data on the dream life of the various Senoi age groups would indicate that dreaming can and does become the deepest type of creative thought. Observing the lives of the Senoi it occurred to me that modern civilization may be sick because people have sloughed off, or failed to develop, half their power to think. Perhaps the most important half. Certainly, the Senoi suffer little by intellectual comparison with ourselves. They have equal power for logical thinking while awake, considering their environmental data, whereas our capacity to solve problems in dreams is inferior compared to theirs. In the adult Senoi a dream may start with a waking problem which has failed solution, with an accident, or a social debacle. A young man brings in some wild gourd seeds and shares them with his group. They have a purgative effect and give everyone diarrhea. The young man feels guilty and ashamed and suspects that they are poisonous. That night he has a dream, and the spirit of the gourd seeds appears, makes him vomit up the seeds, and explains that they have value only as a medicine, when a person is ill. Then the gourd spirit gives him a song and teaches him a dance which he can show his group on awakening, thereby gaining recognition and winning back his self-esteem. Or, a falling tree which wounds a man appears in his dreams to take away the pain, and explains that it wishes to make friends with him. Then
the tree spirit gives him a new and unknown rhythm which he can play on his drums. Or, the jilted lover is visited in his dreams by the woman who rejected him, who explains that she is sick when she is awake and not good enough for him. As a token of her true feeling, she gives him a poem. The Senoi does not exhaust the power to think while asleep with these simple social and environmental situations. The bearers who carried out our equipment under very trying conditions became dissatisfied and were ready to desert. Their leader, a Senoi shaman, had a dream in which he was visited by the spirit o f t h e empty boxes. The song and music this dream character gave him so inspired the bearers, and the dance he directed so relaxed and rested them, that they claimed the boxes had lost their weight and finished the expedition in the best of spirits. Even this solution of a difficult social situation, involving people who were not all members of the dreamer's group, is trivia) compared with the dream solutions which occur now that the Senoi territory has been opened up to alien culture contacts. Datu Bintung at Jelong had a dream which succeeded in breaking down the major social barriers in clothing and food habits between his group and the surrounding Chinese and Mohammedan colonies. This was accomplished chiefly through a dance which his dream prescribed. Only those who did his dance were required to change their food habits and wear the new clothing, but the dance was so good that nearly all the Senoi along the border chose to do it. In this way, the dream created social change in a democratic manner. Another feature of Datu Bintung's dream involved the ceremonial status of women, making them more nearly the equals of men, although equality is not a feature of either Chinese or Mohammedan societies. So far as could be determined this was a pure creative action which introduced greater equality in the culture, just as reflective thought has produced more equality in our society. In the West the thinking we do while asleep usually remains on a muddled, childish, or psychotic level because we do not respond to dreams as socially important and include dreaming in the educative process. This social neglect of the side of man's reflective thinking, when the creative process is most free, seems poor education.
THE " H I G H " DREAM: A NEW STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
People have generally regarded a dream occurring at night as a unitary phenomenon: a dream is a dream is a dream Close questioning of people about the formal nature (as opposed to the particular content) of their dreams will reveal many differences between one person's dreams and another's. For example, we have always known some people dream in color while others never report color. This fact of individual differences suggests that there might be not only quantitative differences among various dreams of the same individual (such as in intensity of imagery, affect, feeling of control, etc.) but perhaps qualitative differences, i.e., that there may in fact be several psychologically and experientially distinct phenomena that have been indiscriminately lumped together under the term "dream." Modern laboratory studies of sleep and dreaming have now indicated there are at least twodistinct types of mental activity occurring duringsleep, one associated with a stage 1 EEG pattern and the other associated with a stage 2, 3, or 4 EEG (Foulkes, 1962, 1964; Goodenough, Lewis, Shapiro, Jaret, & Sleser, 1965; Monroe, Rechtschaffen, Foulkes, & Jensen, 1965; Rechtschaffen, Verdone, & Wheaton, 1963). The stage I mental activity has the characteristics we usually associate with dreaming: vivid visual imagery, being located at some distant place, interacting with other
By permission of the author.
" H I G H " DREAM: NEW STATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
characters, intense emotions, lack of recognition that one is actually lying in bed asleep, etc. The mental activity in the other stages of sleep is thought-like, and has little or no visual imagery. Typical reports are on the order of "I was wondering what to buy at the store tomorrow.'.' Further, non-stage 1 mental activity seems such less likely to be recalled by most subjects. An even more interesting type of dream has been occasionally reported (Arnold-Forster, 1921; van Eeden, 1913, 1918) by introspective writers, which van Eeden called the "lucid" dream. This has the unusual characteristic that the dreamer "wakes" from an ordinary dream in that he feels he is suddenly in possession o f h i s normal waking consciousness and knows that he is actually lying in bed asleep: but, the dream world he is in remains perfectly real. What stage of sleep this lucid dream might be associated with is unknown. There are occasional references to learning how to produce this sort of dream as a dream yoga, leading to liberation (Narayana, 1922; Chang, 1963), but other than that almost nothing is known about it. I have had a lucid dream about three times in my life, during the past (en years, and so can testify to its experiential reality. Each time it occurred from a normal dream: for a few seconds my state of consciousness would shift to a "full waking" state in which I seemed possessed of all my normal mental faculties, yet the dream world stayed perfectly real and I was experientially located "in" it. At the same time, I had to maintain a curious sort of mental "balance of activation" which I cannot describe adequately. If 1 pushed the activation too high I would actually wake up; if I didn't keep it high enough I would slip back into ordinary dream consciousness. I could not maintain the right balance for more than about half a minute on each occasion. It appears then that there are at least three distinct types of mental activity that occur during sleep: "dreaming," associated with a stage 1 EEG pattern, "sleep thinking," associated with a stage 2, 3, or 4 pattern,* and the "lucid dream." I would now like to describe what may be a fourth type of dreaming activity, which I shall term the "high dream."t I have had this type of
*l have noticed rational, thought-like activity in my dreams as a sort of background to the attention-attracting sensory and emotional action of ordinary dreaming on occasion, so it may be that "sleep thought" occurs continuously during sleep and is simply masked by the much more vivid activity of stage 1 dreaming. t t use the popular term "high" rather than the more neutral term "psychedelic" to describe this type of dream for two reasons. First, the term "high" implies a positive, valued experience rather than a neutral one and this is true about the high dream. Second, the term "psychedelic" is currently being used in such loose and sloppy ways as to have lost much of its descriptive value.
dream about a dozen times in the past few years, subsequent to personal experience with psychedelic chemicals, although usually not in close temporal proximity to a psychedelic experience. This experience is a distinct shift to a new type of consciousness within the dream state, like being "high" on a psychedelic chemical, although not exactly the same. I have talked to many people who have had chemical psychedelic experiences but found only a few of them also noting high dreams. I will present a few dreams (mine and others) below to illustrate the phenomena before attempting a formal definition. All of these dreams are from people who have had many years interest in their dreams and so were good observers of dream processes, as well as having had chemically induced psychedelic experiences. My first dream of this sort occurred several hours after the end of an LSD-25 session (dosage of 175 fig), so there was probably still some chemical activity occurring, although I had felt almost completely normal ongoing to bed. Several hours after falling asleep I found myself in a condition that was not sleep, dreaming, or waking. In it I was holding on to a gestalt concept of my waking personality, and with this nebulously articulated concept as a constant background I was examining statements about personality characteristics: slow to anger, high interest in outdoors, etc. Each concept would be examined and, if acceptable, "programmed" into the waking personality that would emerge on the morrow. If unacceptable the statement was thrown away rather than being programmed. Exactly what this programming operation was was clear in this high dream, but could not be recalled clearly on waking. Like many psychedelic experiences, the memory cannot be re-experienced in ordinary consciousness. A high dream from a psychologist acquaintance goes as follows:
I was standing in the countryside talking with a friend of mine, Bill. In the dream he had recently returned from San Francisco, and he told me that he had obtained a new psychedelic drug there. He gave me a small white pill and we took the pills t o g e t h e r . . . . Shortly after swallowing the pill 1 began to feel the effects. 1 was looking at the green grass and green hills of the countryside. Slowly the green changed into lavender, then violet, then purple. Soon I was enveloped in a purple cloud. My entire body was deep purple. It was an extremely pleasant sensation. It resembled sleeping between covers of purple velvet, an experience which I had at one time in my life and which was very sensuously enjoyable. There was no difference between inner and outer sensation: I felt the purple on the inside as well as on the outside. When I awakened I remembered this experience very clearly as it was very sensual, very unique, and very pleasant. The dream differed from my usual dreams in terms o f t h e mental processes employed: most of my dreams include a great deal of conceptual activity, but by the end of this dream I was involved in a sheer sensing function. For example, I could see purple but I did not think "I am seeing purple." I put the experience in verbal terms only upon awakening.
The primary shift in this dream is the great intensification of sensory qualities and the dropping out of ordinary intellectual activity, to the point where the dreamer no longer experiences the usual split between the knower and the known. Another dream from a young woman illustrates the great shift in sensory qualities o f t h e high dream:
1 was sitting on a large square pillow, an intense blue (pillow), or lying across it at an angle, and it was large enough so that I could do this easily. The pillow was spinning slowly and all sorts of intense colors were happening at the corners and edges. Mostly it was the feeling rather than any visual cue, a feeling of being very much with it and whole. I woke up happy to have had a little glimpse o f t h e peace t had gone to bed seeing.
Note that the dreamer emphasized that it is not simply the sensory quality alone which distinguishes the high dream from ordinary dreams. Asked to comment further on the differences between such dreams and her ordinary dreams she wrote:
Ordinary dreams usually center around action of some sort with other characters and usually take place in an everyday world. None of this is true of high dreams. The real distinction is the state of mind which in a high dream is one which would be found with marijuana or LSD, time and perceptual distortions which, however, are only pointer* for the change, which is an altered and more exclusive point of v i e w . . . .
At this point I shall attempt a formal definition of the high dream: it is an experience occurring during sleep in which you find yourself in another world, the dream world, and in which you recognize during the dream that you are in an altered state of consciousness which is similar to (but not necessarily identical with) the high induced by a chemical psychedelic. It is important to emphasize that it is not the content of the dream, but what is dreamed about that distinguishes the high dream from the ordinary dream: one could dream of taking LSD, e.g., without the change in the mental processes that constitute the high dream, just as one can dream of waking up without it being a lucid dream. This is a rough definition, but a more precise definition will not be possible until much more is known about the high dream.* It is quite possible that there may be several distinct types of high dreams also, just as there seem to be some differences in chemically
*1 am collecting accounts of high dreams for research, and would appreciate hearing from readers who have had this experience. Such accounts of your high dream(s) are confidential and for research purposes. I would also appreciate information on your ordinary dreams and your experience with psychedelic chemicals.
produced highs which are a function o f t h e particular chemical substance used (as well as set and setting). Here is another high dream from a young woman, in which there is a clear progression from ordinary dreaming consciousness to the perceptual changes that occur with getting high and on to some characteristics specifically associated with being high.
(a) Someone had brought a tremendous amount of LSD into town and had been dispensing it freely. The cops were frustrated because they couldn't arrest everyone and they didn't know who to pin it on. In dispensing this there seemed to be a spirit of free giving and there were no strangers. Someone said to me that if you took the LSD with fish the way the Indians (American) do, it wouldn't make you sick, but if you took it medically, it might. I took some by itself, but I knew it wouldn't make me sick anyway. I continued walking, and noticed that I wasn't wearing any clothes. The other people in town were dressed, but my unclothed state didn't seem to bother them. I went into a room where there were a lot of young people, and also a man I know who is associated with young people as a teacher and counselor, (b) As I went in the whole room seemed to radiate life and color. The man was sitting on one end of a couch which was covered with a serape. The colors of the serape blended and moved in a free flowing maze. I went over and lay down on the couch with my head in the man's lap. He started stroking my hair as 1 looked up at the light. The light was shimmering with rainbow colors and seemed very close, (c) As 1 lay there looking up I felt the presence of all those in the room moving into my body as definite, discernible individual vibrations. I felt these vibrations in every cell of my body and 1 was raised to a state of ecstasy.
The dreamer then awoke and felt very ecstatic for several minutes before falling asleep again. Part 1 of the dream seems to be ordinary dream consciousness: the dreamer confused her knowledge of LSD with that pertaining lo peyote (more likely to cause nausea) and added a fantasy about taking it with fish to avoid nausea. She calmly accepts her nakedness in a town of normally clothed people. This is an acceptance of incongruities typical of ordinary dream consciousness. She dreams of taking LSD and then the ordinary dream continues for a while as she walks around. In the second part she knows the LSD has taken effect as sensory intensifications begins, and by the time the dream reaches part 3 she is experiencing a type of contact with the other dream characters that is often reported with real LSD experiences. Note also that the dreamer reported feeling ecstatic for several minutes after a w a k e n i n g : this fascinating possibility, that some sort of high state of consciousness can be carried over from dream to waking, is illustrated by the following dream from a male:
I dreamed I got high on some sort of gaseous substance, like LSD in gas form. Space took on an expanded* high quality, my body (dream body) was filled with a delicious sensation of warmth, my mind "high" in an obvious but indescribable way. It only lasted a minute and then I was awakened by one o f t h e kids calling out and my wife getting up to see what was the matter. Then the most amazing thing happened: I stayed high even though awake! It had a sleepy quality to it but the expanded and warm quality of time and space carried over into my perception of the (dimly lit) room. It stayed this way for a couple of minutes, amazing me at the time because I was clearly high, as well as recalling my high dream. Then I drifted back into sleep as my wife returned to bed. I think I slipped into a high dream slate for a minute or two but can't recall clearly, as I fell asleep It was definitely a high condition, although not quite the same as an LSD high: I can't explain the difference. This high state was clearly different from ordinary dream consciousness, ordinary waking consciousness, and "ordinary" highs, and the high state itself was unchanged by the transition from dream to waking. T h u s we m a y not only have a p r o n o u n c e d shift in m e n t a l f u n c t i o n i n g d u r i n g t h e d r e a m state, b u t such a shift can carry over t o a s u b s e q u e n t w a k i n g state. Little m o r e can b e said a b o u t the high d r e a m at this point: the e x a m p l e s p r e s e n t e d a b o v e c o m p r i s e a l m o s t my entire collection of t h e m , a n d are f r o m only a few individuals. H o w f r e q u e n t l y d o e s t h e high d r e a m o c c u r ? C a n all t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of chemically induced highs be r e p r o d u c e d in it? A r e t h e r e p h e n o m e n a t h a t d o not o c c u r in chemically i n d u c e d highs? T h e high d r e a m exists as a distinct entity f r o m o r d i n a r y d r e a m s in at least a few individualists,* b u t o t h e r q u e s t i o n s a b o u t it c a n n o t be a n s w e r e d until (a) m a n y s p o n t a n e o u s high d r e a m s a r e collected f o r analysis, o r (b) we learn to p r o d u c e high d r e a m s at will f o r s t u d y . t T h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of this p a p e r h a s b e e n to call o t h e r s ' a t t e n t i o n to the existence of t h e high d r e a m with t h e h o p e t h a t this will s p u r investigation of this f a s c i n a t i n g state of consciousness.
*With a large enough collection of dreams from single individuals, it might turn out that there were hitherto unobserved transitional dream forms between ordinary dreaming and the high dream. THigh dreams might be produced by administrations of psychedelic chemicals before or during sleep, or wilh the aid of psychological methods which affect dreaming, such as posthypnotic suggestion (Tart, 1965b; 1966c; 1967c). The few published studies of the effect of LSD-25 on dreaming have been concerned with effects on sleep cycle variables in animals (Hobson, 1964) and time spent in stage I dreaming in man (Green, 1965; Kramer, Whitman, Baldridge, & Ornstein, 1966; Muzio, Roffwarg, & Kaufman, 1966), so dream content and psychological processes in dreams as affected by psychedelic* is still an unknown area.
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 4. MEDITATION
Meditation is a practice that has been praised by a small, but highly vocal, portion of humanity all through recorded history, with its extolled virtues ranging from a way of achieving happiness and peace in everyday life to escaping the limitations of the human condition and attaining a mystical union with the Divine. One would expect that such a venerable practice would have been thoroughly studied by psychology, especially because of its mental health implications, but this is far from the case. The most popular and authoritative dictionary for psychological terms (English & English, 1958) defines meditation (quite inadequately) as simple serious thought, as does a standard English language dictionary (Webster, 1956). The latest dictionary of psychiatric terms (Hinsie& Campbell, I960), although filled with definitions of rare and exotic mental processes, does not even list meditation. A glance through the indices of several current introductory psychology texts reveals no mention of meditation. We have a great deal of nonscientific writing about meditation: how to do it, how it works, what effects it produces, etc. Most of these writings come from specific religious orientations, but certain universals can be gleaned from this literature, as the selections in this section illustrate. Our scientific knowledge of meditation, however, is virtually nil. This small section contains two-thirds of the published, English language experimental work, which sounds like a large amount of material until one realizes that there are only three published studies. Deikman's paper on "De-automatization and the Mystic Experience" (Chapter 2) is relevant, as well as his other experimental and theoretical article (Deikman, 1966). Thus this area is wide
176 ON MEDITATION
open for experimental study. The dramatic nature of the effects obtained with ordinary subjects practicing meditation exercises,* as these papers reveal, promises great yields for systematic investigation. It seems likely that research in this area has been too longdelaycd through a combination of ignorance and prejudice. Scientists in general simply have not known anything about the rich tradition of meditation, and the intimate connection of meditation practices with religion has further removed it from the area of "acceptable" topics of study. The word is often used with a negative value connotation in everyday speech, implying fuzzy daydreaming or too much introversion. As the papers in this section point out, meditation can be viewed and studied with an areligious orientation; it is not necessarily connected with mystical experiences. Although prediction is premature, the potential contributions o f t h e experimental study of meditation to such diverse areas as perceptual vigilance, psychotherapy, and creativity, in both a theoretical and practical sense, warrant a greatly expanded research effort. Meditation has often been shallowly dismissed in the scientific literature by calling it "self-hypnosis" and then promptly forgetting about it. Our knowledge of the actual relationship between hypnotic states and meditative states is completely speculative rather than empirical at this time. The section opens with an article by Edward Maupin, "On Meditation," which presents a number of practical techniques for meditating: in the present state of our knowledge, any serious investigator of meditation must practice it himself to get an immediate "feeling" for it. Following this are two experimental studies. Chapter 12, by Edward Maupin, "Individual Differences in Response to a Zen Meditation Exercise," is in the nature of responses to a Zen meditation exercise and some of the personality variables affecting this response. Chapter 13, by Authur Deikman, "Experimental Meditation," is on the phenomenology of responses to meditation and some of its implications. Finally Chapter 14, by Wolfgang Kretschmer, "Meditative Techniques in Psychotherapy," illustrates some of the practical applications of meditation and related techniques to psychotherapy, applications that can be based on much more solid ground when our basic knowledge of meditation is expanded by research. Assagioli's (1965) system of psychosynthesis also makes use of meditative techniques in psychotherapy and is must reading for the therapist interested in this area. For further reading on meditation I recommend Noyes (1965), Reps (1961), Suzuki (1959), and Underhill (1955), as well as the works cited in these papers. Kamiya's paper (Chapter 35) is also quite relevant.
*John Heider (personal communication, 1967), in some as-yet-unpublished research has confirmed Deikman's and Maupin's findings that strong effects can result from short periods of meditation with ordinary Ss.
ON MEDITATION
EDWARD W .
Historically our Western culture appears to have been preoccupied with action. Our training has emphasized making and doing and controlling. With us the individualized and self-conscious self has been developed very carefully. There has been a counter-tendency in the culture to turn to internal and spiritual concerns. Prayer, fasting, some varieties of psychotherapy, and now psychedelic drugs have been used to open up another aspect o f t h e world. In contrast to the active, doing mode ofthe relation to the "external" world, this "internal" world ordinarily requires a passive, receptive attitude on the part of the experiencing person. Meditation is a classical way of developing the receptive attitude. It is practice in the skill of being quiet and paying attention. Meditation has been used in the Western sects of Christianity. Roman Catholicism appears to have articulated a psychology, or map, of what happens with meditation. The conscious exercise of attention leads to a spontaneous flow of experience to which the person becomes a receptive onlooker. At its extreme, the feeling of a separate self is lost and union with the object of meditation is felt. This state is called contemplation. My impression is that, in practice, the meditative exercises in Catholicism have been oriented to specific content. In one manual, for example, the reader is led to imagine what Christ or Mary or various saints were experiencing, at crucial points in their careers. I have no information about how effective this "discursive" meditation might be. The practices covered in this paper are not oriented toward specific content, but toward the more
general problem of becoming open and aware of one's experience. Another meditation tradition within Christianity, that of silent prayer, is probably closer to this kind of content-less meditation. Especially in Quaker congregations the emphasis is on waiting and listening. In general many of the traditions of prayer and meditation within Christianity have consisted of a kind of blabbing at God or some apartfrom-nature being about which one has all sorts of preconceived ideas. The present Western interest in meditation tends to be directed toward Eastern forms of practice, where there is a radical commitment to experiencing what one experienceseven God. Oriental rejection of verbal and conceptual substitutes for experience seems to appeal to our own growing investment in living experience. The deepest objections to meditation have been raised against its tendency to produce withdrawn, serene people who are not accessible to what is actually going on in their lives. This is certainly a possible outcome. It has been very prominent in the history of Indian mysticism. (Although some observers feel that this was a reaction to the crushing defeats of the Moslem and British invasions of India. The earlier Hindu mysticism was not so otherworldly. In Japan, of course, the Zen-trained samurai were very much engaged in practical affairs.) Krishnamurti is very critical of meditation. He attacks "special" crosslegged meditation practices on grounds that the meditative attitude must be directed toward the whole of one's living, not invested in precious, encapsulated practices (1966). Fritz Perls is, of course, even more savage in his antagonism to meditation,* even though his Gestalt Therapy (Perls, Hefferline, & Goodman, 1951) is very similar to meditations which attempt to observe the flow of experience in the here-and-now. He criticizes catatonic-like withdrawal and coercive interference with the spontaneous flow of one's life. These are serious objections. The primary problem seems to be that people who engage in practices designed to produce personal growth tend to split these practices off from the rest of their lives. True growth must take place in ordinary living. It happens in psychotherapy, where what happens in the analyst's office is somehow of a different order, split off and more important than the more mundane remainder of life. Christianity has a strong historical tendency to split God from the apparent world. The Christian has tended to feel that his real growth has less to do with how he deals with his moment-to-moment living than with special and apart procedures. Within this model, the secluded monk who can devote full time to prayer is the person who is felt to be grappling with what is most real.
* Personal communication, 1966.
EDWARD W . MAUPIN
Bonhoeffer (1953) and Teilhard de Chardin (1960) are both explicitly concerned with this split. Both emphasize that the apparent life is the arena of growth, or, in their terms, of realizing God. The same split seems to occur in the LSD culture, where the insights afforded by the drug often profoundly alter the taker's beliefs about ultimate reality. But the experience o f t h e drug is behind a curtain, so identified with the drug that the task of realizing the same reality in ordinary life tends to be ignored. There are very important exceptions to this. Allied to this split is another, even more subtly potent one between "internal" and "external" experience. As a culture we are so inclined to overdraw this distinction that it is difficult to discuss alternatives. We have tended to place great importance on what is "objective," observable by other people, in contrast to what is "subjective," subject to our own "distortions." This overlooks how totally our experience of the world is molded by the observer, his present states and the arbitrary filters of his upbringing. With meditation it is easy to overvalue the internal at the expense o f t h e external so that they remain split apart. It is possible, though, to use it to awaken the subjective life in contact with the external world. Then, rather than a secret closet, the internal becomes a huge space of many dimensions joined with the external world and adding meaning and richness to it. In this paper several meditations on external objects or other people are described. They seem to be particularly direct ways of bringing the meditative attitude into contact. Admitting the dangers, I still feel it is worthwhile to engage in special activities directed at expanding awareness. In this paper I will outline several techniques of meditation in enough detail for the reader to try them for himself. From what is presented in the literature and from my own observations, 1 think meditation can bring important benefits. It is a powerful way to learn to be quiet and pay attention. The special combination of suspended action and waking attention make it possible to become aware of small cues. Calm, greater ability to cope with tense situations, and improved sleep are frequently reported. Better body functioning seems to result (Sato, 1958), and the pattern of psychosomatic benefits closely follows the well-researched effects of relaxation procedures such as Autogenic Training (Schultz & Luthe, 1959). A more solid feeling of oneself often seems to result, ("oneself' including both "body" and "mind") and, with that, more direct awareness of what one is experiencing. One Japanese psychiatrist reports that when his patients meditate in addition to their sessions with him, they seem to have more energy for constructive work on their problems (Kondo, 1958).
Meditation is first of all a deep passivity, combined with awareness. It is not necessary to have a mystical rationale to practice meditation, but there are marked similarities in the psychological assumptions which underlie most approaches. The ego, or conscious self, is usually felt to be only a portion of the real self. The conscious, striving, busy attempts to maintain and defend myself are based on a partial and misleading concept of my vulnerability, my needs, and the deeper nature of reality. In meditation 1 suspend this busy activity and assume a passive attitude. What I am passive to is conceived in many different ways, but 1 need only assume that deeper resources are available when I suspend my activity. Instead of diffusing myself in a welter of thoughts and actions, 1 can turn back on myself and direct my attention upstream to the out-pouring, spontaneous, unpredictable flow of my experience, to the states of mind which produce all the busyness and thinking. It is well at this point to distinguish the practice of meditation from special experiences of mystical union or satori. These dramatic states have probably been overemphasized in the meditation literature. Meditation may be worthwhile in itself without such states, which are unlikely to come about without prolonged practice under skilled supervision. The position used in meditation is important. It should be such that you can let go and relax in it, yet not fall asleep. The relaxation is not the totally heavy kind you get when you lie down, but balanced and consistent with alertness. In Asia the cross-legged lotus positions are ordinarily used. If you want to try, sit on the floor and cross your legs so that your right foot rests on your left thigh and your left foot rests on the right thigh. This is very difficult to do. You might try the slightly easier procedure of getting only one foot on one thigh and crossing the other leg so that it is underneath the opposite thigh close to the buttock (the half-lotus position), or simply sit tailor fashion. In all three positions your rump should be raised by means of cushions so that knees and buttocks form a stable threecornered base. Now see if you can let your back rest down into this base in such a way that it is a straight column which requires no strain to keep straight. The hands rest in the lap; the head is erect; the eyes should be open and directed without focussing at a point a few feet ahead of the knees. (All this is following Zen procedure most closely. Yoga practice usually omits the cushion and permits closing the eyeswhich leads more easily into trances than to wakeful awareness.) The cross-legged positions are not essential. You can meditate effectively in a straight-backed chair with your feet planted wide apart and flat on the floor, your back straight, head erect, and eyes open as before. The most
comfortable height should be adjusted with cushions. A less erect posture in an ordinary easy chair can also be used. After you get into position, sway back and forth for a while to settle in, take a few deep breaths, and begin to let go. You may find it useful to contact various parts of your body with your attention, especially your base, the legs and pelvis on which you are resting. Now you are ready to begin directing your attention according to the technique you have decided to use. The techniques presented are fairly simple ones, classically used in the early stages of training. You may wish to experiment with more than one to find which is the most effective for you. They are all suitable for daily use for between a half hour and an hour. Although they are apparently different, they all seem to aim at increasing awareness of what is happening inside and making possible a detached look. It is extremely misleading to strive toward any particular state of mind, but all of these exercises will sometimes make possible a state of clear, relaxed awareness in which the flow of thought is reduced and an attitude of detached observation is maintained. In contrast with the usual thinking activity, which carries one off into abstractions or fantasies, this observing attitude keeps close contact with the here-and-now of experience. Thoughts are not prevented, but are allowed to pass without elaboration. It is not a blank state or trance, and it is different from sleep. It involves deep physical relaxation as well as letting go of the usual psychological busy-ness. Actually, one discovers very early how closely psychological and physical relaxation are related. How you handle distractions is extremely important. Do not try to prevent them. Just patiently bring your attention back again and again to the object of your meditation. This detaching from fantasies and thoughts and outside stimuli is some of the most important work of meditation. If you attempt to prevent distractions in some other way, you may get into unproductive blank states, or get distracted by the task of preventing distractions, or become tense. If you patiently return to the meditation, gradually your attention to the object will replace the distractions, and your physical relaxation will make it possible for the flow of thoughts to decrease. It is also very important that you not have some preconceived notion of what should happen in a "good" session. You may become relaxed and clear, but you may also remain tense and distracted, or you may uncover extremely painful kinds of experience. Allowing yourself to be honestly aware of whatever you experience is more constructive than the most pleasant relaxation. Accepting the session wherever it leads is essential. You may feel sleepy. Try observing the process of falling asleep itself perhaps it is a response to some feeling you want to avoid. If sleep continues to be a problem, get up and walk around and breathe deeply for a while. You may feel bored and restless with the task. Observe and experience these
feelings. In this culture you may well find yourself taking a negative attitude, beating yourself over the head, as it were, to do a good job of meditating. Try to observe this self-critical, hostile attitude in yourself. There is a kind of friendly neutrality you can bring to bear on any experience which emerges. As the ego activity is reduced, inner material, some of it formerly outside awareness, begins to emerge. Herrigel writes:
This exquisite state of unconcerned immersion in oneself is not, unfortunately, of long duration. It is likely to be disturbed from inside. As though sprung from nowhere, moods, feelings, desires, worries and even thoughts incontinently rise up, in a meaningless j u m b l e . . . . The only successful way of rendering this disturbance inoperative is t o . . .enter into friendly relations with whatever appears on the scene, to accustom oneself to it, to look at it equably and at last grow weary of looking [1953, pp. 57-581.
This is one reason why you should probably be supervised if you want to practice meditating more than an hour at a time. With more time the emerging material may become more dense and impelling, more difficult to treat as an illusory distraction. Supposedly it was a Zen student in Japan who burned down the golden pavilion on grounds it was so beautiful that all it lacked was transience. The emerging material may change form, become predominantly visual imagery in contrast to the verbal form of the earlier distractions, and so on. However, it is not necessary to be too cautious about this material. My psychotherapy patients, when they have meditated at Rome, have had no special difficulty in treating their distractions as distractions. All that is required is to observe them and return to the meditation.
SPECIFIC EXCERCISES The first group of meditation techniques focuses on the body or on breathing.
A Taoist meditation described by Rousselle (I960), directs that attention be placed in the center of the torso at about the level of the navel. Thoughts, when they arise, should be "placed" in this center of the body, as if they arose there. "Consciousness, by an act of the imagination, is shifted to the solar plexus." This procedure especially helps to promote a feeling of vitality and strength from the belly.
Breathing is a function which may be either voluntarily or involuntarily controlled. To meditate on breathing, then, is to deal with how you allow your spontaneity to flow. It is important not to force the issue, though. If
EDWARD W. MAUPIN
you c a n n o t allow y o u r b r e a t h i n g t o b e c o m e fully i n v o l u n t a r y , j u s t o b s e r v e h o w y o u do h a n d l e it, o r m o v e on t o a n o t h e r exercise. T h e simplest b r e a t h m e d i t a t i o n is as follows: Sit with a straight back and relax. Let your breathing become relaxed and natural, so that the movement is mainly in the abdomen. Then keep your attention on this movement. W i e n p a h l (1964) gives excellent i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r b r e a t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n as used in his J a p a n e s e Z e n training: Breathe through the nose. Inhale as much as you require, letting the air come in by distending the diaphragm. Do not draw it in, rather let it come to you. Then exhale slowly. Exhale completely, getting all of the air out of your lungs. As you exhale slowly count " o n e " . Now inhale again. Then exhale slowly to the count of "two". And so on up to " t e n " . Then repeat You will find this counting difficult as your mind will wander from it. However, keep at it, striving to bring your mind back to the process of counting. As you become able to do this with reasonable success, start playing the following game with the counting. As you count " o n e " and are slowly exhaling, pretend that this " o n e " is going down, down, down into your stomach. Then think of its being down there as you inhale and begin to count "two". Bring the " t w o " down and place it (in your imagination, one might say) in your stomach beside the " o n e " Eventually you will find that your mind itself, so to speak, will descend into your stomach. T h e shift of a t t e n t i o n d o w n t o t h e lower p a r t of t h e b o d y , t h e pelvis o r the a b d o m e n , is a c c o m p a n i e d by a relaxation in which t h o u g h t s s e e m slow and distant. P r e l i m i n a r y e v i d e n c e f r o m several s o u r c e s suggests that brainwave r e c o r d i n g s show an i n c r e a s e of slow, high a m p l i t u d e ( a l p h a ) activity in subjects using t h e s e t y p e s of t e c h n i q u e s ( C h a p t e r 33). A n o t h e r g r o u p of m e d i t a t i v e exercises focuses t h e a t t e n t i o n directly on the c o n t e n t s of c o n s c i o u s n e s s . F o r e x a m p l e , C h a u d h u r i , d r a w i n g on y o g a practice, writes: The radical approach begins with the resolve to do nothing, to think nothing, to make no effort of one's own, to relax completely and let go one's mind and b o d y . . . stepping out of the stream of everchanging ideas and feelings which your mind is, watch the onrush of the stream. Refuse to be submerged in the current. Changing the metaphor, it may be said, watch your ideas, feelings and wishes fly across the mental firmament like a flock of birds. Let them fly freely. Just keep a watch. Don't allow the birds to carry you off into the clouds. (1965, pp. 30-31) A n o t h e r m e t h o d is t o f o c u s a t t e n t i o n , n o t on the t h o u g h t activity, b u t on t h e state of mind which lies b e h i n d t h e t h o u g h t s . T h i s was t h e exercise which first excited m e a b o u t m e d i t a t i o n :
Benoit (1959) suggests that attention be kept on the feeling of physical and personal existence from moment to momentto what I scan when someone asks me "how are you?" At first this contact is only momentary. As soon as words try to describe it, the feeling of what it is like to be me at this instant is lost. Gradually it becomes possible to prolong the contact. "This inward g l a n c e . . . is that which 1 make towards the center of my whole being when I reply to the question: 'How are you feeling at this moment from every point at the same lime?"' ll is relaxing to make this move, and it promotes detachment, becausc you move upstream from the thoughts, fantasies and excited involvement to the states of mind which produce them. A v a r i a n t of this is t o ask w h o is d o i n g this t h i n k i n g , feeling, acting. B r u n t o n writes: First watch your own intellect in its working. Note how thoughts follow one another in endless sequence. Then try to realize that there is someone who thinks. Now ask: " W h o is this thinker?" (1935, p. 56) W r i t i n g a b o u t a similar exercise used in C h i n e s e C h ' a n ( Z e n ) B u d d h i s m , Luk (1960) a d d s , " A s mind is intangible, o n e is n o t clear a b o u t it. C o n s e q u e n t l y s o m e slight feeling of d o u b t should b e cultivated a n d m a i n t a i n e d . " T h e s a m e kind of a t t e n t i o n with w h i c h o n e m e d i t a t e s on b r e a t h i n g can be d i r e c t e d t o outside objects. A r t h u r D e i k m a n , in a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c study of m e d i t a t i o n ( C h a p t e r 2), h a d his e x p e r i m e n t a l s u b j e c t s m e d i t a t e on a small b l u e vase: T h e i n s t r u c t i o n s w e r e as follows: Your aim is to concentrate on the blue vase. By concentration 1 do not mean analyzing the different parts of the vase, or thinking a series of thoughts about the vase, or associating ideas to the vase, but rather, trying to see the vase as it exists in itself,, without any connections to other things. Exclude all other thoughts or feelings or body sensations. Do not let them distract you but keep them out so that you can concentrate all your attention, all your awareness on the vase itself. Let the perception o f t h e vase fill your entire mind. A n o t h e r p e r s o n m a y b e e n c o u n t e r e d and received in t h e s a m e way: Place yourself face to face with another person. Look at him and be aware when your mind wanders. Be aware when you treat his face like an object, a design, or play perceptual games with it. Distortions may appear which tell you what you project into the relationship: angels, devils, animals and all the human possibilities may appear in his face. Eventually you may move past these visual fantasies into the genuine presence of another human being. T h e m e d i t a t i v e a t t i t u d e c a n also be b r o u g h t into sexual e n c o u n t e r . Use an i n t e r c o u r s e position in w h i c h you can look at y o u r p a r t n e r a n d in which you c a n c o m f o r t a b l y lie m o t i o n l e s s f o r a long t i m e . T h i s exercise could p r o b a b l y b e p r a c t i c e d f o r m o r e t h a n an h o u r at a t i m e w i t h o u t supervision.
There are many other kinds of meditative exercises which have not been covered here. Once the student has learned generally how to settle into meditation many schools bring in more complex techniques. Tantric yoga introduces visual imagery, contemplation of symbols and concentration on parts of the body. Comprehensive surveys are given by Govinda (1959) and Zimmer (1960). The aim seems to be a systematic exploration of deeply unconscious, prelogical, archetypal experience. Kundalini yoga combines certain breathing patterns with concentration on nerve plexi in the pelvis, the abdomen, chest, throat, neck and head (Aurobindo, 1955; Behanan, 1937; Garrison, 1964; Woodruffe, 1931; Yeats-Brown, 1958). Each ofthese sites yields different universes of feeling and fear which can systematically be worked through. In some sects of Zen Buddhism paradoxical statements are introduced for meditation. For example:
The sixth Patriarch said lo the monk, Emyo, "Think neither of the good nor the evil, but tell me what are your original features before your parents gave birth to you?" (Ogata, 1959)
These koans are not to be understood with ordinary logic. One must penetrate to the state of mind which they express. Usually a graded series of koans is used which focuses the student's mind toward satori and gives the Zen master a means of judging the progress of his student. All of these more advanced meditations require supervision.
This paper is intended as an introduction for someone who wants to begin lo medilate. Gary Snyder, who has spent several years in Zen training in Japan, has written a poem which may be reassuring to those who wish to try:
What I Think When I Meditate Well, I could tell you that 1 could tell you but wouldn't understand but I won't You'd understand but I can't, I mean dig, this here guitar is gone bust I hate to sit crosslegged my knees hurt my nose runs and I have to go to the crapper tootsweet and damn that timeclock keeper won't ding. W H A T I think about when I meditate is emptiness. I remember it well the empty heads the firecracker phhht But what I really think about is sex sort of patterns of sex like dancing hairs and goosebumps No, honestly
what I think about is what am I thinking about? and who am I? and 'MU?' and 'the clouds
southern mt'
Well: what I really honestly think about, no fooling . . . (etc.)
(from Ark III)
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN RESPONSE TO A ZEN MEDITATION EXERCISE
In a previous paper (Maupin, 1962) the literature in English was surveyed in an attempt to extract a coherent picture of Zen Buddhism, its training procedures, and the psychological experiences which result. It was noted that the training seems analogous in some respects to Western insightoriented psychotherapy. Moreover, the responses to training described in the literature seemed partly interpretable in terms of concepts of ego function which are subject to quantitative measurement. The present study was designed to obtain basic information about the meditation process by correlating differences in the meditation experience with psychological tests of relevant ego functions. Although the nature of the meditation process rather than its therapeutic merits was the subject of investigation, the information developed may be basic to later therapeutic studies.
Zen, a sect of Mahayana Buddhism, originated in China and has played an important role in Japanese culture since its introduction there in the
Reprinted by permission from J. Consult. Psychol., Vol. 29, 1965, pp. 139-145.
DIFFERENCES IN RESPONSE TO ZEN MEDITATION EXERCISE
thirteenth century. A variety of training techniques are employed by the Zen master to guide the student to a turning point, satari, which appears to be a major shift in the mode of experiencing oneself and the world. The specific training procedures used are extremely variable, but certain generalizations are possible. The beginning student spends a portion of the day sitting motionless and engaging in concentration. The object of concentration varies and may be changed as the student progresses. The aim ofthe practice is to suspend the ordinary flow of thoughts without falling into a stupor. Usually there is an initial phase in which concentration is extremely difficult. With greater success, relaxation and a kind of pleasant "selfimmersion" follow. At this point internal distractions, often of an anxietyarousing kind, come to the fore. Herrigel (1953) indicates that the only way to render this disturbance inoperative is to "look at it equably and at last grow weary of looking." Eventually another phase begins, in which concentration is accompanied by a sense of calm stillness, a sense of energy and vitality, and a feeling of invulnerability. This state of mind is traditionally described with the analogy of a mirror, which reflects many things yet is itself unchanged by them. Much of this is reminiscent of the stance taken by the psychoanalytic patient, who experiences his associations as derivatives of his own mental processes regardless of the reality of the objects represented. An observing attitude can be maintained until anxiety or other affect become too intense. One difference has been pointed out by Sato (1958) who notes that the Zen student, unlike the analysand, does not dissect what he is experiencing with ideational operations. The ideas, if they appear, need not be grasped or verbalized. This writer has suggested that Zen meditation procedures, just because they are nonlogical and nonverbal, may enable one to deal with certain problems which are inaccessible to verba! communicationfor example, problems hinging on pre-Oedipal experience antedating the development of language and logical structure. To our knowledge, long-term alterations in personality factors as a result of Zen training have not been systematically observed, although meditation in conjunction with psychoanalysis has facilitated therapeutic progress in some instances (Fromm, 1959; Kondo, 1958). Conversely, individual variations in response to meditation training have not been studied with respect to their dependence on personality factors or ego functions. It is the latter problem with which the present study is concerned. Personality factors are considered the independent variables of the study; response to meditation is the dependent variable.
M E T H O D S AND
The strategy of the present study is this: if a specific function, such as attention, is important in the meditation process, then individuals who are relatively efficient in this function will tend to meditate more successfully and hence respond more extensively during the first few weeks of practice. The importance of various functions in determining response to meditation can then be judged by correlating response to meditation with appropriate measures of these functions. This section describes the subjects who participated in the experiment, the meditation exercise and the procedure for scaling response, and finally the procedures for assessing relevant personality functions.
Male subjects were recruited by means of an advertisement in the campus newspaper offering instruction in a Zen meditation exercise to persons interested enough to spend additional time taking tests. Thirty-nine men responded and were seen for an initial interview. A series of psychological tests was given in later appointments, after which the meditation sessions were begun. Eleven o f t h e 39 subjects dropped out either before the meditation sessions began or before completing enough sessions to permit a good estimate of response. The remaining 28 subjects, all of whom completed at least nine meditation sessions, were included in the sample. As might be expected, many o f t h e subjects appeared to have a therapyseeking motivation. They evidently felt enough subjective discomfort to look, sometimes explicitly, for new ways of dealing with personal problems. (Overt psychosis was not encountered, and no subject presented any other symptoms which seemed grounds for exclusion.) In other ways, too, the sample seemed atypical of the general college male population. The rater, who had scored Rorschach protocols for several other studies, commented on the unusually high incidence of primary-process responses to the test in this sample. It is not clear that any of the biases operating in the sample would have a consistent effect on the relationships between experimental measures. The generally high level of motivation to carry out the meditation instructions, while unusual, should facilitate better understanding o f t h e meditation process. With regard to prior knowledge of Zen, some subjects had read the popular works on the subject, but the extent of their reading had no relationship with their response to the exercises.
Meditation Exercise
The meditation exercise used in this study required concentration on the breathing as described by Kondo (1958). The 45-minute practice
sessions, followed by short interviews, were conducted each weekday for a two-week period. Before the first sessions, the subject was shown the correct sitting positionback straight, not resting on the chair back, feet flat on the floorand given the following instructions:
While you are sitting let your breathing become relaxed and natural. Let it set its own pace and depth if you can. Then focus your attention on your breathing: the movements of your belly, not your nose or throat. Do not allow extraneous thoughts or stimuli to pull your attention away from the breathing. This may be hard to do at first, but keep directing your attention back to it. Turn everything else aside if it comes up. You may also find yourself becoming anxious or uncomfortable. This is because sitting still and concentrating like this restricts the ordinary ways of avoiding discomfort. If you have to feel uncomfortable, feel uncomfortable. If you feel pleasant, accept that with the same indifference. Gradually, perhaps not today or even after several days, it will grow easier for you to concentrate. I will come and tell you when the time is up. D o you have any questions?
These instructions were repeated before the second session. At subsequent sessions the subject entered the experimental room, adjusted the chair height with firm cushions, and began concentrating without comment. The practice room was dimly lit and sparsely furnished. Two chairs were arranged so that subjects could not see one another but faced an unadorned wall. The experimenter remained in an adjacent room while one or a pair of subjects practiced the breathing exercise. If someone asked what was supposed to happen as a result of the practice, he was told:
I cannot tell you that, mainly because I don't know that much about you. Whatever happens will come from within you. It is better not to be distracted by preconceived ideas about it. The important thing is to accept whatever happens. Don't move, and keep your attention on your breathing.
After each session the interview was initiated with the question, "How did it go?" Further questions by the experimenter were limited to asking for clarification and for an estimate of the degree of concentration. These interviews were recorded verbatim and serve as the basis for scaling response.
P R O C E D U R E FOR SCALING R E S P O N S E TO MEDITATION
Frequently, especially after the early meditation sessions, subjects simply reported difficulty in concentrating, and their remarks indicated that little else had happened. Most subjects, however, proceeded beyond this point, reporting a variety of experiences in later sessions more or less comparable
to those described in Zen literature. For purposes of scaling, five responses patterns were distinguished which appeared to recur in the protocols. The description of these patterns, as submitted to the raters, is as follows: Type A. The identifying characteristic of these sessions is dizziness, some type of "befogged" consciousness, which occurs when a subject begins to concentrate. Typically, subjects report feeling dizzy or having sensations "like going under anesthetic" or "like being hypnotized." The experience is somewhat unpleasant, and it is common to find the subject retreating from the task of concentrating into increased thinking. Type B. These are sessions in which the subject reports feeling quite calm and relaxed. His concentration need not have been very sustained. Type C. In this pattern pleasant body sensations occur. They are often reminiscent of hypnotic phenomena and sometimes involve feelings which would be strange in the ordinary states of waking consciousness. They may be rather erotic-sounding as they are described. Sensations like "vibrations" or "waves" are often reported, or the subject feels his body is "suspended" or "light." Typically, concentration is somewhat more sustained that in Type A or B sessions. Type D. The distinguishing feature of this pattern is the vivid way in which the breathing is experienced. Often the belly movements seem larger, or the subject feels "filled with air." Concentration seems almost effortless in such sessions. Type E. This is the experience described by Herrigel (1953, pp. 56ff.) It appears to be a very lucid state of consciousness which is deeply satisfying. There is a "nonstriving" attitude, and the subject is able to take a calmly detached view of any thoughts and feelings which happen to emerge. Concentration seems to be easy and fairly complete. A frequent accompaniment of this pattern is extensive loss of body feelings. The procedure for scaling subjects began with identifying the patterns they reported after each session. Rating was done independently by two advanced graduate students in clinical psychology who were unaware ofthe hypotheses of the study. The two raters agreed that 214 of the 330 session reports failed to show any of the five patterns. The remaining 116 sessions, then, were critical for identifying response. Here the judges agreed in only 54 cases, or 48%. Compared with the expectancy of chance agreement, however, this obtained agreement is significant ( X 1 = 137.4, df = 3, p < .001). The next step in scoring response to meditation consisted of grouping subjects according to their "highest" response in any of the first 10 sessions. Three groups were defined: a "high-response" group, consisting of subjects who reported a Type E response (detachment) at least once; a "moderateresponse" group, including subjects who failed to report a Type E response,
but reported a Type C or a Type D response (pleasant body sensations or vivid breathing) at least once; and a "low-response" group composed of subjects who reported nothing more than relaxation or dizziness (Types A or B). With this grosser grouping of subjects, the raters agreed on the placement of all but 3 (89%) o f t h e 28. Table 1 presents the number of subjects assigned to each group as well as the number of subjects in each group who indicated a given pattern of response at least once. The subjects within each group are to be considered as having tied scores on a 3-point ordinal scale ranging from high to low response to meditation. Some support for the ordinal relationship is adduced from the fact that high-response subjects experienced not only the detached pattern but also reported the body alterations o f t h e moderateresponse group fairly frequently. This high group also had fewer uneventful (unscorable) sessions than the others.
PERSONALITY FACTOR
Five aspects of personality functioning were considered in the study: receptive attention, concentration, breadth of attention deployment, tolerance for unrealistic experience, and capacity for adaptive regression.*
Tolerance for Unrealistic Experience
Three measures were used to assess the reaction of subjects in the face of unrealistic experience. The first is the Rorschach measure used by Klein, Gardner, and Schlesinger (1962). Tolerance on this dimension refers to acceptance of experiences which do not agree with what is known to be " t r u e , " while intolerance implies resistance to such precepts or cognitive experiences. In the Rorschach ratings, major weight was placed on the subject's attitude toward his responses rather than on formal scores. The tolerant person was characterized as one who naturally and comfortably accepted the blots as an opportunity for projection. The intolerant person, in contrast, was one who maintained a critical and cautious attitude of reality testing toward his responses. These criteria were applied to the Rorschach records by two judges trained in the use of the system for a previous study (Lichtenstein, 1961). Records which could not be assigned by the raters to either the tolerant or the intolerant categories were placed in a "mixed" category which was interpreted as a midpoint on the scale. The judges agreed in their ratings of 19 o f t h e 28 records. In only two instances was a record rated tolerant by
* Details of the attention measures used have been omitted. Editor.
TABLE 1 Frequency of Response Patterns for High, Moderate, and Low Responders Pattern (Greater Response ->) Number of Subjects 6 10 12 18 Vivid Concentration Dizziness Relaxation Pleasant Body Breathing and and and Fogginess Calmness Sensations Sensations Detachment 0 2 6 8 2 3 8 13 3 8 0 11 4 5 0 9 6 0 0 6
Group High Moderate Low Toial
one and intolerant by the other. Computing reliability by means of the rank correlation coefficient, tau, gives .63 {p < .001). The results of Klein et al. (1962) and Lichtenstein (1961) suggested a link between the tolerance dimension and the rate of alteration of reversible figures. The four figures used appeared to vary markedly in the extent to which tolerance influenced response. In the present study the Neckercube, Rubin figure-vase, and windmill and staircase figures were presented, the subject looking into an illuminated box at the figures 28 inches away. Number of reversals for each figure during the 30-second presentation plus the total number of reversals for all four figures were the scores used. The third estimate of the subject's tolerance for unrealistic experience was the amount of autokinetic movement he reported. The median estimated movement for 20 trials was the experimental score. It was expected that subjects who are less comfortable in such an unstructured situation would give small estimates of movement.
Capacity for Adaptive Regression
During the course of meditation, the student must pass through a phase of internal distractions in order to reach the stillness of mediation. We infer that these distractions will occasionally express the drive-dominated content or organization of primary-process cognition. Furthermore, feelings such as omnipotence erupt, and the thinking function must be abandoned. Clearly, then, lowering o f t h e level of psychic functioning is involved, and the concept of "regression in the service of the ego" may be applicable. Two measures of the ability to regress were therefore included in the present study: Holt's (Holt& Havel, 1961) scoring for primary-process thinking on the Rorschach, and visual imagery during free association.
The Rorschach scoring system is designed to identify not only the emergence of primary-process form and content but also the adequacy with which these manifestations are controlled. Goldberger (1958) related the system to capacity for regression in the service of the ego in a study of reactions to perceptual isolation. He distinguished three general modes of handling primary-process material: (a) a mode which admits such derivatives into awareness in a modulated, controlled fashion without disruption; (b) a mode which wards off the emergence of such material into awareness through defensive operations; and (c) a mode in which the person, although finding primary-process derivatives threatening, is unable to prevent their appearance in consciousness due to inadequate defenses. The Rorschach scores, rated by a clinical psychologist trained for another study, were used to identify these modes, considered to lie along a single dimension. Subjects were identified as showing a "large amount of controlled primary process" if they ranked high on amount of primary-process responses and also high on effectiveness of defense. They were considered to show a "small amount of controlled primary process" if they ranked low on " a m o u n t " and low on "effectiveness," and they showed a "large amount of poorly controlled primary process" if they ranked high on "amount" and low on "effectiveness." Whether or not the subject tended to report spontaneous visual imagery during a short free-association task served as a second measure of capacity for adaptive regression. It was felt that the emergence of imagery represents a clear shift away from the primarily verbal thought of adults to agenetically more primitive mode of recognition. The free-association task was that used by Gardner et al. (1959). The subject is asked to report, for 3 minutes, everything that came to mind after hearing each of two stimulus words: Dry and House. Imagery (for example, "I see a picture of mud") was identified in 23 of the 56 work protocols, and each subject received 1 point for each of his 2 protocols in which imagery was identified, thus giving a 3-point scale. Average percentage of agreement between the three raters was 92.8.
Correlations between Measures
Since tolerance for unrealistic experience and capacity for adaptive regression seem to be overlapping concepts, correlations between measures of the two were calculated. The tau correlation between the Rorschach rating of tolerance and the Rorschach measure of capacity for regression was .18, but the actual relationship seemed to be curvilinear. The "amount of primary process" and "effectiveness of control" components of the latter dimension were each correlated with tolerance .28 {p < .05) when taken
individually. Subjects responding with a small amount of poorly controlled primary process were thus likely to be identified as "tolerant." The visual imagery scores were correlated with tolerance ratings (tau = .34, p < .01) better than with the Rorschach dimension (tau = .04). There appears to be overlap between the three measures, yet not so much that they can be considered to be measuring identical phenomena.
Inasmuch as linear relationships were predicted between the ordinal scale for response to meditation and the measures of the independent variables, Kendall's rank-correlation coefficient, tau (Siegel, 1956), was used to express these relationships. A two-tailed probability of .05 was the level of significance required to reject the null hypothesis in all comparisons.
Meditation and Attention Functions
It was expected that response to meditation would be correlated positively with digit span scores (measuring receptive attention) and average sums in continuous additions (measuring active concentration) and negatively with variability scores in continuous additions (measuring fluctuations in active concentration). None of these hypotheses was borne out. No relationship was found, either, between response to meditation and size estimation error (measuring scanning control or breadth of attentional scanning). A relationship may exist between receptive attention and response to meditation but of a more complex type than originally thought. Both high- and low-response subjects received higher Digit Span scores than the moderateresponse group. Tested post hoc with Kruskal-Wallace one-way analysis of variance, this curvilinear relationship gives H = 6.38 (p < .05).
Meditation and Tolerance for Unrealistic Experience
A subject's comfort in the face of unrealistic experience was expected to influence his ability to meditate in the early phases of practice. This led to the prediction that response to meditation would be positively correlated with the Rorschach measure of the tolerance control principle, with the frequency of perceived reversals of reversible figures and with the amount of autokinetic movement reported. The Rorschach measure of tolerance was positively correlated with response to meditation (tau = .37, p < .01). Autokinetic movement and figure reversals were not significantly related to response.
Meditation and Capacity for Adaptive Regression
The two measures used to assess capacity for adaptive regression were the Rorschach measure based on amount and degree of primary-process thinking and visual imagery during free association. Both of these measures were positively correlated with response to meditation (tau = .49,p <.001, and tau = .35, p < .01, respectively). Because of the complex nature of the Rorschach dimension, the relative contributions of its various components was explored in a multivariate chi-square analysis (Lancaster, 1949). It appears that the main contribution to the relationship with response to meditation comes from the "effectiveness of control" component (X2 = 7.82, df = 2, p < .02), but the contributions from the "amount" component and the interaction between "amount" and "control," while not significant, are still noteworthy ( X 2 ~ 4.26 and 3.84, respectively, with df = 2 in each case).
Certain inferences about the nature of the meditation process may be drawn from the correlations between response to meditation and measures related to regression in the service of the ego. As suggested elsewhere (Maupin, 1962) satori seems to fit into the class of psychologically adaptive regressions described in the psychoanalytic literature. The meditation process may then be conceptualized as a sequence of states of regression, each of which develops functions on which succeeding states must depend. For example, the early response pattern includes a kind of relaxed drowsiness in which primary-process derivatives appear. The ability to deal with them in an accepting, undisruptive fashion enables the student to get through to the next stage, past alterations in body feelings, to "mirrorlike" detachment, in which more "regressed" elements may emerge. The "nonstriving" quality of this state, presumably a lesson o f t h e previous phase, constitutes a safeguard against maladaptive reactions, even though further impulse derivatives are emerging. Satori is said to grow out of this stage, and we may guess that it is based on certain internal safeguards developed there. While the correlations between response to meditation and the Rorschach measures of tolerance for unrealistic experience and capacity for controlled primary process underline the relevance of such experience in the meditation process, it seems unlikely that attention functions are as irrelevant to meditation as the obtained correlations would indicate. More probably, when issues related to capacity for adaptive regression are resolved, a subject can easily learn to use attention properly. One way to study this problem further would be to observe the response to meditation of two
groups, both having high capacity for regression but differing in their attention skills. The response scale used in the study by no means taps all aspects of the response observed. Subjectively felt benefits similar to those resulting from relaxation therapies were reported by several subjects. The amount of such benefit did not appear to be correlated with level of response. Subjects in the high- and moderate-response groups occasionally mentioned the emergence of very specific and vivid effects other than anxiety while they were practicing. These included hallucinoid feelings, muscle tension, sexual excitement, and intense sadness. Although subjects differed in the extent to which they tried to puzzle out the meanings of such experiences, none appeared to reach any deeper understanding ofthe material which emerged. On the other hand, several reported an increased awareness of previously elusive subjective events when they occurred. Perhaps the period of observation was too short to permit the development of deep insight, or perhaps meditation leads naturally to a different type of outcomean acceptance of feelings without further inquiry into their significance.
In order to explore the psychological functions involved in meditation, 28 male college student volunteers were instructed in a concentration exercise related to Zen Buddhist procedures. Their response to the exercise was rated as high, moderate, and low from verbal reports taken after daily 45-minute sessions over a 2-3 week period. Response was then compared with pre-meditation test results related to attention, tolerance for unrealistic experience, and capacity for regression in the service of the ego (derived from Rorschach expressions of "primary process" and from spontaneous visual imagery). Capacity for regression and tolerance for unrealistic experience significantly predicted response to meditation, while attention measures did not. Once issues related to comfort in the face of strange inner experience are resolved, attention functions necessary to the exercise probably became available.
EXPERIMENTAL MEDITATION
ARTHUR J .
DEIKMAN
If credence is given to accounts of the mystic experience, we are forced to recognize that certain mystics have succeeded in achieving a special state that goes beyond the usual feelings and perceptions of ordinary life. These men and women describe an experience of union, of Unity with life or God or the Ultimate. Visions, feelings of love, and similar sensate phenomena are regarded as transitional stages on the way to a higher, transcendent state the "cloud of darkness"in which thoughts and images no longer exist but, instead, a new dimension is perceived. Although the lower sensate phenomena can occur regardless of religious orientation, prior training or life context, the transcendent state seems always to require long practice in contemplative meditation and is achieved only by a few. Both the sensate and the transcendent experience raise questions pertinent to the study and understanding of a wide range of psychological problems not usually associated with theological issues. A selective review of the mystic literature led the writer to the following general hypotheses: (a) that the procedure of contemplative meditation is a principal agent in producing the mystic experience; (b) that training in contemplative meditation leads to the building of intrapsychic barriers against distracting stimuli; and (c) that many ofthe phenomena described in
Reprinted by permission from T. of Nervous & Mental Dis., Vol. 136, pp. 329-373. Copyright 1963 by The Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, Md.
mystic accounts can be regarded as the consequence of a partial deautomatization of the psychic structures that organize and interpret perceptual stimuli. The first hypothesis, that mystic experience is achieved through the use of the technique of contemplative meditation, was derived from noting the close resemblance between descriptions of mystic exercises from widely varying cultures and times. For example, the instructions of Walter Hilton (1957), a fourteenth-century Roman Catholic canon, are similar to those of Pantanjali (Woods, 1914), a Yogi from about the sixth century. Both described a procedure of concentration without thinking (contemplative meditation), for achieving a mystic state. Similar instructions are given by other authors of widely disparate backgrounds. T h e second hypothesis, that with long practice intrapsychic barriers are built against distracting stimuli, is derived from the consistent reports that a stage in meditation is reached in which it is no longer necessary to struggle against unwanted thoughts, feelings and perceptions: concentration becomes effortless. T h e third hypothesis, that mystic phenomena are a consequence of a partial deautomatization of psychic structures, was suggested initially by the emphasis on focused attention and not thinking found in meditation instructions and by the phenomenon of "fresh vision," described in some accounts of mystic experiences. These accounts describe seeing a new brilliance in the world, seeing everything as if for the first time and noticing beauty and details which for the most part have previously been passed by without being seen.* The concepts of automatization and deautomatization have been developed by Hartmann (1958) and by Gill and Brenman (1959). Briefly, automatization is assumed to be a basic process in which the repeated exercise of an action or of a perception results in the disappearance from consciousness of its intermediate steps. Deautomatization is the undoing of automatization, presumably by reinvestment of actions and percepts with attention. In order to gather data on the process and phenomena of meditation, as well as to evaluate the hypotheses outlined above, an experimental study of contemplative meditation was undertaken.
The experiment was designed according to the general descriptions of meditation, incorporating the specific instructions found in the mystic
*A more detailed account of the mystic experience and the deautomatization hypothesis has been prepared (Deikman, Chapter 2, this book). Editor.
literature. The setting for meditation should be one in which there are minimal distractions, simple surroundings and a rather neutral meditative object, although the meditative object may have rich associations (such as aChristian cross). The experiment was performed in a quiet room, approximately 12 by 12 feet, with pale green walls and a beige carpet. Lighting was from two windows on one wall and one overhead incandescent fixture. In general, the colors and the lighting were subdued. The subject (5) sat in a comfortable armchair with his eyes approximately eight feet from the meditative object, which was a blue vase ten inches high, which stood on a simple brown end table against the opposite wail. To ^ s right and slightly behind him was a desk at which the experimenter (E) sat and on which a tape recorder was placed. Although in classical accounts meditation is performed in quiet surroundings, in this study, distracting sounds were deliberately introduced. The purpose was to test the hypothesis that with practice 5s would develop psychological barriers to the registration of distracting stimuli. In addition, it was assumed that a struggle against a single source of distracting stimuli would provide intensive training in the process of meditation. Contemplative neditation requires that the S relinquish his customary mode of thinking and perceiving. Thoughts must be stopped, sounds and peripheral sensations put out of one's mind, and the contemplation of the meditative object be conducted in a nonanalytic, nonintellectual manner. This aim determined the instructions which E read to each S as S sat in the armchair directly facing the vase. The instructions were as follows. "The purpose of these sessions is to learn about concentration. Your aim is to concentrate on the blue vase. By concentration I do not mean analyzing the different parts of the vase, or thinking a series of thoughts about the vase, or associating ideas to the vase, but rather, trying to see the vase as it exists in itself, without any connections to other things. Exclude all other thoughts or feelings or sounds or body sensations. Do not let them distract you but keep them out so that you can concentrate all your attention, all your awareness on the vase itself. Let the perception of the vase fill your entire mind. "While you concentrate 1 am going to play a variety of sounds on the tape machine. Try not to let the sounds occupy your attention. Keep the sounds out so that they do not disturb your concentration. Likewise, if you find you have drifted into a stream of thought, stop and bring your attention back to the vase. At the end of about five minutes [ten minutes and 15 minutes for the second and subsequent sessions respectively] I will tell you that the session is over. Take as much time as you like to stop." In general, the initial instructions had to be supplemented in subsequent sessions by additional explanations and emphases owing to the inherent difficulty of the procedure. For example, one S revealed by his retrospective account of the meditation
that he had been systematically scanning the vase. It was explained to him that his intent should be to suspend thinking about the vase, or analyzing it, so that he could perceive it as directly, as completely, as intensely as possible. The amount of supplementary instruction required varied considerably from one S to another. After the instructions were read, the tape recorder was turned on and the meditation session began. Length of the session was five minutes on the first day, ten minutes on the second, and 15 on the third and following days. Certain Ss wished to prolong the later sessions of meditation beyond 15 minutes and were allowed to do so. In those cases the sessions lasted from 22 to 33 minutes before S terminated them spontaneously. The 12 meditation sessions for each S were conducted over a period of three weeks. During the first five sessions the taped auditory stimuli consisted of 15 one-minute selections, played without interruption according to the following program: music, word list, music, prose, music, poetry, music, prose, music, word list, music, prose, music, poetry, music. A different tape was prepared for each session. The volume was low but the material was clearly audible. The sixth, seventh, and eighth sessions were carried out in silence. The ninth and tenth sessions were carried out either in silence or with continuous music in the background. The eleventh and twelfth sessions were again accompanied by a tape of mixed selections of verbal material and music. In the twelfth session Ss were tested for recognition of background stimuli. The test and its results will be described below. In the thirteenth session, Ss listened to a tape without meditating and were again tested for recognition as a control procedure for the recognition test of Session # 12. The classical literature on meditation emphasizes that instructions themselves are not sufficient to orient a subject adequately in meditation nor to guide him as he progresses in his meditation. The "guru," or teacher, is regarded as absolutely essential for success in attaining enlightenment. In Western religions the need for such a teacher receives less emphasis, but it often appears that the mystic has had a strong apprentice relationship to his spiritual "instructor" or "advisor." Accordingly, this experiment was designed in the belief that E should not be removed from the situation. It was anticipated that unconscious aspects of S's relationship to E would play an important part in the meditation training and, possibly, in the effects observed. No attempt was made to analyze such factors, however. In the course of the meditation sessions E found it necessary to assume an active role, encouraging Ss to adopt the unfamiliar mode of thinking required and allaying anxiety arising from the experience of strange phenomena. This was done primarily by emphasizing the interesting nature of the phenomena, and by pointing out t o S s that they werecapable of limiting the intensity and duration of the effects that occurred.
Immediately after each meditation session, E conducted an informal inquiry, designed to elicit information about 5's affect, perception of the vase, awareness of background stimuli and perception of the landscape outside. It contained the following questions: (a) "How do you feel?" (b) (5 is asked to go to the window.) "Look out the window and describe what you see and the way it looks." (c) (5 returns to the armchair.) "Describe the course of the session." (d) "How much of the time were you able to concentrate so that you were aware only of the vase and nothing else?" (e) "What means did you use to maintain concentration?" (f) "Was the sound difficult to keep out?" (g) "Can you recall any o f t h e sounds that were played?" (h) "What thoughts did you have during the session?" (i) "What feelings did you have?" (j) "What was your experience of the vase?" (k) (Optional, introduced as sessions progressed.) "What is your intent as you look at the vase?" (1) "Is there anything you would like to add about the session?" Usually, 5s began commenting on their experiences without any prompting from E. After about five minutes, they were interrupted, if necessary, and asked to go to the window. Most 5s spontaneously covered the topics o f t h e questions. The entire inquiry was recorded on tape and later transcribed. Although meditation is usually practiced for months and years by those seeking enlightenment, practical considerations of time and the exploratory nature of the study required a much briefer period. A limit of twelve sessions was arbitrarily decided upon, in the hope that this would be a sufficient trial of meditation to provide material for further study. Eight unpaid 5s were employed in the experiment. Four performed meditation for twelve sessions and four performed brief meditation control procedures. 5s were normal adults in their thirties or forties, well educated and intelligent. Most had a professional involvement in some phase of psychiatry. They were personally known to E and were selected primarily on the basis of having time available to give to the experiments. None had made a study of the mystic experience, although each recognized that meditation was connected with mystic practice.
Certain phenomena were experienced to some degree by all 5s, but highly individual phenomena also occurred.
Phenomena Common to All Subjects
Perception of the vase: Common to all 5s was the reported alteration of their perception of the vase. Sooner or later they experienced a shift to a
deeper and more intense blue. "More vivid" was a phrase they used frequently. Ss experienced the vase as becoming brighter while everything in their visual field became quite dark and indistinct. The adjective "luminous" was often applied to the vase, as if it were a source of light. For example, subject B., Session 6, "The vase was a hell of a lot bluer this time than it has been before . . . it was darkerand more luminous atthesametime." Asecondeffect experienced by Ss was an instability of the shape of the vase. This was most commonly reported as a felt change in the size or the shape ofthe vase, a loss of the third dimension and a diffusion or loss of its perceptual boundaries, either partly or entirely. In addition, movement of the vase was sometimes reported. For example, subject C, Session 8, "Then it seemed to change its shape rather drastically. I mean it was always in a vasepot shape, but there was a change symmetrically and undulating up and down more than a sideways movement." Subject A, Session 4, "The outlines of the vase shift. At that point they seem almost literally to dissolve entirely . . . and for it to be a kind of fluid b l u e . . . a very fluid kind of t h i n g . . . kind of moving." Time-shortening: For the most part, Ss felt that less time had elapsed than was recorded on the clock. This sense of time having passed very quickly occurred despite the Ss' occasional feelings during the meditation that the session had been going on for a very long time. For example, subject A stated, "1 thought, I'm sure it must be longer and 1 don't know if I can keep myself concentrated on it, then when you did stop and I went back to it, it seemed as though it couldn't possibly have been ten minutes or twice as long as yesterday." If the struggle to concentrate was continuous, without periods of success, then Ss reported wearily, "It seemed like a long time." Conflicting perceptions: Ss' reports indicated that they experienced conflicting perception. For example, in the third session, subject B stated, about the vase, "It certainly filled my visual field," but a few minutes later, stated, "It didn't fill the field by any means." In the seventh session, referring to the landscape, he commented, " . . .a great deal of agitation . . . but it isn't a g i t a t i n g . . . i t ' s . . . pleasurable." In general, Ss found it very difficult to describe their feelings and perceptions during the meditation periods "It's very hard to put into words," was a frequent comment. This difficulty seemed due in part to the difficulty of describing their experience without contradictions. Part of the problem was probably due also to the inadequacy of their descriptive vocabulary for reporting the meditation experiences. Development of stimulus barriers: A major premise to be tested by the experiment was that with practice an S could develop organized, stable, intrapsychic barriers to incidental stimuli, external or internal. These Ss' statements seemed to support this hypothesis: a gradual increase in ability to keep out distracting stimuli was reported. This phenomenon appeared to have two
components: (a) a decrease in the distracting effect of the stimuli, and(b) a decrease in conscious registration ofthe stimuli. Subject A stated that what was initially an effortful activity finally, toward the end o f t h e series, did not seem to require effort. As she put it, "shutting out" began to "come naturally." More specifically, after the sixth session, subject A reported, "I am sure that at that point all sounds were obliterated. At that point somehow everything was out of my consciousness... when I came back my awareness that suddenly I could hear the tape again and for whatever infinitesimal space of time it w a s . . . it seemed that I heard absolutely no sound . . . it was as though the world was absolutely silent during that time". None of the other subjects seemed to reach this point of absolute silence, but subject B, in his ninth session, stated, "I think I heard maybe one-fourth of the clock ticks. I am sure 1 didn't hear them all. Other sounds were almost non-existent. The music changed or disappeared . . . decided changes of level." (In this session the taped sounds were continuous music.) In the twelfth session subject B stated, " . . . the distractions are not intrusive in a jarring way. There is a certain amount of c o n t r o l . . . a g e n e r a l . . . familiarity . . . a kind of learning which is that I keep them out at some level." An increased ability to bar distractions from awareness was also demonstrated with respect to new, unexpected stimuli. Subject A came to the fifth session complaining of a bad cold and expressed concern that her running nose and watery eyes would interfere with the meditation. Following the session she reported further progress in concentration and stated, " . . . at one point when I did start to cough I was aware of having a tear in my eye but then I forgot about it until suddenly it was just dripping down my face." The least intrusive stimulus was continuous music of homogeneous texture and low volume. Very intrusive were clear prose passages whose content was of personal interest to the subjects (e.g., a discussion of diet fads). The most intrusive was the change from one type of sound material on the tape to another (e.g., music to prose). 5s said they found that this brought them " o u t " each time it happened. Although this effect was still manifest toward the end of the experiment, it, too, appeared then to be less disturbing and to have a less disrupting effect. In general, 5s found that as the experiment progressed, all distracting stimuli were less intrusive. Personal attachment to the vase: Very striking was the personal involvement of 5s with the vase, as judged by their reactions to the thirteenth session (listening to a tape without meditation). In order to minimize the possibility that 5s would meditate, the vase was removed from the room before the session. As 5s entered and their eyes went to the place where the vase usually sat, it was apparent that its absence shocked them. Subject B remonstrated with in a half-joking way by saying, "hey, cut it out. Put it back. Where have you got it?" He repeatedly looked back to the
former location of the vase and seemed uncomfortable. "1 am disappointed not to see that damn thing there, it's strange, if I look down it isn't there." He later stated that the vase had always seemed the most important thing in the room and its absence was disturbing. Subject A made no verbal comments but displeasure and some distress was evident. In a later interview, A stated, "You remember how excited I became when it first happened, as if I had found a toy? Well, this was as if I had lost it, lost something i m p o r t a n t . . . much more important than some inanimate object you're used to . . . losing some kind of emotional experience . . . I was nostalgic . . . it was like saying good-bye to a teacher in a course you had learned something in, had become involved in and was sorry to leave i t . . . the most vivid thing in the room." While listening to the tape in Session 13, subject A was less able to concentrate than she would have expected and kept seeing the vase in her mind. After the thirteenth session she became mildly depressed. Subject C felt that the vase was very striking in its absence, and kept seeing it in his mind. In general, all 5s reacted as if they had lost something they were very attached to. Pleasurable quality: All 5s agreed that the sessions were usually pleasurable, valuable and rewarding. Although one 5 "forgot" a testing appointment following a significant experience in the previous session, he returned and completed the series. All 5s achieved the 15 minutes or longer meditation period, even those who experienced some anxiety. When displeasure with the procedure occurred, it seemed to be due to (a) anxiety over the loss of controls required, (b) a feeling of failure to perform as expected.
Individual phenomena
Merging: "Merging" was reported by subject A, who from the very beginning reported striking alterations in her perception of the vase and her relation to it. She reported, "one of the points that I remember most vividly is when I really began to feel, you know, almost as though the blue and 1 were perhaps merging, or that vase and I were. I almost got scared to the point where I found myself bringing myself back in some way from i t . . . It was as though everything was sort of merging and I was somehow losing my sense of consciousness almost." This "merging" experience was characteristic of all of this 5"s meditation sessions, but she soon became familiar with it and ceased to describe it as anything remarkable. Following the sixth session she reported, "At one point it f e l t . . . as though the vase were in my head rather than out there: I knew it was out there but it seemed as though it were almost a part of me." "I think that I almost felt at that moment as though, you know, the image is really in me, it's not out there."
This phenomenon of "perceptual internalization" did not recur although she stated that she hoped it would.* In subsequent sessions subject A described a "film of blue" that developed as the boundaries of the vase dissolved. It covered the table on which the vase sat and the wall behind it, giving them all a blue color. In the tenth session the "film" became a "mist," and in the eleventh it became a "sea of blue." She reported after the eleventh session, "I am convinced now that what I initially . . . called merging was this kind of thing that happened (now) for practically 30 solid minutes." (By this time subject A was allowed to terminate the meditation "when it feels completed.") She experienced some anxiety during the session in that "it lost its boundaries and I might lose mine too" and described the general experience as "I was swimming in a sea of blue and I felt for a moment 1 was going to drown . . . " However, despite the anxiety it occasioned, she felt that the experience was very desirable. A related phenomenon was reported by subject C in the tenth session, " . . . I felt this whole complete other plane where I was nothing, I mean where my body was nothing. I wasn't aware of my body, it could not have been there and 1 wouldn't be surprised." Radiation: In the ninth session, subject C reported: "It started radiating. I was aware of what seemed like particles . . . seemed to be coming from the highlights there and right to me. I seemed fascinated with that. 1 felt that it was radiating heat. I felt warm from it and then realized that it was all shut out, that everything was dark all around, a kind of brown, lavender, eerie color and it was during this incandescent kind of radiating inner glow thing I could feel my pulse beating in my head and then there was . . . a twinge in my penis, I could feel my pulse beating in my penis and in my temples . . . I felt that there was a light coming down from above, too, that something was happening up there and 1 started getting an erection and this thing danced and it was very active. It moved, it pulsated and it also jumped around like this. It seemed like many colors around the edges of the table." (During this experience the vase appeared to him in a variety of different colors.) Dedifferentiation: When subject B looked out the window in the sixth session (the first session without taped sounds), he gave the following description: "1 don't know how to describe it, it's scattered. Things look scattered all over the lot, not hung together in any way. When 1 look at the background there is much in the foreground that is kind of drawing my attention. A very strong word would be clamoring for my attention. It isn't *It is interesting that the session was the first in which no sounds were played on the tape machine and the meditation was conducted in relative silence.
really clamoring but looks like a call for attention from all over the lot and no way of looking at the whole or any individual part of it." (Somewhat later.) "This session strikes me as quite d i f f e r e n t . . . The view didn't organize itself in any way. For a long time it resisted my attempt to organize it so 1 could talk about it. There were no planes, one behind the other. There was no response to certain patterns. Everything was working at the same i n t e n s i t y . . . like a bad painting which I didn't know about until I got used to it so I could begin to pick out what was going on in the painting. I didn't see the order to it or the patterning to it or anything and I couldn't impose it, it resisted my imposition of pattern." The characteristics of this experience might be summarized as: (a) resistance of the stimuli to visual organization; (b) all stimuli appearing at equal intensity; (c) all stimuli actively calling for attention at once. Subject B's description suggests that the experience resulted from a deautomatization of the structures ordinarily providing visual organization of a landscape (30-500 feet). The ability to focus attention selectively and the normal figure-ground relationships were apparently deautomatized. It should be noted that subject B did not experience the room itself in this way. Transfiguration: In Session 7 (the day after the dedifferentiation episode), subject B's perception of the landscape might be termed "transfigured." He described very few objects or details but instead talked mostly in terms of pleasure, luminescence and beautiful movements. For example, "the building is a kind of very white . . . a kind of luminescence that the fields have and the trees are really swaying, it's very nice . . . lean way over and bounce back with a nice spring-like movement. The sky behind them now is also very filled with light, there's a very blue patch in the sky . . . there are a couple of blue patches in the white, it's quite remarkablequality to it." Again, "The movements are nice, the brightness is. I would have thought it was a terribly overcast day but it isn't. (The sky was a white overcast with some patches of blue.) It's perception filled with light and movement both of which are very pleasurable. Nobody knows what a nice day it is except me." Subject B later stated, "It was coming in to me in a sense, 1 wasn't watching myself w a t c h i n g . . . the antithesis of being self-aware." In succeeding sessions there seemed to be a gradual decline from the enhanced perception of Session 7 and a gradual diminution in the amount of light and pleasure perceived in the scene. After the experiment had been concluded, subject B said, about looking out of the window, "What stands out in my mind are the organized occasions and the disorganized ones. The organized ones which then tended to organize themselves in various ways about the centers which seemed dominant or on planes which seemed a way of kind of organizing it. The disorganized ones are kind of scattered."
In summary, the group of four 5s, taken together, present a continuum ranging from subject A, who had the most intense personal experience and the least difficulties with the method, through subject D, who reported the fewest phenomena and had the greatest difficulty complying with the instructions. Subject D reported phenomena of lower intensity than the other Ss, required more sessions of practice and instruction before she noticed any effects, and did not report any striking individual phenomena. Common to all or most Ss were: (a) perceptual changes relating to the vase (darkening of hue, increased color saturation, loss of the third dimension, changes in size and shape, blurring or dissolving of outlines and movement of the vase itself); (b) development of a personal attachment to the vase; (c) modification of the state of consciousness; (d) increased ability to "keep out" distracting stimuli; and (e) a general feeling that the sessions were pleasurable and valuable. Phenomena which were apparently individual responses to the procedure were: (a) merging and perceptual internalization; (b) radiation with heat effect and sexual stimulation; (c) dedifferentiation of the landscape; and (d) transfiguration.
Recognition test
Incorporated in the design of the experiment was a test of recognition utilizing the word lists included in the background tape material. The test was based on the work of Schwartz and Rouse (1961, p. 22), who found that on a multiple-choice recognition test, 5s tended to choose close associates of "forgotten" test words. On the basis of their findings, it was expected that in the meditation experiment, registration of the word list without awareness would be revealed by a significant choice of close associates. During the twelfth sessions, 5s were interrupted in the midst of meditation immediately after the playing of the second word list. They were given a multiple-choice recognition test containing the words that had just been played and instructed to "see how much your mind remembers" by checking any words that sounded as if they had been on the list. The next day, the thirteenth session, 5s were tested sitting at the desk with the vase removed from the room and the instruction given: "This time I want you to listen to the tape and try to remember what you hear." After the second word list of that tape was played, 5s were again given a recognition test. As a control for the effect of practice in meditation, a second group of four 5s was given the procedures of Sessions 12 and 13 only. In all eight cases 5 was able to recognize more words when he was not meditating. There was no significant difference, however, in the ability of practice and control 5s to recognize words played while they were
meditating, and no significant choice of close associates. An S"s report that he had no memory of the word list was not necessarily related to his score on the test.
Meditation and the Mystic Experience
Ss' reports support the hypothesis that the procedure of contemplative meditation is a principal agent in producing the mystic experience. On the basis of the mystic literature, two classifications of mystic experience were distinguished: "sensate" experiences of strong emotion, vivid perception or heightened cognition, and "transcendent" experiences beyond the usual modes of affect, perception or cognition (Deikman, Chapter 2, this book). The reports of these Ss are analogs of the sensate mystic experience and, in the case of subject A, who continued further meditation sessions beyond the conclusion of the experiment itself, a possible preliminary phase to the transcendent state. Subject B's experience of the landscape in the seventh session (see above) is similar to descriptions of untrained sensate mystic experience. William James, for instance, cites the following: . . everything looked new to me, the people, the fields, the trees, the cattle, I was like a new man in a new world" (1929, p. 244). "It was like entering another world, a new state of existence. Natural objects were glorified. My spiritual vision was so clarified that 1 saw beauty in every material object in the universe" (p. 244). "The appearance of everything was altered, there seemed to be, as it were, a calm, sweet cast for appearance of divine glory in almost everything" (p. 243). The difference between subject B's report and those of the untrained persons cited by James might depend on the presence of a religious viewpoint in the latter. The "luminescence" and "beauty" reported by subject B may be equivalent to "divine glory" as descriptive terms, and if subject B had been a mystic yearning to be touched by God, his vision o f t h e landscape on that day probably would have seemed to him like a divine communion. Another analog is subject C's experience o f t h e "radiation" of heat from the vase, as well as pulsations in shape, lighting and color, felt as sexually exciting and pleasurable (see above). Richard Rolle, a fourteenth-century English mystic, wrote, " . . . I was sitting in a certain chapel, and while I was taking pleasure in the delight of some prayer or meditation, I suddenly felt within me an unwanted and pleasant fire. When 1 had for long doubted from whence it came, 1 learned by experience it came from the Creator and not from creature and I found it ever more pleasing and full of h e a t . .
^Knowles, 1961 p. 57). Other Western mystics have described a "sweet fire," a vivid physical experience that often has strong sexual implications. If subject C were a Christian mystic contemplating a statue of Christ or the Virgin Mary, he might well have reported his experience in religious terms. In the Vedantic literature, particularly in the Yoga of Pantanjali (Woods, 1914), there is great emphasis on the independence of the mind and the location of the percept in the mind of the beholder. It is emphasized that objects exist but that our ideas about them are functions of our mental operations. The perception of the world as distinct from the self is regarded as false, but through the practice of meditation a true perception of reality may be achieved. Subject A's experience of the vase being in her head rather than in the external world (see above) could readily produce or support the Yoga philosophy. Even more striking was the report of subject A from a session (21) conducted after the end of the experimental series. It is possible that she entered a preliminary phase o f t h e "transcendent" state, and that what she describes is an analog of the trained-transcendent mystic experience. She reported that a diffuse blue occupied the entire visual field and that she felt merged completely with that diffuseness. She had a sense of falling, of emptiness, of loneliness and isolation as if she were in a vacuum. Hersudden realization that there were absolutely no thoughts in her mind made her anxious and she searched for thoughts to bring herself back. "It was as if I leaped out o f t h e chair to put the boundaries back on the vase . . . because there was nothing there . . . the vase was going and I was going with i t . . . " This description is strikingly similar to that found in The Cloud of Unknowing, where the author states, "And [to] do that in thee is to forget all the creatures that ever God made and the works of them, so that thy desire be not directed or stretched to any of them, neither in general nor in s p e c i a l . . . At the first time when thou dost it, thou findst but a darkness and as it were a cloud of unknowing, thous knowest not w h a t . . . " (Knowles, 1961, p. 77). What I have described are analogs of mystic experiences, not true mystic experiences. These 5s did not have a sense of ineffable communication with the absolute, of profound illumination into the nature of Reality, nor of being in a state of Unity. However, their accounts do suggest that important basic elements of the mystic experience were achieved, and this in turn suggests that contemplative meditation as a psychological technique is a central element in the production of the trained mystic experience. Stimulus barriers: The hypothesis that training in contemplative meditation leads to the building of intrapsychic barriers against distracting stimuli was supported by the subjective reports but not by the recognition test. All 5s in the practice group reported an improvement in their ability to keep
out of awareness internal and external stimuli that were potentially very distracting. These stimuli were internal as well as external, were often rich in meaning, and were sometimes accidental intrusions into the experimental situation (e.g., subject A's head cold). The combination of increased effectiveness and decreased effort suggests that psychic structures were established to keep out stimuli more efficientlymore work accomplished with less effort. (The automatization of such structures could conceivably account for the transition to effortless contemplation reported by mystics.) The recognition test data, however, did not show a difference between the practice and control groups. In view of the improvement in keeping out stimuli reported by Ss, it seems probable that this test was not a measure of the existence of stimulus-barrier structures. The question must then be asked: "By what process is an incoming stimulus barred from attention while still registering sufficiently to permit recognition?" The data do not supply an answer, so far. Deautomatization: The concept of deautomatization would appear to be specifically demonstrated in the experience of de-differentiation reported by the subject B as he looked out the window. His description of the unorganized stimuli "clamoring" for his attention and " n o w a y of looking at the whole or any individual part" is very similar to the quality of visual experience reported in Von Senden's (I960) survey of cataract patients seeing for the first time. It is precisely such a perceptual condition that would be expected in the absence of automatic processes responsible for organizing visual stimuli. Of course, in the case of subject B, considerable organization of vision was still present as compared to the Von Senden accounts; yet it seems clear that a partial disorganization, a deautomatization, took place briefly as he gazed out the window. The ability to focus attention selectively and the perception of normal figure-ground relationships would appear to have been affected. The alteration of ego boundaries experienced by subject A, and the release of sexual feeling in the case of subject C, might be viewed as a deautomatization of self-object differentiation and of affect controls, respectively. Similarly, the loss of the third dimension of the vase, the diffusion of its boundaries, and its increased intensity of color is consistent with a deautomatization of formal organization of visual stimuli resulting in a shift to a more direct, less organized sensory experience.
Related phenomena
Color perception: The changes in perception of the vase which most Ss reported would seem to be composed of elements of color adaption, color contrast and color summation. For example, color summation is suggested
by the diffuse film of blue that subject A reported, which in later sessions completely occupied and filled the field of vision. Color adaptation would similarly seem involved in S's perception o f t h e vase. Cohen, however, in an experiment using binocular trichromatic colorimeters, reported that "the course of adaptation to color consists of a gradual but never complete loss of saturation, of no change in hue, and of an increase in intensity" (Cohen, 1946, p. 110). In contrast to his results, saturation o f t h e vase in the meditation experiment was often reported to be increased, with a shift in the hue toward purple. Although the conditions ofthe Hochberg( 1951) experiments (color adaptation using a Ganzfield) are not duplicated here, the darkening o f t h e visual field and the shift in hue o f t h e vase seem in accord with his finding that red or green adapted to black or dark grey. Yet the overall darkening of the meditation room "as if the lights had been turned down," was accompanied by an increased "luminous" and "vivid" quality o f t h e vase. "It was as if light were coming from it." This finding does not parallel Hochberg's results. Thus additional central processes must probably be considered to account for the meditation color phenomenon. Experimental evidence for central factors over and above the mechanisms of neuronal adaption is provided by Pritchard (1958) in his studies of the stabilized retinal image. "When a subject views a pattern in a stabilized condition, he can still alter the amount which he perceives in a certain region of the pattern by deciding to transfer his attention to that region." This finding is relevant to an understanding of meditative concentration, for the allocation of attention appears to be the principal process involved in meditation, above and beyond the more peripheral processes of adaptation and summation.* Hypnosis: The experimental procedure and setting suggest a similarity to hypnosis and raise the question of whether the phenomena are due to the same process. As discussed by Gill and Brenman (1959), three o f t h e main features of hypnotic induction are: (a) extensive limitation is placed o n S ' s sensory intake; (b) S's bodily activity is strictly limited; and (c) stimulation is provided of a particular and narrow kind. The first two features are found in the meditation procedure. With regard to the latter point, the music selections played on the background tapes, the simple meditative object, and the repeated instructions might all be viewed as such narrow stimulation. However, the prose and poetry selections were different for each session, were varied in type, and were often rich in meaning. A fourth point mentioned by Gill and Brenman, the attempt to alter the quality o f t h e bodily
*One may infer from the Hochberg experiment, from the work with after-images (Osgood, 1956, p. 222) and from recent work on the stabilized retinal image (Eagle & Klein), that the more meaningful the percept, the more it resists breakdown.
awareness of Ss, was not part of the meditation procedure. The absence of this feature is in accord with the absence in the meditative Ss of vivid spontaneous changes in body experience which Gill and Brenman believe are the most prominent phenomena of hypnotic induction. A striking similarity between hypnosis and the meditation experiment concerns the expectations of S. Gill and Brenman wrote, "During the course of the steps of any successful hypnotic induction process, the hypnotist progressively persuades the subject that he is gradually losing control of himself and that this control is being responsibly taken over by the hypnotist. Usually implied, though sometimes explicitly stated, is the promise to the subject that if he permits the hypnotist to bring about the deprivations and losses of power we have discussed, he will be rewarded by an unprecedented kind of experience; the precise nature of this experience is usually left ambiguous. Sometimes the implication is that new worlds will be opened to him, providing an emotional adventure of a sort he has never known" (Gill & Brenman, 1959, p. 10). All Ss in the present meditation experiment revealed by their comments a more or less vague expectation of this sort. Two o f t h e meditation Ss used the term "hypnotic" to characterize some aspects of their concentration process. Clearly there are certain similarities in the physical setting, the expectations of S a n d the relationship to E in the two procedures. In spite of these similarities, the phenomena of meditation seem to represent a state of ego organization different from that associated with hypnosis. The intense affective phenomena often found in the phypnotic induction period did not occur in the meditative sessions. Except for feelings of surprise or fear at the occurrence of a new phenomenon, Ss' emotional intensity could be described as mild. Subject C did experience a combination of physical and mental excitement during the most vivid of the perceptual phenomena but even this does not seem comparable in quality to the more intense hypnotic phenomena "ranging from the relatively minor explosions of uncontrolled weeping to the enactment of waking nightmares on a level of symbolism and with a quantity of feeling very similar to that known to us only in dream-life; poetry, or fairy tales" (Gill & Brenman, 1959, p. 19), found sometimes in the induction period of hypnosis. The surrender of will power, which is the cardinal feature of the hypnotic state, is encountered in meditation only insofar as S renounces his normal intellectual activities he does not consciously feel that he is turning control over to E. As in hypnosis, this renunciation itself is undertaken voluntarily, but the meditation Ss seem always to have been aware that they were able to bring themselves back at any time that they wished, whereas in the hypnotic state fluctuations in the depth of hypnosis appear to take place involuntarily (Brenman, Gill & Knight, 1952). The basic difference between hypnosis and the classical mystic experience
is the difference in the experience itself. Hypnotic experiences do not appear to have the ineffable, profound, uplifting, highly valued quality of the mystic state and are not remembered as such. It may be argued that the difference is a function of suggestion. Orne has studied the nature o f t h e hypnotic process and proposes that "the behavioral characteristics of hypnosis can be understood in terms o f t h e subject's previous knowledge and the cues transmitted during the process of induction" (Orne, 1962b, p. 1098). The hypothesis might be advanced that the phenomena of experimental meditation and of the mystic experience in general represent, as Orne suggests of hypnosis, "an historically developed artifact occurring along with a process, the essential behavioral manifestations of which are little known" (1962b, p. 1098). Thus the difference between hypnosis and contemplative meditation might lie in the differing expectations of 5s and the "demand characteristics" of the two situations. Coe (1917, p. 253) has pointed out that the form and content of the mystic experience is usually congruent with the mystics' cultural and religious background; to put it simply, a Yogin will have a Nirvana experience, while a Roman Catholic will report communion with Christ. Such an hypothesis of demand characteristics, however, is not consistent with the fact that the highest mystic experiences are similar in their basic content despite wide differences in cultural backgrounds and expectations. These similarities are: (a) the feeling of incommunicability; (b) transcendence of sense modalities; (c) absence of specific content such as images or ideas; and (d) feeling of unity with the Ultimate. Lower forms of mystic experience do embody specific content related to each 5's beliefs, and the absence of religious motifs from the accounts of 5s performing meditation as a psychological experiment indicates a definite role of 5expectation in determining the presence of or absence of the secondary features of mystic experiences. However, the phenomena common to all 5s do not permit such an explanation. Also, there are reasons for believing that the idiosyncratic phenomena, such as "merging," were neither a function of 5s' knowledge of the role of meditator, nor o f t h e total demand characteristics imposed by the experimenter and the experimental design. To begin with, the occurrence of the phenomena of "merging," "radiation" and the like surprised both 5 and E. One 5 was sufficiently alarmed to end the phenomena by shifting her attention. On the other hand, the "deautomatization" effect was not noticed by subject B as being a special event, whereas it seemed of great significance to E. In addition, the two 5s (A and C) who look to the procedure with greatest facility and interest, developed markedly different effects. Finally the later experience of subject A, clearly a further development of "merging," appears to be a preliminary phase of the Unity phenomenon of the transcendent mystic experience. This 5 had no conscious knowledge of the mystic literature and her retrospective
account emphasized the strangeness, the unexpectedness and the startling quality of her experience. The considerations discussed above do not rule out the presence o f u n conscious expectations on the part of Ss, nor unconscious as well as explicit expectations of the part of E. For the reasons given, however, it seems that the phenomena cannot be adequately explained as due to suggestion, and a careful examination o f t h e transcripts gives one the strong impression that a unique process is involved. Sensory deprivation: The meditation procedure also invites comparison with experimental sensory deprivation. In meditation, a narrowing and decrease in variation of the stimulus field are created, rather than sensory deprivation as such. However, the meditation instructions aim towards a situation in which very little meaningful information is taken in by 5s. Homogeneity of external stimulation is established by environmental conditions, but the narrowing of the perceptual field is accomplished primarily by S's own psychological actions. It is interesting that many studies point to the absence of meaningful stimuli as the primary determinant of deprivation phenomena (Solomon et al., 1961). A very important difference between the two procedures is that meditation involves an active striving for a definite goal (see the meditation instructions), while sensory deprivation fosters and creates complete psychological passivity. The phenomena reported by the meditation 5s are similar in a number of respects to those encountered during and immediately after sensory deprivation: alterations in ego boundaries with accompanying feelings of estrangement; increased brightness of color; movement of stationary objects; and apparently idiosyncratic "hallucinations." It should be noted, however, that these effects occurred during the meditation and not when 5s turned their attention once more to the room and E. In the case of subject B, who experienced an apparent perceptual change in the nature of the landscape after meditation, this change was not the sort described as occurring after periods of deprivation. The sharp transition from the meditation state to the "normal" condition may be an indication of how completely the meditative state is under the control of 5 himself, in contrast to the deprivation procedure which is imposed upon 5. It was clear that during the meditation 5s could control the rate of progression of phenomena as well as the extent of stimulus limitation which they experienced. The meditation procedure and that of sensory deprivation both reveal a continuum between 5s who can abandon themselves to the required state and 5s who seem unable to adapt (Freedmanetal., 1961; Holt&Goldberger, 1959). In contrast to 5s' usual experience in sensory deprivation, the meditation experience was generally felt to be pleasurable, rewarding and positively valued, even by those who did not seem able to
adapt to it. No restlessness was observed and distress was momentary or absent. It should be emphasized that sensory deprivation, even when enjoyed by 5, is not the same experience as that recorded by mystics, and in the aspects mentioned above is different from the phenomena of experimental meditation.
The meditation procedure described in this report produces alterations in the visual perception of sensory and formal properties of the object, and alterations in ego boundariesall in the direction of fluidity and breakdown of the usual subject-object differentiation. The phenomena are consistent with the hypothesisthat through contemplative meditation deautomatization occurs and permits a different perceptual and cognitive experience. The change in perception of the vase (increase in color intensity, loss of the third dimension and diffusion of boundaries) are in the direction of the undifferentiated visual experience of VonSenden's patients. The meditation 5s, however, showed an appreciation for the "richness" and esthetically pleasing elements in the experience. Subject B's "deautomatization" episode was followed by his experiencing the landscape as transfigured with light and movement, as being pleasurable and beautiful. Deautomatization is here conceived as permitting the adult to attain a new, fresh perception of the world by freeing him from a stereotyped organization built up over the years and by allowing adult synthetic and associative functions access to fresh materials, to create with them in a new way that represents an advance in mental functioning. The search of the artist to find a new expressive style may be viewed as the struggle to deautomatize his perception and the evolution of styles is accordingly necessary to regain vivid, emotionally significant experience. The struggle for creative insight in all fields m a y b e regarded as the effort to deautomatize the psychic structures that organize cognition and perception. In this sense, deautomatization is not a regression but rather an undoing of a pattern in order to permit a new and perhaps more advanced experience. The crayfish sloughs its rigid shell when more space is needed for growth. The mystic, through meditation, may also cast off, temporarily, the shell of automatic perception, of automatic affective and cognitive controls in order to perceive more deeply into reality. The temporary nature of mystic deautomatization is seen in the episodic course ofthe mystic's progress toward Union. Mystics report achieving ecstatic peaks of experience succeeded by a fading away (reautomatization) until another high moment restores the state. The general process of deautomatization would seem of great potential
usefulness whenever it is desired to break free from an old pattern in order to achieve a new experience of the same stimulus or to open a perceptual avenue to stimuli never experienced before. The effects of LSD and mescaline, the "break-off phenomenon" of high altitude flights and other related phenomena, may be due to a partial deautomatization of a mode or modes of perception and cognition. Such deautomatization achieved through external environmental changes appears to be more transient and less transcendent than those produced by individual efforts over long periods of time, however. A most striking finding of the meditation experiment is the ease and rapidity with which the phenomena were produced. Comparable phenomena have required more or less elaborate procedures of sensory deprivation or the use of potent drugs. In this study a natural environment was employed and the process was performed by Ss themselves. In less than half an hour, phenomena occurred that in other contexts have been described as "depersonalization," "hallucination," "delusion" or "visual distortion," "intensification" and the like. Such rapid, intense effects point to a capacity, under minimal stress conditions, for alteration in the perception of the world and of the self far greater than what is customarily assumed to be the case for normal people. The procedure of experimental meditation appears to be a valuable research tool and research problem in its own right. Further investigation is planned.
MEDITATIVE TECHNIQUES IN PSYCHOTHERAPY
The psychotherapist who wants to employ techniques of meditation must first be able to meditate himself. The book by the German psychiatrist, J. H. Schultz (Schultz, 1953, 1956; see Schultz and Luthe, 1959, for English translation) offers a step-by-step introduction to one technique of meditation. However, with meditation, as with psychotherapy, a study of the literature is seldom enough. A personal dedication is necessary. Without it, individual practice of meditation can be dangerous; especially the advance stages of genuine meditation described by Schultz. In these advanced stages, after a general bodily relaxation has been achieved, symbolic fantasies are skillfully induced. Then colors and objects are visualized. One endeavors to experience a symbolic representation of ideas which are understood only abstractly, of one's feelings, of friends, and finally of higher moral questions, in a way which allows the psyche to make unconscious tendencies symbolically visible. Dreams are similar to meditation, except meditation gains the reaction of the unconscious by a systematic technique which is faster than depending on dreams. But the Schultz technique only serves to raise, with a special emphasis, the question, "What is the goal of meditation?" Schultz sees this question clearly, but that this question is basically a religious one, or at least
Reprinted by permission of Psychologio, Vol. 5, (1962) 76-83.
connected with religion, Schultzdoes not conclude. Therefore, he limits himself to the formulation of "basic existential values." This means the meditator is encouraged to strive toward a reasonable view of life orientated toward self-realization, psychic freedom and harmony, and a lively creativity. At best, one achieves a Nirvana-like phenomena of joy and release. Maybe Schultz conceals decisive experiences which go further; because of the basically unlimited possibilities of meditation, we can always await such an extension of his ideas. The technique developed by Carl Happich, the former Darmstadt internist, is meditation of the most systematic kind, and also of the widest human scope. It begins with physiology and ends in religion. Happich developed it out of his literary and practical knowledge of Oriental techniques. He combined their wisdom with the experience of modern depth psychology. He set forth his fundamental principles in two small works (Happich, 1932, 1939), and beyond these left only a small Introduction to meditation (Happich, 1948), which is concerned with religious symbolism. Unfortunately, he did not live to set forth his life experiences in a grand scientific frame. His importance lies, above all, in the practical techniques which he began to spread among theologians when physicians demonstrated no interest in them. Happich took the level of consciousness he called "symbolic consciousness," which seems to lie between consciousness and unconsciousness, as the point of departure for all creative production and, therefore, also for the healing process. On this level the "collective unconscious" can express itself through symbolism. It is in the activation of the possibilities of symbolic expression that Happich, as Schultz, sees the point of departure for meditation and its therapeutic possibilities. How can we proceed practically? Assumed, as always, is the bodily solution which is attained systematically with the Schultz method or by more direct means. Happich placed great value in breathing as a graduated measure of the affective states which alters itself in the permissiveness of meditation. He encouraged, both before and during the therapeutic session, an increasing passivity of respiration. Most men can only achieve this through progressive breathing exercises. After some experience with physiological reactions to breathing exercises has been gained, the first psychological exercise, the so-called "Meadow Meditation," can be attempted. The meditator must repeat to himself the words of his meditation-master and imagine that he (the meditator) leaves the room, goes through the city, over the fields, to a meadow covered with fresh grass and flowers and looks upon the meadow with pleasure. Then, he psychically returns the same way to the room, opens his eyes, and relates what he has experienced. When this exercise can be done freely (which
WOLFGANG KRETSCHMER
usually requires a number of sittings) it is followed by the "Mountain Meditation." The meditator, as in the first meditation, goes into the country and then slowly climbs a mountain. He passes through a forest, and finally reaches a peak from which he can view a wide expanse. In the third step, the "Chapel Meditation" is explored. In it, the meditator passes through a grove and reaches a chapel which he enters and where he remains for a long time. Lastly, Happich has the meditator imagine himself sitting on a bench by an old fountain listening to the murmur of the water. What does all this mean? One who is familiar with dream symbolism knows immediately that the three central symbols (meadow, mountain, and chapel) to which the meditator is led have an "archetypal" significance even though, in everyday life, they are quite ordinary and in no way help to bring about an especially deep knowledge. However, when a certain depth of meditation is attained, such symbols lose their ordinary meaning and their symbolical value is slowly revealed. As the meditator returns to the meadow, he does not experience things as he would in the ordinary world. Rather the meadow provides a symbol of the hypnotic level of consciousness and stimulates the emotions on this level. The individual takes an ordinary situation as the means of experiencing the primordial content o f t h e symbol of the meadow. The meadow presents youthful Mother Nature in her serene and beneficent aspect. In contrast a forest is also inhabited by demons. The meadow represents the blossoming of life which the meditator seeks. It also represents the world of the child. When one meditates on the symbol of the meadow, he regresses to his psychic origin in childhood. Once there, he does not uncover sexual dreams of his childhood as might be expected. Nor does he find a "stump," which can also be a meaningful symbol. Rather he returns to the positive, creative basis of his life. Every healthy man has in his psychic depths something corresponding to this meadow. He retains with him an active and creative "child." As the realm of this "child" is revealed through meditation on the symbol of the meadow, the meadow becomes a point of departure and crystallization for other symbols related to this psychic realm. These self-crystallized symbols are unmeditated expressions of the individual's adaptation to the realm of the "child" within his psyche. A healthy man will have a satisfying experience of a meadow in the Hush of spring. He will populate the meadow with children or with the form of an agreeable woman. He will, perhaps, pick flowers and so on. In this way, the meditator discovers a symbolic representation o f h i s psychic condition. The psychically ill find it impossible to visualize a fresh meadow and during meditation cannot find one. Or the meadow may be seen as wilted or
composed of a single stump. Or all sorts of disturbing, negative symbols may be scattered around. From such manifestations of illness, one gains a diagnosis which must then be translated into a therapy. Often, the meditation must be repeated many times until the crippling effects of the fundamental psychic problem are undone and the meditation can proceed normally. Analytic conversation with the psychotherapist normally aids the whole process. In climbing the mountain, the meditator will generally symbolize some obstacle in his way so that he must prove himself. Climbing in this psychic sphere always implies "sublimation," in the Jungian rather than the Freudian use of the term. The words transformation, spiritualization, or humanization might convey the idea better than the word "sublimation." In any case, the climbing is a symbol of a movement during which man demonstrates his capacity to develop toward the goal of psychic freedom, the peak of human being. The passage through the forest on the way up the mountain gives the meditator the opportunity to reconcile himself with the dark, fearful side of nature. With the symbol of the chapel, the meditator is led into the innermost rooms of his psyche where he faces the simple question of how he relates to the possibilities of psychic transformation within man. When the meditator is able to comprehend the symbolic significance of the chapel, he can learn to use it to uncover and face in himself the central problems of human life. The chapel also provides a stage on which the resolution of these central human problems can be symbolically revealed. It is Happich's idea that the "religious function" is the most intimate and not an invisible factor in human life. Further, he believed that man, if he will be really healthy and psychically free, sometime and somehow must face these questions. One cannot avoid the fact that the special efficacy of Happich's therapy was the result of his religious attitude. He developed a Christian meditation. That his system of meditation is based on sound psychological principles is confirmed by the work of the Jungian school. Dreams have been recorded where a mountain is seen in a landscape and on the mountain stands a church. Such symbolic pictures have been valued psychically as an indication of the end of the process of "individuation," as a symbol of the attainment of "spirituality." But in meditation one does not wait until the needed symbols are produced spontaneously, as during dream analysis. Rather, the meditator is forced to occupy himself with certain symbols selected by the therapist until he has explored the fullness of their meaning. Happich directed his meditators to a higher step which he called "Design (or Mandala, a Sanskrit word literally meaning circle, but more specifically an abstract design used especially in Tibetan Buddhism as a stimulus during meditation) Meditation." The design which is meditated upon is a
kind of condensation, an abstraction of many symbols which are united into a generalized form. In the course of meditation on these designs, the meaning of the inherent symbolism can become obvious. With Mandala Meditation, the goal is not production of extensive fantasy, but rather a lively meditation revolving around the central meaning of the design. Eventually, the meditator is directed to psychically identify himself with the symbol and to integrate the meaning of the symbol with his psychic life. Properly speaking, these designs are not used as a technique of therapy, but rather in furthering the highest development of personality. An example of what can be experienced through meditation on a design can be read in the opening of Geothe's Faust, where Faust beholds the design of the macrocosmos. A still more abstract form of meditation is "Word Meditation," directed toward unfolding the central human importance of a word or a saying. Meditation on designs and words are of the greatest importance in furthering religious development. Happich holds the healthy principle of the equality of rational and irrational activity during the course of meditation. On the other hand, one should not meditate on symbols or designs which stimulate dangerous negative emotions, as for example, a snake or a scorpion. The subject of meditation should be purified through thousands of years' experience of the wisest men, and be of proven value as is the case with many Egyptian, Hindu, and German symbols and also the holy symbols o f t h e Greek church. The first requirement of such symbols is the impression of their positive transforming power, which can be regulated by man's psyche. R. Desoille, a Frenchman, described one o f t h e newest and most original techniques (Desoille, 1945, 1947, 1950). His procedure is not meditation in the classical sense. The emphasis is shifted toward more conventional depth psychology. But it deserves discussion as a technique of actively relating to the unconscious. Desoille treats his patients in a state of limited consciousness, in which he suggests that symbols be plastically visualized and actively experienced. He directs his patients to psychically wander wherever they choose, availing themselves of any means, a kind of wandering into which most patients soon fall. They experience, for example, the climbing of a mountain or a tower, ascent into the clouds, etc. Especially important is the climbing, for reasons already discussed. In this wandering, all possible hindrances are eliminated. As in dreams, various symbolic forms are manifested from the "personal and collective unconscious"in both auspicious and horrible aspects. Meeting "archetypal" symbols is considered especially effective. The patient relates his psychic experiences as he has them, and the turning
point of the method is the therapist's reaction to them. As he is informed in each moment of the psychological scene, the therapist suggests to the patient a symbolic means of changing his (the patient's) situation by climbing or descending. The therapist does not suggest the whole fantasy; rather, he gives only a direction and maintains control of the fantasy by offering helpful symbols which can serve as points of crystallization for the fantasy. The technique is a good one. In the climb, Desoille realizes and makes use of the human ability for creative sublimation. In the descent, the patient comes to know psychic productions from the sphere of man's instinctual nature. The patient is led to the psychological execution of what Goethe poetically described as the way "from heaven through the world to hell." In other words, he penetrates through the patient's whole psychic report and provides symbolic expressions of inherent libidinal tendencies which motivate men on various psychic levels. Decisive for Desoille is the experience of meeting the "archetypes" which lead man to the absolutes of existence and the last decision, a decision of absolute and vast importance. Desoille's valuation of the "collective unconscious" is more radical and consequential than Jung's; in this he (Desoille) holds that the meeting with the "collective unconscious" is a decisive and unavoidable presupposition of the therapeutic process. Desoille holds that when the patient can relate himself to the "archetypes of the collective unconscious," he can find in them the appropriate adjustment to the problems of life. The patient must learn to control the "archetypes" within himself, to be free from them, and thereby lose his fear of them. He can then comprehend and resolve his personal conflicts within the larger context of man's inherent problems. Thus, the patient experiences his personal conflicts as having an impersonal and collective background. The motivational (libidinal) conflict is not resolved by being transferred upon the therapist, as in psychoanalysis; rather, the patient uncovers, in himself, the basic roots of the conflict. The goal of the technique is to direct the patient toward the fulfillment of his human potentialities through the creative development of man's basic biological impulses into a higher and harmonic order. With this idea, Desoille enters the realm of ethics and religion. Religious sensitivity is, for Desoille, the highest psychic state and the source of great activity. Desoille's techniques require the therapist to possess a rare knowledge and understanding of symbolism and great psychological intuition in order to evaluate the waking dreams of his patients and to retain control of the process of psychological development which the waking dreams initiate. The technique is, in a unique way, both diagnostic and therapeutic and the seemingly irrational procedure is worthy of note. Penetration of the
psychic situation using reasonable conversation isgiven up. The therapeutic principle lies in the acceleration and furthering of effective development. It is a healing process which seeks the maximum transcendence of psychic limitations through symbolic ascensions and descensions. In this simple but most important principle, an earnest reminder can also be seen. Any therapist who would lead others to psychic heights and depths must, himself, be able to attain these heights and depths of the psyche. Contemporary psychotherapists will have to begin by training themselves to ascend and descend through their own psyche and thereby experience the manifold components within man and the driving forces behind human life. Who will accept Desoille's hypothesis and begin to look up and climb? Walter Frederking calls his psychotherapeutic technique "Deep relaxation and symbolism" (Frederking, 1948). Frederking's technique is unsystematic, which implies nothing about its value. Frederking also seeks freedom from dependence upon dreams by stimulating the unconscious to spontaneous productions of other kinds. To do this, he directs his patients in a progressive bodily relaxation during which they continue to describe their discoveries. One could also say he simply allows fantasy. The patient soon progresses from unclear visions to increasingly clearer productions of a kind of "symbolic strip thought." This symbolic thought, which has a significance similar to dream life, is allowed to flow by, scene by scene. The patient is both the playwright and the actors. He meets the contents of his "personal unconscious" and, to a degree, the "collective unconscious" and is able to relate their contents directly and dramatically to his psychic problems. One could also say that the patient is directed to enter "hell" to conquer the fiendish demons. This meeting with generally unrecognized aspects of himself brings about a spontaneous healing through various transforming symbols. Frederking holds that "in dreams and symbols man is led through every sphere o f t h e psyche, during which the forms of psychic force are able to resolve themselves without the use of other means and deep-going transformations are effected." Frederking also allows the therapy to be regulated by the autonomous healing force of the psyche. The technique is also irrational. Frederking knows, as all who work in these spheres know, that the therapist is in no way indifferent during the course of the therapy. It is true that he only occasionally interjects himself to clarify and point out the course of the healing. But the therapist knows that the patient can only experience the most favorably significant symbols at his own opportunity. Although the therapist , remains essentially passive and does not interfere, the patient is still in the therapist's psychic field and may receive direction or formulation of impulses.
Friedrich Mauz has described another technique (Mauz, 1948). This technique is not meditation in the strictest sense, but it is related to it in many ways. With psychotics, the previously described methods are very dangerous and, therefore, rejected. Accordingly, the Mauz method is a severely restricted form of meditation in which the unconscious is most carefully tackled and channelled into productive performance. Mauz does not mention preference for any technical preparation. The technique develops directly out of conversation considering the role of conditioned reflexes occurring daily at the same time. This conversation is almost a monologue in which the therapist depicts the patient in plastic and sympathy-evoking representative pictures from childhood; the experience of a procession, Christmas celebration in the family, a children's song, etc. The depiction must have, for the patient, an appropriate and intuitive power as a "solvent picture." It should unlock and enliven the suppressed emotions of the psychotic so that later a real conversation can develop. Mauz aims, as does meditation in other respects, at the emotional level of the patient. Basically, he also leads the patient to the Happich childhood meadow, the creative ground of the psyche. But rather than wait for the patient to produce, Mauz impregnates the meadow with symbols he knows will awaken positive feelings and meanings within the patient, such as the "security" of childhood with its guiltless pleasures. Through such feelings and symbols, the psychotic can again connect with the world around him. The creative power which flows from these feelings and symbols aids in closing the breach in the patient's personality. It is noteworthy how Mauz describes important fundamental principles of meditation which he apparently discovered completely intuitively in genuine human behavior. The symholic scene is the effector o f t h e therapy, but only if it is experienced as real and actual; that is, as in meditation. "The picture must be personal and impersonal at the same time." It leads into the "sphere" of impersonal knowledge and reality." "All that is loud, obtrusive, and harsh must be avoided." The decisive experiences of the past present themselves in the stillness. We must "identify ourselves with the psychotic opposites." "The therapist mixes himself into a common solution with the patient and allows his own comfort to wait." One could say that the therapist must meditate on the patient. He must allow himself to be caught by the patient as the patient is caught by formulations of their psychic power. This is the mystical unity between the therapist and the sick. One must "not only analyze the illness," but also "know the possible health." The therapist must have before him a conception of the completely harmonic man and seek where he can find it again to develop it.
What happens here is biologically and ethically one. "The emotion of security," says Mauz, "is both vegetative and psychic." With this idea Mauz grasps the whole anthropological aspect of therapy. Decisive for Mauz before all else, is "the simple human relationship." It appears most significant to the writer that a professional scientist like Mauz comes through his experience with meditation with the conclusion that "humanness" is the highest principle of therapy, an idea which is still far from scientific medicine today. Now to gather together the viewpoints which characterize and are combined in the various techniques. All involve the active provocation of the unconscious, as the writer wishes to call it, in which the therapist chiefly has the function of a "birth helper." The patient is directed to place himself in relation to his unconscious, and thus make its creative possibilities available in the healing process. In contrast with the conscious, passive attitude employed in analytical methods of treatment, one takes an active, conscious, and oriented part in the healing process when using meditative techniques. Also in contrast with analytical methods, the meditative technique strives for a goal-directed, but individually adapted, formulation of man's nature in which a picture of the transformed man stands in the background. In this respect, Frederking is a relative exception. In contrast with the analytical-psychological techniques, the basic exercises of meditation are not only applicable to healthy men, but are very useful. There is a value in the analysis of abnormality. Emphasis on the analytical is usually emphasis on our psychic past. During meditation, there is more dependence on the tendency toward health in the psyche. The orientation is synthetic rather than analytic. Meditation helps the patient to an expanded consciousness and impersonal experience and knowledge. Meditation has an advantage in that it allows the transition to religious problems to consummate itself in a completely natural way. The course of therapy is shorter with meditation because one is not dependent upon the mood of dreams and comes more quickly, both diagnostically and therapeutically, to the psychic conflict. Finally, with meditation, the patient does not ordinarily transfer his problem onto the therapist and, therefore, the resolution of transference is usually unnecessary. Opposed to the great range and efficiency of meditation is only one severe limitation. Meditation is limited by the subjectivity of both the therapist and the patient. Not without purpose are all the described experiences ascribed to a creator which none of the important schools has equalled. Unfortunately, each successful therapist forms his own school. Desoille and Mauz certainly demonstrate most unusual intuitions and artistic ability. Not every patient is equally able to fruitfully experience
the deeper levels of the psyche. Decisive is the problem of the psychic field of force described by Heyer, which is valid for all techniques which explore the deeper levels of the psyche. If the patient would resolve his intimate psychic problems, he must bring the symbols which expose them, either in dreams or in meditation, into higher levels of consciousness. Stimulation of the deeper levels of the unconscious is the art of psychotherapy, which really can be described only by the unscientific term "exorcism." Exorcism is not only the result of a learnable technique, but is rather the result of the whole personal influence o f t h e therapist on the patient. Therefore, with all these techniques, competent therapists are required. With one therapist, the patient may experience only the most banal contents of his unconscious; and with another, the patient may have a decisive experience of psychic depths. Thus, the psychotherapist must have a sense of vocation as well as a technique. A sense of vocation is the consequence of natural gifts and skill. Such skill is not learned as a craft nor as a medical training, but rather through personal skill as it develops in the relationship between master and disciple. Great psychotherapy is unique and cannot be copied any more than a work of art. It is because the work of a master cannot be copied that one can learn from him. Meditation has a good chance of eventually becoming one of the leading therapeutic techniques. All the newer systems with which the writer is familiar look for a development in this direction. But whether or not this development takes place depends completely on a deep-going reformulation of psychotherapeutic training and the practice of psychotherapy. It is of the greatest importance whether psychotherapy continues to be sought in the direction of meditation. We can only hope that psychotherapy will continue to develop into a genuine technique which can aid men in their goal of developing their highest psychic potentialities.
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 5.
"Hypnosis" is a rather vague term and refers to a range of ASCs, rather than to one clearly defined ASC. That is, investigators have used the term hypnosis as if there is general agreement on exactly what is meant, but an examination of the variability from 5 to 5 and from laboratory to laboratory suggests that there are probably several ASCs produced as a result of procedures all confusingly termed "hypnosis." The first two chapters in this section elaborate this point at great length. In selecting articles to include in this section, the main problem was to select only a few out of many dozens of good studies carried out in the last two decades. The final choice is in no sense a representative survey of the past two decades' work on hypnosis, nor even the "best" work, using "best" in the sense of tightness of experimental design. Rather, I have selected five articles which 1 feel are very provocative in that they illustrate the complexity, wide-ranging applicability, and challenge of hypnosis research. Further, they all focus on the experience of hypnosis, rather than on its external behavioral manifestations. The past decade has seen a great increase in sophistication and tightness of experimental procedure in studying hypnotic behavior, but, in the process of this worthwhile and needed improvement, we have often lost sight of the experience o f t h e hypnotized S. There should be no need to justify the study of experience perse today, but there is another very important reason why the experience of the hypnotized 5 needs much greater emphasis, viz., quite different experiences can lead to the same externally observable behavior. If one then attempts to correlate this observable behavior with other factors, for instance, personality variables, one may not be able to find any strong relationships. The presence of posthypnotic amnesia, for example, is assessed in the objective
suggestibility scales (Barber, 1965; Weitzenhoffer &, Hilgard, 1959, 1962) by counting the number of hypnotic tasks the S can recall afterwards: if it is below a certain number, the 5 is considered amnesic. In work 1 have just completed, which involved interviewing Ss about their, hypnotic experiences, the unitary concept of hypnotic amnesia was found to be quite misleading, since the Ss described qualitatively different ways (across 5s) of being amnesic. One way involves a lack of access to memory: they really cannot retrieve the information. A second involves an interference with memory retrieval, the appearance of "noise," distracting thoughts that mask the desired memory information. A third involves no interference with memory access at all, but a motor block develops so that they cannot tell the E what happened. All three different types of experience could lead to the same external behavior, viz., reporting less than the criterion number of items. Indiscriminately lumping them together under the term "amnesia," however, produces a measure with so much error variance that it would be difficult to find meaningful correlations with other factors. Hypnosis is one of the most important ASCs that can be studied in the laboratory. It is easy to produce in many ordinary 5s and, in general, seems to be a very fle.xible state of consciousness which could be structured with appropriate procedures to simulate other ASCs or to produce ASCs that are well suited to a particular task, such as psychotherapy or creative endeavor. This point is discussed in greater detail elsewhere (Tart, 1967a). This section begins with two articles by Ronald Shor, "Hypnosis and the Concept of the Generalized Reality-Orientation," and "Three Dimensions of Hypnotic Depth," which provide a comprehensive theoretical orientation to hypnosis, as well as noting variables that may account for some o f t h e variability in hypnosis. Shor's concept o f t h e generalized reality-orientation and his emphasis on several dimensions of hypnotic depth may be applied to other ASCs with great profit. Bernard Aaronson's article (Chapter 17), "Hypnosis, Depth Perception, and the Psychedelic Experience," on the far-reaching changes produced by posthypnotic suggestions designed to alter perceptual experience, is a highly challenging example of frontier research in hypnosis. He describes psychedelic experiences produced by one type of perceptual change and schizophreniclike experiences produced by another. The idea that our ordinary state of consciousness is heavily supported by and dependent on a relatively unvarying input from "reality" is not new but receives dramatic support in Aaronson's work. Aaronson has carried out a number of other studies to replicate and expand the work reported here (Aaronson, 1964, 1965a, 1965b, 1966a, 1966b, 1967a, 1967b). Stanley Krippner's article (Chapter 18), "The Psychedelic State, the Hypnotic Trance, and the Creative Act," draws a number of intriguing
parallels between hypnosis, the creative process, and the psychedelic state; it is full of ideas for future research. My own article, "Psychedelic Experiences Associated with a Novel Hypnotic Procedure, Mutual Hypnosis," draws attention to a new procedure, in hypnosis which may be useful for studying psychedelic experiences as well as hypnosis per se. Another paper in this book relevant to hypnosis is Milton Erickson's article (Chapter 3), on Aldous Huxley's experiences while hypnotized. The final article in this section, "Autogenic Training: Method, Research and Application in Medicine," by Wolfgang Luthe, is a brief introduction to a large body of literature on this form of autohypnosis which is widely used in Europe but virtually unknown in the United States. Of particular interest are some of the observations of physiological parallels to those reported for Yoga and Zen meditation in Chapters 33 and 34. This paper is merely an overview of a very extensive literature; the reader who would like to do further reading should consult Schultz and Luthe's classic book, "Autogenic Training" (1959). The references in this section will provide a very adequate guide to the modern literature on hypnosis. Some other recent books on hypnosis are Estabrooks (1962), Gill & Brenman (1959), Gordon (1967), Hilgard (1965), Kline (1962), Moss (1967), and Shor & Orne (1965).
HYPNOSIS AND THE CONCEPT OF THE GENERALIZED REALITY-ORIENTATION
RONALD E. S H O R
Hypnotic theory has long been encumbered by concepts such as dissociation, suggestion, ideomotor activity, and automatism. Although useful distinctions are embedded in these concepts, they are incomplete and at times misleading. This paper will attempt to re-synthesize the implications of these concepts in a somewhat different fashion. A significant advance in thinking about hypnosis became available with White's publication of A Preface to a Theory of Hypnotism (1941) in which he viewed hypnosis as the result of two intertwined processes: (a) goaldirected striving which (b) takes place in an altered psychologic state. White recognized that hypnosis cannot be understood without bearing in mind its motivational field and insisted that hypnosis must become a sophisticated chapter in social psychology before its proper contribution to the understanding of behavior can be made. White recognized that his views were not utterly unique, but his clarity and insistence on their broad meaning made his formulation a significant advance in theory construction even though admittedly heuristic. In the first part of his theory White defined hypnosis as "meaningful goaldirected striving, its most general goal being to behave like a hypnotized person as this is continuously defined by the operator and understood by the
Reprinted by permission from Amer. J. Psychotherapy, Vol. 13, 1959, pp. 582-602.
HYPNOSIS AND THE CONCEPT OF REALITY-ORIENTATION
subject . . . Goal-directed striving [does not! necessarily imply either [conscious] awareness or intention." White's view of goal-directed striving is sufficiently well known that there is little need to review it further. The second part of White's theory, that o f t h e altered psychologic state, has never received more than peripheral attention. Although White considered the notion of altered state vital to any adequate theory of hypnosis, he did not develop what he meant by it beyond asserting its importance. Happily, there are a number of indirect references to the specifications ofthe altered state spread throughout White's paper so that it is possible to reconstruct his underlying conception of it to some extent from his descriptive statements. In speaking about trance induction White comments, "When a person is drowsy, his images and experiences tend to become more vivid, more concrete, and more absolute. Abstract processes and complex frames of reference seem to be highly vulnerable to fatigue. The operator avails himself of this vulnerability, reduces as far as possible the perceptual supports which might serve to sustain a wider frame of reference . . . and thus encourages drowsiness to take a small toll from the higher integrative processes." Implicit in this quotation is the recognition that drowsiness per se is not the altered state, but rather that drowsiness helps reduce the abstract, integrative frames of reference that usually support and give context for all daily experiences. When the perceptual supports that sustain this wide frame of reference are withdrawn, the frame of reference itself fades."3* From the quotation it would appear then that White equates the altered state with the loss of a wide, complex, supportive frame of reference which is a kind of mental superstructure used in waking life to give substance and meaning to all experiences. Of special interest is White's observation of the high vulnerability of such supportive frames of reference to fatigue. He implies that the usual state of waking alertness is so fragile that simple drowsiness or fatigue can debilitate it, and implies furthermore that the altered state seen in hypnosis is akin to many related states, that is, wherever the significant aspect of the usual state of waking alertness is temporarily decomposed. White further states, "It is significant that one of the commonest complaints of unsusceptible [hypnotic] subjects is that they could not forget the situation as a whole . . . insofar as [these] are not signs of unfavorable
*The present writer would insist that the altered state can exist without any drowsiness whatsoever. Drowsiness has a certain indirect instrumental value in teaching an individual how to achieve the altered state, but it is not intrinsic to it nor is it essential to go through drowsiness to achieve it.
RONALO E. SHOR
motivation, they imply that the frame of reference has refused to contract, that in spite of external circumstances there remains an internal alertness to 'other considerations' which is the opposite of drowsiness and the enemy of successful hypnosis." In this passage White emphasizes further that the altered state is a contraction of the usual frame of reference. When this occurs there is a consequent forgetting of the situation as a whole, and a loss of the internal alertness to the whole universe of other considerations which usually fills our waking minds. In a later statement White (personal communication, in Sarbin, 1950) recognizes the desirability of expanding his views about the altered state. "It would have been better, I think, to develop at more length the idea of a contracted frame of reference, or, as 1 would now prefer to put it, a contracted frame of activation. What has to be explained is how the hypnotic suggestions achieve their peculiar success, and 1 think the explanation should include two things: first the presence of a single ruling motivation, and second the exclusion by quieting of all promptings and even the sensory avenues of such prompting that might set up competing processes." White thus reasserts that hypnosis is to be understood as a complex of two processes; first, the single ruling motivation which is a clear reference to his view of goal-directed striving, and second, the quieting of all avenues of promptings, which refers to the altered state. White goes on to describe how these two processes interact in hypnosis and in some related states. " . . . A fruitful comparison [is possible] between hypnosis and other states, such as great fear or excitement, in which volition is transcended. All such [latter] states are monomotivational... in the sense that one extremely powerful motive or one strong preoccupation momentarily towers overall other processes. Hypnosis achieves the same relative effect at low dynamic intensities [by] quieting the competitors rather than heightening the chief process." The relative isolation of the hypnotic strivings is thus viewed as occurring partially by default, i.e., because the usual competitors for attention have been artificially quieted rather than because of an overpowering single motivation, as in states of great fear. In recent years Sarbin (1950) has extended White's theory, rephrasing it into the language of social psychology. White's concept of striving becomes with Sarbin a special case of role-taking, and the altered state a simple derivation of profound organismic involvement in the role. Sarbin views even the deepest hypnotic phenomena as a kind of as-if behavior, which is not sham, but involves such a submergence of the self in the role that the subject can perceive the situation in no other way. He does not try to theorize, however, about the kinds of processes which might underlie such an inability to perceive the situation in another way. That Sarbin's view of this condition is not opposed to White's conception of the altered state can be
seen in the following quotation. "When the subject takes the hypnotic r o l e . . . a shift occurs from a sharp, alert, objective and critical attitude to a relatively relaxed, diffuse, and uncritical one . . . The alert orientation is highly valued and supported in our society . . . [subjects] must shift their focus to a relaxed, diffuse orientation which . . . allows for more active [role-taking]" (Sarbin, 1950). The present paper attempts to develop the system of ideas implicit in White's descriptions of the altered state. A series of twelve propositions has been formulated in regard to the processes that produce the altered state, along with their implications and ramifications for hypnosis, related states, and cognitive theory in general. I. The usual state of consciousness is characterized by the mobilization of a structured frame of reference in the background of attention which supports, interprets, and gives meaning to all experiences. This frame of reference will be called the usual generalized reality-orientation. Perhaps the best way to explain what is meant by this proposition is to describe a state of consciousness in which the usual generalized realityorientation is not mobilized, in order to see more clearly the psychic functions that are imputed to it. Many experiences could be cited as illustrationsfrom literature, "mystic" experiences, or pathologic states. The best of these have the quality of merging of self and world (as in the typical Nirvana experience), whereas the clearest illustration of our proposition would be an instance of the lass of self and world entirely. A personal subjective experience o f t h e writer's meets the requirement. The experience is cited purely as illustrative material. It is understood that such material cannot constitute proof but it does supply a useful basis with which to discuss our conception. Although the experience may appear unusual and idiosyncratic, the writer has been able to secure reports of similar experiences from a variety of people whenever it is clearly understood what kind of experiences are being referred to. Characteristically, people have such experiences but pay no attention to them and are not aware that anything significant has happened. Perhaps the reader may recall similar experiences of his own.
I had been asleep for a number of hours. My level of body tonus was fairly high and my mind clear to dream-images so that I believe 1 was not asleep but rather in some kind of trance-like state. At that time 1 was neither conscious of my personal identity, nor of prior experiences, nor of the external world. It was just that out of nowhere I was aware of my own thought processes. I did not know, however, that they were thought processes or who I was, or even that I was an I. There was sheer awareness in isolation from any kind of experiential context. It was neither pleasant nor unpleasant, it was not goal-directed, just sheer existing. After a time a "wondering" started to fill my awareness; that there was something more than
this, a gap, an emptiness. As soon as this "wondering" was set into motion there was immediately a change in my awareness. In an instant, as if in a flash, full awareness of myself and reality expanded around me. To say that "t woke u p " or that "1 remembered," while perhaps correct, would miss the point o f t h e experience entirely. The significant thing was that my mind changed fundamentally in that brief instant. In rediscovering myself and the world, something vital had happened; suddenly all of the specifications of reality had became apparent to me. At one moment my awareness was devoid of all structure and in the next moment 1 was myself in a multivaried universe of time, space, motion, and desire.
It will be noted that in this experience the sudden recollection was not of specific things about the world as such; rather what enveloped me was the whole abstract superstructure of relationships which serves as the foundation for my viewing the world. Into the immediate background of my awareness a framework, or orientation to the world, was reintroduced in which the world existed and in which I as a separate entity existed also. A mental representation of the world suddenly took a position in my mind where it could serve to interpret everything else. I, therefore, "rediscovered" the world, and, as a by-product, found myself in it. It was not simply that the distinction between self and world was remade. Both self and world and the distinction between them were all dependent upon reforming something more profound in which they all existed as by-products. For whatever complex of reasons, the orientation or framework of experiences which 1 usually have in my normal waking lifeto interpret automatically and give context to all my thought and experienceswas at this time not operating. And although 1 could reorganize it almost instantly, until I had reorganized it, nothing could exist for me except the vaguest awareness without even awareness of self. Before its return, self, world, past, or logic were totally incomprehensible, indeed, they could not even begin to exist. This experience illustrates our proposition that everything which is consciously known is predicated upon there existing in the immediate background of one's awareness a structured complex of recollections that support, give substance to, and critically integrate every further item of experience. Moreover, this usual orientation to reality cannot be taken for granted as a constant given, but rather can temporarily disintegrate in special states of mind, such as the one described. This brings us to the second proposition. 2 a. The generalized reality-orientation does not maintain its regnancy as the cognitive superstructure in the background of awareness without active mental effort constantly devoted to its maintenance. However, this active effort is not usually consciously directed 2b. Whenever its supportive energy diminishes, the generalized reality-
orientation fades into the more distant background of attention and becomes relatively non-functional. In this regard it is proper to reiterate White's reference to the fragility of wide frames of reference; their vulnerability to fatigue and drowsiness on the one hand and to hyperpreoccupation on the other. It has not gone unrecognized that under certain circumstances such as panic, sleep, toxic state of deprivation, toxic delirium, and, perhaps, sensory-deprivation and brainwashing, the generalized reality-orientation has less functional strength, and that consequently, inhibitions, awareness of surroundings, critical capacities, intellectual skills, and the ability to reality-test deteriorate. Although it is sensible to hypothesize that the generalized realityorientation is upheld by active efforts on the part o f t h e organism, it should not, however, be conceived as necessarily consciously directed effort. It is consciously directed when we study, i.e., when we deliberately try to structure our mind with various ideas. Most o f t h e time, however, the direction is essentially nonconscious and even seemingly "automatic" (as when we drive our car or play tennis or comprehend a social situation). The organism must maintain an adequate reality-orientation both in the special sense of driving a car or in the more general sense of generalized awareness. He must do this because it is the only "tool" he has to deal effectively with the masses of complex reality stimuli which bombard him throughout waking life. To let it lapse in average day-to-day living is to invite an automobile accident, or more generally, chaos and catastrophe in his commerce with reality. The special aspect of the generalized reality-orientation necessary for drivingwhich can be called the special driving orientationonce learned becomes automatic and "reflexive" and is usually maintained without apparent effort by the driver. But actually it is fragile and probationary, dependent upon its active maintenance by nonconscious forces. The special driving orientation may lapse to a serious extent in fatigue and monotony states (so-called "highway hypnosis"). Every driver has moments of "temporary inattention." Such "inattention" is only secondarily a lack of attention to external reality; even more important is a lack of full and ready mobilization of the special driving orientation by the driver. The central fact is the lapsing of the special orientation from its regnancy in the immediate background of attention. Note that the special driving orientation may be fully mobilized in spite of conversations or concurrent thoughts while driving, and that it may temporarily fade at other times for no other reason than that the roadway does not call for its exercise. These factors can also be observed in regard to the more generalized reality-orientation.
In many circumstances, however, it is all right for the individual to allow his reality-orientation to slip away. Sleep is the prime example, but there are other situations, equally nonpathologic, where the individual feels safe and protected enough to do so. Hypnosis is one example. The complete absorption in music, especially of the abstract type, is another; it also occurs in focal attention (Schachtel, 1947), peak experiences (Maslow, 1964), mystic experiences (Huxley, 1945, 1956; James, 1929), B-cognition (Maslow, 1962), and the inspirational phase of creativity (Ghiselin, 1952; Hutchinson, 1949). In these latter examples the generalized reality-orientation may not just inadvertently slip away but may be voluntarily and deliberately renounced. Kris gives many examples underthe concept of "voluntary regression in the service of the ego" (1952). The freudian concept of regression thus refers in some fashion to the giving up of the usual orientation to reality but it implies that in its stead a new reality-orientation more appropriate to a prior state of psychosexual development is integrated. The concept that the reality-orientation perse may fade is alien to the freudian view. This is understandable given Freud's interest in psychopathology rather than cognitive organization, but makes the concept of regression too tangential for our use.* 3. The generalized reality-orientation is developed slowly throughout the life-cycle. The work of Piaget (1951), Werner (1957), and others has demonstrated that an individual's orientation to reality is built up slowly through many stages of development. There is thus little need to expound this proposition further here. Graphic discussions have been long available of the child's first distinction of himself from his environment, the development of a body image, and the emergence of the concept of an external reality, as separated from the self (Allport, 1937; Baldwin, 1895; Cooley,. 1902; Mead, 1934). 4. The concept of generalized reality-orientation is not equivalent to the many processes that derive from it, nor is it a mere sum total of them. The generalized reality-orientation is a structured complex of recollections, an abstractive superstructure of ideas or superordinate gestalt of interrelationships. From its totality are derived various concepts and functions, some of which are reality-testing, body-image, critical selfawareness, cognition of self, world, other people, time, space, logic, purpose,
*Those who wish to view our discussion in general freudian terminology may consider the generalized reality-orientation roughly equivalent to the cognitive components of the ego or the secondary-process orientation (Freud, 1925). The gestaltist and lewinian concepts of structured psychologic field or life-space are also applicable if one were to modify the concepts to include nonconscious components.
various inhibitions, conscious fears and defenses. Just as the number seven has mathematical meaning only when it is embedded within the whole number system, so, for example, the idea of self has no sensible meaning unless embedded within an adequate orientation to reality. This goes beyond the simpler distinction between self and external world. Before the time when a child makes the distinction between self and world, he nevertheless has some kind of reality-orientation, albeit an immature one. Moreover, the reality-orientation does not exist just to "test" reality. While reality-testing is certainly an important derivation, the conception goes beyond it. The reality-orientation is reality, at least in the sense that it is the inner surrogate for reality which the person must have in order to interpret anything (to "test" anything for that matter). All entities and events (self, time, space, purpose) exist for an individual only because they are predicated upon the mobilization of an adequate reality-orientation in which such secondary functions (such as reality-testing and differentiation of self from environment) can exist. 5. The generalized reality-orientation is not an inflexible entity but is of shifting character with mony facets. What emerges into the central background of attention depends on the special cognitive requirements of the immediate situation. It is almost trivial to observe that the mind is devoted to different things at different times, and that the cognitive orientation to the task at hand varies considerably with the differing requirements of the task.* The generalized reality-orientation cannot be conceived of as inflexible, but rather must be viewed as allowing different aspects of itself to emerge into more central focus while other aspects are relegated to more distant positions. The reality-orientation is, therefore, always in some flux in normal waking life, so that certain aspects of it are temporarily given more central focus and other aspects are made so distant as to be nonfunctional, except as a mass of vague apperceptions which lies far behind the immediate background of attention. When watching a baseball game, for example, the rules of baseball are given a central position in the background of our attention and many other aspects of the generalized reality-orientationsuch as the system of skills used in swimmingare so formless as to be temporarily inoperative. But the important thing about our waking life is that although there can be a relative emphasis on this or that, the remainder ofthe realityorientation is still vaguely within the bounds of conscious awareness. If
*There is a considerable body of experimental work on these relationships in academic psychology under the concepts of attention, mental set, and selective perception. See also Bartlett's work on schemas (1932).
someone asks us about the Australian Crawl, for example, we can pull the relevant information into central focus quickly with no profound shift in mental state, even while watching a baseball game. This brings us to the next proposition. 6a. In normal waking life, even where special aspects of the generalized reality-orientation are in central focus, the rest of it is in close communication at all times. When close communication is last, the resultant state of mind may be designated as trance.
6b. Any state in which the generalized reality-orientation hasfaded ly nonfunctional unawareness may be termed a trance state. to relative-
It is only when we become so absorbed in one segment of reality (and so oblivious to the rest of it that we lose easy contact with it) that we begin to approach the special state of disintegration of the reality-orientation which is trance. Indeed the induction of hypnotic trance takes place in just this way: focusing one's attention on a small range of preoccupations and concurrently allowing the usual orientation to reality to slip away into temporary oblivion so that certain behaviors can function in isolation from the totality of generalized experiences. The concept of isolation stems from Goldstein's work with brain-injured individuals (1939). The concept refers to the fact that an altered organism no longer has functionally available the usual background for his reactions, and thus the behavior functions in isolation. Some of the formal characteristics of the brain-injured individualconcretization, stimulus boundedness, rigidityare paralleled by certain analogous characteristics in hypnosis, for example, suggestibility. In this view then suggestibility and hypersuggestibility are not conceptualized as the primary processes of hypnosis as in the theories of Bernheim (1889) and Hull (1933), but as secondary or derivative consequences of isolation. The notion of relatively nonfunctional unawareness can be best understood with an illustration of a common experience.
I was reading a rather difficult scientific book which required complete absorption of thought to follow the argument. 1 had lost myself in it, and was unaware o f t h e passage of time or my surroundings. Then, without warning, something was intruding upon me; a vague, nebulous feeling of change. It all took place in a splitsecond, and when it was over t discovered that my wife had entered the room and had addressed a remark to me, 1 was then able to call forth the remark itself which had somehow etched itself into my memory, even though at the time it was spoken I was not aware of it.
It will be noted that the experience took place while 1 was reading a passage in a scientific work which required great absorption of thought for
its comprehension. By absorption is meant that in order to understand the written statements, it was necessary for me to keep my mind actively structured in regard to the specifications and details of the intricate, technical niche of reality that was being referred to. This meant that I had to keep in mind, actively and continuously, a whole complex of details and interrelationships which were essential at each step o f t h e argument in order to follow it. This does not mean that all details and interrelationships were full-blown and vividly conscious at each instant, but in some fashion there was created in my mind a mental superstructure within which each new statement derived its comprehension, and thereby was added, in turn, to the intricate mental superstructure. This intricate mental superstructure thus referred to a specific, technical segment of reality. But the larger superstructure of notions about reality in general (of which this is but an infinitesimal part) which I usually use most of my waking life to interpret events was temporarily minimized in importance in my mind, and, by default, was pushed far back into the background of my attention and awareness. Note, however, that the book's special superstructure was also in the background of my awareness. But it was in the immediate background; it was the "thing" I was using to constantly interpret each new written item. The generalized reality superstructure was in the more distant background, and was of little consequence to the immediate task. It was while I was thus absorbed in the book that my wife entered the room and spoke to me. As noted above, I did not know that she had entered the room, nor did I know that she had spoken to me. In some dim way I was aware of somethingsomething intruding. In my phenomenal awareness this something was nothing so formal and structured as my wife speaking to me. Somewhere out of the vaguest depths of awareness an uncomfortable something created a problem in mea feeling of nebulous discomfort: that there was something to do, something I had to do. An instant later and without apparent discontinuity, I reinstituted into my mind's immediate background of attention an orientation to generalized reality in which things such as other people, spoken language, wives, sitting and reading, and people entering rooms had sensible meaning and existence to me. Once the usual reality-orientation was reinstituted into the immediate background of conscious attention everything was clear to me.Thejumble-of-something which had occurred a moment before I now knew to be words; indeed, words spoken by my wife, to me. Moreover, the jumble-of-something of a moment before had somehow remained reverberating in my mind, and now that I had reconstituted within my mind an orientation which was adequate to it, I thereby and immediately knew what the words were. That is, I remembered something which I had not really known before except as a senseless
jumble-of-something (it was not at that time identified even as sounds). The process of recollection was in terms of a new frame of reference to generalized reality so that the same "things" of an instant before were thereby different from what they had been before. In the previous frame of reference such things could only be a jumble-of-something; in the new referential schema they were my wife's remark. What had happened to the generalized reality-orientation when I was absorbed in the book? Nothing, except that it had receded far away into the background of my mind, far from the field of conscious awareness. The generalized reality-orientation had reference to the features of the everyday world. Comprehension of the book required a specific referential schema adequate to the particular character of the book's contents, and this was constructed in the immediate background of my attention. The generalized everyday frame of reference still existed far out on the periphery of awareness-unawareness as a vague, unobtrusive, formless thing, serving as some kind of distant support for my special structuring. Moreover, I was not aware that it had faded except afterwards when it was reinstated. In some fashion the comment by my wife communicated with the generalized, everyday frame of reference, and the processes were initiated which brought it into the central arena of my attention. In the process of reinstituting this orientation, however, I concurrently relinquished in part my book's orientation and it took me a number of moments to again "get back into the book." Note that I did not really have to "get back into the book" but rather had to get the orientation of the book back into me. It will be observed that in this illustration reference is made not only to an extensive fading of the usual generalized reality-orientation, but also to the production of a special little task-orientation. Such a special taskorientation is usually embedded upon the generalized reality-orientation, but can, as in this instance, function with relative isolation. It is these two cognitive processes which the writer views as composing the hypnotic trance, to wit: 7. Hypnosis is a complex of two fundamental processes. The first is the construction af a special, temporary orientation to a small range of preoccupations and the second is the relative fading ofthe generalized reality-orientatian into nonfunctional unawareness. Although these two processes are cited as the fundamental core of hypnosis, they are not exhaustive of the variables relevant to understanding it. They refer only to the underlying skeleton, i.e., the fundamental cognitive basis of hypnosis which may be assumed universal to all human beings. The flesh and.blood of hypnosisits multidimensional clinical richness and variationonly appears when hypnosis is viewed in terms o f t h e dynamic interrelationships between real people. There is certainly no inherent
antagonism between the present conceptualization and more psychodynamically oriented formulations; indeed, they must supplement each other for a complete theory.* Hypnosis, as noted in the example in the above section, is not unique in manifesting these two processes. Unlike related conditions, however, hypnosis has the character of occurring within a special kind of interpersonal situation where the task at hand (the special orientation) is to produce certain expected phenomena and act like a hypnotic subject. When the task at hand is instead a personal preoccupation in a small range of interests, the resultant complex is not labeled hypnosis but rather absent-mindedness, or daydreaming, or intense meditation. Absent-mindedness is the proverbial occupational hazard of theacademic profession. It is not difficult to show its formal similarities with hypnotic trance. A composite picture of absent-mindedness has been drawn by the writer derived from many informal interviews with absent-minded people. It is presented in the following paragraph. When they become absorbed in something, every nook and cranny of their minds is filled with affect-charged information that vibrates in vivid availability. "Reality" itself becomes almost exclusively the features and interrelationships of the task at hand, and the rest of the world which does not "fit" into the task (the day-to-day world of petty business) slips far away from their immediate concerns. They become so involved in the specific taskorientation that the more generalized reality-orientation in which it resides has faded like a weak Ground behind an attention-compelling Figure. They still operate within the faded reality-orientation to some extent; they will eat lunch unless they forget, keep an appointment if something reminds them, or drive their cars without mishap. Their commerce with reality via the generalized reality-orientation is minimal but just enough to be adequate. Most of their energies are placed within the special task-orientation, and not much remains to support the frame of reference in which day-to-day meanings exist. External events must be especially forceful, with their own inherent organizations, to force their way through their preoccupations so that the meaning will be grasped. Otherwise, they see everything in the terms of the special task-orientation and since, for example, "picking up the laundry" has no place or meaning in the task-orientation, it may flit away until the generalized reality-orientation is reintroduced into a more central focus. After they have refocused on everyday reality they may suddenly rediscover that the laundry has been there all the time.
*For a careful exposition of some of the ways that these two fundamental processes are implemented and affected by personality dynamics and the structure of the cognitive and interpersonal situation in hypnosis see our forthcoming publications from the Studies in Hypnosis Project.
In absent-mindedness, then, we find to a lesser degree the same two cognitive processes viewed as fundamental to deep hypnotic trance. 8. The generalized reality-orientation does not fode awoy completely either in deepest trance or deepest sleep. Even in the deepest trance the generalized reality-orientation never disappears entirely. Whatever of it does remain, however, is so distant from consciousness that it has little effect upon the content of consciousness. That some modicum of the reality-orientation remains in the psychic distance can be seen in the fact that people do not usually fall out of bed at night and that dreams are censored. Even when the generalized realityorientation seems utterly disintegrated something of it remains, continuing to function at a deeper level. Any situation arising which calls forth vigilance by the organism rapidly reinstates it. This can be observed in hypnosis where for one reason or another the subject experiences a minor trauma, and as a result the trance begins to lighten or he awakens entirely, In such circumstances subjects will report that suddenly they became aware of noises, of their surroundings, and that thoughts began again to fill their minds, i.e., that they again began to experience the world and themselves in waking terms. Typically, however, they scarcely recall the trauma itself. Even in psychosis where the generalized reality-orientation is profoundly disturbed (conceptualized in part as breakdown of ego-organization) some aspects of the reality-orientation always remain. One is usually not aware, moreover, that the wide orientation has faded. Awareness that it has faded itself requires its partial mobilization. One can sometimes feel it slipping away, however. This is an experience which may frighten an insecure hypnotic subject. 9. When the generalized reolity-orientation fades (oj experiences connot have their usual meanings; (b) experiences may have special meanings which result from their isolation from the totality of general experiences; and (c) special orientotions or special tasks can function temporarily os the only possible reality for the subject in his phenomenal awareness as a result of their isolotion from the totality of general experience. The meaning of this postulate has been sufficiently clarified in previous sections so that there is little need to expand on it. The postulate is not exhaustive, however, of all the things that may happen when the generalized reality-orientation fades. The next two postulates consider additional occurrences. 10. When the generalized reality-orientation fades, special orientations or special tasks can be made to persist beyond the bounds of awareness and!or remain nonconsciously directive of further activities, even when the generalized reality-orientation is again mobilized.
Reference is made here to the nonconscious maintenance of special orientations in relative isolation from the generalized reality-orientation even after the latter has been returned to functional awareness. This is the familiar basic sequence in repression where impulses are. initially repressed, and although kept out of awareness, nevertheless exist, are relatively impervious to conscious direction, and exert indirect expression. That the fundamental cognitive processes underlying these very well-known occurrences can be evoked in an artificial manner in hypnosis (once the generalized reality-orientation has sufficiently faded) can be observed clinically and is the basis for such hypnotic phenomena as artificial "neurotic" complexes, posthypnotic acts with amnesia, automatic writing, and various other dissociated activities. When the generalized reality-orientation returns, the dissociated complex of strivings is somehow sealed off and kept relatively isolated. It is necessary to assume that this very sealing-off processwhatever one wishes to call itimplies that some communication with the generalized realityorientation must remain, although this communication may be far beyond the bounds of conscious awareness. As far as phenomenal awareness is concerned, however, there may be an utter and complete dissociation between one's intentions and awareness and the form and contents o f t h e dissociated activities. Implicit in this formulation is a recognition that when the generalized reality-orientation fades, one can come closer to the sources of his nonconscious functioning. This leads us to the next postulate. 11. When the generalized reality-orientation fades (a) various mental contents excluded before can now flow more freely into phenomenal awareness, and (b) primary-process modes of thought may flow into the background of awareness to orient experiences. Schachtel (1947) has observed that there are basically two ways in which capacities and memories are kept out of phenomenal awareness by the usual structuring of the waking mind. The first mode of exclusion is active repression. The second is a passive accomplishment, i.e., certain contents cannot fit into the conventionalized schemata which are the symbolic fabric of the waking mind. In other words, many things simply cannot fit into the logic and specifications of the usual reality-orientation. But as the usual reality-orientation fades, its derivative distinctions between wishes, self, other, imagination and reality fade with it, as do many inhibitions, conscious fears and defenses, and primary-process material and primaryprocess modes of thought can flow more easily into awareness, and if they do, a new kind of orientation is created which shares some of the qualities of the dream. Thus, trance states can be in much greater communication with an individual's nonconscious functioning than in the usual waking
state, and it is not surprising that nonconscious strivings may be more easily implemented. All of this becomes the more true the deeper one sinks into hypnotic trance. At first, the subject can hardly distinguish whether he is doing things intentionally or whether they are happening all by themselves, i.e., whether his behavior is consciously directed or directed by nonconscious motivations. As the subject sinks deeper it becomes more apparent to him that things occur without his conscious direction, sometimes even contrary to his conscious attempts at resistance, and these things may then be made to persist even after the usual reality-orientation is remobilized.* A number of themes in the last three postulates may be summarized to serve as background for the next postulate. To the extent that the usual reality-orientation fades from the background of awareness, the greater the possibility that other experiences will occur which could not have fit into the usual reality-orientation, the greater the possibility that new, special orientations may be constructed at profound levels without recourse to the logic, knowledge, and critical functions of the usual reality-orientation, and the greater the possibility that primitive, syncretic contents and modes of thought will come into awareness. With this as background we may define our conception of a good hypnotic subject. 12. A good hypnotic subject may be defined as a person who hos the obility to give up voluntarily his usuol reolity-orientation to o considerable extent, and who can concurrently build up o new special orientotion to reality which temporarily becomes the only possible reality for him in his phenomenal awareness. While the concept of new, special orientation is defined from the standpoint of cognition, it is identical with what White has called goal-directed striving from the standpoint of motivation or what Sarbin has called roletaking from the standpoint of social psychology. One important exception must be made clear. In a minority of hypnotic subjects, after the special orientation has outfitted the mind, many skills of the usual generalized reality-orientation may be brought back into communication with the special orientation, but in a position so subordinated to it that they do not critically undermine it (do not lighten trance). This exceptional ability is not to be confused with what is described above as the construction of a dissociated complex of strivings. A dissociated complex remains relatively isolated when the generalized reality-orientation is *Erickson (1941) maintains that when posthypnotic suggestions are carried out, a spontaneous, self-limited trance occurs for the duration of the posthypnotic act. While this may be true, some complex of strivings or ideas must remain in the interim nonconsciously vigilant for the cues of the posthypnotic act.
reintegrated. In this new instance communication is made between the special orientation and the generalized orientation but in such a way that the latter is kept in a subordinate position rather than becoming superordinate. Only the very best subjects can do this, and they form what might even be considered a qualitatively different group from everyone else.* For most subjects, however, when such general features are evoked, the whole inner superstructure of reality tends to be remobilized into a superordinate position and trance lightens, even though role-taking may remain intense. Many variations in special, temporary reality-orientations are possible and these account for many o f t h e apparent variations in types of hypnotic trance (Orne, 1957). But unless there is a fairly extensive breakdown o f t h e usual reality-orientation it is fallacious to speak of hypnosis at all, no matter how committed the subject is to the special orientation to reality he builds up in regard to the operator's tasks. To the extent that the usual reality-orientation remains in awareness all "hypnotic" behavior must be as-if a sheer playing of a role.t To the extent that the usual realityorientation fades into unawareness, the special reality-orientation constructed in regard to the role of the subject becomes temporarily, by the very fact of isolation, the only possible reality to the subject. We can thus speak of hypnosis as having two dimensions of depth: (a) the depth of trance, which may be defined as the extent to which the generalized, everyday, reality-orientation has sunk into nonfunctional unawareness, and (b) the depth of role-taking, which may be defined as the extent to which the subject builds up a new, special orientation from the instructions of the hypnotist. Although closely interrelated, considerable confusion results if one confounds these two dimensions of hypnotic depth, based as they are on two logically distinct processes. It is useful, therefore, to reiterate our distinction between trance and hypnosis. Trance is the superordinate concept used to refer to states of mind characterized by the relative unawareness and nonfunctioning of the generalized reality-orientation. Hypnosis is a special form of trance developed in Western civilization, achieved via motivated role-taking, and characterized
* Although the best subjects can do this without lightening trance, the most profound somnambulistic phenomena, such as convincing age-regression or time distortion, demand that the usual orientation remain faded. t O r n e capitalizes methodologically on this distinction by using a special control group of unsusceptible subjects who are treated experimentally like real hypnotic subjects but who "fake" hypnosis by intensively role-playing without otherwise going into trance (Orne, 1957).
by the production of a special, new orientation to a range of preoccupations.* Hypnosis is thus an impure concoction of trance and role-playing. Not only is the usual orientation still somewhere in the psychic distance, but the role-playing aspects of hypnosis are in some ways antagonistic to the process of trance. Many o f t h e technical problems faced by a hypnotist are to be found here. All other things being equal, certain special limited orientations tend to reintegrate the generalized orientation, others tend to help it slip away. Certain difficult hypnotic phenomena usually can be produced only in deep trance. If they are attempted in lighter trance, they tend to reintegrate the generalized orientation (lighten trance). Thus the two processes can work together or be opposed. A great deal of the hypnotist's skill consists in balancing these two processes, i.e., attuning the tasks given to subjects to their depth of trance so as to help deepen trance rather than lighten it. Only in the fetus can one conceive of an ideally pure trance state, i.e., a state in which there is a total absence of a functioning reality-orientation. In the developing organism ill utero the first momentary experiences exist concretely, independent of any structured background of experience. The only organization that can take place at first is that which is genetically given. But except for this natural, ontogenetically undeveloped state there is always some degree of structuring. It must take tremendous organismic effort, however, for an infant to learn to construct a generalized realityorientation and hold it in the background of awareness throughout waking life. The spontaneous, intense absorption which occurs so easily in children, or for that matter the easy deterioration of a child's reality-oriented behavior with fatigue, suggests that children have a less rigid grip on their generalized orientation and its temporary loss is more frequent at first than its maintenance. As the child grows olderat least in our culturethe usual orientation takes on a more rigid and demanding character. Trances occur with less frequency and intensity. Man's second nature (widely
*Once deep trance is achieved, however, hypnosis need not involve the playing of any role other than pursuing one's own inner dynamics. In other words, the hypnotist may act as a collaborator to help achieve a state of mind which transcends the playing of an externally defined role, freeing the individual for hypnotic experiences more closely akin lo states of profound fascination and absorption of peak experiences or mystic states of inner contemplation. Maslow believes that an overemphasis on "striving-hypnosis" (role-playing) rather than "being-hypnosis'" (expressive inner experiencing) has led to a narrow and one-sided conceptual view of hypnosis in the theories of White and Sarbin (Maslow, personal communication). Compare in this regard Orne's belief that what is seen in hypnosis today in our culture is essentially an historical accident (Orne, 1957).
oriented experiencing) becomes so firmly entrenched that it intuitively feels more primary than trance experiencing. If this analysis is correct then the mystery is in the usual state of waking alertness and not in trance. The mystery is not why some people can achieve deep trance states. Rather it is why most people are not able to do so. If it is true that active mental effort must be constantly devoted to the maintenance of the usual orientation then what accounts for our inability to let go of it? What kind of learning processes interfere with one's natural capacity to relinquish voluntarily his functional orientations? What enculturation processes interfere with the facile development of trance states so easy for us in childhood? It is with this problem that the paper ends.
SUMMARY White's theory that hypnosis is a combination of (a) goal-directed striving in (b) an altered psychologic state of the organism was a significant advance in hypnotic theory construction. While the first part of White's theory has received considerable attention, the second part has been relatively ignored. Twelve propositions are formulated in regard to the altered state, which is defined as the relative breakdown o f t h e usual orientation to generalized reality into nonfunctional awareness. Hypnosis, as conventionally understood, is viewed as the production of a special task-orientation with the concomitant breakdown or voluntary relinquishing of the usual reality-orientation so that the former functions in relative isolation from the totality of general waking experiences. Ramifications of this view are presented, along with a distinction between trance and hypnosis. The relationship between hypnosis and certain states such as absent-mindedness is discussed. The propositions are phrased so as to refer to human cognition in general.
THREE DIMENSIONS OF HYPNOTIC DEPTH
RONALD E. SHOR
A RECOGNITION OF THREE SEPARATE
White's (1941) two dimensionseager obedience and obliviondo not cover what Schilder and Kauders (1956) meant by psychic depth. White's two dimensions, however, do roughly cover the recognition of three separate dimensions of hypnotic depth, each of which appears capable of varying independently of the other two. White's two dimensions of depth have already been fully embraced by the writer in his original twelve propositions. We spoke there of (a) depth of role-taking* and (b) depth of trance. In the present paper Schilder and Kauders' dimension of psychic depth will be incorporated into ourpropositional system as a third factor, which we will call the dimension of archiac involvement.
Reprinted by permission from Interna. J. of Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis, Vol. 10, 1962, pp. 23-38. To conserve space the first section of this paper has been deleted in the present volume since the main tenets of Shor's additional postulates are readily understood in relation to his preceding paper. The specialist who wishes to know the derivation of the theory more fully is advised to consult the original publication Editor. *See proposition 14 for a revision of this concept.
NINE ADDITIONAL
13. Hypnotic depth may be defined as some complex of depth along three conceptually separate dimensions. These three dimensions are: (a) the dimension of hypnotic role-taking involvement; (b) the dimension of trance; and (c) the dimension of archaic involvement. This proposition states in formal terms the three-factor theory of hypnotic depth discussed previously. The next three propositions define each ofthe three factors individually. 14. Hypnotic role-taking involvement depth is the extent to which the complex of motivational strivings and cognitive structurings regarding the role of hypnotized subject has sunk below the level of purely conscious compliance and volition, and has become nonconsciously directive. In our initial series of propositions reference was made to hypnotic roletaking as one dimension of hypnotic depth. Since the publication of that earlier report, however, it became apparent that two quite different concepts were subsumed under that single rubric which we now feel bound to separate. A sharp distinction must now be drawn between the concepts: (a) hypnotic role-taking (as such) and (b) hypnotic role-taking involvement. Only the second of these two concepts do we consider a dimension of hypnotic depth.* Hypnotic role-taking (as such) is the complex of motivational strivings and cognitive structurings to take as one's own the role of being a hypnotized subject. In order to be or become a hypnotized subject it is necessary that at some level an individual try to fulfill the requirements of what he perceives as the role of hypnotized subject. He must endeavor in a goal-directed, cognitively organized manner to conduct himself in consonance with his continuously evolving perception of the required hypnotic role. Responses to the directions of a hypnotist do not emerge in the subject's behavior without an adequate cognitive and motivational basis within the subject. The hypnotist's directions are effective because at some level these directions become translated into the subject's own cognitively structured strivings. It is not the taking of the hypnotic role as such, however, which is a dimension of hypnotic depth. Rather, it is the extent to which whatever hypnotic role-taking there may be has become nonconsciously involved; i.e., the extent to which the hypnotic role-taking has sunk below the level of purely conscious compliance and volition and has become nonconsciously directive. Hypnotic role-taking as such, regardless of its intensity, does not necessarily in itself imply any nonconscious involvement. Even intense hypnotic
*Thc earlier part of our propositional system will be revised eventually to account for this new distinction.
role-taking may often be an entirely conscious, deliberate, voluntary endeavor, with no nonconscious component. When role-taking involvement deepens, a compulsive and involuntary quality derives from it. As a consequence of the progressive nonconscious involvement, the ongoing hypnotic experiences and behaviors become executed by the subject without the experience of conscious intention and often in defiance of it. The task of being a hypnotized subject has become not a consciously controlled choice. 15. Trance depth is the extent to which the usual generalized realityorientation has faded into nonfunctional unawareness. The concept of the generalized reality-orientation has already been expounded in our initial series of twelve propositions. It remains here only to identify trance depth as the progressive fading of the generalized realityorientation, which leaves the ongoing contents of awareness increasingly more functionally isolated. Trance, so defined, is not a strange mystic occurrence happening only in hypnosis, religious ecstasies, and such esoterica. Trance becomes seen as a daily, commonplace occurrence, a somewhat larger way of conceptualizing "selective attention," and as familiar as the chaotic oblivion of the mind during sleep.* It is useful here to draw an example to show how trance depth makes the distinction between reality and imagination progressively less relevant. The example selected is from the writer's own experience but it is hardly unique. The writer has failed to find anyone among his acquaintances who could not identify minor variants of this experience as also his own. The particular scene happens to pertain to sleep and dreaming, but these are mere stage-settings. Our chief character is the meaning of trance depth.
I had been dreaming when the alarm-clock rang. Opening my eyes, I awakened suddenly. For the barest moment before the dream disappeared, I was aware both of waking reality and the dream "reality" together. I was forcefully struck by the realization of how unreal the dream "reality" was when observed by my mostly awake mind.
In this experience the waking reality and the dream "reality" existed together for a fleeting instant. Then, like a superimposed fade-out in a motion-picture sequence, the dream "reality" quickly dissolved into unawareness and only the waking reality was left in view. Yet for that prior
*Trance may be facilitated by, but may occur independently of, the physiological processes attendant to sleep. Our remarks should not be viewed as any identification of trance (or hypnosis) with sleep.
instant both the dream and the waking worlds existed entirely clear and intact together, superimposed yet unjoined. In that fleeting instant I could compare the two worlds, and a startling comparison it was: two universes, fundamentally disparate, with different logic, different boundaries. Chiefly startling was the recognition that my dream was but an unkempt, faded world when compared against the vivid, detailed, unbounded waking world. Imagery was meager, background was hardly painted in. Nonetheless, during the dream itself the dream world had been an emotionally compelling world to dwell in. It was as vivid and as detailed as it needed to be in order to be totally "real" to me. Only when compared against waking standards did it seem constricted. But, only beginning with the fleeting instant of superimposition could waking standards be applied. Throughout the dream the only "reality" was the dream, and the usual reality was utterly irrelevant and unavailable to it. A)1 this description illustrates that my ongoing phenomenal experience while asleep (the dream) was functionally isolated from the usual abstract schemata of waking lifewhich is our definition of profound trance depth. It is clear that during this profound trance the ongoing contents of awareness had no need to mimic in every regard the actual occurrences.lt was sufficient only that they possessed a "reality" value at the moment of the experience. For an individual with excellent visual imagery, a dream (or a hypnotically hallucinated scene) might very well visually mimic the actual scene. For an individual like myself with no visual imagery whatsoever in the waking state and rather meager visual imagery even in dreams, his best dream (or hypnotic hallucination) might only be a faint copy of the original when judged by waking standards. But for both types of individuals the dream (or hallucination) may be unequivocally "real" at the moment of the experienceprovided that trance is sufficiently deep. 16. Depth of archaic involvement is (a) the extent to which during the hypnosis archaic object relationships are formed onto the person ofthe hypnotist ; (b) the extent to which a special hypnotic "transference" relationship is formed onto the person of the hypnotist; (cj the extent to which the core of the subject's personality is involved in the hypnotic processes. It may strike the reader as noteworthy that on the one hand we embrace fully a psychoanalytic concept, and yet, on the other hand, we do not formally mention the usual phrasing of this conception; i.e., unconscious fixation of the libido on the person of the hypnotizer by means of the masochistic component of the sexual instinct; nostalgic reversion to that phase of life when passive-receptive mastery represented the primary means of coping with the outside world; an appeal to that universal core which longs for wholesale abdication, unconditional obedience; security through participation in the limitless powers of the all-powerful parent; the evocation of
archaic, infantile wish-fantasies regarding the parent-like "magic" omnipotence of the hypnotist. Our reluctance to embrace these phrasings is not because we are in disagreement with them. They entirely fit within the above definition of archaic involvement. We suspect, however, that profound archaic involvement may occur with somewhat different dynamic constellations than the above notion of masochistic surrender implies. Empirical clarification is needed, and until it is available we feel it best to leave our formal statement somewhat uncommitted. 17. When depth is profound along all three dimensions, a situation exists with the following characteristics: (a) the role-enactments have permeated down to nonconscious levels; (b) the hypnotic happenings becomephenomenologically the only possible "reality"for the moment; (c) intense, archaic object relations are formed into the person af the hypnotist ; (d) in general, all classic hypnotic phenomena can be produced. When depth is profound along all three dimensions, the cognitively structured strivings to take the required hypnotic role have sunk below the conscious level and become nonconsciously directive and persistent. From the standpoint of phenomenal awareness the resulting strivings are totally compelling and involuntary. In the extreme the usual background of awareness has slipped so far away that even the little disembodied self off in the psychologic distancewhich somewhat less entranced subjects often report as watching from afar their own hypnotic behaviorhas itself faded out of the bounds of conscious awareness. The hypnotic experiences are isolated unto themselves and thus by default become phenomenally the total "reality" for the time. The larger personality is profoundly involved with the hypnotic performances, satisfying archaic longings and bestowing an importance, vitality, and energetic meaning upon the hypnotic processes. When depth is profound along all three dimensions, it is not possible to disentangle clearly the dimensions as conceptually separable entities. Whenever depth is less than profound, but of roughly equivalent depth along all three dimensions, it is equally impossible to disentangle clearly the dimensions. If such parallel variation were always the case, moreover, there would be no merit in conceiving of more than one dimension. The three would most profitably merge in our thinking as but three ways of conceptualizing the same psychologic totality; as different aspects ofor frames of reference for viewingthis single dimension. It is only as we observe instances of gross imbalance among them that the need to conceptualize separate dimensions becomes apparent. The next proposition formally recognizes the conditions and effects of imbalance. 18. When depth along the three dimensions is not in relative balance the
resultant hypnosis will have characteristics corresponding to the existing imbalance configuration. The appearance of hypnosis when the configuration of depth is unbalanced is a question which is most meaningful when considered against the problem of how to measure the three hypnotic dimensions separately. The diagnosis or measurement of the three hypnotic depths is, however, too complex a problem to be dealt with here, and will be the topic of a later report. In this paper we wish merely to report a few examples in order to clarify the preceding proposition. It should be understood of course that estimations of depth from any one hypnotic item, from subjects' reports, and without taking account of the entire context of events can hardly be entirely reliable, but it illustrates the general meaning of variable configurations. Three examples are cited, each referring to the hallucination item in a widely used objective depth rating scale.* Example I. "I knew very well there wasn't a mosquito in the room but when I was told it would bother me I felt an overpowering need to act as if it were. But I didn't feel it and I didn't hear it." From this subjective report three tentative estimates regarding depth and imagery can be drawn: (a) the subject's feeling of strong compulsion to act as if the mosquito were bothering him suggests that hypnotic role-taking involvement was quite deep; (b) the subject's clear awareness that there really was no mosquito present would suggest that trance was far less deep; (c) his neither feeling nor hearing the mosquito would suggest at best meager touch and auditory imagery representation. The report yields no clue, however, about the depth of archaic involvement. The second report suggests a somewhat different configuration of depth. Example II. "I knew you wanted me to feel the mosquito. 1 tried hard to do it for you but I felt guilty because I couldn't imagine it too well. I acted as if I felt it though, and I felt rather upset that I really wasn't able to feel it." Four tentative estimates of depth and imagery can be made: (a) the twin statements, "I tried hard but 1 just couldn't imagine" and "1 acted as if" have the ring of voluntary deliberation and thus suggest that hypnotic roletaking involvement was not very deep; (b) the subject's awareness of the "true" state of affairs suggests a rather slight trance depth ifany;(c) imagery representation also appears to be rather slight, through possibly somewhat greater than in the first example; (d) the subject's disquietude, guilt, and feelings of wanting to please the hypnotist suggest at least moderate archaic involvement. The third report implies still another configuration.
*ltem 9, Form B, Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, WeitzenhofferandHilgard,
Example III. "When you told me there was a mosquito I heard him right away and felt him buzzing around my face, Looking back at it now the buzzing wasn't really very clear, but at the time it didn't occur to me that there wasn't a real mosquito". Three tentative estimates of depth and imagery can be made: (a) the subject's immediate sensory perception of the mosquito without any feeling of voluntarily trying to do so suggests that hypnotic role-taking involvement was deep; (b) since the buzz was not really very clear when later judged by waking standards it appears that auditory imagery was only moderate; (c) the subject's statement that it did not occur to him to doubt the reality o f t h e mosquito at the moment of the experience would suggest that trance was quite deep. The report itself yields no basis, however, for an estimate of archaic involvement depth. It should be obvious from even these three examples that all combinations of imbalance are possible: depth may be light along two of the dimensions but deep along the third; depth along one dimension may be light, another medium, and the third deep; two may be light and one medium; and so forth. It is unnecessary to describe the consequences of all configurations of depth in propositional form since a few configurations of greatest theoretical interest carry the underlying meaning of them all. The following three propositions depict the configurations where depth is profound along two of the three dimensions but superficial (or light) along the third. 19. When both hypnotic role-taking and archaic involvement are deep but trance is superficial, a situation exists with the following characteristics: (a) the hypnotic role-enactments have permeated down to nonconscious levels; (b) intense, archaic object relations are formed onto the person of the hypnotist; (c) in general all classic hypnotic phenomena can be produced; but (d) the hypnotic happenings occur along with a relatively intact awareness within the phenomenal field ofthe more usual state of affairs. A small percentage of well-trained hypnotic subjects can learn to reintegrate a generalized alertness to outer reality during deep hypnosis so that they have immediate and full availability of critical, waking standards of judgment and yet remain deeply hypnotized along the dimensions of hypnotic role-taking involvement and archaic involvement. These individuals, who are often called active somnambulists, can open their eyes, walk about, talk and appear fully alert and attuned to the real world, yet at the same time remain keenly responsive to the hypnotist and produce all classic hypnotic phenomena except those which require profound trance as an intrinsic component.*
*Such as age-regression or lime distortion.
These individuals are not to be confused with those less active somnambulists who still remain in at least medium trance. The latter may open their eyes and talk, but there is a glassy-eyed perplexed quality to their stare; alertness is decreased as is concern and contact with the usual generalized reality. The fully active somnambulist, although still profoundly responsive to the hypnotist, is not entranced at all nor out of tune with any feature of abstractive appraisal. He may, for example, be vividly hallucinating an object while at the same time describing it as an hallucination and introspecting upon his own mental processes in abstractive terms. 20. When both trance and archaic involvement are deep but hypnotic roletaking is superficial, a situation exists with the following characteristics: (a) the hypnotic happenings become phenomenologically the only possible "reality" for the moment; (b) intense, archaic object relations ore formed onto the person ofthe hypnotist; (c) all classic hypnotic phenomena may emerge spontaneously; but (d) the subject is generally disinclined to follow hetero-suggestions. The importance of this configuration of factors can be best illustrated by a close evaluation o f t h e processes which Gill and Brenman (1959) have called the induction phase of hypnosis. These authors have drawn a sharp distinction between(a)theinductionphaseofhypnosisand(b)theestablished state itself. Our dimensional analysis would suggest that this distinction derives from particular methods of hypnotic induction and is not an invariant accompaniment of hypnotizing. In Gill and Brenman's (1959) theory the induction phase of hypnosis is the bringing about of a regression, a regressive movement. The hypnotic state itself is an established regression in Kris' sense of a regression in the service of the ego. In the established state, a regressed sub-system o f t h e ego is set up within the overall ego. This sub-system is an organized structure; during the induction phase this structure has not yet been built. The induction phase is characterized by the mutual operation of two factors: (a) a sensori-motor and ideational deprivation leading to alteration in egofunctioning, and (b) the stimulation of an archaic object relationship onto the hypnotist. The regressive movement can be set into motion by either of these two factors, and once initiated the other factor inexorably develops. The induction phase is further characterized by a freer expression of repressed affect and ideas, the availability of motility to repressed impulses, the appearance and disappearance of hysterical phenomena, spontaneous age-regression, changes in body experience, feelings of depersonalization, and so forth. The authors report that such spontaneous occurrences almost never happen, however, once the established hypnotic state itself is produced.
Gill and Brenman's (1959) two intertwined induction phase factors correspond to two of our three dimensions of hypnotic depth. The first factor (sensori-motor and ideational deprivation leading to alterations in ego functioning) is our trance dimension. The second factor (stimulation of an archaic object relationship onto the hypnotist) is our archaic involvement dimension. Also, when the authors view the established hypnotic state as a regressed sub-system within the overall ego, they are referring in psychoanalytic terminology to what we have called profound hypnotic role-taking involvement; i.e., the complex of motivational strivings and cognitive structurings to be a hypnotized subject has become nonconsciously directive. Gill and Brenman's (1959) descriptions of their modal induction techniques show their tendency to use induction strategies which emphasize both trance and archaic involvement but which place little weight at first upon active hypnotic role-enactments. Only later, when trance and archaic involvement are both quite extensive, is emphasis placed upon deepening hypnotic role-taking involvement. The spontaneous emergence of primaryprocess materials which Gill and Brenman (1959) observe during their induction phase is entirely consistent with a configuration of (a) extensive trance, (b) extensive archaic involvement, but (c) little hypnotic roletaking as such and little of its involvement depth. In the induction strategies which we tend to favor, much more emphasis is placed upon hypnotic role-taking and hypnotic role-taking involvement from the very beginning. Consequently, there is little occasion to observe a dichotomy between induction phase and established state. In other words, our dimensional analysis suggests that, given induction strategies with considerable emphasis upon hypnotic role-taking and hypnotic role-taking involvement from the very beginning the kind of distinction between induction phase and established state as described by Gill and Brenman (1959) will not occur. 21. When both hypnotic role-taking and trance are deep but archaic involvement superficial, a situation exists with the following characteristics: (a) the strivings to take the hypnotic role have permeated down to nonconscious levels; (b) the hypnotic happenings become phenomenologically the only possible "reality" for the moment; (c) in general all classic hypnotic phenomena con be produced; but (d) the hypnosis is relatively superficial to the core of the subject's personality. Most clinicians have such little opportunity to observe profound hypnosis where there is minimal archaic involvement that it is doubtful they would easily believe that such a state of affairs might exist. The therapeutic process itself obliges a reaching down into the core issues o f t h e patient's personality. Even when engaged in experimentation instead of therapy, the
clinician's habitual manner usually tends to initiate considerable archaic involvement.* It is only the psychological researcher (especially when working in an academic setting) who might regularly see profound hypnoses with minimal archaic involvement. The experimentalist often maintains a greater psychologic distance from his subject than does the clinician (or the stagehypnotist). There is usually the implicit understanding that some larger scientific question is under test; often there is little requirement that the subject enter into the hypnotic experiences in a deeply personal fashion. Usually it is understood that issues dealing with the core of the subject's personality are to be avoided scrupulously. The researcher's manner, however, often belies mysticism and power fantasies. Sometimes the subject has never before seen or heard about the particular hypnotist who may work with him during a particular session. The routine of experimental method may introduce an added note of impersonality; the experimenter may even be slightly bored or otherwise mentally occupied. With sufficiently capable subjects such happenings need not interfere with the successful attainment of the most profound depths of trance and role-taking involvement. But under these circumstances there is far less impetus for archaic involvement to become profound. How do otherwise profound hypnoses look when archaic involvement is minimal? All classic hypnotic phenomena are readily produced, but the fireworks (evoked primitive meanings) are lacking. The subject puts his whole role-taking "heart" into it but his archaic involvement "soul" is much less entangled. Fewer personal interpretations occur; less emotive, dynamic materials emerge. The subject is fully cooperative but the hypnotic happenings do not strike him to the core. His relationship to the hypnotist has not become infused with an unusual importance and wish to please. Whether classic hypnotic phenomenathough outwardly looking much the sameare really subtly different when archaic involvement is minimal is a vitally important theoretical and practical question demanding empirical clarification. Resolution of much of the dispute in the hypnotic literature between the clinicians and the experimentalists may hinge on answers to this question. 22. Interactions and interrelationships may occur among the dimensions. Our recognition of separate dimensions does not at all deny that usually potent interactions and interrelationships occur among the dimensions. For example, the deeper the trance, the easier it is for archaic contents and
*The stage-hypnotist's manner has similar results but for different reasons. His stress on mysticism and omnipotence tends to evoke infantile fantasies of magical power and dependency.
modes of functioning to flow into the background of awareness to orient experiences. Thus the deeper the trance the more easily available will be modes of functioning for forming archaic object relationships. The experienced hypnotist will often try to fuse and intertwine all three dimensions into one tangled skeinusing trance as a wedge to help establish his authority and parent-like image; archaic involvement as a wedge to help increase motivations and further relax generalized alertness; role-taking involvement as a wedge to achieve greater unity with more primitive modes of interpersonal relationship and to further selectively focus attention. Not all interactions and interrelationships among the dimensions are so productive of greater mutual depth, however. Schilder and Kauders (1956), for example, observe that too much "sleep-consciousness" (trance) prevents "suggestibility" (in this context, role-taking and role-taking involvement), and vice versa. Too profound an infusion of archaic interpersonal meanings into the hypnotic relationship, moreover, may very well interfere with accuracy in comprehending the hypnotist's directions. Experimental investigation is needed to help clarify the exact conditions of mutual aid or disharmony among the dimensions.
SUMMARY Nine additional formal propositions are presented which extend the writer's earlier presentation of a dual-factor theory of hypnosis to include a third factor, archaic involvement, a feature of hypnosis often stressed by psychoanalytically oriented theorists. Although interactions and interrelationships usually occur among these three factors, the three are viewed as conceptually separate; i.e., the depth of each may vary independently. Many ramifications of these views are presented. The theory is most properly seen as a synthesis of the enduring insights embedded in many prior theories of hypnosis. In a later paper the problem of measuring depth along the three dimensions will be dealt with directly.
HYPNOSIS, DEPTH PERCEPTION, AND PSYCHEDELIC EXPERIENCE
BERNARD S. AARONSON
Although mystic states have been experienced and sought by men in all cultures throughout history, the experiential variables which determine them are poorly understood. The technology for producing these altered stales of consciousness is well developed and ranges from the rites of witchcraft to the practices of Yoga. The relatively easy success of all of these methods in producing these states has resulted in accounts of them in which the changing sequences of experience are slighted in favor of the putative goals of the induction of the experience. The recent emphasis on pharmacological means for producing psychedelic conditions has brought along with it a spate of explanations couched in biochemical and neurophysiological terms. While the changes induced by these psychedelic substances may correlate with the patterns of biochemical and neurophysiological events observed, from the standpoint of the experiencing organism they involve events of a totally different kind. Consciousness may depend upon the functioning of the reticular formation, but it is not just the sets of events in the reticular formation. In fact, in order to produce more accurate mapping of the neural substrate, it is important to delineate what changes of experience occur in response
Reprinted by permission from Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Paper, New York, 1965.
HYPNOSIS, DEPTH PERCEPTION, PSYCHEDELIC EXPERIENCE
to particular kinds of stimulation and how the succession of these changes interacts with the changes themselves. Data on the action of many hallucinogens (Ban, Lohrenz and Lehmann, 1961; Cohen, Silverman and Shmavonian, 1962; de Ropp, 1957; De Vito and Frank, 1964; Lawes, 1963; Malitz, Esecover, Wilkens and Hoch, 1960; Ostfeld, 1961; Savage, 1955) have shown characteristic spectra of behavioral effects for each drug which may be modified by the range of behaviors exhibited by each individual subject and by the situation in which the drugs are administered. These characteristically involve alterations in both the form and content of thought, emotional changes, changes in time perception, changes in the perception of space, and distortion of body image. Hallucinations in a number of sensory modalities are reported which may derive from physical anomalies or other characteristics of the perceptual apparatus (Horowitz, 1964; Oster, 1964). Distortions of space perception are noted in most of these accounts, although it is often not clear just how space seems distorted. As part of a program in which the effects of hypnotic suggestions of perceptual and conceptual change on behavior are being studied (Aaronson, 1964), the effects of suggested alterations in depth perception were considered. A 22-year-old well-trained male hypnotic subject was told that the dimension of depth was gone. He at once showed marked schizophreniform behavior with catatonic features. Left alone for a second in a room as he lay down, he perceived the ceiling and walls closing in on him. Much of his behavior seemed reminiscent of that reported by Beers (1950) about the onset of his own psychosis in The Mind That Found Itself\ a book that the subject had never read. When the dimension of depth was expanded, a psychedelic state resulted similar to that described by Huxley (1954) in The Doors of Perception. Lines seemed sharper, colors intensified, everything seemed to have a place and to be in its place, and to be esthetically satisfying. The hand of God was manifest in an ordered world. It should be stressed that this subject knew nothing about the reported effects of psychedelic substances nor of Huxley's experiences. None of these changes occurred when blurred vision or clear and distinct vision were suggested. The former yielded a hysteroid condition, the latter an anxiety reaction. Hypnosis without any suggestions of behavioral change produced no behavioral effects at all. The present study deals with two attempts to replicate these phenomena. The first set of studies was carried out with a conventionally hypnotized subject, the second with a simulator, unhypnotized, but instructed to act out the suggestions. If similar results were obtained with these subjects, then it could be asserted that the phenomenon has some generality and that
the experience of expanded depth is related to the development of psychedelic experiences.
Two subjects were employed in this study. The hypnotized subject was a 22-year-old English major. He had little background in psychology and had spent one summer previously as a recreational aide at a ward for disturbed children. His favorite activity was painting and he hoped to make this a vocation. In personality, he was a hypomanic, extroverted person, who was always ready to turn any situation into a party. At the time the experiments reported here were begun, he had been a subject in this series for about 3 | months. The role-playing subject was a 22-year-old English major who had just graduated from college. He had no background in psychology. He had some previous experience in acting, but was not a method actor. In personality he was a brooding, irritable, introspective individual with good capacity for self-observation and good verbal facility. He was chosen as a simulator after extensive attempts at hypnotizing him failed to produce anything deeper than a light trance. In carrying out these studies, the subjects first completed a Q-sort based upon Plutchik's (1962) theory of emotions. They then were administered a battery of visual perceptual tasks, including a test of depth perception. The subjects were then hypnotized, amnesia for all previous hypnotic experiences was suggested, and a posthypnotic suggestion of perceptual change imposed. A two-hour free interval then followed. In the case of the hypnotized subject, the painting of a standard scene, the view from the windows of the room in which the experiments were conducted, was requested at the end of hours. The subjects then went for a ride in a car over a standard course and then wrote an account of how their day had been. They were then interviewed by an outside observer,* a trained clinician who conducted an independent clinical evaluation of each subject. He knew that the subject had been hypnotized, but did not know what, if any, suggestion had been imposed. After the interview was completed, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was administered. The Q-sort and perceptual battery were readministered. The subject was reinterviewed by the experimenter,
*Drs. A. Moneim El Meligi, Humphrey Osmond, Stanley R. Platman, Hubert Stolberg and A. Arthur Sugerman kindly assisted in these evaluations.
rehypnotized, and the earlier posthypnotic suggestions removed. The subject was then reinterviewed about his experiences and any residual feelings were dealt with. The simulator then wrote a secret account of what his day had really been like. The elapsed time for all these procedures ranged between to 7 hours. The conditions involved in this series included no depth, expanded depth, blurred vision, clear and distinct vision, and two control sessions. The instructions for no depth were, "When you open your eyes, the dimension of depth will be gone. The world will seem two-dimensional." The instructions for expanded depth were, "When you open your eyes, the dimension of depth will be expanded. Have you ever looked through a stereoscope? Do you know what depth looks like there? That's how the world will seem to you." The instructions for blurred vision were, "When you open your eyes, everything you look at will seem blurred." The instructions for clear and distinct vision were, "When you open your eyes, everything will seem clear and distinct." In the control conditions, the subjects were hypnotized, but no suggestions of perceptual change were imposed.
Because of the extensive amount of data collected and the limited amount of space available in which to present these data, I shall attempt to summarize the responses to each of the conditions without specific reference to the tests employed. They form a part of the evaluation, but will be referred to only when appropriate. The order in which the conditions are presented does not reflect the order in which they were imposed for each subject, but has been adopted for didactic reasons. When the expanded depth condition was imposed on the hypnotized subject, he became very happy. He seemed uncertain of himself in his adjustment to space at first, but quickly adapted. Space seemed to extend through and beyond any physical limitations imposed on it. He tended to become confused in large open areas, but was able to contain his confusion in more limited spaces which the suggestion rendered more beautiful. Colors seemed intensified, lines more distinct, and sounds crisper. The consciousness expanding effects and the personality change noted with the previous subject were not observed. He did report, however, that when his eyes were closed, he felt larger and seemed to himself to be growing. He also reported that he was able to contain the experience by painting it, and that this was a function his painting served for him. Because this condition was induced much earlier in the hypnotic series
than was the case with the previous subject, and because the painting had helped him to contain the suggestion, the condition was reinduced four months later. This time he was not allowed to paint. All of the phenomena noted previously were reported. In addition, he began to talk about how everything around him seemed to have been shaped into a world of superreality and unspeakable beauty. In his account he remarked,
Riding in a car was like taking a wonderfully exhilarating roller coaster ride to everywhere. The landscape was at once a gargantuan formal garden and a wilderness of irrepressible joyous space. Even now, I feel dumb struck and preposterous in trying to describe this perceptual miracle which has somehow been given me. My feelings and perceptions are u n s p e a k a b l e . . . .
This time he seemed to become euphoric and many of the phenomena noted by Huxley and others under psychedelic drugs were noted by him. The outside observer and the MMPI both concurred in suggesting a euphoric, creative state. The simulating subject became rather happy under this condition. He became involved with the shapes of objects and the relation of objects to space. As he did this, he found himself becoming less self-concerned and more concerned with people and their relationships to one another. He became more alert, active and involved. He found that by concentrating on perspective and the relation of lines and sizes to one another, he was able to actually change the usual way he perceived depth. He felt that the experience had made him aware that the world we live in is three- and not two-dimensional. He felt, too, that the perception of depth is itself an illusion. The outside observer felt that he seemed somewhat happier and more spontaneous. The MMPI suggested a decline in obsessiveness. Induction of the no depth condition with the hypnotized subject produced a sense that everything was flattened out which he attributed to excessive fatigue from the final exams which he had just completed. Colors, shapes, and sounds all seemed less intense. He reported a loss of sensitivity to touch. He became bored, withdrawn, and hostile. He painted the standard scene under protest. He was again able to use the painting to enable him to contain the experience. He also used his experience as a painter to permit him to orient himself in this altered world. The outside observer reported a bored withdrawal. The MMPI showed little change. The no depth condition was reintroduced about four months later for the same reasons noted before in this paper. This time he was not allowed to paint. The responses observed before were repeated in much stronger form. He bccame apathetic and withdrawn. He showed little affect. He did not seem hostile, but felt that his environment had become alien and the people around him dehumanized. The outside observer felt that something similar
to a schizophrenic reaction had occurred and the MMPI profile supported this interpretation. When the simulator was given the no depth instruction, he became extremely hostile, apathetic and withdrawn. He felt bored, uninterested in anything, and unwilling to become so. He reported in his private diary that he had capitalized on an initial feeling of depression and exacerbated it. The outside observer and the MMPI raised the question of an ambulatory schizophrenia. Under the first control condition, the hypnotic subject seemed happy and quite normal. This condition was run over a period of two sessions. During the interval between the first and second session, spring had burgeoned. As the second session was run with a time regression back to the time of the first session, the subject seemed confused by the way the trees had put forth leaves since the morning. The outside observer wondered if he had been given some kind of strange instruction toseegreen.The MMPI showed no change. Under the control condition, the simulator, too, showed no change from his normal state. The outside observer and the MMPI both concurred in the no change observation. Clear and distinct vision produced an elevated mood in the hypnotic subject. His painting of the standard scene shows his increased sensitivity to colors and textures. An elevated mood was noted by all, including the MMPI. The simulator responded to this condition with an increased interest in his environment and in working. In his private diary he reported that by investing himself in his environment, he had succeeded in overcoming an earlier feeling of depression. The outside observer and the MMPI suggested more energy and more involvement. When the blurred vision condition was imposed on the hypnotic subject, he attributed the blurring to his hay fever. Apart from a mild condition of belle indifference, he showed little change in mood, affect or behavior. The standard scene painting suggests the blurred quality ofthe environment rather well. The simulator withdrew from the environment under the blurred vision instructions. He became uninterested in anything around him and unmotivated to do anything in particular. He was hostile to others and resistant to even minor demands that they might place on him. The MMPI and the outside observer record a movement in a schiziod direction. The hypnotic subject was euphoric before the second control condition was introduced because of the kind of day it was. No change was observed from his original high mood by any person or test all day.
The simulator was in a good mood when the second control condition was induced, and his mood became better as the day progressed. No change in behavior or personality was noted.
The data suggest that expanding depth yields a psychedelic experience, while ablating depth yields a schizophreniform response. These responses are not produced by suggestions of clear and distinct or of blurred vision, or by hypnotizing someone without accompanying suggestions of perceptual change. All three subjects responded in much the same fashion to the suggestions of no depth and expanded depth. The hypnotic subjects responded in similar fashion to blurred vision, while the simulator did not. The second hypnotic subject and the simulator responded in a similar fashion to clear and distinct vision, while the first hypnotic subject did not. Heightened depth perception seems accompanied by a general increase in the overall clarity of perception in all modalities. This heightened clarity is in itself not sufficient to account for the observed effects, as the response to the clear and distinct vision condition shows. The important variable seems to be the relationship of the objects in the environment to space and the manner in which they seem to interact with it. The usual perception of objects in the environment as things in themselves, independent of their surroundings, seems replaced by a perception of objects as being in interaction with their surroundings and with the active properties of the space around them. The account of the simulator suggests that necessary to the development of these conditions is an interest in and an investment of the self in the objects of the environment, so that "the Universe grows I." The no depth condition seems accompanied by a general dulling of perceptual experience. The crucial variable here in determining the schizophreniform response seems to be an increased insubstantiality of all objects in the environment, including the self. Blurred vision in and of itself does not produce a schizoid pattern of behavior unless there is a failure to interact with an environment that has become without relevance. The decreased relevance of events in the environment is associated with a tendency to respond to all attributes of stimuli in much the same way. This kind of general response is attainable if the intensities of stimuli can be reduced to a point at which the same no response can be given to all of them. The hallucinogenic drug, Sernyl, was originally developed for its anaesthetic properties (Greifenstein, De Vault, Yoshitake, & Gajewski, 1958), but it was soon observed that the reduction of stimulus input produced schizophreniform responses.
The contrast between the response to the expanded depth and the ablated depth conditions involves a contrast between mystic experience and psychosis. The psychedelic substances, such as LSD, were originally called psychotomimetics (Osmond, 1957) and regarded as providing a chemical model for psychosis. These data suggest that a valid distinction may be drawn between psychotomimetic agents, such as Sernyl, and psychedelic agents, such as LSD. Far from being the same, mystic experience seems the opposite of psychosis. Mystic experience seems characterized by profound involvement and expansion of the boundaries of self, psychotic experience by profound alienation and shrinking of the self boundaries. The fact that the effects from a later induction of a hypnotic state are more profound than those from an earlier induction suggests the importance of the training procedures involved in many of the formal systems for inducing mystic experience. Kroger (1963) has pointed out the similarity of the systems of inducing religious experience in many of the world's religions to systems of autohypnosis. The fact that one subject was able to contain the experience by painting also suggests the importance of selfexpressive devices to enable the organism to contain events that might otherwise overwhelm it. It also suggests the reason that many systems for inducing mystic experience require their aspirants to forego such expression while the experience is being sought. The fact that expanded depth is associated with mystic experience recalls the observation of William James (1929) that most mystic experience tends to occur outdoors. The traditional predeliction of religious devotees for mountain tops and desert places may not be merely a desire to get away from the distractions of the social world, but a movement to a place where experiences of enhanced depth are possible. The traditional association of mountain tops with the abode of Deity may be less because they are higher than the areas around them than because they make possible those experiences of expanded depth in which the self can invest itself in the world around it and expand across the valleys.
THE PSYCHEDELIC STATE, THE HYPNOTIC TRANCE, AND THE CREATIVE ACT
STANLEY KRIPPNER
Sergei Rachmaninoff, the gifted Russian conductor, pianist, and composer, plunged into morbid brooding at the age of 21 because ofthe unfavorable reception accorded his first piano concerto. No amount of success as a conductor or pianist could revive his morale. Extremes of emotion were characteristic of Russian composers and depression was especially fashionable at the turn of the century, but Rachmaninoff's misery was so relentless that his friends became alarmed. They eventually persuaded him to visit Dr. Nikolai Dahl who specialized in hypnotic treatments. During their first session together, the spare, gothic Rachmaninoff recoiled in distaste as he eased his slender frame into the doctor's chair. Following some preliminary instructions, Dahl repeatedover and oversuch statements as, "You will begin to write another concerto; you will work with great facility." Rachmaninoff continued in treatment for three months, visiting Dr. Dahl daily for half hour sessions. In this instance, hypnotic suggestion was remarkably effective. Rachmaninoff's gloom evaporated and he began composing again, working with speed and inspiration. Musical ideas flowed from his pen, were expanded, and became unforgettable melodies. The finished work, Rachmaninoff's Concerto Number Two in C Minor for Piano and Orchestra, was first performed in 1901 by the Moscow Philharmonic. Rachmaninoff openly acknowledged his debt to Dr. Dahl and dedicated the concerto to him; the
PSYCHEDELIC STATE. HYPNOTIC TRANCE, CREATIVE ACT
composition was a critical success and is still a favorite with concert audiences (Foley, 1963). Psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs have also been used for creative purposes. In 1966, Navy Captain John Busby reported using LSD to solve an elusive problem in pattern recognition while developing equipment for a Navy research project. He stated, "With LSD, the normal limiting mechanisms of the brain are released and entirely new patterns of perception emerge" (Rosenfeld, 1966). In 1965 psychiatrist Humphrey Osmond and architect Kyo lzumi announced that they had utilized psychedelic drugs in the designing of a mental hospital. Izumi took LSD during visits to traditionally designed mental hospitals to determine their effect upon persons in altered conscious states. He found the long corridors and pale colors frightening and bizarre. The result of the Osmond-lzumi collaboration was a decentralized series of unimposing buildings with pleasant colors and no corridors; Izumi recalled that under LSD the corridor had "seemed infinite, and it seemed as if I would never get to the end of it" (Trent, 1966). Altered states of consciousness, such as those induced by hypnosis and psychedelic chemicals, may assist in fostering the creative act because creativity is basically preverbal and unconscious in origin. Torrance (1962) has recognized the preverbal origins of creativity, defining it as the process of sensing gaps or missing elements, formingideas or hypotheses about them, testing the hypotheses, and communicating the results. Freud (1938) has associated curiosity with unconscious drives, noting that "in the case of a creative mind . . . , the intellect has withdrawn its watchers from the gate, and the ideas rush pell-mell. . . Vinacke (1952) has stressed the necessity of intellectual freedom for creation to occur; to him, "there must be . . . an ability to reorganize experience with relative independence of external restraints." Hypnosis appears to focus consciousness so intensely that subthreshold stimuli are perceived; in fact, hypnosis is frequently defined in terms of a heightened responsiveness to suggestion. Psychedelic substances (e.g., LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, marijuana, peyote) seem to affect consciousness in such a way that the nervous system is flooded with external and internal stimuli. It may be that both hypnosis and the psychedelics can assist breakthroughs into the preverbal realm where creative inspiration has its origins. Many artists and scientists claim that their efforts at innovation exist as moods and feelings before they are expressed in words and other symbols. For Robert Frost, a poem began as "a lump in the throat, a sense of wrong, a homesickness, a lovesickness;" it was "never a thought to begin with." Richard Wagner is reported to have heard music spontaneously; Johannes
Brahms once disclosed that he heard fragments of his themes as "inner harmony." Aaron Copeland has stated that a musical theme comes to him almost like automatic writing. The German chemist August Kekule produced a conceptualization of the benzene ring which was inspired by a dream of a snake holding its tail in its mouth. Some individuals, especially religious mystics, attempt to foster this type of phenomenon. Ben-Avi (1959), while discussing Zen Buddhism, has counseled that "change, illumination, or growth must be rooted in the immediate,- the concrete experience of the individual" rather than being based on conscious abstractions and intellectual formulations. Zen Buddhism, with its emphasis on concentration, is often regarded as a modification of autohypnosis. In autohypnosis, as in Zen, meditation can lead to increased concentration, a focusing of attention, and an increased receptivity to creative ideas. When an individual is most relaxed, his conditioned reactions to stimuli are characteristically "off guard" and flashes of creative insight may occur. It is as though a series of closed doors barred off a passageway of dark antechambers which ranged from the deep unconscious through several preconscious rooms, into the light of conscious awareness. We forget our unsolved problem, sleep on it, let go, and relax. A. E. Housman found that lines of poetry would flow into his mind during afternoon walks. Mozart stated that he composed most easily while riding or walking. Charles Darwin gathered specific biological data during many years of conscious struggle; however, his theory of evolution came to him while taking a carriage ride. Henri Poincard, the French mathematician, spent months at a work table but got nowhere in his attempts to investigate Fuchsian functions (a type of differential equation). Further insights developed over the next few weeks while Poincar6 was vacationing and walking on the bluffs near the seasidebut not during his periods of conscious effort (1955).
HYPNOTHERAPY AND CREATIVE
A number of psychoanalysts have combined hypnosis with attempts to stimulate creative activity with their patients. Raginsky (1963) encouraged his hypnotized patients to construct images from clay. Not only was Raginsky able to utilize in therapy his patients' descriptions and associations of the clay models, he also found that the patients' reactions to the clay's texture, color, and odor could play a part in the therapeutic process. Stating that the creative act may be an attempt to organize and integrate past emotional experiences with one's entire life pattern, Margaret Bowers (1966) presented a provocative psychiatric case history of a patient,
"Walter," a musician who was 24 years of age when hospitalized. Suffering from tension and anxiety, Walter was unable to work. He was diagnosed as schizophrenic, emotionally withdrawn, and as having little interest in his environment. Because Walter was a poor hypnotic subject, it took 50 hours to secure a valid age regression. When this point was reached, the patient could be sent back into his past to relive traumatic experiences. It soon became apparent that one aspect of Walter's personality was childlike, while another resembled an angry parent. The patient referred to these two aspects of himself as "Walter Positive" and "Walter Negative." Day after day, the psychiatrist and her assistants gave their complete support to Walter Positive while attempting to "exorcise" Walter Negative. The paintings which Walter did in occupational therapy seemed to have no psychological significance at first glance. One, for example, was essentially nondescript; it depicted the left hand with fingers extended upward. The back of the hand was showing, there was a ring on the little finger, and the pink finger nails contrasted with the flesh-colored hand and the green sleeve. One day the patient was hypnotized by Bowers and taken back to the day and hour when he painted the picture o f t h e hand. Walter was asked to open his eyes and look at the picture, then told that he could see it in a mirror. Staring in the mirror, Walter drew the picture again. At this point, Bowers asked him several questions about his production:
WALTER. BOWERS . WALTER. BOWERS . WALTER. BOWERS . WALTER.
BOWERS. WALTER.
The wrist and hand is Walter Positive. The fingers look stronger, the nails are longer. Hand is strong. He's got to be strong. What else do you see? The pinkie is Walter Positive. The pinkie feels stronger because of the ring. Ring means positive, sureness, success When did the ring get on the pinkie? Just now. What does it mean? It means it's strong. It's a success 1 see myself in front of an audience. I'm singing and everybody is enjoying it I can see myself in a tuxedo, wearing the ring. I'm in a group of people sitting at a table in a night club. I 'm friendly with them and having a good time. They're laughing and I 'm laughing. . . . I've found m y s e l f . . . . IS that what the painting means?
The session lasted for nearly four hours; within this period of time the patient gave a more complete picture of himself than he had during the previous four months. Besides discussing his magic ring, he told about his
father's masturbation of him as a child, of his seductive and possessive mother, and of his frequent witnessing o f h i s parents in the act of sexual intercourse. He was so preoccupied with these sexual concerns that he did poorly in school and in musical auditions. As Walter's therapy proceeded, his anxiety lessened, he went back to work, he made several successful appearances as a singer, and began to take an interest in other people. Bowers concluded that the method used successfully with Walter could be utilized with other patients who could not be reached by traditional therapeutic techniques.
HYPNOSIS AND ACADEMIC
McCord & Sherrill (1961) reported a provocative experiment with a math ematics professor, a university colleague of his. After assisting the mathematician in entering a hypnotic trance McCord suggested that when awakened he would be given some calculus problems and would be able to do them with high accuracy and at a faster rate than he had ever done such work before. The subject was then roused from his trance, provided with the calculus problems, and asked to solve as many of them as possible in 20 minutes. The subject completed in 20 minutes a task that normally would have taken him two hours. This gain was accomplished by the skipping of steps in the mathematical process, performing "in his head" some of the calculations that he would normally have written out, and by writing down necessary calculations at a rapid rate of speed. There was no loss of accuracy despite the increased speed. The mathematician reported that he enjoyed doing the calculus and that he felt his unconscious mind had participated in the calculations to a greater extent than usual. Despite these frequently reported clinical instances of improved performance under hypnosis, Barber (1965a) and Uhr (1958) in two thorough reviews of the psychological literature found the results "inconclusive" because so few well-designed studies had been done to measure the effect of hypnosis on problem-solving.
HYPNOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AND CREATIVITY IN CHILDREN
Several experimental studies assume significance in tracing the association between the hypnotic trance and the creative act. For example, children appear to become less susceptible to hypnosis as they grow older as well as less creative.
London (1962) has reported, after studying 57 boys and girls aged five and older, that children are significantly more susceptible to hypnosis than are adults. In standardizing the Children's Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, he also found that the older children could "simulate" hypnosis with a great deal of effectiveness. Furthermore, susceptibility and age had a curvilinear relationship. London's study bears a striking resemblance to the findings of Torrance (1962:97-98). His subjects showed drops in originalityas measured by objective testsupon entering kindergarten, fourth grade, and junior high school. Torrance's data suggest that each time the child leaves one cultural setting (the home, the primary grades, elementary school) for another (kindergarten, the intermediate grades, junior high school), more attention is paid to newly encountered problems in adaptation and less attention is devoted to creative activity. It may follow that stereotyped thinking is an inevitable result of cultural indoctrination. As the growing child learns to see the world through the eyes of his culture, he surrenders his individualistic outlook, becoming less original, less open to new experiences, and less imaginative. Not only is it the more imaginative individual who is less likely to give up his interest in creative activity, it is also the imaginative person rather than the unimaginative one who reacts more quickly to hypnotic suggestion.
COGNITIVE ACTIVITY W I T H O U T A W A R E N E S S
Another piece of research which bears on the association between creativity and hypnosis was reported by Tinnin (1963) who has recalled how common it is for an individual to put a difficult problem out of his mind and then, suddenly, to experience a spontaneous flash of insight or even a sudden solution. Tinnin attempted to bring about this phenomenon through hypnosis. He used three male college students who were able to attain post-hypnotic suggestibility and who reported complete amnesia for the hypnotic experience. Tinnin's subjects entered a hypnotic trance and were told that upon awakening they would be asked a specific algebraic question such as, "How much is Y2 plus Z 2 ?" The subjects were told that the correct values of Y and Z would be indirectly supplied in the waking state before the question would be asked. The value of Y, for one subject, was the second digit in the left hand column of a card shown immediately after awakening. The value of Z was the fifth digit in the right hand column. This particular subject was told, while in a hypnotic trance, that he would be able to select the correct
numbers unconsciously when he saw the card. He would then compute the correct answer unconsciously, whereupon that answer would enter his conscious mind. None of the subjects claimed to be able to remember their instructions. Nevertheless, they almost invariably gave the right answers to the questions posed. None of the subjects gave indications of remembering the clues but all three of them did well in stating the correct answers. One of the subjects saw the answer as a momentary visual hallucination. The other two experienced it as a sudden flash of certain knowledge; "Itjust popped into my mind," was a typical report. Tinnin concluded that cognitive activity could utilize clues without full awareness and that this activity could run parallel to, without intruding upon, concurrent conscious activity. Murphy (1958:129-130) has incorporated the "flash of insight" into his delineation of stages in the creative process. First there is the long immersion o f t h e sensitive mind in a fulfilling medium with the world of color, of images, of social relationships, of contemplation, etc. Secondly, experiences are acquired in "great storehouses" by this immersion and consolidate themselves into structured patterns. From these great storehouses of experience comes an inspiration or illumination such as Archimedes leaping from the bathtub shouting, "1 have it!" upon conceptualizing the law of specific gravity. Finally, the creative act sifted, tested, "hammered out," and integrated into the individual's other experiences with which it combines to produce the new poem, painting, invention, or other creative product.
CREATIVITY AND
An experiment with 80 female college students, susceptible to hypnotic induction, has been reported by Patricia Bowers (1965). Previous research had suggested to Bowers that creative persons have greater access to fluid, undeveloped realms of ideas than non-creative persons and that creative individuals are less defensive than others. However, Bowers noted that data were lacking on whether or not the lack of defensiveness plays a causative role in creative expression. Surmising that hypnotic trance induction would lower defenses temporarily, Bowers told a hypnotized group of students that they had the ability to be creative if they would allow themselves to make use of all their relevant experiences. The group also was told to perceive in unconventional ways, to notice aspects of problems overlooked previously, to ignore the possibility of criticism, to recall past moments of insight and the emotional feelings associated with these moments, and to feel confident about their ability to
do well on creativity tests. The same set of instructions was given to the non-hypnotized group; these subjects had participated in a program of relaxation which had lasted as long as the hypnotic induction period for the other group. Each of the two groups was administered a number of creativity tests devised by Guilford before the instructional period. A comparable series of tests was administered following the instructions. There were no significant differences between the two groups' test scores attained in the preinstructional period. Following the instructional period, the difference between the hypnotized group's scores and those of the non-hypnotized group were highly significant, with the hypnosis group doing significantly better. The hypnotized subjects also raised their scores above those obtained during the first test administration while the nonhypnotized subjects did not. Bowers concluded that the greater originality displayed by the hypnotized subjects indicated that instructions administered under hypnotic conditions can increase creative thinking, at least insofar as it can be objectively measured. Bowers attempted to control many more factors than had most previous research workers. She equated the instructions for each group as well as the time spent by the experimenter with each group and the experimenter's attempts to motivate the subjects. Both groups had been given clerical ability tests which were non-creative in nature. The fact that hypnotized subjects did not raise their scores on the clerical ability tests to a significant degree indicated to Bowers that a general heightening of motivation under hypnosis was not the main factor accounting for the superiority of her hypnotized subjects. P. Bowers (1965) also selected two additional groups and administered a different set of instructions encouraging the subjects to be clever, original, flexible, and fluent, but not mentioning attitudes which would reduce defensiveness. Although the resulting data were not as dramatic as the results obtained when defense reduction suggestions were given, there was still a statistically significant difference favoring the hypnotized subjects. This finding indicates that reduced defensiveness is not the only factor involved in creativity. Bowers* later conducted an experiment with a group of subjects who pretended to be hypnotized. This group did about as well on the creativity tests as did the hypnosis subjects, suggesting that the lack of personal defense is more important than formal hypnotic trance induction in fostering creativity. Bowers stated that the subjects who pretended to be hypnotized mav have abandoned responsibility for their typical personal behavior patterns
*Personal communication, Sept. 22, 1966.
while responding to the creativity test items, thereby increasing their powers of originality.
ATTENTION AND
DISTRACTIB1LITY
The work of As (1962a) involved the hypnotized subject's ability to pay more attention to the hypnotist's suggestions than to other stimuli. There are, As suggested, two ways of explaining this process of selective inattentiveness to signals which do not emanate from the hypnotist. Perhaps the subject withstands distractions and irrelevant stimuli by making a conscious effort to do so, thus leaving his field of attention open for the hypnotist to manipulate. On the other hand, the subject may occupy himself with the cues and suggestions presented by the hypnotist; as a result, other stimuli become the objects of less attention. The first proposition emphasized the ability to actively block out distracting stimuli while the second proposition emphasized the ability to become absorbed in relevant material. As prepared a list of 60 questions designed to investigate these two propositions. This list was administered to 152 subjects whose hypnotizability was subsequently measured by two standardized scales. The items in the list which tested the first proposition included such questions as, "When there are sounds that you do not want to listen to, can you block them from your mind so that they are no longer important to you?" and "Are you able to change easily from one task to another, excluding ideas, associations, and actions of the former task?" The subjects' responses to these questions were not positively related to the subjects' degree of hypnotic susceptibility as measured by the standardized scales. The second proposition was tested by questions which inquired as to the subjects' experiences of involvement in nature, art, literature, music, or dance to such an extent that they forgot about their surroundings: "Have you ever been completely immersed in nature or in art (e.g., in the mountains at the ocean, viewing sculpture, painting, etc.) and had a feeling of awe, inspiration, and grandeur sweep over you so that you felt as if your whole state of consciousness was somehow temporarily changed?" "Have you ever acted in a play and found that you really felt the emotions of the character and 'become' him (or her) for the time being, forgetting both yourself and the audience?" "Have you ever focused on something so hard that you went into a kind of benumbed state of consciousness or a state of extraordinary calm and serenity?" These items and the subjects' hypnotizability were related to a highly significant degree. As concluded that it is the positive focusing of attention that is important
in hypnosis rather than the negative warding off of distractions. It is the absorption of the individual in the cues provided by the hypnotist that enables the subject to become oblivious or inattentive to irrelevant stimuli. This phenomena resembles the fusion of subject and artist reported by many creative artists. This fading of boundaries between the self on the one hand and the outer environment on the other hand facilitates hypnotic experience as well as creative activity.
CREATIVITY A N D TIME DISTORTION
The pioneer work on time distortion by Cooper and Erickson (1954) is pertinent to the cultivation of creativity. Hypnotic techniques were used to slow the subjective perception of time by 14 subjects. Time distortion was defined as occurring when there was a marked difference between the expected duration of a given interval and the clock reading o f t h e interval. Suggestions were given to imagine oneself performing a certain activity. It was mentioned that a termination signal would be given when the time had expired, but that sufficient time would be available for the completion of the activity. Work with the individual began by scheduling training sessions several times per week. The ability to lengthen time required from three to twenty hours of training, depending on the subject. Cooper and Erickson found that lime distortion ability was associated with a high degree of immersion, by the subject, in the world which was suggested by the hypnotistand by an accompanying inattentiveness to his actual surroundings. This state of detachment, in which the individual became completely involved in the imaginary experience, constituted the basic goal for the training sessions. One of Cooper and Erickson's subjects was a college student who exhibited talent in dress designing. She reported that she would customarily work for several hours at a time on from four to ten occasions to design a dress. Under hypnosis, a dress designing task was assigned six times. The subject was awakened immediately after the completion of each trance and asked to draw a picture of the dress and to describe it briefly. For example, one report went as follows:
EXPERIMENTER. SUBJECT . EXPERIMENTER. SUBJECT .
Where were you? 1 was at home. How long did you seem to be working at it? Oh, about an hour. 1 was sitting at a table, looking out of the window and thinking.
STANLEY KRIPPNER EXPERIMENTER. SUBJECT .
Did you do some drawing? Yes, after I had thought it all through.
Although the subject experienced the session as an hour in length, the actual time of the trance was 10 seconds. Cooper and Erickson suggested that distorted time could be utilized for creative mental activity in the field in which a subject is adept. The experimenters also called for additional research, noting that their investigation was a pilot study and quite exploratory in nature. Barber and Calverley (1964) repeated these experiments and did not feel that their results supported the assertions made by Cooper and Erickson. However, the actual technique utilized by Barber and Calverley for inducing the effect was somewhat different than that used in the original study. Wollman (1965), in an attempt to follow the Cooper and Erickson approach, made use of time distortion with an actor who was offered the lead in a Broadway play one week before opening night. The actor was seen twice a day; time distortion reportedly enabled him to compress a great deal of learning into a short period of time. Practice sessions continued at home after the actor's wife had been trained to serve as a substitute for the hypnotist. The actor was successful in mastering his part and received favorable reviews from the critics on opening night. R.E.L. Masters*, has reported a number of successful attempts to repeat the time distortion phenomenon for creative purposes. In one instance, 125 micrograms of LSD rather than hypnosis was used and the subject, a male psychologist, was informed, without warning, that he would be given a minute of clock time to create a story. He was also told that this minute would be all the time he would need for the task as his subjective experience of time would be slowed down and lengthened. Almost at once, the subject laughed. At the end of a minute, the subject produced a well-constructed short story complete with character delineation and descriptive material:
By God, it was strange. I have never had an experience like that. Well, it seemed to be the beginning of a novel. It was an English country estate and there was a car. It had a woman sitting in it, a rather middle-aged, attractive but not beautiful woman, and a little dog, and the chauffeur came up to her andbut this is why 1 laughed. Talk about a writer "getting inside" his characters! First I was inside of this woman, then I was inside the chauffeur, and then I was inside of the dog, and I really could feel my body and my personality change in each case as I became first one and then the other. I tell you, I was really getting into those characters in a very literal sense but it would take forever, in that way, to do a novel. 1 recognized this and so I kind of pulled back and the rest of the time I just observed what was happening, as if I were watching a film. But it wasn't a novel, *Personal communication, Aug. 3, 1966.
it was kind of a little, strange vignette, very poignant, and very curious. This woman, you see, was going down to the pier where the body of her husband was being returned to her from some place where he had died. He had been in the diplomatic service. All of the time she is driving down to pick up the body, this little dog is sitting there with her in the back seat of the big old touring car and is looking from side to side. Both the woman and the dog have perfectly inscrutable faces, so one has no idea at all what she is thinking or feeling. And she meets the ship where her husband's body is being brought off and a lot of dignitaries are on hand to posthumously give him medals and there are salutes being fired and evidently he has performed some great act that this country is honoring him for. She attends the ceremony. Through it all she just stands there, and it isn't possible at all to guess what she is thinking or feeling, and when it is over she gets back into her car. The chauffeur is driving her back to the estate, the little dog is sitting there as before, looking from side to side impassively, not very interested in anything. But then suddenly a rabbit jumps alongside the road. The dog gets very, very excited and causes this woman to notice the rabbit. And then, in an instant, this same woman seems to display a kind of murderous fury and she reaches down and picks up a gun and shoots the rabbit right through the headand everything freezes for a minute right therethe excited expression on the face of the dog, the curious look of fury on the face of the woman, the rabbit just as its brains are blasted out, only the chauffeur as he was before. This scene just hangs together for a strange, terrible few moments, and then time and movement go back to their normal pace, the face of the woman is entirely inscrutable again, the dog looks from side to side impassively. They turn up into her driveway and the car stops at her house. But you have this strange, frightening sense of that one instance when she and the dog came to life and she blew the rabbit's brains outthat just for a moment something awful had been revealed about this woman and possibly about her relationship to her husband. Although what was revealed is left undefined, you know that there is something latent in her and the inscrutable face and the utterly conventional manner cover something that has the possibility of breaking through.
Island, the last novel written by Aldous Huxley (1962), describes a Utopian realm in which the educational system develops intuitive and problem-solving ability among children by utilizing time distortion. The educators assess each child's ability at an early age and ask:
. . . how suggestible is he going to be when he grows up? All children are good hypnotic subjectsso good that four out of five of them can be talked into somnambulism. In adults the proportion is reversed. Four of five of them can never be talked into somnambulism. Out of any hundred children, which are the twenty who will grow up to be suggestible to the pitch of somnambulism . . . ? The potential somnambulists are the twenty per cent who can go into very deep trance. And it's in very deep tranceand only in very deep trancethat a person can be taught how to distort t i m e . . . . One starts by learning how to experience twenty seconds as ten minutes, a minute as half an hour. In deep trance it's really very easy. You
listen to the teacher's suggestions and you sit there quietly for a long, longtime. Two full hoursyou'd be ready to take your oath on it. When you've been brought back, yoi] look at your watch. Your experience of two hours was telescoped into exactly four minutes of clock time For e x a m p l e . . . , here's a mathematical problem. In your normal state it might take you the best part of half an hour to solve. But now you distort time to the point where one minute is subjectively the equivalent of thirty minutes. Then you set to work on the problem. Thirty subjective minutes later it's solved. But thirty subjective minutes are one clock minute You can imagine what happens when somebody with a genius IQ is also capable of time distortion. The results are fantastic.
Most investigators regard Aldous Huxley's enthusiasm as premature. However, his biologist brother, Julian Huxley (1963), has stated that the use of hypnosis to maximize creativity "is in harmony with the future evolution of man."
MESCALINE, PSILOCYBIN, A N D CREATIVE ARTISTS
A number of creative people claim to have benefitted from psychotherapy which utilized psychedelic drugs. Actor Cary Grant attributed " a new assessment of life" to LSD (Gaines, 1963). Blues singer Ronnie Gilbert, in 1964, was mired in a deep depressive state from which she found it impossible to break free. In desperation, she entered LSD therapy and, during the following six months, went through 20 psychedelic sessions. Frequently, Miss Gilbert and her psychiatrist went for walks in the park or visited art galleries and churches. During one stroll through the park, Miss Gilbert felt a "sense of life all around me; I looked at trees for the first time, really looked at them." She recalled that "everything seemed so rich and so intense." This spontaneous experience (which was not chemically induced) hastened her progress and therapy soon terminated. Several years later she remarked, "I've been turned on to life and have never been so happy." Miss Gilbert's psychiatrist commented. "Ronnie was lucky. She was one of the people who have been able to work through lifelong problems in a few sessions, and there is no reason why the good results shouldn't stick. Not everybody gets as much out of the experience. She was also lucky because she came into therapy before federal restrictions clamped down on it" (Gaines, 1963). Only five major research projects in the area of psychedelic drugs and creative performance have been reported and most of these have been described by the experimenters as "pilot studies" rather than full-scale experiments with conclusive results. L.M.Berlin et al.,(1955)investigated the effects
of mescaline and LSD upon four graphic artists of national prominence. There was an impairment of finger-tapping efficiency and muscular steadiness among the four artists, but all were able to complete paintings. A panel of art critics judged the paintings as having "greater aesthetic value" than the artists' usual work, noting that the lines were bolder and that the use of color was more vivid. However, the technical execution was somewhat impaired. The artists themselves spoke of an increased richness of imagery and of pleasurable sensory experiences. One said, "I looked out of the window into the infinitely splendid universe of a tiny mauve leaf performing a cosmic ballet." Another spoke of "light falling on light." Frank Barron (1963) administered psilocybin to a number of highly creative individuals and recorded their impressions. One of Barron's subjects stated, "I felt a communion with all things." A composer wrote, "Every corner is alive in a silent intimacy." Barron concluded, "What psilocybin does is t o . . . dissolve many definitions a n d . . . melt many boundaries, permit greater intensities or more extreme values of experience to occur in many dimensions." Some of Barron's artists, however, were wildly enthusiastic about their apparently increased sensitivity during the drug experience only to discover, once the effects wore off, that the production was without artistic merit. One painter recalled, "1 have seldom known such absolute identification with what 1 was doingnor such a lack of concern with it afterwards." This statement indicates that an artist is not necessarily able to judge the value of his psychedelically inspired work while he is under drug influence. McGlothlin, Cohen, and McGlothlin (1967) made an intensive study of 72 volunteer graduate students following a preliminary study (1964) which involved 15 subjects. (In the preliminary study, no significant changes in creativity were noted following a 200 microgram LSD session; a number of creativity tests were given before the session and one week after the session. However, some significant changes were reported on anxiety and attitude tests.) A large battery of psychological tests was administered prior to a series of three 200 microgram LSD sessions, and again at intervals of two weeks and six months following the third session. Among the tests in the battery were three art scales, a measure of artistic performance, a test of imaginativeness, a test of originality, four tests of divergent thinking, and a test of remote associations. Three groups were created: an experimental group receiving 200 micrograms of LSD per session, a control group receiving 25 micrograms of LSD per session, and another control group receiving 20 milligrams of an amphetamine per session. As there were no systematic differences between the two
control groups at the end of the study, they were combined for purposes of comparison with the experimental group. The most frequently reported change in the experimental group on a questionnaire filled out after six months was "a greater appreciation of music"; 62 per cent of the subjects made this assertion. The increase in number of records bought, time spent in museums, and number of musical events attended in the post-drug period was significantly greater for the experimental group. However, the subjects' scores on the art tests did not show a significant increase; the authors concluded that the data "do not indicate that the increase in aesthetic appreciation and activities is accompanied by an increase in sensitivity and performance." On the questionnaire filled out after six months, 25 per cent of experimental subjects felt that LSD experience had resulted in enhanced creativity in their work. However, the creativity tests showed no evidence to substantiate this subjective report for the experimental group as a whole or for those claiming greater creative ability. The other tests in the battery produced provocative results in regard to personality variables and the taking of LSD. The authors reported that "persons who place strong emphasis on structure and control generally have no taste for the experience and tend to respond minimally if exposed. Those who respond intensely tend to prefer a more unstructured, spontaneous, inward-turning (though not socially introverted) life, and score somewhat higher on tests of aesthetic sensitivity and imaginativeness. They also tend to be less aggressive, competitive, and conforming." On the one measure of artistic performance used (the Draw-A-Person Test), the LSD subjects showed a significant decrease after six months. Zegans, Pollard, and Brown (1967) investigated the effects of LSD upon creativity test scores of 30 male subjects chosen from a group of volunteer graduate students. Upon arrival, the first battery of tests was given and certain physiological measures (blood pressure and pulse rate) were taken. A dose of LSD equal to 0.5 micrograms per kilogram body weight was added to the water of 19 subjects randomly selected to receive the drug; the other 11 subjects did not receive LSD. After ingestion (of the drug), the subject was escorted to a lounge where he relaxed for two hours. Immediately prior to the second half of the test battery (which consisted of alternate forms ofthe same tests previously given), the physiological measures were repeated. The battery of tests included a measure of remote association, a test of originality for word associations, a test for ability to create an original design from tiles, a free association test, and a measure involving the ability to perceive hidden figures in a complicated line drawing. A tachistoscopic stimulation task was also included; this determined speed of visual perception.
When the creativity test data were investigated, it was discovered that the LSD group did significantly better than the control group on the re-test for originality of word associations (a modified form of the Rapaport Word Association Test). Although most other comparisons favored the LSD group, no other results were statistically significant. The authors concluded that "the administration of LSD-25 to a relatively unselected group of people for the purpose of enhancing their creative ability is not likely to be successful." A further analysis of the data demonstrated that the authors were able to predict physiological reactions to a significant degree of accuracy on the basis of previously administered personality tests. It was also noted that the LSD subjects (although doing significantly better than control subjects on the word association test) made their poorest showing on those tests requiring visual attention (e.g., the tachistoscopic task, the tile design test, the hidden figures test). 11 was suggested that LSD "may increase the accessibility of remote or unique ideas and associations" while making it difficult for a subject to narrow his attention upon a delimited perceptual field. As a result "greater openness to remote or unique ideas and associations would only be likely to enhance creative thought in those individuals who were meaningfully engaged in some specific interest or problem." The Institute of Psychedelic Research of San Francisco State College employed mescaline in an attempt to facilitate the creative process (Fadiman et al., 1965; Harman et al., 1966). The subjects were professional workers in various fields, who were instructed to bring a professional problem requiring a creative solution to their sessions. A number of them had worked for weeks or months on their chosen problems without success. After some psychological preparation, subjects worked individually on their problem throughout their single mescaline session. Virtually all subjects produced solutions judged highly creative and satisfactory by practical standards. Details will not be given here as the study is reported in detail in Chapter 30 of this book. Two of the five cited studies suggest that unselected graduate students cannot expect an increase in creative ability as a result of their participation in an LSD experiment. On the other hand, creative workers in three studies utilizing psychedelic drugs showed an enhancement of creative functioning. The results must be regarded as tentative until additional work has been done in this field and until a greater control is exerted over the many variables present.*
*An additional study (Janinger, personal communication, 1967) is being evaluated at the present time. Fifty prominent artists painted a picture of a standard object (an American Indian doll) before ingesting LSD. During their psychedelic sessions, they again painted the doll. The 100 paintings are being evaluated on the basis of several artistic criteria in an attempt to determine what type of change took place as well as the artistic merit (or lack of merit) reflected by the change.
NINETY-ONE ARTISTS
During 1967, in an attempt to discover the types of psychedelic drugs being used illegally by artists, as well as the subjective opinions of the users, Krippner (1967) surveyed 91 artists who were reputed to have had one or more "psychedelic experiences." Among the 91 were an award-winning film-maker, A Guggenheim Fellow in poetry, and a recipient of Ford, Fulbright, and Rockefeller study grants in painting. A remarkably large number of the artists surveyed (93 per cent) agreed with a broad definition of the "psychedelic artist" and 81 per cent felt that the term could be applied to them personally. It was concluded that the "psychedelic artist" is one whose work shows the effects of psychedelic experienceusually, but not necessarily, chemically induced. The work may have been produced as a result of psychedelic experience, during psychedelic experience, or in attempt to induce a psychedelic experience. In addition, the work may remind someone of a previous psychedelic experience or it may be used to facilitate psychedelic experience brought about by something other than the work of art. Of the 91 artists in the survey, 100 per cent reported having had at least one psychedelic experience. When asked if they had ever taken a psychedelic substance, 96 per cent answered "yes" while 4 per cent answered "no." Of the chemical substances, LSD was mentioned by more artists than any other drug, followed by marijuana, DMT, peyote, mescaline, morning glory seeds, psilocybin, hashish, DET, and yage, A few artists had tried KavaKava, ibogaine, bufotenin, Ditran, the amanitamuscaria mushroom, and the Hawaiian wood rose. One artist reported experimenting with STP, a powerful and long-lasting drug manufactured by an "underground chemist" in California while several others had toasted and smoked the inside of banana skins, usually with extremely mild and inconsequential results. A few artists claimed to have obtained psychedelic effects from substances generally not considered psychedelicbenzedrine (an amphetamine or psychic energizer), opium (a narcotic), ritalin, kinotrine, amyl nitrate, and nitrous oxide. The artists surveyed were asked if their psychedelic experiences (chemically as well as non-chemically induced) were generally pleasant. An unqualified "yes" response was given by 91 per cent of the group while 5 per cent gave a qualified "yes" response. In the latter cases, it was stated that some of their initial "trips" were unpleasant but that their later experiences were pleasurable. One artist answered this question negatively and three others did not respond. When the artists were asked, "How have your psychedelic experiences influenced your art?" none of them felt that their work had suffered as a result of psychedelic experience, although some admitted that their friends
might disagree with this judgment. Three per cent of the artists stated that their psychedelic experiences had not influenced their work one way or the other. The others cited a number of effects which fell into three broad categories: content, technique, and approach. In most cases, the artists reported effects that fell into more than one category. Seventy per cent of the group stated that psychedelic experience had affected the content of their work, the most frequently cited example being their use of eidetic imagery as subject matter. Fifty-four per cent of the artists surveyed said there had been a noticeable improvement in their artistic technique resulting from their psychedelic sessions; a greater ability to use color was the example mentioned most frequently. Fifty-two per cent of the artists attributed a change in their creative approach to the psychedelics. Frequently made was the claim that psychedelic experience had eliminated superficiality from the artists' work and had given them greater depth as people and as creators. Some referred to their first psychedelic experience as a "peak experience," as a turning point in their lives. "My dormant interest in music became an active one," said a musician, "after a few sessions with peyote and DMT." Another said that a psilocybin experience "caused me to enjoy the art of drawing for the first time in my life." The impact of psychedelic experience upon an individual was illustrated in the case of Isaac Abrams, one of Krippner's subjects. In an interview, the artist stated that "psychedelic experience has deeply influenced all aspects of my life. It was an experience of self-recognition, under LSD, which opened my eyes to drawing and painting as the means of selfexpression for which I had always been seeking. During subsequent experiences, many difficulties, personal and artistic, were resolved. When the personal difficulties were solved, energy was released for the benefit of my art." Upon graduation from college, Abrams got married, toured Europe, and went to work selling furniture. "I had been taught," he said, "that the most important things in life were to look neat, act nice, and make money. Yet, 1 knew that something was missing. There was something to do that I wasn't doing. ] had a sense of mission but no idea what the mission might be." Abrams was offered mescaline by a friend but turned it down. Several years later, in 1962, he was offered psilocybin and decided to give it a try. On Washington's birthday, Abrams and his wife took psilocybin. Abrams watched the ceiling whirl, turned off the lights, and realized for the first time that during all the years of his life he had been behaving "like a person who had no mind." Abrams enjoyed his psilocybin experience and a few months later had
another opportunity to try mescaline. "We took it in the country and it was beautiful." His next psychedelic experiences were with marijuana; once again, these were pleasant and positive in nature. The inner life having been opened up by these episodes, Abrams thought that he might discover his "life's mission." The search was in vain. He sold more furniture. He wrote a play. He entered graduate school, but this was not for him and he dropped out. Early in 1965, Abrams took LSD. During his session, he began to draw. "As I worked," he recalled, "I experienced a process of self-realization concerning the drawing. When the drug wore off, 1 kept on drawing. 1 did at least one ink drawing every few weeks." Abrams attended art classes to learn about technique and materials. His wife went to different classes, took notes, and passed on the information to her husband. The skills developed quickly and he began to paint. Abrams entered psychoanalysis with a well-known psychoanalyst who specialized in the creative process. The artist mused, "Analysis helps me to mobilize the psychedelic experience and externalize it. 1 think any individual can go just so far on his own. At some point he needs a spiritual teacher or guru. A good psychoanalyst can be a guru. " F o r me," Abrams continued, "the psychedelic experience basically has been one of turning on to the life process, to the dance of life with all of its motion and change. Before 1962, my behavior was based on logical, rational, and linear experience. Due to the psychedelics, I also became influenced by experiences that were illogical, irrational, and non-linear. But this, too, is a part of life. This aspect is needed if life is to become interrelated and harmonious. "Psychedelic drugs give me a sense of harmony and beauty. For the first time in my life, 1 can take pleasure in the beauty of a leaf; I can find meaning in the processes of nature. For me to paint an ugly picture would be a lie. It would be a violation of what I have learned through psychedelic experience." Abrams continued, "1 have found that T can flow through my pen and brush; everything I do becomes a part of myselfan exchange of energy. The canvas becomes a part of my brain. With the psychedelics, you learn to think outside of your head. My art attempts to express or reproduce my inner state." Abrams concluded, "Psychedelic experience emphasizes the unity of things, the infinite dance. You are the wave, but you are also the ocean." Krippner noted that he rarely had found artists among the casualties of illegal drug usage, suggesting that an artist must stand somewhat apart from his culture in order to create. "To invent something new," Krippner concluded, "one cannot be completely conditioned or imprinted. Perhaps it is
this type of an individualthe person who will not be alarmed at what he perceives or conceptualizes during a psychedelic sessionwho can most benefit from these altered states of consciousness." Cohen (1964) summarized the research data on creativity and the psychedelics by stating, "Whether LSD does or does not increase creativity remains an open question. No systematic research is available to help in finding an answer. All that can be said at this time about the effect of LSD on the creative process is that a strong subjective feeling of creativeness accompanies many o f t h e experiences."
A great deal of evidence exists at the anecdotal and clinical level which suggests that the psychedelic state and the hypnotic trance can facilitate the creative act. Much less evidence exists at the experimental level. Three tentative conclusions can be drawn but each demands further data before its validity can be established. In the first place, alterations in consciousness resulting from hypnosis and the psychedelics share certain characteristics with those mental states associated with creativity. Hypnosis and the psychedelics, for example, often permit access to preverbal impressions, to unconscious material, and to intuitive processes. Secondly, the therapeutic use of hypnosis and the psychedelics seems to have been especially successful with artists. Perhaps the therapist, in producing an altered state of awareness on the part of his artist patients, not only appeals to their sense of the dramatic but brings about a mental state similar to that in which they have previously functioned at a mature, creative level.* Finally, it should be noted that the transcendence of culturally imposed imprints and of societal conditioning always has been a goal for creative persons. Hypnosis and the psychedelics, when used properly, enable artists to stand apart from their culture, at least for a brief period of time. In so doing, they sometimes make an artistic statement that encompasses all cultures, a statement which in time may become a classic painting or poem. For all these reasons, the hypnotic trance, the psychedelic state, and other forms of altered consciousness are worthy of serious study if the act of human creation is to be better understood, guided, and encouraged.
* Levine & Ludwig (1965) have combined psychotherapy, hypnosis, and LSD producing a "hypnodclic state" which they have found to be more beneficial to patients than any o f t h e approaches tried alone.
PSYCHEDELIC EXPERIENCES ASSOCIATED WITH A NOVEL HYPNOTIC PROCEDURE, MUTUAL HYPNOSIS
One of the most intriguing aspects of hypnosis has been its ability to produce, in the best Ss, very unusual subjective experiences. In the past decade these phenomena have been largely overlooked, as the emphasis in hypnosis research has been on the development of objective measures of suggestibility (Shor & Orne, 1962, Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1959, 1962, 1963), the nature of hypnotic suggestibility (Hilgard & Tart, 1966), and psychological factors affecting responses to hypnotic suggestion (Hilgard, 1965). In comparing the reports of some of the older hypnotic phenomena, usually termed deep trance phenomena, I was struck by their resemblance to many of the experiences now being reported in conjunction with the use of psychedelic drugs. This resemblance suggested that the combination of hypnotic techniques and psychedelic drugs might be very fruitful. In the past few years several articles have reported on psychedelic-like experiences occurring with hypnosis (Aaronson, 1964, 1965a, 1965b, 1965c, 1966b; Erickson, 1966, Fogel & Hoffer, 1962b, 1963) and on the use of hypnosis to control or guide drug-induced psychedelic experiences (Fogel & Hoffer, 1962a; Levine & Ludwig, 1965,1966; Levine, Ludwig, & Lyle, 1963; Ludwig &Levine, 1965c). Some indirect evidence further indicating that hypnosis may offer a powerful technique for guiding psychedelic experiences
PSYCHEDELIC EXPERIENCES
also is suggested by the work of Sjoberg and Hollister (1965), who found that suggestibility was markedly enhanced by LSD-25 and mescaline. The purpose of the present paper is to present examples of psychedelic phenomena arising with the use of a novel hypnotic technique, "mutual hypnosis," as a further indication of possible relationships between deep hypnotic phenomena and drug-induced psychedelic experiences, with the hope that these relationships will be further explored and lead to greater understanding of both the deep hypnotic and psychedelic experiences. In 1962 I was interested in the problem of whether the depth of hypnosis an 5 could reach was a relatively constant factor for a given 5 or whether it could be substantially increased by more effective hypnotic techniques. Data published since that time generally indicate that Ss have a fixed level of response to hypnotic suggestions that is not greatly altered by further training (As, Hilgard, & Weitzenhoffer, 1963; Cooper, Ban ford, Schubot,& Tart, 1967; Shor, Orne, & O'Connell, 1966), but at the time I carried out this study most hypnotists believed any S"s hypnotic abilities could be increased by training. The particular technique I decided to try was based on the idea of rapport, the special relationship supposed to exist between hypnotist and S: 1 reasoned that if rapport was greatest in deep hypnotic states, a technique which markedly increased rapport would likely increase the depth of hypnosis. The method I decided to try for markedly increasing rapport was to have two Ss simultaneously fill the roles of both hypnotist and hypnotized S, what 1 will call mutual hypnosis. That is, I would have A hypnotize B, and when B was hypnotized he would (while still hypnotized and en rapport with A) then hypnotize A: then when A was also hypnotized by B (and en rapport with B), A would deepen B's hypnotic state, then B would deepen A's hypnotic state, and so on. Ordinary rapport is a one-way relation: the is highly attentive to the hypnotist. This procedure would make it a two-way relation, with each 5 highly attentive to the other. I had never heard of such a hypnotic procedure at the time the experiment was carried out.* Three experimental sessions were carried out over a period of several months with three fellow graduate students as .Ss. Some background on the Ss will be provided below, as well as a description of a self-report scale of hypnotic depth which was used throughout the sessions. Highlights from the three sessions will then be presented and commented on, followed by a discussion o f t h e mutual hypnosis technique and its effects.
*Two years later 1 discovered thai Milton Erickson (1964, also Chapter 3 in this book) had tried a mutual hypnosis procedure in 1933, but the 5s were working under a different experimental set, and no psychedelic phenomena were reported.
Two 5 s participated in all three experimental sessions. They will be called Anne and Bill. A third 5, Carol accidentally participated in the second experimental session, as will be explained below. All 5 s were graduate students in psychology and in their twenties. Each had done some work as hypnotists, administering Form A, B, or C of the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale (Weitzenhoffer& Hilgard, 1959,1962). This procedure does not require much "skill" in the usual sense in which we think of a hypnotist being skilled, as verbatim reading of the induction and suggestibility items is all that is required for giving the test. None of the 5 s had done much hypnosis other than this. Each 5 was unusual in being moderately hypnotizable: although there are few studies of this, it is a common belief among investigators working with hypnosis that almost all hypnotists are very poor 5 s themselves (LeCron, 1951; Moss & Riggen, 1963; Moss, Riggen, Cayne, & Bishop, 1965). The reason is unknown, but speculation usually runs along the line that the hypnotist really regards his "powers" as "magical," regardless of what he tells the 5, and is not going to submit to anyone else's magical control. Thus it was a fortunate coincidence to find 5s who both had had some experience as hypnotists and were moderately hypnotizable themselves. The 5s had never had any experience with psychedelic drugs.
Self-Report Depth Scale
If an 5 is asked to scale the degree to which he is hypnotized, undersome conditions his estimate is very useful in that: (a) it correlates significantly with the usual suggestibility test criteria of hypnotic depth (Hatfield, 1961; Hilgard &Tart, 1966; LeCron, l953;0'Connell,l964;Tart,l 963a; 1963b; 1966c; Tart & Hilgard, 1966); (b) it discriminates between different qualities of experience reported by the 5 (Tart, 1966a, 1966b); and (c) the 5 s feel they are making meaningful discriminations. Indeed, it will be argued elsewhere* that the degree to which an 5 reports feeling hypnotized may be used as the criterion of hypnosis, rather than his suggestibility. An early form of self-report scale was used in the present study. It was being used concurrently in dissertation research (Tart, 1966c). The 5 s were instructed, while hypnotized in the preliminary session, that whenever I asked, "Trance depth?" a number would instantly flash into their mind indicating his or her hypnotic depth at the moment. The following illustrative values were read to the 5 s for scaling: "(a) zero is
"Tart, C. Self-report scales of hypnotic depth. Paper, Soc. Clin. Exp. Hypnosis, Chicago, 1968.
waking; (b) from 1 to 12 is a state in which you feel very relaxed and detached, and your arm can rise up or rotate (automatic motion) if I suggest it; (c) a depth of 20 or greater is required for your hand or any other part of your body to become numb (analgesia); (d) a depth of 25 or more is required for you to dream while in the hypnotic state; (e) a depth of 30 or more is required for you to develop amnesia, your mind is very quiet, and you pay almost no attention to anything besides my voice or things I direct your attention to, and you can see and hear anything I suggest; ( 0 at a depth of 40 or more your mind is absolutely still and everything I suggest to you is perfectly real, absolutely real, just as real as anything in the world; and (g) a depth of 50 or more is an extremely profound trance, so profound that your mind becomes naturally sluggish or slow." This scale thus extended to the level of trance commonly called "plenary" (Erickson, 1956), seldom encountered in practice. The usual "good" hypnotic S would be, a priori, expected to score between 30 and 40. Because the depth of hypnosis can fluctuate from minute to minute, the Ss were frequently asked for depth reports.
Preliminary Training Sessions
The possibility was considered that if Anne and Bill were both hypnotists and Ss there might be no way of bringing the experiments to a halt at a convenient time. Further, since the procedure was altogether novel, complications could arise which I would be unable to deal with as the Ss could be completely en rapport with each other but oblivious to me or anyone else. Thus Anne and Bill were each given an individual hypnotic training session with me as the hypnotist, in order to (a) establish rapport with me; and (b) implant a post-hypnotic suggestion that this rapport would last into the later experimental sessions. Thus I could always intervene in the later sessions and take control of the situation (theoretically). Also, the role of hypnotist was temporarily transferred to Anne in Bill's training session and vice versa to establish initial rapport between them. Anne was hypnotized with a hand lowering procedure (Erickson, 1956) and after several minutes of deepening procedures reported a maximum depth of 35. She responded positively to a suggestion that the room would be visually distorted when she opened her eyes. Bill had her walk around the room while hypnotized, and suggested that she would respond well to him in the later experimental sessions. 1 had her have a couple of dreams in hypnosis, one about hypnotizing Bill, the other about some topic she wanted but which she didn't have to tell to me or anyone (to encourage a sense of autonomy). She reached a maximum depth here of 39, then was dehypnotized.
Bill's training session was similar. He reported a maximum depth of 40, and was able to experience visual distortion of the room, but could not hallucinate a solid object with his eyes open.
First Mutual Hypnosis Session
Bill induced hypnosis in Anne to begin. He suggested that she concentrate on her breathing, that her eyes would close, that she would eventually see a blue vapor flowing in and out of her nostrils as she breathed, and that she would feel herself falling backwards into hypnosis. This was a radical departure from the standardized induction procedure of the SHSS. The instructions to concentrate on the breathing and see it as a blue vapor are an interesting parallel to some Yoga concentration exercises. Anne reported after the session that she did experience falling back in her chair, over and over again, during this induction, although she did not experience coming back up after each fall: just the falling back part. Anne reported a state of 27 at the end of this 7 minute induction procedure. Bill continued to deepen Anne by counting and various other techniques until she reached a reported depth of 40 several minutes later. After the session Anne reported the following experience occurred during this deepening . . I had a sensation for the first time of actually relinquishing control. I had a most unusual physical sensation of my body disintegratingwith great chunks folding off like thick bark on a tree. I was momentarily threatened, almost resisted, reassured myself, and soon this feeling passed, after which my body was gone, and I felt like a soul or a big ball of mind." Bill now instructed Anne to hypnotize him. Anne opened her eyes, held up a finger, told Bill to watch it, and hypnotized him with this eye fixation technique. After eye closure, Anne closed her eyes and began talking about how she and Bill were climbing down a manhole together, and that Bill would be deeply hypnotized by the time they reached the bottom. Anne said she was seeing bright, glowing crystals on the walls of the manhole as they descended and Bill said he was seeing them too when Anne questioned him. The bottom of the manhole was reached seven minutes after the start of Anne's induction, and Bill reported a depth of 13.1 reminded Anne to hypnotize Bill much more deeply. She went through a hand lowering and then a hand levitation procedure with Bill. It was interesting to see Anne's hand show appropriate minor movements during this, suggesting that a high degree of empathy and rapport already existed. Bill reported a depth of 36 at the end of this. 1 then told Anne to have Bill deepen her hypnotic state, and to remind
him to respond to my suggestions whenever 1 put my handonhisshoulderand spoke to him. This was to keep up my rapport with the Ss. Bill's eyes kept blinking open and closed as he deepened Anne, but after a few minutes his eyes stayed open and his gaze was fixed and steady, a perfect "hypnotic gaze." He apparently stabilized in his role as hypnotized hypnotist. After about 10 minutes Anne reported a state of 43, and when I asked Bill for his state immediately after he also reported 43. Anne now began deepening Bill again. Both reported a depth of47 in a few minutes. Anne deepened Bill by suggesting that he would experience himself lying on a warm beach in the sun and listening to the waves rolling in. At the end of this I suggested to Anne t h a t j ^ e dream a dream which would lead her into much deeper hypnosis and that she describe the dream aloud to Bill so that he would also go much deeper. Anne described dreaming of the two of them being in a car on the desert, watching the road unwind before them, seeing small lizards run over the sand, then walking along the desert road, feeling hot and sticky but with an overall feeling of pleasantness. When asked by Anne, Bill indicated he was dreaming the same dream. From later questioning, both 5s were by now completely oblivious to their actual surroundings and totally absorbed in their hallucinatory world(s). An interesting sidelight is that the laboratory room became very hot with sun shining on the roof shortly before this, and while both Ss claimed no awareness in a late interview that the lab was hot this stimulus was apparently unconsciously incorporated into their shared dream world(s). Bill became rather unresponsive at this point. Asked to deepen Anne's hypnotic state he rolled his head about, was silent and unresponsive. I asked his depth and he replied, after a long pause, 25.1 then asked Anne to deepen him. Anne was silent for several minutes, and I finally asked her what she was doing. She replied, "Taking Bill down the steps." As she was apparently "hallucinating" that she was deepening Bill I asked her to do it aloud, so that Bill would be with her, to which she indignantly replied that Bill was with her!* So I asked Anne to get Bill's depth report when they were all the way down the steps. There was a silent period of several minutes, then Anne asked Bill for his depth and he replied, "I don't know." I placed my hand on Bill's shoulder and asked him why he couldn't give his depth and he replied that nothing came when he was asked. I suggested that he would give a depth report when I snapped my fingers, and he replied with a report of 57, beyond the deepest level defined in the scale. From his behavioral inert-
*In the post-session interview, Bill said he was with Anne in going down thesteps. As will be discussed later, both Bill and Anne felt they had shared many detailed experiences which were not verbalized during the experimental sessions.
ness and depth report he was apparently in a plenary trance state, far deeper than anything he had ever reached before. Because Anne and Bill were so deep I wondered if they could become behaviorally active without disrupting the hypnotic state, so I suggested (through Anne) that both she and Bill would simulate wakefulness in a minute. On signal they both opened their eyes, sat up, lit cigarettes, talked with me and a couple of observers in the room (one of whom was Carol, who had come into the room about this time), and claimed they were awake. I told them depth reports would indicate their true state when I snapped my fingers, and Anne reported 32 and Bill reported 48. Both Ss in the postsession interview reported that they were quite surprised to hear these depth reports automatically come from themselves. Anne felt she was just about normally awake. Bill felt he was awake but almost "turned o f f " and relapsed into hypnosis several times. Both Ss showed some psychomotor retardation and a lack of initiative. After a few minutes of simulated wakefulness I suggested they go back into hypnosis again and cease simulating. Anne reported a depth of 38, Bill a depth of 53 at this time. At my suggestion, Bill dehypnotized Anne by counting backwards, and after Anne was fully awake (eyes open and depth report of zero) she dehypnotized Bill by getting his depth report (48) and counting backwards from that with the suggestion that he would be fully awake when she reached zero. At zero Bill still reported a depth of 12, so Anne counted bacwardsfrom 12 to fully rouse him. We then talked about the experiment for a while until the Ss had to go off to other business. The session had lasted a little over an hour. Several major themes emerged in this first session which reappeared in the later ones. Both Ss began to resent my intervening and suggesting that they do anything in particular. Both S"s also felt they had been much more deeply hypnotized than ever before and, in addition, I and one of the observers felt that Anne was a far more dramatic (and presumably effective) hypnotist than she had ever been before: her voice became "hypnotic," she improvised effective techniques instead of sticking to the SHSS forms, and clearly showed great empathy and rapport with Bill's reactions. Both Ss were pleased and excited over this mutual hypnosis technique, and wanted to continue working with it, although Bill admitted many months later that he had been ambivalent about further exploration.
Second Mutual Hypnosis Session
This session was held about one month later. The entire session was tape recorded. Anne began by hypnotizing Bill with a hand levitation technique followed by several suggestions of various automatic movements of the
hands for deepening. Bill reported a depth of 9 at the end of this, a rather slow beginning. At this point Carol entered the room to observe and Anne mentioned this to Bill, commenting that "Carol is going to come in and sit down in the corner, but it will not bother you and you will not pay any attention to her." The phrasing of this remark is significant in the light of later events. Anne improvised further deepening analogies (watching clock hands turning, seeing a pendulum swing,* etc.) which she used until a report of 18 was given by Bill. She then suggested that he dissociate and watch himself being hypnotized, watch himself perform various hypnotic phenomena, such as his hand becoming light and floating up. She also suggested he have a dream of becoming more deeply hypnotized, and after 13 minutes Bill gave a depth report of 29. As Anne appeared discouraged at this slow progress I suggested that she tell Bill to think about whatever he wanted to that would help him become more hypnotized, and she suggested this to Bill: " . . . imagine whatever you feel will make you the most relaxed, the most drowsy, the most hypnotized . . ." Anne was silent then for five minutes and Bill's depth report at the end of this was 38.1 then suggested (through Anne) that Bill begin to hypnotize her. This elicited some sighs, long silences, and a depth report of 43 from Bill. Anne questioned him as to what he was experiencing and found that he had spontaneously regressed and was reliving a pleasant experience that had happened to him two years before. Anne suggested that he come to the present. The change that then came over Bill was dramatic. He began mumbling typical induction suggestions about relaxing, but over the course of a few minutes his voice became dramatic and forceful. He suggested that Anne see a diamond in her hand and concentrate on it and then almost immediately suggested that it would disappear and her mind would go blank. Then he very forcefully suggested physical relaxation as he counted her into hypnosis: when he reached 20 his whole manner changed and became relaxed and soothing. Anne reported a depth of 22. Bill then began talking about a "hallucinatory" journey that he and Anne were on together. His voice was confident, smooth, relaxed, and completely convincing that he was describing actual events that were happening rather than anything "unreal." They were standing on a mountain slope, in front of the entrance to a tunnel. They walked hand-in-hand down this tunnel, with the explicit suggestion by Bill that they would be going deeper into hypnosis as they walked deeper into the dark tunnel. It was quiet in the tunnel, all outside noises had vanished, and an ineffable feeling of pleasantness and
*1 could see rapid eye movements under Bill's closed lids when the vision o f t h e swinging pendulum was suggested to him.
significance pervaded the tunnel. Anne reported a depth of 35 after a few minutes of this, and Bill continued describing their walk down the tunnel. At this point I noticed that Carol had spontaneously gone into hypnosis and was apparently sharing the hallucinatory journey with Anne and Bill: her eyes were closed and her facial expressions seemed to follow Bill's words. I put my hand on Bill's shoulder (the hypnotically implanted signal to put him en rapport with me) and told him that Carol was hypnotized and was coming along too. Bill shook his head no, and Carol reported in the post-session interview that she knew she was rejected then, but she stayed hypnotized and in the tunnel. Bill completely lost conscious touch with me and the laboratory environment for the rest of this session and, as indicated in later interviews, strongly resented my attempts to "intrude" into his and Anne's hypnotic world. Bill soon suggested that Anne guide him deeper into the tunnel (which was equated in both Ssy minds with the depth of hypnosis as well as possessing total experiential reality for them at the time). Anne reported a depth of 40 at this time, then was silent. After a few minutes I suggested that she continue to take Bill deeper into the tunnel. She began speaking in a dramatically smooth and confident manner about continuing the journey into the tunnel. As with Bill's voice, there was a quality that gave absolute reality to what she was describing. She mentioned faintly hearing music as they went deeper into the tunnel, and wondering if it were angels singing. She frequently suggested that the experience was very peaceful, very relaxing and refreshing. When she asked Bill for his depth, he reported 45. At this point I wondered if I could suggest a post-hypnotic hallucination that would serve as a behavioral check on the deep hypnotic state indicated by the depth reports, so I put my hand on each Ss' shoulder and suggested: "Why don't you both continue going down the tunnel together, each going deeper into hypnosis, and 1 want you each to find some sort of object, like a rock or something, that you can bring back to this laboratory and look at here." Bill reported in the post-session interview that he had not heard this suggestion from me. Anne immediately asked Bill if he had found the diamond (which Bill had suggested Anne hallucinate in the induction) in the tunnel, but Bill sternly replied that anything found in the tunnel belonged there and could not be taken away. I continued to suggest to Anne that she bring back something, perhaps a rock from the mouth o f t h e tunnel, and that it would be good if Bill would bring back something too. Anne wanted to go further into the tunnel and to bring something back, very badly: Bill insisted they could do neither and then forcefully took them out of the tunnel. Anne was very distressed at this, she wanted so much (according to later interview) to see what was at the end of the tunnel, and to bring something back. With his voice extremely forceful
and loud, Bill took them both from the tunnel and attempted todehypnotize Anne. As Bill finished his attempt to dehypnotize Anne 1 asked her for a depth report. She replied with 25, so 1 then dehypnotized her. Upon inquiry, Anne told me she was mostly awake now. When 1 asked her if she had remembered to bring a rock back she unhappily replied no. She then dehypnotized Bill, who was already back to a very light state (depth report of 9), and Carol also awakened by herself about this time. The immediately ensuing interview brought out a number of important points about the experience. The tunnel was absolutely real to Anne and Bill (and to Carol), as real as any experience in life. Although it was dark they could "see" its walls in a strange way: Anne said it felt as if she had a "light" coming out from under her eyebrows, and " . . . it wasn't illuminating anything I was seeing, yet it helped me to know that things were there without seeing them." Both Ss reported feeling the texture of the rock walls, which ranged from soft and slippery at places where it seemed moss-covered to quite hard where the bare rock was exposed. A second important quality about the tunnel was that it was clearly Bill's personal property: Anne felt she was there only by virtue of Bill's permission and guidance, and Carol, as discussed below, felt she was trespassing. Bill said that the tunnel had rules of its own, that last time it had been Anne's hole in the ground but this time it was his tunnel and very important and personal to him. Further, Bill felt he knew what was at the end ofthetunnel that Anne wanted to see so much, but he would not let her (or Carol) see it. Carol's experience is of great interest. She found herself hypnotized and standing near the mouth of the tunnel at about the time when 1 asked Bill if she could come along. She felt rejected by him (although her eyes were closed and she did not see him nod his head no), but stayed in the tunnel. She followed Anne and Bill into the tunnel, staying out of "sight" behind them, and feeling like a child following its parents when its parents have forbidden it to come. She also wanted to go all the way to the end, as Anne did. When 1 suggested that Anne and Bill find something to bring back she found a picture of a (unidentified) person, in a small, wooden frame: whenever Bill told Anne that she couldn't bring anything back the picture would twist in her hand and face away from her! When Bill began forcingAnne back out of the tunnel she ran along ahead of them to avoid being caught, and lost the picture while running. Bill stated that he knew Carol might be back in the tunnel somewhere, but while he didn't like anyone else in his tunnel he deliberately paid no attention to her. Bill reported he was no longer aware of me after 1 told him that Carol was along, although he seemed to remain vaguely aware of me as an intruding
influence. Anne had resented my voice intruding in the previous mutual hypnosis session. This time she perceived my voice as a small, tiny voice, far off, like the voice of conscience inside her head, while she was in the tunnel. She felt that this served the function of making me distant and unimportant, and therefore easy to ignore if she did not like what 1 was saying. Anne and Carol were intensely curious as to what lay at the end of the tunnel, the end that Bill would not let them reach. This resulted in an interesting aftermath. About a month after this session, Anne was a subject in a group hypnosis test. As she knew what the induction procedure was, she decided to "go" back to the tunnel and explore it as soon as she was hypnotized but before the suggestibility test items were administered. She found herself running along the tunnel, hurrying to reach the end before the test items. At the end of the tunnel she found a cave, blazing with brilliant white light, and occupied by an old man of angelic appearance. The room was filled with music from an unseen source. Anne repeatedly asked him what this experience meant: he ignored her at first, and finally told her, very sternly, that he could not answer her question because Bill was not with her. Anne then found herself back at the group hypnosis testing. Following this second session, Anne and Bill developed an intense friendship, spending a great deal of time together. They felt extremely close to one another as a result of their shared experience. Anne wanted to continue experimenting with mutual hypnosis, but Bill was very ambivalent about it. It was almost three months before they agreed to try one more session. Bill insisted that neither Carol nor any other observer be present.
Third Mutual Hypnosis Session
Neither Anne nor Bill felt like hypnotizing the other to begin the session, so they asked me to hypnotize them both to start. 1 did so with a very permissive eye fixation technique, stressing relaxation, detachment, and feelings of peace. After 10 minutes of this Anne reported a depth of 31 and Bill of25. 1 then suggested that they each have a dream, one that they would not have to say anything about, but which would take them much deeper. Both were silent for several minutes. Then both of their hypnotic dreams ended within a couple of seconds of each other (they had each kept an index linger raised during the dream and lowered it at the end, according to a prearranged plan). After the session, both reported dreams which had begun quite differently, but each dream ended with the S climbing upward on a swaying support, a rope ladder in Bill's case, a golden rope for Anne. I got depth reports of48 for Bill and 42 for Anne at this moment, and suggested that they "go exploring" together, describing it aloud. I did not know at the time that they both experienced being together in a hallucinatory world at this point, and that they both felt they had each climbed up into this world on a rope ladder or
golden rope, so I was surprised at how quickly the Ss began talking as if they were seeing similar things. The Ss experienced themselves as standing together in a place that they described as a "heaven" of some sort. Their conversation sounded like a continuous description of a drug-induced psychedelic experience. T h e S s expressed wonderment at the beauty surrounding them. Almost immediately Bill instructed Anne to appreciate what was around them but not to look too closely, not to interfere with them, to let them change as they would. Bill's instructions to Anne to not grasp al the phenomena, to accept them without trying to possess them, are remarkably parallel to the sorts of instructions given in psychedelic "trip manuals" which came into print years later, such as Leary, Metzner, and Alpert's (1964), and are now widely disseminated as psychedelic lore. There were elaborations of these instructions later in the session. The first thing the Ss remarked about in this heaven world was the water in front of them: it was like champagne and had beautiful, huge bubbles in it. They swam in it together and found it to be remarkably bouyant and "bouncy," as well as tasting delicious. Then Anne heard a distant voice calling to Bill, a voice from an "inhabitant of up there." Bill told her to ignore the voice though, and reminded her not to grasp at anything, to simply let events flow as they would. Anne then asked Bill if he had gotten here on a golden rope as she had, but Bill told her not to worry about how they had gotten here but just be there. As with the tunnel in the previous session, this place is clearly felt by Billtobe/n's: he didn't want anyone else to know about how to get to it, and he knew what the rules of the place were and insisted that Anne obey them. The Ss then wandered around looking at beautiful, translucent, glowing, multicolored rocks on the ground for a while. Then Bill suddenly announced that it was time for them to go. Although asked about it at length in the post-session interview, Bill could not (or would not) explain why he suddenly knew it was time for them to leave. Anne was not ready to go, and, as in the previous session, Bill forced her to. I attempted to contact Bill at this point, but he did not respond to me and in the post-session interview claimed he had not heard me at all. Anne stalled, saying it looked as if it were going to rain and they should stay to see if the rain were like champagne. Bill suggested it would rain, all right, but that it would thunder* and be cold, so when this rain occurred it was very unpleasant.
*At about this time a jet plane flew over and shook the building. Both Ss denied consciously hearing any plane in the post-session interview. Anne heard the thunder in the place she was at. Bill heard neither the thunder nor the plane: he felt he had created the thunder to frighten Anne and get her out of there, but there was no need for him to hear the thunder or be bothered by it.
Bill counted back from 50 with instructions that this would dehypnotize
Anne.
When Bill reached a count of one I asked each S for a depth report. Anne reported 10, Bill reported 20, so I spent a couple of minutes rousing them to full wakefulness. The interview clarified a number of things about the experience. As with the tunnel in the previous session, the place they felt they were at possessed complete experiential reality. It was different, however, in being obviously "unworldly," much more so than the tunnel. Anne had wondered duringthe session if it was "God's house," and Bill agreed afterward that it was heaven, but it wasn't the heaven of the Christians, it was the heaven o f t h e Greeks, it was a heaven without finality. As with the tunnel, Anne felt it to be very much Bill's "possession." Bill was the one who knew how they had gotten there, what the rules of the place were, and how to get back, so Anne didn't think it would be a good idea to insist on staying or doing anything Bill didn't approve of, much more so than in the tunnel o f t h e second session. The quality of the place they were in was difficult for the Ss to describe. When they first "opened their eyes" and looked about things were "gray," yet it was not an obscuring grayness, and there were many vivid colors and glowing lights. Ordinary concepts of space seemed poorly applicable, for sometimes things were definitely "nearer and further," but at other times the concept of spatial distance between the perceiver and the perceived simply did not fit the experience. The setting was consistently described as beautiful by both Ss, except for the rain. The rain was simply a warm rain falling on his skin to Bill, but to Anne it came with the thunder that frightened her away. Instead of a delightful rain like champagne that she expected, Anne found the rain as cold as ice, freezing and frightening her. The rocks referred to were more like translucent crystals, not tactually hard, and filled with glowing, pulsing colors. I asked the Ss about their perceived bodies during the experience and found that they were curiously disembodied much of the time. They mentioned having heads or faces but no bodies at times, and Anne reported that they walked through each other sometimes. When Bill commanded Anne to give him her hand so he could lead her back, Anne reported that she had to "crawl back into my body, sort of. It was almost as if we were moving around with just heads. When Bill said give him my hand, I had to kind of conjure up a hand." It also came out in conversations some weeks later that this passing through each other was also accompanied by a sense of merging identities, of a partial blending of themselves quite beyond the degree of contact human beings expect to share with others.
Anne asked Bill about the voice that had been calling him early in the session. Bill replied that he purposely ignored it, which had disappointed Anne, as she was sure it was the voice of someone who "lived up there" trying to contact them. This was the last experiment with mutual hypnosis for Anne and Bill. Anne was ambivalent about the experiences, but would have tried more. Bill was strongly opposed to any further exploration and, like one of Erickson's (1964) Ss, lost his interest in hypnosis a few months afterward.
DISCUSSION This section will discuss three main topics. First, the question of how the procedure affected the hypnotizability of the 5s and their functioning as hypnotists; second, the psychedelic qualities of this experience; and third, some possible dangers of this mutual hypnosis procedure.
Hypnotizability
I had hoped to administer some of the most difficult suggestibility test items from the SHSS to the 5s at the end of the later mutual hypnosis sessions, but they acquired a dynamic of their own each time, with theSs terminating their own hypnotic states, which precluded this. I did attempt to have the 5s give themselves the post-hypnotic suggestion for a positive visual hallucination (bringing back the rock), but this was not accepted. Indeed, my desire to produce "objective" suggestibility phenomena made me rather insensitive to the dynamics of the situation at times. In terms of their self-reports of hypnotic depth, both 5s reached much deeper levels than ever before. My clinical impression and that of another observer supports this: the 5s achieved a much deeper level of hypnotic experience than they had ever shown previously. In addition, Anne has continued experimenting with hypnosis, both self-induced and induced by others for several years and reports that she is far more hypnotizable than she was before these mutual hypnosis sessions. Thus, although this is a limited case study, it certainly suggests that hypnotizability may be dramatically increased by this mutual hypnosis technique, and further research is warranted along this line. With respect to their functioning as hypnotists, both 5s changed. Bill was a fairly forceful and dynamic person before this experiment, but his performance as a hypnotist definitely became more dramatic and confident. The
change in Anne was even more striking: she dropped the relatively bland style of the SHSS procedures and became confident, inventive, and dramatic. When both Ss gave hypnotic suggestions their voice quality possessed such reality that one could hardly doubt that the suggestion would work. Whether the increase in hypnotizability and more effective functioning as hypnotists resulted only from an increase in rapport is unknown. Certainly the two 5s showed a great sensitivity and empathy to the other's experiences (but not necessarily an agreement). Subsequent conversations revealed that the 5s felt so much rapport with each other that it seemed telepathic, although there was no objective evidence to support the idea of telepathic contact here.
Psychedelic Characteristics
A variety of experiences reported by the 5s are frequently reported in conjunction with drug-induced psychedelic experiences (Cohen, 1965; de Ropp, 1957; Masters & Houston, 1966; Solomon, 1964). These included marked perceptual changes, changes in self-concept and body image, feelings of greatly enhanced empathy and paranormal communication, and a sense of immediate significance to the experiences. The perceptual changes were not changes in perception of the external world but rather changes in the quality of internal imagery. Imagery, however, is too mild a word for the Ss' experiences, as it connotes something less intense than perception of external qualities, less "real," yet for the 5s their internal perceptions were in no way less real or less vivid than their ordinary sensory perceptions. They were also much more vivid and real than their usual imagery. Further, the "sensory" qualities o f t h e internal imagery were often more vivid than ordinary sense perceptions: thus Anne talked about colored light glowing as if it were alive. This sort of sensory enhancement is almost always reported from psychedelic experiences. More difficult to convey, but just as real to the 5s, were times in which they "sensed" things in their internal environments but in away which could not be equated with any usual sensory modalities: thus the 5s would talk about "seeing" things in their shared world but indicate to me that they were simply using an analogy with vision because they could not find words for the actual experience. Changes in self-concept and body image were usually together. The 5s at times perceived themselves as bodiless, or possessing just parts of a body. They also felt there were changes in psychological functioning over and above the alterations in body image. An example of this would be the use of modes of communication between themselves that they did not know
they possessed. The alteration that most impressed (and later frightened) the 5 s, however, was the feeling of merging with each other at times, especially in the final mutual hypnosis session. This seemed like a partial fusion of identities, a partial loss of the distinction between I and Thou. This was felt to be good at the time, but later the 5s perceived this as a threat to their individual autonomy. Several times during the sessions the 5s said nothing for a time, but when I questioned them replied that they were communicating, so there was a feeling at the time of the experience that paranormal communication of some sort was going on. Even more striking material regarding the 5s* feelings about this heightened empathy and communication was obtained a couple of months after the final session when the tapes of the sessions had been transcribed. Anne and Bill read the transcripts over and were both shocked. They had been talking about their experiences to each other for some time, and found they had been discussing details of the experiences they had shared for which there were no verbal stimuli on the tapes, i.e., they felt they must have been communicating telepathically or that they had actually been "in" the nonworldly locales they had experienced. This was frightening to both 5s, for what had seemed a lovely shared fantasy now threatened to be something real. This feeling of the 5s does not constitute any sort of proof for genuine telepathic interaction, of course, for there were no independent records of the details of the 5s' experiences made before they had an opportunity to talk with each other, but the feeling of the 5s that there was telepathic interaction and their reaction to it was one of the most impressive aspects of the experience. The final psychedelic quality ofthe experiences to be noted was the feeling of immediate significance that most of the experiences had for the 5s, i.e., the experience was self-validating, it did not need to be checked against some other reference system because it was significant in and of itself. In the broad sense ofthe term, these experiences were "hypnotic dreams," dream-like experiences induced under hypnosis. However, they were not at all like the usual hypnotic dream in quality, intensity, or after-effects (Moss, 1967; Tart, 1965).
Possible Dangers
Because of the intensity of the phenomena produced with this mutual hypnosis procedure, it could be dangerous in some cases and caution should be taken in future experimentation. The 5s used in this study were quite mature persons. If this procedure were to be used with psychologically unstable persons and experiences of compar-
able intensity were obtained, they could be quite unsettling to theS(s), in the same way that an LSD-25 experience is psychologically disturbing to unprepared or immature persons. 1 have heard indirectly of two college students who tried mutual hypnosis on each other after hearing one o f t h e present Ss mention something about it at a social function. One of the boys was not very stable to begin with and was unable to be fully dehypnotized after the session until professional help was called in. A complication and possible danger in the present study was introduced in conjunction with my taking a "master of ceremonies" role. I attempted to maintain ultimate hypnotic control of both Ss, both as a precautionary measure and to direct them toward the planned suggestibility testing. This resulted in my being resented by both Ss and losing this control with Bill. It is possible that with highly stable and mature Ss this external control might not be needed and the experimenter could act merely as an observer, but it would seem necessary to retain the "master of ceremonies" hypnotist until much more is known about mutual hypnosis. As profound as the experience was for the Ss, both felt that it had not reached its limit, yet experimental control had already been lost. A Rnal possible danger to be mentioned is that the "forced" intimacy produced by this technique may be unsettling. The Ss in the present study felt they had become quite close to each other quite suddenly as a result of their shared experiences, although they were able to handle these feelings. Our culture does not prepare people for sudden, intense intimacy. 1 know of a roughly comparable case of two married couples who took LSD-25 together: each experienced an intense merging of identities with the three others. Because of the sudden and unexpected intensity of these feelings the couples had a great deal of difficulty in their emotional relationships to each other for several months afterwards, all centered around feelings that they had seen too much of each other's real selves, more than their previous relationship had prepared them to handle comfortably. Further explorations of the potentialities of this mutual hypnosis technique should bear these possible psychological dangers in mind. Until more is understood of the phenomena I would recommend that Ss for such experimentation be selected as carefully and the same experimental safeguards for the Ss' welfare be applied as one would use in administering LSD-25 to Ss.
Although this report is based on only two Ss, the results with them were dramatic enough to warrant considerable research on mutual hypnosis. The technique seems very powerful: it might offer a way to produce psychedelic
experiences in the laboratory without the use of drugs and with more flej lity and control than is possible with drugs. As a way of exploring ii fantasy worlds it seems more potent than psychosynthesis techniques (A gioli, 1965) or the ordinary hypnotic dream. And the possibilities of subs tially increasing hypnotizability in Ss who are moderately responsive worth looking into.
AUTOGENIC TRAINING: METHOD, RESEARCH, AND APPLICATION IN MEDICINE
LUTHE
Autogenic training is a psychophysiologic form of psychotherapy which the patient carries out himself by using passive concentration upon certain combinations of psychophysiological^ adapted stimuli. In contrast to the other methods of psychotherapy, autogenic training approaches and involves mental and bodily functions simultaneously. Passive concentration on Autogenic Standard Formulas can be so tailored that a normalizing influence upon various bodily and mental functions will result. From a neurophysiologic point of view there is clinical and experimental evidence indicating that certain changes of corticodiencephalic interrelations are the functional core around which autogenic training revolves (Schultz & Luthe, 1959). About 40 years ago the founder o f t h e method, J. H. Schultz, psychiatrist and neurologist in Berlin, wrote the first publications about clinical and experimental observations of what he called "autogenic organ exercises" (1926a,b). In 1932, the first edition of Autogenic Training became available (Schultz, 1932). Since then, 10 German editions have appeared, translations into Spanish (1954), Norwegian (1956), and French (1958),
as well as a recent American edition (1959). During the last three decades autogenic training has become widely known in Europe and today it is regarded as a valuable standard therapy in various fields of medicine. It has also been integrated into the training programs of many universities (Schultz & Luthe, l959;Durand de Bousingen, (1962a), 1962; Luthe, 1962a; Muller-Hegemann,&Kohler,1961;Muller-Hegemann&Kohler-Hoppe,1962). The steady increase of interest in autogenic training is reflected by the progressively increasing number of publications of a clinical and experimental nature (Luthe, in Stokvis, Ed., 1960). During each of the last three years more than 100 articles on the subject were published in medical journals and books. It is interesting, however, that only about I per cent of a total of about 1,000 publications were written by English speaking authors (Schultz & Luthe, 1959).
B A C K G R O U N D OF THE
The beginning of autogenic training stems from research on sleep and hypnosis carried out in the Berlin Institute o f t h e renowned brain physiologist Oskar Vogt during the years 1890 to 1900. Vogt observed that intelligent patients who had undergone a series of hypnotic sessions under his guidance were able to put themselves for a self-determined period of time into a state which appeared to be very similar to a hypnotic state. His patients reported that these "autohypnotic" exercises had a remarkable recuperative effect (Schultz & Luthe, 1959, 1961). At the time he observed that these short-term mental exercises, when practiced a few times during the day, reduced stressor effects like fatigue and tension. Other disturbing manifestations, as, for example, headaches, could be avoided and the impression was gained that one's over-all efficiency could be enhanced. On the basis of these observations Vogt considered such self-directed mental exercises to be of definite clinical value. He called them "prophylactic rest-autohypnoses" (Prophylaktische Ruhe-Autohypnoseri). Stimulated by Vogt's work (Schultz, 1951) J. H. Schultz became interested in exploring the potentialities of autosuggestions. His aim was to find a psychotherapeutic approach which would reduce or eliminate the unfavorable implications of contemporary hypnotherapy, such as the passivity of the patient and his dependency on the therapist. During subsequent years, while investigating the question of hallucinations in normal persons, Schultz collected data which appeared to link up with Vogt's prophylactic mental exercises (1932). Many of Schultz's hypnotized subjects reported to have experienced, almost invariably, two types of sensations: a feeling of heaviness in the extremities often involving the whole body and frequently associated with a feeling of agreeable warmth.
WOLFGANG LUTHE
Schultz concluded that the psychophysiologic phenomena related to the experience of heaviness and warmth were essential factors in bringing about the changes from the normal to a hypnotic state. The next question was whether a person could induce a psychophysiologic state similar to a hypnotic state by merely thinking of heaviness and warmth in the limbs. The systematic pursuit of this question was the actual beginning of autogenic training. Under certain technical circumstances and by the use of passive concentration on verbal formulas implying heaviness and warmth in the extremities, Schultz's subjects were able to induce such a state, which appeared to be similar to a hypnotic state. The self-directed nature o f t h e approach had a number of clinical advantages over the conventional techniques of hypnosis, among them, the active role and the responsibility of the patient in applying the treatment and the elimination of dependence on the hypnotist.
From Schultz's clinical work a number of useful verbal formulasgradually evolved which, according to their more bodily or mental orientation, formed two basic series of mental exercises: the Standard Exercises and the Meditative Exercises. The six standard exercises are physiologically oriented. The verbal content of the standard formulas is focused on the neuromuscular system (heaviness) and the vasomotor system (warmth); on the heart, the respiratory mechanism, warmth in the abdominal area, and cooling o f t h e forehead. The meditative exercises are composed of a series of seven exercises which focus primarily on certain mental functions and are reserved for trainees who master the standard exercises. Later, as more clinical and experimental data became available, a number of complementary exercises specifically designed for normalization of certain pathofunctional deviations evolved. These were called special exercises. Psychophysiological^, autogenic training is based on three main principles: (a) reduction of exteroceptive and proprioceptive afferent stimulation; (b) mental repetition of psychophysiological^ adapted verbal formulas; and (c) mental activity conceived as "passive concentration." A reduction of afferent stimuli requires observation of the following points: the exercise should take place in a quiet room with moderate temperature and reduced illumination; restricting clothes should be loosened or removed; the body must be relaxed, and the eyes closed, before the mental exercises are begun. Three distinctive postures have been found adequate: (a) the horizontal posture; (b) the reclined arm-chair posture; and (c) the simple sitting posture. All three training postures require careful
consideration of a number of points. When certain details are not observed, disagreeable side-effects or after-effects and ineffective performance of the exercises have been reported. The first exercise o f t h e autogenic standard series aims at muscular relaxation. The functional theme of the verbal formula is heaviness. Right-handed persons should start out with passive concentration on "My right arm is heavy." Left-handed persons should begin with focusing on the left arm. During the very first exercises about 40 per cent of all trainees will experience a feeling of heaviness predominantly in the forearm. During subsequent periods of regular training, the whole arm becomes heavy and the feeling of heaviness will spread to other extremities. This spreading of a certain sensation (the heaviness, tingling, warmth) to other parts of the body is called the "generalization phenomenon." Along with the development of the generalization phenomenon, passive concentration on heaviness will be extended to the other arm or the homolateral leg. Usually the heaviness training continues until heaviness can be experienced more or less regularly in all extremities. This may be achieved within two to eight weeks. Clinical investigations of larger groups of trainees, however, indicate that about 10 per cent of the patients do not experience a sensation of heaviness. This fact is one of the reasons why patients should be told that the Heaviness Formula (and others) functions merely as a technical key to bring about many different functional changes in the brain and bodily system, and that a sensation of heaviness may or may not occur. Furthermore, it has been found helpful to tell a patient that many changes of bodily functions occur (see section on experimental data) which one cannot feel. It is also important for the patient to know that according to experimental observations, the exercises are effective as long as they are performed correctly, even if one does not feel anything at all. Apart from this it is necessary that the therapist is familiar with the therapeutic problems resulting from different forms of autogenic discharges which may start while the patient is in an autogenic state (Geissmann, Jus, & Luthe, 1961; Luthe, Jus, & Geissmann, 1962). Subsequently, passive concentration on warmth is added, starting, for example with "My right arm is warm." This formula aims at peripheral vasodilation. Depending on the generalization of the feeling of warmth in other limbs, the training progresses until all extremities become regularly heavy and warm. This training may take another period of from two to eight weeks. After having learned to establish the feeling of heaviness and warmth, the trainee continues with passive concentration on cardiac activity by using the formula "Heartbeat calm and regular." Then follows the respiratory mechanism with "It breathes me," and warmth in the abdominal region:
"My solar plexus is warm." The final exercise of the physiologically oriented standard exercises concerns the cranial region which should be cooler than the rest of the body. Here, one applies the formula "My forehead is cool." The time usually needed to establish these exercises effectively varies between four and ten months. The trainee's attitude, while repeating a formula in his mind, is conceived as "passsive concentration." Passive concentration may best be explained in comparison with what is usually called "active concentration." Concentration in the usual sense has been defined as "the fixation of attention," or "high degrees of intensity of attention," or "the centering of attention on certain parts of experience." This type of mental activity involves the person's concern, his interest, attention, and goal-directed investment of mental energy and effort during the performance of a task and in respect to the functional result. In contrast, passive concentration implies a casual attitude during the performance and with regard to the functional result. Any goal-directed effort, active interest, or apprehensiveness must be avoided. The trainee's casual and passive attitude toward the psychophysiologic effects of a given formula is regarded as one of the most important factors of the autogenic approach. Furthermore, the effectiveness of passive concentration on a given formula depends on two other factors namely (a) the mental contact with the part of the body indicated by the formula (for example, the right arm); and (b) keeping up a steady flow of a filmlike (verbal, acoustic or visual) representation of the autogenic formula in one's mind. Passive concentration on a formula should not last more than 30 to 60 seconds in the beginning. After several weeks the exercises may be extended to three or five minutes; after a few months up to 30 minutes and longer. The state of passive concentration is terminated by applying a three-step procedure, namely (a) flexing the arms energetically, then (b) breathing deeply, and (c) opening the eyes. Usually three exercises are performed in sequence, with about a one minute interval between each of them. After the standard exercises have been mastered satisfactorily, one may train to modify the pain threshold in certain parts of the body or train the time sense for waking up at a specific time. The therapy may be continued by applying autogenic principles for approaching specific functional disorders or even certain organic diseases. A number of special formulas and procedures have been worked out for meeting the therapeutic requirements of various functional and organic disorders like bronchial asthma, writer's cramp, hemorrhoids, brain injuries, esophagospasm, pruritus and others. The meditative exercises should not normally be started until after six to 12 months of standard training, and the trainee should be able to prolong
the autogenic state up to 40 minutes without experiencing any disagreeable side-effects or after-effects. The meditative series begins with passive concentration on phenomena of visual imagination, as, for example, the spontaneous experience of certain colors. Later, the trainee may focus on seeing all colors at will. When that is achieved, the meditative series continues with visual imagination of objects. This training phase may take several weeks before results are obtained. It is followed by imagining abstract concepts like "happiness" or "justice" in different sensual modalities (musical, chromatic, plastic). Still later, one may meditate on one's own feelings and, in contrast, try to evoke the image of another person. Finally, at the deepest level of meditation, an interogatory attitude may be assumed in expectation of answers from the unconscious. Autogenic training at the meditative level may be applied as what has been called"Nirvana Therapy" (Schultz, 1932)Schultz & Luthe, 1961 inclinically hopeless cases (for example, advanced cancer) or in monotonous and desperate situations as may occur under exceptional circumstances. The meditative exercises have also been found to be of particular value in depthdimensional psychotherapy. In general, it has been observed that the effects of more physiologically oriented standard exercises are reinforced by the meditative training. However, the meditative exercises are not introduced to the average patient. The average clinical therapy centers on the standard formulas in combination with special exercises and intentional formulas specifically designed to meet the therapeutic requirements of relevant functional or organic disorders.
EXPERIMENTAL DATA
From experimental data and clinical results we know that passive concentration on the standard formulas induces multidimensional changes of a mental and organismic nature. In principle, two categories of effects may be distinguished: immediate effects, occurring during passive concentration on the different formulas, and effects resulting from practice of autogenic exercises over periods of weeks and months. Information about the immediate effects during the exercises is still incomplete. However, the experimental data available indicate clearly that each of the standard formulas induces physiologic changes of certain autonomic functions which are coordinated by diencephalic mechanisms. During passive concentration on heaviness, Siebenthal (1952), Schultz, (1952), Wittstock (1956), and Eiff and Jorgens (1961) recorded a significant decrease of muscle potentials. Along the same lines Schultz found a significant reduction of the patellar response during passive concentration of heaviness
in both legs (1932). Determinations of motor chronaxie (muse, extensor digit, comm. dexter) by Schultz, Lewy, and Gaszmann (1932, 1961) indicated that the intensity of the stimulus has to be increased during the heaviness exercise because the excitatory threshold rises from its resting value. Changes in peripheral circulation duringpassiveconcentrationonheaviness and warmth have been verified by a number of independent authors (Schultz, 1926,1932;Schultz & Luthe, 1959; Binswanger, 1929; Stovkis, Renes & Landmann,1961). The most extensive study was carried out at the University of Wurzburg by Polzien( 1955,1959,1962,a,b,c). Polzien found the rise of skin temperature was more pronounced in distal parts o f t h e extremities than in the more proximal areas. Simultaneously variable changes in the rectal temperature were recorded. Depending upon the subject, and the duration of passive concentration, the increase of skin temperature in the fingers varied between 0.2 and 3.5C. These findings are in accordance with other results reported by Siebenthal (1952) and Muller-Hegemann (1956). Using special devices, both authors independently recorded an increase ofweight in both arms during passive concentration on heaviness.The measured increase of weight has been ascribed partly to the relaxation of regionalmuscles and partly to an increase of blood flow in the arm (Schultz&Luthe, 1959). More recently, Marchand (1956, 1961) demonstrated that the standard exercises and passive concentration on warmth in the liver area induce certain changes in the trainee's blood sugar level. During the first three standard exercises there is a slight increase of blood sugar. The fourth standard exercise (It breathes me) coincides with a slight drop in blood sugar, which is followed by another slight increase during passive concentration on ll My solar plexus is warm" (fifth standard exercise). Subsequently passive concentration on warmth in the liver area is associated with a significant rise. The control values obtained after termination o f t h e exercises indicate a sharp drop of blood sugar values, which, however, are slightly higher than the control values determined before starting the standard exercises. White cells counts during this investigation (24 subjects) indicated that the first four standard exercises are associated with a slight but progressive decrease in white cell values. This trend was reversed during the fifth standard exercise and during passive concentration on warmth in the liver area which was associated with a marked increase. The highest white cell values were obtained three minutes after termination of the exercises. Subsequent determinations corresponded to values obtained before starting the exercises (Marchand, 1956, 1961). Various electroencephalographicstudies(Schultz&Luthe,1959;Geissmann, Jus&Luthe, 1961 ;Luthe,Jus&Geissmann, 1962; F r a n e k & T h r e n , 1948; H e i mann &Spoerri,l953; lsrael&Rohmer,l958;Israel,Geissmann &Noel,1960;
Jus & Jus, I960; Geissmann & Noel, 1961, Jus & Jus, 1961; Luthe, 1962) during passive concentration on the standard formulas revealed that the different standard exercises and the autogenic state were associated with certain changes which are similar to, but not identical with, patterns occurring during sleep or hypnosis (Luthe, Jus, & Geissmann, 1962; Luthe, 1962). According to the observations reported by P. Geissmann and C. Noel (1961) no true psychogalvanic reactions appeared during the standard exercises in completely relaxed trainees; certain reactions which were observed in a number of subjects seemed to be due to difficulties related to the experimental arrangement. A systematic study of the respiratory changes occurring during the standard exercises revealed a significant decrease of the respiratory frequency which was associated with a gradual and significant increase o f t h e thoracic and abdominal respiratory amplitude and a corresponding significant augmentation of the inspiration/expiration ratio (Luthe, 1958; 1962; Luthe, in Stovkis, Ed., I960; Schultz & Luthe, 1959). Furthermore, it was observed that passive concentration on heaviness in the limbs is associated with a significant decrease of the respiratory volume and that the different standard formulas may produce a number of qualitative changes of the trainee's respiratory pattern. In asthmatic patients an almost instantaneous normalization of a disturbed pattern of respiratory innervation has been observed frequently (Schultz & Luthe, 1959). The close physiologic and topographic relations between respiratory and circulatory mechanisms stimulated further studies of the effect of standard exerciseson cardiac activity(Schultz&Luthe,1959),blood pressure(Schultz& Luthe,1959; Luthe, 1960), theelectrocardiogram(Schullz&Luthe,1959;Luthe, 1960;Polzien,1962b)andcertain variables more closely related to metabolic processes (Hiller, Muller-Hegemann&Wendt, 1961; 1962;Marchand, 1956; 1961;Polzicn, 1955; 1959; 1962a,b,c; Schultz & Luthe, 1959). In a group of normotensive subjects itwasfound(Schultz&Luthe, 1959; Luthe, in Stokvis, Ed., 1960) that passive concentration on heaviness produces a slight but significant decrease of the heart rate (5 to 10%) and a tendency toward lowering of the blood pressure. In hypertensive patients regular practice of the two first standard exercises usually produces a significant drop of the systolic (10-25%) and the diastolic (5-10%) blood pressure (Schultz, 1959; Luthe, in Stokvis, Ed., I960). Electrocardiographic changes during autogenic standard therapy were reported by variousauthors(Schultz&Luthe,l959;Luthe,in Stokvis, Ed., 1960; Jus&Jus, 1960; Geissmann & Noel, 1962; Polzien, 1962b; Schultz & Luthe, 1961). The relevant observations may be summarized as follows: during passive concentration on heaviness (and warmth) the heart rate usually decreases. 1 n relatively few cases an increase ofthe heart rate has been observed.
This paradoxic reaction is regarded as resulting from autogenic discharges (Luthe, 1961; 1962; Luthe, Jus, & Geissmann, 1962). During the Third World Congress of Psychiatry in Montreal (1961), Polzien reported that 28 out of a group of 35 patients with confirmed STdepressions showed an elevation of the ST-curve and an increase of the T-wave by 05mV or more during the first standard exercise. In five cases the ECG remained unchanged and two patients reacted with further deterioration. In a control group of 20 patients with normal curves, an elevation of the ST-curve or the T-wave by -05mV or more was observed in 10 trainees. It is of particular interest that a correlation between the heart rate and the ST and T-wave changes did not exist. This finding is in contrast to the physiologic correlation which normally exists between the heart rate and the elevation of the "ST segment-T wave phase." In other words, it is not possible to explain the elevation of the "ST segment-T wave phase" as observed during autogenic training, by the simultaneously occurring changes (decrease, increase) of the trainee's heart rate (Polzien, 1962b). More recent investigations carried out at the University ofWurzburghave verified the normalizing effect of the standard exercises on certain hyperthyroid conditions(Polzien, 1962a).Other experimental studies dealing with the effect of autogenic training on bodily work and subsequent recuperation have been carried out at the University of Leipzig (Hiller, Muller-Hegemann, & Wendt, 1961; 1962). Briefly, the experimental data indicate that passive concentration on physiologically oriented formulas influences autonomic functions which are coordinated by diencephalic mechanisms. Both clinical results and experimental data indicate that autogenic training operates in a highly differentiated field of bodily self-regulation and that with the help of autogenic principles it is possible to use one's brain to influence certain bodily and mental functions effectively. It is evident that this type of psychophysiologic manipulation requires proper training, adequate medical background knowledge, critical application, and systematic control of the effects of the treatment (Luthe, 1961). Furthermore, I hope it is quite clear that autogenic training is neither a simple relaxation technique nor a self-persuasive approach as applied by Coue,*
*Dr. Luthe stated in a letter accompanying this article, that "Passive concentration on autogenic standard formulas (or any others) is a very potent 'interference' with 'normal' functions. Even the trial of the First Standard Formula should be thoroughly discouraged unless a careful medical and psychodynamic evaluation has been carried out before, and unless the trainee is under supervision by a physician who himself has adequate practical experience with the method. Undesirable and regrettable consequences may result in case autogenic techniques are applied without careful adaptation to each individual case." Editor.
The long-range effects resulting from regular practice of the standard exercises are manifold and depend largely on the psychophysiologic constellation of the individual and the nature of the patient's condition. Briefly, one could say that a gradual process of multidimensional optimalization develops. This process is reflected in psychodynamic changes which can be verified by physiologic measurements and projective tests. In line with reports on gradual changes in the patient's behavior (Schultz & Luthe, 1959; Luthe, in Stovkis,Ed 1960; Luthe, in Speer, Ed., 1958; I962d), I have observed acharacteristic pattern of projective changes,for example, in the Drawing-Completion test: Progressive differentiation ofthe projective responsiveness, increase of output, more shading, elaboration of details, stronger pressure of lines, increase of dynamic features, better integration and composition of the drawings, less rigidity, fewer inhibitions, faster performance, and better adaptation to the different stimuli. Corresponding changes have been observed in the Draw-A-Person test (Luthe, in Speer, Ed., 1958). Our observation that a patient's progressive improvement jumps ahead after four to eight months of regular practice of the standard exercises is reflected objectively by the patient's performance in the control tests which 1 administer at regular intervals during autogenic standard therapy. With respect to these clinical observations it is of particular interest that the EEG also reveals significant differences between trainees who have practiced autogenic exercises for two to four months and others who have practiced the standard exercises for much longer periods (Geissmann, Jus, & Luthe, 1961; Luthe, Jus, & Geissmann, 1962). Subjects practicing two to four months show an EEG pattern similar to the EEG pattern seen in states of "predrowsiness," for example, bursts of anterior theta waves with a tendency to spatial generalization in anterior posterior direction in association with a preserved alpha activity. In contrast, subjects with longer training periods (6 to 36 months) pass very rapidly from the pattern of a normal state to a pattern characterized by (a) a flattening of the baseline pattern with theta oscillations; (b) the alpha main frequency shows an increase of rapidity (1 unit/sec.); and (c) brief paroxysmal bursts of theta waves in temporal-posterior derivations (Geissmann, Jus, & Luthe, 1961; Luthe, Jus, & Geissmann, 1962; Franek & Thren, 1948; Heimann & Spoerri, 1953; Israel & Rohmer, in Aboulker, Chertok, & Sapir, Eds., 1958; Israel, Geissmann, & Noel, 1960; Jus & Jus, 1960; Geissmann & Noel, 1961; J u s & J u s , 1961; Luthe, 1962e; Schultz & Luthe, 1961; Luthe, 1962b). These electroencephalographic differences between short-period and long-period trainees seem to indicate that the regular practice o f t h e standard exercises over longer periods of time brings about certain functional changes in the trainee's brain.
Clinical and experimental observations gathered over the past 35 years have indicated that the physiologic changes occurring during autogenic exercises are of a highly complex and differentiated nature, involving autonomic functions which are coordinated by diencephalic mechanisms. The physiologic changes which occur during the standard exercises coupled with the fact that the regular practice of autogenic training over longer periods of time has a normalizing influence on a great variety of bodily and mental disorders led to the conclusion that autogenic training exerts a therapeutic action on certain mechanisms which are of pathofunctional relevance for many different types of bodily and mental disorders. In summarizing my experimental and clinical findings I hypothesized (Schultz, 1959; Luthe, in Stovkis, Ed., 1960; Luthe, Jus, & Geissmann, 1962) that the therapeutic key factor lies in a self-induced (autogenic) modification of cortico-diencephalic interrelations, which enables natural forces to regain their otherwise restricted capacity for self-regulatory normalization. The hypothesis implies that the function of the entire neurohumoral axis (cortex, thalamus, reticular system, hypothalamus, hypophysis, adrenals) is directly involved and that the therapeutic mechanism is not unilateraly restricted to either bodily or mental functions.
INTRODUCTION TO SECTION 6 PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS
The term "psychedelic" was coined by Humphrey Osmond and literally means mind-manifesting. Osmond felt that terms like "hallucinogenic" or "psychotomimetic," commonly used to describe the effects of LSD-25, were misleading: they described drug effects obtained under special psychological circumstances which were not the most characteristic effects of the drug. The term was intended to be emotionally neutral but has since acquired a positive emotional bias: psychedelic is "good." However, since no better term has achieved general usage, psychedelic will be used broadly here to indicate ASCs that may show us something about the (potential) ways in which the mind can function. In this and the following section the psychedelic ASC is usually drug-induced, but it is clear from many sources, including those in the earlier sections of this book, that psychedelic experiences can be produced by a variety of techniques other than drugs. The division of psychedelic drugs into "minor" and " m a j o r " drugs in this and the following section is somewhat artificial, because there can be great overlaps in the effects produced by the drugs put in these two classes. Nevertheless the distinction is useful. The sort of drugs I have here classified as minor psychedelics are characterized by one or more of the following characteristics: (I) the effects are felt to be under a fair amount of volitional control by most individuals who use the drugs; (2) the duration of action istypically short; (3) aftereffects are generally mild or nonexistent; (4) the effect of the
MINOR PSYCHEDELIC DRUGS
drug experience is rarely strong enough to cause the user to actively proselytize and try to convince others that they must have this experience themselves; and (5) these characteristics make them highly suitable for research bccause the Ss welfare is not appreciably threatened in most cases, elaborate and costly schemes for protecting Ss are not as necessary as with the major psychedelics. T o make the distinction between minor and major psychedelic drugs clearer, I would classify the following as minor psychedelics: marijuana, Scotch Broom, carbon-dioxide, and nitrous oxide.Typical examples of major psychedelic drugs would be LSD-25, mescaline, psilocybin,harmaline(yage, telepathine), dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and diethyltryptamine (DET). One can easily sum up the current level of scientific knowledge about the minor psychedelics with the statement that they are vastly underresearched, considering their potential applications. The account ofthe effects of nitrous oxide in Chapter 24, for example, is from an article written in 1882 by William James; there simply has not been, to my knowledge, anything better written on the effects of this drug in the last 86 years. I believe the lack of research on the minor psychedelics represents a great loss, for the potential usefulness of knowledge about these is very high. They often make Ss report being directly aware of certain mental functions that are normally nonconscious, for example. This is a most intriguing source of hypotheses about mental functioning, and it constitutes important phenomenological data in its own right. Further, some of the minor psychedelics seem to loosen up the associative process, making unlikely associations more probable. This could be a very practical way of enhancing creativity or bypassing some defense mechanisms in the course of psychotherapy. Also, many Americans are now using the minor psychedelics, particularly marijuana, for recreation; the ASCs induced by these drugs are considered highly pleasurable. Many view this situation with alarm, others with joy, but in terms of society making a response to regulate this trend, we are so ignorant o f t h e basic effects of most o f t h e minor psychedelics that we can only legislate or "educate" in ignorance and emotional hysteria at present. This section cannot deal with all drugs that might be classed as minor psychedelics, but I have selected papers which cover a fairly broad range, from the mild effects of Scotch Broom to the fairly strong effects of marijuana and nitrous oxide. Chapter 21 is a compilation of facts about marijuana by the Bruin Humanist Forum, "Marijuana (Cannabis) Fact Sheet." I believe this rather lengthy discussion of what is scientifically known about marijuana, scanty though this knowledge is, is very necessary, for most scientists have heard nothing but the very biased and factually incorrect propaganda put out by the Narcotics Bureaus. In spite of the incredibly harsh legal penalties for the
mere possession of marijuana in all states,* reliable investigators now estimate that somewhere between one and five million Americans have smoked marijuana, and the trend seems to be rapidly accelerating. (Fort, 1965; Goldstein, 1966). The marijuana laws in this country were passed with no attempt to incorporate the available scientific evidence on the effects of marijuana. There is a clear trend toward legalizing the smoking of marijuana, particularly because it is now used by many middle-class, politically influential people. Chapter 22, "The Effects of Marijuana on Consciousness," describes the subjective effects of marijuana intoxication (what it's like to be "stoned," in current terminology) and relates many of the effects to current theoretical work in language, thought, and communication. The author of this chapter, a professor in the social sciences at a major American university, prefers to remain anonymous; he has been systematically observing the effects of marijuana on himself and acquaintances for several years and, understandably, feels his opportunities to continue his observations would be sharply curtailed in prison. This chapter is particularly valuable because of the author's ability to describe the marijuana experience in psychological terms. Most first-hand accounts of the effects of marijuana are of the order of, "Gee Whiz!" 1 saw beautiful visions and it was great!"
*At the time of this writing, legal research with marijuana is practically impossible, with the exception discussed here. I recently wrote the Federal Narcotics Bureau asking how a reputable scientist could obtain whatever permits were necessary to do marijuana research. The reply stated that it was possible under Federal law (not mentioning, however, the ridiculous record-keeping procedures required, so that an investigator could be heavily fined or jailed for minor bookeeping errors), but that the Federal law also required compliance with state law, and no one had been able to comply with California law in this area in 30 years. The major exception is federally sponsored research. In fiscal 1967, the Federal government spent over 700,000 dollars for marijuana research. Some of this was research on the active ingredient of tetrahydrocannabinol, marijuana that is classified as an investigational new drug, whose possession has not (yet) been prohibited in state and Federal legislation. Much of the rest of this research, judging by abstracts of it, is oriented around the theme, "What sort of mental illness would turn a person to smoking marijuana?" f suspect this research money is largely wasted, for it is investigating the secondary variables that affect marijuana use. The primary factor which would account for almost all the variance in the data is simple pleasure, ft is very enjoyable to smoke marijuana, as any marijuana smoker will tell you. The sort of investigations being carried out would be similar to studying why people eat steaks by studying family background, manifest anxiety, birth order, personality correlates, and so forth with* out ever realizing that steak tastes good. Thus the outlook for effective research on marijuana is quite poor at present, but f hope that increasing social pressures for legalizing marijuana will make research possible.
This is fine as a start, but they seldom go any further; Chapter 22 does. I particularly hope this article will stimulate other investigators to work with marijuana when it is legally possible to do so,* for the kind of hypotheses advanced here make it clear how important an understanding of marijuana effects are to theories of thought, cognition, emotion, time estimation, problem solving, etc. The next article, by James Fadiman, "Psychedelic Properties of Genista Canariensis," deals with a common American plant, Scotch Broom (Genista canadensis). Smoking the plant produces very mild psychedelic effects. Their mildness, and the fact that the plant is not illegal, makes its use in properly conducted laboratory settings quite feasible. In Chapter 24, "Subjective Effects of Nitrous Oxide," I have presented an account by William James on the nitrous oxide experience, including James' speculations regarding its nature and meaning. I do not know of any better account of the phenomenology of the nitrous oxide experience. Research with nitrous oxide is legally possible in a medical setting, and the brevity o f t h e effects (fading out within minutes after inhalation o f t h e nitrous oxide is stopped) makes it easy to handle in the laboratory. The final article in this section, by Frederick Glaser, "Inhalation Psychosis and Related States," deals with the negative effects of a variety of substances which are mind-altering, such as glue sniffing. It provides some overview of a wide variety of drugs used to produce ASCs, some of their effects, and the dangers inherent in the use of many of them. Many of the preceding papers have been emotionally positive in tone; this final chapter provides some balance: don't run off and smoke, inhale, or ingest just anything in order to experience an ASC. For further reading about marijuana, I cannot recommend too highly David Solomon's book, The Marijuana Papers (1966). An interesting anthology, The Book of Grass, has recently appeared (Andrews & Vinkenoog, 1967), as well as a collection of articles edited by Simmons (1967). Many of the references in Chapter 32, "Guide to the Literature on Psychedelic Drugs," contain much material on minor psychedelic drugs, in addition to the references in other articles of this section.
*A mandatory sentence of 5-20 years for a first conviction of possessing even minute amounts of marijuana is typical in most states. Note added in press: A definitive study o f t h e effects of marijuana on psychological and motor processes has just appeared: A. Weil, N. Zinberg, & J. Nelsen, Clinical and psychological effect of marijuana in man, Science, 1968, 162, 1234-1242. The authors confirm many o f t h e statements in Chapters 21 and 22.
MARIJUANA (CANNABIS) FACT SHEET
I S S U E S STUDY COMMITTEE THE BRUIN H U M A N I S T
Marijuana is not a narcotic. Although California laws calls it a narcotic, it is pharmacologically distinct from the family of opium derivatives and synthetic narcotics. (Wolstenholme, 1965; Watt, 1965; Garattini, 1965; 1 Crim 5351 Calif. District Court of Appeal, 1st Appel. Dist.) Marijuana is not addicting. The use does not develop any physical dependence (see p.329).(Mayor's Committee on Marihuana, New York City, 1944;Allentuck&Bowman,1942; Freedman & Rockmore, 1946; Fort, 1965a, l965h;PanamaCanalZoneGovernor'sCommittee,l933;Phalen,1943; Indian Hemp-Drug Commission, 1894; Watt, 1965; 1 Crim 5351 Calif. District Court of Appeal, 1st Appel. Dist.; United Nations, 1964a, 1964b). In a small percentage of individuals, a "psychological dependence" can develop, but a predisposition must be present. In his paper, "Dependence o f t h e Hashish Type," Watt (1965, p. 65) concludes; The habit is gregarious and is easily abandoned. Personality defect and incipient or existing psychotic disorder are the essential factors underlying the formation o f t h e habit. Marijuana is not detrimental to the user's health. Even when used over long periods of time, it does not appear to cause physical or psychological impairment.(Mayor's Committee on Marihuana.NewYorkCity,1944; Freedman & Rockmore, 1946; Fort, 1965a, l965b;PanamaCanal ZoneGovernor's
Copyrighted by the Bruim Humanist Forum, 1967 and reprinted by permission. 325
Committee, 1933; Phalen, 1943; Indian Hemp-Drug Commission, 1894; Becker, 1963) Marijuana does not tend to release "aggressive behavior." On the contrary, its use inhibits aggressive behavior; it acts as a "tranquilizer." (Mayor's Committee on Marihuana, New York City, 1944; Fort, 1965a, 1965b; Panama Canal Zone Governor's Committee, 1933; Phalen, 1943;Garattini, 1965) Marijuana does not "lead to" or "promote" the use of addicting drugs. "Ninety-eight percent of heroin users started by smoking tobacco and drinking alcohol first!" (Mayor's Committee on Marihuana, New York City, 1944; Fort, 1965a, 1965b; Panama Canal Zone Governor's Committee, 1933; Phalen, 1943; Garattini, 1965) Marijuana comes from the Indian hemp plant, which was formerly grown widely in the United States for the making of rope, and which still grows wild in many areas. Up until a few years ago it was a main ingredient in commercial bird-seed. Leaves and flowering tops provide the cannabis (commonly known in the Western Hemisphere as marijuana, grass, or pot); the resin and pollen, in which the active ingredients are highly concentrated, are the source of "hashish." (Wolstenholme, 1965). The effects of smoking marijuana have been described as follows: "euphoria, reduction of fatigue, and relief of tension . . . [it will] also increase appetite, distort the time sense, increase self-confidence, and, like alcohol, can relax some inhibitions." (Fort, 1965) A heightened awareness of color and of esthetic beauty, and the production of rich and novel mental associations are also commonly reported effects. Some users report that the marijuana experience is "psychedelic": can result in heightened awareness, or in a consciousness-expanding change in perspective, ideas about the self, life, etc. Marijuana is not, however, like LSD a very powerful psychedelic. Whereas LSD drastically alters thoughts and perspective, often "jarring" the user into heightened awareness, marijuana "suggests" or points the way to a moderately deepened awareness. The user is free to follow these potentials or not, as they present themselves. (Mayor's Committee on Marijuana, New York City, 1944; Fort, 1965a, 1965b; Panama Canal Zone Governor's Committee, 1933; Goldstein, 1966; Becker, 1963; De Ropp, 1957; Indian Hemp-Drug Commission, 1894) Pharmacological studies of marijuana and tetrahydrocannabinol (the major active ingredient) are as yet inconclusive, both because of insufficient research and because of the subtlety and complexity of its effect on the human mind. Garattini (1965) tested maze-learning in rats and found that marijuana caused no change or very slight impairment; Carlini and Kramer (1965) found that maze-learning was significantly improved by an injection of a marijuana extract. Multiple active ingredients are present in the mari-
BRUIN HUMANIST FORUM
juana plant, and these could vary in concentration (e.g., one of the components is sedative, and another is euphoric/psychedelic). (Wolstenholme, 1965; Watt, 1965; Carlini & Kramer, 1965) As with other psychedelics, the effects of marijuana depend in part on how one interprets, uses, and learns to develop them. As pointed out by many researchers in the area of philosophical/psychological effects, the environment ("setting") is of great importance. Many people have no effects whatever the first time they smoke a marijuana cigarette, but do the second or third timeand thereafter. Everyone has to learn the effects before he can use them to his own benefit. (Becker, 1963; Fort, 1965a, 1965b; Indian Hemp-Drug Commission, 1894). Some years ago it was estimated that marijuana users numbered "several hundred thousand people in the United States, including many from the middle-class." (Fort, 1965a, 1965b) During the 1960's, however, there has been a rapid increase in the use of marijuana, particularly among "respectable" people: those in the professions, non-bohemian high school and college students, artists, writers, intellectuals, etc. One report on campus use (Goldstein, 1966) estimates that approximately 15% of college students have used or are using marijuana, with the percentage at some large, metropolitan campuses as high as 30-60%. This same report also held that marijuana use is now becoming "respectable," and indulged in by members of student government, campus groups, and fraternities and sororities. (Fort, 1965a, 1965b; Irwin, 1966; Goldstein, 1966) Marijuana smoking does not constitute a social hazard. Four separate official studies have been conducted on this question, as a part of a larger study: New York City Mayor's Committee in 1944; a committee ofthe health department of the U.S. Army; another U.S. Army committee, concerned with discipline effects; and a very thorough study by a committee established by the British Government to study the effects in India where it isand wasin as widespread use as is alcohol here. All of these studies came to the conclusion: marijuana is not damaging to the user or to society, and therefore should not be outlawed. Political and economic pressures prevented authorities in New York from carrying out the recommendations of the Mayor's Committeethe greatest part of the political pressure from Harry J. Aslinger, former U.S. Commissioner of Narcotics. (Mayor's Committee on Marijuana, New York City, 1944; Panama Canal Zone Governor's Committee, 1933; Phalen, 1943; Indian Hemp-Drug Commission, 1894) On the grounds that marijuana is safer and more beneficial than tobacco or alcohol (both of which are physically toxic; both of which are addicting), and that there is no basis for legalizing these two dangerous drugs while outlawing one which is not dangerous, attorneys are challenging the present laws. In the wording of one such legal brief: "The appellant contends that
the classification of marijuana as a narcotic in Section 1101 (d) of Health and Safety Code and the marijuana prohibition law is based upon an arbitrary and unreasonable classification having no reasonable relation to the public health, safety, welfare, and m o r a l s . . . . The classification of marijuana as a narcotic is unconstitutional and void in violation of the Eighth Amendment provision against cruel and unusual punishment, and the Due Process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution of the United States." (1 Crim 5351 Calif. District Court of Appeal, First Appel. Dist., pp. 61-62 and Appendix 1, p. 6) Among the authorities favoring legalization of marijuana, there have been medical doctors, lawyers, psychologists, sociologists, and even some religious leaders. Bishop Pike, for example, supports re-legalization. Lancet (1963), the British journal of medicine, in an editorial in 1963, found no good reason for marijuana being prohibited, but good reason why it should be legal. (Irwin, 1966) Many authorities, however, remain opposed to the re-legalization of marijuana. Predominantly, these are "law-enforcement" authorities, or politicians (e.g., Attorney General Lynch of California). Although these authorities rarely give verifiable reasons for their insistence that marijuana be illegal, the ones which have been offered prove to be either unsubstantiated "opinions" or out-and-out mistaken data. In this same area, there was a time when law-breakerstaking their cue from the law-enforcement officials claimed marijuana use as an excuse for their crimes. The fiction of a marijuana-crime relationship has been thoroughly detailed (if there is any correlation at all, it is in a negative directioncrimes of violence are drastically lower than would be statistically expected among marijuana users). (Fort, 1965a, 1965b; Phalen, 1943; Anslinger, 1932; 1 Crim 5351 Calif. District Court of Appeal, First Appel. Dist.; Irwin, 1966; Blum & Wahl, 1965; Boyko, Rotberg, & Disco, 1967; Laurie, 1967) See also below, pages 329 and 331. Harry J. Anslinger, not one to be daunted by mere facts, included the following commentsboth of which are in diametric contradiction to statements by him before committees of the U.S. Congress: "The section noting that many criminals coming before the courts who allege that they were under the influence of marijuana when a crime was committed, and that this defense is usually without foundation and is used with the idea of obtaining lenient treatment by the courts, recommends that a defense of being under the influence of marijuana during the commission of a crime should not mitigate the penalty for a criminal act." (Anslinger, 1932) "The Narcotic Section recognizes the great danger of marijuana due to its definite impairment of the mentality and the fact that its continuous use leads direct [sic] to the insane asylum." Even without the aid of Anslinger, arguments opposed to free mari-
juana use are contradictory, confused, and grossly innocent of verifiable facts, (Fort, 1965a, 1965b; Phalen, 1943; Anslinger, 1932; I Crim 5351 Calif. District Court of Appeal, First Appel. Dist.; Irwin, 1966; Blum & Wahl, 1965; Washington Bulletin, 1963) In a study of police attitudes and reasoning on "drugs," Blum and Wahl (1965) found much disagreement as to reasons why marijuana should be suppressed. Some officers simply felt that, although marijuana was less dangerous than alcohol, society (and the law) disapproved of marijuana. Reasons given for suppressing marijuana ran from claims that it caused criminal behavior [which is, ex post facto, correctso long as marijuana use is "criminal" ], to the claim that it is more dangerous than alcohol because it isn't as disruptive of behavior and is therefore harder to detect. Many "expert" groups such as W H O Expert Committee on Addiction Producing Drugs have tended to perpetuate misinformation on marijuana because of poor data [Anslinger was the U.S. spokesman for many, many years at the U.N.J, and a conservative reluctance toward "softening" or changing previous policies. In the last few years, however, the World Health Organization has progressively modified its view on marijuana. In 1964 the Expert Committee proposed revised definitions oftypesofdrugdependence, which were subsequently adopted. The new definition of "dependence of the Cannabis type" was as follows: "(1) a desire (or need) for repeated administrations of the drug on account of its subjective effects, including the feeling of enhanced capabilities; (2) little or no tendency to increase the dose, since there is little or no development of tolerance; (3) a psychic dependence on the effects of the drug related to subjective and individual appreciation of those effects; (4) absence of physical dependence so that there is no definite and characteristic abstinence syndrome when the drug is discontinued." (United Nations, 1964b) The Committee actually is saying that there is no reason to keep marijuana on its list: Its definition of dependence o f t h e marijuana type would easily satisfy for a definition of "liking" (i.e., the natural tendency to repeat a pleasant and rewarding, non-harmful experience). Actual dependence on marijuana is extremely rare, and depends entirely on a pre-existing psychological problemand even this is not "addicting." [See above, p. l] (Watt, 1965; United Nations, 1964b) As has been noted by many researchers, scientific as well as governmental groups which have seriously investigated the effects of marijuana on the individual and on society have consistently refused to condemn itorsupport legislation aimed at suppressing it; law-enforcement-oriented groups, on the other hand, including the Narcotics Experts, are very slow indeed to admit any of this evidence into the debate. In spite of this, the Proceedings of the White House Conference on Narcotic and Drug Abuse, 27-28 September 1962, states: "It is the opinion of the Panel that the hazards of marijuana
per se have been exaggerated, and the long criminal sentences imposed on an occasional user or possessor of the drug are in poor social perspective. Although marijuana has long held the reputation of inciting individuals to commit sexual offenses and other antisocial acts, the evidence is inadequate to substantiate this. Tolerance and physical dependence do not develop, and withdrawal does not produce an abstinence syndrome." (United Nations, 1965; United States, 1963) The following, from an editorial in the Washington Bulletin, is given here both for the illuminating facts uncovered, and as an example of the more modern approach to the "problem" of marijuana. "Seventy years of institutional documentation indicate that this vision [of marijuana's "dangers"] was a big American fib. Latest such document is the New York County Medical Society Narcotics Sub-committee Report of May 5, 1966: 'There is no evidence that marijuana use is associated with crimes of violence in the United States . . . marijuana is not a narcotic, nor is it addicting . . . New York State should take the lead in attempting to mitigate the stringent federal laws in regard to marijuana possession.' Well, everybody knew that 10 years ago. [U.S.J House Marijuana Hearings, Ways and Means Committee, 1937, page 24, Rep. John Dingall: 'I'm just wondering whether the marijuana addict [sic! graduates into a heroin, an opium, or a cocaine user?' Anslinger: 'No sir. I have not heard of a case of that kind. 1 think it's an entirely different class. The marijuana addict [sic] does not go in that direction.' Nowadays the Narcotics Bureau [headed duringthis entire period by Anslinger] propagandizes the idea that marijuana leads directly to heroin, which is obviously silly, as millions of college boys can inform their parents. But the Narcotics Bureau has raised such an unscientific scream on this point that nothing will suffice to prove the obvious except a giant survey of comparative statistics showing that millions of pot smokers are not junkies. When such documents are at hand, timid but sympathetic medical authorities in key places have declared themselves ready to move toward legislation, licensing or reduction of punishment for marijuana possession to the status of a parking violation." ( Washington Bulletin, 1966) The UCLA Law Review, in March of 1967, published an article on California's anti-marijuana laws, from which the following is quoted. " . . . the purpose of this article is to outline the defects in one area of both federal and state criminal law: the control of marijuanaspecifically, treatment of possession of the drug, without more, as criminal. The pattern in California, perhaps more than in any other state, has been one of legislative intransgence and increasingly harsh penalties for possession and use of marijuana. The authors take the position that at least a portion of the existing legislation in California against marijuanaHealth and Safety Code section 11530, imposing stringent penalties for possession of the drug irrespective of
abuseis an unwelcome disruption of the delicate balance between reason and emotion in the state's drug control laws. . . . Although the United States Supreme Court normally has given the state legislatures an extended opportunity to clean their own houses, judicial finger-tapping where marijuana is concerned has all the signs of continuing indefinitely. But, unbridled legislative and police suppression of all uses of marijuana, together with savage sentences for even the most innocent uses, might prove to be the source of earlier constitutional review. . . . The characteristics attributed to marijuana by law enforcement agencies, legislative reports and the communications media are markedly different from, or not supported by, available scientific information. . . . In this country, the only comprehensive publication at a local or state level scientifically describing the effects of marijuana is the socalled 'LaGuardia R e p o r t ' . . . reactions which are natively alien to the individual cannot be induced by the ingestion or smoking of the drug. . . . An even more subtle claim, asserted primarily by law enforcement agencies, is that marijuana is a 'stepping stone' to addictive and disabling drugs. Not only is the alleged causal relationship unsupported in fact, but even the California Attorney General's Office has suggested that the evidence leads to a contrary conclusion. . . . In addition to the 'stepping stone' thesis, the widely promoted claim that marijuana use causes crime is also lacking in factual support. The LaGuardia researchers, in direct conflict with the routine alarms from law enforcement officials, found that the alleged causal connection does not exist. . . . Indeed, in several subsequent studies it has been shown that there is a negative correlation between crime and the use of marijuana. . . . Unlike 'plain drunk' reckless driving and drunk driving statutes, protecting only against the abuses of alcohol, section 11530 [marijuana] declares a crime even when there is no abuse or victim. Ironically, although it is unlawful to drive under the influence of any narcotic or any drug within the separate statutory classification of 'restricted dangerous drugs' (barbiturates, amphetamine and LSD), these driving offenses are alternatively punishable as misdemeanors, and the penalties are less severe than for possession, without use, of marijuana. And it is only a misdemeanor to 'use' or 'be under the influence of' marijuana." (Boyko et al., 1967) "These 'new' drugs, however, were neither physically addicting nor illegal; the dangers were considered moderate. In fact, this moderate element of danger might have added an intriguing dimension to the undertaking. The increased use of marihuana on college campuses appears to have a similar background with one added factor: the legal penalties are quite severe, even though, like LSD, the drug is not physically addicting. Students, therefore, rationalize that it is a 'bad' law which they are not obligated to obey (an attitude somewhat similar to the reaction to Prohibition)." (Kleber, 1967) R. D. Laing, M.D., writing in Sigma (Vol. 6), states: "I would be far
happier if my own teenage children would, without breaking the law, smoke marijuana when they wished, rather than start on the road of so many of their elders to nicotine and ethyl alcohol addiction." "Summary of conclusions regarding effects. The Commission have now examined all the evidence before them regarding the effects attributed to hemp drugs. It will be well to summarize briefly the conclusions to which they come. It has been clearly established that the occasional use of hemp [marijuana] in moderate doses may be beneficial; but this use may be regarded as medicinal in character. It is rather to the popular and common use ofthe drugs that the Commission will now confine their attention. It is convenient to consider the effects separately as affecting the physical, mental or moral nature. In regard to the physical effects, the Commission have come to the conclusion that the moderate use of hemp drugs is practically attended by no evil results at all. There may be exceptional cases in which, owing to idiosyncracies of constitution, the drugs in even moderate use may be injurious. There is probably nothing the use of which may not possibly be injurious in cases of exceptional intolerance. . . . In respect to the alleged mental effects of the drugs, the Commission have come to the conclusion that the moderate use of hemp drugs produces no injurious effects on the mind I n regard to the moral effects of the drugs, the Commission are o f t h e opinion that their moderate use produces no moral injury whatever. There is no adequate ground for believing that it injuriously affects the character of the consumer . . . for all practical purposes it may be laid down that there is little or no connection between the use of hemp drugs and crime. Viewing the subject generally, it may be added that the moderate use of these drugs is the rule, and that excessive use is comparatively exceptional." (Indian HempDrug Commission, 1894) " T h e psychic habituation to marihuana is not so strong as to tobacco or alcohol. . . . There is no evidence to suggest that the continued use of marihuana is a stepping stone to the use of opiates. Prolonged use of the drug does not lead to mental, physical, or moral degeneration, nor have we observed any permanent deleterious effects from its continued use." (Allentuck & Bowman, 1942) "There are no apparent reasons for cannabis' status as a Dangerous Drug. It is not addictive, its use does not in Western society cause crime or unacceptable sexuality, and it does not lead to addiction to the hard drugs. The major problem with this drug is that it is illegal. This has three undesirable effects: first, an underground, cannabis-using sub-culture is created and maintained that puts the potential heroin addict one step nearer access to the hard drugs; second, it lessens respect for D.D. A. [Dangerous Drug Act] drugs in the thousands of young people who have tried marihuana or hashish and know from personal experience how harmless the drug is; third, it causes
considerable waste of man-power, either through creative and educated people being sent to prison for possession of the druga Glasgow doctor was sentenced to six months recentlyor through the use of policemen who would be better otherwise employed, to track down the drug and its users." (Laurie, 1967) "The smoking of the leaves, flowers and seeds of Cannabis sativa [marijuana] is no more harmful than the smoking of tobacco or mullein or sumac leaves. . . . The legislation in relation to marihuana was ill-advised . . . it branded as a menace and a crime a matter of trivial importance. . . . It is hoped that no witch-hunt will be instituted in the military service over a problem that does not exist." (Phalen, 1943) "The controls over marihuana under federal [law] and state laws are dissimilar. Under the federal law, marihuana is not considered a narcotic drug. On the other hand, many states have covered marihuana by including it within the definition of 'narcotic drug' since adoption of the Uniform Narcotic Drug Act in 1932. Marihuana is equated in many state laws with the narcotic drugs because the abuse characteristics [undercurrent laws, all use is 'abuse'] of the two types of drugs, the methods of illicit trafficking [ all exchange of pot is 'illicit'], and the types of traffickers have a great deal in common. . . . Because marihuana does not result in physical dependence, the physician need not apply himself to physical complications of withdrawal. . . . N o physical dependence or tolerance has been demonstrated. Neither has it been demonstrated that cannabis causes any lasting mental or physical changes." (A.M.A. Committee on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence, 1967) "Two of the most common and widely used psychic modifiers are cannabis and alcohol. . . . First, marijuana is most often used in a social setting, in a group of users who mutually enjoy the effects of the drug. Second, the intent is to heighten enjoyment of outer experiences, e.g., conversation, listening to or performing music, dancing, joking. Unlike the Brahman priest, whose vocabulary during his intoxication is limited to repeating one of the names of his God, the marijuana devotee laughs, giggles, eats without restraint, tells jokes, participates in sexual relationships, and takes pleasure in the company of both men and women, especially if they are also using marijuana. Third, the effects are interpreted by a marijuana-user as analogous to those of alcohol. He prefers marijuana because the effects are more rapid and 'neater'; there is no hangover, and no debilitating physical consequences of chronic use. Thus, the use of cannabis in our society is to attain an experience which, far from renouncing the active life in favor of contemplative, ascetic ideal, affirms the pleasures of sex, music, food, laughter, and human companionship." (Chein et al., 1964) "A characteristic marihuana psychosis does not exist. Marihuana will not produce a psychosis de nava ..." "But even excessive marijuana use is less
likely to lead to aggressive or anti-social conduct than immoderate consumption of alcohol." (Allentuck & Bowman, 1942; Boykoetal., 1967; Murphy, 1963) The following excerpt is from a letter to The Princetonian, Princeton University, by the Director of Counseling Services at Princeton. "If and when the severe laws governing marijuana are to receive the review they probably deserve, this will come about only after a significant level of public interest and influential desire has been achieved... . In the meantime the underground tide of illegal use will continue to swell and 'lamentable affairs' [arrests! will occur. In judging the reasonableness of current laws, and indeed current clandestine marijuana use, the individual should probe the facts, rather than merely harbor widespread and misinformed assumptions which often yield a sort of sociological hysteria whenever the subject is raised. In the confidential settings of the Counseling Services and the Health Services, whenever the subject of marijuana is discussed we are pleased to find that factual information usually helps clear away much of the undue anxiety stemming from the popular myths surrounding this subject in our society at-large. Recognizing the reality of existing laws, and recognizing the fact that every individual must come to terms with such realities in his own way, we hope we may find ways to be helpful to students currently faced with such quandaries." (MacNaughton, 1967)
THE EFFECTS OF MARIJUANA ON CONSCIOUSNESS
A marijuana high usually lasts two or three hours, during which a wide range of effects may occur, varying both in intensity and quality. The usual, most noticeable effect is intensification of sensation and increased clarity of perception. Visually, colors are brighter, scenes have more depth, patterns are more evident, and figure-ground relations both more distinct and more easily reversible. Other sense modalities do not have the variety of visual stimuli, but all seem to be intensified. Sounds become more distinct, with the user aware of sounds he otherwise might not have noticed. Music, recorded and live, is heard with increased fidelity and dimension, as though there were less distance between the source and the listener. Taste and smell are also enhanced under marijuana. The spice rack is a treasure of sensation, and food develops a rich variety of tastes. Skin receptors are also effected. Heat, cold, and pressure receptors become more sensitive. Pain produces paradoxical effects. If attention is not on the area of pain, there is a reduced sensitivity to the hurt. But awareness of pain from a lesion, such as a burn or cut, will often persist for a longer period than usual, even allowing for the changed perception of time under marijuana. Awareness of proprioceptive responses is enhanced. The person using marijuana may become aware of usually automatic, non-conscious, muscle
EFFECTS OF MARIJUANA ON CONSCIOUSNESS
tensions, small movements, feedback and control processes, and feelings of physical comfort and discomfort. These can be perceived with great clarity and distinctness. Such effects vary with the individual and the situation. Sometimes one modality will predominate; sometimes a sequence of effects will occur; sometimes nothing will seem to happen. The direction or modality of effect can be often manipulated by the individual if he deliberately exposes himself to the stimulus, such as music, or paintings. However, such setting may not affect the perception if the person is not otherwise ready to respond in that way. Effects more often call attention to themselves; the user observes what he is experiencing in the situation and realizes it is not how he usually experiences the stimuli. On the other hand, some sense modalities may function in a straight pedestrian manner, neither being enhanced nor diminished. The person himself is the most important determinant of how the enhancement will appear. Some persons orient primarily to visual stimuli and visual thinking, others to sound, others to tactile impressions. Visual orientation seems to predominate among persons in our culture; audile and tactile thinking is less common. It seems likely that sensory enhancement of a marijuana high would be most noticed in the predominant sense modality of the user; it certainly should have a differential response in relation to less used ways of perceiving. Another factor which affects the response is that persons unfamiliar with the marijuana state frequently must "learn" that they are perceiving experience in a different way. That is, someone makes them aware of changed perception by showing them objects, playing music, and calling their attention to the difference in sights and sounds. Then they become consciously aware o f t h e perceptual changes. This initiation procedure has led sociologist H. S. Becker (Becker, 1963; partially reproduced in Solomon, 1966) to suggest that most of the effects of marijuana are learned, not spontaneous. He says (accurately, 1 am sure) that the user must learn to notice the effects, categorize them, and connect them to the total experience of using the drug. What is learned in most cases is not a new way of perceiving, but the awareness of a change in perception. Few persons observe what they are doing in the sense of observing their seeing, and it is not surprising that many should have to learn how to become aware of themselves experiencing by checking current perception against memory and expectations. The user's internal psychological needs will also influence his response. A fear of being overwhelmed by too much input will often reduce any changes to only those which the user can cope with or to changes only in certain modes. A fear of losing control over the perception of experience may suppress most of the effects and even shut down responses to below
normal. On the other hand, emotional involvement with some part o f t h e environment may enhance its perception. Internal physical needs also affect the response, e.g., hunger may be intensified so the person finds himself ravenous on getting high. For a person using marijuana for the first few times sensory changes occur sequentially, rather than all at once. First he may notice increased brightness and clarity of colors, then sounds, then visual structures, such as paintings or designs. (Two dimensional photographs and motion pictures may be seen in three dimensions in the marijuana high, a perception which can be transferred to the normal state under certain conditions.) Then proprioceptive sensations may present themselves. Any order of the effects may occur during one high state or several. Often effects will develop to particular levels and then stabilize without further elaboration. I know some individuals who listen to music during a high, and this is their major use and apparently their only enhancement. There are two states of awareness which relate to these sensory effects. The basic one can be called pure awareness. In this state the person is completely and vividly aware of his experience, but there are no processes of thinking, manipulating, or interpreting going on. The sensations fill the person's attention, which is passive but absorbed in what is occuring, which is usually experienced as intense and immediate. Pure awareness is experiencing without associations to what is there. The other state of awareness is one which can be termed conscious awareness, in which the sensory experience is connected to meanings, plans, functions, decisions, and possible actions. This is our normal way of perceiving and how we usually go about our daily lives. We do not sense the world directly, but with the incorporation of our memories, meanings, and uses. In the state of pure awareness objects are experienced as sensory qualities, without the intrusion of interpretation. There are examples of this in normal life. The sensation of sexual orgasm may be (and hopefully is) experienced with pure awareness. Natural beauty, such as flowers, mountains, oceans, and sunsets, is sometimes experienced from a point of awareness without adding conscious thinking. These two processes of awareness have been described by Charles Solley and Gardner Murphy (1960, Chapter 14)asnonreflective consciousness and reflective consciousness. Alan Watts compares the awareness state to a floodlight of attention, which shows a broad area and lights up anything that is there. Consciousness awareness he compares to a spotlight, which is focused and can be directed, though on a narrower area. This is a good analogy in pointing out that no deliberate directing is done in the awareness state, although it is sometimes the case that the area perceived in awareness may be a small one seen in great detail.
The awareness state can be called "choiceless" because choice is a part of consciousness functions. Decisions made outside of consciousness are not called "by choice" since choice implies conscious action. In a state of direct awareness there are no choices made and no decisions or actions occur. The stream of sensation flows and the person is aware of what is happening; if he acts he does so without consciously deciding to move. (That is, action is handled by some process other than the consciousness monitoring the awareness experience.) When complicated action becomes necessary conscious attention is activated and the sensation is used as stimuli, criteria, or information for the choices, plans, or action. The awareness is not always experienced purely under marijuana, but often is mixed with some, though reduced, conscious attention. Consciousness, conscious awareness, or conscious attention involves a connecting function which observes experience in relation to past experience, memory images, memory recording, expectancies, plans, goals, etc. This type of consciousness may intrude on the awareness state at a low level. However, when awareness fills the attention there is a "becoming lost" in the experience, in which there is often not even a memory of what occurred. This seems to be a state in which consciousness functions are not present, and all experience is at the level of awareness. Consciousness, attention, and memory recording are apparently not active. (It is possible that attention was present and either was not remembered or the memory is not accessible to consciousness.) Such a state of pure awareness is at one end of a continuum of varying degrees of conscious activity, with the other end at a state in which the contents of awareness are used for decisions, plans, inferences, etc., and are not experienced for their primary sensory qualities; they are information rather then experiences. This analysis suggests a reason for sensory enhancement under marijuana, a movement of attention from consciousness processes to awareness processes. We usually think of attention as synonomous with consciousness, but it is an uneasy synonomy. Consciousness seems to be more than attention, but we cannot describe a consciousness without attention. Perhaps it is possible for attention energy to move into sensory processes and operate less in the decisional, deliberative processes of consciousness. If this happens it would provide much more energy for attending to sense data, and we could expect the sensory experience to be more vivid and more detailed. Intensity of sensory experience seems related to the total proportion or amount of attention which is involved in the process. If attention is used in conscious or unconscious processes in making decisions, remembering, evaluating, etc., then this much is removed from the awareness of the sense experience. Thus it may be that one of the causes of sensory
enhancement under marijuana is that attention energy moves from consciousness processes into awareness processes, which amplifies the experience.
Besides sensory enhancement, the other most immediate effect of marijuana is a change in the perception of time: events take longer to occur. Bach's first Brandenburg Concerto lasts hours. An hour seems to have passed, but the clock records 25 minutes. The person's internal fantasies are long and involved, but only a few minutes have passed in government time. In this state the fantasies and music do not move at a faster pace they move at their own usual rate, though often more fluently and more clearly. The impression is that external time must have slowed down, while the internal experience continues at the same rate. There is not the impression of speed or rapidity, but that the timeavailable to theuser is magnified. There are similar effects in normal experience. Time spent at a boring talk seems to pass more slowly, and one thinks in dismay, "What, only five minutes have passed since I looked at my watch?" A method used by Linn Cooper (1956) to induce time distortion under hypnosis is useful to note here. A metronome set at one beat per second is used. The hypnotized subject is told that the metronome is slowing down to one beat every two seconds, every five seconds, once a minute. Verbally or conceptually we can now say that the subject's internal rate has remained the same, but external time relative to the subject has slowed down. Has the subject's own pace actually speeded up? I do not know, and I can think of no reliable criteria for determining this. Brain wave research shows that the basic alpha rhythmn can be speeded up by a flickering light (called photic driving), but not very much, and not even to twice its normal rhythmn. Cooper's subjects report that they do mentally imagine the amount of thoughts appropriate to the expanded time available, including counting imagined objects. This may be a convenient hallucination or it may be an accurate description of what they do. (Even calculation of real problems would not be a valid test because calculating geniuses can answer complex mathematical problems almost instantaneously, and this ability may be available under hypnosis, though it has never been reported to my knowledge under marijuana or hypnosis.) In this procedure under hypnosis and also in marijuana the subjective experience of time is disconnected from the marking of social or government time.
The effect under marijuana is analogous to effects in visual and sound modalities. Visual scenes often have more depth, sounds are heard with more dimension; so too with timethere is an expansion of the fabric of time so there is a feeling of depth instead of the usual two dimensional flow. The explanation of this sometimes given by marijuana users is that more is happening: they are thinking faster or more thoughts are occuring in the same time period. This could cause external time to be relatively slower. Although it need not be the case that internal processes change at a faster rate it is possible that a person is aware of more perceptions in a given amount of time as a result of the enhancement of sensory data. With visual enhancement more details of the movements of the self and others are attended to. This means that more information is perceived in the same amount of time. This is also true of proprioceptive and tactile responses. Time is somewhat conditioned to a normal rate of information input in particular contexts. One has a "standard rate of intake" and if the amount of information is increased for a unit of time, then one of the responses may be that time is going slower. To be conscious of any change inexperience there must be a comparison with previous similar situations. Thus if the time experience while high is compared with a similar normal experience, or with a time pace constructed from normal experience, it may be perceived as slower. A more important cause for time distortion under marijuana can be found by noting how persons normally judge the passage of time, then investigating the changes in these criteria caused by marijuana. This is rather difficult because no one knows how we judge time. Nevertheless there are some relevant observations which can be made.* Notice the situations in which time seems to alter for many persons in everyday experience and out-of-the-ordinary experience. These are situations in which the experience itself is the focus of attention; they are not means to extrinsic goals. Persons totally involved in making love seem to have no awareness of how much time may pass. Persons in a state of anger do not become aware of time lapse until the emotion subsides or ego controls are invoked. Psychotherapy hours in which emotional material is covered seem to be out of time awareness. Mystics become unaware of the passage of time during meditation, as do persons having peak experiences (Maslow, 1964). In dreams, daydreams, fantasies, ecstasy, and strong emotional states, the sense of time is absent or changed. And in the state of pure awareness, as I have used the term, there is no perception of the rate of time. These are all personal experiences in which conscious attention
*See "Time and the Unconscious" by Marie Bonaparte (1940) for speculation on this problem from the framework of psychoanalysis.
is not dominant, and immediate experience, rather than goals, expectancies, plans, and decisions, is predominant. Time perception is a socially reinforced response. The experiences and states I have described are not states which are socially conscious; they are not internally subordinated to social time or schedules. Anger cannot be paced with conscious control, nor can ecstasy. Feelings, fantasies, dreams, and awareness do not incorporate the sense of time which is built up by and maintained in the consciousness. Thus when one is experiencing such content there is no marking of the passage of time, and to the extent this material is the content of awareness, the less social time is noted. Immediate experience is always timeless; time is perceived in relation to the uses of experience in controlling or predicting the future or interpreting the past, the present being perceived in relation to past or future. This is one of the major functions of consciousness. In a normal conscious state when the internal or external input is to be changed or manipulated the time required is automatically projected, based on past experience. This imposes the knowledge of time on the consciousness. One of the effects of marijuana is to reduce the strength of expectancies and goals which are socially reinforced. Thus non-time experiences are increased in relative strength and time oriented associations are decreased, which creates the sense that time is expanded. Some indication that this is what occurs may be seen in reports of marijuana users that time passes instantaneously. One girl reported that when high she suddenly discovered 45 minutes had passed without her realization of this. And there are reports of listening to music when the individual realizes the music had stopped, without his remembering hearing the selection as it was playing. What happens in these cases is that most o f t h e person's attention is in non-time processes, so that time passage is not noted until the social consciousness returns. Then it seems that no time has passed, since there was no process noting its passage. Just as in sleep, amnesic hypnosis, or anaesthesia, there is no consciousness of the duration of the state, and the conscious time flow seems unbroken from the moment of falling asleep to the moment of waking. When observing sensory stimuli, listening to music, fantasying, etc., there is the feeling of expanded time because the outside experiences are overwhelmed by the mental, internal experience which is not marking time and there is no way to gauge their pace. The quantity o f t h e time change varies. If the user is almost totally involved with the awareness processes, with little conscious attention, then there will be little sense of duration, and long periods of clock time will go by quickly. Events, themselves are timeless, in that they are always in the present they do not echo their past nor presage their future states; we alone do that to them, for ourselves. And we ourselves do not experience the past or
the future; we experience memories or expectancies, which may be realistic or fantasies. So our experience of the passage of time is based on our comparison of present experience with our remembrance of the past, usually the immediate past, or our anticipation of the future and how we get there. Marijuana decreases the strength of the automatic memory, expectancy, and anticipation processes; thus the perception of an experience is not surrounded by the usual multitude of past encounters, future possibilities, and potential uses. In contexts requiring action on the basis of expectations and plans, such as driving an automobile, they are available and often with more focused attention. Given a situation not requiring activity or decisions, the penumbra of response patterns, functions, and potentials surrounding experience decreases, and the immediate experience per se is perceived, rather than its position in a pattern of change. This decreases comparison of the present with the past, and again reduces the feeling of duration or passing of time. ("Passing of time" is a curious phrase, because time passing cannot be empirically observed. One may conclude the passage of time by observing changes in experience, but it is not really an inference either. What seems to be described is the mental reviewing ofthe preceding changes which led up to the present point. Re-running the succession in memory from some point up to the present gives the sensation of passing time. We are aware of events which are different from the ones we now experience but that are connected by physical changes in which we have participated (directly or through observation). This awareness may be "awareness of the passage of time." In summary, under marijuana, the sense of time is distorted. First, because mental contents and awareness processes which are not connected to time needs or markers are strengthened. These include daydreams, fantasies, event memories, peak experiences, emotions, and the pure awareness state. Second, because goals, anticipations, and expectancies are decreased in prominence, reducing attention given to possible changes in the environment, which decreases awareness of future states. Third, memory of immediate past experience is decreased in strength, which reduces knowledge of change and moves attention to the present. If consciousness is completely passive, and non-time elements fill attention, then the experience seems timeless. If some consciousness processes and associations are maintained time will seem to have slowed, as attention moves among the various contents.
Both the intensification of sensory experience and the expansion of time are part of an increased attentiveness to immediate experience in contrast
to memories of the past or plans for the future. Memories and plans are experienced but only as they arise out o f t h e immediate content and needs of the person's internal and external experience; they do not automatically operate as in normal consciousness. Every action and potential action, in the normal state, is evaluated according to its consequences: what results will follow. Mental processes imagine as many consequences as they have experience to do so, both immediate and long range, testing these consequences against criteria or goals of valued states. The consequences which are most valued control the action. For example, if a person feels angry toward another he may want to insult him verbally. He mentally anticipates the possible consequences of this action, which may include the release and satisfaction of the anger, feelings of masculinity, enhanced self concept of strength, etc., on the positive side, and the anger or disapproval of the other person, loss of self control, fear of his own impulses, what his mother would think of the action, etc. on the negative side. Depending on the person's past experience, his needs and strengths of various values, the action will be taken, modified, or inhibited. Every action a person engages in is surrounded and extended mentally (consciously and unconsciously) by such expectancies, and every situation experienced by a person is responded to by anticipating its potential consequences and relating them to desirable and undesirable conditions. (Of course, the opposite of such actionits inhibitionis also subject to the same processes.) Some of this process is conscious, especially when the situation is new, unfamiliar, very important, or ambiguous, but most of the expectancy and anticipation process is done preconsciously. Normally persons are not aware of the activity which occurs to determine an action; expectancies have become incorporated into automatic responses. The mind is efficient in making its activities automatic. First an action is consciously made in response to a need or situation. If it is successful (reinforced) it becomes habitual, and is taken automatically without the need of conscious attention, much as driving a car, sewing, tying your shoes, and smoking a cigarette are all composed of large blocks of now automatic actions which once had to be done with conscious attention at every point. Later only the major elements must be controlled with conscious attention, such as changing lanes when driving, searching for an ashtray, etc. How can an action be released without conscious attention? What must happen is that criteria for action and the particular action are connected by the conscious mind; then the process can be made automatically. When the criteria are fulfilled, then the action is made.* This suggests that there is
*This is the behavior structure described insightfully in Plans and the Structure of Behavior, by George Miller, Eugene Galanter, and Karl Pribram (1960).
some process or energy which releases action but which does not need conscious attention. Similarly, most o f t h e expectancies around experiences are not consciousonly the more important ones or ones which are so complex as not to be automatically used. Such expectancies and anticipations function to keep behavior consistent, goal directed, and reasonably integrated. They help avoid conflicts within the personality and with the environment, including other persons. They have obvious survival value and undoubtedly are reinforced by our society and our own needs. The function of reinforcement is clear: The reinforcement value of the projected consequences of an action come to affect our decision to take or not to take the action. These expectancies are responses to possible futures, and orient our actions to the future, not the present. One of the major effects of marijuana is to decrease the strength of these expectancies and anticipations, on both conscious and preconscious levels. Thus in the high state the expectancy processes decrease their influence on behavior. Since these are always oriented to future states, they take attention away from perception of immediate experience and turn it to following imagined states. Thus when attention given to imagined states is reduced, the perception of the present experience will increase in strength or intensity, either because more energy is available for such awareness or because there are fewer processes to attend to, and present experience becomes relatively more predominent in the mental field. This enhancement of immediate experience is reflected in the effects of marijuana on sense data and time perception. Indeed, the decrease in expectancies, which are connected to goals, may be one of the reasons for the change in the awareness of time, since time is perceived in terms of changes, including changes in relation to a potential state of affairs. If the knowledge provided by expectancies is reduced, then the immediate experience will not be seen as a point in time with a future, but more as an event, perse. The reduction in the strength of expectancies also contributes to the increase in intensity of sensory experience. Objects as well as situations and actions are surrounded by our potential responses to them, such as our past experiences with them, how we might use them, other forms they have taken, how they are made, their qualities in other sense modalities, etc. When we perceive an object, whether a fire in a fireplace, a photograph of a fire, a fire engine, or a fiery speaker, not only are we aware of the object, but also we have incorporated in our awareness these other elements which give structure and meaning to the sense data. Thus we know that the object is a bird cage or a rib cage, and we know its qualities, functions, and potentials. Usually these are keyed to our verbal response, our classification, but they are known non-verbally as well (e.g., we can have emotional responses or motor responses without verbal responses).
FUNCTIONAL A S S O C I A T I O N S
Particularly important to us is the function of objects.* One sees this in a child's definition: a hole is to dig. A bridge is to walk over to get to the other side. Someone said that home is "A place where when you go there, they have to take you in." There is an essential effect of these operational definitions: they force classifications rather than specificity. Any hole is to dig and how hole X differs from hole Y is not important so long as each can be dug. My home is not different from your home, since they will both take us in. Such definitions attempt to capture some particular criteria of whatever they define. The criteria of definition are the only characteristics which need to be observed in perceiving the object, and we are trained to perceive in this way. We learn as children to see the function of objects and to see the similarities of objects, rather than experience them in all possible ways. The advantage of this is obvious: we survive because we can use the environment, we can generalize, we can cooperate within a socially constructed reality. The disadvantages are obvious: we may not see reality except in terms of functions, which shuts out an enormous amount of reality (some of which would be functional in various contexts). And often persons see objects only in terms of their own functional needs, which narrows their perspective considerably. (Psychologists might see persons as experimental subjects, an insurance salesman might see one as a prospect, etc.) This leads, incidentally, to failures of discrimination in perception, illustrated by the classical occidental observation that all Chinese look alike, and no doubt Chinese observe the same about occidentals. One of my friends took an astronomy course and discovered that stars were not all the same color, as he had previously perceived, but were red, blue, yellow, and white. This led him to realize thai all trees looked alike to him. Of course he would not have said that they were identical, but 1 doubt if he could have told the differences between an elm and an oak, even standing in front of them, because a tree is with leaves and to be shaded by. And after all, which of us could easily describe essential differences between two holes dug by a child in the sand at the beach? Though the child probably could. Under marijuana the functional associations of objects are decreased in strength. In addition to this specific association, other associations such as verbal labeling an
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Richard A. Levine
rlevine@labaton.com
A distinguished veteran of federal law enforcement, Richard Levine spent more than three decades at the Securities and Exchange Commission. Beginning in 1984, he served in various roles in the SEC’s Office of General Counsel, most recently as Associate General Counsel for Legal Policy. Among other things, he was responsible for providing legal and policy advice to the Office of the Whistleblower, the Enforcement Division, and the Commission. For over 20 years, he and his team reviewed and advised on virtually every proposed SEC enforcement action throughout the country—thousands of formal reviews and countless informal consultations.
Rich played an instrumental role in the development of the SEC Whistleblower Program, first as a senior member of the team that drafted the proposed legislation and implementing rules, and later by advising the Office of the Whistleblower since its inception and reviewing staff recommendations and appeals of whistleblower award determinations. He also participated in other major enforcement related projects; he was the primary drafter on the team that prepared the SEC’s Selective Disclosure and Insider Trading rulemaking (Regulation FD and Rules 10b5-1 and 10b5-2), and a key member of the SEC team for the 1998 legislative amendments to the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act.
An Adjunct Professor at Georgetown University from 1999-2005, Mr. Levine is a regular speaker on a broad range of enforcement issues. Prior to joining the SEC, he practiced commercial litigation at Cahill Gordon & Reindel.
A decorated public servant, he twice received the Chairman’s Award for Excellence and was also granted the SEC’s Law and Policy Award and the Distinguished Service Award. In addition, he received the Philip A. Loomis Award from The Federal Bar Association.
State University of New York at Albany
Cahill Gordon & Reindel
Labaton Sucharow
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Asian Journal Of Physical Education And Computer Science In Sports
July 10, 2019 By admin Article Categories
Jul 2, 2009. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human. Interaction. 1073-0516. Web of Science : Science Citation Index Expanded. 2. 0002-9459. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL. Asian Journal of Animal and Veterinary. Advances. BRITISH JOURNAL OF SPORTS. Chemistry Education Research and.
MIAR recolecta datos para la identificación y análisis de revistas científicas. Si se introduce en la casilla de búsqueda cualquier ISSN el sistema localizará en qué bases de datos de las contempladas en la matriz está indizada la revista, esté recogida o no en MIAR, y calculará su ICDS (sin contar el Índice de Pervivencia si no forma parte de MIAR).
Researchers comparing American, Pacific and Southeast Asian subtypes of Zika virus have concluded that the American-subtype strain has the highest ability to grow both in vitro and in vivo. Over.
Asian Journal of Sports Medicine. dietary, and Laboratory personnel of the physical education and sport science faculty of Tehran University, Dr. Kazemnejad.
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Publishing in the journal Mammalia, the researchers found that rain-filled tracks of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) were filled with frog egg masses and tadpoles. The tracks can persist for a year.
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and Asian students live and go to school closer to both healthy and unhealthy food outlets than do White students. Brian Elbel of the New York University School of Medicine and colleagues present.
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Aconite root is used in East Asian traditional medicines to treat pain. Since its toxicity, it is used after heat-processing for detoxifying. The present study revealed that processed aconite root.
Journal description. The Journal of Sports Sciences publishes articles of a high standard on various aspects of the sports sciences covering a number of disciplinary bases, including anatomy.
Their findings were outlined in a special issue of the Asian Journal of Urology. In a review of papers published about the process and describing the use of antibodies for diagnostic and research.
Physics Education is the international journal for everyone involved with the teaching of physics in schools and colleges. The articles reflect the needs and interests of secondary school teachers, teacher trainers and those involved with courses up to introductory undergraduate level.
Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools that is standards based and encompasses assessment based on standards and benchmarks. It is defined in Chapter 1 as “a planned sequential K-12 standards-based program of curricula and instruction designed to develop motor skills, knowledge, and behaviors of healthy active living, physical fitness, sportsmanship, self-efficacy.
International Journal of Physical Sciences Research (IJPSR). The journal publishes original research, reviews, case analysis and other material on all aspects of physical Sciences. Papers submitted in this journal must be original, and of a quality that would be.
Originally from Pakistan, Ali had studied computer science in. take multiple English education courses from teachers who.
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Altman, winner of the 2018 International Society for Computational Biology and Bioinformatics Outstanding Contribution Award, and Michael Levitt, joint winner of the 2013 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and.
AUBURN — The Auburn Grade School gymnasium is a long way — figuratively and literally — from Paris, France, and the western.
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The online platform for Society of Health and Physical Educators. Search in: Journal Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance Volume 70, 1999 – Issue 4. Submit an article Journal.
But as British science journalist Angela Saini reports. in your DNA that flip a switch and make you black or white or.
International Journal of Physical Education and Sports www.phyedusports.in Volume: 1, Issue: 2, Pages: 39-42 42, Year: 2016 ISSN- 2456-2963 A comparative study of selected physical physical fitness variables between Kabaddi and Kho-kho K male players Dr. Mahendra Kumar Singh 1, Shivendra Dubey2 1 Assistant Professor, Department of Physical Education, GGV Bilaspur (C.G), India 2.
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Now MIT scientists have found that an interplay between atmospheric winds and the ocean waters south of India has a major influence over the strength and timing of the South Asian monsoon. Their.
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The physical fitness variables for the present investigation are speed, agility. Asian Journal of Physical. Education and Computer Science in Sports, 2010;.
Apr 26, 2018. 1 Presented Paper titled “Role of Computer in Physical Education” in the UGC. Indian Journal of Physical Education, Sports Medicine & Sports Science. Published by: South Asian Academic Research Journals, Sept. 2015.
International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health is a Peer. trends in sports, Military sports, Movement Science, Nutrition in Sports and Exercise,
The Journal of Sport and Health Science (JSHS) is a peer-reviewed, international, multidisciplinary journal dedicated to the advancement of sport, exercise, physical activity, and health sciences. JSHS publishes original and impactful research, topical reviews, editorials, opinion, and commentary papers relating physical and mental health, injury and disease prevention, traditional Chinese exercise, and.
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The new research used tree ring records to reconstruct the Asian summer monsoon back to 1566. The study, published in the AGU journal Geophysical Research Letters, found the monsoon has been weakening.
Asian Journal of Computer Science Engineering, 2581-3781, Indexed, India. International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health, 2394-1685.
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European Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science – Volume 4 │ Issue 7 │ 2018 53 distance from the line to their heels will be measured and will be recorded in cm. Measurement will be taken twice and the best degree has been evaluated.
The finding, published online March 28 in the journal Geophysical Research Letters, show that monsoon winds have indeed increased over the past centuries. "The south Asian monsoon is incredibly.
Japanese Journal of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine. Published by The Japanese Society of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine 4,303 registered articles (updated on February 08, 2019) Online ISSN : 1881-4751 Print ISSN : 0039-906X JOURNALS PEER REVIEWED FREE ACCESS. Journal.
The Publication Impact Factor (PIF) evaluates and ranks the Journal/Serial. 136 , Asian Journal of Physical Education and Computer science in Sports
Originally from Pakistan, Ali had studied computer science in. take multiple English education courses from teachers who use pictures and other visuals to support their instruction and who get up.
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Representation matters for Black women college students when it comes to belonging in rigorous science. 3.6% to Latinas and 4.8% to Asian women in 2014-2015, according to the National Center for.
The Shield – Research Journal of Physical Education & Sports Science. The HEC recognized Research Journal on Physical Education & Sports Science entitled The Shield is published annually by the Centre for Physical Education, Health & Sports Science, functioning in the Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan.
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International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Research (IJSER). sports. Asian Journal of Physical Education and. Computer Science in Sports, 4(1), 148-.
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Journal of Physical Science is a multiple award-winning academic journal. Accolades received by the journal in the recent years include being a recipient of the Ministry of Education’s CREAM Awards for three consecutive years (2016, 2017 and 2018), and Best Article for Science, Technology and Medicine category in the Malaysian Scholarly.
International Journal of Sport and Health Science Published by Japan Society of Physical Education, Health and Sport Sciences 539 registered articles
Mar 19, 2018. Asian Journal of Physical Education & Computer Science in Sports. ISSN 0975- 7732. Vol.1. Half Yearly Inaugural Issue, July-Dec 2009.
Professional Development Conferences For Teachers
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Two-timed by Time | Village Voice
Two-timed by Time
by Sydney H. Schanberg
Every time a reporter who has promised confidentiality to a source then hands over his or her notebooks or other materials involving that source to a government agency, the press—the entire press in this country—gets weaker. It creates a precedent and renders us less able to deliver independent information to the public. It’s as simple as that.
Last week, Time Inc. weakened the press. It decided to turn over Time reporter Matthew Cooper’s notes and other materials to a federal prosecutor. The prosecutor has been investigating the White House leak of a CIA operative’s name, Valerie Plame, which put her and her overseas contacts at physical risk. The reported White House motive was a desire to discredit her husband, Joseph Wilson, a former ambassador in Africa. Wilson, on a special assignment for the CIA, had concluded that one of the Bush administration’s prime rationales for going to war in Iraq—that Iraq had sought to buy uranium yellowcake from Niger for nuclear weapons—was probably a fiction. Later it was revealed that the Bush claim had been based on forged documents.
The Time Inc. editor in chief, Norman Pearlstine, used noble language to try to disguise the damage he and the Time corporate leaders had done, but the sound was hollow. He said Time would continue “to support the protection of confidential sources” but insisted that the Supreme Court’s decision not to give the case a hearing left the company no choice but to turn over reporter Cooper’s notes. “We are not above the law,” Pearlstine said in a CNN interview. No, of course not. But sometimes, our history tells us, when a good citizen believes the law is acting wrongly, he can oppose it with respectful civil disobedience and accept the consequences, including going to jail. Does Thoreau come to mind, Norm? Or do you find Thoreau quaint? One more thing: From now on, what source will take seriously a promise of confidentiality from a Time Inc. reporter?
Pearlstine explained, in his corporate statement, “We believe that our decision to provide the special prosecutor with the subpoenaed records obviates the need for Matt Cooper to testify and certainly removes any justification for incarceration.” (Time is also facing sizable fines.) Cooper and another reporter, Judith Miller of The New York Times, who is still withholding her notes and refusing to name her sources, face up to four months of confinement for contempt of court.
The New York Times swiftly took issue with Time Inc.’s action. Arthur Sulzberger Jr., publisher of the Times, said in a statement: “We are deeply disappointed by Time Inc.’s decision to deliver the subpoenaed records. We faced similar pressures in 1978 when both our reporter Myron Farber and the Times Company were held in contempt of court for refusing to provide the names of confidential sources. Mr. Farber served 40 days in jail and we were forced to pay significant fines. Our focus is now on our own reporter, Judith Miller, and in supporting her during this difficult time.”
Time reporter Matthew Cooper also disagreed with his bosses’ decision, but he granted them absolution. He told The Wall Street Journal: “A corporation is not the same thing as an individual. They have different responsibilities and obligations and there is no dishonor obeying a lawful order backed with the force of the Supreme Court. . . . I prefer they not hand over documents that disclose the identity of my sources, but that’s their decision to make.”
Confidential sources will always be crucial to serious journalism. People in high places who know that abuses have occurred but want to avoid reprisals from the guilty parties will usually not come forward to reporters unless they are guaranteed anonymity. “Deep Throat”—Mark Felt—is an obvious example. The Watergate scandal wouldn’t have been fully exposed without him and other anonymous sources.
All of us in the journalism world know that anonymous sources are used in excess these days—for instance, to allow people to hurl insults from behind a mask. Major newspapers are taking steps to curtail frivolous or lazy usage. Reform is necessary. But this is no reason to cave in when anonymous sources are used legitimately.
This White House leak case has baffled Washington as has no other court saga in recent memory. The special prosecutor, Patrick Fitzgerald, has been unusually tight-lipped with information, even refusing to give defense lawyers copies of witness depositions that would be forthcoming in cases of less notoriety. One might guess that he is citing national security, since a CIA operative is involved. But it would only be a guess. The whole case is a nest of assumptions, speculation, paradoxes, and missing facts.
Here are a few of the puzzles. Cooper and Miller, the two journalists convicted of contempt, had nothing to do with the outing of Valerie Plame. Miller didn’t even write a story; she only made some telephone calls with the thought of writing one. Cooper has already identified one of his sources, I. Lewis Libby, chief of staff to Vice President Dick Cheney. Libby freed Cooper from his promise of confidentiality.
The reporter who received the leak and put it in print was Robert Novak, a Washington press elder with right-of-center views who has a syndicated column and is a political analyst for CNN. His column of July 14, 2003, said that “two senior administration officials” had told him that Valerie Plame was “an agency operative.” That column came a week after an op-ed piece in The New York Times by Plame’s husband, Joseph Wilson, had discounted the White House’s Niger uranium story.
Novak has been even more tight-lipped than Fitzgerald. Neither has ever revealed whether Novak has cooperated with the inquiry or even been subpoenaed or charged or is a target of any kind. There has been speculation that Novak’s sources may have already revealed themselves to the prosecutor, which would have freed the reporter from his compact with them. Novak says his attorneys have limited his remarks.
He did make some minimal comments last week, saying that nothing he had done was responsible for the situation Cooper and Miller were in. He said he would tell all in a column after the case was resolved.
Will anyone but a reporter or two go to jail for this politically motivated disclosure of an intelligence agent’s identity? Don’t ask. This is a soap opera. Tune in tomorrow.
Only one thing is certain in this two-year-old farce. The press has suffered another wound. Will anyone own up that the wound is partly self-inflicted from a failure to stand firm on core principles?
More:Judith MillerPoliticsPress ClipsRobert NovakThe White HouseTime Inc.
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My 'great' day with Albion - Eddie Jones
Eddie Jones' 'great' day with Albion
Albion welcomed a special guest to the Training Ground on Thursday afternoon, with England Rugby Union Head Coach Eddie Jones on site to learn more about how the club operates.
Jones was given a tour of the facilities, spoke with players and staff and watched the first team train before sitting down for lunch with Tony Pulis.
"It's been a great day, I've really enjoyed it," said Eddie. "I watched the training, watched the guys in the gym, spoke to sports science staff and the coaching staff. It's been a great experience."
The Australian explained that it was Albion's approach to operations, especially in terms of player performance, that drove his decision to pay a visit to the training ground.
"The approach of West Bromwich Albion brought me here. They're not one of the big clubs in terms of finance so they have to be very creative in how they prepare the players.
"We're always looking for new ways to prepare the players better and there's a nice balance here between the sports science department and the coaching department. The club's doing a great job in maximising the resources they have."
Jones' visit came just months after England Manager Gareth Southgate visited the Training Ground to share ideas and talk tactics with Pulis. And, of course, meeting the gaffer was a key incentive for the two-time Six Nations winner.
"The chance to meet Tony was a big factor," Jones continued. "His reputation goes a long way and his ability to get the most out of his team is just fantastic.
"I enjoyed the way he coached. He was out on the field barking instructions and demanding the best from his players. It was good to see a coach in action leading the tactical drive of the team."
Indeed, Pulis' 'hands-on' approach to coaching was something that resonated with Jones as he took to the field to watch the First Team train.
"The head coach should always coach. That's always been my ethos and today's experience has certainly reinforced that. Sometimes you go to football clubs and the head coach doesn't do a lot of coaching. It's really refreshing to see Tony out there coaching and driving the players to be at their best."
But it's not all about the man in charge. Jones was quick to point out the impressive attitude of the Albion players.
"The players' attitude to training was first class. They worked hard and communicated well.
"You can always get a feel of a team when you go on the training field and hear how much noise is being made and how they communicate with each other. It was evident that the boys are a tightly knit group and they want to do well."
And it was clear that Jones had considered the experience a morning well-spent, despite any perceived differences between football and rugby.
"From the coaching point of view it's about making sure our staff coach at a high standard, that we continually talk about the game. That's something I've picked up from Tony today.
"It's always good to exchange ideas. In a lot of ways there are similarities between the two sports. We're both trying to find space, we're both trying to get the best out of the players and we need that to be physical, mental and social."
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Photo by: JIM WATSON/AFP/Getty Images
US Secretary of State nominee Mike Pompeo testifies before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee during his conformation hearing on Capitol Hill in Washington, DC, on April 12, 2018.
Mike Pompeo met with N. Korea’s Kim Jong Un, US officials say
The officials spoke anonymously because they were not authorized to discuss it publicly.
Author: TEGNA
Published: 9:52 PM EDT April 17, 2018
Updated: 10:03 PM EDT April 17, 2018
WASHINGTON (AP) — Two U.S. officials say CIA Director Mike Pompeo recently traveled to North Korea to meet with leader Kim Jong Un.
Pompeo’s trip to the isolated communist nation came in advance of a potential summit between Kim and President Donald Trump.
The officials spoke anonymously about Pompeo’s trip because they were not authorized to discuss it publicly.
Trump said Tuesday that the U.S. and North Korea were holding direct talks at “extremely high levels” in preparation for a possible summit with Kim.
But White House Press Secretary Sarah Huckabee Sanders said Trump and Kim have not spoken directly.
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The closure of Zion/Neukirch Lutheran Church, Byaduk took place on Sunday 17 Sept 2006.
The Byaduk area, south of Hamilton in Victoria, was first settled by Johann Rentsch, who purchased land there in August 1860. By 1865, other families, who were mostly Wends from Lusatia in Brandenburg and Saxony, purchased land there as well. They included Johann GUDE, Johann SCHLEMMER, Matthes HANDRECK, Martin KOSCH, Johann HONA, Christian BRAMKE, Johann SALZKE, Martin KOTZUR, Mathes JEITZ, Johann KILO, Martin PUMPA, Martin TOWK, Adolph PERTZEL and Christian NICKEL.
In 1866, these families formed the Neukirch congregation and a wattle and daub church was erected. Pastor C.W. Schurmann conducted services there. A weatherboard church was erected in 1886, but after this was destroyed in a bush fire in 1900, the present brick church was erected in 1902. The congregation flourished in the 1960s and 1970s but by 18 Jan 2006, the few remaining members decided to cease operating. The closure was held on Sunday 17 Sep 2006 but the Cemetery will continue to be used.
Descendants of Johann Rentsch, Ossie and Elaine Rentsch, still occupy the original land selected in 1860.
We thank researcher Betty Huf for this information on the history of Byaduk.
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The deviation from scriptural baptism.
Wordsmadeflesh January 05, 2018 baptism., Scripture No comments
251 A.D.
The first case of a substitute for baptism known to us, is that of Novatian in the year 251 A.D. Mosheim, in his Historical Commentaries, p.62, vol.1, gives us the history of the baptism of Novatian. He says, “He was seized with a threatening disease and was baptized in his bed, when apparently about to die. It was altogether irregular and contrary to ecclesiastical rules, to admit a man to priestly office who had been baptized in bed---that is, who had been merely sprinkled, and had not been wholly immersed in water, in the “ancient method.” There was no such authority for such an action and the event set off a controversy throughout the whole church.
The first general law for sprinkling was obtained in the following manner:
Pope Steven II, being driven from Rome by Adolphus, king of the Lombards, in 753, fled to Pepin, who a short time before had usurped the crown of France. While he remained there, the monks of Cressy, in Brittany, consulted him whether, in case of necessity, baptism poured on the head of the infant would be allowed---which, however, some Catholics deny---yet pouring or sprinkling was admitted only in CASES OF NECESSITY.
In 1311 the (Catholic) legislature, in a council held in Ravenna, declared immersion or sprinkling to be indifferent. In some areas, however, (Scotland for instance) sprinkling was never practiced in ordinary cases, till after the Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. From Scotland it made its way into England, in the reign of Elizabeth, but was not authorized in the Established (Anglican) Church.
As a result of the indifference of many of the Reformation leaders in teaching others the proper form of baptism, Europe, England, and America were greatly affected in the variety of practices that arose.
Martin Luther had said- “Baptism is a Greek word, and may be translated immerse. I would have those who are to be baptized to be altogether dipped.”
John Calvin had said- “The word baptize signifies to immerse. It is certain that immersion was the practise of the primitive church.”
Brenner, A Roman Catholic- “For 1300 years baptism was an immersion of the person under water.”
In spite of these clear statements, in England a controversy arose concerning proper baptismal form and Parliament called the Westminster Assembly to decide this issue. (Other issues were settled as well but baptism was one important question) When the time for voting came 24 ballots were cast for sprinkling and 24 ballots for immersion. Dr. Lightfoot, Chairman of the Assembly, was called upon to cast the deciding vote. He voted for sprinkling and it was henceforth the official form of baptism for the Church of England.
IN THE BIBLE, BAPTISM IS A BIRTH IN WATER, A BURIAL OF A SINNER, A RESURRECTION OF A NEW CREATURE IN CHRIST. IT IS FOR REPENTANT BELIEVERS ONLY WHO ARE ADULT ENOUGH TO CHOOSE JESUS CHRIST AS THEIR PERSONAL SAVIOR.
WHAT AUTHORITY DO YOU RECOGNIZE? THE BIBLE, OR HUMAN TRADITION AS OUTLINED ABOVE???
Think about your baptism and turn to God.
Locate church of Christ near you and study with them for detail studies on God's word.
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4 dead, 1 injured in shooting at toddler's birthday party in Texas
Stephen Maturen
<p>A piece of police tape is strung across North Camden Street on June 24, 2018 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. </p>
An altercation between two families at a toddler's birthday party in Texas led to a shooting that left four men dead and one injured, authorities said.
Police responded to reports of a shooting at a 1-year-old's party in Taft on Saturday, said Sgt. Nathan Brandley of the Texas Department of Public Safety.
Police are looking for two suspects they believe were involved in the shooting, he added.
The injured man was airlifted to a hospital in Corpus Christi, Brandley said. Details about his condition were not immediately available.
Taft, a town of nearly 3,000 people, is about 12 miles north of Corpus Christi.
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Hon’ble Supreme Court Accepts YES BANK’s Appeal
Delhi, July 15, 2014 : YES BANK Ltd. had filed a Petition before the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India challenging the order of the Hon’ble Bombay High Court wherein the plea of jurisdiction raised by YES BANK Ltd. in a suit filed by Mrs. Madhu Ashok Kapur was dismissed. Mrs. Madhu Ashok Kapur and her family had filed a suit challenging the appointment of certain directors to the Board of YES BANK. YES BANK had contented before the Supreme Court that under Section 10A of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949, Civil Court cannot entertain a suit challenging the appointment of directors of a banking company. YES BANK has pleaded before the Hon’ble Court that all the appointments of the Directors are in compliance of Section 10A and 10A (2) of the Banking Regulation Act and the appointments of the directors was covered by the bar of jurisdiction of Section 10A (6) of the Act. YES BANK had also pleaded in its Petition before the Court that it is the fourth largest bank in the country and has shown better performance compared to many other banks. YES BANK had filed a statement before the Court to demonstrate that the valuation of the shares held by Late Mr. Ashok Kapur’s family has increased manifolds and the original investment of Rs. 52 Crores today has increased to Rs.2450 Crores. The Hon’ble Supreme Court has found merit in the contention of YES BANK and has listed the matter in January, 2015 to examine it in further detail. Mr. Kapil Sibal, Senior Advocate and Mr. Soli Cooper, Senior Advocate instructed by Karanjawala & Co. appeared before the Hon’ble Supreme Court.
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Biblical Hebrew orthography
(Pre-Exilic)[1][2]
(IPA)
(LXX,
Secunda)[3]
א ࠀ [ʔ], ∅
ב ࠁ [b]
Gimel
ג ࠂ [ɡ]
Daleth
ד ࠃ [d]
ה ࠄ [h], ∅
ו ࠅ [w], ∅ ου, ω
Zayin
ז ࠆ [z] σ2, ζ2
ח ࠇ [ħ]1, [χ][4][5] ∅, χ
Teth
ט ࠈ [tʼ][4][5]
Yodh
י ࠉ [j], ∅
Kaph
כ, ך ࠊ [k] χ3, κ3
Lamedh
ל ࠋ [l]
מ, ם ࠌ [m]
נ, ן ࠍ [n]
Samekh
ס ࠎ [s]
Ayin
ע ࠏ [ʕ], [ʁ][4][5] ∅1, γ
פ, ף ࠐ [p] φ3, π3
Sadhe
צ, ץ ࠑ [sʼ][4][5] σ
Qoph
ק ࠒ [q] or [kʼ][4][5]
Resh
ר ࠓ [r]
ש ࠔ [ʃ], [ɬ][4][5] σ
ת ࠕ [t] θ3, τ3
may be accompanied by vowel mutation[6]
originally written with <σ> like the other sibilants, but later was written with <ζ>.[7]
/k p t/ are consistently written in the Secunda by <χ φ θ>, but the Septuagint also uses <κ π τ>.[8]
Biblical Hebrew orthography refers to the various systems which have been used to write the Biblical Hebrew language. Biblical Hebrew has been written in a number of different writing systems over time, and in those systems its spelling and punctuation have also undergone changes.
1 Proto-Canaanite script
2 Phoenician and Paleo-Hebrew script
3 Aramaic script
4 Polyphonic letters
5 Matres lectionis
6 Vocalization
8 Reading traditions
Proto-Canaanite script[edit]
The earliest Hebrew writing discovered so far, dating back to the 10th century BCE, was found at Khirbet Qeiyafa in July 2008 by Israeli archaeologist Yossi Garfinkel.[9][10][11][12] The 15 cm x 16.5 cm (5.9 in x 6.5 in) trapezoid pottery sherd (ostracon) has five lines of text written in ink written in the Proto-Canaanite alphabet (the old form of the Phoenician alphabet).[9][13] That the language of the tablet is Hebrew is suggested by the presence of the words תעש "to do" עבד "servant".[nb 1][9][14][15] The tablet is written from left to right, indicating that Hebrew writing was still in the formative stage.[13]
Phoenician and Paleo-Hebrew script[edit]
The Israelite tribes who settled in the land of Israel adopted the Phoenician script around the 12th century BCE, as found in the Gezer calendar (circa 10th century BCE).[16][17] This script developed into the Paleo-Hebrew script in the tenth or ninth centuries BCE.[18][19][20] The Paleo-Hebrew alphabet's main differences from the Phoenician script were "a curving to the left of the dowstrokes in the 'long-legged' letter-signs... the consistent use of a Waw with a concave top, [and an] x-shaped Taw."[18][nb 2] The oldest inscriptions in Paleo-Hebrew script are dated to around the middle of the 9th century BCE, the most famous being the Mesha Stele in the Moabite language (which might be considered a dialect of Hebrew).[21][22] The ancient Hebrew script was in continuous use until the early 6th century BCE, the end of the First Temple period.[23]
In the Second Temple Period the Paleo-Hebrew script gradually fell into disuse.[24] The epigraphic material in the ancient Hebrew script is poor in the Second Temple Period.[21] Pentateuch fragments in the ancient Hebrew script dating to the 3rd or 2nd century BCE were found in Qumran, Hasmonaean coins and coins from the Bar Kokhba revolt (132-135 BCE), and ostraca from Masada before its fall in 74 CE are among the youngest finds in the ancient script, as well as the use of divine names in texts otherwise in other scripts.[21] It seems that the Paleo-Hebrew script was completely abandoned among the Jews after the failed Bar Kochba revolt.[19][24] The Samaritans retained the ancient Hebrew alphabet, which evolved into the modern Samaritan alphabet.[19][24] In fact, the adoption of the script by the Samaritans may have influenced the Rabbis' negative view of the script and lead to its final rejection.[19][25][nb 3]
The only papyrus document from the First Temple period that has survived was found in the Wadi Murabba'at, and is dated to the 7th century BCE.[21] However, fiber impressions on the back of many bullae of that period show that papyrus was in common use in that region.[21] Presumably papyrus was common in the pre-exilic period, while in the Babylonian exile hide scrolls were used, given that papyrus does not grow there.[25]
Aramaic script[edit]
By the end of the First Temple period the Aramaic script, a separate descendant of the Phoenician script, became widespread throughout the region, gradually displacing Paleo-Hebrew.[24] The Jews who were exiled to Babylon became familiar with Aramaic out of necessity, while the Jews remaining in Judea seem to have mostly lost the writing tradition.[25] According to tradition, the Aramaic script became established with the return of Ezra from exile around the 4th century BCE.[19][25] The oldest documents that have been found in the Aramaic Script are fragments of the scrolls of Exodus, Samuel, and Jeremiah found among the Dead Sea scrolls, dating from the late 3rd and early 2nd centuries BCE.[26] The modern Hebrew alphabet, also known as the Assyrian or Square script, is a descendant of the Aramaic alphabet.[24] It seems that the earlier Biblical books were originally written in the Paleo-Hebrew script, while the later books were written directly in the later Assyrian script.[19] Some Qumran texts written in the Assyrian script write the tetragrammaton and some other divine names in Paleo-Hebrew, and this practice is also found in several Jewish-Greek Biblical translations.[19][nb 4]
While spoken Hebrew continued to evolve into Mishnaic Hebrew, the scribal tradition for writing the Torah gradually developed.[27] A number of regional "book-hand" styles developed for the purpose of Torah manuscripts and occasionally other literary works, distinct from the calligraphic styles used mainly for private purposes.[27] The Sephardi and Ashkenazi book-hand styles were later adapted to printed fonts after the invention of the printing press.[27]
Polyphonic letters[edit]
The Phoenician script had dropped five characters by the twelfth century BCE, reflecting the language's twenty-two consonantal phonemes.[20] As a result, the 22 letters of the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet numbered less than the consonant phonemes of ancient Biblical Hebrew; in particular, the letters <ח, ע, ש> could each mark two different phonemes.[28] After a sound shift the letters ח, ע became uniphonic, but (except in Samaritan Hebrew) ש remained multiphonic. The old Babylonian vocalization wrote a superscript ס above the ש to indicate it took the value /s/, while the Masoretes added the shin dot to distinguish between the two varieties of the letter.[29][30] The Aramaic script began developing special final forms for certain letters in the 5th century BCE, though this was not always a consistent rule (as reflected in the Qumran practice).[31][32]
Matres lectionis[edit]
The original Hebrew alphabet consisted only of consonants, but gradually the letters א ,ה ,ו ,י, also became used to indicate vowels, known as matres lectionis (Latin: "mothers of reading") when used in this function.[20][33] It is thought that this was a product of phonetic development: for instance, *bayt 'house' shifted to בֵּית in construct state but retained its spelling.[34] While no examples of early Hebrew orthography have been found, older Phoenician and Moabite texts show how First Temple period Hebrew would have been written.[33] Phoenician inscriptions from the tenth century BCE do not indicate matres lectionis in the middle or the end of a word, e.g. לפן (instead of לפני), or ז (instead of זה), similarly to the Hebrew Gezer Calendar: ירח (instead of ירחו), or שערמ (instead of שעורים).[33] Matres lectionis were later added word-finally, for instance the Mesha inscription has בללה (modern בלילה), and בנתי (modern בניתי); however at this stage they were not yet used word-medially, compare Siloam inscription זדה versus אש =) איש).[33] The relative terms defective and full or plene are used to refer to alternative spellings of a word with less or more matres lectionis, respectively.[33][nb 5]
The Hebrew Bible was presumably originally written in a more defective orthography than found in any of the texts known today.[33] Of the extant textual witnesses of the Hebrew Bible, the Masoretic text is generally the most conservative in its use of matres lectionis, with the Samaritan Pentateuch and its forebearers being more full and the Qumran tradition showing the most liberal use of vowel letters.[35] The Masoretic text mostly uses vowel letters for long vowels, showing the tendency to mark all long vowels except for word-internal /aː/.[34][nb 6] However, there are a number of exceptions, e.g. when the following syllable contains a vowel letter (as in קֹלֹוֹת 'voices' rather than קוֹלוֹת) or when a vowel letter already marks a consonant (so גּוֹיִם 'nations' rather than גּוֹיִים*), and within the Bible there is often little consistency in spelling.[34] In the Qumran tradition, o- and u-type vowels, including short holem (מושה ,פוה ,חושך), qamets hatuf (חוכמה ,כול), and hatef qamets (אוניה), are usually represented by <ו>[36][37], while <י> is generally used for both long [iː] and tsere (אבילים, מית), and final [iː] is often written as <יא-> in analogy to היא ,הביא, e.g. כיא, sometimes מיא.[36][37] Lastly <ה> is found finally in forms like חוטה (Tiberian חוטא) or קורה (Tiberian קורא), while <א> may be used for a-quality in final position (e.g. עליהא) and in medial position (e.g. יאתום).[36] Pre-Samaritan and Samaritan texts show full spellings in many categories (e.g. כוחי vs. Masoretic כחי in Genesis 49:3) but only rarely show full spelling of the Qumran type (but see Genesis 24:41b Samaritan נקיא vs. Masoretic נקי).[38]
Vocalization[edit]
Further information: Tiberian vocalization, Babylonian vocalization, Palestinian vocalization, and Secunda (Hexapla)
In general the vowels of Biblical Hebrew were not indicated in the original text, but various sources attest them at various stages of development. Greek and Latin transcriptions of words from the Biblical text provide early evidence of the nature of Biblical Hebrew vowels. In particular, there is evidence from the rendering of proper nouns in the Koine Greek Septuagint (3rd-2nd centuries BCE[39]), and the Greek alphabet transcription of the Hebrew Biblical text contained in the Secunda (3rd century CE, likely a copy of a preexisting text from before 100 BCE[nb 7]). In the 7th and 8th centuries CE various systems of vocalic notation were developed to indicate vowels in the Biblical text.[40] The most prominent, best preserved, and the only system still in use, is the Tiberian vocalization system, created by scholars known as Masoretes around 850 CE.[41][42] There are also various extant manuscripts making use of less common vocalization systems (Babylonian, and Palestinian), known as superlinear vocalizations because their vocalization marks are placed above the letters.[41][42][nb 8][nb 9] In addition, the Samaritan reading tradition is independent of these systems, and was occasionally notated with a separate vocalization system.[42][43][nb 10] These systems often record vowels at different stages of historical development; for example, the name of the Judge Samson is recorded in Greek as Σαμψών Sampsōn with the first vowel as /a/, while Tiberian שִמְשוֹן /ʃimʃon/ with /i/ shows the effect of the law of attenuation.[44] All of these systems together are used to reconstruct the original vocalization of Biblical Hebrew.
The Tiberian vowel-sign šwa (ְ ) was used both to indicate lack of a vowel (quiescent šwa) and as another symbol to represent the phoneme /ă/, also represented by ḥataf pataḥ (ֲ).[45][46] Before a laryngeal-pharyngeal, mobile šwa was pronounced as an ultrashort copy of the following vowel, e.g. וּבָקְעָה [uvɔqɔ̆ʕɔ], and as [ĭ] preceding /j/, e.g. תְדֵמְּיוּ֫נִי /θăðammĭjuni/.[46] By contrast, ḥataf pataḥ would only used be used when pronounced [ă].[47] In the Palestinian system these echo vowels were written with full vowel letters, see Yahalom (1997:12,18–19) Pronunciation of šwa is attested by alternations in manuscripts like ארֲריך~ארְריך, ואשמֳעָה~ואשמְעָה.[46] Use of ḥataf vowels was considered mandatory under gutturals but optional under other letters.[48]
Punctuation[edit]
At an early stage, documents written in the paleo-Hebrew script were divided by short vertical lines and later by dots, as reflected by the Mesha Stone, the Siloam inscription, the Ophel inscription, and paleo-Hebrew script documents from Qumran.[49] Word division was not used in Phoenician inscriptions; however, there is not direct evidence for Biblical texts being written without word division, as suggested by Nachmanides in his introduction to the Torah.[49] Word division using spaces was commonly used from the beginning of the 7th century BCE for documents in the Aramaic script.[49]
In addition to marking vowels, the Tiberian system also uses cantillation marks, which serve to mark word stress, semantic structure, and the musical motifs used in formal recitation of the text.[50][51]
Reading traditions[edit]
While the Tiberian, Babylonian, and Palestinian reading traditions are extinct, various other systems of pronunciation have evolved over time, notably the Yemenite, Sephardi, Ashkenazi, and Samaritan traditions. Modern Hebrew pronunciation is also used by some to read Biblical texts. The modern reading traditions do not stem solely from the Tiberian system; for instance, the Sephardic tradition's distinction between qamatz gadol and qatan is pre-Tiberian.[52] However, the only orthographic system used to mark vowels is the Tiberian vocalization.
^ Blau (2010:6,69)
^ Rendsburg (1997)
^ Sáenz-Badillos (1993:80–86)
^ a b c d e f Blau (2010:69)
^ a b c d e f Rendsburg (1997:70–73)
^ Sáenz-Badillos (1993:81)
^ a b c http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-01/uoh-mah010710.php University of Haifa press release, 7 Jan. 2010
^ BBC News, 30 October 2008, 'Oldest Hebrew script' is found, Retrieved 3 March 2010
^ Mail Online, 31 October 2008, Daily Mail, Retrieved 3 March 2010
^ a b Oldest Hebrew inscription' Discovered in Israelite Fort on Philistine border, Biblical Archaeology Review, March/April 2010, pp. 51–6.
^ http://gath.wordpress.com/2009/10/15/qeiyafah-inscription-update/
^ Oldest Hebrew inscription' Discovered in Israelite Fort on Philistine border, Biblical Archaeology Review, March/April 2010, p. 52.
^ Yardeni (1997:15)
^ The Gezer Calendar Archived June 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
^ a b Yardeni (1997:13,15,17)
^ a b c d e f g Tov (1992:218–220)
^ a b c Sáenz-Badillos (1993:16–18)
^ a b c d e Yardeni (1997:17–25)
^ Blau (2010:18)
^ a b c d e Yardeni (1997:18,24–25)
^ a b c d Yardeni (1997:40–44)
^ Yardeni (1997:42,45,47–50)
^ a b c Yardeni (1997:65,84–91)
^ Blau (2010:74–75,77)
^ Sperber (1959:81)
^ Tov (1992:210)
^ a b c d e f Tov (1992:221–223)
^ a b c Blau (2010:6)
^ Tov (1992:96,108,222)
^ a b c Tov (1992:108–109)
^ a b Sáenz-Badillos (1993:136)
^ Tov (1992:96–97)
^ Karen H. Jobes and Moises Silva (2001). Invitation to the Septuagint. Paternoster Press. ISBN 1-84227-061-3.
^ Ben-Ḥayyim (2000:5)
^ a b Blau (2010:7)
^ a b c Rendsburg (1997:68–69)
^ Waltke & O'Connor (1990:25)
^ Blau (2010:117–118)
^ a b c Blau (2010:105–106)
^ Blau (2010:118)
^ Yeivin (1980:283)
^ Blau (2010:7,143)
^ Yeivin (1980:157–158)
Ben-Ḥayyim, Ze'ev (2000). A Grammar of Samaritan Hebrew. Jerusalem: The Hebrew University Magnes Press. ISBN 1-57506-047-7.
Joshua Blau (2010). Phonology and Morphology of Biblical Hebrew. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.
Rendsburg, Gary A. (1997), "Ancient Hebrew Phonology", in Kaye, Alan (ed.), Phonologies of Asia and Africa, Eisenbrauns, pp. 65–83, archived from the original on 2011-07-20
Sáenz-Badillos, Angel (1993). A History of the Hebrew Language. Cambridge University Press.
Tov, Emanuel (1992). Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress. ISBN 0-8006-2687-7.
Waltke, Bruce K.; O'Connor, M. (1990). An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 0-931464-31-5.
Yardeni, Ada (1997). The Book of Hebrew Script. Jerusalem: Carta. ISBN 965-220-369-6.
Yeivin, Israel (1980). Introduction to the Tiberian Masorah. Scholars Press. ISBN 0-89130-373-1.
^ used in the tablet as a verb, unlike in Phoenician where this root is only nominal
^ At times the Moabites, Ammonites, Edomites, and Philistines would also use the Paleo-Hebrew script, see Yardeni (1997:25)
^ As an example of the Rabbis' view of the script, see Sanhedrin 21b "The Torah was originally given to Israel in this [Assyrian] script. When they sinned, it became רועץ."
^ Though some of these translations wrote the tetragrammaton in the square script, see Tov (1992:220)
^ Ktiv male, the Hebrew term for full spelling, has become de rigueur in Modern Hebrew.
^ There are rare-cases of <א> being used medially as a true vowel letter, e.g. דָּאג for the usual דָּג 'fish'. Most cases, however, of <א> being used as a vowel letter stem from conservative spelling of words which originally contained /ʔ/, e.g. רֹאשׁ 'head' from original */raʔʃ/. See Blau (2010:86).
^ The Secunda is a transliteration of the Hebrew Biblical text contained in the Hexapla, a recension of the Old Testament compiled by Origen in the 3rd century CE. There is evidence that the text of the Secunda was written before 100 BCE, despite the later date of the Hexapla. For example, by the time of Origen <η αι> were pronounced [iː ɛː], a merger which had already begun around 100 BCE, while in the Secunda they are used to represent Hebrew /eː aj/, see Janssens (1982:14).
^ The Palestinian system has two main subtypes and shows great variation. Blau (2010:7) The Babylonian vocalization occurred in two main types (simple / einfach and complex / kompliziert), with various subgroups differing as to their affinity with the Tiberian tradition. Sáenz-Badillos (1993:97–99)
^ In the Babylonian and Palestinian systems only the most important vowels were written, see Blau (2010:118).
^ Almost all vocalized manuscripts use the Masoretic Text. However there are some vocalized Samaritan manuscripts from the Middle Ages, see Tov (1992:40)
Transliteration to English / from English
Biblical (northern dialect)
Mishnaic
Reading traditions
Ashkenazi
Mizrahi (Syrian)
Yemenite
Tiberian (extinct)
Palestinian (extinct)
Babylonian (extinct)
Ashuri
Crowning
Yud
Samech
Tsadi
Kuf
Reish
Niqqud
Tiberian
Babylonian
Shva
Hiriq
Tzere
Segol
Patach
Kamatz
Holam
Kubutz and Shuruk
Dagesh
Mappiq
Maqaf
Sin/Shin Dot
with Niqqud / missing / full
Mater lectionis
Meteg
Cantillation
Geresh
Gershayim
Inverted nun
Shekel sign
Philippi's law
Law of attenuation
Verbal morphology
Semitic roots
Suffixes
Segolate
Waw-consecutive
Ulpan
Hebrew / ancient / modern Israeli literature
Unicode and HTML
Brown–Driver–Briggs
Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament
Orthographies of the world's languages
Chakma
Ethiopian Semitic languages
Massachusett
Sorbian
West Frisian
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filed: February 25, 2013 • New Jersey
Proposed wind farm off Atlantic City coast stirs debate over costs
Credit: Andrew Maykuth, Inquirer Staff Writer | February 25, 2013 | www.philly.com ~~
How many tourists would travel to Atlantic City to view the nation’s first offshore wind farm?
Fishermen’s Energy, which has proposed building five giant turbines about 2.8 miles off the resort city’s beaches, estimates 4.5 million people a year would visit the site, according to a consultant’s report that recommends the state should turn down the project because it is too costly.
Fishermen’s Atlantic City Windfarm anticipates more visitors each year than the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, N.Y., the Washington Monument, or the Museum of Modern Art in New York, according to a derisive analysis by Acadian Consulting Group that was commissioned by the New Jersey Division of Rate Counsel, the state’s ratepayer advocate.
The wind-energy developers are pushing back against the negative report and a second study done for the New Jersey Board of Public Utilities, which also concluded Fishermen’s economics were based on a lot wishful thinking. The BPU could determine the project’s fate in the next few months.
The consultants’ reports are “completely crap,” said Daniel Cohen, president of Fishermen’s Energy L.L.C. in Cape May. “There is a real move to try to kill our project.”
Cohen said the consultants were biased toward conventional fossil-fuel interests and underestimated the environmental, tourism, and employment benefits of the Fishermen’s wind project, which has strong support from South Jersey politicians.
“This is a chance to be a showcase,” said Cohen, who has homes in Cape May and Philadelphia. “Atlantic City will become a unique resort again. People will definitely come to see it.”
Fishermen’s Energy, formed by commercial fishermen such as Cohen, has faced stiff headwinds since the BPU selected its 25-megawatt proposal as a demonstration project.
The BPU must approve offshore renewable energy credits, which allow wind projects to collect a subsidy from ratepayers for power generated. The funding mechanism is a key component of the state’s 2010 Offshore Wind and Economic Development Act, which calls for supporting the development of 1,100 megawatts of offshore power generation.
Fishermen’s first proposal in 2011 came under fire from the consultants, and it resubmitted its application in 2012. The reviews from the consultants were still negative.
The project’s Chinese turbines would be within the three-mile limit on state waters, so Fishermen’s would avoid the protracted review that large utility-scale wind farms must undergo in federal waters, where the U.S. Interior Department is considering leasing vast tracts for wind generation. Eleven developers have expressed interest in building wind farms off the Jersey coast.
The BPU is still struggling to approve a method for granting the offshore renewable energy credits, which guarantee a subsidized price for power.
“We could start construction tomorrow,” Cohen said. “All we’re missing is a price.”
The tourism projections are important because under state law, the wind project needs to demonstrate a net economic benefit to the state to justify the price subsidies.
Stefanie Brand, the rate counsel, expressed doubt the windmills would attract large numbers of tourists.
“You might get one or two more clean-energy conferences in Atlantic City, but I don’t think you’re going to see the type of tourism they’re predicting,” she said.
She also dismissed accusations of bias against the consultant, noting that Acadian’s conclusions were the same as those reached by the BPU’s economic analysts, Boston Pacific Inc. “So is it that everybody’s biased, or is the problem with the application?” Brand asked.
Much of the proposal’s anticipated costs and benefits are concealed in confidential documents submitted to the BPU. But Cohen said that even if the project does not generate any of the $410 million in tourism benefits expected over its 20-year life, the wind project would still meet the net-benefit threshold.
Acadian, the Louisiana consultant the rate counsel hired, estimates the Fishermen’s project would cost $282.2 million over 20 years, including operation and maintenance costs, and would generate only $74.2 million in revenue. It would require $208 million in subsidies from ratepayers.
Cohen said that because the project was relatively small it would raise the typical residential bill by $1.63 a year. He also noted that the U.S. Department of Energy, which evaluated the proposal last year, gave Fishermen’s a $4 million grant in December.
“I think if anyone measures us on pure merit, we should be built,” he said.
Fishermen’s supporters say the project is worth the costs.
“If we are serious about wind, we need to do a pilot project,” said Upendra Chivukula, the General Assembly’s deputy speaker. “If we are not serious about wind, we can drag our feet and say this is not cost-effective.”
Source: Andrew Maykuth, Inquirer Staff Writer | February 25, 2013 | www.philly.com
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USCIS Focuses on H-1B Visa Abuse
By The Zendeh Del Law Firm, PLLC
On April 13, 2017, the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) issued a press release entitled, Putting American Workers First: USCIS Announces Further Measures to Detect H-1B Visa Fraud and Abuse. In this release, the USCIS announced the “multiple measures” the agency will be employing to deter and detect H-1B visa fraud and abuse.
The purpose of the H-1B visa program is to help U.S. companies employ highly-skilled workers from foreign countries, but only when there is a “shortage” of qualified workers here in the U.S. According to the USCIS, there are many American workers who are willing, qualified, and quite able to fill these positions. “Protecting American workers by combating fraud in our employment-based immigration programs is a priority for USCIS,” says the agency.
As of April 13, 2017, the USCIS started putting more focus and attention on H-1B petitioners, as well as the companies that hire H-1B employees. Here are the three main things the USCIS is focusing on:
Situations where the USCIS is unable to verify a company’s basic business information;
Employers who have a high ratio of H-1B workers; and
Companies petitioning for H-1B workers who work for another company, or who work at another location for the organization, or who work off-site.
Random and Unannounced Visits
In the press release, the USCIS announced that it in an effort to detect H-1B fraud and abuse, the agency will be continuing targeted and unannounced visits across the nation, which it’s been doing since 2009. Additionally, the USCIS established a special email address for individuals, including American workers, to report possible violations and other relevant information connected to H-1B fraud and abuse.
When people submit information via the above email address, it will be used for investigations and referrals to law enforcement for possible prosecution. If you need more information about H-1B fraud and abuse and its related prosecutions, contact our Plano immigration firm.
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Dream run continue in Mt. Maunganui, India crushed Blackcaps again to clinch the series
tags: BCCI Cricket India New Zealand
in Cricket, Indian Cricket, Indian Cricket News, International Cricket News, Latest News
Ketan Joshi: India defeated New Zealand by 7 wickets in the third ODI played at Mount Mounganui. With this victory, India achieved an unbeatable 3-0 lead in the five-ODI series. Team India won the ODI series after 10 years of gap in New Zealand. Earlier, India had won the five-ODI series 3-1 in the captaincy of Mahendra Singh Dhoni in 2009. In this match, New Zealand decided to bat after winning the toss. New Zealand team was all out for 243 runs in 49 overs. Ross Taylor scored the highest score of 93 runs on his behalf. For India Mohammed Shami got 3, Hardik Pandya, Bhuvneshwar Kumar and Yuzwendra Chahal took 2-2 wickets.
Going after chasing the target, Team India made 245 runs for the loss of 3 wickets in 43 overs, making the match ones again one sided. India’s opening batsman Rohit Sharma made 62 and captain Virat Kohli scored 60 runs. Dinesh Karthik 38 and Ambati Rayudu remained unbeaten after 40 runs.
India’s fast bowler Mohammed Shami having dream run in New Zealand. He took 3/41 in 9 overs in this match and became second time man of the match in series. He dismissed opener Colin Munro, Ross Taylor and Ish Sodhi. This was Virat Kohli’s last match in this tour of New Zealand. Rohit Sharma will take charge of Team India in the fourth and fifth ODIs and T-20 series.
The start of the Indian team was not good. The team got the first blow to the score of 39 runs. Shikhar Dhawan got out to Trent Boult in the 9th Over. Rohit and Virat then added 113 runs for the second wicket and made India at comfortable position. At the score of 152 runs, India lost Rohit Sharm’s wicket. Rohit Sharma stumped on Mitchell Santnar’s bowling for 62 on his personal score. After 16 runs, Virat Kohli also made 60 runs and returned to the pavilion. His wicket was taken by Trent Bolt. It was virat’s 49th half century in International One day cricket.
Rohit Sharma scored 62 runs in 77 balls with the help of two sixes and three fours in 3rd one day against New Zealand. After this one day his sixes tally is now at 215. He is jointly 1st with Mahendra Singh Dhoni. Dhoni has also hit 215 sixes in ODIs. However, for this, he has played 138 ODIs more than Rohit.
It has been 63rd occastion that Virat Kohli is leading the side in One Day International. Under his captaincy, India won the 47th ODI. With this win, he broke the record of Vivian Richards and Hansie Cronje. Richards and Cronje won 46-46 matches after captaining 63 ODIs. However, He could not leave West Indies’ Clive Lloyd and Australia’s Ricky Ponting behind. Lloyd and Ponting won 50-50 matches in 63 ODIs.
[yuzo_related]
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Click to Watch in HD > a-ha - Crying In The Rain
Watch The theme of this video is a robbery gone wrong.This is actually the second version of this video, the first version did not feature any of the scenes of Morten singing alone.The video was filmed entirely with a specific technique of mobile cameras.This is the only commercially available song that a-ha has remade unless you include Velvet, first released with Savoy, or Magnes Dragonfly.Following the success of this song, a-ha became closer to the Everly Brothers, who had originally written the song. They were each presented with a set of guitars by the Everly Brothers that a-ha continue to use.Mortens solo career spawned from his ability to learn to play and write music from that guitar.The video was filmed in Big Timber, Montana.© 2010 WMGCrying In The Rain
a-ha - Hunting High And Low
Best Songs Of The 80s
Patrick Swayze - Shes like the wind
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Carrie Underwood Reveals Pregnancy News Via Instagram with Her Dogs
Carrie Underwood and husband Mike Fisher announced they are going to be first time parents.
On Monday, September 1 via Instagram, Carrie Underwood made the announcement of her pregnancy. Her rep also confirmed the news to Us Weekly.
“In honor of ‘Labor’ Day, Ace & Penny would like to make an announcement. Their parents couldn’t be happier…” Carrie Underwood captioned a photo of herself holding her two dogs, who were wearing “I’m going to be a big sister” and “big brother” outfits.
A source told Us Weekly, “They couldn’t be happier to be starting a family.”
Seems like she’s taking it easy for the first two trimesters of her pregnancy. Earlier this summer, Carrie Underwood told the Hollywood Reporter, “I’ve been writing a lot. It feels really good. It’s just a progression, a different sound without losing myself in it. I’m not taking some crazy musical departure from what I’ve done, but it definitely feels different. It will feel different, look different, sound different.”
There’s no word yet on an exact due date, but it will be sometime this Spring.
Since her and Fisher have been married, they often get questions about family plans. “I don’t feel old enough to have kids,” she told Marie Claire in April 2013. “I know I am mature. But being responsible for another human?” That same month, she told E! News the pressure was on. “It comes around every once in a while when a friend gets pregnant, we kind of revisit it,” Underwood said. “But we’ll see. I don’t think there will ever be a great time to have kids, so we might just have to go for it at some point.”
Carrie Underwood will be co-hosting the upcoming Country Music Association Awards with Brad Paisley this November.
Husband, NHL Mike Fisher, a 34-year-old center for the Nashville Predators, is recovering from a ruptured left Achilles tendon and is expected to miss the start of the season.
Christina Aguilera Pregnant with Second Child with Fiancé Matthew Rutler
Jennifer Nettles Pregnant? Due in November, Around First Anniversary with Husband Justin Miller
Gwen Stefani Announces She is Pregnant with a Boy Via Instagram
Trevor Judge Waltrip, a Boy Born Without Brain Dies at 12-years Old
Shuttle Bus Crash at Chicago O’Hare Airport Causes Delays and Injures 15
Gossip Girl Is Making A Comeback Series
Manhattan’s teenage elites better watch their backs, Gossip Girl is officially announced to make a return on HBO’s upcoming streaming service.
Photo: Cecilia Saia | Flickr | CC BY 2.0
Hey Upper East Siders, Gossip Girl is officially back. The freakishly omnipresent blogger is making a comeback in 2020 to watch over the lives of Manhattans’ elites.
WarnerMedia has sent to order the series for ten new hour-long episodes from the popular tv show for its upcoming streaming service, HBO Max.
The original Gossip Girl creators — the team of Joshua Safran, Stephanie Savage, and Josh Schwartz — are all returning to work on the new episodes that will loom over the lives of New York City’s teenage elites. There are also reports speculating a new Gossip Girl.
“It’s something we’ve been talking about — Josh, Stephanie and I — for a little bit, just in terms of, ‘Is this something we want to explore?’ We’re all so in love with the original and had such an incredible time working on it, and it’s such a big part of our lives,” Safran told THR.
“Then the stars aligned and we had availability to jump, and Warners, obviously, it’s something they’re very passionate about. It seemed like the best time and also the best way to do it.”
As of the moment, there aren’t any reports if any of the formerly loved cast (Serena, Dan, Blair, Chuck, and Nate) would also be making a comeback in the upcoming Gossip Girl series. But one thing’s for sure: it will be a sequel to the original and will take on new characters with new drama all the while living the “elite problems” background.
The new series logline
“Eight years after the original website went dark, a new generation of New York private school teens are introduced to the social surveillance of Gossip Girl. The prestige series will address just how much social media — and the landscape of New York itself — has changed in the intervening years.”
If any of you Gossip Girl fans could remember, social media was pretty much in its earlier phase during the series. It is quite interesting that the new series will be focusing on how social media will shape the 2020 version, given that it is the gut of the entire series. According to Zoe Fox of Mashable, the show popularized social media networks and mobile communication, becoming “a pioneer in its use of mobile.”
“It’s just a new look at this particular society in New York, the idea being that society changes constantly,” Safran said. “So how has this world changed, how has social media and its effect changed? All of those things allow us to look at the world 12 years on as opposed to just redoing the story. None of us are interested in just redoing a story.”
Initially, Gossip Girl was a CW series. Its president, Mark Pedowitz, claimed at the Television Critics Association that talks were happening for potential reboot months ago but only if the trio — Safran, Savage, and Schwartz — signed on. And luckily, they did.
Gossip Girl originally aired for six seasons from 2007 to 2012 with 121 dramatic episodes that were based on the YA novel series by Cecily von Ziegesar. Quite significantly, the 5-year series launched the careers of Blake Lively, Leighton Meester, Penn Badgley, Chace Crawford, Ed Westwick, and Taylor Momsen.
At the moment, none of the original cast is announced to be on board, but based on previous interviews, super fans can at least hold out hope.
On July, Crawford told that he’s not opposing the idea. “I don’t know what it would look like with us being in our 30s now, but I always say, because it was such a big part of my life, I’m open to anything,” he told Digital Spy. “It would have to be really right, and really specific, and with TV and the golden age of the TV streaming service, maybe an eight-episode season.”
In May, Meester said that no one has ever seriously asked her to return to the iconic role of Blair Waldorf. “No one’s ever talked to me about it except for in interviews, and I always say the same: I never say never, so I don’t know. No one’s sent me that information,” she told E! News at the time.
As for a looming new Gossip Girl, initially voiced by Kristen Bell, we’ll also have to find out. As she says in the show: “And who am I? That’s one secret I’ll never tell! You know you love me… XOXO, Gossip Girl.”
Taika Waititi Confirmed To Direct Thor 4
Thor 4 is a go now that Taika Waititi is reported to take the helm as director again.
Thor 4 | Source: ABS-CBN News
After the Marvel Cinematic Universe’s glorious end to Phase 3 with Avengers: Infinity War, details have been meek regarding the future of our beloved original Avengers cast. Fortunately, it is recently confirmed that Taika Waititi will be directing and writing the upcoming Thor 4 movie.
For quite a while, since Infinity War, the only thing sure about the original avengers was solely about the upcoming Black Widow movie that is set to be Natasha Romanoff’s (played by Scarlett Johansson) origin story. Additionally, the other sequels continuing are no-brainers like Black Panther 2, Doctor Strange 2, and Guardians of the Galaxy 3.
A fourth standalone Thor film was unheard of since MCU has never done it before with Robert Downey Jr.’s and Chris Evans’ portrayals of their MCU characters with only three standalone films each. Thor 4 will mark the first time any single character has gone that far. Now, with Waititi confirmed to return to the Thor franchise, fans can start looking forward to seeing Thor back in the big screen.
Significantly, Waititi was the director behind 2017’s Thor: Ragnarok, which was a blockbuster hit and saw great success by earning a whopping $854 million worldwide while critics’ raves put the movie at 93 percent on Rotten Tomatoes. The move also rejuvenated what had been a rare declining franchise performer for Marvel.
At the time, the two middling outings for the God of Thunder in Kenneth Branagh’s Thor and Alan Taylor’s Thor: The Dark World did not see the same high earnings as other avengers stand-alone films such as Iron Man and Captain America. It was only during Waititi’s take over of the franchise had it delivered the most well-received installment in Thor‘s solo series.
Furthermore, Waititi was involved more than directing Thor: Ragnarok and even played a character called Korg, who was Thor‘s companion while being imprisoned in the garbage planet of Sakaar. Fans well-received Korg with his dumb wit and overall humorous character.
It would be a no-brainer to bring Waititi back in the Thor franchise and see Korg again in Thor 4. In other news, the golden hero of Asgaard, Thor, is presumably set to return to the franchise despite him saying in the past that he is done playing the character with the sole exception when there’s “another great script that comes along.”
How the untitled Thor 4 will pan out is still very much in the dark along with most of the movies slated in the MCU’s Phase 4. Particularly, the last time we saw Thor was in Avengers: Endgame, helping his fellow original members of Earth’s Mightiest Heroes defeat Thanos once and for all. The film ended with Thor and the Guardians of the Galaxy setting off on a quest to find Gamora, indicating Hemsworth’s character may appear in James Gunn’s Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 3
Based on how Spider-Man: Far From Home closed the book on Phase 3, we can expect that Thor 4 will pick up after the events of Endgame. According to Screen Rant, “Thor 4 may be ready to hit theaters by 2021, or 2022 at the latest unless Marvel prioritizes other movies first – which is a possibility. It’s also unclear whether Thor 4 would take place before or after Guardians 3, depending on how soon after the events of Endgame that movie picks up.”
Fans, for now, will have to wait until the weekend during Marvel Studios’ 90-minute panel at the San Diego Comic Convention this weekend.
On the other hand, The Holywood Reporter said that with Waititi’s upcoming involvement in the Thor 4 movie, his work with Warner Brother’s long in development movie, Akira, will have to be pushed back.
Akira is Warner Brother’s supposed to be an adaptation from the Japanese Manga, which Waititi was also set to direct. It was penciled for a May 21, 2021 release with Waititi already on a worldwide search for its casting but got eventually delayed due to script-writing difficulties.
Now that Waititi’s two projects are brushing too close with another in shooting dates, the director is forced to take priority and Thor 4 will take Waititi’s number 1 spot.
Warners’ next step for Akira is unclear. Several sources have said that Warners is keen on keeping Waititi involved for the long-term and hopes to see him pick up Akira after Thor 4, THR says.
For 2019, we can expect Fox Searchlight’s Jojo Rabbit, from the direction of Waititi, which is a satire about a young boy whose mother houses a Jewish girl to hide her from Nazis. Waititi plays the boy’s imaginary friend, Adolf Hitler and is set to release on Oct. 18.
Disney’s The Little Mermaid: Musical-Focused With Harry Styles As Prince Eric
Harry Styles in tandem with Halle Bailey is a musical waiting to happen on the big screen
Disney's The Little Mermaid: Musical-Focused With Harry Styles As Prince Eric | Z6Mag
Harry Styles is in early talks of playing the iconic Prince Eric role in the upcoming Disney live-action remake of the 1989 original classic, The Little Mermaid. And people over Twitter could not contain their excitement even though none of this is final as of the moment. Seemingly, Disney is taking on a more musical-centric route for the movie.
Styles is a former member of the world-renowned band One Direction who disbanded a couple of years back to their fans’ dismay; but all five members of which struck out to have solo singing careers.
Zayn Malik, who is another of Styles’ former band member, performed the latest rendition to Aladin 2019’s A Whole New World along with Zhavia.
Quite interestingly for Styles, however, is that he also ventured into the realm of acting with his debut in Dunkirk, Christopher Nolan’s World War II drama that grossed over $526 million worldwide and earned several Oscars awards.
The budding actor had been rumored to have been looking for a new acting bit for quite some time now after his success in Dunkirk and even auditioned for the lead in Baz Luhrmann’s Elvis biopic. That part went to Austin Butler earlier this week.
Nevertheless, the British singer and actor have captivated his fans through his talented singing career and charismatic acting on the big screen (all on top of his prince charming good looks) that quickly convinced people on Twitter that he would be an excellent Prince Eric.
LMFAO ok if harry styles is cast in a live action of the little mermaid I apologize to everyone in the theater who’s going to have to hear me groan every five minutes muttering “he’s so hot”
— brandy (@brandaliine) July 16, 2019
GIVE HARRY STYLES THAT DAMN ROLE I DESERVE TO SEE THAT
— rabia (@sincerelyrabia) July 16, 2019
In contrast, in the 1989 original animated movie, Prince Eric voiced then by Christopher Daniel Barnes, didn’t have any musical moments. Prince Eric was the man Ariel decided to fall love in first sight with after saving him from drowning.
Furthermore, he was simply Ariel’s prince charming who she deliberately bargained her excellent voice and tale with Ursula in exchange for legs to meet and spend time. However, the prince does make a key role in defeating Ursula in the end.
Related: Will Melissa McCarthy Play Ursula In ‘The Little Mermaid’ Live Re-Make?
Styles’ imminent casting for the role says otherwise for how Prince Eric will be seen in the upcoming live-action remake. Primarily, Disney has already announced its cast for Ariel with Halle Bailey, who’s a protege of Beyoncé Knowles-Carter as a member of R&B duo Chloe x Halle.
In other words, Disney is seemingly taking a more musical-focused direction with The Little Mermaid soon. Add that to the fact that Disney’s favorite musical genius will again lead the musical scores in The Little Mermaid, Alan Menken, who has produced some of the classics such as Be Our Guest, Belle from Beauty and the Beast (1991), A Whole New World, and Friend Like Me from Aladdin (1992).
Recently, Menken collaborated on the remakes live-action songs. Reportedly, he will also give new twists with his songs for The Little Mermaid live-action movie such as Oscar-winning Under the Sea, Part of Your World, and Kiss the Girl.
Also, helping Menken with the songs (and probably new songs) is Lin-Manuel Miranda and La La Land producer Marc Platt.
There is a significant possibility that Prince Eric finally gets to sing in the live remake version and who knows, Menken might probably make new songs to suit the singing Prince Eric-Ariel tandem.
Can’t wait to hear the soundtrack for #TheLittleMermaid if @Harry_Styles styles is casted as Prince Eric and confirmed Ariel @HalleBailey it’s gonna be amazing pic.twitter.com/eqLp1l9XKk
— princess (@princesspucker) July 16, 2019
I’m personally not a fan of the Disney remakes but the thought of seeing halle bailey and harry styles together as ariel and eric makes me so fucking excited
— Madisen (@frenchietoth) July 16, 2019
Rob Marshall will be taking the helm of the live-action movie as the director. The director is not new to working with Walt Disney Studios movies as he also directed Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides and Into the Woods. Meanwhile, David Magee wrote the latest script for the reboot after Jane Goldman.
The Little Mermaid live-action movie follows after Disney’s latest move with other classics such as the recently-released Aladdin, Beauty and the Beast, Dumbo, and most recently, The Lion King which stars Donald Glover as Simba and Beyoncé as Nala.
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Thread: Conquest of the Planet of the Apes
gigan
I was wondering about a piece of music; I can't figure out the name of the piece, but I know I've heard it before in another "Apes" movie. Anyways, this piece came at the end of "Conquest of the Planet of the Apes", right after Caesar finishes his speech, and all the apes are screeching their support, just before the final fade out. It's a simple string progression that slowly blossoms into full orchestral support, and I know that this piece was featured in another "Apes" movie but I can't figure out what the title of the piece is and what other film it was from. Any answer that correctly answers this conundrum is greatly appreciated.
[ame]http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QyKTAyPcnPg[/ame]
Here is a link for youtube in which you can hear the at least part of the piece; it's in the background, but you can hear it behind all the ape noises.
farbeyond
Re: Conquest of the Planet of the Apes
Original Music by
"I like my Hotels like I like my pants;........with lot's of ball room"
Dang. Thanks.
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Posts Tagged ‘seizures’
How Emory Epilepsy Center Helped a Young Athlete Take Control of His Life
November 28th, 2018 By Emory Brain Health Center
At 17 years old, Terna Ityokumbul was like most high school students: consumed with friends, graduation and the future. Terna was an athlete all his life, and from a young age, he had a dream to play college football. As he continued to pursue this dream into his senior year of high school, he had a chance to make that dream a reality, receiving offers to play college football from multiple schools. However, there was one thing stopping him: his history of epileptic seizures. Terna suffered from what he calls “absence spells” in which he would lose awareness for about a minute. These were found to be focal seizures with a change in awareness. While these never affected his day-to-day life, for the first time, he realized his recent diagnosis of epilepsy could limit his future.
Despite these focal seizures, Terna was still able to play football. His episodes were infrequent, and he was able to see local doctors if he had any issues. Unfortunately, as time went on, Terna began to experience more severe and dangerous tonic-clonic seizures. This type of seizure is popularly known as “grand mal” and is the type of seizure most people envision when they think of epilepsy. Terna’s seizures began to spread to his whole brain, so that the staring spells progressed to convulsions with falling, then stiffening and jerking all over. While these were still only occasional, he began to recognize that his epilepsy now not only impacted his sense of well-being but could affect others as well.
At this point, while living in Pennsylvania, Terna’s life consisted of numerous tests, doctor visits, and overnight hospital stays. As one can imagine, this constant back and forth was leading to much frustration and exhaustion as it became almost a routine process for him. Along with this aggravation, Terna reached his breaking point after experiencing a tonic-clonic seizure so severe he dislocated his shoulder. Immediately, he decided to make health his number one priority and began researching epilepsy centers across the country. This is when Terna found Emory. After graduating from Bucknell University and looking for a new job opportunity, he became interested in Atlanta. Then after reading about Emory’s certified level 4 Epilepsy Center, Terna made his decision.
He made his move south and quickly booked an appointment with the Emory Epilepsy Center. He sat down with, neurologist, Dr. Edward Faught, director of the Emory Epilepsy Center, to create a plan that could provide hope for a long-term solution to his epilepsy. Of course, after seeing countless doctors and running every kind of test, Terna wasn’t entirely hopeful that he would ever find relief.
Eventually, he was admitted to Emory University Hospital so that his doctors could video record the seizures and estimate a source of abnormal brain activity using a scalp Electroencephalography test or EEG. During his first two days, he had two seizures which suggested a possible source of the seizures in his brain. His frame of mind instantly shifted as this was the first time a definite source of the seizures was found. Once his treatment team knew the origin of the seizures, it was time to make a game plan to treat them. Terna’s case was presented to an epilepsy conference meeting to decide what would be the best course of action. While this was going on, Terna was given different options to research so that he could make an informed decision about his care.
“Throughout the whole process there was constant communication from the entire team. This made me feel as if my case had a sense of urgency. It was very reassuring knowing that my epilepsy was just as important to them as it was to me,” said Terna.
To be sure of the source of his seizures, Terna’s neurosurgeon, Dr. Jon Willie, performed a procedure called “stereo-EEG.” This involved placing several thin platinum wires into the suspicious area of his brain to record the intracranial EEG during Terna’s seizures. This provided more certainty about the source of the seizures and suggested that a smaller operation would have a good chance of success.
After weighing his options, Terna and his physicians decided to move forward with a “stereotactic laser ablation” (SLA) surgery. This surgery is a minimally invasive laser-based procedure for people with medication-resistant epilepsy that can result in better memory function than standard operations while still providing comparable seizure control rates. Rather than having to undergo extensive open brain surgery, this surgery uses a tiny laser fiber reach and inactivates the focal part playing the most obvious role in the seizures. Emory neurosurgeons were the first to perform SLA in adults, and have completed more procedures of this kind than anywhere else. On Wednesday, April 4th, 2018, Dr. Willie performed Terna’s operation. That following Monday, Terna was back to work in the office with only a single stitch on the back of his head.
“It’s crazy how fast the recovery was, the worst part of the surgery was that I had a funny looking haircut for a few weeks,” exclaimed Terna.
Since the surgery, Terna has only experienced one seizure. He went from having 4-5 per month and now has only had one since April. When talking with Terna, he expressed how much this operation has improved his quality of life, not just for himself but for all of his loved ones as well.
Terna has now lived in Atlanta for three years, works as a senior buyer, and enjoys participating in sports recreation leagues and power training after work. His days no longer include trips to the ER or searching for answers. However, Terna has chosen to use his experience to “pay it forward.” Terna has been working with multiple Emory doctors in research trials to help improve treatment options for others. “There has been so much improvement in just the last 10 years, someone had to go through the research to develop the surgery I had, so I want to be able to give back and help someone 10 years down the road,” said Terna.
It is essential to understand that surgical treatment for epilepsy is not a last resort. If two or three anti-seizure medications have not completely controlled seizures, it is time to consider surgery. Modern epilepsy surgery is relatively safe and has a low risk of complications. Not everyone can be helped or cured by surgery, but it is important to know whether it is an option. For other people, there are newer medications, often available as part of clinical trials at Emory, and there are several implantable pacemaker-like electrical stimulation devices to help seizure control. However, surgery offers the only hope for a complete cure of epilepsy.
If you know someone who you think could benefit from a consultation with the Emory Epilepsy Center, you can visit the website at emoryhealthcare.org/epilepsy or call 404-778-7777 to make an appointment.
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M. Samuel Noordhoff, M.D.
« back to memoirs
A Surgeon With "Love Makes Whole"
M. Samuel Noordhoff, MD, the founder of one of the internationally renowned Plastic Surgery Department at Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, passed away in Grand Rapids, Michigan on Dec. 3, 2018 at the age of 91. The greatness of the man is evident through his achievements in revolutionizing healthcare delivery in Taiwan, his visionary leadership with creating his world-class disciples, charity and humanitarian works with full of love and wisdom. As his disciples we are honored to shed his light to everyone and every place on his great legends.
Background And Early Life
Dr. Noordhoff was born in Orange City, Iowa, in 1927, the only child of Henry and Cynthia Noordhoff. He studied medicine and graduated from University of Iowa. He married Lucille in 1954. After completing general surgery residency training, Dr. Noordhoff and his family were deeply influenced by Jesus's Love and firmly moved to Taiwan in 1959 to serve as a doctor and missionary (The Reformed Church in America) at Mackay Memorial Hospital in Taipei. After seeing a lot of lip and palate deformity patients in Taiwan, he decided to go back to the US for two years of plastic surgery residency training in Butterworth Hospital, Grand Rapids, to become a plastic surgeon. He then spent the rest of his 40-year career transforming lives and creating unforgettable legends in Taiwan until he returned to US in 1999.
Revolutionizing Medicine in Taiwan
Dr. Noordhoff served as the President of the Mackay Memorial Hospital first, and then (First) President of Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, played an instrumental role in establishing a system for delivery of western medicine for all of Taiwan and achieved many milestones along the way including establishing the first polio rehabilitation center, the first suicide prevention center, the first burn center, the first intensive care unit and the first craniofacial center.
Peers Recognition
Dr. Noordhoff was an eminent expert in cleft lip and palate surgeries. He dedicated his entire career to restoring hope, bringing smiles to deformed faces, and cultivating future leaders in all the major fields of plastic surgery. His contribution to professional education was recognized in the form of Jacques W. Maliniac Lecturer during the Annual Meeting of the American Society of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgeons. His lecture was titled: “Plastic Surgery in Taiwan; Building A Cathedral”, in which he attributed all achievements to God and emphasized every piece of wood or brick was carefully selected to build the house for God.
For his career-long academic contribution to the art and science of plastic surgery, Dr. Noordhoff was awarded the Prestigious Sir Harold Gilles Lecture Award by the British Association of Plastic Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgeons in 2011. Dr. Noordhoff received numerous other special honors, including Outstanding Medical Contribution Award by the Department of Health, Executive Yuan, Taiwan 1996, the “Order of Brilliant Star with Violet Grand Cordon” by the former president Lee Teng-Hui, Taiwan in 1999, the American Society of Maxillofacial Surgery Honorary Award in 2006, Smile Train Distinguished Excellence in Medical Service Award in 2013, and the Presidential Cultural Award from Taiwan in recognition of his humanitarian work in 2017.
Visionary Academic Leadership
Dr. Noordhoff was a man of dignity and character of wisdom. Under the environment of rapid industrialization taking place in Taiwan, and the ambition of Chang Gung Medicine Board Chairman Mr. YC Wang with his great philosophy of “Once performing, it should be the best". He gave due credits to his associates and disciples, and consistently acknowledged them. He cultivated future leaders in all major fields of plastic surgery in building a world-class academic medical center since late 1970’s and early 1980’s. He had the vision to identify those aspired young surgeons and sent them to the best places globally to learn and prepare for developing all sub-specialized fields in plastic and reconstructive surgery, especially those emerging ones such as craniofacial surgery, reconstructive microsurgery, burn and trauma surgery, so that, his center could become a new level of excellence. Dr. Noordhoff did not stop there, but continued to demand academic excellence from his staff by having strong international presences. He kept on pushing until they have achieved the prestigious status. This comprehension became ingredient in everyone's heart to pass it into their own disciples to continue this excellence.
Charity & Humanitarianism
The Noordhoff Craniofial Foundation (NCF), was founded in Taiwan in 1989, by 100 thousands US dollars donation out of his own hard-earned life savings. The aim was to help unaffordable patients in Taiwan chances to live normal with dignity. As the Taiwan government healthcare started to cover congenital deformities, the NCF gradually shifted its function towards domestic patients and parents education as well as training foreign surgeons and their surgical team including nurses, anesthesiologists, social workers, speech pathologists, and orthodontists aim to duplicate what has been achieved in Chang Gung and Taiwan in those less lucky countries. So far The NCF has trained 158 seed craniofacial medical practitioners from 19 countries including Vietnam, Kenya, Nigeria, Cambodia, the Philippines, China, Myanmar, the Dominican Republic, Laos, Indonesia and Mongolia. His humanitarian work “Love Makes Whole” had completed 78 cleft missions, brought smiling faces back to literally more than 2,000 children. After returning to US in 1999, Dr. Noordhoff still continued his involvement in charity work by raising funds, supporting training of surgeons logistically and financially, and overseeing the overall treatment of patients.
Dr. Noordhoff has gone. It breaks our hearts to say goodbye to him. Words fall short to express our sorrows for losing him, but we are consoled that he has made the world a better place than it was before through his love and wisdom. Rest in peace Dr. Noordhoff, your legacy will go on.
Fu-Chan Wei M.D.
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Thirty Years of Thanks
Thirty years ago Tuesday I was ordained a priest, in the Chapel of Mount Calvary in Santa Barbara. I have been meditating on 30 years as a priest and what comes to me is a deep sense of gratitude for all who have been part of the ministry I was given then. A priest does eucharist. And since giving thanks is what eucharistia means, and one of the principal elements of giving thanks is anamnesis -- not forgetting -- I'm going to dedicate this entry to remembering people and places and institutions that have formed my ministry as a priest.
I was ordained by Wes Frensdorff, Bishop of Nevada. My father, Duncan McCoy, was one of my clerical presenters. They are gone now, as is Mount Calvary. I was endorsed for ordination by All Saints Episcopal Church, Las Vegas, which my father founded in 1960. Members of the parish made the journey to Santa Barbara to present me. Bill Clancey, who was my seminary (CDSP) field work supervisor at All Souls, Berkeley, preached. Bishop Dan Corrigan, a dear friend of the Mount Calvary community, was vested and seated next to Bishop Frensdorff. The master of ceremonies was Fr. Bob Worster, Rector of St. Mary's, Palms, in LA. The organist was Fred Hammond, then professor of music at UCLA. In attendance among the reverend clergy were Robert Hale, of the Camaldolese, and Basil Meeking, then Under-Secretary of the Pontifical Council for Christian Unity in Rome, later Bishop of Christchurch, New Zealand, and a dear friend of the Corrigans. And so many others. It was a wonderful day.
Such a cloud of witnesses. The bishops I have served in an official relationship as a priest are, in more or less chronological order: Wes Frensdorff of Nevada; Robert Rusack, and Oliver Garver of Los Angeles; William Swing of California; Fred Borsch, Chet Talton, Bob Anderson and Jon Bruno, of Los Angeles; Dick Grein, Mark Sisk, Catherine Roskam and Don Taylor, of New York.
My first years as a priest, of course, were spent serving the OHC communities at Santa Barbara and Berkeley, and then later (now) West Park. The eucharistic ministry is foremost in our communities, of course, but I discovered the ministry of hearing confessions, especially at Mount Calvary, where I must have heard hundreds over the years. Retreat leading and preaching and relationships that have grown out of those encounters loom large, and scores of churches I was graced to be invited into. Years spent helping Greg Richards when he was Rector of All Saints, Beverly Hills, and the group of faithful praying women who gathered around Alice Smith in the corner of their elegant parish hall, are vivid to me.
My first parochial pastoral charge was Holy Family, Half Moon Bay, CA, who taught me a great deal in a few short months in 1992. Then from 1992 to 2001, St. Michael's, Anaheim, and from 2001 to 2008, St. Edward the Martyr in East Harlem. So many people from those congregations rise up in my mind, too many to name lest I forget even more. So many wonderful Christians giving their talents in vestries and altar guilds and Sunday Schools and youth groups and music programs and ministries to the community. I especially want to lift up the Feed The Hungry program at St. Michael's, run by some great saints of the Church, among them Chuck Henderson and Bill Miller, who fed a hot meal on the church china to the homeless and unfortunate every Monday without fail for years and years. Much of what St. Michael's did in the way of outreach was funded by the profits from the St. Michael's Thrift Shop, and Alyce Compton deserves to be remembered for years of patient (and sometimes impatient) labor.
Baptisms in all three places, of course, but numerically the most at St. Michael's, especially among the Hispanic congregation. My last year I believe we recorded 152 baptisms, not all baptized by me, of course. Frs. Santos Flores and Juan Barragán labored mightily to bring that large congregation into being, and deserve an honored place here. But baptisms are just the tip of the iceberg! Presentations, first communions, confirmations and quinceañeras, by the dozens, even the hundreds. The Anglo congregation had its baptisms and confirmations and weddings as well, but also a lot of funerals, and I discovered what a great moment a funeral is for families. Hispanic ministry is largely about celebrating life events, especially those of children. When I left St. Michael's in 2001, there were well over 2,000 people on the membership lists. It was one of the great adventures of my life.
I would never have thought that I would have much to do with police, but for five years I was one of the chaplains to the Anaheim Police Department, and what a joy that was. Joy mingled with sorrow, because so much of the work was getting up in the middle of the night to be with and comfort people in the midst of trauma, disaster and death. Kneeling in the middle of a major street with Hispanic road repair workers at 2 in the morning to say the prayers for their dead comrade, killed by a hit and run, probably drunk, driver. Sitting with a mother whose son had just hung himself in the enclosed porch of their house. Helping to organize and lead the funeral for our Chief at the Crystal Cathedral with thousands in attendance. Listening to small, quiet moments of self reflection by police, who are not always the most inward-directed people.
Being Dean of north Orange County brought regular fellowship with the clergy of that region of the Diocese of Los Angeles. And monthly meetings of the clergy support group offered insight and solidarity.
Then coming to New York City and discovering ministry in another community, as St. Edward's is largely African-American. The faithful Christians there, who kept the Church alive for decades before I arrived -- beginning right after World War II, when almost all the white middle class people left that part of the City, with worsening conditions in East Harlem as the years marched on, crime, drugs, young people in trouble, despair on every corner. Small churches who continue alive in the midst of such conditions are in some ways greater cathedrals of the spirit than much larger, better endowed places with marvelous programs, because there is often little more than faith to feed the fire, and year in and year out their faith and hard work keep the flame burning.
One of the joys of my ministry has been mentoring people who have started on the path to ordination. In Anaheim, Ruth Tomlinson and John Kloman; and in East Harlem, Peter Irvine, Mary Ogus, Elise Johnstone, Willie Smith, Christopher Pyles, Susan Greenwood, Antonio Checo, Ajung Sojwal, Rob Picken, Filomena Servellon, Dustin Trowbridge. Another joy has been collaboration with the secretaries, sextons and musicians of the three congregations. And four years of teaching church history to the students of the Hispanic Programa as an adjunct faculty member of the General Seminary brought much joy.
A large part of the ministry of St. Edward's, and therefore of its Rector, is its work with community organizations: The Yorkville Common Pantry, with its directors Jeff Ambers and then Carolann Johns; Interfaith Neighbors (alas, no more) and its director Eileen Lyons; and The Amsterdam Boys' Choir and its director James Backmon; the Saul Alinsky-based Industrial Areas Foundation in its shape-shifting local incarnation usually known as Upper Manhattan Together. And I must not forget the two rewrites of the YCP lease which involved generous and tireless work by Gerry Ross, our volunteer attorney.
Then of course there was the seemingly endless building of the front door, with our architect Kevin Lichten and the Landmarks Conservancy, as well as the still-ongoing fire and safety project, both managed by a wonderful layman in the parish, Angus Oborn and our irreplaceable project manager, Dick Muffoletto. Without them very little would have been accomplished on the building front.
And finally, and still, the House of the Redeemer, which claims my time but also my heart.
So many wonderful people. I'll probably keep adding to this.
Posted by Adam D. McCoy, OHC at 10:37 AM 2 comments Links to this post
A Letter for Rowan Williams
Thanks to TitusOneNine, I just came across this wonderful Christmas letter from the historian Diarmaid MacCulloch to The Archbishop of Canterbury. It is full of joy, hope and good cheer and a particularly appropriate message for the ecclesial celebration of the powerless one we recognize as Son of God. One apt quote:
"Worldly power has gone out of the established church, and that is why so many of its adherents have fallen away. Thank goodness for that; churches never handle power well."
And in the wake of it, I want to thank Kendall Harmon for producing his marvelous blog!
Advent Thoughts
The Monastery is emerging today from our quarterly retreat -- three days in silence. I love these retreats. Everything is quiet, no guests except a few pious souls who slip in for the Divine Office, work pushed back to the minimum necessary to keep the place running. I am in charge of ringing the bells this week, and I enjoyed getting to Chapel early.
A verse from the Old Testament reading at Matins struck me this morning, Zechariah 7:13: "Just as when I called, they would not hear, so when they called, I would not hear, says the LORD of hosts." This oracle of God to the prophet is about the restoration of justice, kindness and mercy among the people of Israel. It is a condemnation of Israel's past behavior, which led God to scatter them among the nations.
Quite a lot of the readings for Advent are about judgment. The whole ministry of John the Baptist warns people of the wrath to come, and is the centerpiece of the Advent proclamation. I used to think the whole judgment day business was a culturally conditioned first century Palestinian preoccupation, a little embarrassing in our more enlightened times. The fierce urgency of the prophets (who centered much of their work, one way or the other, around the destruction and restoration of Jerusalem) and of the Baptist, and of Jesus himself, caused one in preaching to struggle to relate to our own less dramatic times. The end-of-the-worlders were other people, strange Christians on the fringes, cartoon figures.
But no longer. If you're not an end-of-the-worlder now, your liberal friends think you callous, uninformed, deeply suspect of having gone over to the Other Side. Because, isn't it obvious? The world is going to hell in a handbasket. Or at least in an SUV. The financial system almost crashed. The health system is about to crash. Global warming is upon us. To name the three most prominent scenarios of the moment. In each case our current government finds salvation in vastly increasing its own power to run things and a concurrent increase in the amount of money it can spend to do so. But what if these crises are not amenable to well-wishing folk manipulating the levers of power?
Because you did not listen to me, I will not listen to you, says the Lord.
In Zechariah's prophecy there is a direct link between our past behavior and what is to come. The iniquitous behavior of God's people in the past will bring about God's deafness to our pleas in our time of need. His instructions to us show what has been lacking: "Render true judgments, show kindness and mercy to one another, do not oppress the widow, the orphan, the alien, or the poor; and do not devise evil against one another." That we have not listened and acted as God wishes has gotten us into trouble and will be the cause of more trouble yet to come. Worse is on the way.
Except... read on. The next oracle is a promise that God will come and live with his people in Jerusalem again: "I am jealous for Zion with great jealousy, and I am jealous for her with great wrath. Thus says the Lord: I will return to Zion, and will dwell in the midst of Jerusalem." God cannot help himself. He loves his people so much. Tough love. Watch out for that kind of love. It makes demands.
Leaving aside the exegetical question of who, exactly, is Jerusalem here (is it the actual Jerusalem? is it the literal people of Israel? is it all God's people, including us perhaps? is it the world God so loved?), the line of action is clear: God expects his people (however defined) to listen and obey, and if they don't, there will be the consequence of non-action on his part. But eventually he will act to restore them.
So the Advent question of the moment might be, Have we listened to God? Have we acted? It would seem that we have not. Wastefulness, injustice, lack of concern for each other, greed, have led us to the precipice of our current problems. Will we be able to address them ourselves, as the political elite of the moment would have us believe we can?
What God calls for through the prophets is for his people (= us, presumably) to change their (our) hearts. The prophetic analysis would seem to be that bad behavior comes from not listening to God, and that God will not listen to us when we are in our untrue, unkind, unmerciful state. So we had better get our inner dispositions together and act on them. In fact, the prophet doesn't seem to think that God's people have what it takes to make this change on their own. And so, God will come to live among his people: God with us. No wonder this is an Advent lesson. Zechariah is pointing the way to the Incarnation, or so we Christians would say.
We have been careless and so we are in trouble. Since we did not listen to God, God is not going to listen to us. Worse is on the way. But God will not leave us alone. Is our salvation in TARPs, in Copenhagen, in a 2074 page Senate bill morphing every minute and which Harry Reid won't let the public see, at least in today's headlines? Are these the societal equivalent of change of heart, or might we view them from another perspective? Have the dispositions in peoples' hearts that brought these problems about changed? If not, how effective can bureaucratic action be?
And anyway, can public action ever measure up? If ears do not listen and hearts are unchanged, what do such actions matter? Will they not themselves become occasions of more wastefulness, injustice, lack of concern for each other, greed? And with unchanged hearts, will we be ready for God to come and dwell among us? Will that not be judgment itself if we are not prepared?
God will not leave us alone. Advent comfort.
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Sri Lanka and Pakistan:
Military ties strengthened – Army Commander
By Shanika SRIYANANDA
Army Chief Lt. Gen. Jagath Jayasuriya with his Pakistani counterpart, General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani
Army Chief Lt. Gen. Jagath Jayasuriya, who returned to the country on Friday after a six-day visit to Pakistan, said military ties between the two countries have strengthened further and he was able to discuss various issues relating to the military with his Pakistani counterpart, General Ashfaq Parvez Kayani. “We discussed military matters of mutual and bilateral interest and the possibility of further increasing the exchange of training programs between the two Armies”, he told the Sunday Observer.
Army Commander Jayasuriya said Pakistan had always supported Sri Lanka in defeating LTTE terrorism and this support would continue with historical relationships between the two nations.”The Pakistan Army Comerant agreed to send Lt. General to participate at the forthcoming Defence Seminar scheduled to be held in Colombo in August and he will be one of the key speakers at the event. They will also send a Special Forces Team to take part at the next Commerant Strike exercise to be held in September this year”, he said.
He said the Army Chief General Kayani had positively responded to the requests on extending training programs for Sri Lankan Army officers in Pakistan.
“It was a fruitful visit and several bi-lateral discussions regarding military matters were held”. Lt. Gen. Jayasuriya said
Gen. Kayani, who visited Sri Lanka in January last year, had invited Lt. Gen. Jayasuriya to visit Pakistan as a gesture of goodwill and long-lasting relations that exist between the two armies.
The Army Chief said the revival of exchange of sports programs among military personnel of both armies, an old practice that existed in the past was also among one of the key issues that surfaced during cordial discussions.
A colourful guard of honour, presented by troops of the Pakistan Army at Pakistan Army’s General Headquarters at Rawalpindi was held on April 2 to welcome the Sri Lankan Army Chief. After the visiting Commander received the salute, he was requested to honour the fallen soldiers of the Pakistan Army at Yadgar-e-Shuhada. He also laid a floral wreath and honoured the dead.
Lt. Gen. Jayasuriya at the Pakistan Army’s Rehabilitation Centre
Warmly received by Gen.Kayani, the Army Chief attended a briefing on the Pakistan Army’s current roles and tasks and its contributions with special reference to its ongoing Army training modules and programs to suit modern and multifaceted threats, which tend to emerge. He also attended a special detailed briefing on existing ‘Military Co-operation between Pakistan and Sri Lanka’ by Gen. Khalid S. Wynne, Pakistan’s Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee.
During his visit Lt. Gen. Jayasuriya visited the Pakistan Ordnance Factory complex in Rawalpindi, in the industrial town of Wah Cantonment with 14 big factories, which produce requirements of land forces. It is the largest defence industrial complex under the Ministry of Defence in Pakistan that produces a wide range of conventional arms and ammunition.
With the amalgamation of sophisticated technology the Pakistan Ordnance Factory has ventured into the field of exports on a regular basis and has established its reputation for internationally recognised products of quality, reliability and competitive prices.
Impressed with the production processes of modern military hardware in a couple of those factories, the Army Chief made inquiries into their production techniques and effective use in warfare during his stay there.
His tour to the Heavy Industries Taxila (HIT) next with a separate visit to the Taxila Museum, including several archaeological sites in the surrounding areas, provided him a rare occasion to gather knowledge on modern technological innovations and techniques.
Army Chief at the Pakistan’s School of Armour and Mechanized Warfare
HIT, which consists of six major production units, has Pakistan’s dedicated engineers and highly skilled persons, together with a 30 percent uniformed personnel. It rebuilds and modernises Tanks and ARVs, tracked vehicles, machine systems, gun barrels and provides engineering support and quality assurance.
The Army Chief visited the Pakistan Military Academy (PMA) in Peshawar on March 3. Commandant Maj. Gen. Mazhar Jamil presented an overall picture of the PMA’s curricular as well as its courses, being conducted on behalf of trainee foreign students. Adding significance to the visit, the Commander was also able to share a couple of views with the trainees.
He visited the 19 Division Headquarters where he was briefed about how security operations in their areas of responsibility are carried out.The Commander’s visit to the Headquarters Special Service Group (HQSSG) at Tarbela, where it provides training to foreign students, including those from Sri Lanka. He met Sri Lankan officer trainees and Lt W.P.S.S Weerasinghe on behalf of the trainees greeted the Commander and thanked him for his interaction with them while receiving training in an overseas institute.At the HQSSG a mock demonstration on ‘anti-terrorist operations’ was staged at the premises, enabling the visiting Commander to witness how such operations are carried out in Pakistan, taking a number of salient features into consideration. Another significant event Lt. Gen. Jayasuriya participated was visiting the Pakistan Army’s Rehabilitation Centre.
He has told the Commandant of the Rehabilitation Centre Lt. Gen Azhar that the rehabilitation of wounded War Heroes as a noble endeavour, took a keen interest in the methodology used by the Pakistan Army to rehabilitate its disabled soldiers and shared a few of his own experiences with the Commandant of the Rehabilitation Centre.
Visiting Pakistan’s School of Armour and Mechanized Warfare (SA & MW) at Nowshera cantonment in the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan was a memorable visit to Lt. Gen. Jayasuriya as it recalled his training at the school as 2nd Lieutenant. “I was very happy as I met my former course mates”, he was the chief guest at a special get-together. He was warmly received and was later shown how those vital wings in the Pakistan Army operate depending on demand for training in these fields of professionalism before the get-together.
All his former Pakistani course mates are today’s senior high ranking officers in the Pakistan Army and they too were exceptionally thrilled at the prospect of seeing their fellow-course mate again after the absence of many years and now as the Army Chief in Sri Lanka.
Lt.Gen Jayasuriya bringing back lots of memories when he was following the Young Officers Course AC-46 in 1980 to become the 1st in order of merit as the 2nd Lieutenant and his subsequent pursuit of knowledge in the Mid Career Course as a Major of Sri Lanka Army at the same prestigious SA & MW in 1988, recalled how a melange of different cultures and ethnicities during those two periods followed the courses in a remarkably pleasant milieu during the tenure of Brigadier Rao, the SA & MW Commandant at that time.
SA & MW in Nowshera, whose founding history dates back to the year 1947, is one of the elite institutions of Pakistan Army and has the honour of training more than 600 foreign students to-date. During 2000-2012, the SA & MW has provided training to 74 officers in the Sri Lanka Army in Armour Course, Junior Staff Course, Mid-Career Course, Armour Officers Advanced Technique Course and Radio and Armour Instructor Course.
Nowshera cantonment which has also been entrusted with the training of all mechanized troops of the Pakistan Army over a span of six decades has improved tremendously and is situated in the medium-sized Nowshera city, having a number of Army training establishments.
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Alicia Salzer MD
About Dr. Salzer
After completing a BA in Psychology at The University of Pennsylvania in 1988, Alicia Salzer went on to pursue an MD from Cornell University Medical College in New York. In 1993, she completed a Psychiatric Internship at The Payne Whitney Institute of New York Hospital followed by a Psychiatric Residency at Harbor UCLA in Los Angeles from 1994 – 1997. She has held several prestigious academic appointments including Assistant Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at Columbia University Faculty of Medicine, and Assistant Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at The Mount Sinai School of Medicine in NY.
Dr. Salzer has worked in a variety of medical and psychiatric settlings, contributing to a broad scope of knowledge with access to varied approaches to helping her clients. After volunteering at Ground Zero following 9/11, she worked for 3 years at a New York City mental health clinic exclusively for Ground Zero personnel. She has also worked extensively in both InPatient Psychiatric and Psychiatric Emergency Room settings. For several years she worked with traumatized NYC transit workers and served as a PTSD trauma expert-witness. She has also worked as the After-Care Director at the Montel Williams show, ensuring that guests of the show were able to obtain high quality mental health care and social support when they returned home. She cofounded a medical urgent care center in NYC and currently maintains a Private Practice near Wall Street.
You may have seen Dr. Salzer on CNN where she has been a guest Psychiatric Expert for Anderson Cooper and Soledad O’Brien. She has also appeared on the Montel Williams show, Fox and Friends, Jami Floyd’s “Best Defense”, the Joy Behar show and others. Prior to working in TV, Dr. Salzer co-hosted a daily 3-hour radio talk show on Los Angeles’ Groove Radio 103.1 FM and has also been a guest host on SIRIUS Satellite Radio’s “Doctor Radio”, “Medical Mondays with Derek and Romaine”, “Larry Flick” and the “Michelangelo Signorile” show. Dr. Salzer has also worked behind the camera as the director and producer of two documentary films and several Public Service Announcements with a focus on the interface between human rights and mental health.
Dr. Salzer’s private practice in Psychiatry consists of a variety of clients between the ages of 20-60. While some clients seek Psychopharmacology or medication management, others are seen strictly for Psychotherapy. Many are corporate executives or professionals who work in the Wall Street area, while others are young people starting their careers, parents, or couples. Issues treated include diagnoses such as Anxiety, Insomnia, Substance Abuse, Depression, ADHD, Social Anxiety, OCD, Phobia, Panic as well as life challenges such as Separation Divorce Infidelity, career challenges/changes/dissatisfaction, stress associated with infertility IVF, miscarriage, LBGTQ related issues, couples therapy, anger management, gambling addiction, sex addiction, difficulty getting along with others, workplace conflicts, lack of motivation or direction, grief/bereavement, etc.
160 Broadway, Suite 900 East, NY, NY, 10038 Phone (917)576-6991
Located in the Financial District near Wall Street, convenient to TriBeCa, Battery Park City.
Convenient to zip codes: 10004, 10005, 10006, 10007, 10012, 10013, 10038.
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ON THE BBJ STAGE THIS WEEK!!! AN ALL-STAR PRINCE PURPLE PARTY
June 6, 2017 /0 Comments/in Live Music Weekly, News /by Michael Mathews
WEDNESDAY (6/7) – All-Star Purple Party is a special tribute concert celebrating the birthday of Prince, once of the greatest musical artist of our time. An all-star ensemble of accomplished musicians and singers covering Prince’s most popular and enduring songs from his cherished music catalog. The dance floor is open for a memorable evening of music that will inspire the audience to danc e and sing along! 8:00pm
THURSDAY (6/8) – One of the Delmarva’s areas finest and most popular female Rock vocalist Sandra Dean, returns by popular demand to set the stage on fire once again with her powerful, sultry and hot edged vocals. Sandra will appear as a special guest to Daryl Davis, who is known nationally and internationally for his hard driving Roots, Rock ‘n’ Roll, Boogie Boogie and Blues vocals and piano playing. 7:30pm
FRIDAY (6/9) – Wayna is a writer, performer, and GRAMMY-Nominated Singer/Songwriter, who was born in Ethiopia and raised in the suburbs of Washington, DC. She worked as a writer for the Clinton White House before self-releasing three solo albums, garnering two Billboard-charting singles and a GRAMMY nomination in the R&B Best Urban Alternative category. 8:00pm
SUNDAY (6/4) -Three former lead singers from three of the World’s most renowned vocal groups. Which collectively have sold over 100 million records…”The Temptations”, “The Platters”, and “The Drifters” have come together to create the ultimate musical experience, “Leonard, Coleman and Blunt.” 8:00pm
http://bethesdabluesjazz.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/logobbj-300x146.png 0 0 Michael Mathews http://bethesdabluesjazz.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/logobbj-300x146.png Michael Mathews2017-06-06 18:12:302017-06-26 18:41:45ON THE BBJ STAGE THIS WEEK!!! AN ALL-STAR PRINCE PURPLE PARTY
ON THE BBJ STAGE THIS WEEK!!! OLDIES REVUE & ROCK-N-ROLL !! Onstage at BBJ!! Michael Muse, Eric Roberson, Burt Bacharach/Hal David Tribute...
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A&E Session Five
Artists:Barbara Knezevic & Fiona Marron
Moderator: Valerie Connor.
A&E is a critical seminar programme that seeks to open dialogues across a broad range of practices and professional positions. The fifth discussion in this series included presentations by Barbara Knezevic and Fiona Marron, and was moderated by Valerie Connor.
Barbara Knezevic is an Australian-born artist practicing in Dublin. She attended the Sydney College of the Arts where she received a Bachelor of Visual Arts and completed her Masters in Fine Art at the National College of Art and Design (ncad), Dublin. Recently, she was awarded a Project studio at Temple Bar Gallery + Studios and South Dublin County Council Artist's Bursary Award. Recent solo exhibitions include ‘Wish Fulfilment' at 55 Sydenham Road, Sydney, ‘Alderamin Rising' at Queen Street Studios, Belfast, and ‘In pursuit of a state of uncertainty', Firstdraft, Sydney. Recent group exhibitions include ‘None went mad none ran away', at the Rubicon Gallery Dublin, ‘Futures 11' at the Royal Hibernian Academy, Dublin, Pallas Periodical Review, Pallas Projects, ‘New Connections' at Rua Red and ‘the Claremorris Open' curated by Chris Hammond.
Fiona Marron graduated from Fine Art at Dublin Institute of Technology in 2009 and now lives and works in Dublin. Solo exhibitions include ‘Last and First Men' at the Joinery, Dublin (2011), ‘As Topic and Tool' at the Joinery (2010) and ‘For Who Knows What' at Four, Dublin (2009). Recent group exhibitions include ‘Construct #1' at Monster Truck Gallery, ‘Portrait of Space' at Clonlea Studios, Dublin (2011), ‘Hidden Memories, Lost Traces' at Sinopale: Third Sinop Biennial, Turkey, ‘Switch: As Process' at Catalyst Arts, Belfast (2010) and ‘Reverse Pedagogy iii', Model Arts & Niland Gallery, Sligo (2009). In 2011 Marron was joint coordinator of ‘In These Troubled Times' a collaborative research project at Rua Red, South Dublin Arts Centre. She also regularly contributes to ongoing experimental research as part of Cannon Fodder* Collective.
Valerie Connor was part of the artist group Blue Funk during the early 1990s. Blue Funk exhibited ‘site-specific' commissioned projects in New York, Arnhem, Perth, Brisbane, and Dublin. In 1998, she was appointed Visual Arts Director at Project Arts Centre, having completed an MPhil on critical theory, political agency, and the aesthetic sublime, at the Centre for Women's Studies at Trinity College Dublin. She moved on to co-curate local authority and independent art projects and was appointed as the Commissioner for Ireland's participation at the Venice and São Paulo Biennials in 2003 and 2004. She served as a board member of the Irish Museum of Modern Art from 2005 to 2010 and was the Visual Arts Adviser to The Arts Council/An Chomhairle Ealaíon between 2006 and 2010. Her writing has appeared in the Visual Artists' News Sheet, Third Text, Circa, and Contemporary magazines, in artists' monographs and exhibition catalogues.
Since 2010, A&E has included contributions from Kevin Atherton, Brian Duggan, Niamh Dunphy, Clodagh Emoe, Sam Keogh, Sofie Loscher, David Lunney, Colin Martin, James Merrigan, Seán O Sullivan, Alison Pilkington, Timothy Stott, and Gemma Tipton.
A&E is a Black Church Print Studio initiative, supported by Monster Truck Gallery & Studios. For further information please contact Hazel Burke at info@blackchurchprint.ie or at (01) 677 3629.
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Plans being made for 2004 International Eucharistic Congress in Guadalajara
Posted by Amy Welborn at 11/05/2002 Links to this post
If you can see this, and you're using a Mac, let me know. Last redesign it was Netscape users who had problems. A Mac user says all he sees is white space...
Write your own joke.
Fr. Thomas Doyle analyzes the new draft of the charter:
First, the positives:
a. The Preamble states that the penalties can include laicization. It also attempts to give a more detailed explanation or definition of sexual abuse. The problem is that in trying to define sex abuse the document uses a particular ecclesiastical term that is only confusing and open to further subjective interpretation.
b. Full compliance is mandated.
c. Each diocese must have a person to coordinate pastoral care for victims and each diocese must have a review board. These measures are minimal but at least they are mentioned in the norms. Much more attention should have been given to the pastoral care of the victims. This is a glaring weakness in the overall charter and norms. The attention is drawn to the rights of the accused and the care of victims seems to be almost a passing concern. The Vatican could have signaled a return to some minimal measure of episcopal integrity by mandating that individual bishops extend personal and individual pastoral care to victims.
d. The eighth norm repeats the assurance that clerics who are proven to be offenders, even single offenders, will be removed from ministry.
e. The norms state that a cleric proven to have been an abuser will not be transferred from place to place or country to country. This norms almost seems superfluous but nevertheless is included as a stark reminder of the very actions that have been at the root of the overall problem.
Now the negatives:
a. An overall serious problem is that the process remains totally controlled by the bishops. There is no room for any decisive participation by lay people. The bishops proved themselves incapable of dealing with the problem of sexual abuse for centuries. These norms return total control to them along with glaring loopholes that can possibly allow proven sexual offenders to either return to or continue in ministry. The loopholes allow for the continuation of the pathological secrecy that was so instrumental in destroying the bishops' and credibility. In short, clericalism has prevailed and has the potential of being as destructive through these norms as it was in the previous state.
b. The Review Boards. The Vatican was fearful that the lay review boards would have even an appearance of power. Their (Vatican officials) primary concern was not the of the legal or spiritual welfare victims but the security of hierarchical power. The review boards are only consultative. The norms state that boards must be "at least five persons of outstanding integrity and good judgment in full communion with the Church." By demanding that members be practicing Catholics the norms set up the real possibility that the members can be controlled by the bishop who appointed them and at whose pleasure they serve. Thus the norms have effectively neutralized any possibility that the review boards will be truly effective. Any that are will be so by exception and because the local bishop has the integrity of putting the notion of justice and pastoral sensitivity before the retention of power. There is no reason why members must be Catholics. This is not a doctrinal issue but a matter of criminal actions that are sanctioned in both civil and canon law. Religious adherence has nothing to do with determining the veracity of an offense.
c. The Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith. Every case is to be initially referred to the CDF which will determine whether or not it will be processed on the local diocesan level or by the Vatican congregation. This is a most unfortunate restatement of the Vatican document that was issued last year. This means that the Vatican retains to power to control the process, to re-impose the shroud of pathological secrecy on cases and to apply its own procedural laws. Consistent past experiences with persons investigated by this congregation has shown that it has little respect for the rights of the accused. Its processes have been secretive, brutal and shown little evidence of having objective truth as their goal. This norm alone is highly problematic and should strike fear in the hearts of accused and survivors alike. Although U.S. bishops have stated that reservation of cases to the CDF would probably be rare, experience has taught that such assurances mean little if anything. The Vatican has clearly demonstrated its lack of concern for and sensitivity to victims and surviviors. It has also made it quite clear that there is a smoldering hostility towards the U.S. civil law demands for accountability and similar hostility towards the U.S. media. The Vatican appears to believe that the clergy and hierarchy are somehow above civil laws which is clearly not the case. Repeated statements by Vatican officials and other high ranking ecclesiastics makes it quite clear that they are primarily concerned about shoring up their power and not concerned about the massive devastation to victims by clergy abuse.
d. Prescription - The Statute of Limitations. "Prescription" refers to the statute of limitations which for the U.S. is 10 years past majority (18 yrs of age.) The norms re-instate the Statute for all cases but say that in some cases the local bishop can ask that it be waived or dispensed from....
e. Reporting Obligations. The revised norm significantly watered down the comparable norm proposed by the bishops: "The diocese/eparchy will comply with all applicable civil laws with respect to the reporting of allegations of sexual abuse of minors to civil authorities and will cooperate in their investigation." The norms says that the civil laws that are applicable" will be complied with which means that this norm would apply only in those States that mandate the clergy as reporters of sexual or other forms of child abuse. In any case, sexual abuse of a person is a felony crime. The norm should have demanded that in all cases of alleged sexual abuse the matter be turned over to the civil law enforcement authorities. This norm reflects the Vatican officials' skewed opinion that bishops not be obliged to report clerics who have engaged in criminal activity. One Vatican official alluded to a violation of the paternal relationship that exists between a priest and his bishop. This paternal relationship however, is no eschews to allow the destruction of souls through clergy sexual abuse.
f. Norm 9. Norm 9 is confusing and contradictory. In spite of the fact that the norms in general implicitly state that Canon Law, leading to an administrative or judicial process be followed, this norm refers to the bishop's power to resolve a case using the administrative procedure. However even then, the bishop cannot impose a permanent suspension nor can he issue a decree of laicization. It is unclear if this norm has anything more than rhetorical purpose.
His summary thoughts:
The revisions are mixed but on balance they appear to be a significant step backward in what many have hoped would be a gradual path toward hierarchical accountability. The process is almost totally clericalized. The lay review boards have no decisive power and the potential exists to completely neutralize them. The tribunal process, if followed, leaves room for the possibility of one lay judge to be appointed to a three judge tribunal to try a case.
The norms show no evidence that survivors were consulted for any meaningful input at any stage of the process. This is a crucial point. The survivors are aware as no other group is of the destructive effects of the traditional manner of handling abuse accusations. Their reflections, observations and critiques have been labeled as "subjective" by defenders of the clerical/hierarchical establishment and status quo. Yet this whole matter is about restoring justice and spiritual well-being to victims and survivors and ensuring that a similar travesty of justice not happen in the present or future. Yet the institutional church has, in spite of token appearances by and consultations with survivors, consistently eliminated them from any meaningful participation in this process.
The norms almost promise that there will be a continuation of the pathological secrecy that has been so instrumental in bring the institution to its knees. It is this secrecy that helps to destroy any hope of returning the U.S. and Vatican episcopacy to any semblance of credibility.
Most important, the norms sidestep consistent, objective and uniform justice for all by leaving open the possibility that clerics who have sexually abused in the past can continue to function and never be brought to justice simply because the offense happened years ago. The accused cleric may well have refrained from successive abuse and may have reformed his life BUT the victims continue to suffer the profound effects of abuse.
Most if not all professions have internal norms for professional conduct and processes whereby members who violate these norms are investigated and either exonerated or punished. Canon Law is not a "separate and above" legal system but a set of internal norms. Criminal behavior must be investigated by civil authorities. Church authorities lack both the professional competence to investigate complex issues such as sexual abuse but even more important, they have shown by past actions that they lack the integrity to carry out such investigations with accuracy and objectivity.
You see, we're all evolving...
Don't panic. Got a lot of work to do. Not a final product.
In regard to my comments on the revised policy:
I don't suggest going to the law first in an abuse case as a way of harming the Church. I advocate it because...abuse is a crime. Yeah. Remember? And the lawyers? Well, that's to make sure the victim is properly compensated for costs associated with the abuse. Therapy. Things like that. The lawyers also are there to make sure that the law doesn't succumb to the temptation to give in to the diocese's deep and profound hopes that this will all be kept quiet. This policy says that the accused has the right to representation. Doesn't the victim?
What the Church is to do with a lawbreaker in its employ or under its wing is a secondary question. The first step is to get the perpetrator under the loving charge of the law.
I mean, if a teacher abused your kid or a band leader seduced your teenage son or daughter, would your first call be to the principal? No. It would be to the police.
UK monks and nuns taking their music into the world
The Poor Clare Colettine Community from the UK is releasing a CD of religious music with rock, jazz and hip hop influences, in order to take their religious message to a wider audience
Congress is speeding to pass legislation that would authorize funds to help in the restoration of California missions
-- California's historic missions that led the way to the state's settlement two centuries ago are badly deteriorating, and Congress is moving at an extraordinary pace to help save them.
Legislation that would pump $10 million over five years into a larger rescue effort, launched by the nonprofit California Missions Foundation, was introduced Oct. 24. It was sponsored by 46 of the state's 56 House members.
Because of the measure's broad bipartisan support and a cause that is the epitome of historic preservation, the delegation hopes to enact the bill during the lame-duck congressional session that begins Nov. 12.
Richard Ameil, who created the foundation in 1998 because there had been no concerted effort in nearly a century to refurbish the 21 adobe missions, said the assistance can't come too soon.
"Many of the missions are in danger of collapsing," he said.
Disputations has information about the valiant work a poor parish in Kazakhstan is doing to help abandoned children, and what we can do to help.
Notice to parents spending $25,000 a year to send your kids to Georgetown
Take a look at the fine writing (and editing) going on at the student newspaper
Cardinal Evaluates Decisions Made By Reformist Vatican II Counsel
Alex Beam of the Globe gives over a column to Chesterton and Gilbert! magazine here
But the magazine, which comes out eight times a year, is thriving. Gilbert!'s subscriber base has doubled in the past few years, although {editor} Scheske isn't exactly certain what it is. ''It's purposeful ignorance on my part,'' he explains. ''Everyone knows we're small; they just don't know how small. We're a little sensitive about it.'' (It's well under 5,000.)
I couldn't help but notice a certain frumpiness in Gilbert! Could it be the quirky advertisements - ''Cooking with the Saints'' - or the movie reviews of films released years ago? There's also the versification feature, ''Clerihew Corner,'' and the inspired ''Chesterton's Mailbag,'' in which the deceased author ''answers'' reader mail. What about this review of J. M. Barrie's ''Peter Pan,'' first published in 1911? ''That was partly my idea,'' Scheske says. ''I thought it'd be neat to do book reviews of classics people hadn't read. You want to know what we're about? We're about doing what no one else does.''
That is admirable, so long as too many people don't follow suit. But frumpy? ''I reject that label,'' Scheske says. '' Belloc - that was one frumpy dude. But not Chesterton. I always compare him to the Rolling Stones; he's an acquired taste. And I'm a big Stones fan, by the way.''
Gilbert!'s website
The American Chesterton Society
Goldhagen and some of his critics:
Deborah Dwork, professor of Holocaust history and director of the Strassler Family Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies at Clark University, has not read Goldhagen's book and, in a telephone interview, would not address it directly. But she has her own analysis of this history. (She is the coauthor, with Robert Jan van Pelt, of a new book, ''Holocaust: A History.'') Though she also strongly criticizes Pius XII, she and van Pelt write, ''It is easy to draw a direct line from traditional Christian anti-Judaism to the annihilatory Nazi racist antisemitism. Easy, but false. There is no direct line.''
Dwork sees an important distinction between anti-Judaism and anti-Semitism that Goldhagen dismisses as meaningless. And she says that while there was historic demonization of Jews by Christians, there was also an ancient history of uneasy coexistence between Jews and the church in Europe, ''rooted in Catholic doctrine, which said that the Jews had a covenant with God, and while there was a second covenant, that did not mean the first one was invalid.''
Hoffmann, Goldhagen's former Harvard adviser, says, ''If you are a very nuanced historian, you say there may be mitigating circumstances. Danny doesn't go for that. I like to believe that everything has many explanations. Ultimately, with events with such moral weight, there is such a thing as being too sophisticated. Sometimes you have to say, `Wait. Look at the cost.' If this provokes a big controversy, that is not bad. History progresses through controversy.'' But Dwork insists, ''The more important the issue at stake, the greater our responsibility to be precise in what we tell people about the past. Are we supposed to simplify this story? Can we not be clear and not be simplistic?''
Plans being made for 2004 International Eucharisti...
If you can see this, and you're using a Mac, let m...
Fr. Thomas Doyle analyzes the new draft of the cha...
You see, we're all evolving...Don't panic. Got a ...
In regard to my comments on the revised policy:I d...
UK monks and nuns taking their music into the worl...
Congress is speeding to pass legislation that woul...
Disputations has information about the valiant wor...
Notice to parents spending $25,000 a year to send ...
Alex Beam of the Globe gives over a column to Ches...
Goldhagen and some of his critics:Deborah Dwork, p...
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Angry Robots
Because robots are real, and they eat old people's medicine for fuel
The Complete David Lynch: Eraserhead
This summer I’m watching every David Lynch movie ever, as part of the Alamo Drafthouse’s The Complete David Lynch series. These are my notes. Don’t take them seriously.
At a downtown Austin bar in the early evening, I sip a strong beer, and try to remember the last time I saw Eraserhead. It’s been at last 15 years.
I first saw it in high school–that much I know. In those days, Ontario schools were still tracked, and I attended an “arts” school, full of weirdos and musicians and future film students. (Our claim to fame was–and probably still is–that James Cameron also attended. He wrote The Abyss while roaming those same halls. Still a sci-fi dreamer, still years from becoming an eccentric, mega-rich submarine pilot.) The school attracted creative types, and I was constantly in the orbit of strange and interesting people. For me, high school was a four-year crash course on extreme music, underground art, fringe politics, drug culture, and movies.
Every weekend, we’d gather in the basement of a friend whose parents were permanently gone, and whose adult guardian was, you know, cool. We’d stay up late, drinking, listening to music, talking about anything and everything, and watching videotapes. I lived for those nights. Of all the things I saw in that basement, a few stand out as thematically related and ultimately unforgettable: the Alien Workshop video (as much a work of cultural collage art as it is a skate video), Faces of Death (which we didn’t know at the time was largely fake), and Eraserhead. All three were strangely impressive. And all three were unsettling and subversive and deconstructionist in ways that would take me a decade to fully grasp.
I had no idea who David Lynch was at the time, and I remember being blown away by how deeply repulsive but undeniably mesmerizing Eraserhead was. How could those two qualities coexist? The obvious scenes stuck in my memory: the lady in the radiator, the dinner scene, the deformed baby. It seemed as if there was a hidden message, floating just below the surface, waiting to be understood. Like a Rubik’s Cube that just needed a few more twists. But ultimately, I didn’t know what it meant, and in the few times I’ve seen it since then, I’m not sure I’ve made any progress at all in figuring it out.
Fast forward to now. I strike up a conversation with the couple sitting next to me, one of whom is wearing an Eraserhead hoodie (a clear sign that they’re also going to tonight’s screening). I ask about their history with the film. The woman says, “When we first started dating, he made me watch it. He said that if we were going to date, I needed to sit through it. It was a test.” Which makes total sense to me–though I admittedly have no idea what is being tested, or what should rightly constitute passing or failing.
Before the film starts, we’re encouraged to spend a minute in meditation, to prepare us for what we’re about to experience. I take this very seriously, and attempt to calm my thoughts, in anticipation of what I already know is a monumentally confounding piece of cinema. I focus on my breathing, and prepare to accept whatever comes.
Seeing Eraserhead anew, most of what I notice about it is formal. The use of sound: constant, rumbling, organic hums, rattles, and buzzes (apparently Lynch obsessed over this). The first appearances of some iconic Lynchian visual elements: the chevron patterned floor, the superimpositions and long cross dissolves, the framing. John Nance’s highly nuanced performance. Knowing what I now know about Lynch, it’s hard not to search for these stylistic (but technical) trademarks, and there’s a surprising wealth of them.
But when it comes to themes–to meaning–I’m still utterly stumped. If anything, Eraserhead seems (in a career full of challenging works) even weirder than I remember, and maybe the most impenetrable of all Lynch’s films. The story, such as it is, seems loosely concerned with antipathy, isolation and fragility. But in the filthy, forgotten world of the film, there are also definite flickers of deep beauty, hope, and wonder. I definitely feel pity and love for the god forsaken baby-creature in a way I don’t remember feeling before–an innocent victim of nature, born into dying, hideous but (as a baby) innately beautiful.
Given these competing interests, I’m tempted to think that Eraserhead is not really about anything at all. It’s obviously more of a mood piece than a narrative film, but what if it’s only a mood piece? What if it’s purely the frame of a mirror, onto which we project our own themes and hopes and nightmares? And if so, what’s a healthy reaction to it? Am I terrified by Eraserhead, or am I terrified by my own worldview?
Walking outside, into the filth and revelry of Sixth Street in the summertime, I’m stirred (in a good way) by the experience I’ve just had. I walk around a little, and try to work through what I’ve seen. I haven’t made any grand realizations, and don’t have confidence that I will. But maybe I’m seeing some dots that’ll begin to connect as we move on to The Elephant Man? Or maybe these mysteries will just be replaced by new ones? I guess we’ll see.
This entry was posted in Film, Reviews by Math. Bookmark the permalink.
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AC/DC to Finally Join Streaming Services
© Luke MacGregor / Reuters
AC/DC fans will finally be able to stream the Australian band’s music on subscription streaming services such as Spotify, Rdio, and Apple Music as early as Tuesday, The New York Times reports, citing a number of people with knowledge of the plan. AC/DC, which has sold 72 million albums in the U.S. alone, has long been opposed to streaming services and only began selling its music on iTunes three years ago. A spokesman for the band declined to comment.
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What's Moving Markets: This Week's U.S. Update
October 22, 2018 | IN Insider, Education, Expert, Market Insights, News | BY Trading Central
It's the middle of October, and there have been numerous big movers, significant technical events, earnings preview and notable corporate news. This article covers a brief rundown of this week's U.S. Market pivotal movement written by our North American research desk.
The S&P 500 closed flat on the week. Stocks remain down sharply for the month. The Dow and S&P 500 declined more than 4 percent this month, while the Nasdaq is down almost 7%. In the short term, We turned bullish on the S&P 500 as the index tests the 200-day simple moving average as support. The RSI just broke above its 35 level from its prior oversold reading of 18. A rebound remains in play towards 2873 which corresponds to our stop-loss on a weekly chart and the swing high of Jan 26th.
We advise Caution on the Russell index as it remains under pressure below 1600 to test October lows.
The VIX turned bearish below 23 as it looks to retrace back down to normality around the 14.5 level.
The Russell index remains under pressure below 1600 as it tests October lows.
Regarding the weekly sector performance, the worst performing stocks were in the Consumer Durables & Apparel (-3.53%), Semiconductors & Semiconductor Equipment (-2.72%) and Retailing (-2.35%) sectors while the best performing stocks were in the Household & Personal Products (+6.83%), Food, Beverage & Tobacco (+3.89%) and Real Estate (+3.21%) sectors.
On the corporate front:
Alcoa (AA +8.21% WoW to $38.6) reported 3Q adj. EPS of $0.63 (estimated $0.30) vs. $0.72 a year ago on revenue up 14.35% YoY to $3.39B (forecasted $3.31B). Net loss reached $41M vs. net income of $113M in 3Q17. The Co cut its FY guidance on global aluminum demand to a growth of 3.75% - 4.75% from the prior forecast of 4.25% - 5.25% and revised its FY estimate for global aluminum deficit lower towards 1M - 1.4M metric tons vs. prior view of 1.1M - 1.5M.
United Rentals (URI -15.06% WoW to $117.12) unveiled that 3Q adjusted EPS rose 45.8% YoY to $4.74 (estimated $4.57) and adjusted Ebitda increased 20.5% to $1.06B (estimated $1.02B) on revenue of $2.12B (estimated $2.02B), up 19.8%. Rental revenue rose 21.2% to $1.86B. The Co raised full-year adjusted ebitda guidance to $3.765-3.815B from $3.715-3.815B previously and total revenue view to $7.77-7.87B from $7.64-7.84B. Besides, the Co printed a new 52w low.
Textron (TXT -12.79% WoW to $56.75) posted 3Q adj. EPS from continuing operations of $0.61 (estimated $0.76) vs. $0.65 a year ago on revenue of $3.2B (forecasted $3.5B) compared to $3.5B in the prior year. Net income jumped 254% YoY to $563M. The Co sees FY adj. EPS from continuing operations in a range of $3.2 - $3.3 (expected $3.33).
Activision Blizzard (ATVI -10.49% WoW to $69.75) fell as sales for its much anticipated game, Call of Duty: Black Ops 4, sold 8.3M units worldwide ($500M) in its first three days of release, missing Jefferies' expectations of 10M copies sold, according to Bloomberg.
IBM (IBM -8.34% WoW to $129.1) announced 3Q operating adj. EPS of $3.42 (estimated $3.4) vs. $3.13 a year ago on revenue of $18.76B (forecasted $19.08B) from $19.15B in the previous year. Gross margin remained unchanged YoY at 46.9%, lower than expectations of 47.3%. The Co expects operating adj. EPS in FY2018 of at least $13.8. Besides, the Co printed a new 52w low.
United Continental (UAL +9.04% WoW to $87.43) reported 3Q adj. EPS rose 36% YoY to $3.06 (estimated $3.10) on operating revenue of $11B (estimated $10.97B), up 11.2%. Passenger load factor rose 1.6 percentage points on year to 86.0% while Passenger Revenue per Available Seat Mile (PRASM) jumped 5.8%. The Co raised full-year adjusted EPS view to $8.00-8.75 (estimated $8.21) from $7.25-8.75 previously and sees full-year capacity growth at 4.9%. In other news, the Co was raised to "buy" from "hold" at Deutsche Bank.
L-3 Communications (LLL +9.93% WoW to $215.23) announced its 3Q preliminary results with adj. EPS from continuing operations up 59% YoY to $2.85 (estimated $2.39) with sales up 10% YoY to $2.5B, in-line with forecasts. The Co raised its FY guidance of adj. EPS from continuing operations to a range of $10.2 - $10.3 (expected $10.01) from the previous forecast of $9.8 - $10. In other news, the Co and Harris Corp (HRS +9.08% WoW to $168.93) have agreed to an all stock merger to create the "6th largest defense company in the US and a top 10 defense company globally" which will be named L3 Harris Technologies. L3 shareholders will receive 1.3 shares of Harris stock for each share of L3 common stock. Shareholders in Harris will own 54% of the combined Co while L3 shareholders will own 46%. The deal is expected to close in mid-calendar year 2019. Finally, both companies broke above their 200-day moving average and reached their 52w high.
Procter & Gamble (PG +10.42% WoW to $87.3) announced 1Q core EPS of $1.12 (estimated $1.08) vs. $1.09 a year ago on net sales of $16.69B (forecasted $16.46B) compared to $16.65B in the prior year. Net income improved by 12.1% YoY to $3.2B. The Co maintained its FY19 guidance for organic sales growth to the range of 2-3% and for core EPS growth of 3-8% YoY.
PayPal (PYPL +7.28% WoW to $84.78) reported 3Q adj. EPS of $0.58 (estimated $0.54) vs. $0.46 last year on net revenue of $3.68B (forecasted $3.67B) compared to $3.24B in the prior year. Net income improved by 14.7% YoY to $436M while active accounts expanded by 15% YoY to 254M accounts. The Co boosted its FY guidance on adj. EPS to a range of $2.38 - $2.4 (expected $2.34) vs. prior view of $2.32 - $2.35 and raised the lower end of its FY forecast of net revenue to reach $15.42B - $15.5B (estimated $15.43B) compared to previous $15.3B - $15.5B.
Technical events on Friday:
50D MA cross over: American Express (AXP +3.78% to $106.73), Coca-Cola (KO +1.58% to $46.33), Exelon (EXC +2.44% to $44.13), General Electric (GE +1.45% to $12.56), Kraft Heinz (KHC +3.64% to $57.56), Procter & Gamble (PG +8.8% to $87.3), Southern Co (SO +1.74% to $45.07).
50D MA cross under: Medtronic (MDT -2.06% to $93.94).
Relative strength stock/S&P500 50D MA cross over: Mondelez International (MDLZ +1.85% to $41.8), PayPal (PYPL +9.42% to $84.78), UPS (UPS +1.53% to $116.49).
Relative strength stock/S&P500 50D MA cross under: NetFlix (NFLX -4.05% to $332.67), Target (TGT -1.61% to $82.02).
Here are some upcoming earnings releases to focus on:
On Tuesday, McDonald's is expected to report 3Q EPS of $2 vs. $1.76 a year ago on revenue of $5.3B from $5.8B in the previous year. An analyst at Keybanc has cut the Co's 3Q estimate of US comparable sales to +2.5% from +3%. Technically speaking, the RSI is above its neutrality area at 50 while the MACD is below its signal line and positive. The stock could retrace in the short term. Moreover, the stock is above its 20 and 50 day MA (respectively at 165.88 and 163.1). We expect to reach a higher target of $177.2 with a stop-loss of $161.8.
On same day, Caterpillar is likely to announce 3Q EPS of $2.85 vs. $1.95 last year on higher revenue of $13.3B compared to $11.4B in the prior year. The Board decided to maintain the quarterly cash dividend of $0.86 per share payable November 20th to shareholders of record at the close of October 22nd. From a chartist point of view, the RSI is below 30. It could either mean that the stock is in a lasting downtrend or just oversold and therefore bound to retrace (look for bullish divergence in this case). The MACD is negative and below its signal line. The configuration is negative. Moreover, the share stands below its 20 and 50 day MA (respectively at 148.3 and 144.35). Finally, Caterpillar is trading below its lower daily Bollinger band (standing at 133.45). Caterpillar is currently trading near its 52 week low at 129.4 reached on 19/10/17. We are looking for prices to go down towards $122.4 with a stop-loss of $141.3.
On Wednesday in the after-hours, Microsoft is awaited to unveil 1Q EPS of $0.961 vs. $0.843 a year ago on increased revenue reaching $27.9B vs. $24.5B a year earlier. According to the European Commission, the Co has won the unconditional EU approval to buy Github, the open-source software development platform. From a technical point of view, the stock broke below a rising trend line in place since July. We expect to reach lower levels towards $100.7 near the 200-day moving average with a stop-loss set at $112.85.
On Thursday, Celgene is anticipated to post 3Q EPS of $2.23 vs. $1.91 last year on revenue of $3.8B from $3.3B in the previous year. Looking at the chart, the RSI is below 50 while the MACD is negative and below its signal line. The configuration is negative. Moreover, the stock is trading under both its 20 and 50 day MA (respectively at 87 and 89.07). We expect the stock to trade lower towards $76.4 with a stop-loss of $87.4.
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Royal Thai Air Force expands fleet with additional H225M order
Airbus Helicopters has secured an additional order of four H225M (previously known as EC725) multirole utility helicopters from the Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF), as part of the fleet strengthening programme. This follow-on order will bring the RTAF’s H225M fleet to 12 units by 2021. Specially equipped with emergency flotation gear, ...
Rafael Demonstrates Air Defence Systems to International Audience
Representatives from 16 countries took part in a special demonstration conducted by Rafael Advanced Defense Systems of its air defence systems and capabilities, which also included seminars and meetings with top Israeli Ministry of Defence (IMOD) and Air Force officials. Yossi Horowitz, Director of Marketing and BD for Rafael's Air...
Rosoboronexport Puts Up Strong Show at Indo Defence 2016
Rosoboronexport (part of the Rostec State Corporation) is displaying 225 pieces of military hardware, signifying its strong commitment for the Indonesian defence market, at the Indo Defence show, underway in Jakarta, Indonesia. Nine stands by major Russian domestic defense manufacturers are showcasing the latest Russian Military hard...
Refuel International wins $47 million fuel tanker contract
The Minister for Defence Industry, the Hon Christopher Pyne, today announced Refuel International - based in Sunshine West in Melbourne – has won the $47 million contract to construct the Australian Defence Force’s new aviation fuel tankers. The new fleet will allow the Australian Defence Force to retire its current ageing fleet of r...
RAAF KC-30A Multi Role Tanker Transport (MRTT) to a United States Air Force C-17A Globemaster III
The first air-to-air refuelling from an RAAF KC-30A Multi Role Tanker Transport (MRTT) to a United States Air Force (USAF) C-17A Globemaster III occurred on February 10 over Edwards Air Force Base in the United States. The five-hour sortie saw 39 contacts between the KC-30A and C-17A aircraft. During these contacts approximately 6,800 kilograms ...
RAAF heads to Nevada for Exercise Red Flag
The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) has deployed 14 aircraft and approximately 410 personnel to Exercise Red Flag 16-1 in the United States. Held at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada from January 19 until February 13, Exercise Red Flag 16-1 will involve 6 F/A-18F Super Hornet aircraft from RAAF Base Amberley, 6 F/A-18 A/B Hornet aircraft from RA...
Refreshed tanks delivered to School of Armour
The first of ten ‘refreshed’ M1A1 Abrams tanks has been delivered to the Army’s School of Armour at Puckapunyal, Victoria. The Land Systems Division (LSD) within the Capability Acquisition and Sustainment Group (CASG) worked with Army and Joint Logistics Unit – Victoria (JLU-V) to deliver the tanks as part of a major Ta...
RAND report into Australian shipbuilding released
Today the Government releases a comprehensive report into the Australian naval ship building industry, Australia’s Naval Shipbuilding Enterprise – preparing for the 21st century by the RAND Corporation, one of the world’s leading defence think-tanks. In September last year, the Government commissioned RAND to conduct a detailed...
RAAF launches Plan Jericho vision.
A strategy to transform the Royal Australian Air Force for the future, Plan Jericho, was today released by the Chief of Air Force, Air Marshal Geoff Brown AO. Releasing Plan Jericho in Melbourne ahead of tomorrow’s Australian International Airshow at Avalon, AIRMSHL Brown said the much-anticipated plan would set Air Force on a path o...
RAAF units participate in Exercise RED FLAG 15-1 in Nevada
Three weeks of intensive air combat training wraps up today as Exercise RED FLAG 15-1 concludes at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada. A contingent of 150 Royal Australian Air Force personnel have participated with two C-130J Hercules transports and an AP-3C Orion surveillance aircraft, working alongside counterparts from the United States and Unit...
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