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Story #5 – The New West and Wexit
By 2036, Canada’s four Westernmost provinces are projected to be home to more than a third of the country. Over the next 20 years, growth in the West is expected to outpace every other region in the nation.
But as the West grows, so too does the chorus of voices expressing frustration over the economic influence and political clout these provinces believe they should have, relative to what they do have.
Against the backdrop of oil and gas production in Alberta, Saskatchewan and Northern BC, pressure to find markets for these products, and a fierce debate over whether Canada’s resource economy should be promoted or suppressed, public opinion data reveals antipathy towards Ottawa and national regulators that hasn’t been seen in nearly two generations.
With these issues dominating conversations and galvanizing populations across the country, the Angus Reid Institute carried out an exhaustive study of Western Canada – through the eyes of both its own residents and those who live elsewhere in the country.
Explore our New West series here:
http://angusreid.org/the-new-west/
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AFLW February 14, 2016 DEPARTMENTS, Humor, ISSUES, Letter to L.A., Non-Fiction, REAL
A Love Letter to Los Angeles by Sara Benincasa
Dear Los Angeles:
You are my Valentine.
Allow me to explain why.
I’m sitting here at my kitchen table, listening to the howls of my neighborhood coyote, Mark. It’s that time of the year for Mark — mating season. So Mark’s on the prowl, and he’s got a lot to say lately. I stay out of Mark’s way, because he’s a powerful creature who could easily bite me, but as yet, Mark has shown no interest in doing so. In fact, Mark walks by me sometimes at night and completely ignores me. Oh, he knows I’m there, but he doesn’t care. Mark’s got his eye on bigger things, like keeping his genetic line alive.
Honestly, with his deep sense of purpose and profound lack of interest in anyone who doesn’t directly affect his day-to-day life, Mark’s more like a New Yorker than a Los Angeleno — at least those of the human variety.
Now here I must be honest with you and tell you that I love New York and I always will, in the way that I will always love my first real high school boyfriend — at a distance, respectfully, fondly, with a slightly romantic nostalgia and gratitude that things didn’t work out for us because that’s not what was meant to happen. I like to visit. I like to catch up. We’re both better off now. This is truly how it was meant to be.
Sara Benincasa / Photo by Iconic Pinups
I grew up in New Jersey, not too far from the city, but that’s another world. I moved to Boston when I was 18, to go to Emerson College. I spent some time in the Netherlands, eating chocolate. I dropped out and moved back to Jersey when I was 21. I moved to North Carolina later, to attend Warren Wilson College, and then at 23 moved to the Southwest, to work with AmeriCorps, which is the Peace Corps for people who enjoy indoor plumbing and avoid malaria shots whenever possible. I moved to New York when I was 24, to attend Columbia and get a master’s degree and become a public school teacher. I got the degree but swiftly became a comedian and lived some early version of the hit documentary series known as “Broad City.”
In this business we call show, it is generally acknowledged as advantageous to spend a lot of time, perhaps most of one’s time, in Los Angeles. So I’ve been bicoastal for the past few years.
I am now 35. I have had at least 17 addresses since I was 18 years old. I may have a few more before I shuffle off this mortal coil (hopefully, not for a while, of course.) Now, I have an address in Los Angeles, near Mark, my best friend.
I hope I am here to stay. For real.
That doesn’t mean I won’t leave you sometimes, you sexy bitch. I like to travel. I haven’t spent more than four weeks in one place for the past 18 months. The road, she calls me, and I must answer, whether to tell jokes next to a Waffle House or explore the ins and outs of strange and exotic Barnes & Noble stores around the country.
But I’m proud to call you home.
Los Angeles, in you I find a kind of excitement and possibility and hope and weirdness and oddball eccentricity that has increasingly fled New York for other, more affordable cities. You are bizarre and full of witches and curious plant life. You are the mountains and the sea and the desert and the strip mall parking lot and other pieces of paradise.
And while it is true that your real estate market is insane when it comes to purchasing a home, I’m not looking to purchase a home. Not yet, anyway. Nor are many of my friends. We’re looking for decent rent. We’re looking to live lives as that rarest of birds: the middle-class working artist.
This is not possible for most people in New York City. It is a city that has become increasingly hostile to working artists. And I’m done giving myself brownie points for struggling constantly to find some kind of financial stability and peace of mind there.
But it is possible here, sometimes. Particularly if one expands one’s definition of Los Angeles to include the Valley — which I hold to be a glorious place, but you must keep in mind I also love my native state of New Jersey, which is “The Valley East.”
I’ll admit, I don’t have a fancy home. I have a studio. Mark prowls around outside and yells a lot. The pipes make funny noises in the walls. I am fairly certain a skunk is on the loose. Combine this with the stinky marijuana factory nearby and you’ve got a pungent home atmosphere.
You, Los Angeles, are choked with traffic. You survive on stolen water. You have earthquakes. You’re better than NYC when it comes to rent, but you’re still absurd about it. People here live in poverty. People here live in squalor. People here live in pain, just as they do anywhere else in the world.
You are not perfect.
But I love you. You are so much more than an amalgamation of hallucinatory pop culture fantasies and fake-titty manufacturing concerns and dental-whitening facilities. You are diverse geographically, culturally, in so many other ways. You have the best damn food I’ve had in any city in the world. You have a gorgeous parks system, and it’s free. You have the sun, and sometimes the rain, but mostly the sun. You have a passionate, engaged network of nonprofit workers and volunteers who seek to serve all your people.
I’m, like, super-into-you.
So I love you, Los Angeles, and Happy Valentine’s Day.
Sara Benincasa
Sara Benincasa is a comedian, host of the “Where Ya From?” podcast, and the author of four books, including the YA novel (soon film) “DC Trip” and the nonfiction title “Real Artists Have Day Jobs (And Other Awesome Things They Don’t Teach You in School).” At the time of this writing, she lived in Mark the Coyote’s neighborhood. Follow her on Twitter and Instagram.
Posted in DEPARTMENTS, Humor, ISSUES, Letter to L.A., Non-Fiction, REAL. Bookmark the permalink.
Paper Moon by Alan Rifkin
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[Introduction.] [Main JM Index.] [Bridges Index.] [People Index.]
[Abbreviations.] [Units & Currency.] [Glossary.]
Shepparton Bridge (1913-1960s)
Above. Part elevation, part section, dated 13 September 1912.
Note: The drawing above was extracted from a copy published in The Commonwealth Engineer, 1 August 1913, Vol. 1, pp.20-21. The deck of the bridge was just under 26 feet wide [8m], providing a 20-foot roadway and 4-foot footpath.
Photographs of the completed bridge may be seen by searching the Picture Collection of The State Library of Victoria for Image Numbers: rg004150; rg008886; rg008908; and a00818.
Monash's reinforced concrete bridge at Shepparton was built across the Goulburn River in 1913 to replace a decaying timber structure. The bridge led from the end of Fryers St across the river, in the direction of Mooroopna. At that time, the river looped alongside Welsford Street, as shown in the sketch map below. In the 1960s the course of the river was straightened to improve flow, and Monash's bridge became redundant. It was replaced by an embankment.
Sketch map showing course of river at time of construction. Based on a diagram published in the Annual Report for 1969-1970 of the Country Roads Board, Victoria.
Although the bridge no longer exists, the story of its design and construction is worth relating because of the intriguing personal and professional relationships involved. By the time proposals firmed, the Shire Engineer for Shepparton was H F Tisdall, who had worked for Monash eight years earlier, supervising construction of his Stawell Street Bridge at Ballarat. For some time after that, he had served as a travelling representative, marketing the firm's products and services, mainly to the State's municipalities.
The doubtful protection afforded by the Monier patent in Australia had expired in 1910; so in 1912 Tisdall was entirely free to design the new bridge himself as Shire Engineer. However he decided that it would be better to rely on Monash's hard-won experience of the relatively new technology, and with the Council's approval, invited him to act as consulting engineer.
The role of Consulting Engineer would include inspecting and assessing the site; surveying the topography and soil conditions; deciding on the number of spans and placement of piers; calculating the required proportions of concrete components and the size and disposition of reinforcement; preparing cost estimates, drawings and specifications; calling and assessing tenders from construction companies; and finally supervising the work of the appointed conctractor, to ensure compliance with the specifications.
The arrangement was curious because Monash, as a director and chief engineer of the Reinforced Concrete & Monier Pipe Construction Company, had always maintained that both design and construction of reinforced concrete should be carried out by a single firm - that it was specialist work that could not be entrusted to general contractors. However, despite his strong links with the RCMPC's factory and construction team, his engineering practice was consituted as an independent business. There was no legal or contractual reason why he should not act as a consultant in this case. Also, he must have seen the invitation as an opportunity to maximise the chance that RCMPC would win the contract to build the bridge. He was careful to inform the Shire Council that RCMPC would probably enter a tender for construction of the bridge, and added that if they won the contract he would not claim his fee for design, as this would be part of the tender price.
The drawing and specification prepared by Monash and his assistants gave no details of reinforcement, making it possible for prospective tenderers to use patented systems of reinforcement for which they might have licences. It meant, however, they would have to work out the details for themselves, and take full responsibility for the safety and durability of the structure. Monash ensured that the design published as part of the specification was generously dimensioned, and included cast-iron cylinders as pile-caps rather than the economical Monier pipes that he intended to use, should RCMPC win the contract.
In the event, RCMPC's was the only tender received. Obviously, Monash could not now act as both consulting enginer and contractor, so the Council appointed Tisdall with the title of "Supervising Engineer". It also appointed a Clerk of Works to overlook proceedings on site on a daily basis, despite Monash's objection that it was unnecessary.
It seems that Tisdall hoped to re-establish a friendly personal relationship with his former employer, and invited him to stay at his home while on visits to Shepparton. However, Monash politely deflected his approaches. As work progressed some tension developed between them, due to the inevitable conflicts between client's representative and contractor.
When work started on the foundations it was found that the ground was weaker than had been suggested by the rudimentary site investigation, and that it would be advisable to deepen the abutment blocks by four feet (1.22m). Although contracts at the time would normally treat this as part of the Contractor's risk, most contractors would argue for compensation, nonetheless. However, with Monash's name so closely linked to the project, he was determined that the final price should be the one he had quoted: he wanted no "extras". He therefore proposed to Tisdall that the cost of the extra concrete be reduced by including lumps of stone (spawls) in it, to reduce the volume of cement and sand required.
The evidence in RCMPC's archives suggests that Tisdall initially gave verbal approval for this; but then decided or was persuaded that he must enforce the letter of Monash's own specification, which permitted spawls only in the abutment wing walls. This prompted Monash to appeal to Shepparton's Shire Secretary, (Captain) Charles Nugent, to try to use his influence with the Councillors. Their response was to confirm that Tisdall must obtain their prior approval for any deviations from the specification. Monash declared that this situation was intolerable and would lead to "inordinate delay". He noted that he and his foreman preferred to deal with the Clerk of Works who was more willing to adopt a give-and-take approach. He urged the Council to give Tisdall either full powers, or none at all.
Nugent's rank was presumably in the Citizen Military Forces.
The resulting tension gave rise to rumours of malpractice, and Monash travelled to Shepparton for a meeting with the full Council to defend his reputation and argue his point of view. The Councillors confirmed that he had their complete confidence; but continued to insist that all applications for variations be submitted to them. It was made clear that Tisdall's only role was to certify quality and quantity for the monthly progress payments as work was completed. Matters remained in this unsatisfactory state, with Monash continuing to rely heavily on Nugent for support, advice, and at times action, throughout the remainder of the project. After some initial sparring, the foreman and clerk of works negotiated minor issues amicably on a daily basis.
Once the foundations had been completed, construction of the superstructure proceeded reasonably smoothly, and the bridge was nearly complete by June 1913. Part of the old bridge then had to be removed to allow construction of a new wing wall, so traffic had to be directed onto the new structure a few weeks before it could be formally handed over to the Council. The load test took place on 14 August, 1913. The final winding-up of the contract was delayed for some months by the high level of the river, which prevented the removal of temporary timber work, and application of a coat of mortar to the pile caps. Disputes about minor matters brought further delay, and the final cheque was delivered to RCMPC early in April 1914.
Detailed history
How the contract came to RCMPC
First approach
On 1 March 1910, the then Shire Engineer, Blair McKay, wrote to Monash: "I am recommending my Council to erect a Reinforced Concrete Bridge over the Goulburn River at Shepparton in place of present wooden Town Bridge which is worn out and I should be greatly indebted to you if you could let me know the approximate cost of a R.C. structure after the style of Benalla Bridge which you showed me when I called at your office". Monash was happy to do so, but warned that any quote could not be binding until detailed design had been completed. The actual price would be influenced by the time of year at which the contract was let, because the Goulburn River was subject to severe flooding. McKay supplied a sketch cross-section of the river bed, and noted that work would probably commence in the summer because the Council had yet to arrange finance.
First design and estimate
Monash's first thought on commencing design was that, if he made the centre span 50 feet long (15.2m) he would have to build only one pier foundation in the water (under summer conditions). However, he had so far limited his spans in reinforced concrete to about 40 feet (12.2m). He concluded: "All things considered, I do not think it prudent, at present juncture, to jump our practice up to 50-foot spans."
The Public Works Department had specified a clearance of 300 feet (91.4m) between abutments, to allow for discharge during floods. Monash proposed seven spans of 42 feet (12.8m), providing a clearance of 294 feet. Another foot could be added to each span if the PWD insisted on its 300 feet.
Monash decided to make the deck and girders similar to those of his Janevale bridge. This suggested a cost for the Shepparton deck of £824. Turning to the piers, which were relatively "very high", he decided: "we must spread these for stability against heavy floods and I propose a framed pier after the type of Thebarton, but based on 3 legs, i.e. 3 cylinders, with a good spread". At this stage, the "cylinders" seem to have been envisaged as a sort of sunk pile, formed from large-diameter Monier pipes placed vertically one above the other, as at Maribyrnong. Pier superstructures, if similar to those at Thebarton, would cost about £480, and their cylinder foundations about £150. The abutments would need to be "somewhat deeper and wider than Janevale". Allowing for a 50% increase gave a cost for the two of £162. The abutments would be founded on "pot holes" 3 feet square in plan, sunk to the level of the clay, and filled with concrete. For these he allowed £216. A further £80 was allowed for road surfacing and kerbs; £180 for transport of materials to Shepparton; £150 for temporary staging and contingencies; and £375 for handrails and "other ornamentation".
Note. To form a sunk pile in this manner, a large-diameter concrete pipe would have been stood vertically on the ground, pressing on a metal cutting ring of the same diameter. A workman inside the pipe would excavate material within the circle, allowing the cylinder to sink into the ground. A second pipe would then be placed vertically on top of the first, and so on, until the desired depth was reached. The interior of the cylinder pile would then be filled with concrete.
On 5 March 1910, Monash submitted preliminary quotes for three alternative treatments:
With plain timber handrails £3100-3200
With plain steel and iron handrails £3200-3300
With architectural effects (like Benalla) £3400-3500.
These prices included margins of £800, £850, and £900 respectively.
State and Shires reach agreement on funding for reinforced concrete
Following representations from the Council, the Minister for Public Works, W L Baillieu, visited the old bridge on 16 May 1910. The Argus reported that its dilapidated state "has caused considerable anxiety to the travelling public for some time past".
Shortly before Monash's bridge opened, an article appeared in the Shepparton Advertiser of 11 August 1913, remembering the condition of the old timber bridge. It "brought the heart into the mouth of many a mortal and quaked him with fear as its timbers shook when he passed over in a conveyance or dray. Sometimes a piece of the decking would start up as if in protest ... And sometimes horse or pedestrian would trip, and the question of damages and suing the Shire Council would at once take possession of the aggrieved individual's senses. Blackstone, the jurist of old, had pointed out that a corporation has 'neither a body to be kicked nor a soul to be damned'; and the temptation of 'going for the Council' often went no further."
Engineers of the Public Works Department (PWD) had estimated that the life of the timber bridge could be extended by some years at a cost of £800 or £900, while a new "up-to-date" (i.e. reinforced concrete) structure would cost £4000. Baillieu promised to bring the matter to the attention of Cabinet, and urge the Premier and Treasurer to visit Shepparton at once. The Shepparton Council had hoped that the adjoining Shire of Rodney would contribute an equal proportion of the cost, but the Rodney Council argued this was unfair because the bridge lay entirely within the Shepparton boundary.
Eighteen months later, in November 1911, Shepparton councillors, accompanied by their new Engineer, H F Tisdall, inspected the old bridge and declared it unsafe and beyond repair. They enlisted the help of George Graham, a local notable, currently Minister for Agriculture, who contacted W H Edgar, the Acting Minister for Public Works. This group arranged a further inspection of the bridge, together with Carlo Catani, the Chief Engineer of the PWD, and confirmed Baillieu's previous assessment. By now, the cost of a reinforced concrete bridge was being quoted as £4,500. Edgar promised that, if the two shires each contributed one-third, he would recommend that the State Government find the balance. Within a few days, the ratepayers of Rodney Shire met in protest, demanding that any money available be spent instead on repairing the road between Mooroopna and Shepparton.
Wrangling between the two Shires and the Government over their relative contributions continued for several months, with deputations back and forth between the parties. Confusion over the estimated cost of the bridge, and the amounts expected from the two Councils, is reflected in the newspaper reports. Baillieu, back as Minister of Public Works, stated that he had no record of Edgar's promise, and that "strong representations" would have to be made to promote the project within Cabinet, ahead of competing claims. Graham appears to have lost his temper and was reprimanded even by the Shepparton Councillors for his discourteous remarks about the Rodney Shire.
"No record" of Baillieu's promise: Herald 17 Jan.; "strong representations" Age 18 Jan.; "discourteous remarks": Argus 28 Feb. All 1912.
On 28 February 1912, The Argus reported that the Minister of Public Works had agreed to contribute £1,500, and had promised to advance the balance required by loan at 6% on a 33-year basis. Shepparton Council agreed to contribute £2,000, and asked Rodney Council to raise the remaining £1,000. Rodney agreed to do so, on condition it could repay the loan over a shorter period.
The Shire Engineer and Monash negotiate their responsibilities
On 10 March 1912, Tisdall felt able to write to Monash to inform him that "our bridge is nearly assured". It was time to sort out their professional relationship. The protection afforded to RCMPC by the Monier patent had always been questionable, but it had expired in 1910. Tisdall was definitely free to design the bridge himself and supervise the calling of tenders, for which he would receive a fee of 5% of the value of the project. However, he wrote that he would prefer Monash, with his "expert knowledge", to carry out the design, and also hoped that RCMPC would win the job, because its "experienced men" would do "better and quicker work" than less experienced contractors. The only problem was that this would deprive Tisdall of his fee. [It would also deprive him of the satisfaction of having a bridge to his name, but on the other hand relieve him of much of the work and responsibility.]
Note on values. Five per cent of £4500 is £225. This was a significant amount, consistent with the specialist knowledge, effort, and responsibility involved. When Monash was looking in September 1909 for an engineer to head the South Australian Reinforced Concrete Company, he told a prospective applicant that the annual salary would be from £300 to £350 upwards. The position was described as administrative head of "a fairly large construction and general contracting Company, dealing with all kinds of civil engineering projects", whilst "the man selected would have to have a good general knowledge of civil engineering design and practice; but a first class capacity for organisation and administration of industrial works would be essential".
Monash suggested that one solution would be for RCMPC to prepare the drawings and specifications, but allow Tisdall to take the credit for them, as had occurred in the case of the Benalla Bridge. However, in that case, RCMPC would feel obliged to make the dimensions and specification somewhat conservative, to guard against the possibility of an inexperienced contractor winning the job with a recklessly low bid and producing lower quality work. This in turn meant that if RCMPC won the contract, they would expect Tisdall not to stick to the precise detail of the design, because RCMPC, with its greater quality control and its willingness to provide a solid guarantee, would be able to refine it. An alternative arrangement would be for RCMPC to guarantee that, if it won the contract, it would pay Tisdall 2.5% for copies of the drawings and specifications.
Pending agreement on this matter, Monash asked Tisdall to send him a precisely surveyed profile of the river; cross-sections of the ground near the abutments; and information on the underlying soil obtained from holes dug ten feet deep (3.05m) into both banks.
In his reply, Tisdall noted that he counted himself as one of Monash's pupils. (He had worked on the Stawell St bridge and had acted as a roving salesman for RCMPC.) This had equipped him for major responsibilities as an executive Engineer supervising the construction of bridges across the Western Main Channel of Victoria's irrigation scheme. He would be happy to receive drawings from RCMPC that he could approve or modify; but he would not wish to claim any kudos. He noted that a recent fruitless project, for RCMPC to build a bridge at Nalinga, had shown that he and Monash had different approaches to design. Tisdall thought it possible to design the superstructure of a bridge without knowing the profile of the waterway or the nature of the foundation. For Shepparton, he favoured "straight parallel girders of, if possible, fifty feet span". For the foundations and piers, he was "inclined to favour driven piles with rather more reinforcing than is usually allowed, of as large a diameter as can be conveniently manipulated". He concluded: "As the actual site has not yet been decided upon, I cannot give any further notes".
Monash replied cordially, but repeated that he could not make much progress until he had "a proper section of the site", including "soundings, and a few trial pits" to determine subsurface conditions. To optimise the structure he needed to be able to work out the relative cost of substructure and superstructure - and for this he needed to know the length of the columns and the type of foundation necessary, as well as the length of spans. Fifty-foot spans "would be very costly indeed, owing to heavy dead load". Forty-foot spans would be advisable. To provide the specified gap between the abutments, there was a choice of "six spans each 51'-8" with five piers, or seven spans each 44'-4" with six piers, or eight spans each 38'-9" with seven piers". Monash implied that a smaller number of spans would look better and would influence the choice of ornamentation. He was sure that eight spans would prove the cheapest arrangement, "because the cost of the extra piers will be much more than saved by the saving in the superstructure". Reinforced concrete pile foundations would be advisable "if the ground is at all uncertain and there is no rock near the natural surface". He assumed that Tisdall would want a "handsome" bridge, so the number of spans would be a factor in deciding the general lines and ornamental features. He suggested they visit the site together, preferably after the Easter camp of the Militia.
Monash was at this time preparing for what he described later as "eight days of hard work at Military Manoeuvres". Also, on 11 March, his fellow director John Gibson, who played a large role in managing factory operations, material supplies, and logistics, for both RCMPC and the South Australian operations, had left for an extended overseas trip. This threw an additional heavy burden onto Monash.
Late in March, Tisdall fixed the exact location for the new bridge - directly alongside and to the north of the old one. Here he expected to find good clay foundations. Again, he urged Monash to adopt 50-foot spans, to lessen the danger of flood-borne debris becoming caught between the piers and forming a temporary dam. (This debate had arisen also during design of the Waterford Bridge in 1907.)
Monash is appointed as Consulting Engineer for the project
Monash is asked to quote his fees
On 26 March 1912 Charles Nugent, as Shire Secretary, sent Monash a formal request to quote his terms for acting as consulting engineer. He replied that the normal fee for preparing plans and specifications for a project of this size was 2½% of its value; but if the Shire Engineer was willing to survey the site and explore the foundations, this would be reduced to 2% of the lowest tender. Monash added: "It is my duty, however, to inform you that I am connected with the Reinforced Concrete Company which will doubtless tender for the work, and it would not be right for me under such circumstances to accept any fee for the design in the event of my Company securing the work". In view of the fact that contractors might elect to use one of the patent systems of reinforcement available, Monash proposed to design the general layout and dimensions of the concrete work, specifying only the percentage of reinforcement to be used in each member. However, the contract would hold the successful contractor to a "stringent guarantee of strength and efficiency". This would ensure fair competition while providing satisfactory protection for the Council.
On 12 April, Tisdall at last sent Monash a profile of the river bed. Referring to the Easter manoeuvres, he hoped, "now the war is over", that Monash would be able to inspect the site before the river rose from its low summer level. He offered accommodation at his home during the visit.
The Shepparton Council checks RCMPC's previous work at Benalla
Several days later, Monash received a letter from the Shire Engineer of Benalla, S Jeffrey, who had taken credit for the design of the reinforced concrete bridge built there by RCMPC, and completed in 1910. Several councillors from Shepparton, accompanied by Nugent, had inspected the bridge and left a number of questions for Jeffrey to answer in the light of his experience. Would he recommend the use of reinforced concrete for the Shepparton bridge, or would he advise using steel for the superstructure or even for the entire bridge? If he favoured reinforced concrete, did he have any suggestions regarding its design? What did he think about the cracks that had appeared in the Benalla girders?
Accepted design procedure at the time did not provide adequate reinforcement to guard against 'shear' cracks: diagonally-inclined cracks occurring near the ends of beams in buildings, but extending well out from the supports in bridges, due to the moving loads.
Jeffrey and his councillors had their own doubts about the safety of the Benalla bridge, and seized the opportunity to suggest that its strength be demonstrated by subjecting it to a more severe load-test than that used when the bridge was accepted in 1910 (a 16-ton traction engine). If Monash showed his confidence by guaranteeing to make good any damage, the Shepparton councillors would surely be convinced.
Monash confidently advised Jeffrey: "In the light of the Practice and experience all over the world, there is no question that Reinforced Concrete has completely ousted steel construction for bridge work, and the selection of the former method requires no second thought. Even supposing minor errors of design have occurred in some existing concrete bridges, far worse and disastrous errors have occurred in many steel bridges, yet this has never been considered a reason for discarding steel construction in favour of stone or wood." If the Shepparton Council chose reinforced concrete, he would ensure that "any tendency for weakness in shear in the central zones of the main girders will be fully guarded against". He assured Jeffrey that, based on his considerable experience, "the cracks existing in the Benalla Bridge are of no significance as regards the strength or life of the structure".
The bridge has in fact lasted to the present day, although extra shear reinforcement was added.
Monash meets the Councillors and firms the preliminary design and costs
In May, Monash was invited to meet the Council to discuss the project. He arranged to travel by the evening train on Thursday 9th, arriving at 8.30 p.m. for preliminary discussions that evening. He spent Friday inspecting the site prior to further discussions, and left by the 5.30 p.m. train to Melbourne. This allowed him to prepare a fresh estimate as follows:
Bridge itself £2990
Approaches 310
[Total basic cost:] £3300
Contingencies 200
[Cost allowing for contingencies:] £3500
Margin 1000
[Total price before administration:] £4500
2½% for drawings and specs 125
2½% for supervision 125
Clerk of Works 26 weeks @ £3 78
[Administration charges:] 328
Monash proposed a series of steps that the Council could take at its monthly meetings to keep the project on course:
May meeting: instruct him to prepare a report and proposals. If accepted:
June meeting: instruct him to prepare drawings and a specification. If accepted:
July meeting instruct him to obtain approval from the PWD and call tenders.
Monash's appointment as consulting engineer is confirmed.
On 31 May Monash received official confirmation of his appointment, and was told to proceed with the design. He immediately initiated detailed design computations for the foundations.
Detailed design is commenced as final questions of finance and contract administration are resolved
Fresh information regarding the site
Shortly after Monash had produced his £4828 estimate, he received more detailed information regarding the site. Tisdall had at last sent a surveyed profile and the results of his subsurface investigations. Instead of the "stratified clay beds" he had expected, he had found that the material had been "river deposited". Where clay did appear, it was of a "potholey nature", the potholes having been filled with "a bluey white substance which is neither true sand nor true pipe clay". He advised Monash to inspect the exploratory pits, and "put in an appearance before the Council table on Monday week". Monash warmly commended Tisdall for the thoroughness of his survey, and agreed that since the river bed appeared unstable, it would be essential to use driven piles for some of the foundations. He also warned Nugent that there would be extra cost in resisting potential scour of the eastern abutment, on the outside of the bend in the river. This meant that it might be necessary to dispense with ornamentation if the price of a reinforced concrete bridge were to be kept within the specified range of £4500 to £5000. However, he assured him that it would still be much cheaper than a steel bridge at the site, which would cost about £6000.
Technical note: Because of restricted funds, it was assumed that load would be carried partly by the piles, and partly by the base of the pile cap, acting as a spread footing.
State funding becomes doubtful
Late in June (1912), with the process only two-thirds completed, the Councils' plans for financing were undermined. They had understood Baillieu to say that the funds required from the Councils would be advanced by the State Government out of trust funds, at a low rate of interest. However, Cabinet, confronted by competing claims, had resolved simply that, "conditionally on the Shepparton shire contributing £1500 and the Rodney shire £1000, the Government would provide £1500 and advance £500 to the Shepparton shire" (The Age 26 June). Informed of this position by the PWD, the Shepparton councillors protested that if they were to supply the money out of revenue, all the Council's other work would be brought to a complete halt.
Monash negotiates for PWD approval
Submission of the specifications was delayed for a month while Monash analysed the catchment area and river hydraulics to convince the PWD that six spans of 40 feet, plus overflow channels, would cope adequately with the likely magnitude of floods. Part of the problem had been in arranging meetings with Kermode, who was "a very busy man", but by mid-August he finally approved a width between abutments of 240 feet (73.2m). Monash then sent the drawing and proposed specification to the Council, explaining that:
all foundations would rest on piles, ensuring security under changes of river-bed;
the piers would be solid, to ensure that no drift wood could become entangled in them;
the aesthetic appearance of the bridge had been kept in view;
an expansion joint would be provided at the central pier (as required by Kermode).
The price would be about £4500, though instability in labour conditions and in the price of cement made it hard to predict. Engineering and supervision charges would be up to 5%. Because of the difficult foundations and the depth of the river bed, the price could not be reduced without "seriously detracting from the beauty and dignity of the design".
Meanwhile, Monash had drawn up an "Agenda" for his staff to prepare to versions of the design. One, upon which tenders were to be called, was to be somewhat conservative; with generous dimensions, and with cast iron cylinders for the pile caps. The other, upon which RCMPC would base its own tender, would employ Monier pipes from RCMPC's factory for the pile caps, and have member dimensions pared down for maximum efficiency.
The Councils and PWD formally approve design and contract documents
The draft tender documents were approved by the Shepparton and Rodney Councils at the end of August, clearing the way for preparation of detailed drawings. Monash asked for a further delay, because the chief engineer of the PWD, Carlo Catani, was on leave and Kermode was overloaded and spending much of his time up-country. He would aim to have the drawings ready for the October meeting of council. Tenders could then be returnable by the November meeting, and work could start in December. He argued that the delay would not be "an unmixed evil" because the existing flooded condition of the river "would be likely to frighten tenderers and cause an enhancement in the tender price".
Monash instructed his assistants to make the tender drawings still more conservative, and forwarded them to the PWD. Kermode's only major demand was a change to the specification, requiring the successful Contractor to submit details of his proposed reinforcement to the PWD for approval. Final official PWD approval for the design was at last received by Monash on 11 October, allowing him to proceed with the calling of tenders.
Monash argues for a Bulk Sum contract, rather than a Schedule of Rates
There was then a further delay of several weeks during which the documents were mislaid and found, and Monash persuaded the Council to adopt a Bulk Sum, rather than a Schedule of Rates, contract. He argued - through Nugent - that bulk sum contracts were "the invariable practice" of the PWD and most municipalities in the State. A schedule of rates format would involve "all sorts of complications and constant hourly supervision and recording of measurements by those administering the work". This would render the Council liable to "all sorts of disputations with the contractor as to the correctness of the quantities", and the final amount to be paid "would be a quite uncertain quantity". On the other hand, with a bulk sum contract, "the amount is definitely ascertained from the outset, and, provided no changes are made in the scope of the works, there can be no possibility of disputes or claims, as the contractor has to take all risks of every kind in connection with the work". Schedule of rates contracts were only justifiable in cases where the extent of the work could not be foreseen, or where changes were expected. However, at Shepparton, the work to be done simply meant "the Bridge complete or nothing", and the "scope and extent of the works [was] completely defined in every particular".
Monash did not wish even to prepare a list of quantities, for that would "saddle us with moral responsibilities for their correctness, and would be specially impracticable, having regard to the manner in which the specification has been drawn, wherein the particular methods of reinforcement have been left to tenderers subject to the guarantee clauses introduced". It was better to "leave tenderers to arrive at their idea of the value of the work as a whole in their own way". This was the custom of the PWD. "Nevertheless, of course, the successful contractor will be required to submit, in the usual way, a schedule of quantities and rates, by which variations from the contract, should such occur, can be valued."
Note: A decade earlier, confusion over the nature of the contract between Monash & Anderson and the Shires of Corio and Bannockburn for the Fyansford Bridge project landed the partnership in serious financial trouble. On that occasion the partners argued that they had been operating under a Schedule of Rates contract, and claimed payment for a large amount of extra work carried out in the foundations. The Shires argued that they had been led to believe before awarding the contract that it was on a Bulk Sum (fixed price) basis, with all risk to be borne by the Contractor. A single judge of the Supreme Court of Victoria agreed with M&A; but his decision was overturned following an appeal to the full Court. The case received wide publicity and created a perception within municipal circles that RCMPC had a policy of maximising its profits by finding reasons to perform "extra" work.
RCMPC wins the contract as the only bidder
Calls for tenders appeared in the newspapers on 2 November 1912. Rival contractors Pickles & Smith showed an interest and asked RCMPC to quote the price of precast reinforced concrete piles; but later withdrew in favour of tendering for a drainage scheme at Shepparton that would use RCMPC's Monier pipes. No other enquiries are mentioned in the RCMPC file. Monash arranged for company secretary Newbigin to sign and post the tender, as he felt it would be inappropriate for his signature to appear on both the consultant's drawings and the tender documents. He reminded Nugent that if RCMPC won, he would forego his 2% fee for design (about £90), and asked that the Council take this into consideration in assessing bids. If RCMPC's tender was only slightly more than the lowest, the Council should still consider choosing them, because Monash would then be "personally responsible for the faithful execution of the design as prepared by myself, and as arranged for with the Public Works Department".
The ceremony of opening tenders took place on 25 November 1912, and RCMPC's was the only one received, at £4552. On 6 December, Monash sent his first requisition to RCMPC's factory, for reinforcing bars for the concrete piles. On 7th, Nugent sent formal acceptance of the tender. The Shire President and Nugent were in favour of dispensing with a Clerk of Works, and appointing Tisdall to certify progress payments. However the full Council insisted that a Clerk of Works be appointed, and also asked for full details of all reinforcement, as required by the specification.
Tisdall sent RCMPC an account for his detailed topographical and sub-surface survey: ½% of the contract price, amounting to £22/15/0d. Monash explained to Managing Director John Gibson that he had given Tisdall the job because his advice to Council had facilitated RCMPC's success. He added that the payment might "placate" Tisdall, suggesting that some tension had arisen.
Appointment of Supervising Engineer, Clerk of Works, and Foreman
As Monash had now become the Contractor rather than the Consultant, the Council appointed Tisdall as "Supervising Engineer", with the task of ensuring that the specification and drawings were adhered to, and of certifying satisfactory completion of the work as it progressed. A local man, James H Dainton snr, was appointed as Clerk of Works to represent the Council on site from day to day, with a salary of £4 per week.
RCMPC selected A E Jones as their foreman, and his daily reports to Monash commence on 19 December 1912. His first tasks were to get the scrub cleared, establish a site office, and scout for local tradesmen and labourers. He expressed concern that at one end the new bridge would slightly overlap the old one, leading to difficulties in construction. Monash promised he would come "as early as possible in the New Year to give you [a] Bench Mark for levels and Centreline, and generally discuss the whole lay out of the job".
Strangely, Monash first learned of Dainton's appointment from an article in The Age newspaper. He wrote to Jones: "… you might let us have your summing up of this gentleman, and as to whether he is likely to give any trouble". Jones replied that Dainton was "A man of fairly wide experience [in] wood bridge and mass concrete work. Have not quite got his weight yet. He insists on gauging [the concrete] to Specification … Would like to see you about this when you come up." However, a day later he added: "C. of Wks: Will I think, give little trouble".
Monash sets out the bridge
Monash travelled to Shepparton by the evening train on Wednesday 8 January 1913, having courteously declined the Tisdalls' invitation to stay at their house overnight. He explained that he needed to stay at the hotel in order to confer with Jones that evening. He spent the following day taking levels over the site, setting out the new bridge, and holding discussions with Jones and Tisdall.
Monash stayed at the Court House Hotel in Shepparton (SLV image).
Foundation problems test the arrangements for contract supervision
Workers were opening up the foundations at the time of Monash's visit. He and Tisdall decided that the earth was weaker than suggested by the trial pits, and agreed that the abutment blocks should be taken four feet (1.22m) deeper than shown on the drawings. Already they were proposing a variation from the contract. Normally, RCMPC would have claimed payment for the extra work. Monash wanted to avoid this, having argued so strongly for a Bulk Sum contract that would throw all risk on the Contractor; but at the same time wished to minimise the extra cost to RCMPC. He therefore asked Tisdall to agree that large lumps of stone ('spalls') could be added to all unreinforced concrete work, so as to reduce the amount of sand and cement required - cement being a major cost item. To make further saving, he proposed that the procedure for mixing the components of the concrete, as set out in his specification, should be streamlined. Monash left Shepparton believing that Tisdall had full power to approve these measures, and that he had done so.
After Monash's departure Tisdall realised, or was informed, that the terms of his appointment did not give him the power to single-handedly approve variations. He wrote that RCMPC would need first to gain the approval of the PWD to the change, after which he could pass on a recommendation to the Council. Monash's reply was: "I do not relish the idea of having to run to the Public Works Department and your Council for every trifling variation from the strict wording of the specification. I think it is ridiculous to expect me to do so, and if the job is going to be administered on lines such as these, it is going to be an intolerable position for everybody concerned." If Tisdall had no power to run the job on the customary "give and take principle", it might be best for Monash to adopt whatever course he thought best for the integrity of the structure, and trust that Tisdall and Dainton would acquiesce. If RCMPC could not be given some sort of "quid pro quo", RCMPC would no longer offer to do additional work free of charge. The letter ends with the assumption that Tisdall will concur with Monash's sentiments and that their pleasant relationship will be maintained.
Comment. Most contracts of this type place ultimate responsibility for the safety and integrity of the work on the contractor, who therefore has the option of going out on a limb and ignoring the instructions of the client's staff. The relatively forceful terms of the letter are not unusual in the early days of a contract, as representatives of client and contractor spar to test each other's resolve. It was probably intended to be read by the Councillors.
Monash's attitude was restated in a letter to Jones. "I am extremely anxious to have no extras on the job of any kind, and Mr Tisdall has no authority whatsoever to order extras … I have just received a letter from him in which he pretends that he now finds that he has no authority to 'vary the specification', which means that we will still have to battle through as best we can the two points which we thought were settled, viz:- spalls in mass concrete and gauging of concrete."
When Tisdall requested that RCMPC men carry out maintenance work on the old bridge as an extra to the contract, Monash told Jones it would be wiser to lend him the men and let him pay them directly from Council funds. "Of course you will not have a row with Mr Tisdall over day labour; but you can quietly explain the position to him."
Insufficient friction between piles and soil
Above: Drawing of a typical river pier of the new bridge (applicable to Piers 2, 3, and 4). The land piers, Piers 1 and 5, had simple rectangular pile caps running the full width of the pier, rather than the cylinder caps shown above. (From the Commonwealth Engineer, Vol.1., 1 August 1913, p.21, courtesy of UMA.)
While the Shire and RCMPC had been getting to know each other, wooden piles had been driven into the river bed ready to support the temporary 'staging' or working platform (below, at bottom of photo). This had revealed a lower coefficient of friction than had been expected, between the sides of the pile and the ground. A number of 15-foot (4.57m) reinforced concrete piles for permanent support had been cast, and by the end of January, Jones was driving them ready to support Pier 5 on the west bank. He found a similar problem. Monash was "disconcerted", as previous experience in similar country had given him "every reason to expect stiff driving". Skin friction between the piles and the ground could not be relied upon to carry the intended load.
Above: Early work on Shepparton Bridge, with the old timber bridge behind. In left foreground can be seen the piling rig (with ladder) for hammering the reinforced concrete piles into the river bed. Temporary staging provides a rudimentary working platform. Lengths of large-diameter reinforced concrete pipe lie ready to serve as pile-caps for the river piers. Photo: University of Melbourne Archives Location Number BWP/23979a. (See also UMAIC, and search for "Record ID" UMA/I/6517.) A full-length side-on view of the timber bridge, probably taken at the same time as the image above appears in BWP/23980 (not online).
The ideal response to the problem would have been to provide more piles under each pier, or to use longer piles. However, this would have brought work to a halt for several weeks while steel and cement were delivered to site, and the new piles cast and cured. Monash declared this option "not to be thought of". He took advantage of the fact that the base of the pile caps would bear on the soil and provide extra resistance, not included in the original calculations. Fresh comptuations showed, in fact, that the entire load of the pier could be borne in this fashion.
It was still necessary to convince Dainton, who had demanded that 18-foot (5.49m) piles, intended for other foundations, be used in place of the 15-foot piles. However, he was eventually persuaded by Jones that 15-foot piles could be used, so long as the "foundation" [base?] was lowered by two feet (610mm). To comply with the letter of the contract documents, Monash told Jones to make sure that the piles "pulled up" as required by the Specification.
Technical Note. Piles driven into soft ground without reaching rock are capable of resisting imposed loads by means of friction between the vertical surfaces of the pile and the soil. In Monash's time, they were driven by raising a hammer ("monkey") of a certain mass, and allowing it to fall through a specified distance. With the first blows, a pile moves easily into the soil, but as its depth increases the penetration caused by each blow decreases. Formulas based on experience link the mass of the hammer, the drop, and the final increment in penetration, to the load the pile may be expected to carry.
With these issues resolved between Foreman and Clerk of Works, there was a brief scare when Tisdall announced that he would personally observe the driving of the Pier 5 piles "from start to finish". However, on the Friday in question, he was obliged to attend to matters elsewhere in the Shire. The resistance of the piles proved to be better than feared, and satisfied Dainton, with a 3/4" (19mm) set for a monkey drop of 4'-0" (1.22m). Unfortunately, Jones delayed until the Monday before sending the good news to Monash who, with Works Manager Alex Lynch, spent an anxious weekend "in a state of readiness" to travel to Shepparton to deal with Tisdall's "warlike attitude". Monash asked Jones to convey RCMPC's appreciation of Dainton's "fair and reasonable attitude" … "and assure him that we will strive in other directions to please him".
Monash attempts to resolve the Supervision issue
The narrow shave at Pier 5 persuaded Monash to write confidentially to Nugent in an attempt to resolve the problem of supervision. He described the relationship that had developed between RCMPC, Dainton, and Tisdall as "full of delicacy". He explained that he wanted to avoid friction and maintain existing "pleasant relations"; but a conflict could occur at any moment. He and RCMPC were willing to make sacrifices to avoid extras and maintain their reputations; but the cost of generally deepening the foundations was significant (about £50). If Tisdall really did have no power to negotiate variations to the Contract, it would create an intolerable situation:
"It would be impossible to conduct a great public work if the strict provisions of the specification, for good or ill, could never be varied, even if all concerned thought that variation desirable and in the interests of the work. It is impossible to run such a job except on the give and take principle, because, as the works develop, extras unexpectedly arise, which can best be met by setting them against harmless deductions in other places."
If RCMPC could deal solely with Dainton, there would be no trouble on either side. He was "a thoroughly practical and experienced man". The interests of the Council would be safe in his hands; and yet RCMPC could be sure that he would not ask for anything unreasonable from them. Yet Monash was willing to see Tisdall given sole discretionary power which would exclude the need to refer to the Council on "small trumpery matters of detail".
In conclusion, Monash asked if Nugent could give him some clues about the Councillors' perceptions, and their likely reaction to his request.
Nugent reported that the Councillors were particularly sensitive to this proposal (which they thought had originated with Tisdall) because a similar request had been made some time ago on a project carried out jointly by the Shire and the State Water Supply Department. Following public controversy, the Council's Engineer and the WSD Clerk of Works (also an engineer) had been removed from the job at the request of the Department. In the present case, the Shire President noted that Monash, when acting as Consultant, had insisted that the Contractor should take all risk and responsibility for making proper foundations. The Shire would much rather pay for an extra than agree to a deviation from the Specification. It had placed a limit on Tisdall's powers specifically to prevent him from unduly interfering in the work - and now that he had been appointed Supervising Engineer there was little chance that he could be superseded, especially by the Clerk of Works.
Nugent urged Monash to talk directly to the Council to avoid misunderstandings, as he thought Tisdall was not good at "placing or explaining" matters. He concluded: "This Council is solely of opinion that if your specifications are carried out a good job will be done, and are against any alteration suggested by either Mr Dainton or Tisdall".
Confusion continues
Despite Nugent's letter, Monash told Jones that the situation was still unclear regarding the Council's chain of command and "the two concessions that we tried to get passed through" - the use of spalls and the method of gauging the concrete. He felt that an attempt to pursue these issues in writing might stir up trouble; yet he had no time to visit Shepparton to sort the matter out informally. He asked how often Tisdall visited the site, and whether he tried to "boss" Dainton, or give "interfering instructions". He urged Jones to try diplomacy and persuade Dainton to "quietly acquiesce".
First request for Progress Payment
Early in February, Monash requested a first progress payment of £400 to £500 towards RCMPC's investment in pile manufacture and driving, earthworks, temporary staging, and stockpiling of cement, steel and other materials on site.
Disagreement over the positioning of piles below Pier 3.
A few days later, a dispute arose because one of the stay piles of the existing bridge interfered with work on the foundations for Pier 3. It proved impossible to drive the piles to support the upstream cylinder in the pattern shown in the drawings. The only practicable arrangement would be eccentric to the cylinder centreline, although still within its circumference. Dainton considered this unacceptable. Jones argued that the difference would be negligible. Monash backed Jones and assured him that the PWD would consent to the change, "so you can go right ahead without reference to Tisdall or Dainton in this respect, politely telling them that those are your orders". He added that at both the Benalla and Maribyrnong bridge projects RCMPC had made similar changes which had proved "in every respect satisfactory". At the same time, he urged Jones to be more independent, and "battle through" such conflicts as far as he could, calling on Monash and Lynch for support only when deadlock appeared unavoidable, as they were both very busy.
Further discussions on supervision
Monash's letter crossed with a report from Jones that Dainton was still insisting on precise observance of the specification. However, he thought the matter could be left "until the taste of the job fails to tickle the local palate", after which he and Dainton would surely "rub along" well enough. Tisdall was now giving little trouble, seemed unsure of himself, and did not issue instructions.
In mid-February, Monash replied to Nugent's letter, saying it was evident that Tisdall had "unwittingly", misrepresented RCMPC's position by saying that they wanted to use spalls as a substitute for broken stones. The intention was to use "rubble concrete"; and then only in massive portions of the work, such as the deepening of the foundations. This was the practice in all bridges, of which RCMPC had built over 100. It was "really better and stronger work than ordinary concrete".
There was now no need to discuss whether RCMPC should be paid extra for deepening the foundations ("I hate 'extras' in any form"). However, it was necessary to be flexible in the interpretation of the Specification. Councillors must be aware that if it were "to be read strictly as written, without the possibility of any commonsense modification to suit varying conditions, it must be read strictly both against the Council as well as against the Contractor, which means that the Contractor is entitled to be paid for any work not specified or shown that may prove requisite".
The issue regarding rubble concrete was merely an incident that drew attention to the "intolerable position" regarding supervision. It appeared that Tisdall had been appointed "to enforce strictly and to the letter every word and every line of my specification" regardless of the situation. It was "most anomalous" and left room for "the exercise of most unreasonable and unreasoning tyranny". Monash declared he had written the specification "in good faith" believing that it would be administered by himself or an Engineer with customary powers of discretion.
"We, as Contractors, have a moral right to ask that this contract be administered in the same give and take spirit that prevails in normal conditions, and that the Council would appoint an Engineer with ordinary powers and discretions. I raised the question with you solely to avoid future trouble. If such should now arise, I can hardly be held responsible. You may be perfectly assured of a good sound job, but there is every reason to fear that in achieving it, there will be squabbles over unessential details arising from the fact that the Engineer will, in the endeavour to make the most of his very limited authority, pursue the letter and not the spirit of a specification to which he was no party, and which I have grave doubts if he has sufficient specialised knowledge and experience to interpret correctly and fairly."
In mid-February Monash valued the work done, and materials delivered so far, at £850, and requested a further Progress Payment of £600.
Kermode, of the PWD, made a surprise visit to the site and examined the situation at the upstream cylinder of Pier 3 (where it was proposed to use an eccentric layout of piles). Jones feared trouble, but Monash assured him that Kermode was "entirely friendly towards us, and, while requiring every assurance of good work, will not raise petty points against us".
At the end of February, a sub-contractor, J. McAuliffe, was appointed to carry out the earthworks for the approach roads to the bridge.
A breakdown of actual and anticipated costs prepared on 10 March reads:
Clearing site, getting plant and tools to site, setting out temporary staging etc £417
Concrete piles (68) driven 340
Abutments & wing walls west [£]222, east [£]312 534
Piers, to underside of deck 5 @ 262 1310
Superstructure 6 spans @ 246 1488
Roadway and pathway surfaces 114
Handrailing 116
Approach works 233
[Total] £4552
RCMPC's foreman Frederick Bloom, building a bridge over the Goulburn upstream at Cremona, was asked to send warnings of floods and freshets to Jones, about 80 miles downstream. This would provide two or three days' warning of their arrival.
Monash meets the Council to discuss procedure
On Monash's return from the Militia Easter Camp at the end of March, Nugent informed him that the Shepparton Council wished to see him "in regard to the method in which the work is being carried out". He replied that he was very busy catching up with the backlog of design office work, but assured Council that he was prepared to take personal responsibility for "everything that has been done on the works", about which he was fully informed by daily reports. He mentioned that he now had the support of Kermode, regarding the use of spalls. All work had been carried out to the satisfaction of Dainton, the Clerk of Works, seeing that Tisdall's only role now was to issue certificates for progress payments. There would be "no departure from the specification in any particular, except in cases where it is in the best interests of the stability of the work". The Council was "protected by the absolute guarantee" given by RCMPC "in respect of the work as a whole and every part of it". Nevertheless, Monash would be pleased meet Nugent and Councillors. He pointed out once more that it would be better for all concerned if the Council formally ruled either that Tisdall had no power to intervene between RCMPC and Dainton, or that he had "full discretionary power to settle all questions without further reference to the Council".
Jones delivered the letter by hand on 31 March 1913, and a special meeting of Council was arranged for 7 April. The letter was read out, and Monash reinforced its contents verbally, adding that "there was never a contract without some modification or variation occurring". The situation at Shepparton was unique in his 20 years' experience of public works. All projects encountered some unforeseen problems. Rigid adherence to specifications and "dictionary exactitude" would make work impossible. Where mass concrete was more than 2 feet thick, rubble concrete was better than normal concrete. This was a view shared by Kermode of the PWD. Monash had his reputation and that of his firm to maintain.
The Councillors asked a few questions and then went into committee. When they returned, the Shire President explained that, although "they had unanimously accepted Colonel Monash's explanation … they could not see their way clear to accept the suggestion that they should delegate their powers to the shire engineer". The Shepparton Advertiser reported that "Colonel Monash then thanked the Council and retired."
The meeting was reported in the Shepparton Advertiser of 7 April 1913. The Council also decided on the share of the cost to be borne by each of the ridings of which the shire was constituted. After lively discussion, the total estimated cost of £5000 (including approaches) was divided as follows: Shepparton Riding £1050; South Riding £800; North Riding £400; Dookie Riding £150; Kialla Riding £100.
Back in Melbourne, Monash wrote regretting that the Council had refused to grant Tisdall full powers, as prescribed in the Conditions of Contract. In view of this, and for its own protection, RCMPC would be obliged to "decline to recognise any orders or instructions given by your Engineer unless also referred to and formally ratified by the Council". He insisted this policy was in no way hostile, but was taken simply to protect RCMPC's vital interests. (Privately, he told Jones that the aim was "to justify us and yourself in future entirely ignoring any drastic instructions that Mr. Tisdall may give, such as wanting to stop the work, or wanting any of the work pulled down".)
Substructure work continues, interrupted by high water
In the meantime all work on land was nearing completion, but work on the river piers had been hindered by floodwater. The level in the Goulburn River at the site was influenced by the level in the River Murray (now low) and by the operation of the gates to the irrigation channels. Jones contacted the caretaker at the Goulburn Weir to see if flows could be modified to assist RCMPC. He told Monash he planned to keep the best of the workforce going as long as profitable.
Driving of the piles had progressed, but with some difficulty. Sunken timber buried in the bed of the river (debris from previous floods) proved an obstacle, and had to be removed with the aid of the piling rig. The tops of the piles were ending up two feet below water, which reduced the impact of the monkey.
The third claim for a Progress Payment, on 22 April, shows 56 piles driven, and 12 ready to drive. The abutments and their wing walls were nearly complete. Piers 1, 4, and 5 were complete, and the formwork and reinforcement was in place for the girders and deck of three spans. High winds were occurring, and Jones feared that they might damage the partly-completed works. Especially susceptible were the two parts of Pier 3, which was divided into two slender blades, to permit expansion and contraction of the deck either side.
Jones continued to be worried by the threat of new floods, as the superstructure formwork was now supported by a forest of props (see e.g. the photograph of Waterford bridge under construction [link]). These would snare floating debris, block the flow, and be subjected to destructive overturning forces. A week later, one bank of the main Goulburn irrigation channel broke away near Murchison, and the working platform at the bridge site was temporarily four feet under water. Fortunately, no great harm was done.
Construction of deck spans commences
On 21 May Monash claimed a further £940, reporting that all piers were complete, Spans 1 and 6 would soon be complete, and Span 5 would probably be finished by the time of payment. Some concreting had been done on Spans 2 and 4. On 26th, Jones asked permission to remove the props from under Span 1 so that he could use them elsewhere. In view of the delicate political situation, Monash advised him to leave some props near mid-span because, "with the amount of attention that has been concentrated on this bridge, the smallest amount of sagging or even the faintest cracks would cause a lot of unnecessary talk".
June brought further flooding. Monash advised Jones that as soon as the water had receded below the pile caps, he should "get every available plasterer and labourer on the job" to apply the specified finish to the concrete before the next flood arrived.
Completion and load-testing
By mid-June, most of the bridge was finished, but the Mooroopna approach and the upstream wing walls at both ends could not be completed until portions of the old bridge had been removed. This required the diversion of traffic onto the new bridge prior to fulfilment of the contract. Tisdall argued before Council that the bridge should be load-tested prior to the diversion. Also, he wanted to add a train of two waggons behind the 15-ton traction engine required by Monash's specification. After discussion, the councillors seem to have left this question in abeyance, whilst agreeing that RCMPC could divert traffic when it suited them. Monash told Jones, early in July, to get as much work done as possible free from interference by vehicles, and then "quietly" divert the traffic. As a courtesy, he should invite the Shire President to be the first to drive his trap over.
The early diversion of traffic made the traditional ribbon-cutting ceremont redundant, and the Council decided to forgo it. Traffic was diverted on 30 July 1913. On 31st, Monash was finally able to declare the work complete. He explained to Nugent that the youngest concrete was now six weeks old, and he was keen to see the load-test take place so that he could claim final payment and hand the bridge over to Council. He was, however, concerned that Tisdall was still proposing a heavier test load, although this now took the form of a roller dragged behind the traction engine. Monash explained to Jones that if this were too close behind the prime mover, it would be possible for the load on a single girder to exceed the specified design load. Although the bridge had excess capacity, the extra load could cause slight cracking which, though insignificant in itself, might "cause alarm among ignorant laymen and form the subject of silly discussion", especially in a settled district like Shepparton where they were so many "wise-acres".
Of greater concern was the possibility that the opportunity might be taken to roll the asphalt by passing the traction engine five or six times over the bridge. This would "greatly increase the severity of the test". "My policy has always been, in connection with testing, to let them get the load on, make their observations and get the load off and the steam roller on its way home as quickly as possible, because all the time the test is under way is a time of tension, with everybody on the alert for the slightest thing to criticise." For these reasons Jones should use "other means of haulage, say horses", to roll the asphalt before the official test took place. Tisdall would then have no excuse for attaching the roller; but if he did, Jones was to be frank and object that the test would be more severe than that stipulated in the specification.
By now, Nugent seems to have been effectively in charge. He proposed the use of an 11-ton traction engine pulling a 4-ton roller, perhaps believing this would be equivalent to a 15-ton engine. The roller axle would be 15 feet (4.57m) behind the main wheels of the engine. Jones suggested that the roller make a single pass each way along the bridge, down the centreline, without stopping, and Monash agreed to these terms.
Ironically, an unofficial test took place on 11th August, when an eleven-ton traction engine pulling a "heavy" waggon and a 2-ton chaffcutter passed over the bridge as part of normal traffic. Jones reported "slight jarring vibration" and a very slight permanent impression in the asphalt, but no damage to the bridge.
The official test finally took place on 14 August "in the presence of representatives of the Shepparton and Rodney shires, the Shepparton Urban Waterworks Trust, and the State Rivers and Water Supply Commission, and a large number of the public" (Argus, 15th). In the event, the roller was loaded with six casks of cement, producing a combined weight of 15 tons 7 cwt but "the structure was pronounced to be safe and substantial". Jones reported that "Everything went off satisfactorily in spite of Tisdall and about a dozen of the Shire talent including about 250 disappointed spectators".
The project tailed off gradually as minor matters were cleared up. It was arranged for Jones to quit Shepparton, leaving "a reliable local man" to visit the bridge once a day to monitor settlement of approaches and repair any damage to the asphalt. (The man selected was named William Wilson.)
On 24 June 1913, Monash had advised that the bridge was "on the eve of completion" and requested a progress payment of £1000. The total value of work completed was then about £4450. Payments so far had been £2850, the deposit held by Council was £227, and so there was an amount outstanding of £1827. Thus a progress payment of £1000 would leave £827 still with the Council as surety.
A report in the Shepparton Advertiser of 11 August 1913 listed the final break-up of finance as "Total cost £4552 10s, of which the Government has contributed £1500; and Rodney Shire, £1000; the rest being paid by Shepparton Shire."
Final tidying-up of work and contractual matters
Several matters remained to be cleared up. Tisdall maintained that RCMPC should bear the cost of removing the tree stump that had hindered operations in the bed of the river early in the project. He saw this as part of the Contractor's risk. Monash maintained that it had been discovered only because of the decision to deepen the foundations (which he attributed to Dainton), and that there had been no real need to remove it in any case. He wanted the Council to pay for it under a separate job heading, so as to avoid the opprobrium of an 'extra'. The high level of the river still prevented rendering of the pile tops and removal of some falsework. Since completion of the bulk of the work, some defects had begun to show. Provision for drainage of the approaches had proved inadequate, and there had been some scour of the embankments. The asphalt surfacing had suffered under the action of traffic, and Tisdall argued this was because it had been applied under rain. There was disagreement over the starting date for the six-month 'maintenance period' during which RCMPC would be responsible for remedying defects. Jones put the case that it should be counted from the date on which the bridge was first used by traffic. Tisdall argued that it should start from the date on which the work was certified complete.
To move matters along, Monash requested a further progress payment. He predicted that the final account for the bridge contract would be for £4582. A payment of £1000, added to previous payments, would leave the Council with £100 as surety. Monash emphasised that he was not charging for the "large amount of extra concrete" that had been placed in the foundations of Piers 2, 3, and 5, "at the request of Mr Dainton". He recalled that Tisdall had at first agreed to the use of spalls, to compensate for the additional volume, but that this had been disallowed by the Council. However, he did claim payment for the cost of removing the tree stump. After due consideration, the Council backed Tisdall regarding the stump. It also decided that the maintenance period should start from 25 August for all work completed before the diversion of traffic; and should start from the date of official completion for the rest of the work.
Monash was not content to let the matter rest, and negotiations continued through late October, at which stage he proposed the dispute be submitted for arbitration by the Engineer of Roads and Bridges of the PWD. He did not want to disturb "the amicable relations which have prevailed throughout"; but felt very strongly "that an injustice is being done to us".
At the end of December, William Wilson reported that the water level had dropped sufficiently to reveal the decking of the temporary platform. RCMPC started to put the final touches to the bridge in January 1914. Tisdall now demanded that they also clear away all accumulated flood debris, and restore the approach embankment. Monash protested that RCMPC had fulfilled their contractual obligations by clearing debris at the start of the project. Also, the original provision for drainage had been approved by the shire engineer and the PWD, so its inadequacy was not RCMPC's responsibility. Furthermore: "You will find that the maintenance referred to in the contract is strictly defined, and is limited to defects in materials, workmanship or detailed design, being causes within our control, and does not relate either to the inevitable wear and tear on the structure after put into public use, or to the action of Nature". However, he authorised Jones "to do any small amount of work running into a pound [sterling] or two in order to keep this young gentleman quiet".
After yet more negotiations, Monash offered to fix the drainage if Council handed over the remainder of the retained money and relieved RCMPC of all further responsibility. The Council replied that they had not changed their position regarding the stump and that the asphalt had to be restored; but despite this they had pleasure in paying the full amount claimed, because of the very satisfactory manner in which RCMPC had performed and carried out the work and the very cordial relationship that existed between itself and Monash, as Engineer for the bridge. The Council declared itself "very pleased with the structure, which, as it now appears, reflects credit on your reputable engineering skill and ability".
RCMPC obtained a quote for the drainage work from a local contractor, T Dyas.
In acknowledging the cheque, on 8 April 1914, Monash replied "I desire to express my sincere appreciation for the kindly and courteous expressions contained in your letter, and I am very pleased that your Council is satisfied with my efforts to serve their interests. I desire to take the opportunity to make my personal acknowledgements of the uniform courtesy received by me and members of my staff at the hands of your Council and its Officers."
JM T-Girder Bridges extant in Victoria c.1998:
[Part 1.] [Part 2.] [Part 3.] [Part 4.]
Some of JM's other T-Girder Bridges:
[South Australia.] [Stawell St.] [Maribyrnong.] [Miscellaneous 1.] [Miscellaneous 2.]
JM Site Nav:
[JM Intro] [Main JM Index.] [JM Bridge Index.] [JM People Index.]
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This page requires Javascript. Please enable JavaScript to use it!
Spy Tools Chronometry - Interactive Date and Calendar Conversion:
This page allows you to convert dates in a variety of civil, astronomical, and computer calendars.
Enter a date in any calendar you wish, Press ">> Update Page Dates", and you can read the date in any other calendar!
Gregorian Calendar
Time (HH MM SS):
Date Info:
The Gregorian calendar was proclaimed by Pope Gregory XIII, and took effect in most Catholic states in 1582, in which October 4, 1582 of the Julian calendar was followed by October 15 in the new calendar. When comparing historical dates, it's important to note that the Gregorian calendar, used universally today in Western countries and in international commerce, was adopted at different times by different countries. Britain and her colonies (including what is now the United States), did not switch to the Gregorian calendar until 1752, when Wednesday 2nd September in the Julian calendar dawned as Thursday the 14th in the Gregorian.
The Gregorian calendar is a minor correction to the Julian. In the Julian calendar every fourth year is a leap year in which February has 29, not 28 days, but in the Gregorian, years divisible by 100 are not leap years unless they are also divisible by 400. As in the Julian calendar, days are considered to begin at midnight.
Julian Day:
Astronomers frequently need to do arithmetic with dates. Julian days simply enumerate the days and fraction which have elapsed since the start of the Julian era, which is defined as beginning at noon on Monday, 1st January of year 4713 B.C.E. in the Julian calendar. This date is defined in terms of a cycle of years, but has the additional advantage that all known historical astronomical observations bear positive Julian day numbers, and periods can be determined and events extrapolated by simple addition and subtraction. The Julian day notation is so deeply embedded in astronomy that it is unlikely to be displaced at any time in the foreseeable future. It is also an ideal system for storing dates in computer programs, free of cultural bias and discontinuities at various dates, and can be readily transformed into other calendar systems.
Modified Julian Day:
While any event in recorded human history can be written as a positive Julian day number, when working with contemporary events all those digits can be cumbersome. A Modified Julian Day (MJD) is created by subtracting 2400000.5 from a Julian day number, and thus represents the number of days elapsed since midnight (00:00) Universal Time on November 17, 1858. Modified Julian Days are widely used to specify the epoch in tables of orbital elements of artificial Earth satellites. Since no such objects existed prior to October 4, 1957, all satellite-related MJDs are positive.
Julian Calendar
The Julian calendar was proclaimed by Julius Caesar in 46 B.C. and underwent several modifications before reaching its final form in 8 C.E. The Julian calendar differs from the Gregorian only in the determination of leap years, lacking the correction for years divisible by 100 and 400 in the Gregorian calendar. In the Julian calendar, any positive year is a leap year if divisible by 4. (Negative years are leap years if the absolute value divided by 4 yields a remainder of 1.) Days are considered to begin at midnight.
In the Julian calendar the average year has a length of 365.25 days. compared to the actual solar tropical year of 365.24219878 days. The calendar thus accumulates one day of error with respect to the solar year every 128 years. Being a purely solar calendar, no attempt is made to synchronise the start of months to the phases of the Moon.
Hebrew Calendar
Nisan Iyyar Sivan Tammuz Av Elul Tishri Heshvan Kislev Teveth Shevat Adar Veadar
Hebrew Month:
The Hebrew (or Jewish) calendar attempts to simultaneously maintain alignment between the months and the seasons and synchronise months with the Moon--it is thus deemed a "luni-solar calendar". In addition, there are constraints on which days of the week on which a year can begin and to shift otherwise required extra days to prior years to keep the length of the year within the prescribed bounds. This isn't easy, and the computations required are correspondingly intricate.
Years are classified as common (normal) or embolismic (leap) years which occur in a 19 year cycle in years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19. In an embolismic (leap) year, an extra month of 29 days, "Veadar" or "Adar II", is added to the end of the year after the month "Adar", which is designated "Adar I" in such years. Further, years may be deficient, regular, or complete, having respectively 353, 354, or 355 days in a common year and 383, 384, or 385 days in embolismic years. Days are defined as beginning at sunset, and the calendar begins at sunset the night before Monday, October 7, 3761 B.C.E. in the Julian calendar, or Julian day 347995.5. Days are numbered with Sunday as day 1, through Saturday: day 7.
The average length of a month is 29.530594 days, extremely close to the mean synodic month (time from new Moon to next new Moon) of 29.530588 days. Such is the accuracy that more than 13,800 years elapse before a single day discrepancy between the calendar's average reckoning of the start of months and the mean time of the new Moon. Alignment with the solar year is better than the Julian calendar, but inferior to the Gregorian. The average length of a year is 365.2468 days compared to the actual solar tropical year (time from equinox to equinox) of 365.24219 days, so the calendar accumulates one day of error with respect to the solar year every 216 years.
Muharram Safar Rabi`al-Awwal Rabi`ath-Thani Jumada l-Ula Jumada t-Tania Rajab Sha`ban Ramadan Shawwal Dhu l-Qa`da Dhu l-Hijja
The Islamic calendar is purely lunar and consists of twelve alternating months of 30 and 29 days, with the final 29 day month extended to 30 days during leap years. Leap years follow a 30 year cycle and occur in years 1, 5, 7, 10, 13, 16, 18, 21, 24, 26, and 29. Days are considered to begin at sunset. The calendar begins on Friday, July 16th, 622 C.E. in the Julian calendar, Julian day 1948439.5, the day of Muhammad's flight from Mecca to Medina, with sunset on the preceding day reckoned as the first day of the first month of year 1 A.H.--"Anno Hegiræ"--the Arabic word for "separate" or "go away". Weeks begin on Sunday, and the names for the days are just their numbers: Sunday is the first day and Saturday the seventh.
Each cycle of 30 years thus contains 19 normal years of 354 days and 11 leap years of 355, so the average length of a year is therefore ((19 ? 354) + (11 ? 355)) / 30 = 354.365... days, with a mean length of month of 1/12 this figure, or 29.53055... days, which closely approximates the mean synodic month (time from new Moon to next new Moon) of 29.530588 days, with the calendar only slipping one day with respect to the Moon every 2525 years. Since the calendar is fixed to the Moon, not the solar year, the months shift with respect to the seasons, with each month beginning about 11 days earlier in each successive solar year.
The calendar presented here is the most commonly used civil calendar in the Islamic world; for religious purposes months are defined to start with the first observation of the crescent of the new Moon.
Persian Calendar
Farvardin Ordibehesht Khordad Tir Mordad Shahrivar Mehr Aban Azar Dey Bahman Esfand
The modern Persian calendar was adopted in 1925, supplanting (while retaining the month names of) a traditional calendar dating from the eleventh century. The calendar consists of 12 months, the first six of which are 31 days, the next five 30 days, and the final month 29 days in a normal year and 30 days in a leap year.
As one of the few calendars designed in the era of accurate positional astronomy, the Persian calendar uses a very complex leap year structure which makes it the most accurate solar calendar in use today. Years are grouped into cycles which begin with four normal years after which every fourth subsequent year in the cycle is a leap year. Cycles are grouped into grand cycles of either 128 years (composed of cycles of 29, 33, 33, and 33 years) or 132 years, containing cycles of of 29, 33, 33, and 37 years. A great grand cycle is composed of 21 consecutive 128 year grand cycles and a final 132 grand cycle, for a total of 2820 years. The pattern of normal and leap years which began in 1925 will not repeat until the year 4745!
Each 2820 year great grand cycle contains 2137 normal years of 365 days and 683 leap years of 366 days, with the average year length over the great grand cycle of 365.24219852. So close is this to the actual solar tropical year of 365.24219878 days that the Persian calendar accumulates an error of one day only every 3.8 million years. As a purely solar calendar, months are not synchronised with the phases of the Moon.
Mayan Calendars
Long Count:
Haab:
Tzolkin:
The Mayans employed three calendars, all organised as hierarchies of cycles of days of various lengths. The Long Count was the principal calendar for historical purposes, the Haab was used as the civil calendar, while the Tzolkin was the religious calendar. All of the Mayan calendars are based on serial counting of days without means for synchronising the calendar to the Sun or Moon, although the Long Count and Haab calendars contain cycles of 360 and 365 days, respectively, which are roughly comparable to the solar year. Based purely on counting days, the Long Count more closely resembles the Julian Day system and contemporary computer representations of date and time than other calendars devised in antiquity. Also distinctly modern in appearance is that days and cycles count from zero, not one as in most other calendars, which simplifies the computation of dates, and that numbers as opposed to names were used for all of the cycles.
Composed of
kin 1
uinal 20 kin 20
tun 18 uinal 360 0.986
katun 20 tun 7200 19.7
baktun 20 katun 144,000 394.3
pictun 20 baktun 2,880,000 7,885
calabtun 20 piktun 57,600,000 157,704
kinchiltun 20 calabtun 1,152,000,000 3,154,071
alautun 20 kinchiltun 23,040,000,000 63,081,429
The Long Count calendar is organised into the hierarchy of cycles shown at the right. Each of the cycles is composed of 20 of the next shorter cycle with the exception of the tun, which consists of 18 uinal of 20 days each. This results in a tun of 360 days, which maintains approximate alignment with the solar year over modest intervals--the calendar comes undone from the Sun 5 days every tun.
The Mayans believed at at the conclusion of each pictun cycle of about 7,885 years the universe is destroyed and re-created. Those with apocalyptic inclinations will be relieved to observe that the present cycle will not end until Columbus Day, October 12, 4772 in the Gregorian calendar. Speaking of apocalyptic events, it's amusing to observe that the longest of the cycles in the Mayan calendar, alautun, about 63 million years, is comparable to the 65 million years since the impact which brought down the curtain on the dinosaurs--an impact which occurred near the Yucatan peninsula where, almost an alautun later, the Mayan civilisation flourished. If the universe is going to be destroyed and the end of the current pictun, there's no point in writing dates using the longer cycles, so we dispense with them here.
Dates in the Long Count calendar are written, by convention, as:
baktun . katun . tun . uinal . kin
and thus resemble present-day IPV4 Internet addresses!
For civil purposes the Mayans used the Haab calendar in which the year was divided into 18 named periods of 20 days each, followed by five Uayeb days not considered part of any period. Dates in this calendar are written as a day number (0 to 19 for regular periods and 0 to 4 for the days of Uayeb) followed by the name of the period. This calendar has no concept of year numbers; it simply repeats at the end of the complete 365 day cycle. Consequently, it is not possible, given a date in the Haab calendar, to determine the Long Count or year in other calendars. The 365 day cycle provides better alignment with the solar year than the 360 day tun of the Long Count but, lacking a leap year mechanism, the Haab calendar shifted one day with respect to the seasons about every four years.
The Mayan religion employed the Tzolkin calendar, composed of 20 named periods of 13 days. Unlike the Haab calendar, in which the day numbers increment until the end of the period, at which time the next period name is used and the day count reset to 0, the names and numbers in the Tzolkin calendar advance in parallel. On each successive day, the day number is incremented by 1, being reset to 0 upon reaching 13, and the next in the cycle of twenty names is affixed to it. Since 13 does not evenly divide 20, there are thus a total of 260 day number and period names before the calendar repeats. As with the Haab calendar, cycles are not counted and one cannot, therefore, convert a Tzolkin date into a unique date in other calendars. The 260 day cycle formed the basis for Mayan religious events and has no relation to the solar year or lunar month.
The Mayans frequently specified dates using both the Haab and Tzolkin calendars; dates of this form repeat only every 52 solar years.
Bahá'í Calendar
Kull-i-Shay:
Váhid:
Alif Bá' Ab Dál Báb Váv Abad Jád Bahá Hubb Bahháj Javáb Ahad Vahháb Vidád Badí' Bahí Abhá Vahíd Bahá Jalál Jamál `Azamat Núr Rahmat Kalimát Kamál Asmá' `Izzat Mashíyyat `Ilm Qudrat Qawl Masáil Sharaf Sultán Mulk Ayyám-i-Há `Alá' Bahá Jalál Jamál `Azamat Núr Rahmat Kalimát Kamál Asmá' `Izzat Mashíyyat `Ilm Qudrat Qawl Masáil Sharaf Sultán Mulk `Alá'
The Bahá'í calendar is a solar calendar organised as a hierarchy of cycles, each of length 19, commemorating the 19 year period between the 1844 proclamation of the Báb in Shiraz and the revelation by Bahá'u'lláh in 1863. Days are named in a cycle of 19 names. Nineteen of these cycles of 19 days, usually called "months" even though they have nothing whatsoever to do with the Moon, make up a year, with a period between the 18th and 19th months referred to as Ayyám-i-Há not considered part of any month; this period is four days in normal years and five days in leap years. The rule for leap years is identical to that of the Gregorian calendar, so the Bahá'í calendar shares its accuracy and remains synchronised. The same cycle of 19 names is used for days and months.
The year begins at the equinox, March 21, the Feast of Naw-Rúz; days begin at sunset. Years have their own cycle of 19 names, called the Váhid. Successive cycles of 19 years are numbered, with cycle 1 commencing on March 21, 1844, the year in which the Báb announced his prophecy. Cycles, in turn, are assembled into Kull-I-Shay super-cycles of 361 (19?) years. The first Kull-I-Shay will not end until Gregorian calendar year 2205. A week of seven days is superimposed on the calendar, with the week considered to begin on Saturday. Confusingly, three of the names of weekdays are identical to names in the 19 name cycles for days and months.
Indian Civil Calendar
Caitra Vaisakha Jyaistha Asadha Sravana Bhadra Asvina Kartika Agrahayana Pausa Magha Phalguna
A bewildering variety of calendars have been and continue to be used in the Indian subcontinent. In 1957 the Indian government's Calendar Reform Committee adopted the National Calendar of India for civil purposes and, in addition, defined guidelines to standardise computation of the religious calendar, which is based on astronomical observations. The civil calendar is used throughout India today for administrative purposes, but a variety of religious calendars remain in use. We present the civil calendar here.
The National Calendar of India is composed of 12 months. The first month, Caitra, is 30 days in normal and 31 days in leap years. This is followed by five consecutive 31 day months, then six 30 day months. Leap years in the Indian calendar occur in the same years as as in the Gregorian calendar; the two calendars thus have identical accuracy and remain synchronised.
Years in the Indian calendar are counted from the start of the Saka Era, the equinox of March 22nd of year 79 in the Gregorian calendar, designated day 1 of month Caitra of year 1 in the Saka Era. The calendar was officially adopted on 1 Caitra, 1879 Saka Era, or March 22nd, 1957 Gregorian. Since year 1 of the Indian calendar differs from year 1 of the Gregorian, to determine whether a year in the Indian calendar is a leap year, add 78 to the year of the Saka era then apply the Gregorian calendar rule to the sum.
French Republican Calendar
Mois de:
Vendémiaire Brumaire Frimaire Nivôse Pluviôse Ventôse Germinal Floréal Prairial Messidor Thermidor Fructidor (Sans-culottides)
Décade:
Jour:
du Primidi du Duodi du Tridi du Quartidi du Quintidi du Sextidi du Septidi du Octidi du Nonidi du Décadi ------------ de la Vertu du Génie du Travail de l'Opinion des Récompenses de la Révolution
The French Republican calendar was adopted by a decree of La Convention Nationale on Gregorian date October 5, 1793 and went into effect the following November 24th, on which day Fabre d'Églantine proposed to the Convention the names for the months. It incarnates the revolutionary spirit of "Out with the old! In with the relentlessly rational!" which later gave rise in 1795 to the metric system of weights and measures which has proven more durable than the Republican calendar.
The calendar consists of 12 months of 30 days each, followed by a five- or six-day holiday period, the jours complémentaires or sans-culottides. Months are grouped into four seasons; the three months of each season end with the same letters and rhyme with one another. The calendar begins on Gregorian date September 22nd, 1792, the September equinox and date of the founding of the First Republic. This day is designated the first day of the month of Vendémiaire in year 1 of the Republic. Subsequent years begin on the day in which the September equinox occurs as reckoned at the Paris meridian. Days begin at true solar midnight. Whether the sans-culottides period contains five or six days depends on the actual date of the equinox. Consequently, there is no leap year rule per se: 366 day years do not recur in a regular pattern but instead follow the dictates of astronomy. The calendar therefore stays perfectly aligned with the seasons. No attempt is made to synchronise months with the phases of the Moon.
The Republican calendar is rare in that it has no concept of a seven day week. Each thirty day month is divided into three décades of ten days each, the last of which, décadi, was the day of rest. (The word "décade" may confuse English speakers; the French noun denoting ten years is "décennie".) The names of days in the décade are derived from their number in the ten day sequence. The five or six days of the sans-culottides do not bear the names of the décade. Instead, each of these holidays commemorates an aspect of the republican spirit. The last, jour de la Révolution, occurs only in years of 366 days.
Napoléon abolished the Republican calendar in favour of the Gregorian on January 1st, 1806. Thus France, one of the first countries to adopt the Gregorian calendar (in December 1582), became the only country to subsequently abandon and then re-adopt it. During the period of the Paris Commune uprising in 1871 the Republican calendar was again briefly used.
The original decree which established the Republican calendar contained a contradiction: it defined the year as starting on the day of the true autumnal equinox in Paris, but further prescribed a four year cycle called la Franciade, the fourth year of which would end with le jour de la Révolution and hence contain 366 days. These two specifications are incompatible, as 366 day years defined by the equinox do not recur on a regular four year schedule. This problem was recognised shortly after the calendar was proclaimed, but the calendar was abandoned five years before the first conflict would have occurred and the issue was never formally resolved. Here we assume the equinox rule prevails, as a rigid four year cycle would be no more accurate than the Julian calendar, which couldn't possibly be the intent of its enlightened Republican designers.
ISO-8601 Week and Day, and Day of Year
The International Standards Organisation (ISO) issued Standard ISO 8601, "Representation of Dates" in 1988, superseding the earlier ISO 2015. The bulk of the standard consists of standards for representing dates in the Gregorian calendar including the highly recommended "YYYY-MM-DD" form which is unambiguous, free of cultural bias, can be sorted into order without rearrangement, and is Y9K compliant. In addition, ISO 8601 formally defines the "calendar week" often encountered in commercial transactions in Europe. The first calendar week of a year: week 1, is that week which contains the first Thursday of the year (or, equivalently, the week which includes January 4th of the year; the first day of that week is the previous Monday). The last week: week 52 or 53 depending on the date of Monday in the first week, is that which contains December 28th of the year. The first ISO calendar week of a given year starts with a Monday which can be as early as December 29th of the previous year or as late as January 4th of the present; the last calendar week can end as late as Sunday, January 3rd of the subsequent year. ISO 8601 dates in year, week, and day form are written with a "W" preceding the week number, which bears a leading zero if less than 10, for example February 29th, 2000 is written as 2000-02-29 in year, month, day format and 2000-W09-2 in year, week, day form; since the day number can never exceed 7, only a single digit is required. The hyphens may be elided for brevity and the day number omitted if not required. You will frequently see date of manufacture codes such as "00W09" stamped on products; this is an abbreviation of 2000-W09, the ninth week of year 2000.
In solar calendars such as the Gregorian, only days and years have physical significance: days are defined by the rotation of the Earth, and years by its orbit about the Sun. Months, decoupled from the phases of the Moon, are but a memory of forgotten lunar calendars, while weeks of seven days are entirely a social construct--while most calendars in use today adopt a cycle of seven day names or numbers, calendars with name cycles ranging from four to sixty days have been used by other cultures in history.
ISO 8601 permits us to jettison the historical and cultural baggage of weeks and months and express a date simply by the year and day number within that year, ranging from 001 for January 1st through 365 (366 in a leap year) for December 31st. This format makes it easy to do arithmetic with dates within a year, and only slightly more complicated for periods which span year boundaries. You'll see this representation used in project planning and for specifying delivery dates. ISO dates in this form are written as "YYYY-DDD", for example 2000-060 for February 29th, 2000; leading zeroes are always written in the day number, but the hyphen may be omitted for brevity.
All ISO 8601 date formats have the advantages of being fixed length (at least until the Y10K crisis rolls around) and, when stored in a computer, of being sorted in date order by an alphanumeric sort of their textual representations. The ISO week and day and day of year calendars are derivative of the Gregorian calendar and share its accuracy.
Unix time():
Development of the Unix operating system began at Bell Laboratories in 1969 by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson, with the first PDP-11 version becoming operational in February 1971. Unix wisely adopted the convention that all internal dates and times (for example, the time of creation and last modification of files) were kept in Universal Time, and converted to local time based on a per-user time zone specification. This far-sighted choice has made it vastly easier to integrate Unix systems into far-flung networks without a chaos of conflicting time settings.
Many machines on which Unix was initially widely deployed could not support arithmetic on integers longer than 32 bits without costly multiple-precision computation in software. The internal representation of time was therefore chosen to be the number of seconds elapsed since 00:00 Universal time on January 1, 1970 in the Gregorian calendar (Julian day 2440587.5), with time stored as a 32 bit signed integer (long in early C implementations).
The influence of Unix time representation has spread well beyond Unix since most C and C++ libraries on other systems provide Unix-compatible time and date functions. The major drawback of Unix time representation is that, if kept as a 32 bit signed quantity, on January 19, 2038 it will go negative, resulting in chaos in programs unprepared for this. Unix and C implementations wisely (for reasons described below) define the result of the time() function as type time_t, which leaves the door open for remediation (by changing the definition to a 64 bit integer, for example) before the clock ticks the dreaded doomsday second.
C compilers on Unix systems prior to 7th Edition lacked the 32-bit long type. On earlier systems time_t, the value returned by the time() function, was an array of two 16-bit ints which, concatenated, represented the 32-bit value. This is the reason why time() accepts a pointer argument to the result (prior to 7th Edition it returned a status, not the 32-bit time) and ctime() requires a pointer to its input argument. Thanks to Eric Allman (author of sendmail) for pointing out these historical nuggets.
Excel Serial Day Number
Serial day:
1900 Date System (PC)
Spreadsheet calculations frequently need to do arithmetic with date and time quantities--for example, calculating the interest on a loan with a given term. When Microsoft Excel was introduced for the PC Windows platform, it defined dates and times as "serial values", which express dates and times as the number of days elapsed since midnight on January 1, 1900 with time given as a fraction of a day. Midnight on January 1, 1900 is day 1.0 in this scheme. Time zone is unspecified in Excel dates, with the NOW() function returning whatever the computer's clock is set to--in most cases local time, so when combining data from machines in different time zones you usually need to add or subtract the bias, which can differ over the year due to observance of summer time. Here we assume Excel dates represent Universal (Greenwich Mean) time, since there isn't any other rational choice. But don't assume you can always get away with this.
You'd be entitled to think, therefore, that conversion back and forth between PC Excel serial values and Julian day numbers would simply be a matter of adding or subtracting the Julian day number of December 31, 1899 (since the PC Excel days are numbered from 1). But this is a Microsoft calendar, remember, so one must first look to make sure it doesn't contain one of those bonehead blunders characteristic of Microsoft. As is usually the case, one doesn't have to look very far. If you have a copy of PC Excel, fire it up, format a cell as containing a date, and type 60 into it: out pops "February 29, 1900". News apparently travels very slowly from Rome to Redmond--ever since Pope Gregory revised the calendar in 1582, years divisible by 100 have not been leap years, and consequently the year 1900 contained no February 29th. Due to this morsel of information having been lost somewhere between the Holy See and the Infernal Seattle monopoly, all Excel day numbers for days subsequent to February 28th, 1900 are one day greater than the actual day count from January 1, 1900. Further, note that any computation of the number of days in a period which begins in January or February 1900 and ends in a subsequent month will be off by one--the day count will be one greater than the actual number of days elapsed.
By the time the 1900 blunder was discovered, Excel users had created millions of spreadsheets containing incorrect day numbers, so Microsoft decided to leave the error in place rather than force users to convert their spreadsheets, and the error remains to this day. Note, however, that only 1900 is affected; while the first release of Excel probably also screwed up all years divisible by 100 and hence implemented a purely Julian calendar, contemporary versions do correctly count days in 2000 (which is a leap year, being divisible by 400), 2100, and subsequent end of century years.
PC Excel day numbers are valid only between 1 (January 1, 1900) and 2958465 (December 31, 9999). Although a serial day counting scheme has no difficulty coping with arbitrary date ranges or days before the start of the epoch (given sufficient precision in the representation of numbers), Excel doesn't do so. Day 0 is deemed the idiotic January 0, 1900 (at least in Excel 97), and negative days and those in Y10K and beyond are not handled at all. Further, old versions of Excel did date arithmetic using 16 bit quantities and did not support day numbers greater than 65380 (December 31, 2078); I do not know in which release of Excel this limitation was remedied.
1904 Date System (Macintosh)
Having saddled every PC Excel user with a defective date numbering scheme wasn't enough for Microsoft--nothing ever is. Next, they proceeded to come out with a Macintosh version of Excel which uses an entirely different day numbering system based on the MacOS native time format which counts seconds elapsed since January 1, 1904. To further obfuscate matters, on the Macintosh they chose to number days from zero rather than 1, so midnight on January 1, 1904 has serial value 0.0. By starting in 1904, they avoided screwing up 1900 as they did on the PC. So now Excel users who interchange data have to cope with two incompatible schemes for counting days, one of which thinks 1900 was a leap year and the other which doesn't go back that far. To compound the fun, you can now select either date system on either platform, so you can't be certain dates are compatible even when receiving data from another user with same kind of machine you're using. I'm sure this was all done in the interest of the "efficiency" of which Microsoft is so fond. As we all know, it would take a computer almost forever to add or subtract four in order to make everything seamlessly interchangeable.
Macintosh Excel day numbers are valid only between 0 (January 1, 1904) and 2957003 (December 31, 9999). Although a serial day counting scheme has no difficulty coping with arbitrary date ranges or days before the start of the epoch (given sufficient precision in the representation of numbers), Excel doesn't do so. Negative days and those in Y10K and beyond are not handled at all. Further, old versions of Excel did date arithmetic using 16 bit quantities and did not support day numbers greater than 63918 (December 31, 2078); I do not know in which release of Excel this limitation was remedied.
This page is based on the excellent JavaSript date conversion system devloped by John Walker, and is in the public domain!
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Office workers in search of snacks will be counting calories along with their change under new labeling regulations for vending machines included in President Barack Obama's health care overhaul law.
Requiring calorie information to be displayed on roughly 5 million vending machines nationwide will help consumers make healthier choices, says the Food and Drug Administration, which is expected to release final rules early next year. It estimates the cost to the vending machine industry at $25.8 million initially and $24 million per year after that, but says if just .02 percent of obese adults ate 100 fewer calories a week, the savings to the health care system would be at least that great.
The rules will apply to about 10,800 companies that operate 20 or more machines. Nearly three quarters of those companies have three or fewer employees, and their profit margin is extremely low, according to the National Automatic Merchandising Association. An initial investment of $2,400 plus $2,200 in annual costs is a lot of money for a small company that only clears a few thousand dollars a year, said Eric Dell, the group's vice president for government affairs.
"The money that would be spent to comply with this — there's no return on the investment," he said.
While the proposed rules would give companies a year to comply, the industry group has suggested a two-year deadline and is urging the government to allow as much flexibility as possible in implementing the rules. Some companies may use electronic displays to post calorie counts while others may opt for signs stuck to the machines.
Carol Brennan, who owns Brennan Food Vending Services in Londonderry, said she doesn't yet know how she will handle the regulations, but she doesn't like them. She has five employees servicing hundreds of machines and says she'll be forced to limit the items offered so her employees don't spend too much time updating the calorie counts.
"It is outrageous for us to have to do this on all our equipment," she said.
Brennan also doubts that consumers will benefit from the calorie information.
"How many people have not read a label on a candy bar?" she said. "If you're concerned about it, you've already read it for years."
But Kim Gould, 58, of Seattle, said he doesn't read the labels even after his choice pops out of a vending machine, so having access to that information wouldn't change what he buys.
"People have their reasons they eat well or eat poorly," Gould said.
Standing with his 12-year-old daughter near a vending machine in a medical clinic where he bought some drinks last week, he said he only makes purchases at the machines when he's hungry and has no other options.
"How do we know people who are buying candy in the vending machines aren't eating healthy 99 percent of the time?" he added.
As for the new labels, Gould said he wasn't sure what the point would be, and that they would just be "nibbling around the edges of the problem."
The FDA also is working on final rules for requiring restaurant chains with more than 20 locations to post calories information, something some cities already mandate and some large fast-food operations have begun doing voluntarily. A 2011 study in New York found that only one in six customers looked at the information, but those who did generally ordered about 100 fewer calories. A more recent study in Philadelphia found no difference in calories purchased after the city's labeling law took effect.
"There is probably a subset of people for whom this information works, who report using it to purchase fewer calories, but what we're not seeing though is a change at an overall population level in the number of calories consumed," said Brian Ebel, the study's author and an assistant professor at New York University's department of population health and medicine.
Ebel said he wouldn't be surprised if the vending machine labels end up being equally ineffective, but he said it's possible that consumers might pay more attention to them for a couple of reasons. In some locations, a vending machine might be the only food option, he said. And reading a list of calorie counts on a machine will be less overwhelming than scanning a large menu at a fast-food restaurant with other customers waiting in line behind you, he said.
"It could go either way, but I think there's at least some reason to think it could be slightly more influential in vending machines."
Even without the calorie counts, consumers already have ways to make healthier choices from vending machines. The vending machine industry group launched its "Fit Pick" system in 2005, which includes stickers placed in front of products that meet healthy guidelines for fat and sugar content. The program is used by nearly 14,000 businesses, schools and government agencies, as well as all branches of the military.
Chinese Demand Keeps Dairy Prices High In 2014
The global dairy industry can expect continued high prices in 2014 due to high Chinese demand, according to a new report from Rabobank.
According to the report, international dairy commodity prices strengthened from already high levels and are expected to remain high at least for the first half of 2014. The increase of export supply since September, as producers have responded to improved margins, has been largely soaked up by continuing vigorous buying from China.
"Global prices have remained high despite the taps being turned on in key export regions," said Rabobank analyst Tim Hunt. "China continues to buy exceptionally large volumes of product from the international market to supplement falling local milk supply and this is likely to mop up most, if not all, of the increase in exports arising from key surplus regions in Q4."
The global dairy market will enter 2014 with farmgate milk prices at record or near record highs in many export and import regions. Meanwhile the prices of commodity feeds, such as soybeans and corn, have fallen 10%-40% below prior year levels, opening up large margins for milk producers in intensive feeding regions.
Despite a small softening in prices in October and November, global prices have remained high due to an uptick in December. By mid-December, Whole Milk Powder (WMP) held above $5,000 per ton in fob Oceania trade, while prices of other key commodities rose between 3% and 5%, as Southern Hemisphere processors switched milk type towards the higher-yielding WMP.
China's buying has left the rest of the buy-side of the international market with less supply to go around, keeping the market tight. With export supply still in the early stages of recovery, prices edged up even further in Q4 to ration supply.
The report predicts a further increase in China's dairy purchases from the world market in 2014. A strong Northern Hemisphere production season, following on from an exceptional season in the Southern Hemisphere should generate more than enough exportable supply to exceed China's additional demand, the report says.
Study: Potentially Harmful Bacteria on Most Tested Chicken Breasts
About half of samples tested had at least one bacteria resistant to three or more classes of antibiotics; bacteria were more resistant to antibiotics approved for use in chicken production
YONKERS, N.Y., Dec. 19, 2013 /PRNewswire-USNewswire/ -- In its most comprehensive tests of meat and poultry to date, Consumer Reports found bacteria that could make consumers sick on nearly all of the 316 raw chicken breasts purchased at retail nationwide. The full report, "The High Cost of Cheap Chicken," is featured in the February 2014 issue of Consumer Reports and online at www.ConsumerReports.org.
While Consumer Reports has consistently been testing chicken for more than 15 years, this is the first time it has looked at the contamination rates for six different bacteria – enterococcus (79.8 percent), E.coli (65.2 percent), campylobacter (43 percent), klebsiella pneumonia (13.6 percent), salmonella (10.8 percent), and staphylococcus aureus (9.2 percent). It also evaluated every bacterium for antibiotic resistance and found that about half the chicken samples harbored at least one multidrug-resistant bacteria.
As part of this investigation, the Consumer Reports National Research Center recently conducted a nationally representative survey of 1,005 respondents about their understanding of labels and their handling and cooking habits for chicken. The survey found that more than half of respondents thought that "natural" chickens did not receive antibiotics or genetically modified feed and more than one-third thought "natural" was equal to "organic," all of which are not true.
"Our tests show consumers who buy chicken breast at their local grocery stores are very likely to get a sample that is contaminated and likely to get a bug that is multidrug resistant. When people get sick from resistant bacteria, treatment may be getting harder to find," said Dr. Urvashi Rangan, a toxicologist and Executive Director of the Consumer Reports Food Safety and Sustainability Center. "Our survey also shows that consumers are making buying decisions based on label claims that they believe are offering them additional value when that is not in fact the case. The marketplace clearly needs to change to meet consumer expectations."
Consumer Reports' study comes at a time when 48 million people are falling sick and 3,000 dying in the United States each year from eating tainted food, with more deaths being attributed to poultry than any other commodity, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Other highlights from Consumer Reports' findings include:
The majority of samples tested positive for one of the common measures of fecal contamination – Enterococcus and E.coli. More advanced testing showed that 17.5 percent of the E.coli are the type (known as ExPEC) that have genes that make these bacteria more likely to cause urinary tract infections.
About half of chicken samples contained at least one bacterium resistant to three or more antibiotics, commonly referred to as multidrug-resistant bacteria or "superbug." Slightly more than 11 percent contained two or more multidrug-resistant bacteria.
Bacteria were more resistant to antibiotics approved for use in chicken production for growth promotion and disease prevention than those not approved for those uses.
One sample was a Foster Farms chicken breast from a plant associated with the recent outbreak. The sample contained a Salmonella Heidelberg that was a match to one of the outbreak strains. Consumer Reports released its results about this sample in October 2013 immediately after it was confirmed.
Since 1998, Consumer Reports' tests of chicken have shown salmonella rates have not changed much, ranging between 11 and 16 percent.
"We know especially for salmonella, other countries have reduced their rates. In fact, systemic solutions were implemented throughout the European Union. Government data show that in 2010, 22 countries met the European target for less than or equal to 1 percent contamination of two important types of salmonella in their broiler flocks. There is no reason why the United States can't do the same," concludes Rangan.
For more information on what has been done in Europe and different sustainability practices, visit www.ConsumerReports.org/cro/chicken0214.
"We are looking to the government to ensure the safety and sustainability of the entire food supply," said Rangan. "We need to attack the root causes of the problems. Without a government focus on effective solutions, meat safety will continue to be compromised."
In order to reduce rates of bacterial contamination as European counterparts have done and preserve the effectiveness of antibiotics, Consumers Union, the policy and advocacy arm of Consumer Reports, calls on the U.S Department of Agriculture (USDA), Congress, and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to do the following:
Congress should give the USDA authority to mandate a recall of meat and poultry products, especially when product from a plant matches that of a human outbreak strain. Currently, it cannot mandate any recall.
The FDA should prohibit antibiotic use in food animals except for the treatment of sick ones. FDA's action last week giving voluntary guidance to drug companies to end labeling of antibiotics for growth promotion uses is an important first step, but is far from what is needed overall. An effective way to ensure that antibiotics are only used to treat sick animals is for Congress to pass the Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act.
The USDA should classify strains of salmonella bacteria that are resistant to multiple antibiotics and known to have caused disease as "adulterants," so that inspectors look for those strains routinely and when found, the products cannot be sold.
The USDA should move quickly to set strict levels for allowable salmonella and campylobacter in chicken parts. The agency expects to put that proposal out for public review and feedback this year. As part of this process, the USDA should publish a list of meat products like chicken parts for which it has no performance standards and indicate a timetable for establishing them. We say these standards can't come soon enough.
The USDA's proposed rule to increase maximum line speeds and reduce the number of USDA inspectors at slaughter plants should be dropped.
The National Organic Program should eliminate the loophole allowing antibiotics to be used in the chicken eggs up until the first day of life in organic chicken broilers.
USDA should ban the use of the "natural" claim, which is not a meaningful label, and require claims on meat to be certified and inspected.
What Consumers Can Do
Consumer Reports advises consumers to follow these tips to ensure proper handling and cooking of chicken:
Wash hands when handling any type of meat or poultry – frozen or fresh – before touching anything else and wash them for at least 20 seconds with hot soapy water – even if it means multiple washings.
Use a cutting board designated strictly for raw meat and poultry. When done, place it in the dishwasher directly from the counter or wash with hot soapy water.
Don't run chicken under the faucet before cooking.
When cooking, use a meat thermometer and always cook chicken to 165°F.
When shopping, buy meat last; keeping chicken cold delays bacteria overgrowth. Place chicken in a plastic bag to prevent other items from contamination.
Buy chicken raised without antibiotics to help preserve the effectiveness of these drugs; avoid meaningless labels like "natural" and "free range".
re Specific Testing May Lessen Severity Of Fish Allergies
More specific testing to identify fish allergies in affected persons may identify allergens not common to all types of seafood, which could lessen the severity of fish allergies, according to a new study published in the Journal of Investigational Allergology and Clinical Immunology.
Researchers at Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), University of Leipzig and Haukeland University Hospital examined 12 patients to determine the extent of their fish allergies. One of the subjects had developed an allergy to Nile perch (Lates niloticus) after having come into contact with the raw fish following consumption of salmon (Salmo salar), called a "cross allergy." Tests indicated signs of allergies to Nile perch and salmon, but not to Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua).
The most common allergen in fish and crustaceans is parvalbumin, a calcium-binding protein. While other substances may also trigger allergies, such as certain proteins in cell metabolism called aldehyde dehydrogenases, these proteins have been overlooked due to the prevalence of the more frequent parvalbumin.
Researchers concluded the tests that are currently used are very non-specific, whereas more specific testing could identify less common allergens. The most direct way of identifying new allergens is through analyzing the serum of affected patients and the proteins of the allergy source. If certain antibodies in the patients’ serum bind to the proteins of the food, the allergy is triggered. The identified allergies can be used initially for individual diagnoses and later for epidemiological studies, to determine the relevance of individual allergies.
"For some people who suffer from fish allergies there may be hope of finding a fish that they can tolerate if we managed to make the relevant tests suitable for mass implementation and use them in allergy diagnostics," said Janina Tomm, Ph.D., from the UFZ, who specializes in research into proteins.
Study Finds Organic Milk Has More Omega 3s Than Conventional Milk
Enlarge imagei
Cows graze in a pasture at the University of New Hampshire's organic dairy farm in Lee, N.H., Sept. 27, 2006.
JIM COLE/AP
While milk consumption continues to fall in the U.S., sales of organic milk are on the rise. And now organic milk accounts for about 4 percent of total fluid milk consumption.
For years, organic producers have claimed their milk is nutritionally superior to regular milk. Specifically, they say that because their cows spend a lot more time out on pasture, munching on grasses and legumes rich in omega-3 fatty acids, the animals' milk is higher in these healthy fats, which are linked to a reduced risk of heart disease.
But the evidence for this has been scant, except for some small studies from Europe.
Now, a new study evaluating organic milk produced in the U.S. finds that organic milk has about 62 percent more omega-3s, compared to milk produced by cows on conventional dairy farms. Cows raised on conventional farms typically spend a lot more time in a barn or confined, and instead of grazing, they're fed a diet of animal feed that contains a lot of corn.
"We were surprised by the magnitude of the differences," lead author Charles Benbrook of Washington State University tells The Salt.
Benbrook and his colleague analyzed about 400 samples of organic and conventional milk over a period of about a year and a half. The samples were taken at processing facilities around the country.
The findings, published in the journal PLoS ONE, come at a time when we're being told to consume more omega-3 fatty acids. Most people hear this advice and think of fatty fish — which is, of course, an excellent source of the omega-3s DHA and EPA.
What's less well known is that plant-based foods, such as leafy greens and nuts, are rich in another omega-3 called ALA. Now, it's becoming clearer that organic milk is a good source of that, too.
Benbrook says that consuming ALA-rich milk is also a good way to change the ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in your diet. According to the National Institutes of Health, the consensus is that, for good health, we need to be eating more omega-3s and less omega-6s.
Omega-6s are found in corn and sunflower oil, and in foods fried in these oils. While some experts don't see a problem with omega-6s, many say that the typical American diet already contains too many. And averaged over 12 months, the study found, organic milk contained 25 percent less omega-6 fatty acids than conventional milk.
So, here's the rub: if you want all of the omega-3s found in organic milk, are you better off drinking whole milk rather than skim?
Yes. That's because skimming off the fat also reduces the omega-3 content. For example, if you choose 1 percent milk, it has about one-third the fat of whole milk. So you're left with a much lower level of omega-3s. Of course, you're also fewer calories, so it might be a hard choice for people who are watching their weight. If they choose whole milk, they may have to trim calories elsewhere.
And there seems to be a movement towards consuming whole milk. Sales of whole, organic milk are up 10 percent this year, making it the fastest-growing category of milk, according to a spokeswoman from Organic Valley. Skim sales, meanwhile, are down 7.0 percent, she says.
As I reported earlier this year, some studies have linked fattier milk to slimmer kids, despite the fact that pediatricians routinely recommend switching kids to low-fat dairy at the age of 2 to reduce their consumption of saturated fats. These fats, which are more abundant in whole milk than in reduced fat milk, are linked to a higher risk of cardiovascular disease.
As falling sales figures show, lots of Americans have simply taken milk out of their diets — due to lactose intolerance or other reasons. Some have replaced dairy milk with alternatives such as almond milk, which many doctors say is fine, since there are plenty of other sources of calcium.
But for people who are still milk drinkers, this study suggests that yes, there is a benefit in choosing organic in terms of boosting omega-3 intake.
One thing to note: Dairy farmers of the Cooperative Regions of Organic Producer Pools, a group which markets through the Organic Valley brand, helped fund the study. But the groups had no role in its design or analysis. The analysis was funded by the Measure to Manage program at the Center for Sustaining Agriculture and Natural Resources at Washington State University.
8 Ounces Of Cranberry Juice Per Day Doubles Flavonoid Intake
Adding eight ounces of cranberry juice per day or one serving of dried cranberries to consumers’ diets would nearly double the U.S. population’s intake of flavonoids, according to research discussed at the American Society for Nutrition’s 2013 Advances and Controversies in Clinical Nutrition Conference in Washington, Dec. 5.
Flavonoids are a category of polyphenols found in colorful fruits and vegetables linked to improved cardiovascular and cellular health as well as reduced inflammation.
Presenter David Baer, Ph.D., USDA-Agricultural Research Service Beltsville Human Nutrition Research Center, said polyphenols (plant compounds found in wine, tea and many common fruits) could enhance diets and improve whole body health—a hundred grams of cranberries contains more polyphenolic antioxidants than the equivalent amount of strawberries, broccoli, white grapes, bananas or apples.
Consuming cranberries or cranberry juice can also improve urinary tract health and heart health. During a double blind placebo controlled clinical study, subjects drinking low-calorie cranberry juice cocktail had significantly lower C-reactive protein and diastolic blood pressure than subjects on a placebo beverage. Cranberries, because of their high concentrations of flavonoids, can help promote cardiometabolic markers and help maintain cardiovascular health, including lowering blood pressure.
In addition, people who consume cranberry beverages were more likely to have a lower waist circumference and be less overweight or obese, showing cranberries can be part of a healthy, balanced lifestyle.
Organic Food Sales to Continue Growth into 2018
The increasing usage of pesticides, genetically modified organisms (GMO’s) and antibiotics in the food products are raising health concerns in the United States.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013 estimates shows that about 1.1 billion pounds of pesticides active ingredients are being used annually in the country and over 20,000 pesticides products are being marketed annually, which is adversely impacting the health of the consumers, and the environment. Therefore, the Organic foods which are produced using environment and animal friendly organic farming methods are gaining awareness in the country. Organic Trade Association 2012, estimates shows that about 81% families are purchasing organic food at least some times.
According to “United States Organic Food Market Forecast & Opportunities, 2018”, it is forecasted that the organic food market in United States will grow at the CAGR (Compound Annual Growth Rate) of about 14% during 2014-18.
The organic fruits & vegetables will continue to dominate till 2018 and with the growth in organic food market revenues, the demand for organic meat, fish, poultry, etc. is also expected to gain demand in the forecasted period. The western states in United States hold the major market share in the total organic food market revenues. However, increasing per capita income coupled with the growing domestic production and commercial sector are anticipated to surge the demand of organic food in other regions of the country.
Low Vitamin D Levels Linked To Brain Damage
A diet low in vitamin D may cause damage to the brain, according to a new study published in the journal Free Radical Biology and Medicine.
University of Kentucky researchers fed middle-aged rats a diet low in vitamin D for several months to study its effects on brain health.
Results showed the rats developed free radical damage to the brain, and many different brain proteins were damaged as identified by redox proteomics. These rats also showed a significant decrease in cognitive performance on tests of learning and memory.
"Given that vitamin D deficiency is especially widespread among the elderly, we investigated how during aging from middle-age to old-age how low vitamin D affected the oxidative status of the brain," said lead author Allan Butterfield. “Adequate vitamin D serum levels are necessary to prevent free radical damage in brain and subsequent deleterious consequences."
Previously, low levels of vitamin D have been associated with Alzheimer's disease and to the development of certain cancers and heart disease. Butterfield recommends eating foods rich in vitamin D, taking vitamin D supplements and/or getting at least 10-15 minutes of sun exposure each day to ensure that vitamin D levels are normalized for optimal health.
Obesity May Alter Taste Receptors
Being severely obese may change a person’s ability to taste sweet foods and lead to more weight gain, according to a new study published in the journal PLOS One.
Researchers at University of Buffalo who conducted the study concluded that diet-induced obesity significantly alters the responsiveness of the peripheral taste cells that are responsible for the initial detection of taste stimuli and for sending that taste information to the brain.
Kathryn Medler, associate professor of biological sciences at the University of Buffalo, says it's possible that the trouble detecting sweetness may lead obese mice to eat more than their leaner counterparts to get the same payoff.
For the study, researchers compared 25 normal mice to 25 of their littermates who were fed a high-fat diet and became obese. After 10 weeks on the high-fat diet, researchers used calcium imaging to measure how taste-evoked calcium signals were affected in the obese mice discovering that significantly fewer taste receptor cells were responsive to some appetitive taste stimuli, while the numbers of taste cells that were sensitive to aversive taste stimuli did not change.
The researchers noted that further research is imperative to determine the connection between taste, appetite and obesity because it could lead to new methods of encouraging healthy eating.
Low-Carb Product Launches Increase 95% In Europe
New food and drink product launches with "low carb" claims in Europe have increased 95% between 2008 and 2013, suggesting the low-carb trend may be back in action and with support from high-protein claims, according to new market research from Mintel.
Ten percent of new low-carbohydrate food and drink launches were pasta products, 10% baking ingredients or mixes, 9% bread and 8% snack, cereal and energy bars. The top three countries in Europe for new low-carbohydrate food and drink product launches are France (17%) followed by Germany and Spain, accounting for 15% of NPD share respectively.
Research shows high protein is aiding the comeback of the low-carb trend, with European new product launches in the food and drink category carrying both a low-carb and high-protein claim growing 57% between 2008 and 2013.
New product launches with high protein claims have tripled over the past five years in Europe with a 260% increase in high-protein product launches in 2013 compared with 2008, driven by snacks, yogurt and prepared meals. This year in Europe, of total new product introductions making a protein claim, snacks accounted for 24%, dairy 20% and processed fish, meat and egg products 15%.
Protein's satiety benefits constitute as an important component in weight management; research shows new products launched in Europe carrying high-satiety claims grew 164% between 2008 and 2013.
"As well as communicating the low-carb content of the products, the presence or absence of other nutrients is also highlighted, with high-protein claims positioning products as more than just low-carb alternatives," said Laura Jones, food science analyst, Mintel.
In addition, there is also opportunity for further growth for high-protein products—for example, 66% of Polish, 61% of Spanish, 51% of Italian and 51% of German and 48% of French consumers would be interested in trying high-protein bread.
Meanwhile, dairy products are a good source of natural protein that has served as a base for high-protein claims, with milk gaining recognition over the past few years as an ideal sports drink. Indeed, 52% of Italian consumers, 49% of French, 45% of Spanish and 37% of Germans think milk is good to drink during exercise. Meanwhile, 20% consumers in the United Kingdom think milk is good to drink during and after sports activity.
FSIS Publishes New Rule on Generic Meat, Poultry Labels
USDA's Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) recently published a final rule that expands the circumstances in which the agency will generically approve labels of meat and poultry.
Usually, labels that are used on federally inspected meat and poultry products must be approved first by FSIS through a review of a "sketch label". But FSIS has explained there is an exception for labels whose mandatory label features meet applicable regulations. Such "generic" labels don't need to be submitted for sketch approval.
According to FSIS, the final rule expands the circumstances in which it will generically approve meat and poultry labels, further relieving companies of the requirement to submit their labels for evaluation.
"The final rule provides that establishments are required to submit for evaluation only certain types of labeling, e.g., labels for temporary approval, labels for products produced under religious exemption, labels for products for export with labeling deviations, and labels with claims and special statements," FSIS stated in the final rule.
The agency has adopted the proposed rule with four changes, including making an exception to its sketch approval process for labels that bear a child-nutrition box.
The final rule takes effect. Jan. 6 and can be found here via the Federal Register.
Starbucks Loses Charbucks Appeal
Starbucks Corp has failed to persuade a federal appeals court to stop a small, family-owned New Hampshire roaster from selling coffee known as "Charbucks."
Ruling in a case that began in 2001, the 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals said Black Bear Micro Roastery and its owner, Wolfe's Borough Coffee Inc., may keep selling "Charbucks Blend," "Mister Charbucks" and "Mr. Charbucks" coffee.
Circuit Judge Raymond Lohier wrote for a three-judge panel that Seattle-based Starbucks did not deserve an injunction to stop Charbucks sales, having failed to prove that consumers would be confused through a "blurring" of its brand.
The New York-based appeals court let stand a Dec. 2011 finding by U.S. District Judge Laura Taylor Swain in Manhattan that Charbucks was "only weakly associated with the minimally similar" Starbucks trademark.
Many retailers, especially those selling luxury or premium products, file trademark lawsuits against large and small rivals they believe are misusing their brands, potentially reducing profit and revenue and damaging their reputation.
A centerpiece of Starbucks' case had been a phone survey of 600 people by the pollster Warren Mitofsky, which found that "the number one association of the name 'Charbucks' in the minds of consumers is with the brand 'Starbucks.'"
But the 2nd Circuit said the survey was "fundamentally flawed," and drew its conclusions from how consumers thought of "Charbucks" in isolation, not its real world context.
It said that while 39.5 percent of participants thought of "Starbucks" or "coffee" when asked what came to mind upon hearing "Charbucks," just 4.4 percent said "Starbucks" or "coffee house" when asked who might sell a "Charbucks" product. "Grocery store" was the most popular answer to that question.
"Viewed in light of Starbucks' fame," Lohier wrote, "the fact that more survey participants did not think of 'Starbucks' upon hearing 'Charbucks' reinforces the district court's finding that the marks are only minimally similar."
Starbucks did not immediately respond to requests for comment.
"This is a sound decision," Christopher Cole, a lawyer at Sheehan, Phinney, Bass & Green representing Black Bear, said in an interview. "It flows from the dramatic dissimilarity between how the different products actually appear in commerce and are seen by consumers."
Starbucks has grown since 1971 from a single store in Seattle's Pike Place Market into the world's largest coffee shop chain, with close to 18,000 stores in 60 countries and more than $14.8 billion of annual revenue.
Black Bear is based in Tuftonboro, New Hampshire. It created "Charbucks Blend" in 1997, and now sells dark-roast coffee as "Mister Charbucks" or "Mr. Charbucks."
The 2nd Circuit noted that one reason Black Bear used "Charbucks" was the public perception that Starbucks uses an unusually dark roast for its coffee.
The case is Starbucks Corp et al v. Wolfe's Borough Coffee Inc d/b/a Black Bear Micro Roastery, 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, No. 12-364.
Spearmint, Rosemary May Hinder Alzheimer's Disease
Enhanced extracts made from special antioxidants in spearmint and rosemary improve learning and memory, which may prove beneficial to reducing Alzheimer's disease risk, according to a study presented at Neuroscience 2013, Nov. 9-13.
Researchers at Saint Louis University tested a novel antioxidant-based ingredient made from spearmint extract and two different doses of a similar antioxidant made from rosemary extract on mice that have age-related cognitive decline.
Results concluded the higher-dose rosemary extract compound was the most powerful in improving memory and learning in three tested behaviors. The lower-dose rosemary extract improved memory in two of the behavioral tests, as did the compound made from spearmint extract.
"We found that these proprietary compounds reduce deficits caused by mild cognitive impairment, which can be a precursor to Alzheimer's disease," said Susan Farr, Ph.D., research professor, geriatrics, Saint Louis University.
Further, there were signs of reduced oxidative stress, which is considered a hallmark of age-related decline, in the part of the brain that controls learning and memory.
"Our research suggests these extracts made from herbs might have beneficial effects on altering the course of age-associated cognitive decline," Farr said.
Additional research has shown a healthy diet with sufficient amounts of vitamin C and vitamin D may also help to ward off Alzheimer's disease.
New Website Aims for Honey Sourcing Transparency
A new search function on www.TrueSourceHoney.com allows U.S. shoppers to be sure that they're not mistakenly buying honey that has been illegally shipped from China. In one easy step they can help ensure the safety and quality of their honey, while also supporting U.S. honey producers and beekeepers. In addition, retailers and manufacturers are able to trace their product back to the hive.
By going to www.TrueSourceHoney.com and clicking on the starburst at the top of the page, consumers can enter the UPC code on the back of their packaged honey to see if it is True Source Certified™.
Millions of pounds of illegally sourced honey may continue to enter the United States, despite continuing federal crack-down efforts. True Source CertificationTM helps ensure honey's safety and quality because it traces the source of that honey from hive to table. The program has been applauded by honey industry leaders, including the American Honey Producers Association and the American Beekeeping Federation.
"The True Source Certified logo tells you that the honey you're buying was ethically and legally sourced," says True Source Honey Executive Director Gordon Marks. "If you don't see the logo, ask your retailer or honey company to join the program. And make sure that your favorite foods with honey – from breakfast cereals to snacks – are made by a manufacturer that purchases honey from a True Source Certified honey company."
Earlier this year, two of the nation's largest honey suppliers admitted to buying illegally imported Chinese honey, including some that was adulterated with unauthorized antibiotics.
About one-third of honey sold in North America today is now True Source Certified. Many large grocery retailers and club stores only use certified honey for store brands, including Costco (Kirkland Signature) and Target (Market Pantry and Simply Balanced).
The U.S. imports more than 60% of the honey it needs from other countries. Most is from high-quality, legal sources. But some honey brokers and importers illegally circumvent tariffs and quality controls, selling honey to U.S. companies that is of questionable origin. This threatens the U.S. honey industry by undercutting fair market prices and damaging honey's reputation for quality and safety.
McDonald's Eyes Bigger Share of Coffee Market
McDonald's wants to be a bigger player in the global coffee business.
The world's biggest hamburger chain on Thursday highlighted beverages as one of its key growth opportunities at a daylong presentation for investors.
McDonald's CEO Don Thompson noted that coffee is one of the fastest growing categories in its global drinks business and said that the company has less than its "fair share" of the market. When asked to identify competitors in the space, Thompson chose to keep the discussion broad.
"Anyone that stops off to get a cup of coffee anywhere, that's an opportunity," Thompson said.
The push comes as Starbucks Corp. is enjoying strong sales growth even in the choppy economy. In the latest quarter, the Seattle-based chain said global sales rose 7 percent at locations open at least a year. At McDonald's, the figure edged up 0.9 percent.
As for the coffee servings sold in the U.S. restaurant industry, McDonald's currently has less than 13 percent of the market, said Kevin Newell, the company's chief brand and strategy officer for the region. Still, he noted McDonald's coffee sales have surged 70 percent since the introduction of McCafe specialty coffees in 2009.
A big part of the attraction of McDonald's coffee is value; many locations in the U.S. offer a regular drip coffee of any size for $1. But McDonald's wants to get people to buy pricier drinks, too. This fall, the company introduced a pumpkin spice latte following the popularity of similar drinks at Starbucks and Dunkin' Donuts. And next week, McDonald's plans to launch a white chocolate mocha flavored latte.
The company, based in Oak Brook, Ill., also recently said it's partnering with Kraft Foods Group Inc. to sell McCafe bagged coffee at supermarkets in test markets. The company is hoping the move will help build awareness of the MCafe brand.
"It's about selling more coffee in restaurants," Newell said of the Kraft partnership.
It's not clear what impact the push by McDonald's will have on Starbucks. Richard Adams, who runs a consulting firm for McDonald's franchisees, notes that the chain sells plenty of drip coffee and blended ice frappes in the summer but has struggled to sell espresso-based beverages such as lattes.
In the meantime, Dunkin' Donuts and Starbucks are trying to boost food sales and attract more customers in the afternoon and evening hours. Starbucks recently revamped its sandwiches and introduced new salads and baked goods to become more of a lunch destination. About a third of purchases in the U.S. include food and Starbucks is looking to push that figure up.
But Starbucks CEO Howard Schultz doesn't like comparisons to chains such as McDonald's and Dunkin' Donuts.
"They're in another business — they're fast-food," Schultz said in an interview on CNBC earlier this year.
Overseas, McDonald's also has about 4,200 separate McCafes that are either sectioned off from the main restaurant or stand-alone locations. McDonald's says it plans to add another 350 to 400 such McCafe locations next year.
Still, Thompson stressed that McDonald's remained in the restaurant business.
"We're not trying to be something we're not," he said.
Trader Joe's Supplier Recalls Products for E.Coli
More than 90 tons of prepackaged salads and sandwiches were recalled by a Richmond catering company because a bacterial strain of E. coli has been linked to its products, federal health officials announced Sunday.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture's Food Safety and Inspection Service said Glass Onion Catering recalled approximately 181,620 pounds of salads and sandwich wraps containing cooked chicken and ham after 26 patients in three states were sickened with E. coli O157:H7, a strain of the sometimes deadly bacteria.
The FSIS did not say in which states the E. coli patients became ill. The agency is urging anyone who may have bought salads or prewrapped sandwiches with cooked ham or chicken to throw them away.
The products were produced between Sept. 23 and Nov. 6, and were shipped to distribution centers in California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Texas.
The Food and Drug Administration notified the FSIS on Wednesday that California authorities had tied the illnesses to the Richmond company.
Glass Onion Catering has been a source of food for retailer brands, including Trader Joe's, Super Fresh Foods and Delish. The company was launched in 1992. Its owner, Tom Atherstone, did not return multiple messages left with the company on Sunday.
According to the FSIS, the company began monitoring the outbreak Oct. 29 after a cluster of illnesses involving the E. coli strain.
The bacteria can cause dehydration, bloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps some 2-8 days after a person is exposed to it, according to the FSIS. Most people recover within a week, but some develop kidney failure, the agency said.
Consumers with questions about food safety can go to AskKaren.gov, a virtual representative available 24 hours a day (via smart phone, the address is m.askkaren.gov). Call the USDA's meat and poultry hotline 7 a.m.-1 p.m. (PST) at 888-674-6854.
Trans Fat Ban Causes Little Stir Among Consumers
They are among our most personal daily decisions: what to eat or drink. Maybe what to inhale.
Now that the government's banning trans fat, does that mean it's revving up to take away our choice to consume all sorts of other unhealthy stuff?
What about salt? Soda? Cigarettes?
In the tug-of-war between public health and personal freedom, the Food and Drug Administration's decision to ban trans fats barely rates a ripple.
Hardly anyone defends the icky-sounding artificial ingredient anymore, two decades after health activists began warning Americans that it was clogging their arteries and causing heart attacks.
New York, Philadelphia, a few other localities and the state of California already have banned trans fat from restaurant food.
McDonald's, Taco Bell and KFC dropped it from their french fries, nachos and chicken years ago.
The companies that fill grocery shelves say they already have reduced their use of trans fat by nearly three-fourths since 2005.
Growers are promoting new soybean oils that they say will eliminate, within a few years, the need for partial hydrogenation, the process that creates trans fats still used to enhance the texture of some pie crusts, cookies and margarine.
Mostly, Americans' palates have moved on, and so have their arguments over what's sensible health policy and what amounts to a "nanny state" run amok.
When they aren't feuding over President Barack Obama's health care law, state politicians are busy weighing the wisdom of legalizing marijuana. Already 20 states and the District of Columbia have authorized it for medicinal use. Voters in Colorado and Washington state approved smoking pot just for fun.
The FDA is taking heat for delays in coming out with new rules on regular-old tobacco cigarettes under a law passed in 2009. There are the new e-cigarettes to worry about, too. More than 20 states have banned stores from selling electronic cigarettes to minors, but the federal government has yet to take them on.
New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg's attempt to stop restaurants from selling sodas larger than 16 ounces, and the federal government's efforts to impose healthier lunches on school kids are causing more of an uproar than the trans fat ban.
Still, Jeffrey Levi, executive director of the nonprofit Trust for America's Health, says a national trans fat ban is "a big deal." After all, the FDA estimates it will prevent 20,000 heart attacks and 7,000 deaths a year.
Levi doesn't see it as evidence that federal regulators are suddenly on a roll, however.
"There are other areas where regulation is sort of stuck — everything from nutrition labeling to food safety to the tobacco regulations that have not seen the light of day," Levi said.
Talk of new government regulation typically stirs up libertarians and conservatives. Yet the trans fat ban hasn't provoked much beefing.
Radio host Rush Limbaugh groused that bureaucrats shouldn't regulate what people eat because it's "none of their business" and research on nutrition keeps changing. After all, sticks of margarine made with trans fats used to be recommended as a healthier alternative to butter.
Heritage Foundation research fellow Daren Bakst, who specializes in agriculture issues, blogged that the FDA is "ignoring the most important issue: the freedom of Americans."
A few fans of ready-to-spread cake frostings and microwave popcorn that still contain trans fat griped via Twitter.
They don't have to worry immediately.
The FDA must consider comments from the food industry and the public before it comes up with a timeline for phasing out trans fats, also known as partially hydrogenated oils. It could take years to get them off the market.
Michael Jacobson, executive director of the nonprofit Center for Science in the Public Interest, has been warning about the dangers since the early 1990s. Advocacy by the center helped persuade the government to add trans fat to nutrition labels beginning in 2006.
That created consumer pressure on food companies to find tasty ways to replace partially hydrogenated oil with less harmful fats. The companies' success helped clear the way for the government to consider a trans fat ban, he said.
"It's a little bit of an exception, in that it's so harmful and it was so widely used," Jacobson said, "and there are substitutes so that people can't tell the difference when it's removed."
Next on Jacobson's wish list is something that would be much harder for industry and the FDA to accomplish: reducing the salt in processed foods.
"There are estimates that it's causing around 100,000 deaths prematurely every year in this country," he said. "That is just huge."
Senators Push for More Accessible Crop Insurance
Thirteen senators sent a letter today to the Senate farm bill conferees calling for provisions that aim to make crop insurance more accessible for a wider range of producers, including beginning farmers and specialty crop growers.
In the letter, senators wrote, “Specialty crop growers, organic producers, diversified operations, and young and beginning farmers, who have traditionally been underserved by federal crop insurance, deserve access to affordable and sufficient risk management tools that are on par with what is available for commodity producers … It is important to prioritize and support federal crop insurance products that address these underserved commodities, inadequate coverage, and low participation.”
In the letter, senators push for a whole farm revenue insurance product for diversified farms because, they say, the current system of insuring crop-by-crop does not work for highly diversified operations, including many sustainable and organic farms.
The senators further urged that organic farmers should not face lower rates of crop insurance in the wake of crop losses compared to non-organic products. The letter supported a provision in the House and Senate farm bills that would restore the Risk Management Agency's authority to conduct research and development activities to improve existing products and develop new ones.
Both the Senate and House farm bills would direct USDA to establish a whole farm revenue product that would work for a wide range of diversified operations, be available nationwide, and include a crop and enterprise diversification bonus.
The letter was sent by Sens. Jeff Merkley, D-Ore., Al Franken, D-Minn., Carl Levin, D-Mich., Barbara Boxer, D-Calif., Jon Tester, D-Mont., Jeanne Shaheen, D-N.H., Richard Blumenthal, D-Conn., Ron Wyden, D-Ore., Brian Schatz, D-Hawaii, Mazie Hirono, D-Hawaii, Chris Murphy, D-Conn., Tammy Baldwin, D-Wis., and Kirsten Gillibrand, D-N.Y.
Starbucks to Supply Coffee Grounds for Renewable Energy Facility
A new renewable energy facility announced Thursday for Augusta Corporate Park will find its main source of power coming from neighboring Starbucks’ waste.
Augusta Renewable Energy LLC will process used coffee grounds from the new Starbucks soluble plant as its primary renewable-energy source after the facility opens next year, according to an announcement from the Augusta Economic Development Authority.
Augusta Renewable Energy is spending about $20 million to build its first anaerobic digestion facility in Georgia. The company, a division of Columbia-based First Generation Energy, will create about 10 highly technical positions.
Construction of the site, which will span about eight acres of the industrial park off Mike Padgett Highway, is expected to start before the end of the year and be completed by mid- to late summer, said Daniel Rickenmann, the operating partner for First Generation Energy.
The 180,000-square-foot Starbucks plant has an opening date planned for early 2014.
“Primarily using coffee grounds, Augusta (Renewable) Energy will convert a landfill component into energy,” authority Chairman Henry Ingram said in a news release.
First Generation Energy is a diversified service company that provides zero-waste solutions and small power generation options for industries, food manufacturers, renewable energy and utilities. The company has formed a partnership with environmental technology provider Eisenmann for the installation and technical support during the plant’s implementation process. Caterpillar will assist with the facility, according to the authority. First Generation Energy also will provide a private label line of soil amendments through a partnership with an unnamed Fortune 200 company.
“Green energy is the wave of the future,” Augusta Mayor Deke Copenhaver said in a statement, “and Augusta Renewable Energy will do their part to make sure we are efficient in our energy needs in the years to come.”
FDA Moves to Ban Trans Fats
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration announced its preliminary determination that partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs), the primary dietary source of artificial trans fat in processed foods, are not “generally recognized as safe” for use in food. The FDA’s preliminary determination is based on available scientific evidence and the findings of expert scientific panels.
The agency has opened a 60-day comment period on this preliminary determination to collect additional data and to gain input on the time potentially needed for food manufacturers to reformulate products that currently contain artificial trans fat should this determination be finalized.
“While consumption of potentially harmful artificial trans fat has declined over the last two decades in the United States, current intake remains a significant public health concern,” said FDA Commissioner Margaret A. Hamburg, M.D. “The FDA’s action today is an important step toward protecting more Americans from the potential dangers of trans fat. Further reduction in the amount of trans fat in the American diet could prevent an additional 20,000 heart attacks and 7,000 deaths from heart disease each year – a critical step in the protection of Americans’ health.”
Consumption of trans fat raises low-density lipoprotein (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol, increasing the risk of coronary heart disease. The independent Institute of Medicine (IOM) has concluded that trans fat provides no known health benefit and that there is no safe level of consumption of artificial trans fat. Additionally, the IOM recommends that consumption of trans fat should be as low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet.
In recent years, many food manufacturers and retailers have voluntarily decreased trans fat levels in many foods and products they sell. Trans fat can be found in some processed foods, such as certain desserts, microwave popcorn products, frozen pizzas, margarines and coffee creamers. Numerous retailers and manufacturers have already demonstrated that many of these products can be made without trans fat.
Thanks to these efforts, along with public education, the consumption of trans fat in American diets has been significantly reduced. Since trans fat content information began appearing in the Nutrition Facts label of foods in 2006, trans fat intake among American consumers has declined from 4.6 grams per day in 2003 to about 1 gram per day in 2012.
“One of the FDA’s core regulatory functions is ensuring that food, including all substances added to food, is safe,” said Michael Taylor, the FDA’s deputy commissioner for foods and veterinary medicine. “Food manufacturers have voluntarily decreased trans fat levels in many foods in recent years, but a substantial number of products still contain partially hydrogenated oils, which are the major source of trans fat in processed food.”
Following a review of the submitted comments, if the FDA finalizes its preliminary determination, PHOs would be considered “food additives” and could not be used in food unless authorized by regulation. If such a determination were made, the agency would provide adequate time for producers to reformulate products in order to minimize market disruption. The FDA’s preliminary determination is only with regard to PHOs and does not affect trans fat that naturally occurs in small amounts in certain meat and dairy products.
Cargill To Label Finely Textured Beef
Cargill Beef will begin labeling its branded U.S.-made, fresh, ground beef products containing Finely Textured Beef prior to the 2014 grilling season, with the declaration “Contains Finely Textured Beef." The announcement comes nearly 18 months after calls for companies to halt production of “pink slime," as it was dubbed by the media and its critics.
“Our research shows that consumers believe ground beef products containing Finely Textured Beef should be clearly labeled," said John Keating, Cargill Beef president. “We’ve listened to the public, as well as our customers, and that is why today we are declaring our commitment to labeling Finely Textured Beef."
The new labeling procedure is based on consumer research that consumers desire transparency and believe ground beef products containing Finely Textured Beef should be clearly labeled, providing them with choices when they make a purchase. Research also revealed that, upon learning Finely Textured Beef is 100% pure beef and 95% lean, and how it is made, consumers respond positively to its benefits. Cargill also has launched a dedicated Finely Textured Beef website that provides information about the product, including videos showing how Finely Textured Beef is made at its U.S. beef cattle processing plants.
The debate as to whether boneless lean beef trimmings (BLBT) are safe for human consumption made headlines last year as media reports created a troubling and inaccurate picture of the form of beef made by separating lean beef from fat, particularly in their use of the colloquial term “pink slime." The food additive is created by combining beef trimmings, heating them to remove most of the fat, and treating them with ammonia hydroxide gas to kill potentially dangerous bacteria like E. coli and Salmonella.
In May 2012, Beef Products Inc., the maker of lean, finely textured beef (LFTB) dubbed “pink slime" by the media and critics of its use, and the target of the ABC News investigation, announced it would permanently shutter operations in three of its four operating plants. The announcement comes after the company could not recover from the media frenzy that resulted in decreased consumer demand for its product.
In September 2012, Beef Products, Inc. (BPI) sued ABC News and its journalists, contending the network misled consumers into believing its lean finely textured beef (LFTB) was unsafe. In July 2013, a U.S. District Court Judge ruled that the $1.2 billion "pink slime" defamation lawsuit against ABC News, Inc. and its journalists including, Diane Sawyer, will be litigated in state court.
Retail labeling of beef products containing LFTB has been an option since it was first included in ground beef products more than a decade ago. Voluntary statements such as a label indicating ground beef does or does not contain LFTB is considered a claim. USDA regulations require claims to be verified for accuracy before use on product labeling prior to their use by industry.
Washington Voters Turn Down GMO Labeling
A closely watched ballot measure to require labeling of genetically modified foods sold in Washington was defeated Tuesday night after opponents spent heavily on TV ads attacking the initiative.
Results showed Initiative 522 leading in populous King County -- which includes Seattle -- but losing in almost every county in the state. In Clark County, across the Columbia River from Portland, nearly 60 percent of voters were voting no on the measure.
The initiative sparked a record $22 million in spending from food and biotech companies opposed to the measure, and the results could help determine how the issue plays out nationally.
A similar initiative was defeated in California in 2012 by fewer than three percentage points. Opponents spent $46 million fighting the measure there. In Washington, the measure was losing by around 10 percentage points.
Supporters argued that consumers should have the right to know if their food contains genetically engineered ingredients, which now account for more than 90 percent of the corn, soybeans and sugar beets grown in the U.S.
Opponents, who include most of the state's farm and business organizations, argued that labeling would raise costs and unfairly stigmatize these products.
The pro-labeling campaign was driven by an increasing number of activist groups and organic-food manufacturers who raised questions about the impact of genetically engineered food on farming practices and on whether they could affect human health.
Studies haven't shown any adverse human health impacts, but critics note that the industry is moving into new parts of the food supply, such as salmon and a wide variety of fruits and vegetables.
Oregon advocates of genetic labeling already have a proposed initiative for the November 2014 ballot in the works. U.S. Rep. Peter DeFazio, D-Ore., told the Christian Science Monitor that passage of the Washington initiative could help his effort to achieve national labeling requirements.
The industry fought hard against the initiative, just as it did in California. The Grocery Manufacturers Association spent $11 million, with money raised from several of the country's major food manufacturers.
An additional $11 million came from Monsanto, DuPont Pioneer and other major companies that produce genetically modified seeds. The money fueled an aggressive advertising campaign arguing that the measure was rife with nonsensical exemptions and would raise food prices.
Surveys conducted by Seattle pollster Stuart Elway showed that support for the measure dropped by 20 points from early September to mid-October.
Proponents raised nearly $8 million, with $2.3 million coming from Dr. Bronner's Magic Soaps and lesser amounts from several companies in the natural food industry.
"It's okay, because guess what: We're gonna win eventually," the soap company's CEO, David Bronner told supporters at their election-night gathering, according to The Stranger, a Seattle newspaper.
New Protease Reduces Bitterness In Enzyme-Modified Cheese
Biocatalysts Ltd. introduced Flavorpro™ 937MDP, a non-animal protease with a de-bittering action when added to enzyme-modified cheese processes.
Flavorpro 937MDP is an exopeptidase preparation with low levels of endopeptidase activity. In enzyme-modified cheese applications, the hydrolysis of cheese proteins by endopeptidases, such as animal and bacterial proteases, can create bitter flavors due to the accumulation of small hydrophobic peptides. Exopeptidases, such as Flavorpro 937MDP, can be used to control bitterness by removing these bitter-tasting peptides. Due to its fungal origins, the enzyme is available kosher, halal and vegetarian.
Earlier this year, Biocatalysts unveiled its Promod™ 950L, a non-genetically modified microbial protease preparation as an alternative to papain, at the IFT 2013 Expo in Chicago.
Humane Society Supports COOL Law
The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS), along with Organization for Competitive Markets, United Farm Workers of America, American Grassfed Association and three independent livestock farms filed a brief supporting the Country of Origin Labeling (COOL) law in a federal appeals court in Washington, D.C.
The court denied a motion to delay the COOL rule in September, and the case is now before the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit.
“Consumers deserve to know where their food comes from. And factory farming organizations that seek to have it otherwise are out of step with their customers,” said Jonathan Lovvorn, senior vice president and chief counsel for animal protection litigation for The Humane Society of the United States, in an issued statement today.
The groups and farmers are represented by lawyers with The HSUS' Animal Protection Litigation section.
Recently in the COOL controversy, Mexico requested the establishment of a compliance panel to determine if USDA's final COOL rule issued this year complies with World Trade Organization (WTO) findings. As well as undergoing WTO review, the final COOL rule also faces court challenges from the trade groups opposed to its implementation.
Several livestock trade associations are challenging the labeling rule. American Association of Meat Processors, American Meat Institute, National Cattlemen's Beef Association, National Grocers Association, National Pork Producers Council, North American Meat Association and Southwest Meat Association asked the USDA and U.S. Trade Representative to extend an industry outreach program until after a WTO compliance panel determines if the final COOL rule complies with WTO rules.
The National Farmers Union, U.S. Cattlemen's Association and Consumer Federation of America support COOL.
The country-of-origin labeling regulations require that meat products contain labels specifying where the livestock was born, raised and slaughtered. The regulations also prohibit the commingling of meat with different country-of-origin combinations in the same package at retail.
According to the coalition led by HSUS, labeling helps consumers who want to buy from farmers and ranchers “who often use more humane and sustainable practices, rather than industrial corporations that may commingle meat products from several foreign countries.”
Mexico Labels Chocolate Junk Food, Adds Tax
The ancient Aztecs would be up in arms: in the land that gave chocolate to the world, Mexican lawmakers have declared the popular food to be "junk," subject to an extra tax.
The chocolate charge was part of a raft of fiscal changes passed by Mexico's Congress on Thursday that seek to boost tax revenues and to tackle the country's unhealthy eating habits.
Among the amendments added to the tax bill was a levy on "junk food" - defined as products containing more than 275 calories per 100 grams. Many types of chocolate have around twice that amount.
McDonalds hamburgers, for example, fall below the benchmark, according to data on the company's website.
Originally proposed as a 5 percent levy this month, Congress approved an 8 percent charge on the foods.
Chocolate was grouped alongside a host of high-calorie products including gelatine, sweets and some puddings.
Etymologists trace the origin of the word "chocolate" to the Aztec word "xocolatl." It refers to the foamy bitter drink brewed from cacao - or cocoa - beans, according to the website of Washington's Smithsonian Institution.
In Aztec times, the drink was reserved for the nobility.
Historians say cocoa beans were also used like currency in many parts of pre-modern Latin America, and the Maya and Aztecs believed the bean had magical properties.
Legend has it that Aztec king Moctezuma feted Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes with drinking chocolate when he arrived to conquer Mexico in the early 16th Century.
Rising Star Chef Serves Creative Doughnuts in Harlem
Chef Corey Cova, who was featured on Zagat's list of 30 culinary starts under 30 years old, is the mind behind the unusual creations at his East Harlem shop Dough Loco. "Dough Loco is a neighborhood coffee doughnut shop. A lot of the doughnuts up here are from major chains, so they're all a bit smaller, have tons of ingredients like stabilizers, fillers," Cova said. "Ours are just all natural, really simple."It's a small operation, with Cova making hundreds of doughnuts by hand in the minuscule kitchen. On some days, supply can't keep up with demand and guests have to wait for a fresh batch to be put on the shelves. "Sometimes, we'll sell out by like 9 o'clock, and people have to wait an hour for us to kind of catch up," Cova said.The wait is worth it, though, especially for varieties like miso maple and raspberry sriracha. Cova's background in savory cooking inspires flavors you won't find anywhere else. "I think about a lot of different kind of food because I have to go back and run a restaurant as well. The raspberry one today I just kind of was thinking about the last few days," Cova said. "Raspberry and sriracha seemed like they kind of shared, something in there was kind of similar."Even though it just opened, the tiny shop may be ready to grow beyond its East Harlem storefront. Don't be surprised if you see Dough Loco expand its footprint or open new stores elsewhere in New York City.
Low Maternal Vitamin D Levels Linked to Preterm Labor
Low maternal intake of vitamin D has been shown to increase the chances of preterm labor in African American and Puerto Rican females, according to a new study published in American Journal of Epidemiology. The findings may provide insight into the biology connecting low vitamin D and preterm birth.
"Vitamin D is unique in that while we get it from our diets, our primary source is our body making it from sunlight," said lead author Lisa Bodnar, Ph.D., M.P.H., R.D., associate professor in the University of Pittsburgh Public Health's Department of Epidemiology. "Previous studies using conservative definitions for vitamin D deficiency have found that nearly half of black women and about 5% of white women in the United States have vitamin D concentrations that are too low."
Researchers at the University of Pittsburgh conducted a study to determine the link between maternal vitamin D and the risk of spontaneous preterm labor in women before the 35-week gestation period. The researchers used a sample of more than 700 cases of preterm birth and 2,600 full-term births collected by the Collaborative Perinatal Project that was conducted in 12 U.S. medical centers from 1959 to 1965. The blood samples collected by the project were well-preserved and able to be tested for vitamin D levels 40 years later.
Among non-white mothers, the incidence of spontaneous, preterm labor decreased by as much as 30% as vitamin D levels in blood increased. The researchers did not find similar relationships between maternal vitamin D levels and preterm birth in white women.
"We were concerned that finding this association only in non-white women meant that other factors we did not measure accounted for the link between low vitamin D levels and spontaneous preterm birth in black and Puerto Rican mothers," Bodnar said. "Even after applying these methods, vitamin D deficiency remained associated with spontaneous preterm birth."
Researchers also discovered that vitamin D deficiency was related to preterm births with damage to the placenta caused by inflammation. The vitamin D spontaneous preterm birth relationship should be examined in modern cohorts with detailed data on skin pigmentation and other covariates, the researchers concluded.
A previous study from the University of Pittsburgh linked vitamin D deficiency having a relation with fetal growth that may vary by race.
Study: Consumers Wary of Nanotech Foods
New research from North Carolina State Univ. and the Univ. of Minnesota finds that people in the U.S. want labels on food products that use nanotechnology—whether the nanotechnology is in the food or is used in food packaging. The research also shows that many people are willing to pay more for the labeling.
“We wanted to know whether people want nanotechnology in food to be labeled, and the vast majority of the participants in our study do,” says Dr. Jennifer Kuzma, senior author of a paper on the research and Goodnight-Glaxo Wellcome Distinguished Prof. of Public Administration at NC State. “Our study is the first research in the U.S. to take an in-depth, focus group approach to understanding the public perception of nanotechnology in foods.”
The researchers convened six focus groups—three in Minnesota and three in North Carolina—and gave study participants some basic information about nanotechnology and its use in food products. Participants were then asked a series of questions addressing whether food nanotechnology should be labeled. Participants were also sent a follow-up survey within a week of their focus group meeting.
Study participants were particularly supportive of labeling for products in which nanotechnology had been added to the food itself, though they were also in favor of labeling products in which nanotechnology had only been incorporated into the food packaging.
However, the call for labeling does not indicate that people are necessarily opposed to the use of nanotechnology in food products. For example, many study participants indicated support for the use of nanotechnology to make food more nutritious or to give it a longer shelf life—but they still wanted those products to be labeled.
“People do have nuanced perspectives on this,” Kuzma says. “They want labeling, but they also want access to reliable, research-based information about the risks associated with labeled products—such as a U.S. Food and Drug Administration website offering additional information about labeled products.”
The researchers also found that about 60% of the study participants who responded to the follow-up survey were willing to pay an additional 5 to 25% of the product price for either nanotechnology-free products or for nanotechnology labeling.
Crops May Soon Grow Faster, More Efficient
Global agriculture accounts for one-third of all greenhouse gas emissions, and that number will only increase as global food demand is forecast to double by 2050, which will cause significant strain on the environment. Researchers in London have unraveled the mystery of how some plant species evolved super-efficient photosynthesis—a discovery that could be used to breed super-crops, such as faster-growing, drought-resistant rice, according to a paper published in the journal eLife.
Approximately 3% of all plants use an advanced form of photosynthesis, which allows them to capture more carbon dioxide, use less water, and grow more rapidly. Overall, this makes them over 50% more efficient than plants that use the less-efficient form.
Researchers from the Imperial College London and the University of Cambridge traced back the evolutionary paths of all the plants that use advanced photosynthesis, including maize, sugar cane and millet, to find out how they evolved the same ability independently, despite not being directly related to one another. Using a mathematical analysis, the researchers uncovered a number of tiny changes in the plants’ physiology that, when combined, allow them to grow more quickly; using one-third as much water as other plants; and capturing around 13 times more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
They suggest that together, these individual evolutionary advances make up a “recipe” that could be used to improve key agricultural crops that only use the less-efficient form.
"Encouragingly for the efforts to design super-efficient crops, we found that several different pathways lead to the more efficient photosynthesis—so there are plenty of different recipes biologists could follow to achieve this," the researchers said. “This is not only an interesting mathematical result, it should help biological scientists to develop crops with significantly improved yields to feed the world.”
In 2010, British researchers suggested large-scale crop failures most likely will become more common under climate change due to an increased frequency of extreme weather events. Their findings, published in Environmental Research Letters, suggested adaptation to climate change can be possible through a combination of new crops that are more tolerant to heat and water stress, and socio-economic measures. Over the past two years, record-breaking temperatures in the United States have affected crop yields and forced global food prices to reach record highs.
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