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278748
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Chevrolet Caprice
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Chevrolet Caprice and Caprice Classic are fully sized vehicles produced by General Motors. The vehicles were first produced around 1965. The cars were discontinued in the United States during 1996, though they returned for 2011. These cars are used as police vehicles or as taxis in many countries.
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Member of the Scottish Parliament
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List of United States senators from Kansas
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This is a list of United States senators from Kansas.
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278764
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293183
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Euston Road
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Euston Road is the main east/west road in the north central London.
A number of railway stations are on the Euston Road including Marylebone station, Baker Street tube station, Great Portland Street tube station, Euston railway station, Euston tube station, Euston Square tube station, King's Cross station, St Pancras station and King's Cross St Pancras tube station.
It is also the home of the British Library, the Friend's Meeting House (a place of worship for Quakers) and various buildings associated with University College London.
Euston Road is connected to Marylebone Road, Baker Street, Tottenham Court Road, Pentonville Road and many other roads.
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Calvin cycle
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The Calvin cycle (also known as the Benson-Calvin cycle) is the set of chemical reactions that take place in chloroplasts during photosynthesis.
The cycle is light-independent because it takes place after the energy has been captured from sunlight.
The Calvin cycle is named after Melvin Calvin, who won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for finding it in 1961. Calvin and his colleagues, Andrew Benson and , did the work at the University of California, Berkeley.
Context.
Using the radioactive carbon-14 isotope as a tracer, Calvin, Andrew Benson and their team mapped the complete route that carbon travels through a plant during photosynthesis. They traced the carbon-14 from soaking up its atmospheric carbon dioxide to its conversion into carbohydrates and other organic compounds. The single-celled algae "Chlorella" was used to trace the carbon-14.
The Calvin group showed that sunlight acts on the chlorophyll in a plant to fuel the manufacture of organic compounds, not directly on carbon dioxide as previously believed.
Steps.
The steps in the cycle are as follows:
1. Grab: A five-carbon carbon catcher called RuBP (Ribulose bisphosphate) catches one molecule of carbon dioxide and forms a six-carbon molecule.
2. Split: the enzyme RuBisCO (with the energy of ATP and NADPH molecules) breaks the six-carbon molecule into two equal parts.
3. Leave: A trio of carbons leave and become sugar. The other trio moves on to the next step.
4. Switch: Using ATP and NADPH, the three-carbon molecule is changed into a five-carbon molecule.
5. The cycle starts over again.
The product.
The carbohydrate products of the Calvin cycle are three-carbon sugar phosphate molecules, or 'glucose triose phosphates' (G3P). Each step of the cycle has its own enzyme which speeds up the reaction.
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Political machine
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A political machine (sometimes called just machine in politics) is a political organization in which a person or small group with authority that has enough votes or is popular enough to have control over political administration or any type of government in a city, county, or state. The term "political machine" has been used mostly since the 19th century in the United States, used to describe machines like Tamanny Hall who stayed in control mostly because of the large support from the immigrants in Manhattan during the 19th century.
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Hall & Oates
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Hall & Oates is an American musical group. The members are Daryl Hall and John Oates. They came from Philadelphia. Their greatest fame was from the late 1970s to mid 1980s. During this time they had many hit songs. They faded from view in 1990, but the duo are still performing together.
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Duke of Normandy
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The title Duke of Normandy was given to the rulers of the duchy of Normandy. This fief was created in 911 by Charles the Simple King of France for Rollo, a leader of Northmen. In 1066 the seventh duke, William II, became King William I of England. The title of Duke of Normandy was held by the Kings of England until Henry III gave up the title by treaty in 1259. King John had lost mainland Normandy in 1204, and kept only the Channel Islands. Today the Channel Islands are a British Crown dependency.
In 1660 when King Charles II was restored to the throne, the King of France, Louis XIV, created Charles' brother James Duke of Normandy, probably as a show of support for monarchy and to stop Charles claiming the title himself.
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278792
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Fernando Wood
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Fernando Wood (14 June 1812 – 14 February, 1881) was an American politician of the Democratic Party from Pennsylvania. He served as the Mayor of New York City twice (1855 – 1857, 1860 – 1862), United States Representative three times (1841–1843, 1863–1865, and 1867–1881) and as Chairman of the Committee on Ways and Means in both the 45th and 46th United States Congress (1877–1881). He was head of the political machine Tammany Hall. In 1854 he was elected Mayor of New York City and took office in 1855. He ran again in 1856, but lost to Daniel F. Tiemann, who was mayor from 1857 to 1859. Wood was re-elected in 1860 and took office again that year, for the last time. After being a mayor, Wood returned to the United States Congress. He died at the age of 68.
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Terry Branstad
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Terry Edward Branstad (born November 17, 1946) is an American politician. He was the United States Ambassador to China from May 24, 2017 to October 4, 2020. He was the 42nd Governor of Iowa from in January 14, 2011 until his resignation on May 24, 2017. Branstad was the 39th governor of Iowa from 1983 to 1999 and President of Des Moines University from 2003 to 2009. He is a member of the Republican Party and is the longest-serving governor in Iowa or American history.
In 2010, he won a three-way primary election to run as the Republican candidate for governor. He ran against incumbent Governor Chet Culver, a Democrat, and four third party candidates in the November 2, 2010 general election. He won the general election in November, defeating Culver by 52.9% to 43.1%.
Branstad started the 2010 race with a lead in both the primary and general elections. He won the Republican primary with 50.4% of the vote, 9.5% ahead of the next candidate.
On December 14, 2015, Branstad became the longest serving governor in American history.
In December 2016, Branstad was nominated by President-elect of the United States Donald Trump to become the United States Ambassador to China. Branstad was confirmed by the Senate on May 22, 2017, and was succeeded as Governor of Iowa by Lieutenant Governor Kim Reynolds after he resigns to take up the ambassadorship. He resigned in October 2020.
Early life.
Branstad's family were Norwegian-American Lutheran farmers who lived in Leland, Iowa. Branstad graduated from the University of Iowa and earned a Juris Doctor degree from Drake University Law School. He served in the United States Army from 1969 to 1971 and earned the Army Commendation Medal for meritorious service. In 1989, he was named an honorary member of Alpha Gamma Rho Fraternity at Iowa State University.
Branstad served three terms in the Iowa House of Representatives from 1973 to 1979 and served as the 41st Lieutenant Governor of Iowa from 1979 to 1983, when he was elected Governor of Iowa.
Governor of Iowa (1983–1999).
When he became governor at age 36, Branstad was the youngest governor in Iowa's history and when he left office, he was Iowa's longest-serving governor. He served as chair of the National Governors Association during 1989–1990, and was chair of the Midwestern Governors Association. In 1997, he chaired the Education Commission of the States, the Republican Governors Association, and the Governors' Ethanol Coalition. Honor doctor of University of Northern Iowa.
Post-gubernatorial career.
After Branstad's term as governor ended in 1999, he founded Branstad and Associates, LLC and was also a partner in the firm of Kaufman, Pattee, Branstad & Miller, and a financial advisor for Robert W. Baird and Co.
In August 2003, Branstad became the president of Des Moines University. On October 16, 2009, he said that he was leaving Des Moines University to run for governor again.
In 2001, Branstad was appointed by President George W. Bush to chair the President's Commission for Excellence in Special Education. This group's goal was to make a plan to improve the educational performance of students with disabilities. After finishing that work with the commission in 2003, he was asked to serve as a member of the National Advisory Council for Positive Action for Teen Health, or PATH. The Council's goal is to detect adolescent mental illness.
Branstad is or was on the boards of the Conmed Health Management Inc, American Future Fund, Iowa Health System, Liberty Bank, the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, and Living History Farms.
2010 Gubernatorial campaign and election.
On August 2, 2009, the "Des Moines Register" reported that Branstad might run for the Republican nomination for governor. On October 7, 2009, Branstad filed papers to run for governor in the 2010 election. According to a poll taken in September 2009 by "The Des Moines Register", he had a 70% positive rating from Iowans compared to Governor Chet Culver's rating of 50%.
On June 8, 2010, Branstad won the Republican primary election in Iowa; on January 2, 2010, he won the general election.
United States Ambassador to China.
On December 8, 2016, Branstad accepted President-elect Donald Trump's nomination of him for the post of United States Ambassador to China (PRC).
Branstad was confirmed by the United States Senate on a 83-12 vote on May 22, 2017, and was succeeded as Governor of Iowa by Lieutenant Governor Kim Reynolds once he resigned to take up the ambassadorship.
Branstad announced his resignation on September 15, 2020. He left the ambassadorship on October 4, 2020.
Post-ambassadorship.
On January 24, 2023, it was announced that Branstad would take over as the new president of the World Food Prize Foundation.
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Ford Expedition
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The Ford Expedition is a full sized SUV that can carry up to nine people. This SUV debuted around 1997 as a replacement for Ford Bronco. The vehicle is used by EMS, by law enforcement and by fire department agencies.
First Generation (1997-2002).
The First generation Expedition, also known as the UN93 was manufactured on July 22, 1996 in Wayne, Michigan and Revealed on October 2 ,1996. Its front end is identical to the 10th gen Ford F-150. It has 3 variants, XLT, Eddie Bauer, and SVT (Which was discontinued days later). The engines can be a 4.6, 5.4, and 5.6.
Second Generation (2003-2006).
The Second generation Expedition was manufactured on March 2002 under the U222 chassis code in Wayne, Michigan and revealed at the 2002 .
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Chironex fleckeri
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Chironex fleckeri, commonly known as sea wasp, is a well-known, lethal, venomous species of Box jellyfish. It lives in coastal waters from northern Australia and New Guinea north to the Philippines and Vietnam. Humans can easily be killed by its sting. It is considered the most lethal jellyfish in the world because of the numerous incidents resulting in injury or death to humans.
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Cape Verde
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Cape Verde () or Cabo Verde (, ) (, ), officially the Republic of Cabo Verde, is an island country in Africa. It is a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Western Africa. The islands cover a combined area of slightly over . They have a volcanic origin.
Cape Verde is one of Macaronesia's group of islands.
Name.
The Portuguese explorer Dinis Dias (or Denis Fernadez) discovered in 1445 a peninsula along the coast of Senegal that he named Cap-Vert (Dias named it "Cabo Verde", "verde" being Portuguese for "green", a reference to the vegetation in the area). Dias did not discover the "Cape Verde Islands", but rather the actual cape.
This peninsula is the westernmost point of the African continent.
History.
The first Europeans to arrive in Cape Verde were the Portugueses Diogo Gomes and Antonio da Noli in 1460. The islands were uninhabited, and the first settlement was founded in 1462 on the island of Santiago (the main Island) which was divided into two “capitanias”, Alcatrazes and Ribeira Grande. The first one failed and the main activity in Ribeira Grande was the exploitation of cotton farms. Ribeira Grande served also as a slave trade post and as post of slave Christianization before they were sent to the New World.
The city suffered several pirate raids and for this reason in 1712, after a French attack, the authorities were forced to move the capital to Praia, where it is located until now. Cape Verde had the status of Portuguese colony until 1951 when Portugal changed its status to Overseas Province and in 1961 Portugal gave full citizenship to all Cape Verdeans.
Cape Verde has been independent of Portugal since 5th July 1975. The fight for independence was led by the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) and headed by Amílcar_Cabral, the national hero of both countries, Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau.
Geography.
The Cape Verde archipelago is in the Atlantic Ocean, approximately off the coast of West Africa, near Senegal, Gambia and Mauritania, and is a part, together with the Azores, Madeira, Savage Islands and Canary Islands, of the Macaronesia ecological region. It lies between the latitudes 14°N and 18°N, and the longitudes 22°W and 26°W.
The country is an archipelago with a total area of . It is formed by ten islands (nine inhabited) and several very small islands (islets) divided into two groups, arranged according to the prevailing wind direction:
The largest islands are, to the southeast, Santiago, where lies Praia, the capital and largest city of the country, and the island of Santo Antão, in the extreme northwest. Praia is also the main population centre of the archipelago, followed by Mindelo on the island of São Vicente.
Climate.
The sun shines 350 days a year and temperatures range between . The breeze (a gentle to moderate wind) blows constantly from the ocean at a relatively low average humidity of 40% to 60%.
The Cape Verde Islands only have two seasons: The "Tempo das Brisas" ("Time of the winds") from October to mid-July and the "Tempo das chuvas" ("Rainy season") from August to September, when there may be heavy tropical rainfall. The coolest months are January and February (average temperature of 21 °C), where temperatures can drop down to 16 °C; the warmest is the month of September (up to 36 °C) with an average temperature of 27 °C.
Otherwise, the islands of Barlavento (Santo Antão, São Vicente, São Nicolao, Boa Vista, Sal, Santa Luzia, Branco and Razo) are always somewhat cooler than those of the Sotavento (Maio, Santiago, Fogo and Brava), where summers can be quite hot.
The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate of Praia (Cabo Verde) is Bwh (Tropical and Subtropical Desert Climate).
Wildlife.
Cape Verde's isolation has resulted in the islands having a number of endemic species, particularly birds and reptiles, many of which are endangered by human development. Endemic birds include Alexander's Swift ("Apus alexandri"), Bourne's Heron ("Ardea purpurea bournei"), the Raso Lark ("Alauda razae"), the Cape Verde Warbler ("Acrocephalus brevipennis"), and the Iago Sparrow ("Passer iagoensis"). The islands are also an important breeding area for seabirds including the Cape Verde Shearwater. Reptiles include the Cape Verde Giant Gecko ("Tarentola gigas").
Administrative divisions.
Cape Verde is divided into 22 municipalities ("concelhos") and subdivided into 32 parishes ("freguesias").
Politics.
Cape Verde is a representative parliamentary republic. The constitution —adopted in 1980 and revised in 1992, 1995 and 1999— defines the basic principles of its government. The president is the head of state and is elected for a 5-year term; the Prime Minister is the head of government. The Prime Minister is nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the President.
Economy.
The economic resources of Cape Verde are largely dependent on agriculture and fishing. Agriculture frequently suffers the effects of droughts. The most important crops are coffee, bananas, sugar cane, tropical fruits, corn, beans, sweet potato, and cassava. The industrial sector is incipient but is based on the production of “aguardente” (spirits from sugar cane), clothing and footwear, paints and varnishes, tourism, fishing and canned fish, and salt extraction. Banana, canned fish, frozen fish, lobsters, salt, and clothes are the main exports. The national currency is the Cape Verdean escudo. Remittances from emigration are another important source of resources for the State of Cape Verde.
Demographics.
In Cape Verde, the annual rate of population growth and mortality are low, compared to average rates of other middle-income countries. The average life expectancy is 66 years and 71 years respectively for men and women. The resident population in the country is estimated at 500,000 inhabitants. There are an estimated additional one million Cape Verdeans living abroad, mainly in the United States, Western Europe, and Africa. Cape Verde has a young population with an average age of 23 years.
Culture.
Cape Verdean culture is a unique mixture of European and African elements. Corn is the staple food of Cape Verde. The national or traditional dish is "cachupa", which is a stew of hominy (dried maize kernals), beans, and whatever meat or vegetables may be available. Other common foods include rice, beans, fish, potatoes and manioc. A traditional breakfast is a steamed cornbread, eaten with honey and milk or coffee. Grogue, or sugar cane liquor, is manufactured on the islands and is a popular drink, particularly among the men. Cape Verdean music incorporates Portuguese, Caribbean, and African influences. Popular genres include morna, funaná, batuque, coladeira, and cola san jon.
Health.
In Cape Verde, other than private clinics, the government guarantees a public health system which comprises several healthcare centers and three central hospitals (Hospital Agostinho Neto, in Praia, Hospital Baptista de Sousa, in São Vicente, and Hospital Regional de Santiago Norte, in Assomada). The cost of public health is supported by the government, but users must pay a fee which varies in accordance with the capacity of the user to afford it.
Education.
After independence, the different governments of Cape Verde invested massively in education and illiteracy has been reduced drastically. Today almost one hundred percent of school-age children attend school. Attendance to primary schooling, which comprises 6 years, is compulsory and free of any charge. Education is guaranteed by a network of public schools that span from nursery school to university. There are also several private schools in all levels of education.
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Madeira
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Madeira is a Portuguese archipelago that lies between and , just under north of Tenerife, Canary Islands, in the north Atlantic Ocean and an outermost region of the European Union.
The archipelago comprises the major part of one of the two autonomous regions of Portugal (the other being the Azores located to the northwest), that includes the islands of Madeira, Porto Santo, and the Desertas, administered together with the separate archipelago of the Savage Islands.
The name Madeira could be used for the autonomous region, the geographical group of islands or just the island of Madeira. These islands are part of the Macaronesia.
History.
Discovery.
Madeira's official written history began in 1418, when two captains under service to Prince Henry the Navigator, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira, were pushed by a storm to an island which they named Porto Santo (English: "holy harbour"). The following year, an organised expedition was sent to this new land to take possession of the island on behalf of the Portuguese crown. Later, the new settlers saw an island to the southwest, and so the larger island of Madeira was discovered.
Settlement.
The islands were found to be completely uninhabited, and their colonization by the Portuguese began around 1420 or 1425. To get the minimum conditions for the development of agriculture, they had to cut part of the dense forest and to construct a large number of canals ("levadas") to carry water, since in some parts of the island there was excess water, while in others water was scarce. During this period, fish constituted about half of the settlers' diet, together with vegetables and fruits cultivated from small pieces of land. Initially, these colonists produced wheat for their own subsistence, but later the quantity cultivated was sufficient to begin sending wheat to continental Portugal.
On the 23 September 1433, the name "Ilha da Madeira" (English: "Madeira Island", or literally "island of wood") began to appear in the first documents and maps. The name given to the islands corresponded to the large dense forests of native trees that covered the island.
However, when wheat production began to fall, the crisis forced to plant other commercial crops. They brought from Sicily plants of sugarcane to produce sugar. After the 17th century, as sugar production went to Brazil, São Tomé and Príncipe and elsewhere, Madeira's most important product became its wine.
Geography.
As other islands of the Macaronesia, the Madeira islands are of volcanic origin and with a subtropical climate.
Location.
The archipelago is in the African plate, in the Atlantic Ocean between the latitudes 30° and 33° north, southwest of Lisbon and, about west of the African coast, almost at the same latitude as Casablanca.
Islands and islets.
The Madeira islands have a total area of . Their individual areas vary between of the largest island (Madeira) to of the Savage Islands.
Of the eight islands, only the two largest (Madeira and Porto Santo) are inhabited, having as main accesses, the Madeira Airport in Funchal and the one in Porto Santo. By sea, Funchal has a port that receives different ships, especially cruise ships. The remaining islands are nature reserves.
Territory.
The territory of the archipelago contains two main islands: the islands of Madeira and Porto Santo; besides these, there are two groups of uninhabited islands, the Desertas and Savages.
The island of Madeira has a very irregular and uneven terrain, being the highest points the peaks "Pico Ruivo" (1862 m), "Pico das Torres" (1851 m), "Pico do Ariero" (1818 m) and "Pico do Juncal" (1800 m). The northern coast is dominated by high cliffs.
The island of Porto Santo, on the other hand, has a completely different geomorphological formation of the island of Madeira. It is very flat where only small plants grow and the soils are poor and not very good for agriculture. This island has some peaks, particularly in the north, and the " Pico do Facho" (517 m) is the highest point of elevation in the island, followed by "Pico Branco" (450 m).
The highest point of Desertas Islands is "Pedregal" (442 m) in Deserta Grande, and of Selvagens Islands is "Pico da Atalaia" (153 m), in Selvagem Grande.
Climate.
The average temperature for the year in Funchal, Madeira island, is 19 °C (66.2 °F). The warmest month, on average, is August with an average temperature of 22.6 °C (72.7 °F). The coolest month on average is February, with an average temperature of 16.1 °C (61.0 °F).
The average amount of precipitation for the year in Funchal is 596.9 mm (23.5"). The month with the most precipitation on average is December with 109.2 mm (4.3") of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of 2.5 mm (0.1"). There are an average of 87 days of precipitation, with the most precipitation occurring in December with 13 days and the least precipitation occurring in July with 1 days.
For the Villa de Porto Santo, Porto Santo island, the average temperature for the year is 17.8 °C (64.0 °F). The warmest month, on average, is August with an average temperature of 21.7 °C (71.0 °F). The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of 15 °C (59.0 °F).
The average amount of precipitation for the year in Villa de Porto Santo is 375.9 mm (14.8"). The month with the most precipitation on average is January with 61 mm (2.4") of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is July with an average of 2.5 mm (0.1").
The Köppen climate classification subtype for this climate of Funchal (Madeira) and Villa de Porto Santo (Porto Santo) is Csb (Mediterran Climate).
The climate of Desertas islands and partes of Porto Santo is semi-arid (Bs) and in the Savage islands is a desert climate (Bw).
Administration.
In 1976 Madeira became one of the two autonomous regions of the Republic of Portugal (Azores is the other) under the Portuguese name "Região Autónoma da Madeira", with its own executive and a regional legislature. The current president of the regional government is Miguel Albuquerque. The main offices of the regional government are in Funchal, making this city the capital of the region.
Administrative divisions.
Administratively, the Autonomous Region of Madeira (with a population of 267,785 inhabitants in 2011 and covering an area of ) is organised into 11 "municípios", of which 10 are in the island of Madeira and one in Porto Santo. Municipalities are further divided into 54 "freguesias", 53 in Madeira and 1 in Porto Santo.
Population.
According to the 2011 Census, the total population in the Autonomous Region of Madeira was 267,785: 126,268 men and 141,517 women. The density for the whole region is persons/km2; calculating the density taking in account only the inhabited islands (Madeira and Porto Santo), the density would be inhabitants/km2.
Nature.
The region of Madeira is home to a great and important biodiversity, with an estimated 7,571 terrestrial species for the whole archipelago. The total number of endemic species and subspecies is about 1,419 (1,286 species and 182 sub-species), which represents 19% of the overall species diversity.
The most known environment of the archipelago is its Laurel forest (laurisilva) which still extends over 15,000 hectares or 20% of the archipelago. These forests, very rich in biodiversity, are the largest and best-preserved Laurel forests in the entire Macaronesia region. They are home to unique plant and animal species, including the famous Trocaz Pigeon or Madeira Laurel Pigeon ("Columba trocaz"), and the Madeira Kinglet ("Regulus madeirensis"). The most threatened bird of Europe, the Madeiran or Zino’s Petrel ("Pterodroma madeira") inhabits the highest cliffs in the Central Mountainous Massif of the Madeira island.
In the sea around Madeira there are numerous species of marine mammals, including 28 species of cetaceans and the critically endangered Mediterranean Monk Seal ("Monachus monachus").
There are 6 protected areas in the Madeira Archipelago, including the Madeira Natural Park. This park, which covers over 2/3 of Madeira Island and includes the entire Laurel forest, is a European Council Biogenetic Reserve since 1992, and a UNESCO World Natural Heritage Site since 1999. Additionally, 11 sites in the whole archipelago are part of the Natura 2000 network and 11 other sites are designated Important Bird Areas.
Economy.
The local economy is based mainly on agriculture and tourism, the main resource. Agriculture produces bananas, flowers, and Madeira wine which is exported. The industrial area is not very diverse and they are relationated with food, beverages, tobacco and construction.
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Cameroon
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Cameroon (officially called the Republic of Cameroon) is a country in Central Africa. Its capital is Yaoundé. The largest city in Cameroon is Douala. The population of Cameroon is about 20 million. Cameroon's president is Paul Biya. They speak nearly 250 languages in Cameroon. French and English are the official languages. The German Empire ruled Cameroon from 1884 until World War I when France took the majority and Britain took the northwest and southwest.
Geography.
At , Cameroon is the world's 53rd-largest country. It is about the size of Papua New Guinea. The country is in Central and West Africa on the Bight of Bonny, part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean. The country's neighbours are Nigeria to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south.
Regions.
The constitution divides Cameroon into 10 regions. On 12 November 2008, the President changed the divisions from provinces to regions. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor.
The regions are divided into 58 divisions. These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers.
Cities.
Some of the largest cities in Cameroon are:
Languages.
The official languages of Cameroon are French and English. It is part of both the British Commonwealth and La Francophonie. Most people speak French, English is only spoken in the Northwest and Southwest regions of the country, formerly under British control.
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Guinea-Bissau
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Guinea-Bissau is a country in Africa. It borders Senegal to the north, Guinea to the south. The official language is Portuguese, and the capital is Bissau. About 1,442,000 people live in Guinea-Bissau as of 2006. The country was a Portuguese colony in the 19th century. At that time is was called Portuguese Guinea. It became independent in 1973. In 1974, the name of the country's capital was added so that it would not be confused with the neighboring country Guinea.
Regions and sectors.
Guinea-Bissau is divided into 8 regions and one autonomous sector. These are divided into thirty-seven sectors. The regions are:
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Mauritius
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The Republic of Mauritius is an island nation in the Mascarene Islands. It includes Rodrigues, Agaléga and St. Brandon as well as Mauritius. It was formerly ruled by the European countries: France, Portugal, and the United Kingdom, but is now independent from these all European Colonies.
Port Louis is its capital. In the 2000 census, the country had a population of 1,178,848 people. The country is prosperous, and trades mainly with South Africa and Indian Sub Continent.
The island of Mauritius was the home of the dodo.
Location.
The island is in the southwest Indian Ocean. It is about east of Madagascar. The country includes the island of Mauritius as well as the islands of St. Brandon, Rodrigues and the Agalega Islands. Mauritius is part of the Mascarene Islands along with the French island of Réunion to the southwest.
Flag.
The Mauritian flag is made up of four colours of equal width.
The colours represent the following:
History.
Mauritius, an island of volcanic origin sheltered by barriers of coral reefs forming natural, safe, crystal clear lagoons, has long been a dream destination. Known to the Arabs as early as the 10th century, but officially explored by the Portuguese in the 16th century and subsequently settled by the Dutch in the 17th century. The Dutch were the ones who named the island in honor of Prince Maurits van NASSAU.
Mauritius was occupied successively by the Dutch (1598-1712) and later by the French (1715-1810). The French assumed control in 1715, developing the island into an important naval base overseeing the Indian Ocean trade, and establishing a plantation economy of sugar cane.
The British captured the island in 1810, during the Napoleonic Wars through the Treaty of Paris. Mauritius remained a strategically important British naval base, and later on, an air station playing an important role during World War II for anti-submarine and convoy operations, as well as the collection of signals intelligence. On 12 March 1968, Mauritius became Independent. Following resumed negotiations a treaty was signed on 22 May 2025 that will formally transfer the sovereignty of the territory to Mauritius once it comes into effect, while the Diego Garcia military base remains under British control during a 99-year lease.
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It's a Wonderful Life
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It's a Wonderful Life is a 1946 movie directed by Frank Capra. It inspired the story similar to "A Christmas Carol".
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Djibouti
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Djibouti (officially called the Republic of Djibouti) is a country on the eastern coast of Africa. The capital city is also called Djibouti.
Djibouti gained its independence from France on June 27, 1977. The country was created out of the French Somaliland (later called the French Territory of the Afars and Issas), which was created in the 1800s as a result of French colonialism in Africa.
In 2020, about 920,000 people lived there. It is one of the least populous countries in Africa. Two ethnic groups, the Somali and the Afar people, account for most of the people living in the country.
Djibouti joined the United Nations on September 20, 1977. It is also a member of the Arab League, as well as the African Union and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD).
History.
The history of Djibouti goes back thousands of years when it was part of the Sabean Empire (Ethiopia) to a time when Djiboutians traded hides and skins for the perfumes and spices of ancient Egypt, Pakistan, and China. Through close contacts with the Arabian peninsula for more than 1,000 years, the Somali and Afar tribes in this region became among the first on the African continent to accept Islam. Djibouti is a Muslim country which regularly takes part in Islamic as well as Arab meetings.
The country is close to a narrow part of the Red Sea so it is considered an important area from a military viewpoint.
Djiboutians.
The Djiboutians () are the people inhabiting or originating from Djibouti (including their diaspora). The country is mainly composed of two ethnic groups, the Somali and the Afar. It has many languages - though Somali and Afar are the most widely spoken ones, Arabic and French serve as the official languages. There is a small Djiboutian diaspora in North America, Europe, and Australia.
Geography.
Djibouti is near to the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Eritrea in the north, Ethiopia in the west and south, and Awdal of Somalia in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden at the east.
In the Great Rift Valley the rift between the African Plate and the Somali Plate meet the Arabian Plate. This makes a geologic tripoint that is the lowest place in Africa.
Djibouti has eight mountain ranges with peaks of over 1,000 m (3,281 ft). The Mousa Ali range is the country's highest mountain range.
The Grand Bara desert covers parts of southern Djibouti.
Most species of wildlife are found in the northern part of the country, in the ecosystem of the Day Forest National Park. This forest area is the main habitat of the endangered and endemic Djibouti francolin (a bird).
Administrative divisions.
Djibouti is divided into six administrative regions, with Djibouti city representing one of the official regions. It is further subdivided into twenty districts.
Religion.
The people of Djibouti are mostly Muslim. Islam is observed by 94% of Djibouti's population (about 740,000) (2010 estimate). The remaining six percent follow Christianity.
The Republic of Djibouti names Islam as the only state religion. The Constitution of 1992 provides for the equality of citizens of all faiths as well as the freedom to practise any religion.
Sports.
Association football is the most popular sport in Djibouti. The country became a member of FIFA in 1994. They have only played in qualifying rounds for both the African Cup of Nations and FIFA World Cup.
Transportation.
The country is linked to Ethiopia by way of the Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway.
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Mauritania
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Mauritania is a country in northwest Africa. The capital city, which is also the biggest city in the country, is Nouakchott. It is on the Atlantic coast. Its president is General Mohamed Ould Ghazouani.
At 1,030,700 km² (397,929 mi²), Mauritania is the world's 29th-largest country (after Bolivia). It is similar in size to Egypt. The land is flat in most places.
Demographics.
Religion.
Mauritania is almost 100% Muslim, most of whom are Sunni. People can be killed in Mauritania for being an atheist. On 27 April 2018, The National Assembly passed a law that allows for the death penalty for certain apostasy-related crimes.
Language.
Afro-Asiatic languages.
Modern Standard Arabic is the official language of Mauritania. Hassaniya is the Arabic dialect that is widely spoken throughout the country. It is mostly used in daily life.
Berber languages.
There are also some Berber languages that are spoken in Mauritania. In the south Zenaga is spoken and close to the border with Mali in the southeast Tamasheq (a variety of Tuareg) is spoken. Zenaga is only spoken by a few hundred people and seems to be close to disappearance.
Foreign languages.
As Mauritania is a former colony of France, it is now part of the Francophonie. French is spoken including African French and Maghreb French.
Niger-Congo languages.
There are several Niger-Congo languages that are spoken in Mauritania. These are Wolof, Soninke, Pulaar and Bambara.
Economy.
Mauritania is rich in natural resources but has a low GDP. Many people living in Mauritania depend on farming and livestock. Mauritania has a large deposit of iron ore, which is almost half of the country's total exports.
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Lake Huron
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Lake Huron is one of North America's five Great Lakes. It is the third one up from the mouth. Like Lake Ontario, Lake Erie, and Lake Superior, it is also part of the boundary between the USA and Canada. The Huronian glaciation, billions of years ago, is named for the lake.
Lake Huron is more than 200 miles (325 km) long and is as much as 750 feet (230 m) deep. Many boats and ships go back and forth on Lake Huron, carrying useful things such as iron ore.
Lake Huron borders the Canadian province of Ontario and the American state of Michigan. There are no large cities on Lake Huron, but there are some small cities such as Sarnia, Ontario and Bay City, Michigan.
The water that flows out of Lake Huron goes through a river that flows past Detroit, Michigan. The water then flows into Lake Erie on its way to the ocean.
On 1996 an hurricane-like storm appeared on Lake Huron, while the National Hurricane Center was not sure to call it a hurricane or not. Because the storm formed over Lake Huron and that it did not get a name from the NHC, many people nicknamed the storm, "Hurricane Huron".
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Reunion
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Reunion could mean:
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Réunion
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Réunion () is an island of France. It is also a region of France and an overseas department of France, meaning France owns the island nation. It is in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar, about 200 km (125 miles) southwest of Mauritius. Its capital is Saint-Denis. The highest point in La Reunion is La piton des neiges. The island is also famous for its black beaches, even though people think that there are white beaches. The island is 63 kilometres (39 mi) long; 45 kilometres (28 mi) wide; and covers 2,512 square kilometres (970 sq mi). It is similar to the island Hawaii as both are above hotspots in the Earth's crust.
The Piton de la Fournaise, a shield volcano on the eastern end of Réunion Island, rises more than 2,631 metres (8,632 ft) above sea level and is sometimes called a sister to Hawaiian volcanoes because of the similarity of climate and volcanic nature. It has erupted more than 100 times since 1640 and is under constant monitoring. It most recently erupted on 2 January 2010. Before that, the most noticeable was during April 2007, when the lava flow was estimated at 3,000,000 cubic metres (3,900,000 cu yd) per day. The Piton de la Fournaise is created by a hotspot volcano, which also created the Piton des Neiges and the islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues.
The Piton des Neiges volcano, the highest point on the island at 3,070 metres (10,070 ft) above sea level, is northwest of the Piton de la Fournaise. Collapsed calderas and canyons are southwest of the mountain. Like Kohala on the Big Island of Hawaii, the Piton des Neiges is an extinct volcano. Despite its name, snow (French: neige) practically never falls on the summit.
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Lake Erie
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Lake Erie is one of the Great Lakes in North America. It is the second to the last in the Great Lake system before water flows into the St. Lawrence River. Like Lake Superior, Lake Huron, and Lake Ontario, Lake Erie is part of the boundary between the USA and Canada. In 1813 a naval battle was fought on the lake.
Most of the water that flows into Lake Erie flows through a small river, the Detroit River, that moves water down from Lake St. Clair past Detroit, Michigan. Some more water flows into Lake Erie from other rivers, including the Maumee and the Cuyahoga. At the foot of the Maumee is Toledo, Ohio. At the bend of the Cuyahoga is Cleveland, Ohio.
Water that flows out of Lake Erie flows past Buffalo, New York, and into the Niagara River. The river pours over Niagara Falls, one of the largest waterfalls in North America, and then into the lowest of all the Great Lakes, Lake Ontario.
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Mali
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Mali (Bambara: ߡߊߟߌ, Fula: 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, ), officially the Republic of Mali (; Bambara: ߡߊߟߌ ߞߊ ߝߊߛߏߖߊߡߊߣߊ); Fula: 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, ) is a landlocked country (a country entirely surrounded by land) in West Africa. Mali is bordered by Algeria on the North, Niger on the east, Burkina Faso and the Côte d'Ivoire on the south, Guinea on the south-west, and Senegal and Mauritania on the west. Physical features of Mali include the Sahara desert in the north, with the Niger River and Sénégal River in the southern part of the country. As of a July 2021 estimate, Mali had a population of approximately million people. Mali has a total area of . Most of the people live in the southern part of the country. Mali's capital and most populated city is Bamako.
History.
The Mandé people founded several kingdoms in the Sahel. This was a big area that included Mali. These kingdoms included the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire, and the Songhai Empire. Timbuktu was an important city in these empires because a lot of trade across the Sahara Desert went there. Timbuktu was also a good place for learning. The Songhai Empire became much smaller after a Moroccan attack in 1591.
France invaded Mali in 1880. After that, France owned Mali. France gave Mali the names "French Sudan" and the "Sudanese Republic". At some times it also included other nearby countries. In early 1959, Mali and Senegal united and they became the Mali Federation. They became independent from France on June 20, 1960. Senegal left the Mali Federation a few months later. The Republic of Mali, with Modibo Keïta as the first president, left the French Community on September 22, 1960.
There was a coup in Mali in 1968. Modibo Keïta lost his job and was put in prison. Mali was then ruled by Moussa Traoré until 1991. He treated the country badly, and so there was another coup in 1991 after protests against the government, and a new constitution was made. The leader of the country was then Amadou Toumani Touré.
In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic election. President Konaré won again in 1997 and he made big political and economic changes. In 2002, Amadou Toumani Touré won the election and he started his second term as head of state. He was a retired general and was the military leader of the 1991 coup. Today, Mali is one of the least stable countries in Africa.
Regions and cercles.
Mali is divided into 10 regions and 1 district. The country is further divided into 49 cercles, containing 288 "arrondissements" and 703 communes.
The regions and district are:
Geography.
Mali is the world's 24th-largest country. The area of the country is 1,240,000 km² (478,734 mi²). Mali and South Africa are about the same size. It is two times bigger than Texas.
Most of Mali is part of the Sahara Desert. Mali is does not have any sea coast. It is landlocked. Mali does not have many mountains. Flat areas in the north are covered by sand. Savanna is around the Niger River in the south. The climate is dry. The dry season is hot and dusty. There are many natural resources in Mali, including gold, uranium, phosphates, kaolinite, salt, and limestone.
Economy.
Mali is one of the poorest countries in the world. 65% of its land area is desert or something similar. There have been several long droughts over the last hundred years. Therefore, most economic activity is near the Niger River.
About 10% of the people are nomads and 80% of workers have jobs in farming and fishing. Industry is mainly to process farm products. Women also do pottery and the pots are bought and taken to markets. Many foreign tourists like the traditional methods which the women use to make the pots.
Mali's main export is cotton, so if the price of cotton changes, Mali's economy is affected a lot. Mali also receives a lot of financial help from other countries.
In 1997, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) recommended a programme for changing the economy and the government followed this. Several international companies started exploring for larger amounts of gold in 1996-1998, and the Malian government thinks that Mali will become an important gold exporter soon.
Demographics.
There are several ethnic and religious groups in Mali.
These religions are common in Mali.
Culture.
About 90% of people from Mali follow Sunni Islam, but they do not always forget their traditional religions. Muslims have their own schooling system. The number of Muslims from Mali who go to Mecca is increasing and some study in Arab countries. About 1% of the people are Christians. When Mali was under French control, Christian teachers were sent to Islamic areas.
The language of Mali under French rule was French, but now not many people outside towns can read or write this language. However, about 60% of the people use other languages well. Many people can read and write in Bamanakan (the most popular spoken language). This language has its own alphabet, called N'Ko. Other people can read and write in Arabic, after going to an Islamic school. One of the oldest universities in the world is Sankore University in Timbuktu. It began in the 1400s.
Famous musicians from Mali include kora player Toumani Diabaté, and the guitarist Ali Farka Touré, who has died.
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Guinea Bissau
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Chief Joseph
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Chief Joseph (1840 – September 21, 1904; whose real name was Hinmaton-Yalaktit) was the chief of the Nez Perce Native Americans, a tribe that lived in what is now the Pacific Northwest of the United States.
His father was the leader of the Nez-Perce before him, and his mother was a member of this tribe too.
When Joseph was young, his father always told him not to trust white men, he actually had problems with settlers. When his father died, Joseph became chief of the tribe, who resided in plateaus in Northeast Oregon, Southeast Washington and Western Idaho.
The turning point in their relationship to white men was the gold rush in 1863. It gave the US Government the opportunity to reduce their reservation to a small area in Idaho. Then, with the new waves of white men settling in the West, the Government wanted to drive Nez-Perces away from their territory.
Chief Joseph was extremely sad: this place was the tribe's territory where their ancestors were buried. In spite of that, he wanted to avoid conflict and remain in peace. In 1873 he decided to negotiate with the US Government. He travelled all the way to Washington D.C. and spoke to President Ulysses S. Grant. But he only got mean looks and little attention.
So a war began in 1877. The living conditions of Chief Joseph's tribe were awful: they had no food and no blankets. Some people were freezing to death. But the Nez-Perces impressed their enemy thanks to all the battles they won. Many men died on both sides. That's why Joseph decided to surrender. He gave up fighting in 1877.
He was destroyed by the death of his people, and also extremely disappointed: he felt betrayed by white people. He knew he could not trust them anymore. He was tired of being considered a savage. He felt it was not fair for people who were born on the same land to be treated differently. He delivered a lot of speeches on this subject, which are still really good examples of eloquence. But he did not feel listened to, and when he died in his reservation in 1904, the doctor said he "died from sadness". He was buried in Colville Native American Burial Ground, in Washington State.
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Seychelles
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Seychelles is an African country in the Indian Ocean. Its capital city is Victoria. The official languages are Creole, English, and French. It is a republic is made up of 115 islands.
Seychelles and the islands to the south, Madagascar and Mauritius, all had legal slavery and were part of the slave trade. Most of the people are descendants of freed slaves, who make up about 90% of the population. Many of them also are descended from slave owners who abused their ancestors. There are small minorities of immigrants from Europe, China and India. Most people are Roman Catholics, about 90% of them. About 8% are Protestants.
Other nearby island countries and territories include Zanzibar to the west, Mauritius, Rodrigues, Agalega and Réunion to the south, and Comoros and Mayotte to the southwest. Seychelles has an estimated population of 86,525. It is the smallest population of any African state.
History.
It is thought that Arab sailors first saw the islands in the 7th century. Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama discovered the islands in 1502, and called them Three Brothers (), but he did not visit the islands. The British East India Company visited the islands, but they did not settle there.
Geography.
Seychelles is to the northeast of Madagascar and about east of Kenya. The number of islands in the archipelago is often given as 115 but the Constitution of the Republic of Seychelles lists 155.
According to the president of Nauru, the Seychelles has been ranked the ninth most endangered nation due to flooding from climate change.
Some of the districts in Seychelles include: Anse Boileau, Takamaka and Cote D’Or.
Subdivisions.
Seychelles is divided into twenty-five administrative regions. Eight of the districts make up the capital of Seychelles. They are called Greater Victoria. Another 14 districts are considered the rural part of the main island of Mahé. There are two districts on Praslin and one on La Digue which also include satellite islands. The rest of the Outer Islands are not considered part of any district.
Economy.
During the plantation era, cinnamon, vanilla, and copra were the main exports. In the 1960s, about 33% of the working population worked at plantations, and 20% worked in the public or government sector. In 1971, with the opening of Seychelles International Airport, tourism became a serious industry.
Flora and fauna.
Like many fragile island ecosystems, the Seychelles had loss of biodiversity during early human history. This included the disappearance of most of the giant tortoises from the granitic islands. There was also the extinction of species such as the chestnut flanked white eye, the Seychelles Parakeet, the Seychelles Black Terrapin and the saltwater crocodile. However, extinctions were far fewer than on islands such as Mauritius or Hawaii. This was partly due to a shorter period of human occupation being only since 1770. The Seychelles today is known for success stories in protecting its flora and fauna. The rare Seychelles Black Parrot, the national bird of the country, is now protected.
The granitic islands of Seychelles are home to about 75 endemic plant species. There are a further 25 or so species in the Aldabra group. Particularly well-known is the Coco de Mer, a species of palm that grows only on the islands of Praslin and neighbouring Curieuse. The jellyfish tree is to be found in only a few locations on Mahe. This strange and ancient plant is in a genus of its own (Medusagynaceae). Other unique plant species include the Wright's Gardenia "Rothmannia annae" found only on Aride Island Special Reserve.
The freshwater crab genus "Seychellum" is endemic to the granitic Seychelles. There are a further 26 species of crabs and 5 species of hermit crabs that live on the islands.
The Aldabra Giant Tortoise now lives on many of the islands of the Seychelles. The Aldabra population is the largest in the world. These unique reptiles can be found even in captive herds.
There are several unique varieties of orchids on the Islands.
The marine life around the islands, especially the more remote coral islands, can be spectacular. More than 1,000 species of fish have been recorded. Since the use of spearguns and dynamite for fishing was banned in the 1960s, the wildlife is unafraid of snorkelers and divers. Coral bleaching in 1998 has damaged most reefs, but some reefs show healthy recovery.
The main natural resources of the Seychelles are fish, copra, cinnamon, coconuts, salt and iron.
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Square mile
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A square mile (sometimes written "mi²" ) is a British and American unit of measurement of area. It is the area inside a square that has each side equal to one statute mile (5,280 feet or 1,760 yards). This way of talking about area is often used to say how much land there is on a farm, or in a city or country, for example.
One square mile is just less than 2.59 square kilometres.
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Regions of Peru
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A Region is the name for one of 25 areas into which the land is divided in Peru.
Provinces of Peru
* Lima Province (Lima)
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Regions (Peru)
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Ica Region
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Ica is one of 25 regions of Peru. The capital of the region is Ica.
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Region (Peru)
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Gulf Stream
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Togo
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Togo (officially the Togolese Republic, in French: République togolaise) is a small country in West Africa. It is bordered by Ghana to the west, Benin to the east and Burkina Faso to the north. The capital city Lomé is located along the Gulf of Guinea. About 9.3 million people live there. The official language is French. Togo was a hub of the Atlantic slave trade for Europeans. Togo was a part of the Slave Coast. Many Togolese descendants live in the Americas. Togo is also known for its various flora and fauna. Monkeys, snakes, and lizards are numerous in many areas in Togo.
History.
From the 11th century to the 16th century, various tribes entered the region from all directions: the Ewé from the east, and the Mina and Guin from the west; most of them settled in coastal areas. The Portuguese explored the area in the late 15th century. As Togoland, it became a protectorate of Germany in 1884. After World War I, Togo was ceded to the French. Togo gained independence from French rule in the 1960s. General Gnassingbé Eyadéma became the military leader in 1967. When Eyadéma resigned in 2002 and later died in 2005, his son, Faure Gnassingbe became president. In June 2022, Togo joined the Commonwealth of Nations.
Economy.
The economy of this small African country is based on agriculture. Agriculture provides jobs for 65% of the labor force according to the CIA Factbook. Agricultural products include coffee, cocoa, cotton, yams, cassava (tapioca), corn, beans, rice, millet, and sorghum. Industries include phosphate mining, agricultural processing, cement, handicrafts, textiles, and beverages.
Government.
The president of Togo is elected for 5 years. The president is also the commander of the armed forces. The president also has the right to begin legislation and dissolve parliament.
After Togo's independence from France, General Gnassingbé Eyadéma became the military leader. When Eyadéma died in 2005, his son Faure Gnassingbe became president. During his re-election campaign, he helped get port concessions in Lomé extended for Bolloré Groupe from 10 to 35 years in exchange for help from the group's public relations subsidiary Havas. In a 26 Feb 2021 civil hearing at the Paris judicial court, French billionaire Vincent Bolloré, along with associates Gilles Alix and Jean-Philippe Dorent, pleaded guilty to corrupt practices in Togo. The President of the court rejected the negotiated plea bargain and ordered that the three be tried in criminal court. In the same trial, Bolloré SE was fined $12 million.
Regions.
Togo is divided into 5 regions. The regions are divided into 30 prefectures and 1 commune. From north to south the regions are Savanes, Kara, Centrale, Plateaux and Maritime.
Cities.
The largest cities in Togo are:
Religion.
About 100% of the population has local beliefs, 100% is Christian.
Food and drink.
The Togolese enjoy many foods including tropical fruits, pastries, and many different products made from peanuts. Major drinks include tea, coffee, and wine. Togolese often snack on plantains and French donuts or beignets.
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Mickey Gilly
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Bad Religion
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Bad Religion is an American band that plays punk rock music. They were created in Southern California in 1979 by Jay Bentley (bass), Greg Graffin (vocals), Brett Gurewitz (guitars) and Jay Ziskrout (drums). People think that they brought back punk rock and helped pop-punk bands during the late 1980s. Since they were created 44 years ago, Bad Religion has had a lot of members come and go. Greg Graffin is the only person that's been in the band the whole time but today there are three of the four members that were in the group when it started.
Today, Bad Religion has fourteen studio albums, two EPs, three compilation albums, one live recording, and two DVDs. Some critics think that their 1988 album "Suffer" is one of the most important punk rock albums of all time. People began to notice Bad Religion after their 1993 album "Recipe for Hate", which was number 14 on Billboard's Heatseekers chart. Their next album, "Stranger Than Fiction", had the band's well-known hits "21st Century (Digital Boy)" and "Infected", did well and was the only Bad Religion album to get gold status in the US. Brett Gurewitz left in 1994. Bad Religion was not as well known after that and did not sell many albums until "The Process of Belief" in 2002. Brett Gurewitz came back in 2001, and worked with them on their four most recent albums. The band is planning to make another album in 2012.
They are known for their smart use of style, comparisons, word choice, imagery, and voice harmonies (which they call "oozin aahs.) Lyrics sometimes have to do with their emotions or their opinion of society.
Lyrics and ideology.
Most of Bad Religion's lyrics are written by Greg Graffin or Brett Gurewitz. Sometimes, but often, they will co-write a song. Other band members, such as Jay Bentley, also write songs, but very rarely.
Brett Gurewitz says he tried to copy The Germs singer Darby Crash early on in Bad Religion's career. "He wrote some intelligent stuff, and didn't shy away from the vocabulary, which I thought was cool." Bad Religion also uses voice harmonies. The Adolescents influenced them with their three-part voice harmonies. Bassist Jay Bentley says, "Seeing The Adolescents live, it was so brilliant. So, in a way, the Adolescents influenced us into saying we can do it too, because look, they're doing it."
Social and political issues.
Many of Bad Religion's songs are about what they think are social problems, but they do not blame causes of these problems to any single person or group. Greg Graffin thinks that the politics in the United States can make it hard to talk about the problems.
The band is sometimes direct about the things they want to say. Brett Gurewitz said he was angry at former U.S. president George W. Bush and that "The Empire Strikes First" is about him. "Our whole album is dedicated to getting Bush out of office. I'm not a presidential scholar but I don't think you'll find a worse president in the history of the United States. He's probably one of the worst leaders in the history of world leaders. I just hate the guy."
Religion.
Despite the name of the band, the members say they are not anti-religious. Greg Graffin says that more often than not, the band likes to use religion to represent anything that does not let a person be free. Their songs are more about being against everyone being the same than against religion or God. But Greg Graffin is an atheist. He helped write the book 'Is Belief in God Good, Bad or Irrelevant?' The band's bassist Jay Bentley has stated that he has spiritual beliefs. Brett Gurewitz is a "provisional deist."
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Meat Puppets
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The Meat Puppets are an alternative/punk rock group from Scottsdale, Arizona, USA. They were formed in 1980 by Curt Kirkwood (vocals, guitars), his brother Cris (bass) and Derrick Bostrom (drums). The band is probably best known for their 1994 radio hit "Backwater".
The band went on indefinite hiatus in 2001 as Curt formed two band projects Eyes Adrift (with Nirvana bassist Krist Novoselic and Sublime drummer Bud Gaugh) and Volcano (also with Sublime drummer Bud Gaugh). He also released a solo album. His brother Cris was in prison from August 2004 to 21 months.
In 2006, the Meat Puppets reformed and released a new album, "Rise to Your Knees" in 2007.
As of November 2009, Shandon Sahm is back as the drummer in the Meat Puppets. He replaces Ted Marcus, who was a member from 2006.
The band was chosen by Animal Collective to perform their album "Up on the Sun" live at the All Tomorrow's Parties music festival in May 2011.
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19328
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Ted Bundy
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Theodore Robert "Ted" Bundy (né Cowell, formerly Nelson; November 24, 1946 – January 24, 1989), also known as the Campus Killer or the Lady Killer, was an American former grocery clerk, former campaign manager, fugitive, convicted serial killer and kidnapper, convicted burglar, convicted sex offender and rapist who kidnapped, raped, assaulted, and murdered dozens of young women and girls between 1974 and 1978. His "modus operandi" typically consisted of convincing his target that he needed assistance or duping them into believing he was an authority figure. He would then lure his victim to his vehicle, at which point he would bludgeon them unconscious, then restrain them with handcuffs before driving them to a remote location to be sexually assaulted and killed.
Although he was diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, and schizoid personality disorder, Bundy was found to be legally sane and competent to stand trial. Bundy was convicted of three murders in Florida. These convictions led to his execution in the electric chair in 1989.
Bundy killed his first known victim in February 1974 in Washington, and his later crimes stretched to Oregon, Colorado, Utah and Idaho. He frequently revisited the bodies of his victims, grooming, and performing sex acts on the corpses until decomposition and destruction by wild animals made further interactions impossible. Along with the murders, Bundy was also a prolific burglar, and on a few occasions he broke into homes at night and bludgeoned, maimed, strangled, and sexually assaulted his victims in their sleep.
In 1975, Bundy was arrested and charged in Utah with aggravated kidnapping and attempted criminal assault. He then became a suspect in a progressively longer list of unsolved homicides in several states. Facing murder charges in Colorado, Bundy engineered two dramatic escapes and committed further assaults in Florida, including three murders, before being recaptured in 1978. For the Florida homicides, he received three death sentences in two trials and was executed in the electric chair at Florida State Prison on January 24, 1989.
Early life.
Childhood.
Theodore Robert Cowell was born on November 24, 1946, in Burlington, Vermont, to Eleanor Louise Cowell. His father's identity remains unknown. For most of his life, Bundy was raised to believe that his grandparents, Samuel and Eleanor, were his actual parents and that Louise was his older sister. He didn't find out that Louise was his mother until his college years. This was done to avoid any social stigma placed on Louise for being an unwed mother. He lived with Louise in a house in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. There, Louise had Bundy's surname changed from Cowell (at that time) to Nelson. Later, when the two moved to Tacoma, Washington, Louise met a man named Johnny Culpepper Bundy at a local church function. They were soon married, and Johnny adopted him, thus changing his surname to Bundy. Johnny treated Bundy well, including him on the camping trips and other outdoor activities he often took with his and Louise's own children. Despite this, Bundy remained distant from his step-father.
Adolescence and high school.
During high school, Bundy was often isolated from other kids his age. He couldn't seem to understand teenage social behavior but was skilled in "faking it", indicating a propensity towards psychopathy. He stated once that, "I didn't know what made things tick. I didn't know what made people want to be friends. I didn't know what made people attractive to one another. I didn't know what underlay social interactions."
It was during this time that Bundy developed a compulsion for thievery and shoplifting. He typically stole skiing equipment and forged ski lift tickets to support his interest in the sport. In college, Bundy studied Psychology and Asian studies. He worked at various jobs (never longer than a few months at a time), such as bagging groceries, stocking shelves, and working at a suicide hotline. During this time, he met writer Ann Rule, with whom he became friends. Ann would later write a defensive biography of Bundy entitled, "The Stranger Beside Me", and also wrote more true crime books, one of which was about the Green River Killer case. After a breakup with a fellow student, who cited immaturity and lack of ambition as her reasons, Bundy became depressed and dropped out of school. He returned to Burlington and, by doing a search of public records, discovered his true parentage. After this, he became more focused and dominant. Returning to Washington, Bundy volunteered for the presidential campaign of Nelson Rockefeller in 1968, even attending the Republican National Convention as a delegate for Rockefeller or Nelson Rockefeller. Bundy became campaign manager for Nelson Rockefeller's campaign for Presidency. He enrolled in the University of Washington as a psychology major and became an honour student who was well-liked by professors and students alike. Bundy's personality underwent a major paradigm shift; from shy and introverted, to confident and social. In early 1973, despite mediocre LSAT scores, Bundy was accepted into the law schools of UPS and the University of Utah (U of U) on the strength of letters of recommendation from Evans, Davis and several UW psychology professors.
Adult years and late-mid 20s: subsequent murders.
Attempted murder of Karen Sparks.
Shortly after midnight on January 4, 1974, Bundy made his first confirmed murder attempt. He broke into the basement bedroom of a female student at the University of Washington, bludgeoned her in her sleep and sexually assaulted her. She survived but suffered permanent brain damage.
Murder of Lynda Ann Healy.
On February 1, 1974, Lynda Ann Healy, a 21-year-old student, was abducted from her basement apartment in University District, Seattle. Bundy broke into her room, beat her unconscious, dressed her in clothing, and carried her away. Healy's remains were found in 1975 on Taylor Mountain, near Issaquah, Washington, a known disposal site used by Bundy. Her mandible was among the remains found.
Murder of Donna Gail Manson.
On March 12, 1974, Donna Gail Manson, a 19-year-old student at the Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington, was abducted while walking to a concert at the Evergreen State College; body left according to Bundy at Taylor Mountain site, but never found. However, there is speculation that the partial remains of an unidentified female discovered near Eatonville, Washington, on August 29, 1978, could have belonged to Manson. Remains and clothing were reportedly destroyed on May 10, 1985, before a positive forensic identification could be made.
Other murders.
Susan Elaine Rancourt, a 18-year-old student at Central Washington University in Ellensburg, disappeared on April 17, 1974. Her remains were later found at Taylor Mountain. Witnesses had reported a man with his arm in a sling asking for help on campus, fitting Bundy's typical ruse. Roberta Kathleen "Kathy" Parks, a 22-year-old student at Oregon State University, disappeared in May 1974. She was the first known Oregon victim of Bundy. Her skull was found at Taylor Mountain. Brenda Carol Ball, a 22-year-old student, last seen outside a tavern in Burien, Washington, on June 1, 1974. Her skull was later found at Taylor Mountain.
Georgann Hawkins, a 18-year-old college student, was abducted from an alley behind her sorority house; skeletal remains identified by Bundy as those of Hawkins recovered at Issaquah site. Hawkins remains listed as a missing person. Janice Ott and Denise Naslund, two college students, had vanished from Lake Sammamish State Park near Seattle on July 14, 1974. Witnesses saw a man, whose description matched Bundy, with his arm in a sling asking for help carrying his boat. Their bodies were found two months later on a hillside near Issaquah. Melissa Ann Smith, the 17-year-old daughter of a Midvale, Utah police chief, disappeared in October 1974. Her body was found nine days later. Laura Ann Aime, a 17-year-old, disappeared on Halloween, October 31, 1974, in Lehi, Utah. Her body was found a month later in the mountains. Nancy Wilcox, a 16-year-old from Holladay, Utah, had disappeared in October 1974. Bundy admitted to her murder years later before his execution, but her body was never found. Debra Kent, a 17-year-old, had disappeared from Bountiful, Utah, on November 8, 1974. Bundy confessed to her murder years later, but her body was never found.
Political involvement.
Bundy was involved in politics, primarily in Washington, as a member of the Republican Party. Following Evans' re-election, Bundy was hired as an assistant to Ross Davis, the chairman of the Washington State Republican Party. Evans subsequently appointed Bundy to the Seattle Crime Prevention Advisory Committee. Davis thought well of Bundy and described him as "smart, aggressive ... and a believer in the system."
Arrest and first trial.
On August 16, 1975, Bundy was arrested by Utah Highway Patrol officer Bob Hayward in Granger, another Salt Lake City suburb. Hayward observed Bundy cruising a residential area in his Volkswagen Beetle during the pre-dawn hours, and fleeing at high speed after seeing the patrol car. He also noticed that the Volkswagen's front passenger seat had been removed and placed on the rear seats. Searching the car, Hayward found a ski mask, a second mask fashioned from pantyhose, a crowbar, handcuffs, trash bags, a coil of rope, an ice pick and other items initially assumed to be burglary tools. Bundy explained that the ski mask was for skiing, he had found the handcuffs in a dumpster and the rest were common household items. However, Detective Jerry Thompson remembered a similar suspect and car description from the DaRonch kidnapping in November 1974, and Bundy's name from Kloepfer's phone call a month later. In a search of Bundy's apartment, police found a guide to Colorado ski resorts with a checkmark by the Wildwood Inn, and a brochure that advertised the Viewmont High School play in Bountiful, where Kent had disappeared. Police did not have sufficient evidence to detain Bundy, so he was released on his own recognizance. Bundy later said that searchers missed a hidden collection of Polaroid photographs of his victims, which he destroyed after he was released.
Salt Lake City police placed Bundy on 24-hour surveillance, and Thompson flew to Seattle with two other detectives to interview Kloepfer. She told them that in the year prior to Bundy's move to Utah, she had discovered objects that she "couldn't understand" in her house and in Bundy's apartment. These items included crutches, a bag of plaster of Paris that he admitted stealing from a medical supply house and a meat cleaver that was never used for cooking. Additional objects included surgical gloves, an Oriental knife in a wooden case that he kept in his glove compartment and a sack full of women's clothing. Bundy was perpetually in debt, and Kloepfer suspected that he had stolen almost everything of significant value that he possessed. When she confronted him over a new TV and stereo, he warned her, "If you tell anyone, I'll break your fucking neck." She said Bundy became "very upset" whenever she considered cutting her hair, which was long and parted in the middle. She would sometimes awaken in the middle of the night to find him under the bed covers with a flashlight, examining her body. He kept a lug wrench, taped halfway up the handle, in the trunk of her car—another Volkswagen Beetle, which he often borrowed—"for protection." The detectives confirmed that Bundy had not been with Kloepfer on any of the nights during which the Pacific Northwest victims had vanished, nor on the day Ott and Naslund were abducted from Lake Sammamish State Park. Shortly thereafter, Kloepfer was interviewed by Seattle homicide detective Kathy McChesney, and learned of the existence of Edwards and her brief engagement to Bundy around Christmas 1973.
In September, Bundy sold his Volkswagen Beetle to a Midvale teenager. Utah police immediately impounded the vehicle, and FBI technicians dismantled and searched it. Hairs were discovered matching samples obtained from Campbell's body. Later, they also identified hair strands "microscopically indistinguishable" from those of Smith and DaRonch. FBI lab specialist Robert Neill concluded that the presence of hair strands in one car matching three different victims who had never met one another would be "a coincidence of mind-boggling rarity."
On October 2, detectives put Bundy into a lineup. DaRonch immediately identified him as "Officer Roseland," and witnesses from Bountiful recognized him as the stranger at the Viewmont High School auditorium. There was insufficient evidence to link him to Kent, whose body had not yet been found, but more than enough evidence to charge him with aggravated kidnapping and attempted criminal assault in the DaRonch case. Bundy denied knowing DaRonch but had no alibi, and was freed on $15,000 bail, paid by his parents, and spent most of the time between indictment and trial in Seattle, living in Kloepfer's house. Seattle police had insufficient evidence to charge him in the Pacific Northwest murders but kept him under close surveillance. "When Ted and I stepped out on the porch to go somewhere," Kloepfer wrote, "so many unmarked police cars started up that it sounded like the beginning of the Indy 500."
In November, the three principal Bundy investigators—Jerry Thompson from Utah, Robert Keppel from Washington and Michael Fisher from Colorado—met in Aspen, Colorado, and exchanged information with thirty detectives and prosecutors from five states. While officials left the meeting (later referred to as the Aspen Summit) convinced that Bundy was the murderer they sought, they agreed that more hard evidence would be needed before he could be charged with any of the killings.
In February 1976, Bundy stood trial for the DaRonch kidnapping. On the advice of his attorney, John O'Connell, he waived his right to a jury due to the negative publicity surrounding the case. After a four-day bench trial and a weekend of deliberation, Judge Stewart Hanson Jr. found Bundy guilty of kidnapping and assault. In June, he was sentenced to one to 15 years in the Utah State Prison. In October, Bundy was found hiding in bushes in the prison yard carrying an "escape kit"—road maps, airline schedules and a Social Security card—and spent several weeks in solitary confinement. Later that month, Colorado authorities charged him with Campbell's murder. After a period of resistance, he waived extradition proceedings and was transferred to Aspen in January 1977.
Escapes.
On June 7, 1977, Bundy was transported from the Garfield County jail in Glenwood Springs to Pitkin County Courthouse in Aspen for a preliminary hearing. He had elected to serve as his own attorney, and as such was excused by the judge from wearing handcuffs or leg shackles. During a recess, Bundy asked to visit the courthouse's law library to research his case. While shielded from his guards' view behind a bookcase, he opened a window and jumped to the ground from the second story, injuring his right ankle as he landed.
After shedding an outer layer of clothing, Bundy limped through Aspen as roadblocks were being set up on its outskirts, then hiked south onto Aspen Mountain. Near its summit he broke into a hunting cabin and stole food, clothing and a rifle. The following day, Bundy left the cabin and continued south toward the town of Crested Butte, but became lost in the forest. For two days he wandered aimlessly on the mountain, missing two trails that led downward to his intended destination. On June 10, Bundy broke into a camping trailer on Maroon Lake, south of Aspen, taking food and a ski parka; however, instead of continuing southward, he walked back north toward Aspen, eluding roadblocks and search parties along the way. Three days later, he stole a car at the edge of an Aspen golf course. Cold, sleep-deprived and in constant pain from his sprained ankle, Bundy drove back into Aspen, where two police officers noticed his car weaving in and out of its lane and pulled him over. He had been a fugitive for six days. In the car were maps of the mountain area around Aspen that prosecutors were using to demonstrate the location of Campbell's body (as his own attorney, Bundy had rights of discovery), indicating that his escape had been planned.
Back in jail in Glenwood Springs, Bundy ignored the advice of friends and legal advisors to stay put. The case against him, already weak at best, was deteriorating steadily as pretrial motions consistently resolved in Bundy's favor and significant pieces of evidence were ruled inadmissible. "A more rational defendant might have realized that he stood a good chance of acquittal, and that beating the murder charge in Colorado would probably have dissuaded other prosecutors ... with as little as a year and a half to serve on the DaRonch conviction, had Ted persevered, he could have been a free man." Instead, Bundy assembled a new escape plan. He acquired a detailed floor plan of the Garfield County jail and a hacksaw blade from other inmates. He accumulated $500 in cash, smuggled in over a six-month period by visitors, Boone in particular. During the evenings, while other prisoners were showering, Bundy sawed a hole about one square foot (0.093 m2) between the steel reinforcing bars in his cell's ceiling. Having lost , he was able to wriggle through and explore the crawl space above in the weeks that followed. Multiple reports from an informant of movement within the ceiling during the night were not investigated.
By late 1977, Bundy's impending trial had become a "cause célèbre" in the small town of Aspen, and Bundy filed a motion for a change of venue to Denver. On December 23, the Aspen trial judge granted the request, but to Colorado Springs, where juries had historically been hostile to murder suspects. On the night of December 30, with most of the jail staff on Christmas break and nonviolent prisoners on furlough with their families, Bundy piled books and files in his bed, covered them with a blanket to simulate his sleeping body and climbed into the crawl space. He broke through the ceiling into the apartment of the chief jailer — who was out for the evening with his wife — changed into street clothes from the jailer's closet and walked out the front door to freedom.
After stealing a car, Bundy drove eastward out of Glenwood Springs, but the car soon broke down in the mountains on Interstate 70. A passing motorist gave him a ride into Vail, to the east. From there he caught a bus to Denver, where he boarded a morning flight to Chicago. Back in Glenwood Springs, the jail's skeleton crew did not discover the escape until noon on December 31, more than seventeen hours later. By then, Bundy was already in Chicago.
Florida murders and rearrest.
From Chicago, Bundy traveled by train to Ann Arbor, Michigan, where he was present in a local tavern on January 2. Five days later, he stole a car and drove south to Atlanta, where he boarded a bus and arrived in Tallahassee, Florida, on the morning of January 8. He stayed for one night at a hotel before renting a room under the alias "Chris Hagen" at a boarding house near the Florida State University (FSU) campus. Bundy later said that he initially resolved to find legitimate employment and refrain from further criminal activity, knowing he could probably remain free and undetected in Florida indefinitely as long as he did not attract the attention of police; but his lone job application, at a construction site, had to be abandoned when he was asked to produce identification. He reverted to his old habits of shoplifting and stealing money and credit cards from women's wallets left in shopping carts at local grocery stores.
In the early hours of January 15, 1978—one week after his arrival in Tallahassee—Bundy entered FSU's Chi Omega sorority house through a rear door with a faulty locking mechanism. Beginning at about 2:45 a.m. he bludgeoned Margaret Elizabeth Bowman, aged 21, with a piece of oak firewood as she slept, then garroted her with a nylon stocking. He then entered the bedroom of 20-year-old Lisa Janet Levy and beat her unconscious, strangled her, tore one of her nipples, bit deeply into her left buttock and sexually assaulted her with a hair mist bottle. In an adjoining bedroom he attacked Kathy Kleiner, aged 21, breaking her jaw and deeply lacerating her shoulder; and Karen Chandler, aged 21, who suffered a concussion, broken jaw, loss of teeth and a crushed finger. Chandler and Kleiner survived the attack; Kleiner attributed their survival to automobile headlights illuminating the interior of their room and frightening away the attacker.
Tallahassee detectives determined that the four attacks took place in a total of less than 15 minutes, within earshot of more than 30 witnesses who heard nothing. After leaving the sorority house, Bundy broke into a basement apartment eight blocks away and attacked 21-year-old FSU student Cheryl Thomas, dislocating her shoulder and fracturing her jaw and skull in five places. She was left with permanent deafness in her left ear and equilibrium damage that ended her dance career. On Thomas' bed, police found a semen stain and a pantyhose "mask" containing two hairs "similar to Bundy's in class and characteristic."
On February 8, Bundy drove east to Jacksonville in a stolen FSU van. In a parking lot he approached 14-year-old Leslie Parmenter, the daughter of the Jacksonville Police Department's chief of detectives, identifying himself as "Richard Burton, Fire Department," but retreated when Parmenter's older brother arrived and confronted him. That afternoon, he backtracked westward to Lake City. At Lake City Junior High School the following morning, 12-year-old Kimberly Dianne Leach was summoned to her homeroom by a teacher to retrieve a forgotten purse; she never returned to class. Seven weeks later, after an intensive search, her partially mummified remains were found in a pig farrowing shed near Suwannee River State Park, northwest of Lake City. Forensic experts surmised that Leach had been raped before having her throat cut and her genitals mutilated with a knife.
On February 12, with insufficient cash to pay his overdue rent and a growing suspicion that police were closing in on him, Bundy stole a car and fled Tallahassee, driving westward across the Florida Panhandle. Three days later, at around 1:00 a.m., he was stopped by Pensacola police officer David Lee near the Alabama state line after a "wants and warrants" check showed his Volkswagen Beetle was stolen. When told he was under arrest, Bundy kicked Lee's legs out from under him and took off running. Lee fired two warning shots, then gave chase and tackled him. The two struggled over Lee's gun before the officer finally subdued and arrested Bundy. In the stolen vehicle were three sets of IDs belonging to female FSU students, 21 stolen credit cards and a stolen television set. Also found were a pair of dark-rimmed non-prescription glasses and a pair of plaid slacks, later identified as the disguise worn by "Richard Burton, Fire Department" in Jacksonville. As Lee transported his suspect to jail, unaware that he had just arrested one of the FBI's Ten Most Wanted Fugitives, he heard Bundy say, "I wish you had killed me."
Subsequent trials and marriage.
In May 1978, a Florida grand jury indicted Bundy on charges of first-degree murder, attempted first-degree murder and burglary for the Chi Omega killings and assaults. He stood trial in June 1979 in the Florida Circuit Court for Dade County, with judge Edward Cowart presiding. The trial was covered by 250 reporters from five continents and was the first to be televised nationally in the United States. Despite the presence of five court-appointed attorneys, Bundy again handled much of his own defense. From the beginning, he "sabotaged the entire defense effort out of spite, distrust, and grandiose delusion," Nelson later wrote. "Ted [was] facing murder charges, with a possible death sentence, and all that mattered to him apparently was that he be in charge."
According to Mike Minerva, a Tallahassee public defender and member of the defense team, a pre-trial plea bargain was negotiated in which Bundy would plead guilty to killing Levy, Bowman and Leach in exchange for a firm 75-year prison sentence. Prosecutors were amenable to a deal, by one account, because "prospects of losing at trial were very good." Bundy, on the other hand, saw the plea bargain not only as a means of avoiding the death penalty, but also as a "tactical move": he could enter his plea, then wait a few years for evidence to disintegrate or become lost and for witnesses to die, move on or retract their testimony. Once the case against him had deteriorated beyond repair, he could file a post-conviction motion to set aside the plea and secure an acquittal. At the last minute, however, Bundy refused the deal. "It made him realize he was going to have to stand up in front of the whole world and say he was guilty," Minerva said. "He just couldn't do it."
At trial, crucial testimony came from Chi Omega sorority members Connie Hastings, who placed Bundy in the vicinity of the sorority house that evening, and Nita Neary, who saw him leaving the house clutching the murder weapon. Incriminating physical evidence included impressions of the bite wounds Bundy had inflicted on Levy's left buttock, which forensic odontologists Richard Souviron and Lowell Levine matched to castings of Bundy's teeth. The jury was also allowed to hear details of DaRonch's previous kidnapping, and finally deliberated for less than seven hours before convicting Bundy on July 24, 1979, of the Bowman and Levy murders, three counts of attempted first-degree murder for the assaults on Kleiner, Chandler and Thomas and two counts of burglary. Trial judge Edward Cowart imposed death sentences for the murder convictions. Bundy appealed his conviction and death sentence to the Supreme Court of Florida, but it affirmed them.
Six months later, a second trial took place in Orlando for the abduction and murder of Leach. Bundy was found guilty once again, after less than eight hours' deliberation, due principally to the testimony of an eyewitness who saw him leading Leach from the schoolyard to his stolen van. Important material evidence included clothing fibers with an unusual manufacturing error, found in the van and on Leach's body, which matched fibers from the jacket Bundy was wearing when he was arrested.
During the penalty phase of the Leach trial, Bundy took advantage of an obscure Florida law providing that a marriage declaration in court, in the presence of a judge, constituted a legal marriage. As he was questioning Boone—who had moved to Florida to be near Bundy, had testified on his behalf during both trials and was again testifying on his behalf as a character witness—he asked her to marry him. She accepted, and Bundy declared to the court that they were legally married.
On February 10, 1980, Bundy was sentenced for a third time to death. As the sentence was announced, he reportedly stood and shouted, "Tell the jury they were wrong!" This third death sentence would be the one ultimately carried out nearly nine years later. Only Louise would appear before the court to beg for mercy. On October 24, 1981, Boone gave birth to a daughter, Rose Bundy. While conjugal visits were not allowed at the Florida State Prison in Raiford, where Bundy was incarcerated, inmates were known to pool their money in order to bribe guards to allow them intimate time alone with their female visitors.
Death row, confessions, and execution.
Shortly after the conclusion of the Leach trial and the beginning of the long appeals process that followed, Bundy initiated a series of interviews with Stephen Michaud and Hugh Aynesworth. Speaking mostly in third person to avoid "the stigma of confession," he began for the first time to divulge details of his crimes and thought processes. Bundy recounted his career as a thief, confirming Kloepfer's long-time suspicion that he had shoplifted virtually everything of substance that he owned. "The big payoff for me," he said, "was actually possessing whatever it was I had stolen. I really enjoyed having something ... that I had wanted and gone out and taken." Possession proved to be an important motive for rape and murder as well. Sexual assault, he said, fulfilled his need to "totally possess" his victims. At first, Bundy killed his victims "as a matter of expediency ... to eliminate the possibility of [being] caught"; but later, murder became part of the "adventure." "The ultimate possession was, in fact, the taking of the life," he said. "And then ... the physical possession of the remains."
Bundy also confided in Special Agent William Hagmaier of the FBI Behavioral Analysis Unit. Hagmaier was struck by the "deep, almost mystical satisfaction" that Bundy took in murder. "He said that after a while, murder is not just a crime of lust or violence," Hagmaier related. "It becomes possession. They are part of you ... [the victim] becomes a part of you, and you [two] are forever one ... and the grounds where you kill them or leave them become sacred to you, and you will always be drawn back to them." Bundy told Hagmaier that he considered himself to be an "amateur," an "impulsive" killer in his early years, before moving into what he termed his "prime" or "predator" phase at about the time of Healy's murder in 1974. This implied that he began killing well before 1974—although he never explicitly admitted having done so.
In July 1984, prison guards found two hacksaw blades hidden in Bundy's cell. A steel bar in one of the cell's windows had been sawed completely through at the top and bottom and glued back into place with a homemade soap-based adhesive. Several months later, Bundy was moved to a different cell after guards found an unauthorized mirror. Shortly thereafter, he was charged with a disciplinary infraction for unauthorized correspondence with another high-profile criminal, John Hinckley Jr.
In October 1984, Bundy contacted Keppel and offered to share his self-proclaimed expertise in serial killer psychology in the ongoing hunt in Washington for the "Green River Killer," later identified as Gary Ridgway. Keppel and Green River Task Force Detective Dave Reichert interviewed Bundy, but Ridgway remained at large for a further seventeen years. Keppel published a detailed documentation of the Green River interviews, and later collaborated with Michaud on another examination of the interview material.
In early 1986, an execution date (March 4) was set on the Chi Omega convictions; the United States Supreme Court issued a brief stay, but the execution was quickly rescheduled. In April, shortly after the new date (July 2) was announced, Bundy finally confessed to Hagmaier and Nelson what they believed was the full range of his depredations, including details of what he did to some of his victims after their deaths. He told them that he revisited Taylor Mountain, Issaquah and other secondary crime scenes, often several times, to lie with his victims and perform sexual acts with their bodies until putrefaction forced him to stop. In some cases, he drove for several hours each way and remained the entire night. In Utah, he applied makeup to Smith's lifeless face and repeatedly washed Aime's hair. "If you've got time," he told Hagmaier, "they can be anything you want them to be." Bundy decapitated approximately twelve of his victims with a hacksaw, and kept at least one group of severed heads—probably the four later found on Taylor Mountain (Rancourt, Parks, Ball and Healy)—in his apartment for a period of time before disposing of them.
Less than 15 hours before the scheduled July 2 execution, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit stayed it indefinitely and remanded the Chi Omega case back to the Southern District of Florida due to legal issues, including Bundy's mental competency to stand trial and an erroneous instruction by the trial judge during the penalty phase requiring the jury to break a 6–6 tie between life imprisonment and the death penalty—which, ultimately, were never resolved. A new date (November 18) was then set to carry out the Leach sentence; the Eleventh Circuit Court issued a stay on November 17. In mid-1988, the Eleventh Circuit ruled against Bundy, and in December the Supreme Court denied a motion to review the ruling over the dissents of Justices Thurgood Marshall and William J. Brennan Jr. Within hours of that final denial, a firm execution date of January 24, 1989, was announced. Bundy's journey through the appeals courts had been unusually rapid for a capital murder case: "Contrary to popular belief, the courts moved Bundy as fast as they could ... Even the prosecutors acknowledged that Bundy's lawyers never employed delaying tactics. Though people everywhere seethed at the apparent delay in executing the archdemon, Ted Bundy was actually on the fast track."
With all appeal avenues exhausted and no further motivation to deny his crimes, Bundy agreed to speak frankly with investigators. He confessed to Keppel that he had committed all eight of the Washington and Oregon homicides for which he was the prime suspect. He described three additional previously unknown victims in Washington and two in Oregon whom he declined to identify if indeed he ever knew their identities. He said he left a fifth corpse—Manson's—on Taylor Mountain, but incinerated her head in Kloepfer's fireplace. "He described the Issaquah crime scene [where the bones of Ott, Naslund and Hawkins were found], and it was almost like he was just there," Keppel said. "Like he was seeing everything. He was infatuated with the idea because he spent so much time there. He is just totally consumed with murder all the time." Nelson's impressions were similar: "It was the absolute misogyny of his crimes that stunned me," she wrote, "his manifest rage against women. He had no compassion at all ... he was totally engrossed in the details. His murders were his life's accomplishments."
Bundy confessed to detectives from Idaho, Utah and Colorado that he had committed numerous additional homicides, including several that were unknown to the police. He explained that when he was in Utah he could bring his victims back to his apartment, "where he could reenact scenarios depicted on the covers of detective magazines." A new ulterior strategy quickly became apparent: he withheld many details, hoping to parlay the incomplete information into yet another stay of execution. Despite warnings from his appellate attorneys that "the spectacle of peddling information for time would turn the courts against [Bundy]," Bundy began offering investigators piecemeal information regarding some of his murders. "There are other buried remains in Colorado," he admitted, but he refused to elaborate. The new strategy—immediately dubbed "Ted's bones-for-time scheme"—served only to deepen the resolve of authorities to see Bundy executed on schedule and yielded little new detailed information. In cases where he did give details, nothing was found. Colorado Detective Matt Lindvall interpreted this as a conflict between his desire to postpone his execution by divulging information and his need to remain in "total possession—the only person who knew his victims' true resting places."
When it became clear that no further stays would be forthcoming from the courts, Bundy supporters began lobbying for the only remaining option, executive clemency. Diana Weiner, a young Florida attorney and Bundy's last purported love interest, asked the families of several Colorado and Utah victims to petition Florida Governor Bob Martinez for a postponement to give Bundy time to reveal more information. All refused. "The families already believed that the victims were dead and that Ted had killed them," wrote Nelson. "They didn't need his confession." Martinez made it clear that he would not agree to further delays in any case. "We are not going to have the system manipulated," he told reporters. "For him to be negotiating for his life over the bodies of victims is despicable."
Boone had championed Bundy's innocence throughout all of his trials and felt "deeply betrayed" by his admission that he was, in fact, guilty. She moved back to Washington with her daughter and refused to accept his phone call on the morning of his execution. "She was hurt by his relationship with Diana [Weiner]," Nelson wrote, "and devastated by his sudden wholesale confessions in his last days." Hagmaier was present during Bundy's final interviews with investigators. On the eve of his execution, he talked of suicide. "He did not want to give the state the satisfaction of watching him die," Hagmaier said.
Bundy rejected his last food and was executed in the Raiford electric chair at 7:16 a.m. EST on Tuesday, January 24, 1989. His last words were directed at his attorney Jim Coleman and Methodist minister Fred Lawrence: "Jim and Fred, I'd like you to give my love to my family and friends." Hundreds of revelers sang, danced, and set off fireworks in a pasture across from the prison as the execution was carried out, then cheered as the white hearse containing Bundy's corpse departed the prison. He was cremated in Gainesville, and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location in the Cascade Range of Washington State, in accordance with his will.
Victims.
Confirmed.
The night before his execution, Bundy confessed to 30 homicides, but the true total remains unknown and Bundy occasionally made cryptic comments to encourage speculation. He told Aynesworth in 1980 that for every murder "publicized," there "could be one that was not." When FBI agents proposed a total tally of 36, Bundy responded, "Add one digit to that, and you'll have it." Years later he told Nelson that the common estimate of 35 was accurate, but Keppel wrote that "[Ted] and I both knew [the total] was much higher." In an interview, Keppel stated his belief that Bundy had killed "at least 50, and maybe 75."
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Longboarding
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A longboard is a type of skateboard. It is often longer than a regular skateboard. Longboard are made in many different shapes. They are often faster than regular skateboards. This is because of the size of the wheel and what the board is made of. Longboards are commonly used for cruising, traveling and downhill racing. Downhill racing is known as longboarding. Longboard 'dancing' and 'freestyle' are also popular. In this, the rider uses skateboard-like motions and steps up and down the board.
History.
The first longboards were made by Preston Nichols in the 1940s and 50s. They replaced surfing when the waves were too dull. Early skaters made boards out of planks of wood and roller skates. It was called "Sidewalk Surfing". Longboards were first sold in 1959. Makaha, Jack's and Hobie were the first sellers. These early longboards were crude. They had wheels made of metal. Clay wheels were used later to make them safer. Longboarding became popular in the late 1950s and early 1960s. It had become much less popular by 1965. Longboarding started becoming popular again in 1972 when Frank Nasworthy and the Cadillac Wheel Company create the urethane longboard wheel. Urethane wheels let skaters move much faster than they could before. Reverse kingpins(RKP) also made them more stable.
These changes made the boards more stable. They helped downhill longboarding grow into a sport. The International Gravity Sports Association (IGSA) was its governing body. The cutout deck was added in the 1990s. It had sections cut out around the wheels. This stopped the wheels from touching the board during hard turns. There has been many changes to longboard technology because of the many different ways people ride them. Modern longboard decks can be made from many materials. These include fiberglass composites, aluminum and carbon fiber.
Dimensions.
Most boards are in length. Widths vary from . Longboard are made in many shapes. These include pintails, swallowtails, flat-nose riders, drop-through decks, drop decks and boards with the same shape as a regular skateboard. Pintails have looser trucks and larger wheels. They are better suited for carving or a "smooth" feel. Drop decks and drop throughs let the rider be closer to the ground. This gives them a lower center of gravity which increases stability. This also makes the boards better for downhill racing. Mid-length boards, have many different uses. They have more weight and bulk. This makes them move with a fluid motion by providing more momentum. The longboard's design lets rider make big turns or quick short carves. These movements are similar to the motions of surfers or snowboarders.
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Graffiti
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Graffiti (plural; singular: graffiti or graffito, however "graffito" is rarely used except in archeology) is marks, scratching or drawings made on a surface on a public place. It is often created with paint or spray paint (paint that is sprayed from a can). A single mark could be called a graffito but the word graffiti is usually used, meaning that there is more than one mark. The word comes from Greek "" ("graphein") meaning "to write".
Graffiti can take the form of art, drawings or words. When done without a property owner's permission it can be considered vandalism. Sometimes it is just a person's name or a rude word. Sometimes it is a public political protest because graffiti is illegal without permission.
Types.
There are lots of different types of graffiti, and some people call some things graffiti that other people would not.
In some kinds of graffiti, people write their name in different ways. It is usually not their real name. Sometimes people write the name of their crew, which is a group of friends who write together. Small writing like a signature is called a tag. Bigger writing that is very round and has an outline is called a throw up. A graffiti writing with lots of detail is called a piece, which is short for masterpiece.
Some graffit is made of pictures. This can be a small picture or a large mural.
Graffiti can be legal or illegal. Some towns have walls that anyone is allowed to paint on. Sometimes the government or a business will pay someone to paint, to attract tourists or advertise something. Some graffiti artists like Keith Haring became very famous.
History.
Paintings were done on cave walls over 40,000 years ago in Australia. The oldest graffiti that used writing was in the Roman Empire, people wrote messages on walls. It wasn't considered vandalism, instead people saw it as just a way to talk to one another.
In the 1700s and 1800s in the United States, some people began to write "monikers" on trains. Monikers were pictures and fake names. One famous moniker was Bozo Texino.
Modern graffiti was made famous in New York City in the early 1960s and 1970s by the children of the working class. They called it "writing" and called themselves "writers." At first they wrote on trains, but when the New York Subway started to make it harder, writers moved into the city to write on walls instead.
In a 1971 New York Times article, Norman Mailer first used the term "graffiti" was first used to refer to the new kind of art people were painting on trains. This period of the early 1970s is known as the "Original School." Later in the 1980s, the next generation of graffiti artists is known as "Old School."
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Appellation d'origine contrôlée
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Appellation d'origine controlée (AOC, "controlled designation of origin") is a French phrase which shows that a product comes from a certain area.
Some products must come from a certain area and be made in a certain way in order to have the name of the product. The most famous example is champagne, which must be fermented in the bottle and be made in the Champagne region of France.
The French government set up the "Institut national des appellations d'origine et de la qualité" (INAO, "National institute of controlled designation of origin") in 1935 to oversee the system. Although usually linked with wines, the start of the system of protecting the name of goods started in the 15th century when the French parliament defined what could be called Roquefort cheese.
AOCs are most often found in connection with:
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Hectolitre
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Kilograms
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Distillation
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Distillation is a process where a mixture made of two or more liquids (called "components") with different boiling points can be separated from each other. The mixture is heated until one of the components boils (turns to a vapor). The vapor is then fed into a condenser, which cools the vapor and changes it back into a liquid that is called "distillate". What remains in the original container is called the "residue". It is a common process in many industries.
Distillation is a physical separation process and not a chemical reaction. Some chemical processes are called "distillation" for historical reasons, like dry distillation or destructive distillation. These are a type of pyrolysis.
Types.
Fractional distillation uses a larger distillation column with more than one output. It is used to separate mixtures of multiple liquids. An oil refinery uses fractional distillation to purify crude oil, separating several different liquids for different uses.
Air separation uses a cryogenic process to distill air. This produces pure nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and trace gases.
History.
Distillation has been used for a long time. Iron Age people used distillation to make perfumes. Pepole also distill alcohol and produce alcoholic drinks such as liquor.
Distillation can be done anywhere, whether it's in a house or a laboratory, but in most countries it is illegal to distill alcohol without a license. Illegally distilled alcoholic drinks are in some places called "moonshine".
Distillation is also the main way of desalination of water. In this case the salt is a solid that is in solution with the water. In alcohol distillation or petroleum distillation, the things to be separated from their solution are two or more distillation liquids.
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Destillation
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Lawyer
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A lawyer (also called an "advocate", "attorney", "barrister", "counsel", "counsellor", or "solicitor") is someone who practices law. A lawyer has earned a degree in law, and has a license to practice law in a particular area.
If people have any problem regarding the law, they can contact a lawyer for advice. A legal problem is referred to as a case. A person can hire a lawyer to start a case against someone else, or to help with a case that has been started against them. If the case goes to court, the lawyer will represent their client in court. The lawyer will use their knowledge of the law to convince the court that the client is on the right side of the argument. Lawyers also help people "settle out of court," which means that both sides of the argument agree to resolve the dispute ahead of time so that they will not have to go to trial.
When a person is accused of a crime, the person has a defense lawyer to try to show they have not committed a crime. The lawyer arguing that they did do the crime is called the "prosecutor".
Lawyers also prepare legal documents for their clients. Examples: buying or selling property or making a will (testament). Certain lawyers (called "commissioners of oaths" in England) can take legally binding witness statements which can be presented to the court.
Lawyers work in different settings. Some work by themselves, while some work in law firms. Some lawyers work for hospitals and private companies. Lawyers who work for private companies are usually called in-house counsel.
Lawyers generally charge a fee for the work that they do, but sometimes advice is offered freely, which is called "pro bono," meaning "for the public good." In many countries, if a person is accused of a crime and unable to pay for a lawyer, the government will pay a lawyer to represent them using tax money.
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Sister
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Loreto Region
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Loreto is Peru's most northern region. Covering almost one-third of Peru's territory, Loreto is the nation's biggest region. It is also one of the least populated ones, because of its remote location in the Amazon rainforest. Its capital is the city of Iquitos.
Administrative divisions.
The region is divided into eight provinces ("provincias", singular: "provincia"), which are composed of 53 districts ("distritos", singular: "distrito"). The provinces, with their capitals in parenthesis, are:
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Children
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Iquitos
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Iquitos is the capital city of the Loreto Region in northern Peru. It is on the banks of the Amazon River. Iquitos is the biggest city in the rain forest of Peru, with about 400,000 residents. It is a major port on the Amazon.
Excluding towns on islands, Iquitos is thought to be the largest city in the world that can not be reached by road. One can only get to Iquitos by boat, or by airplane. It is very remote, in the middle of the Amazon rainforest.
Iquitos was founded in 1747 by Jesuit José Bahamonde. Originally it was the home of the Iquito native tribe. About 100 years ago, Iquitos was a very rich town, because of the rubber industry. Today Iquitos relies mostly on tourism, wood industry and local trade.
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Apple juice
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Apple juice is the juice from apples. It does not have alcohol, and it tastes sweet from the natural fruit sugars. Many companies making apple juice like to say that they do not add more sugar into the drink, and there is only natural sugar.
Origin.
The apple tree came from the same era as Elizabethan in the late 1500s and early 1600s ("Pyrus malus"), and is native to Britain. Even in the Old Saxon papers, apples and cider are mentioned a lot. The fruit is thought to have come in the Caucasus, a place with many mountains between the Black and Caspian Seas.
The Lady apple, a kind of apple still grown today, is believed to be one of the oldest apple trees on record.
Composition.
Apple juice is 88% water and 11% carbohydrates (including 9% sugars), with little amounts of protein or fat.
Health.
In both facts and stories, the apple appears to be very healthy. There are two types of apple juice. One is the clear apple juice, and the other is the cloudy apple juice. Pectin and starch are taken out during the production process to produce clear apple juice. Cloudy apple juice is cloudy because of evenly-distributed small pulp suspensions in the juice concentrate.
Also, in apple juice, the vitamin C, and other vitamins are contained inside, as well as mineral nutrients such as boron which helps build strong bones.
Apples can also be a main source of fiber, and is a powerful cleanser and an important necessity for the health of your body.
The compounds in apple juice called phytonutrients delay the break down of LDL or cholesterol. In history, the phrase from Benjamin Franklin "an apple a day keeps the doctor away" is very famous. New research is proving this phrase to be a fact. Researchers at UC Davis School of Medicine have recently found out that drinking apple juice seems to slow down the process that may lead to heart disease.
Researchers at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands had studied and found that smokers who ate many fruits and vegetables, especially apples, had reduced their risk of getting the common diseases smokers would get. The risk was reduced by 50%.
For older people, drinking fruit juices should begin with apples, especially if they are suffering from arthritis and rheumatism. This is because apples carry a substantial amount of potassium. Because of this, eating apples or apple juice has been known to help. Drinking apple juice also removes some toxins from the liver and kidneys and is low in calories. Over time, this can reduce the chances of having liver or kidney disease.
Use.
Apple juice can be used to make cider and calvados. Some types of cider and all types of Calvados contain alcohol.
Production.
Addressed as one of the most popular fruits in the world, the apple is cultivated in around 7,500 different kinds in shape, color, texture, firmness, crispness, acidity, juiciness, sweetness, nutrition, and harvesting time.
Storage.
Fresh apple juice needs refrigeration. Closed bottles of canned apple juice can be kept in a dark, cool place, such as a pantry or cupboard. It slows down the spoiling of the product. The way it looks, feels, or tastes could change over time.
Once the juice container is opened. Or if it was not closed and shipped without needing freezing by the producer, it must be closed again tightly and frozen to avoid contamination from microorganisms such as bacteria.
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Calvados (drink)
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Calvados is an alcoholic drink. It is made from distilling cider in Normandy, one of the oldest Provinces of France (created in 911). It got its name from the place called Calvados which is famous for making it (sometimes called 'le Pays d'Auge'). It is also made in the other places in Normandy including la Manche (Cotentin) and l'Orne (Domfront).
How Calvados is made.
The way to make Calvados is to distil cider twice. The first time it is done, the result is a liquid containing 28% to 30% alcohol. The second time it is done, the amount of alcohol is increased to about 40%.
Since 1942, the Calvados has its own "Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC)", which means it is from one place. The rules are:
How Calvados is served.
Calvados can be served either dry or with ice, as a cocktail, an aperitif, or as a digestif. It goes very well with cheese, chocolate, dessert or ice cream. Crepes can also be served with Calvados.
Calvados can also be added to coffee. People usually do this at the end of dinner.
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Still
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A still is a tool used to clean a liquid. It does this by first boiling the liquid and turning it into a gas. This gas is then cooled, changing it back into liquid. Stills get their name from the word di"still"ation. Distillation is the process of boiling and cooling a liquid to purify it. Stills are most often used to create alcohol, but they can also be used with any liquid. Some examples are medicines and perfumes.
There are two main types of stills: pot stills and reflux stills. In a pot still, the pot (like a large kettle) holding the liquid is heated. The hot gas is cooled in a simple neck, or tube, and collected. Pot stills are used for making alcohol like whisky. A reflux still is much more complex. It works with a continual flow of liquid going into the boiler, and a continual flow of distilled liquid coming out. The distilled liquid can also be put through the process several times, which is why it is called a reflux still. This allows for a more pure product, and the person working the still can control the level of purity. Reflux stills are used in the chemical and petroleum industries.
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Alambic
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Ravioli
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Ravioli is a type of Italian food pasta dish. It is usually two layers of pasta dough with a filling between the two layers. There are many different recipes, with different kinds of fillings. The most common fillings are meat, vegetables or blackboard cheese. People eat this kind of food with a sauce or melted butter.
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The Bridge on the River Kwai
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The Bridge on the River Kwai is a British 1957 movie from Columbia Pictures, based on Pierre Boulle's 1952 book "The Bridge over the River Kwai" (). The movie was mainly filmed in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and also in England.
In 1941 the Japanese Army invaded Thailand. They built a railway to link Bangkok to Rangoon. Thousands of Asian workers and POWs (prisoners of war) died while working on the project. Part of this project was building bridges over Thailand's Kwai Yai, at a place named Tamarkan, which is near a town named Kanchanaburi.
The deaths of the Asian workers and the prisoners were real events, but most of the book and the movie are not true. The British soldiers were slaves; they did not help the Japanese. Two bridges were built; one was made of wood, one was made of concrete and steel. Both bridges stood for two years and were destroyed by bombers in 1945.
In the movie the bridge is destroyed by commandos. A real train rode over the bridge as it blew up. (This can be compared to a scene in the 1927 movie, "The General", which starred Buster Keaton.)
The movie is best known for the "Colonel Bogey March", the song that is whistled by the POWs. It is also known as the "River Kwai March".
The movie won 7 Academy Awards, one for Best Picture. It also won the BAFTA Award for Best British Screenplay.
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Tannin
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Tannins are bitter-tasting chemical compounds that bind proteins.
Tannins are present in the following:
Tannins are also used in the treatment of leather, to make it more durable. Natural tannins for this purpose come from oak trees, but synthetic tannins are more used.
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Cuisine
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Cuisine refers to any style of cooking, including its practices, traditions and recipes. A cuisine is usually associated with a specific culture. It is mainly influenced by the ingredients that are available to that culture. Cooking methods, customs and ingredients together form meals that are unique to a particular region. When people talk about Italian cuisine, they are referring to the food that Italians are famous for. Cuisine is a French word that means "kitchen", but it originally comes from the Latin word "coquere", which means "to cook".
Traditionally, cuisines are shaped by a number of things. In some religious traditions, certain foods are forbidden by law (an example is pork in Islam). Climate and trade affect the what ingredients are available. Climate may also affect the methods by which food is prepared. Before the exploration of Asia and America by Europeans, certain foods were not known to European cuisine. Tomatoes, maize, avocados and cacao, for example, did not enter European diets until merchants brought these ingredients back from the New World. In modern times, cuisines are becoming more and more multicultural. New cuisines continue to develop even today.
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Hotel
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A hotel or a guest-house is a large building with many rooms, where people can sleep when they are not at home. A motel is a hotel especially for motorists - people who drive cars - where the room door usually opens into the parking lot rather than to an interior corridor. Inn is sometimes used to mean a smaller hotel. Guest house can also mean an accessory dwelling unit. An extended stay hotel is one where suites are rented by the week.
These places will rent a room for any number of days. They offer rooms to sleep as their business. There are also hotels where conferences are held.
Some hotels have swimming pool. Some hotels are called capsule hotels (in Japan).
History.
Hotels emerged as inns along important transport routes. The first hotels appeared in the days of the Ancient World, in the Middle Ages they also served as shelters for the infirm. This is indicated by the etymology of the word hotel, hôtel: through st.-fr. ostel, hostel it comes from Latin. cubiculum hospitale ("guest room"), whence the word "hospital".
In the 16th-17th centuries, the hotel is an aristocratic residential building with ceremonial and service courtyards.
Today, according to the definition of the World Tourism Organization (WTO), hotels are called a house with furnished rooms for short-term stay of visitors, consisting of a number of rooms that have a single guide and provide certain services. They are grouped into classes and categories according to the types of services provided, with the equipment available in them.
The hotel is also called a residential property complex (building, part of the building, equipment and other property), designed to provide services.
Types.
International luxury hotels have high-quality amenities, full-service restaurants and rooms. They usually provide the highest level of personalized and professional service in major or capital cities.
Upscale full-service hotels range in quality from upscale to luxury.
Branded hotels are typically full-service and classified as luxury. A key characteristic is focus on a unique guest experience.
Smaller independent non-branded hotels with 100 rooms or fewer.
Small to medium hotels that give a limited number of amenities. This amenities cater and market to a specific demographic of travelers, such as the single business traveler. Such hotels may lack leisure amenities such as an restaurant or a swimming pool.
Small to medium-sized hotels where clients can stay longer than in traditional hotels.
A motel is an abbreviation for "motor hotel". It is a small-sized low-rise lodging establishment. Usually motels have access to individual rooms from the car park. Motels are good for road travellers, travellers on road trip vacations or workers who drive for their job.
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Some Like It Hot
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Some Like It Hot is a 1959 American comedy movie starring Marilyn Monroe, Tony Curtis, Pat O'Brien, Jack Lemmon and George Raft, and directed by Billy Wilder. It is seen by some as a remake of the 1951 German movie, "Fanfaren der Liebe". (Michael Logan wrote the story for the version) The movie is set in 1929. It has been remade for the stage twice (in 1972 and 2002). It was ranked at Number One on the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Laughs list and fourteen on the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies list.
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Yale University
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Yale University is a private university in New Haven, Connecticut. It is in the Ivy League and considered by many people to be one of the best universities in the world. Yale is the third oldest university in the United States.
Yale was founded in 1701 in a town near New Haven by a group of church ministers. At first it was called "The Collegiate School" and was created to teach male church ministers in Connecticut. When Elihu Yale, a businessman with the East India Company, gave the school money and books in 1718, the school changed its name to Yale College. It moved into the center of New Haven in the same year. About fifty years later, the school began to teach other subjects like science and history. As the school became more liberal, it became one of the first American schools where extracurricular student groups were created, especially singing groups, sports teams, and student publications like the Yale Daily News.
In the beginning, Yale only taught undergraduate students. Over time, it created graduate schools for medicine, nursing, environmental science, law, music, drama, business, and other professions. In 1869, Yale became the first school in the United States to offer a PhD. Because it had grown to have many types of schools, degrees, and courses, Yale changed its name to Yale University in 1887. The undergraduate college began to accept women as students in 1969.
Yale has one of the largest libraries in the United States, with 19 library buildings and over 15 million books. The school's main library building, Sterling Memorial Library, is built to look like a cathedral. The Beinecke Library has one of the world's largest collections of rare books and old manuscripts.
The school's campus is known for its Gothic Revival architecture, which was built to look like older English universities like Oxford and Cambridge. On its main campus, Yale has two art museums, a natural history museum, and many theaters. The university also has a golf course near campus and owns five forests in New England.
Fifty-two Nobel Prize winners have been students or professors at Yale, and five U.S. presidents have graduated from Yale, including George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. Other famous alumni include politicians Hilary Clinton and John Kerry, actors Meryl Streep and Edward Norton, inventors Eli Whitney and Samuel Morse, CNN anchors Fareed Zakaria and Anderson Cooper, FedEx founder Fred Smith and Pepsi CEO Indra Nooyi, and computer scientist Grace Hopper.
Yale's color is blue, and its mascot is a bulldog named "Handsome Dan." Its sports teams are called the Yale Bulldogs, and they play in the Ivy League.
Peter Salovey, a psychologist, is the current president of Yale.
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Salzburg
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Salzburg (; ; literally "Salt Fortress"; ) is the capital and also a district of the Austrian state of Salzburg or Salzburgerland. The population is about 150,000 and is the 4th largest city of Austria.
Its most famous citizen was Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Another famous inhabitant of Salzburg was the physicist Christian Doppler who found the Doppler effect which was named after him.
The Salzach river crosses the city. The old town was adopted by the UNESCO as World Heritage Site in 1996. Known is Salzburg also for being one of the settings for the movie "The Sound of Music" which based on the musical by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein.
History.
People lived in Salzburg since the New Stone Age till present. The oldest finding in the city area is dated around 4500 B.C. From 15 B.C. onwards after the Roman occupation the city was called Iuvavum. The roman city was in today's old town around the Waagplatz. The city became an important place from the east to the province of Germania. The Romans left on the beginning of the barbarian migration around 500. Up to 696 only little can be said about the history. In 696 the city was given to bishop Rupert by Duke Theodo II. of Bavaria.
Rupert was ordered by the Duke to bring Christianity to the east and southeast of his country. Rupert founded the monastery St. Peter and for women the monastery Nonnberg. 739 Salzburg became the seat of a bishop and 774 the first cathedral was built. 998 Salzburg became archbishopric ruling the whole Bavarian area.
In the Middle Ages Salzburg became wealthy by the trade with salt from the nearby Dürnberg in Hallein. Till the 14th century Salzburg became independent from Bavaria and was a state within the Holy Roman Empire. The citizens of Salzburg were under the command of the archbishop unlike other cities in the empire. In the baroque era the look of today's city was shaped. The cathedral was rebuilt in the baroque style. Most of the architects came from Italy. 1622 a university was founded. Due to the fact that it was a catholic state Protestants had a severe standing in Salzburg. Yet 1731 Protestants, who came not back to the catholic belief had do leave Salzburg within eight days.
In the early 19th century Napoleon Bonaparte promoted the Duchy of Salzburg, than later was a part of the Kingdom of Bavaria. Then, Salzburg was annexed by Austria, returned to Bavarian and divided between Bavaria and Austria. 1918 Salzburg became a federal state of the new Republic of Austria.
In 1938, Germany annexed Austria and Salzburg was a part of Germany. In 1945, when Austria was independent from Germany. It became a federal state again.
Urban districts.
Urban districts ("Stadtteile"):
Monuments.
Salzburg is a World Heritage. There are some places of interest like:
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Salt (disambiguation)
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Salt could mean:
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Basque language
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Basque (Basque: ) is the language spoken by the Basque people in the Basque Country and its diaspora. Although most other Europeans speak Indo-European languages, Basque is a language isolate and is not related to them or to any other language in the world.
History and classification.
The ancestors of Basques are among the oldest residents of Europe, and their origins are unknown, as are the origins of the language. Many scholars have tried to link Basque to Etruscan, African languages, Caucasian languages and so on, but most see Basque as a language isolate.
A connection with the Iberian language has given some hope, but it is unclear whether similarities are caused by genetic relations or mere vicinity.
It was spoken long before the Romans brought Latin to the Iberian Peninsula.
Geographic distribution.
Basque is spoken in an area that is smaller than what is known as the Basque Country (Basque: "Euskal Herria)". Basque was once spoken over a larger area, but Latin took over in some places.
Official status.
Historically, Latin or a Romance language has been official.
Today Basque holds co-official language status in the Basque regions of Spain: the full autonomous community of the Basque Country and some parts of Navarre. Basque has no official standing in the Northern Basque area of France, and French citizens are barred from using Basque in a French court of law.
Dialects.
There are six main Basque dialects, comprising Biscayan, Guipuzcoan, and High Navarrese (in Spain), and Low Navarrese, Labourdin, and Souletin (in France). The dialect boundaries are not, however, congruent with political boundaries.
One of the first scientific studies of Basque dialects, in particular the auxiliary verb forms, was made by Louis-Lucien Bonaparte (a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte).
Derived languages.
There is now a unified version called Batua ("unified" in Basque), which is the language taught in schools. Batua is based largely on the Gipuzkoa regional dialect.
Grammar.
Basque is an ergative-absolutive language. Its grammar is very complex, with many different cases for nouns.
The vowel system is the same as most Spanish-speakers and has five pure vowels, .
Vocabulary.
By contact with nearby peoples, Basque has borrowed words from Latin, Spanish, French, Gascon and others but accepted fewer than Indo-European languages. Some claim that many of its words come from Latin, but phonetic evolution has made many of them now appear as if they were native words, e.g. "lore" ("flower", from "florem"), "errota" ("mill", from "rotam", "[mill] wheel"), "gela" ("room", from "cellam").
Writing system.
Basque is written with the Latin alphabet. The universal special letter is "ñ", which is pronounced like the "n" in "onion", and "ç" and "ü" are also used. Basque does not use "c, q, v, w, y" except for loanwords and are not considered part of the alphabet. Also, "x" is pronounced as a "sh", as in "shine".
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Heinz Fischer
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Heinz Fischer (born 9 October 1938) is the former president of Austria. His wife is Margit Fischer.
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Chlorine
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Chlorine (chemical symbol Cl) is a chemical element. Its atomic number (which is the number of protons in it) is 17, and its atomic mass is 35.45. It is part of the 7th column (halogens) on the periodic table of elements.
Properties.
Physical properties.
Chlorine is a very irritating and greenish-yellow gas. It has a strong, bleach-like smell. It is toxic and bad for you. It can be made into a liquid when cooled. It is heavier than air.
Chemical properties.
Chlorine is highly reactive. It is more reactive than bromine but less reactive than fluorine. It reacts with most things to make chlorides. It can even burn things instead of oxygen. It dissolves in water to make a mixture of hypochlorous acid and hydrochloric acid. The more acidic it is, the more chlorine is made; the more basic it is, the more hypochlorous acid (normally turned into hypochlorite) and hydrochloric acid (normally turned into chlorides) are there. Chlorine reacts with bromides and iodides to make bromine and iodine.
Chlorine compounds.
Chlorine exists in several oxidation states: -1, +1, +3, +4, +5, and +7. The -1 state is most often in chloride. Chlorides are not reactive. Compounds containing chlorine in its +1 oxidation state are hypochlorites. Only one is common. They are a strong oxidizing agent, as are all + oxidation state compounds. +3 is in chlorites. +4 is in chlorine dioxide, a common chlorine compound that is not a chloride. +5 is in chlorates. +7 is in perchlorates. Hypochlorites are most reactive, while perchlorates are the least reactive.
Many organic compounds have chlorine in them. Freon has chlorine in it. PVC (poly-vinyl chloride), a common plastic, has chlorine in it.
Chlorine oxides can be made, but most of them are very reactive and unstable.
Occurrence.
Chlorine is not found as an element. Sodium chloride is the most common chlorine ore. It is in the ocean (sea salt) and in the ground (rock salt). There are some organic compounds that have chlorine in them, too.
Preparation.
It is made by electrolysis (the passing of electricity through a solution to make chemical reactions happen) of sodium chloride. This is known as the chloralkali process. It can also be made by reacting hydrogen chloride with oxygen and a catalyst. It can be made in the laboratory by reacting manganese dioxide with hydrochloric acid. It is made when sodium hypochlorite reacts with hydrochloric acid. This is a dangerous reaction that can happen without anyone knowing.
Uses.
For water purification.
As of 2021, the main use of chlorine is for bleach. It is also added to water, as a way of purifying it. Chlorine is both very reactive, and very poisonous. It will act as a disinfectant: if it is added to water, it will kill off bacteria and other organisms. Swimming pools are often filled with water that has been treated that way.
As a chemical weapon.
Germany used chlorine as a chemical weapon in the First World War. They used it at the Second Battle of Ypres in 1915. According to soldiers, which were present at the battle, the chlorine smelled like a mixture of pepper and pineapple. It also tasted metallic and stung the back of the throat and chest. Chlorine reacts with water in the mucosa of the lungs to form hydrochloric acid. Hydrochloric acid will destroy living tissue. It often kills. Gas masks with activated charcoal or other filters can protect the respiratory system. This makes chlorine gas much less deadly than other chemical weapons. German scientist Fritz Haber of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin was the first to use it. Together with IG Farben, he developed methods of how to use chlorine gas against an entrenched enemy. Chlorine is heavier than air, so it will stay in the trenches. On 22nd April, 1915, German forces attacked the French army. With of chlorine, they only killed about 1.200 French soldiers. For this reason, chlorine was soon replaced with the more deadly phosgene and mustard gas.
Because it is easily available, chlorine is still used as a chemical weapon in war. That way, it has been used in the Syrian civil war. It has also been used in an improvised explosive device in Iraq, in 2015.
Other uses.
Chlorine is used to make many compounds that are important: both chloroform and carbon tetrachloride contain chlorine.
History.
It was discovered in 1774 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele who thought it had oxygen in it. Chlorine was named in 1810 by Humphry Davy who insisted it was an element. The US made all water chlorinated (added chlorine to water) by 1918.
Safety.
It is poisonous in large amounts and can damage skin. When it is inhaled (breathed in), it irritates the lungs, eyes, and skin badly. It can cause fire with some things because it is very reactive. It is heavier than air, so it can fill up enclosed spaces.
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Periodic table of elements
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Halogen
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The halogens are chemical elements under the second-to-right column in the periodic table, also known as Group 17. The elements in the group are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, astatine, and tennessine. Halogen literally means "salt becomer", but it is often said to mean "salt producer". They are very reactive, so they are likely to join with other elements on the left side of the periodic table to make compounds. This is because they are missing one electron. They are rarely found alone in nature. Fluorine is the most reactive, while the rest of the halogens become less reactive. Iodine is the least reactive. Astatine is very radioactive and hard to get.
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Vitamin
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A vitamin is a chemical compound that is needed in small amounts for the human body to work correctly. They include Vitamin A, many B vitamins (like B1, B2, B3, B6, and B12), Vitamin C, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, and Vitamin K. For example, citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons contain vitamin C.
The term was coined in 1912 by biochemist Casimir Funk, who isolated a complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named "vitamine". By convention the word "vitamin" does not include other essential nutrients, such as certain minerals, essential fatty acids and essential amino acids.
Thirteen vitamins are recognized at present. Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, and not their structure. Each vitamin name (the word "vitamin" followed by a letter) refers to a number of vitamer compounds which all show the same biological activity. For example, "vitamin A" refers to several different chemicals. Vitamers convert to the active form of the vitamin in the body. They are sometimes inter-convertible to one another as well.
The body does not make these chemicals. They come from other places, usually food. A short term lack of a certain vitamin is usually not a problem, because the body can store vitamins for a short time. Not having a certain vitamin for a longer period of time can lead to different diseases, depending on the vitamin. Probably the best-known of these diseases is scurvy, which results from not having enough Vitamin C. Beriberi and rickets are others.
Today, many drug companies make inexpensive pills that contain various vitamins. They help people avoid those diseases.
Vitamins can be either fat-soluble or water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) can be stored in the body, and are used when needed. Water-soluble ones only stay in the body a short time.
Name changes.
Currently there are no vitamins F to J. These existed at some time. Today they are no longer seen as vitamins. Some of them were also false leads, and turned out to be something else. Others were renamed as B vitamins. Today, the B vitamins are a whole complex, and not just one vitamin.
The German-speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the 'Koagulation' (clotting) of blood following wounding. At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through I were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable.
The following table lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B-complex.
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Adultery
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Adultery (informally known as cheating in non-religious situations) is a word used in religious texts like Exodus 20:14. Adultery applies to a married person having sex with someone other than the person who they are married to.
In countries where religion is important, adultery often comes with a heavy punishment. Some Muslim countries punish it with death by stoning. In most countries adultery is no longer a crime, but most people still see it as a bad thing.(see Gospel of John 8) If a person who is married takes part in adultery, that person's husband or wife would usually have the right to be able to go to court to divorce them.
Word origin.
The word adultery originates not from “adult”, as is commonly thought in English-speaking countries, but from the Late Latin word for “to alter, corrupt”: “adulterare”. “Adulterare” in turn is formed by the combination of “ad” (towards), and “alter” (other), together with the infinitive form “are” (making it a verb). Thus the meaning is literally “to make other”. In contrast, the word “adult” (meaning a person of mature years) comes from another Latin root, “adolescere”, meaning to grow up or mature: a combination of “ad” (towards), “alere” (to nourish, to grow), and the inchoative infix “sc”(meaning to enter into a state of).
Literature.
Famous adulterers include :
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Perjury
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Perjury is the word used for a person that tells a lie while they are under oath (in a courtroom). Committing perjury is against the law, and can be punished with a jail or prison sentence.
Perjury is a serious crime because it might be used to take away the power of a court, which can lead to punishment for the wrong person. In the United States, perjury is a federal offense, and it can be punished by five years in prison. However, in California, a person who commits perjury can get the death penalty if the perjury led to a wrongful execution.
The rules of perjury also apply when a person says or does something "under penalty of perjury", even if he or she never swore an oath. One example is the United States' income tax return, where people have to sign as true and correct under penalty of perjury. A person can be punished by three years in prison if he or she lies on the tax return.
A statement that involves "interpretation" are not perjury because people can judge incorrectly without knowing it. Perjury only happens if a person wanted to do it and then actually did.
Canada.
The offence of perjury is written in section 132 of the Criminal Code. It is described by section 131, which says that perjury is when a person says something false when he or she knows that it is false. People who commit perjury can be imprisoned for fourteen years at most.
European Union.
A person in the Court of Justice of the European Communities swears anything he knows is false is guilty of perjury. Proceedings for perjury can happen in any place in the State and the offence can be treated as if it happened in that place.
United States.
Perjury in American law comes from the common law of England, which defined the it as giving a false testimony under oath that has to do with the issue.
Definitions.
The American legal system defines perjury as saying anything knowingly false under oath to a "competent tribunal, officer, or person". The punishment can be a fine or up to five years in prison or both.
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Lust
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Lust is a term for a strong desire or wanting, or maybe even needing, often for sexual acts, although it is also commonly used to talk of a "lust for life" or a "lust for power" or for other goals.
As a sexual desire, it is considered a sin (a failing) by Christianity, which lists it as one of the seven deadly sins.
"Lust" was originally an Anglo-Saxon word which meant "desire" or "appetite".
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Seven deadly sins
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The seven deadly sins, also known as cardinal sins, are types of sins within some Christian teachings, although they are not mentioned in the Bible. Behaviors or habits are grouped into this category if they directly form other wickedness. According to the regular list, they are pride, greed, wrath, envy, lust, gluttony and sloth, which are the opposite of the seven heavenly virtues. These types had their origins with the Desert Fathers, who recognized seven or eight evil thoughts. The seven deadly sins were portrayed in paintings and decorations on churches, as well as in older textbooks.
Modern definitions and views.
Most of the seven deadly sins are defined by Dante Alighieri as wicked versions of love. The seven deadly sins from lust to envy are generally associated with pride.
Ranked in order of least evil to most evil like in Dante's "Divine Comedy", the seven deadly sins are:
People notice that some of these sins are connected. They have attempted to set down an order to them. Each of these cardinal sins are ways of not loving God and not loving others as much as oneself.
The opposite of these sins are the seven heavenly virtues: chastity, moderation, charity, zeal, meekness, generosity, and humility.
Punishments.
The Lustful are swept around by a strong wind, without ever resting. This is because lust is so powerful, that it can blow one around without need.
The Gluttons are forced to lie down in a kind of snow, made by freezing rain, black snow, and hail. This symbolizes what they made with their life.
The Greedy are boiled in hot oil, it's the best oil that money can buy, but it's still pretty hot and you will be turned into gold.
The Slothful are thrown into a snake pit where the indolent will have to move around to get the snakes off them eternally.
The Wrathful’s limbs are ripped apart, because the furious use their arms and/or legs in their act of violence.
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Bromine
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Bromine (Br) is a chemical element. Its atomic number (which is the number of protons in it) is 35, and its atomic weight is 80. It is part of the Group 7 elements (halogens) on the periodic table. It is diatomic, which means that two atoms are stuck together to make a molecule in any bromine sample.
Properties.
Physical properties.
Bromine is a red-brown liquid. Liquid elements are rare; only bromine and mercury are liquid at room temperature. It easily evaporates to make suffocating brown fumes. It has a bad smell. Its name means "stench of he-goats". It can become a metal at very high pressures.
It has two stable isotopes. They are 79Br and 81Br. There are about 29 other radioactive isotopes.
Chemical properties.
Bromine is quite reactive. Its reactivity is between chlorine, which is more reactive, and iodine, which is less reactive. It reacts with metals and nonmetals. Phosphorus reacts violently with bromine. Aluminum reacts in a similar way. It can bleach things like chlorine. It reacts better in the light. It dissolves a little in water. Hot water makes it disproportionate into hydrobromic acid and hypobromous acid. Bromine can form compounds with substances such as sodium to form sodium bromide.
Chemical compounds.
Bromine forms compounds in many oxidation states: –1, +1, +3, +5, and (sometimes) +7. –1 is the most common. It is found as bromide. Bromides are not reactive. They are colorless solids that dissolve in water easily. Covalent bromides can be liquids or gases. The other compounds are all strong oxidizing agents. Their chlorine cousins are more common. +1 has the hypobromites, which are unstable. +3 has the bromites. Bromine dioxide is the only common bromine compound found in the +4 oxidation state. +5 has the bromates, which are more common than all the other ones except the bromides. Bromates are strong oxidizing agents and are sometimes added to flour. +7 has the perbromates. Perbromates are very unstable.
Occurrence.
Bromine is found as bromide in the ocean and in brine pools. The Dead Sea has a lot of bromide in it. Bromine is not an important part of our body, unlike its relatives chlorine and iodine.
Preparation.
Bromine is made by bubbling chlorine gas through a solution of a bromide. The bromide is oxidized to bromine, while the chlorine is reduced to chloride.
Uses.
It is mainly used to make organobromine compounds, organic compounds with bromine in them. Organobromines are used to put out fires. They used to be added to gasoline. Some were used as pesticides. Some inorganic bromides were used as sedatives. Bromine can also be used as a disinfectant. Silver bromide is used in film.
Safety.
Bromine is toxic and corrosive to skin. Bromine gas is irritating when it is breathed in, too. Bromine can react violently with many things.
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Fluorine
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Fluorine (symbol F) is a chemical element that is very poisonous. Its atomic number (which is the number of protons in it) is 9, and its atomic mass is 19. It is part of the Group 7 (halogens) on the periodic table of elements.
Properties.
Fluorine is a light yellow diatomic gas. It is very reactive gas, which exists as diatomic molecules. It is the most reactive element. Fluorine has a very high attraction for electrons because it is missing one. This makes it the most powerful oxidizing agent. It can rip electrons from water (making oxygen) and ignite propane on contact. It does not need a spark. Metals can catch on fire when placed in a stream of fluorine. After it is reduced by reacting with other things, it forms the stable fluoride ion. Fluorine is very poisonous. Fluorine bonds very strongly with carbon. It can react with the unreactive noble gases. It explodes when mixed with hydrogen. The melting point of fluorine is -363.33°F (-219.62°C), the boiling point is -306.62°F (-188.12°C).
Chemical compounds.
Chemical compounds containing fluorine ions are called fluorides. Fluorine only exists in one oxidation state: -1.
Occurrence.
Fluorine is not found as an element on the earth becase it is too reactive. Several fluorides are found in the earth, though. When calcium phosphate is reacted with sulfuric acid to make phosphoric acid, some hydrofluoric acid is produced. Also, fluorite can be reacted with sulfuric acid to make hydrofluoric acid. Fluorite naturally occurs on the earths' crust in rocks, coal and clay.
Preparation.
Fluorine is normally made by electrolysis. Hydrogen fluoride is dissolved in potassium fluoride. This mixture is melted and an electric current is passed through it. This is electrolysis. Hydrogen is produced at one side and fluorine at the other side. If the sides are not separated, the cell may explode.
Someone made fluorine in 1986 without using electrolysis. They produced manganese(IV) fluoride by using various chemical compounds, which released fluorine gas.
Uses.
Fluorine is used to enrich uranium for nuclear weapons. It is also used to make sulfur hexafluoride. Sulfur hexafluoride is used to propel stuff out of an aerosol can. It is also used to make integrated circuits. Fluorine compounds have many uses. Fluoride ions are in fluorine compounds. Fluoride ions can be in toothpaste. Some are used in nonstick coatings. Freons contain fluorine.
Safety.
Fluorine as an element is extremely reactive and toxic. It can react with almost everything, even glass. Fluorine is also poisonous.
Fluoride ions are somewhat toxic. If too much toothpaste containing fluoride is eaten then fluoride poisoning may occur. Fluoride is not reactive, though.
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Iodine
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Iodine is a chemical element. Its atomic number (which is the number of protons in it) is 53, and its atomic mass (the number of protons plus neutrons) is 127. It is part of the Group 7 (halogens) on the periodic table of elements and its electronic configuration is 2,8,8,18,17. It is a nonmetal.
Properties.
Physical properties.
Iodine is a gray-violet solid. It is also a nonmetal and a halogen. It sublimes when heated to make a bright purple vapor. This vapor is very irritating, although colorful. Iodine does not dissolve in water, but it does dissolve in a solution of an iodide in water. It dissolves easily in organic solvents.
Chemical properties.
Iodine is at the bottom of the halogens and is the least reactive of the halogens. Iodine is an oxidizing agent, though not as strong as fluorine or bromine or chlorine. It can become the colorless iodide ion if another atom or molecule gives an iodine atom one of its electrons. This is called reduction. Iodine reacts with hydrogen sulfide or hydrazine to make hydriodic acid. Iodine dissolves in oleum to make a bright blue solution of I2+ and sulfur dioxide. This cation is also made when iodine reacts with antimony pentafluoride.
Iodine reacts with bases to make hypoiodite and iodide. The hypoiodite disproportionates to iodate and iodide. Iodine reacts with nitric acid and chlorates to make iodates, too. Iodine reacts violently with some metals like aluminium to make large amounts of heat and toxic vapors.
Chemical compounds.
Iodine forms chemical compounds in several oxidation states: -1, +1, +3, +5, +7. This is typical of the halogens except for fluorine. -1 compounds as iodides are the most common. Most organic iodine compounds are in the -1 oxidation state. Most iodides are colorless or reddish-yellow and are weak reducing agents. +1 and +3 compounds are quite rare. They are both oxidizing agents. +1 compounds are found as iodine monochloride and hypoiodites. +3 compounds are found as iodine trichloride or iodine trifluoride. +5 compounds are found as iodates and iodic acid. Iodine pentafluoride and iodine pentoxide are iodine compounds in the +5 state. +5 and +7 compounds are all strong oxidizing agents. +7 compounds are normally found as periodates and periodic acid. Iodine heptafluoride is also in the +7 oxidation state.
Potassium iodide is one of the most common iodides. Iodides are normally colorless but turn yellow after being in air because the iodide is oxidized to iodine. Iodides react with acidified manganese dioxide or chlorine to make iodine. Iodine monochloride is a red or brown liquid. Iodine trichloride, as well as iodine trifluoride, are yellow solids. Iodates like potassium iodate are colorless solids similar to chlorates. Iodic acid is the only stable oxidizing halogen acid. Chloric acid, by comparison, is very unstable and dangerous. Iodine pentoxide is a white solid, and iodine pentafluoride is a yellowish liquid. Periodates, like sodium periodate, are colorless solids similar to perchlorates, although weaker oxidizing agents. They decompose to iodates when they are heated. Periodic acid is not as stable as iodic acid. Iodine heptafluoride is the only iodine(VII) compound.
History.
It was discovered by Barnard Courtois in 1811. He burned seaweed to get sodium carbonate and reacted the residue with sulfuric acid. One time, he poured too much sulfuric acid on the seaweed and purple vapor came out which made dark blue-black crystals on a cold surface. He did not have enough money to see whether it was a new element or not. He gave samples to several chemists, who identified it as an element in 1813.
Occurrence.
Iodine is too reactive to be in nature as an element. Iodine compounds are not common in the ground. There is a mineral called caliche that is found in dry deserts. It has iodate in it. Iodide is found in seawater. Kelp has quite large amounts of iodine in it. Iodine is one of the heaviest elements needed by living things. If people do not get enough of it, they get a disease known as goitre. Most salt has iodine in it, in the form of iodide or iodate. People can also take iodine pills to make sure they get enough.
Preparation.
Kelp was burned and the iodine extracted from the ashes in the 18th and 19th century, but now it is not good enough for common use. Most iodine now is extracted from seawater. Chlorine is reacted with seawater to change the iodide to iodine. Air is blown over the water to evaporate the iodine. Then the iodine is reduced with sulfur dioxide to hydriodic acid. Then the hydriodic acid is oxidized with chlorine again to make iodine. This process is repeated until the iodine is pure.
A very pure form of iodine is made by reacting copper sulfate and potassium iodide. This makes copper(II) iodide which is not stable. It breaks down into copper(I) iodide and iodine, which is pure.
Uses.
Iodine is used as a catalyst for making acetic acid. Animal feed also has iodine in it for nutrition. Iodine is used for a disinfectant. Tincture of iodine is a common iodine disinfectant. Iodine can be used to prevent thyroid cancer after a nuclear explosion. After a nuclear explosion, radioactive iodine fills the air. The radioactive iodine easily goes into the thyroid and causes cancer. When people take iodine tablets, it fills up the thyroid with non-radioactive iodine which prevents any radioactive iodine from coming in.
Iodine compounds can be used in X-rays because X-rays cannot go through them easily. Some metals are purified using their iodides. Silver iodide is used in photographic film and cloud seeding. Erythrosine is a food coloring that has iodine in it. Iodine can be used to make illegal drugs so it is restricted in some areas. Iodine can be used as a test for reducing agents. Iodine turns colorless when mixed with a reducing agent. Iodine also turns black when mixed with starch. Iodides become colored when mixed with oxidizing agents.
Safety.
Iodine can irritate skin. Its vapors are irritating to the lungs. It is less toxic than the other halogens, though. 2-3 grams of iodine can kill. Iodides are only toxic in large amounts.
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19395
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Astatine
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Astatine is a radioactive, chemical element. Its atomic number is 85, and its atomic weight is 210. It is part of the Group 17 (halogens) on the periodic table of elements. All of astatine's isotopes are short-lived; the most stable is astatine-210, with a half-life of 8.3 hours.
History.
The first creation of the element was in 1940 by Dale R. Corson, Kenneth Ross MacKenzie, and Emilio G. Segrè at the University of California, Berkeley, who named it from the Greek "estates" (ἄστατος), meaning "unstable".
Chemistry.
Astatine is highly radioactive and all its isotopes have half-lives of approximately 8 hours or less, the longest being astatine-210 with a half-life of a bit over eight hours. Some of its isotopes may be found in nature, but because it is so unstable, only about an ounce exists in the Earth's crust at any point in time. Chemists say it is the rarest element in the Earth's crust. Less reactive than iodine, astatine is the least reactive of the halogens. Only a few compounds with metals have been found, in the form of astatides of sodium, palladium, silver, thallium, and lead.
Uses.
It can be used for cancer treatment and in radioactive tracers.
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19396
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581219
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19396
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Protons
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19397
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209999
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19397
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Nucleus (physics)
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19398
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10467912
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19398
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United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is a part of the U.S. Congress. Congress is the legislature of the U.S. government and makes federal laws. The other part of Congress is the U.S. Senate. There are maximum 435 members in House of Representatives. These members are called U.S. representatives or just representatives. All representatives are elected every two years.
Every 10 years, the United States Census Bureau counts the population of the United States. The U.S. states can gain or lose representatives based on the count. The House of Representatives is in one of the two wings in the U.S. Capitol building. The other wing is for the Senate. Sometimes, the House of Representatives is informally called the House. The chairperson in the U.S. House of Representatives is called the Speaker of the House.
According to the U.S. Constitution, all bills about raising revenue, which includes taxes, must start in the House of Representatives. Also, only the House of Representatives has the power to impeach certain officials such as the president or federal judges.
Members.
Every state has members of the House of Representatives. The Constitution says every U.S. state must have at least one member, but almost all states have more. The number is based on how many people live in that state. There are 435 total people who are members of the House of Representatives. Each member serves for 2 years (one term), but they can serve for more if they are elected again. Elections happen every 2 years, and half of them take place on the same day as elections for the president. Those take place every 4 years. They are usually elected with plurality voting, but states can choose the method, and some states choose others. After each election, Congress has a period of time. The term is for 2 years.
There are two groups of members, also called political parties. Besides in the House, they exist in the U.S. Senate, the presidency, the state governments, and more. The groups are the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. In the infobox to the right is a chart showing which the members are part of which party. Blue is the Democrats, and red is the Republicans.
According to the U.S. Constitution, the House of Representatives expell one of its memnbers by a vote of at least two thirds. That most recently happened with George Santos.
Speaker of the House.
At the beginning of every term, the House members vote on a leader, who is called the Speaker of the House and controls the schedule of when the members speak.
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19400
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966595
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19400
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Lourdes Flores Nano
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Dr.Lourdes Celmira Flores Nano (born October 7 1959) is a Peruvian lawyer and politician. She is the leader of the Christian People's Party. She tried to become the mayor of Lima in 2010.
Flores Nano was born in Lima in 1959. She studied law at the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru. She studied for a Phd in Law from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid, one of the world's oldest universities in Madrid, Spain. She was a member of the Lima Municipal Council and then a member of the National Congress of Peru. In 2001 and 2006 she was a candidate in election for the President of Peru.
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19401
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10180558
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19401
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Novel
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Novels are books that have one long story written in them. They are works of prose fiction and are longer than short stories and novellas.
There are many kinds of novels. For example, some are adventure stories, like "Treasure Island" by Robert Louis Stevenson. There are horror stories like Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein". There are also science fiction novels like "Dune" by Frank Herbert, and humorous novels like "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" by Mark Twain. Novels in English are usually at least 60,000 words long. Some are much longer, at 150,000 words or more. Novels usually have 100 pages or more.
The first novels were written more than three hundred years ago. Some people say that "Don Quixote" by Miguel de Cervantes is the first novel; it was first published in 1605.
Genres of novels.
There are many different genres, or categories, of novels. Some of these are:
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19403
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9841422
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19403
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Fiction
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Fiction is any story created by humans, originating from the depths of human imagination. It is not based on real-life events or actual people, but rather represents a departure from reality, allowing for the exploration of ideas, emotions, and scenarios that may not exist in the real world.
The opposite of fiction is non-fiction, writing that deals with facts and true events. Often in a library, part of the library is for fiction books and another part of the library is for non-fiction.
The word "fiction" comes from the Latin word "fictum", which means "created". This is a good way to remember what fiction is: if it has been created or made up by somebody, it is fiction. Fiction can be written or told, or acted on stage, in a movie, on television or radio. Usually the purpose of fiction is to entertain.
However, the dividing line is not always so clear. Fiction with real people or events in it is called "historical fiction", because it is based on things that happened in history. This type of fiction is written so that we can imagine and understand what it was like when those people were alive. Reality can be presented through creative writing, and imagination can open the reader's mind to significant thoughts about the real world.
Parts of fiction.
Characters.
In fiction, there are always characters. There is usually a protagonist, or hero. Sometimes this is a group of people, not one person. You usually support the hero (or heroes.) The protagonist has to face some kind of enemy, usually another character called the antagonist, or villain. The fight between the protagonist and their enemy is called the "conflict".
Plot.
Plot is a literary term. It is the events that make up a story, particularly as they relate to one another. The events may form a pattern. That pattern may be a sequence, through cause and effect, or how the reader views the story, or simply by coincidence. (For example, at the start. a puppy hunged by a tree branch. At the middle, someone sees that puppy is about to fall. At the end, someone saves the puppy.)
Aristotle on plot.
In his "Poetics", Aristotle considered plot ("mythos") the most important element of drama—more important than character, for example. A plot must have, Aristotle says, a beginning, a middle, and an end, and the events of the plot must causally relate to one another as being either necessary or probable.
Of the utmost importance to Aristotle is the plot's ability to arouse emotion in the psyche of the audience. In tragedy, the emotions are fear and pity, emotions which he considers in his "Rhetoric".
Freytag on plot.
Gustav Freytag considered plot a narrative structure that divided a story into five parts, like the five acts of a play. These parts are: exposition (of the situation); rising action (through conflict); climax (or turning point); falling action; and resolution.
Climax.
The climax is the most dangerous and exciting part of the plot. For example, if you were on a rollercoaster, the highest part would be the climax.
The climax usually near to the end of the story, because the whole story has been building up to it (rising action). In an action drama it is the point when the hero or heroine looks like s/he is about to lose, and is in the greatest danger.
Conflict.
Conflict is very important in fiction. Every work of fiction needs a conflict, or problem. There are five basic types of conflict. In modern times, a new one, "Person vs. Technology", has been used.
Person vs. Self.
Person vs. Self is when a character is facing his own fears, confusion or philosophy. Sometimes the character tries to find out who he or she is, and comes to realize it or change it. Sometimes the character struggles to find out what is right or wrong. Although the enemy is inside the character, they can be influenced by outside forces. The struggle of the human being to come to a decision is the base of this type of conflict.
Person vs. Person.
Person vs. Person is when the hero is fighting another person. There is usually more than one time that the hero meets the enemy. For example, if a child is being bullied, that is person vs. person conflict. An example is the conflict between Judah and Messala in "".
Person vs. Society.
Person vs. Society is when the hero's main source of conflict is traditions or ideas. The protagonist is basically fighting what is wrong with the world he lives in. Society itself is often treated as a single character, just as another person is in person vs. person conflict. An example in literature would be "Wuthering Heights" by Emily Brontë.
Person vs. Nature.
Person vs. Nature is when a character is fighting against forces of nature. Many films focus on this theme. It is also found in stories about trying to survive in places far away from humans, like Jack London's short story "To Build a Fire".
Person vs. Supernatural.
Person vs. Supernatural is when a character is battling supernatural forces. Sometimes, this force is inside themselves, it is internal. Such stories are sometimes used to represent or criticize Freud's theory of id vs. superego. Bram Stoker's "Dracula" is a good example of this, as well as "Frankenstein" by Mary Shelley and "Christabel" by Samuel Coleridge. It is also very common in comic books.
Person vs. Machine/Technology.
Person vs. Machine/Technology places a character against robot forces with artificial intelligence. "I, Robot" and the "Terminator" series are good examples of this conflict.
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19405
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1095
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19407
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793
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19407
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Oak Lawn, IL
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19408
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1011873
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19408
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Oak Lawn, Illinois
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Oak Lawn is a village in Cook County, Illinois, USA. It is a suburb of Chicago.
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19409
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1011873
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19409
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1607
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19410
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793
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19410
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509 BC
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19411
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5295
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19411
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500s BC
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19412
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16695
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19412
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Fossil fuel
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Fossil fuels are fuels that come from old life forms that decomposed over a long period of time. The three most important fossil fuels are coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
Petroleum and gas are hydrocarbons (molecules that have only hydrogen and carbon in them). Coal is mostly carbon. These fuels are called fossil fuels because they are dug up from underground. Coal mining digs up solid fuel; gas and oil wells bring up liquid fuel. Fossil fuel was not much used until the Middle Ages. Coal became the main kind of fuel with the Industrial Revolution.
Uses.
Most of the fuels people burn are fossil fuels. A big use is to make electricity. In power plants fossil fuels, usually coal, are burned to heat water into steam, which pushes a fan-like object called a turbine. When the turbine spins around, magnets inside the turbine make electricity.
Crude oil (petroleum) can be separated to make various fuels such as LPG, gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, and diesel fuel. These substances are made by fractional distillation in an oil refinery. They are the main fuels in transportation. That means that they are burned in order to move cars, trucks, ships, airplanes, trains and even spacecraft. Without them, there wouldn't be much transport.
People also burn fossil fuels to heat their homes. They use coal less for this than they did long ago, because it makes things dirty. In many homes, people burn natural gas in a stove for cooking.
Fossil fuels are widely used in construction.
Origin.
All fossil fuels come from the periods in Earth's history when the Earth had huge tropical forests. In those periods, plants lived, grew and died, faster than they decayed. In other words, they were times when much of the dead vegetation did not entirely decompose. Instead it became coal and related substances such as peat.
The times of the great wetlands which produced coal and peat were in the Upper Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian), continuing in the first part of the Permian; the Jurassic and Eocene periods. Virtually all the worlds' coal dates to those periods.
Problems.
Most air pollution comes from burning fossil fuels. This can be reduced by making the combustion process more efficient, and by using various techniques to reduce the escape of harmful gases. This pollution is responsible for causing the earth to get warmer, called global warming. They are also non-renewable resources, there is only a limited amount of coal, gas, and oil, and it is not possible to make more. Eventually all the fossil fuels will be used. Some scientists think that coal will have run out by 2200 and oil by 2040.
Renewable energy sources like biomass energy such as firewood are being used. Countries are also increasing the use of wind power, tidal energy, and solar energy to generate electricity. Some governments are helping automobile makers to develop electric cars and hybrid cars that will use less oil.
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3043
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19413
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Godness
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19414
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2337
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19414
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Fossil fuels
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19416
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2077
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19416
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Membranes
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19418
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1674211
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https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19418
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Boston Bruins
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The Boston Bruins are an ice hockey team in the National Hockey League (NHL). They were the first American team in the NHL, in 1924. They have won six Stanley Cup championships, and they lost against the Chicago Blackhawks in the 2013 Stanley Cup Finals after winning in 2011.
History.
Early years.
In their early years, the Bruins won three Stanley Cups: 1929, 1939, and 1941. Ralph "Cooney" Weiland won the Art Ross Trophy as scoring champion in 1930. Aubrey "Dit" Clapper was also a star player around this time. Then Eddie Shore came along, a huge star in the league on defense. Shore won the Hart Trophy as most valuable player (MVP) four times: in 1933, 1935, 1936 and 1938. Only Gordie Howe and Wayne Gretzky have won it more often. Cecil "Tiny" Thompson was the team's star goaltender.
In the 1940s and 1950s the Bruins had new stars. Milt Schmidt and Bill Cowley were great centers and both won scoring championships and MVP trophies. They were helped by Woody Dumart and Bobby Bauer on wing, and Frank Brimsek replaced Thompson in goal.
The 1960s were not so good for the Bruins. Schmidt retired to become the team's coach and the team did not have many stars. They finished in last place six times out of seven years and did not make the playoffs eight straight seasons. Left wing John Bucyk was their best player.
Later years.
Bobby Orr began as a defenseman with Boston in 1966. After his rookie (first) season, he won the Norris Trophy as best defenseman in the NHL eight times in a row, and the Bruins became a top team again. He joined with centers Phil Esposito and Derek Sanderson, Bucyk and goalie Gerry Cheevers to lead the Bruins to the Stanley Cup in 1970 and 1972. Orr won the Conn Smythe Trophy as MVP in the playoffs both years. He also won the Hart Trophy in 1970, 1971, and 1972; Esposito won it in 1969 and 1974. Esposito won five Art Ross Trophies: 1969, 1971, 1972, 1973, and 1974. Orr won it in 1970 and 1975, the only defenseman ever to win the scoring title. The Bruins continued to be a strong team through the late 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s.
Ray Bourque, who won the Norris Trophy five times, was the team's greatest star in the 1980s and 1990s. He is the team's top career scorer, and the highest scoring defenseman in NHL history. The Bruins won the President's Cup as regular-season champions in 1983 and 1990, and made the Stanley Cup finals in 1988 and 1990. Cam Neely was an important player until the mid-1990s, and Joe Thornton was a top scorer until he was traded to the San Jose Sharks in 2005. The Bruins won the Stanley Cup championship in 2011. In the 2018-2019 season the Bruins made the Stanley Cup final once again, losing to the eventual Stanley Cup Champion St. Louis Blues in 7 games.
In the 2022–2023, the Bruins broke the record for the most wins by a NHL team with 63 wins. They would win two more games to finish the regular season with 65 wins. In the playoffs, the Bruins would face the Florida Panthers, but lost Game 7 at home after initially taking a 3 games to 1 series lead.
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1980's
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22027
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1990's
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